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diff --git a/40550.txt b/40550.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 0170c45..0000000 --- a/40550.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,21121 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook, Plain English, by Marian Wharton - - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - - - - -Title: Plain English - - -Author: Marian Wharton - - - -Release Date: August 21, 2012 [eBook #40550] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII) - - -***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PLAIN ENGLISH*** - - -E-text prepared by Mark C. Orton, Anita Hammond, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) - - - -Transcriber's note: - - Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). - - Text enclosed by plus signs is in bold face (+bold+). - - Text enclosed by tilde characters is underlined (~underlined~). - - Text enclosed by equal signs is double underlined - (=double underlined=). - - The Key to Pronunciation, p. 37 (Spelling Lesson 3), contains - characters with diacritical marks not available in Latin-1 - character encoding. Therefore, they have been transcribed as - follows: - [=x] character 'x' with macron (bar) above the letter - [.x] character 'x' with dot above the letter - [~x] character 'x' with tilde (curved bar) above the letter - - - - - -PLAIN ENGLISH - -by - -MARIAN WHARTON - -_For the Education of the Workers -by the Workers_ - - - - - - - -Published by -The People's College -Fort Scott, Kansas -1917 - - - - -He who aspires to master the art of expression must first of all -consecrate himself completely to some great cause and the greatest cause -of all is the cause of humanity. He must learn to feel deeply and think -clearly, to express himself eloquently. He must be absolutely true to -the best there is in him, if he has to stand alone. - -Such natural powers as he may have should be cultivated by the study -of history, science and literature. He must not only keep close to the -people but remember that he is one of them, and not above the meanest. -He must feel the wrongs of others so keenly that he forgets his own, and -resolve to combat these wrongs with all the power at his command. - -The most thrilling, inspiring oratory, the most powerful and -impressive eloquence is the voice of the disinherited, the oppressed, -the suffering and submerged; it is the voice of poverty and misery, of -rags and crusts, of wretchedness and despair; the voice of humanity -crying to the infinite; the voice that resounds throughout the earth and -reaches Heaven; the voice that awakens the conscience of a race and -proclaims the truths that fill the world with life and liberty and love. - - --EUGENE V. DEBS. - - - - - FOREWORD - - -Every generation has added a little to the store of truth of which the -human race has possessed itself throughout the long sweep of the -centuries. Every truth expressed and preserved by those who lived in the -past, is a contribution which enriches the lives of those who live in -the present. We, as members of the human race, are not separate atoms -independent of the universe, but we are atoms of it. We are the product -of all time, and partake of the truth of all preceding generations, in -which the power to express ideas and preserve them has existed. - -One reason why the race has not profited more largely by the discoveries -of previous generations, is the fact that we feel so profoundly the -discovery of a truth of any nature, that we are prone to dogmatize it by -a rule or set of rules. - -This usually results in shutting away from us the real principle of -which the rule is but an evidence. A mechanic may learn every detail of -every rule for the construction of a steam engine, but if he lacks the -understanding of the principles which give rise to the rules, they will -avail nothing and his work must fail. If, however, he understands the -principles involved, his work will stand the test, though he has no -knowledge of rules as such. - -In teaching the English language, the rules have been stressed, while -the principles have been submerged, so that the teaching of rules has -not resulted in the improvement of the student. - -The People's College, realizing this, has, through the author of this -work, revolutionized the teaching of the fundamental principles that -underlie the use of language. The stress is laid upon principles instead -of rules, so that the student, whether he remember a rule or not, will -never forget the application of these principles to the use of the -written and spoken word. - -The assertion is ventured that no more practical and effective method -can be devised for the rapid and thorough teaching of these principles. -Moreover, the importance of this new departure in method cannot be -over-estimated, when we consider that only through the use of language -can information be disseminated concerning other branches of learning. -This science, then, lies at the very base of all real education, and a -mastery of it puts the student in possession of the only weapon by means -of which he may master all other sciences. - -The author has, with peculiar aptitude, grasped the fundamental -character of the foregoing facts and has adapted the study of language -to the real principles involved. All the dry rules that are the -witnesses of principles in the ordinary text are done away, while the -principles evidenced by those rules come forth to the light in practical -application, with a beauty of expression and a real utility that render -the mastery of the subject an entertaining excursion into the realms of -learning, rather than a dry imprisonment of the faculties in an effort -to memorize misunderstood rules without apparent reason or real use. - -It is the principle behind the rule that has power in it. When this is -understood, the method pursued by the author in this course will be -universally applied to all branches of learning, and will end forever -the imprisonment of children for the useless worship of rules. - -The author's grasp of this fact and the exemplification of it, contained -in this work are even more far-reaching than the foregoing would -indicate. It really means the application of a new viewpoint to life -itself. It means the questioning of the utility of authority; the -questioning of the utility of institutions; the application, we might -say, of such a test as this: Does any rule, does any authority, does any -principle, conserve the interests of humanity? If not, away with it. -This means rationalism, the use of common sense. It means that at last -the race is beginning to consciously direct its own destiny. - -It is with a profound sense of the necessity of education as a part of -the evolutionary process now in the conscious grasp of the race, and -with a conviction of the fundamental importance of the new viewpoint so -ably presented by the author that we dedicate this work "To the -Education of the Workers by the Workers." - - THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. - - - - - TABLE OF CONTENTS - - - PLAIN ENGLISH - - I. Language Study 9 - II. Nouns and Verbs 18 - III. Parts of Speech 27 - IV. Nouns 38 - V. Verbs 50 - VI. Inflection of Verbs 58 - VII. Time Forms of Verbs 69 - VIII. Time Forms, Cont'd. 78 - IX. Participles and Infinitives 88 - X. Helping Verbs 97 - XI. Verbs--Common Errors 106 - XII. Pronouns 115 - XIII. Pronouns, Cont'd. 127 - XIV. Adjectives 138 - XV. Adjectives, Cont'd. 148 - XVI. Adverbs 160 - XVII. Adverbs, Cont'd. 169 - XVIII. Prepositions 179 - XIX. Prepositions, Cont'd. 189 - XX. Conjunctions 200 - XXI. Conjunctions, Cont'd. 212 - XXII. Adjective Clauses 222 - XXIII. Independent Constructions 232 - XXIV. Sentence Building 243 - XXV. Sentence Analysis 255 - XXVI. Sentence Building 267 - XXVII. Sentence Building 278 - XXVIII. The Use of Capitals 288 - XXIX. Punctuation 299 - XXX. Punctuation, Cont'd. 310 - - - SPELLING - - I. Definition 17 - II. Vowels and Consonants 26 - III. Diacritical Marks 36 - IV. Digraphs 49 - V. Diphthongs 57 - VI. Syllabification 68 - VII. Syllabification, Cont'd. 77 - VIII. Accent 87 - IX. Compound Words 96 - X. Prefixes and Suffixes 105 - XI. Derivatives 114 - XII. Derivatives, Cont'd. 126 - XIII. Silent E 137 - XIV. Words Ending in Y 146 - XV. Words with ei or ie 159 - XVI. Homonyms 168 - XVII. Derivative Nouns 178 - XVIII. Verbs with Prepositions 187 - XIX. Derivative Prepositions 199 - XX. Derivative Adverbs 211 - XXI. Derivative Adjectives 221 - XXII. Words in able and ible 231 - XXIII. Simplified Spelling 241 - XXIV. Verbs with Suffixes 254 - XXV. Cognate Sounds 265 - XXVI. Words beginning with dis 277 - XXVII. The prefixes in, un and mis 287 - XXVIII. Synonyms 297 - XXIX. Antonyms 308 - XXX. Common Errors 320 - - - - - PLAIN ENGLISH - - Lesson I - - - Open Letter - -Dear Comrade: - -You are beginning a course of study in the use of Plain English. We do -not know what your previous study may have been, but the object of this -course is to give the basic principles and practice of the use of the -English Language for the benefit of those who have not had the -opportunity of a high school education and possibly have not finished in -the grade school. - -For this reason we have avoided, as much as possible, the statement of -rules and formulas to be learned by rote and have made the few rules -which it is necessary to know, grow naturally out of the need for them -in the development of expression in language. - -We have taken for granted several things in the preparation of this -course. First, we assume that you have never studied grammar, or if you -have, that you will be glad to review it in simplified form. This course -does not follow the lines laid down by technical grammarians. It has -been worked out on the basis of plain, common sense. Our purpose is not -to make of you a grammarian, versed in the knowledge of rules and -reasons, but to give you the power to express yourself more readily, -fluently and correctly--in other words to speak and write _good_ -English. - -Second, we assume that you are interested and willing to work and eager -to increase your store of knowledge. Your progress in this branch of -knowledge will depend, to a large extent, upon your own efforts. We have -endeavored to avoid unnecessary and uninteresting rules and make the -course as simple, clear and plain as possible; but that does not mean -you will not have to work in order to master this study. We trust it -will be pleasant and interesting work, bringing you joy as it brings you -a growing sense of power. - -Probably no two people will use the same plan of work. Your work, to be -a pleasure, must express your own individuality. However, we want to -make a few suggestions which we know from experience you will find -helpful. - -+1st.+ +Be Systematic.+ Find some time each day which you can regularly -spend in study. Do not be discouraged if it is only fifteen minutes each -day. The student who will spend fifteen minutes every day regularly in -intensive study can easily complete this course within the prescribed -time. - -+2d.+ +Concentrate.+ By this we mean that when you study, you should do -it to the exclusion of everything else. Keep your mind upon the subject. -You may find this difficult at first. Your mind will wander; but you -will soon acquire the student habit if you persevere. - -+3d.+ +Have Faith in Yourself.+ Do not be easily discouraged. You have -the power to master this subject and _you will_. You will find it of -immeasurable value to you to be able to speak and write fluently and -correctly. Those whom you admire for their ready use of good English -were not born with the "gift of gab." They learned how to speak by -studying the rules of grammar, the meaning of words, just as you are -studying them. What they have done, _you will do_. - -+4th.+ +Go Slowly and Surely.+ Do not skim through these lessons. Be -sure you understand thoroughly as you go along. Read carefully and -_think_ for yourself. If there is anything you do not understand at any -time, write us and ask about it. These lessons have been carefully -prepared and are for your benefit. Make them yours and call upon us -freely for help. This is your College and its only ideal is service. - -+5th.+ +Get a Note-Book.+ Make your note-book your work-shop. Write in -it an outline of each lesson. Fill it with notes, examples, anything -which is of interest on the subject. Note down your own frequent -mistakes in the use of English. Watch the conversation of your friends; -listen to good speakers. Write down the mistakes you notice. Whenever -you hear a word which seems particularly good, or when you see one in -your reading, write it in your note-book and make it part of your -vocabulary. You will find your interest continually growing and also -your ability to express the thoughts you yearn to express. - -If we can bring to you an increasing joy in life because of a growing -power of expression; if we can enlarge your ability to serve the world; -if we can, through the study of this wonderful language of ours, open -wider the door of opportunity for you,--our comrade,--The People's -College will have served its purpose and realized its ideal. - - Yours for Education, - - THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. - - - GOOD ENGLISH--WHAT IS IT? - -+1.+ People seem to differ in their idea as to what constitutes "Good -English." Have you never seen a man suddenly called upon to make a -formal speech or introduced into the company of distinguished men and -women? Quite often, he will drop his simple every-day mode of speech and -speak in stilted, unnatural language, using all the "big" words he can -possibly remember. He no doubt fondly imagines he is making an -impression and using "good" English. - -The purpose of language is to make one's self understood, and, of -course, this can be done in very simple and crude English. The man who -breaks every rule of grammar, intersperses his remarks with every -variety of slang phrase, may make himself understood, but he is not -using _good_ English. - -+2.+ +Good English is that which is good for its purpose and conforms to -the standards of usage.+ - -We have one purpose when we write a business letter and quite another -when we are writing or speaking of the great issues of life. There is a -place for the simple, direct, plain, unadorned language of every-day -business life--the life of the work-a-day world--and there is a place -also for the beauty and charm of the language of poetry. If we are -talking with the man who works beside us of the work of the day, we will -naturally use plain, simple, forceful words. But, if we are speaking to -our comrades, striving to arouse them out of their lethargy, to stir -them to action as men and women, we will just as naturally use the fine -and noble words which touch the depths of human emotion--the heights of -human endeavor. - -+3.+ There are certain rules for the use of English which have grown up -through the years, to which we must conform. These are not arbitrary. -They have not been made by any man or any set of men. In fact, they are -constantly changing, as the common usage of the people forces the -changes. For these rules are only the expression of the common usage, -and as usage changes, the rules change. - -But these changes come slowly, so we can set down in a book the rules -which express the established usage of today. The ability to use good -English does not mean the ability to use long, high-sounding words. To -be a master of good English means to be able to use the word that meets -your need and use it correctly. - -Do not strive for _effect_, strive for _effective expression_. - - - USE YOUR DICTIONARY - -+4.+ Do you know that the average individual cripples through life with -a vocabulary of a few hundred words when he might easily have at his -command as many thousands? - -We are misers with our words. Here hid away in this book we call the -dictionary is a wealth of words, a rich mine of expression, and yet in -our every-day conversation we halt and stammer, using meaningless words -and phrases largely made up of current slang. - -Never let a word pass by that you do not understand thoroughly. Look it -up at once in your dictionary and master it then and there. Dollars may -be difficult to earn and more difficult to keep, but here is a wealth -easily gained and the more you use it the more you possess it. - -You will find your dictionary an exceedingly interesting book when you -get acquainted with it. - -Use it constantly; make it your familiar companion. - - - OUR LANGUAGE - -+5.+ Did you ever stop to think what the world would be if we had no way -of communicating, one with another? Think of Helen Keller, shut up in -her prison-house of silence. Her only mode of communication with her -fellows is through the sense of touch. - -Every form of life that has consciousness has some way of expressing its -feelings. Every animal, by the movements of its body or the tones of its -voice, expresses its emotions of pain, pleasure, rage, hate, joy, hunger -and the many passions that sway its life. The child knows without being -taught how to express its wants. We understand its cry of hunger, its -scream of pain, its laugh of delight. This is the natural language, the -language of feeling. It is the universal language that needs no rules -and no interpreter. Life on every plane knows and understands it. - - - WHEN WE BEGIN TO THINK - -+6.+ Our feelings and desires are not the only things we wish to -communicate. The natural language satisfies a child for a time, but as -the child grows he begins to _think_, then he feels the need of a more -effective means of expressing himself. You can express your feelings to -a certain extent by the natural language. You can make one know that you -are glad by the expression of the face, the attitude of the body or the -tone of the voice. But could you make anyone understand _why_ you are -glad, by these signs and gestures? - -+7.+ To express thoughts and ideas, man had to devise another sort of -language. So the language of _words_ grew up out of the need to -communicate ideas to other people. As man's ability to think grew, so -his language grew. At first, this language was only a spoken language. -The ideas of one generation were handed down to the next by the spoken -word. Gradually a crude form of writing was invented from which our -written language has developed. This has made it possible to put the -wisdom of the ages into books for the benefit of the world. - -+8.+ +Hence, language is the means of expressing thought and feeling.+ -It has grown out of our need for expression. - -+A word is a symbol of an idea.+ It is a sound or combination of sounds -which we use to represent an idea. The use of words makes it possible -for us to readily convey our thoughts to other people. - -Through the medium of words we are able to communicate to others our -thoughts, not only of the external world about us, but also of the -mental world in which we live. We can tell of our loves, our hates, our -dreams and our ideals. Animals find the natural language of looks and -tones and gestures sufficient because they live almost wholly upon the -physical plane. But man lives in a mental world as well as in a physical -one, and must have a spoken and written language by which to express his -thoughts. - - - Exercise 1 - -Select from the following sentences those which it is possible to -express by a look or tone or gesture, and those which can not be -expressed without words: - - 1. I am glad. - 2. I am glad because men are struggling for freedom. - 3. I am hungry. - 4. I am hungry for the chance for an education. - 5. Come. - 6. Come, let us reason together. - 7. I am afraid. - 8. I am afraid that we must wait long for peace. - 9. Go. - 10. Go, search the world over for the truth. - 11. I am disgusted. - 12. I am disgusted with those who will not think for themselves. - 13. I am tired. - 14. I am tired of these petty squabbles among comrades. - - - OUR EXPRESSION - -+9.+ Our knowledge of language opens up a new world to us. We -can communicate with those about us; we can open the storehouse of -the knowledge of the past as recorded in books, or as two of our writers -have expressed it: - - Have you ever rightly considered what the mere ability to read - means--that it is the key which admits to the world of thought and - fancy and imagination--to the company of saint and sage, of the - wisest and wittiest at their wisest and wittiest moments--that it - enables us to see with the keenest eyes, hear with the finest ears - and listen to the sweetest voices of all time?--_Lowell_. - - Strip man of his books and his papers, and he becomes a mere slave, - ignorant of his own resources, ignorant of his rights and - opportunities. The difference between the free citizen of today and - the savage of yesterday is almost entirely a thing of books. The man - who dislikes books can never be entirely happy, and he who loves a - good book can never be wholly miserable.--_Hillis_. - -Have you never felt that struggle within and the sense of defeat when -you have tried to make some one feel as you feel, understand as you -understand, see some great truth as you see it, and could not find the -words with which to express your ideas? - -+10.+ The mastery of words gives; first, _the ability to understand the -spoken or written thoughts of others_; second, _the ability to -adequately express our own thoughts_; and third, _the ability to think -clearly and to grow in our intellectual life_. - -A connected chain of reasoning is impossible without the knowledge of -the words that express the development of the ideas and the varying -shades of meaning. To gain this mastery, you must know the words of our -language and their use. Words are the symbols of ideas and perform -certain functions in expressing our thoughts. This, simply stated, is -all that the study of English Grammar comprises--_the study of English -words and their use in the expression of thought and feeling_. - - - THE THOUGHT AND THE WORD - -+11.+ We have found that the invention of words grew out of the ability -to _think_ and the need for expression. But we first _thought_! So, in -order to express yourself clearly you must first _think_ clearly. Any -thought can be simply and clearly expressed. When you read something -difficult of understanding, where the thought is buried under an -avalanche of words, you can be assured the writer was not thinking -clearly. He did not have the perfect mastery of his thought. On the -other hand, one may have a valuable thought in mind and not be able to -express it because he does not have the words at his command. In the one -case, we have words and no idea; in the other, the idea and no words. - -This study is intended to enable you to master words, the tools of -expression. In whatever work you are engaged, it was first necessary to -learn to use the tools with which you work. So, you must master the use -of English words, the tools of your expression. You can in that way -learn to express your thoughts clearly and exactly. You will not need to -resort to slang, or to the tiresome repetition of a few words. - -The best of everything is none too good for you. It is your right, your -heritage, and the best in the English language will bring you into the -company and comradeship of the men and women who have striven and toiled -for humanity, who will talk to you of dreams and deeds worth while, who -will place in your hands the key to a new world. - - - A COMPLETE THOUGHT - -+12.+ When we want to express a thought we use more than one word. Words -are the symbols of ideas, but a thought is the expression of the -relation between ideas. For example, I say _man_, and you get an idea or -an image in your mind of a man, but I have not said anything about any -man. But if I say, _Man works_, then I have expressed a thought. I have -related the idea of a man and the idea of work and have expressed a -complete thought. - -So we express our thoughts by _groups of words_. The very smallest group -of words which will express a complete thought must, therefore, contain -two words. If I say _men_, _fire_, _flowers_, and stop, you wonder what -I mean, for I have not expressed a thought. Or, I might say, _work_, -_burns_, _bloom_, and you would still be in the dark as to my meaning; -but, when I say, _Men work_, _Fire burns_, _Flowers bloom_, you -understand, for I have told you my complete thought. I have put two -words together in a way to make sense; I have formed a sentence. - -+13.+ If we say, _Go_ or _Wait_, in the form of a command or entreaty, -the single word seems to make complete sense and to form a sentence in -itself. But this is only because _you_, who are to do the going or the -waiting, is clearly implied. The words _go_ or _wait_, by themselves, do -not make sense or form a sentence unless they are uttered in the -commanding or beseeching tone of voice which makes you understand that -_You go_ or _You wait_ is the intended meaning. With the exception of -words used in this way as a command or entreaty, it is always necessary -to use at least two words to express a complete thought. - -But will any two words make a sentence--express a complete thought? - -+14.+ Which of these combinations of words are sentences and which are -not? - - Busy men. - Men travel. - Snow flies. - Blue sky. - Red flag. - Rustling trees. - Workers strike. - Bees sting. - Grass grows. - Cold winds. - Green fields. - Happy children. - -_Busy men_ does not express a complete thought. We are wondering _busy -men do what?_ But, _men travel_ is a complete thought. It makes sense -and forms a sentence, and tells us what men _do_. In the words, _busy -men_, we have spoken the name of something but have made no assertion -concerning it. In the two words, _men travel_, we have spoken the name -_men_ and we have told what they _do_. - -If we were walking down the street together we might say: - - The street is crowded to-day. - Does the open road attract you? - See the jostling crowds. - -Or if we were discussing the class struggle, we might say: - - Two classes have always existed. - To which class do you belong? - Join your class in the struggle. - -In every one of these six groups of words we have a complete thought -expressed. Each of these groups of words we call a sentence. - -+15.+ +A sentence is a group of words expressing a complete thought.+ - - - Exercise 2 - -Write in each blank space the word necessary to express a complete -thought. - - Men...... ......fade. - - Leaves...... ......bloom. - - Water...... ......run. - - Fire...... ......write. - - Women...... ......grow. - - Children...... ......speak. - - - SUBJECT AND PREDICATE - -+16.+ We have found that every sentence must have at least two words, -one word to name that about which something is said and another word -which does the saying or makes the assertion. In the sentence, _Men -work_, we have these two parts; _men_ which is the part about which -something is said, and _work_ which tells what men do. - -+The part about which something is said is called the subject.+ - -In this sentence, _Men work_, _men_, therefore, is the subject, for it -names that about which something is said. - -+17.+ +The part that asserts or says something about the subject is -called the predicate.+ - -Therefore in this sentence, _Men work_, _work_ is the predicate. In the -following sentences draw a single line under the subject and a double -line under the predicate, thus, _~Birds~ =fly=_. - - Ships sail. - Soldiers fight. - Flowers fade. - Horses neigh. - Flags wave. - Snow comes. - War rages. - Winds blow. - Fish swim. - -+18.+ We may add other words to the subject or the predicate and so -enlarge their meaning, as for instance we may say: - - The stately ships sail proudly away. - The war in Europe rages furiously. - The soldiers in the army fight like men gone mad. - -Yet in every one of these sentences you will find the subject and the -predicate,--_Ships sail_, _War rages_, _Soldiers fight_. - -Every sentence must have a subject and a predicate, and it is a very -important part of the study of sentences to be able to distinguish -quickly and readily the subject and the predicate. Find that about which -something is said, and that will always be the subject. Find that which -is said about the subject, and that will be the predicate. - -+Every sentence must contain a subject and a predicate.+ - -+The subject of a sentence names that about which something is said.+ - -+The predicate tells that which is said about the subject.+ - - - Exercise 3 - -In the following sentences add other words to the subject and to the -predicate to enlarge their meaning, then draw a single line under the -subject and a double line under the predicate: - - Ships sail. - Tides flow. - Stars shine. - Rain falls. - Children play. - Nature sleeps. - Waves break. - War rages. - Birds sing. - - - Exercise 4 - -In the following sentences the subject and the predicate have other -words added to enlarge their meaning. Find the subject and predicate and -draw a single line under the subject and a double line under the -predicate, as in the sentence, - - _The ~workers~ of the world =build= palaces for other people._ - - 1. Our success lies in solidarity. - 2. New occasions teach new duties. - 3. Two classes exist in the world. - 4. Labor creates all wealth. - 5. The workers fight all battles. - 6. Our time calls for earnest deeds. - 7. Knowledge unlocks the door of life. - 8. Ignorance bars the path to progress. - 9. Few people think for themselves. - 10. Hope stirs us to action. - - - - - SPELLING - - LESSON 1 - - -+Spelling is the process of naming or writing in proper order the -letters of a word.+ There is nothing that marks us so quickly as lacking -in the qualities that go to make up a good education as our inability to -spell the words most commonly used. - -Spelling in English is rather difficult. If each letter represented but -one sound, spelling would be an easy matter. Every word would be spelled -just as it sounds. This is the goal of those who advocate phonetic -spelling. Phonetic spelling simply means spelling according to sound. -But our alphabet does not have a letter for every sound. - -There are some forty-two different sounds used in English words and we -have only twenty-six letters in the alphabet. Therefore some letters -must do duty for several sounds. Then we have words which contain -letters which are not sounded at all when the word is pronounced, so, -all in all, spelling is a matter of memorizing. - -The best way to become an accurate speller is to read much, to observe -closely the forms of words and to write frequently. Always spell any -word of which you are uncertain aloud several times and write it out -several times. In this way you have aided the memory both through the -eye and through the ear. If you are not sure of the spelling of a word -do not use it until you have looked it up in the dictionary and made -sure. - -The words in this lesson are taken out of Lesson 1, Plain English -Course. There are thirty in all, five for each day of the week. (1) Look -up the meaning in the dictionary. (2) Learn the correct spelling. (3) -Learn the correct pronunciation. (4) Use the word in a sentence of your -own construction. (5) Use it during the day in your conversation; strive -to make it a part of your working vocabulary. - - +Monday+ - - Mode - English - Grammar - Expression - Complete - - +Tuesday+ - - Language - Emotion - Group - Mastery - Dictionary - - +Wednesday+ - - Thought - Symbol - Ability - Idea - Knowledge - - +Thursday+ - - Subject - Predicate - Vocabulary - Practice - History - - +Friday+ - - Memory - Sentence - Write - Right - Purpose - - +Saturday+ - - Propose - Growth - Learn - Teach - Pronounce - - - - - PLAIN ENGLISH - - LESSON 2 - - -Dear Comrade: - -Review Lesson 1 before taking up this lesson. Do not try -to learn by rote the contents of these lessons. Our endeavor is to make -you see the reason for every rule and definition before they are given. -We want you to see unfolding before you the development of language and -through this evolution you can catch a glimpse of the developing life of -man. Language like customs, religion, government, has grown with the -economic advancement of man. As man has evolved on the economic plane, -the material plane, as he has improved his means of providing for -himself food and clothes and shelter, he has developed a language suited -to his needs. - -So we can trace the growth of the race as we study the development of -language from the sign language of the primitive savage to the language -of the philosopher of today by which he makes known to us the story of -the stars, and the innermost secrets of our hearts and minds. -Civilization began with the invention of the phonetic alphabet and the -use of writing. So the study of language becomes not a dull and stupid -conning of useless rules and formulas, but an absorbing study of a -living, growing, changing thing that mirrors forth the very life of man. - -Think while you study. As you look for the definition of words in your -dictionary and realize how many shades of meaning we can express in -words, remember that this power is a heritage that comes to us from a -long past of incessant struggle. - -We of to-day are also writing history in words. By our efforts we are -adding new words to the language and giving old words a richer meaning. -_Brotherhood_, _justice_, for example! The world is coming to understand -these glorious words more fully and giving them a new interpretation. - -You will see a new beauty and glory in words after you have finished -this course and you will have a mastery of this wonderful language of -ours. - -Watch carefully the use of words in your reading. Especially this week -distinguish the nouns and verbs. Use your dictionary constantly and add -a few words to your vocabulary every day. - -Whenever there is a word used in these lessons which you do not -thoroughly understand, look it up at once in your dictionary and master -it then and there. Make a list in your note book of the words you look -up and at the end of the week go over them again and see if you have -them clearly in mind. Watch also the pronunciation of the words. Do not -try to do everything all at once, nor should you be discouraged if your -progress seems slow. We approach the goal one step at a time and each -step takes us nearer and nearer. Just keep steadily at it, Comrade. - - Yours for Education, - - THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. - - - KINDS OF SENTENCES - -+19.+ We have found that we use sentences to express our thoughts. But -we also find that we use these sentences in different ways for different -purposes. Can you notice any difference in the following sentences? - - Two classes have always existed. - To which class do you belong? - Join your class in the struggle. - -When I say, _Two classes have always existed_, I am making a simple -assertion, stating what I know or believe to be true. - -When I say, _To which class do you belong?_ I am asking a question. - -When I say, _Join your class in the struggle_, I am giving a command or -making a request. - -+20.+ +These three kinds of sentences are called assertive, -interrogative and imperative.+ - -+An assertive sentence states a fact or an opinion.+ - -+An interrogative sentence asks a question.+ - -+An imperative sentence gives a command, makes a request or -expresses a wish.+ - -+21.+ Any of these three kinds of sentences may be exclamatory; that is, -it may express surprise, excitement, impatience, or some other emotion. -For example: - - Hurrah! Freedom is coming! - -This is an assertion expressed as an exclamation. - - Oh! Why should war continue? - -Here we have a question in the form of an exclamation. - - Come! Keep your courage up. - -In this, we have a command, an imperative sentence, expressed in the -form of an exclamation. - -+An exclamatory sentence expresses surprise, excitement or some other -emotion.+ - -In these three forms of sentences, the assertive, the interrogative and -the imperative, together with the exclamatory, we are able to express -every thought and feeling which demands expression, either for practical -or artistic purposes. - -The sentence is the basis of spoken and written language and as we trace -its development we trace the history of the evolution of man and the -growth of his power of expression, as he has developed his powers of -mind. - -+22.+ +Every sentence must begin with a capital letter.+ - -+Every assertive and imperative sentence should end with a period.+ - -+Every interrogative sentence should end with a question mark.+ - -The word in an exclamatory sentence which expresses strong emotion is -followed by an exclamation point. The sentence itself if in -interrogative form should be followed by a question mark; if in the -assertive or the imperative form it may be followed either by an -exclamation point or a period. - - - Exercise 1 - -Mark the assertive sentences among the following with an _a_ in the -blank space. Mark the interrogative sentences with a _q_ for question; -the imperative sentences with a _c_ for command; and the exclamatory -with an _e_ for exclamation. - - 1. ...... Books are the true levelers. - 2. ...... Put not your trust in princes. - 3. ...... To err is human; to forgive divine. - 4. ...... What are the rights of a child? - 5. ...... Seize common occasions and make them great. - 6. ...... Not until all are free, is any free. - 7. ...... Freemen! Shall not we demand our own? - 8. ...... Is a world of happiness but a Utopian dream? - 9. ...... He who will not work, shall not eat. - 10. ...... Strike at the polls for freedom! - 11. ...... Do the majority want social justice? - 12. ...... A friend is the hope of the heart. - 13. ...... How beautiful is the vision of peace! - 14. ...... Acquire the thinking habit. - 15. ...... Is it glorious to die for our country? - 16. ...... Lo! Women are waking and claiming their own! - 17. ...... Claim your right to the best. - 18. ...... What is the highest good? - 19. ...... Workers of the world, unite! - 20. ...... To remain ignorant is to remain a slave. - - - WORDS--THEIR USES - -+23.+ We have learned from our study that we use sentences to express -our thoughts. These sentences are made up of words; therefore we call -words _parts of speech_. Words are only fractions or parts of speech, -and it is by combining them into sentences that we are able to express -our thoughts. - -There are many thousands of words in the English language. It would be -impossible for us to study each word separately. But these words, like -people, are divided into classes, so we can study each class of words. -These thousands of words are divided into classes much as people are, or -rather as people ought to be; for words are divided into classes -according to the work which they do. In the Industrial Commonwealth -there will be no upper or lower class, but men will be divided into -groups according to the work which they do. There will be various -industrial groups, groups of agricultural workers, groups of clerical -workers, etc. So words are divided into classes according to the work -which they do in helping us to express our ideas. - -+24.+ +Words are divided into kinds or classes according to their use in -sentences.+ - -+There are eight of these classes of words, called parts of speech.+ - - - THE NAMES OF THINGS - -+25.+ What a word _does_ determines what part of speech it is. When -primitive man, long ago, first began to use words, in all probability -the first words which he invented were those used to name familiar -objects about him. He invented a word for _man_, _boy_, _tree_, -_animal_, etc. Gradually, all the things he met in his daily life -received a name. About one half of the words in our language are of this -class, the _names_ of things. - -Every word which is used as a name of something is called a _noun_. This -word _noun_ is derived from the Latin word which means _name_, so it is -quite the same thing as saying _name_. Notice the following sentences: - - Boys run. - Fish swim. - Horses neigh. - Soldiers march. - Flags wave. - Flowers fade. - Girls study. - Winds blow. - Men work. - -All of the words used like _boys_, _girls_, _fish_, _horses_, -_soldiers_, _flag_, _winds_, _flowers_ and _men_, are the names of -objects, therefore all of these words are _nouns_. The subject of a -sentence is always a noun or a word used as a noun. However, we may use -in a sentence many nouns besides the noun which is used as the subject, -the noun about which the statement is made. We will study the use of -these nouns later in our lessons. - -_The famous palace of the kings of the Moors, at Granada, in Spain, was -called the Alhambra._ We have six nouns in this sentence, _palace_, -_kings_, _Moors_, _Granada_, _Spain_ and _Alhambra_, but the noun -_palace_ is the noun which is the subject--the noun which is the name of -that about which something is said. _Palace_ is the subject; and _was -called_ is the predicate in this sentence. - -+26.+ +A noun is a word used as the name of something.+ - -Now we want to learn to distinguish every word that is used as a name. -Pick out the nouns as you read your books and papers until you are able -to tell every word which is used as a noun, the name of something. - -In the following paragraph, the nouns are printed in italics. Carefully -study these nouns: - -The _fire_ in the _grate_, the _lamp_ by the _bedside_, the _water_ in -the _tumbler_, the _fly_ on the _ceiling_ above, the _flower_ in the -_vase_ on the _table_, all _things_ have their _history_ and can reveal -to us _nature's_ invisible _forces_. - - - Exercise 2 - -Underscore every noun in the following quotation: - - The whole history of the earth has been one of gradual development, of - progress, of slow and painful climbing through the ages. Not only have - the hills and the mountains, the rivers and the stars, the trees and - the cattle, the beasts and the birds, been developing; but man - himself--his mind and his body--has been developing. Men are marvelous - little creatures; they have weighed the sun in their balances, - measured the stars and analyzed the light and beauty of the rainbow; - they have sounded the depths of the ocean; they have learned how the - sun and the mountains were born and the rivers were laid in their - mighty beds; they have learned how the seas became salt, what the - stars are made of. They have learned so much, and yet when it comes to - matters of time and space, and law and motion, they still know so - little. The only man who is conscious of his ignorance is he who has - learned a great deal.--_McMillan_. - - - WORDS THAT ASSERT - -+27.+ After the primitive man had invented names for the things about -him, probably his next step was to invent words of action. He very -naturally wanted to tell what all of these various things _did_. So the -words that tell what things do, the words of action, the words that -assert, came into the language. A child follows much the same -development. As you can readily observe, it first names the objects -about it, then learns the words that tell what these objects do. - -So the words that tell what things _do_, become the second class of -words. These words we call _verbs_. The word _verb_, like the word -_noun_, is taken into our language from the Latin. In Latin, the word -_verbum_ means _the word_; and the verb is practically _the_ word in a -sentence, for we cannot have a sentence without a verb. You may string a -number of words together, but if you do not have an asserting word, you -will not have a sentence. - -Notice the following sentences: - - Men work. - Flowers fade. - Snow flies. - Winds blow. - -In these sentences, the words _work_, _fade_, _flies_ and _blow_, are -the words used to assert or say something of the subject, hence they are -the verbs in these sentences. - -+28.+ Sometimes it takes more than one word to express the action or -make the assertion. Notice the following sentences: - - The men are working. - The boy has been studying. - -In the first sentence it takes two words, _are working_, to make the -assertion; in the second, three are required, _has been studying_. These -groups of words are called _verb phrases_. - -+29.+ +A verb is a word that asserts.+ - -+A verb phrase is a group of words used as a single verb.+ - -The verb is perhaps the most difficult part of speech to master. It is -not hard to find the verb in short sentences, but in longer sentences it -is sometimes difficult. - -For example: - - The sun shines. - The man walks. - The boys strike. - -We very easily see that _shine_, _walk_ and _strike_ are the verbs in -these sentences. But let us add other words, as for example: - - The sun shines brightly. - The man walks for his health. - The boys strike the dog. - -Now we are very apt to confuse the verb with the words which state _how_ -and _why_ the action is performed, or the _object_ towards which the -action is directed. But in these sentences, _shine_ and _walks_ and -_strike_ are still the verbs, just as in the first sentences. The verb -asserts the action; the other words merely give additional information -about _how_ or _why_ or _upon what_ the action is performed. - -+30.+ Another thing which makes it difficult for us to distinguish verbs -in English is that the same word may be used both as a noun and as a -verb; but always remember that words are separated into classes -according to the work which they do. When a word is used as a _name_ it -is a _noun_; when it is used as an _asserting_ word it is a _verb_. Note -the following sentences: - - The _play_ made the child tired. - The children _play_ in the yard. - -In the first sentence _play_ is a noun, the subject of the verb _made_. -In the second sentence _play_ is the verb, telling what the children -_do_. Always classify words according to the work which they perform in -the sentence. This will help you very much in finding your verb. - -+31.+ Then we have some verbs which do not assert action but express -rather a connection or relation between the subject and some other word -or words. For example: - - The dog belongs to the man. - The girl is happy. - -In these sentences _belongs_ and _is_ are the verbs. _Belongs_ asserts -or shows the relation between _the dog_ and _the man_. _Is_ shows the -relation between _the girl_ and _happy_. If we simply say _girl_ and -_happy_, we do not show any connection between them or make any -statement relating the two, but when we say, _The girl is happy_, we are -asserting something, and the word _is_ makes the assertion. - -Or when we say, _The girl was happy_, or _The girl will be_ or _may be -happy_, in each of these cases, it is the verb or verb phrase _was_ or -_will be_ or _may be_, that asserts or shows the relation between the -subject _girl_ and the descriptive word _happy_. You will observe that -the verbs _will be_ and _may be_ are composed of more than one word and -are _verb phrases_. - -We will study the verb in succeeding lessons, but let us remember from -this lesson that the word or group of words that makes the assertion in -the sentence is the verb. Remember too that every sentence must contain -a verb. - -Get this basic principle firmly fixed in mind that what a word _does_ -decides what it _is_--to what part of speech it belongs, and that every -class of words fulfills its own function in sentence building. - -+32.+ Remember:-- - -+Every sentence must have a subject and a predicate.+ - -+Every sentence must express a complete thought.+ - -+Every sentence must contain a verb.+ - -+A noun is the name of something.+ - -+A verb is a word that asserts.+ - -+What a word does determines what it is.+ - -Study carefully the following quotation. The verbs are printed in -_italics_. - - Slowly, painfully, _proceeds_ the struggle of man against the power of - Mammon. The past _is written_ in tears and blood. The future _is_ dim - and unknown, but the final outcome of this world-wide struggle _is_ - not in doubt. Freedom _will conquer_ slavery, truth _will prevail_ - over error, justice _will triumph_ over injustice, the light _will - vanquish_ the darkness; and humanity _will rise_ in the glory of - universal brotherhood.--_Warren_. - - - Exercise 3 - -Underscore all verbs and verb phrases in the following quotation: - -+The Dream of Labor+: Ours is not the cause of one class, of one sex, of -one tribe, of one city, of one state, of one continent. - -It is the wish for a better world where Man shall be Man; where the -beast shall become subdued; where everything shall lead to complete -development; where the good of each shall be bound up in the good of -all; where all shall feel the sorrows of each and shall run to his -rescue. - -A glimpse of this ideal takes us into the Land of Promise, where peace -and plenty shall reign supreme; where brothers shall no longer battle -among themselves, but for one another; where the atmosphere shall be -laden with love, the love that saves; where the hate that kills shall be -unknown; where heart and brain shall work together and shall make life -better and more complete; where the fullness of life shall be for all -and where men and women shall be as happy at their work as little -children at their play. - -The mere glimpse into that land makes life worth living, makes work -worth doing, makes dreams worth dreaming, gives us hope and faith--the -faith we need in the labor for our cause, the faith which shall help us -win.--_Oscar Leonard_. - - - Exercise 4 - -We have found that there are a number of words in English which may be -used either as nouns or verbs, depending upon the function they serve in -the sentence. In the following sentences underscore the nouns with a -single line, the verbs with two lines: - - 1. They _man_ the boats. - 2. The _man_ has a boat. - 3. The women _pass_ this way. - 4. They held the _pass_ for hours. - 5. Little children _work_ in the mines. - 6. The _work_ of the world is done by machinery today. - 7. The armies will _cross_ the bridge. - 8. He built a _cross_ of rude stones. - 9. The leopard cannot _change_ its spots. - 10. We will force a _change_ in the law. - - - Exercise 5 - -In the following poem, mark every noun and every verb and verb phrase. -You will find the verb phrases in several places divided by the word -_not_, as in _I do not obey_. _Do obey_ is the verb phrase. We will -learn to what part of speech _not_ belongs a little later. - - I DO NOT OBEY, I THINK. - - "Captain, what do you think," I asked, - "Of the part your soldiers play?" - The Captain answered, "I do not think-- - I do not think, I obey." - - "Do you think your conscience was meant to die, - And your brains to rot away?" - The Captain answered, "I do not think-- - I do not think, I obey." - - "Do you think you should shoot a patriot down, - And help a tyrant slay?" - The Captain answered, "I do not think-- - I do not think, I obey." - - "Then if this is your soldier's code," I cried, - "You're a mean, unmanly crew; - And with all your feathers and gilt and braid, - I am more of a man than you; - - "For whatever my lot on earth may be - And whether I swim or sink, - I can say with pride, 'I do not obey-- - I do not obey, I think.'" - - --_Ernest Crosby_. - - - - - SPELLING - - LESSON 2 - - -The twenty-six letters in the English alphabet are divided into vowels -and consonants. A vowel is a letter which represents a sound of the -human voice but slightly interrupted by the vocal organs. The vowels are -_a_, _e_, _i_, _o_ and _u_. All of the remaining letters of the alphabet -are consonants. A consonant is a letter which represents a sound of the -human voice greatly obstructed by the vocal organs. Consonant is from -the Latin _con_, meaning _with_, and _sono_--_I sound_. So it means -literally _I sound with_. - -The consonants are produced by union of the breath with the vocal -organs. The consonant sounds are so called because they are always -"sounded with" a vowel; they are used only in combination with vowels in -forming words or syllables. - -In English a consonant alone never forms a word or a syllable. Sound the -different consonants _b_, _c_, _d_, _f_, _g_, _h_, _j_, _k_, _l_, _m_, -_n_, _p_, _q_, _r_, _s_, _t_, _v_, _x_ and _z_, by themselves and you -will see how the sound of the breath is obstructed or changed by the use -of the vocal organs--the lips, the tongue, the teeth, etc.--in making -these various sounds. - -_W_ and _y_ are sometimes vowels and sometimes consonants. _W_ and _y_ -are vowels when they are used with another vowel representing a vowel -sound as in _awe_, _new_, _joy_, _eye_, etc. _Y_ is sometimes used as a -vowel by itself as in _by_, _cry_, etc. _W_ and _y_ are consonants when -they are used at the beginning of a syllable or before a vowel in the -same syllable as in _wine_, _twine_, _yield_ and _year_. - -Look up the meaning of the words in this week's lesson. Master the -spelling and use them in sentences of your own construction. - - +Monday+ - - Reason - Evolution - Justice - Thorough - Beauty - - +Tuesday+ - - Assertive - Review - Surprise - Basis - Separate - - +Wednesday+ - - Interrogative - Period - Capital - Capitol - Function - - +Thursday+ - - Example - Contain - Imperative - Question - Speech - - +Friday+ - - Method - Various - Familiar - Industry - Alphabet - - +Saturday+ - - Travel - Sense - Cents - Sail - Sale - - - - - PLAIN ENGLISH - - LESSON 3 - - -Dear Comrade: - -In this lesson we are taking up a short study of the different parts of -speech. In later lessons we will study each part of speech more -thoroughly but this lesson covers the ground quickly and briefly. It is -sufficient, however, to form a basis for our understanding of the -evolution of language. - -You will see, as you study this lesson, how each part of speech has been -added to meet a growing need. There are many, many thousand words in the -English language, but they can all be grouped under these eight parts of -speech, for they all answer in some way to one of these great needs. - -The object in studying grammar, as in studying any other science, is not -to fill one's mind with a great many unrelated facts--facts which may or -may not prove useful to one hereafter. The object of all study is to -develop one's power of observation and one's ability to think. Added to -this must be the practical ability to make use of this knowledge. Here -the study of grammar has an advantage over the study of every other -science. It deals with words, something which we use every day. - -You do not need any laboratory or expensive apparatus in order to study -grammar. All that you need lies ready to your hand. And in addition to -this the knowledge which you gain is something which is of practical use -to every man and woman no matter what their work, no matter what their -place or position in life may be. - -Remember that dogmatism has no place in the study of grammar. -"Grammarians are the guardians, not the authors, of language." We do not -say, "You should say this or that, or you violate a rule of grammar," -but we say "The common usage among those who use good English is thus -and so." If we do not believe that the common usage is the best usage, -then we follow the democratic method of seeking to change the common -usage into that which we consider the more sensible way. Thus, those who -advocate simplified spelling have not sought to pass a law whereby every -one should be compelled to spell words exactly as they sound, but they -have striven to influence our writers and people in general to use this -more sensible way of spelling words. - -So _think_ while you study. Do not try to learn rules and formulas. See -_why_ the rules and formulas exist. Once having seen this you do not -need to learn them--you know them already. The study of any language is -an intellectual discipline of the highest order. - -So apply yourself diligently to this most interesting study and you will -see that the result of this application will affect your daily life in -every particular. - - Yours for Education, - - THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. - - - WORDS ADDED TO NOUNS - -+33.+ When man began to invent words to express his ideas of the world -in which he lived, we have found that probably the first need was that -of names for the things about him. So we have nouns. The second need was -of words to tell what these things _do_, and so we have verbs. But -primitive man soon felt the need of other classes of words. - -The objects about us are not all alike. For example, we have a word for -man, but when we say _man_ that is not sufficient to describe the many -different kinds of men. There are tall men, short men, white men, black -men, strong men, weak men, busy men, lazy men. There are all sorts of -men in the world, and we need words by which we can describe these -different types and also indicate which man we mean. - -+34.+ So we have a class of words which are called adjectives. -_Adjective_ is a word derived from the Latin. It comes from the Latin -word _ad_, meaning _to_, and the Latin word _jecto_, which means _to -throw_; hence an adjective is a word _thrown to_ or _added to_ a noun. - -If you will stop to think for a moment, you will see that it is by their -qualities that we know the things about us. Some men are strong, some -are weak, some are tall, some are short. These qualities belong to -different men. And we separate or group them into classes as they -resemble each other or differ from one another in these qualities. -Things are alike which have the same qualities; things are unlike whose -qualities are different. Apples and oranges are alike in the fact that -both are round, both are edible. They are unlike in the fact that one is -red and one is yellow; one may be sour and the other sweet. So we -separate them in our minds because of their different qualities; and we -have a class of words, _adjectives_, which describe these various -qualities. - -+35.+ We use adjectives for other purposes also. For example, when we -say _trees_, we are not speaking of any particular trees, but of trees -in general. But we may add certain adjectives which point out particular -trees, as for example: _these_ trees, or _those_ trees, or _eight_ trees -or _nine_ trees. These adjectives limit the trees of which we are -speaking to the particular trees pointed out. They do not express any -particular qualities of the trees like the adjectives _tall_ or -_beautiful_ express, but they limit the use of the word _trees_ in its -application. So we have our definition of the adjective. - -+36.+ +An adjective is a word added to a noun to qualify or limit its -meaning.+ - - - Exercise 1 - -Underscore all of the adjectives in the following quotation. Notice also -the nouns and verbs in this quotation. - - Yet fearsome and terrible are all the footsteps of men upon the earth, - for they either descend or climb. - - They descend from little mounds and high peaks and lofty altitudes, - through wide roads and narrow paths, down noble marble stairs and - creaky stairs of wood--and some go down to the cellar, and some to the - grave, and some down to the pits of shame and infamy, and still some - to the glory of an unfathomable abyss where there is nothing but the - staring, white, stony eye-balls of Destiny. - - They descend and they climb, the fearful footsteps of men, and some - limp, some drag, some speed, some trot, some run--they are quiet, - slow, noisy, brisk, quick, feverish, mad, and most awful in their - cadence to the ears of the one who stands still. - - But of all the footsteps of men that either descend or climb, no - footsteps are so fearsome and terrible as those that go straight on - the dead level of a prison floor, from a yellow stone wall to a red - iron gate.--From _The Walker_. _Giovannitti_. - - - WORDS ADDED TO VERBS - -+37.+ From our study, you see how our classes of words grew out of man's -need of them in expressing his thoughts. And notice also how the many -thousands of words in our language can all be grouped under these few -classes. We _name_ the things about us; we invent words to tell what -these things _do_; we have another class of words which _describe_ the -things which we have named; and now we come to a fourth class of words -for which we also find great need. - -When we come to tell what things _do_, we find that we need words which -will tell us _how_ or _where_ or _when_ these things are done. Notice -the following sentences: - - The men work busily. - The men work late. - The men work now. - The men work here. - The men work hard. - The men work well. - The men work inside. - The men work more. - -We would have a complete sentence and express a complete thought if we -said simply, _The men work_, but each of these words which we have -added, like _busily_, _hard_, _late_, etc., adds something to the -meaning of the verb. These words add something to the action which is -asserted by the verb, for they show _how_ and _when_ and _where_ and -_how much_ the men work. - -+38.+ We call this class of words _adverbs_, because they are added to -verbs to make the meaning more definite, very much as adjectives are -added to nouns. Adverb means literally _to the verb_. - -An adverb will always answer one of these questions: _how?_ _when?_ _how -long?_ _how often?_ _how much?_ _how far?_ or _how late?_ If you want to -find the adverbs in your sentences just ask one of these questions, and -the word that answers it will be the adverb. - -+39.+ An adverb may be used also with an adjective. Notice the following -sentences: - - The book is _very_ long. - _Too_ many people never think. - -Notice here that the adverbs _very_ and _too_ modify the adjectives -_long_ and _many_. - -+40.+ Adverbs may also be used with other adverbs. Notice the following -sentences: - - He speaks _very_ distinctly. - He walks _too_ slowly. - -Here the adverbs _very_ and _too_ are used with the adverbs _distinctly_ -and _slowly_, and add to their meaning. We will study more fully in -later lessons concerning both the adjective and the adverb, but we can -see by this brief study why adverbs were added as a class of words, a -part of speech, for they are absolutely necessary in order to describe -the action expressed by verbs, and also to add to the meaning of -adjectives and other adverbs. Hence we have our definition of an adverb. - -+41.+ +An adverb is a word that modifies the meaning of a verb, an -adjective, or another adverb.+ - - - Exercise 2 - -Underscore all adverbs in the following sentences: - - 1. He will not come today. - 2. Here and now is the day of opportunity. - 3. Very slowly, but even then entirely too rapidly, the fire crept - forward. - 4. The room was very quiet and still. - 5. He was too weary to go farther. - 6. One must learn to feel deeply and think clearly in order to - express himself eloquently. - 7. Ferrer stood there, so calmly and so bravely facing the firing - squad. - 8. He was condemned to death because he stood uncompromisingly and - courageously for the education of the masses. - 9. Ferrer understood thoroughly that the schools of today cleverly - and effectively adapt their teaching to maintain the present - system of society. - 10. He said "The school imprisons the children physically, - intellectually and morally." - - - WORDS USED IN PLACE OF NOUNS - -+42.+ Now we come to study another class of words which are also very -necessary in order to express our ideas. Suppose you had just arrived in -a strange town and you wanted to find the way to a friend's house. You -inquire of a stranger, "Can you tell me who lives in the house on the -corner?" - -Notice the words _you_ and _me_ and _who_. You could not call the -stranger by name for you do not know his name, and hence you say _you_. -And if you used your own name instead of _me_, he would not recognize -it, and you would both be puzzled to find a substitute for that little -word _who_. - -If you knew the stranger and he knew your name, you might say, "Can Mr. -Smith tell Mr. Jones what person lives in the house on the corner." But -this would sound very stilted and unnatural and awkward. So we have -these little words like _you_ and _me_ and _who_, which we use _in place -of nouns_. These words are called pronouns. This word is taken from the -Latin also. In the Latin the word _pro_ means _in place of_. So the word -pronoun means literally in place of a noun. - -+43.+ +A pronoun is a word that is used in place of a noun.+ - -These pronouns are very useful little words. They save us a great deal -of tiresome repetition. Notice the awkwardness of the following: - - The workers will succeed in gaining the workers' freedom if the - workers learn solidarity. - -And yet this would be the way we would have to express this idea -if we did not have pronouns. Instead we say: - - The workers will succeed in gaining their freedom if they learn - solidarity. - -+44.+ We will study the pronoun in detail in later lessons, but we can -readily recognize these words which are used in place of nouns. The most -common pronouns are: - - I - you - he - she - it - we - they - me - him - her - us - them - my - your - his - her - its - our - their - that - which - who - whose - whom - what - - - Exercise 3 - -Underscore the pronouns in the following story: - - A man in South Africa picked up a small piece of stone. It was dirty - and Rough. - - "Make me beautiful," said the stone. - - "I shall have to hurt you," said the man. - - "Well, if it hurts me, I will bear it," said the stone. - - So the man took it to a clever craftsman, who put it into a tight - vise, and cut it with his sharp instrument. - - "Oh!" cried the stone. - - And he ground it till the dust fell all about it. - - "Oh!" cried the stone. - - And he polished it very hard. - - "Oh!" cried the stone. - - And then he set it in a crown and sent it to the Queen. On a sunny day - she wore her crown, and the stone--it was a diamond--sparkled in long - rays of crimson and green and yellow and silvery white. And all the - people greeted their queen. She showed them her crown and they praised - the beautiful stone. - - The training was hard, but the improvement was glorious. - - - PREPOSITIONS - -+45.+ Notice the following sentences: - - I want the book _on_ the box. - I want the book _under_ the box. - I want the book _in_ the box. - I want the book _beside_ the box. - I want the book _behind_ the box. - I want the book _beyond_ the box. - -Do you notice any word in these sentences which does not belong to any -of the classes of words which we have studied? _I_ is a pronoun, _want_ -is a verb, _the_ is an adjective, _book_ is a noun, _the_ is an -adjective, _box_ is a noun; but the words, _on_, _under_, _in_, -_beside_, _behind_ and _beyond_ are not nouns, verbs, adjectives, -adverbs or pronouns. - -Yet would it be possible to express the meaning in these sentences -without these words? Read the sentences without them, and you will see -that no one could tell the relation which you wish to express between -the _book_ and the _box_. And you will notice too that each word -expresses a different relation, for it means one thing to say _on the -box_ and another thing to say _in the box_, and so through the list. - -+46.+ The words which are used to show this relation are called -_prepositions_. The groups of words introduced by the preposition, like -_on the box_ and _in the box_, and so on, are called prepositional -phrases. The noun which follows a preposition as _box_ follows the -prepositions _in_, _on_, _beside_, _beyond_, etc., is called the -_object_ of the preposition. - -_Preposition_ is a word which comes into our language from the Latin. It -is formed from the Latin _pre_, which means _before_, and the Latin verb -which means _to place_, so preposition means literally _to place -before_. It is given this name because it is placed before the noun or -pronoun which is its object. Therefore our definition of a preposition -is as follows: - -+47.+ +A preposition is a word that shows the relation of its object to -some other word.+ - -+48.+ Either a noun or a pronoun may be the object of a preposition. -Notice the following sentences: - - Bring the book to me. - Lay the book on the table. - He will speak to you. - I will speak to the man. - -In these sentences the noun _table_ is the object of the preposition -_on_; the pronoun _me_ is the object of the preposition _to_; and in the -last two sentences the pronoun _you_ and the noun _man_ are the objects -of the preposition _to_. - -+49.+ There are not many prepositions in the language and they are -easily learned and easily distinguished. Here is a list of the most -common and the most important prepositions. Use each one in a sentence. - - at - across - around - about - among - above - against - along - behind - beside - between - below - beyond - by - before - beneath - down - for - from - in - into - off - on - over - to - toward - under - up - upon - with - within - without - - - Exercise 4 - -Underscore the prepositions in the following sentences: - - He went to the door and looked out upon the field. - Over the river and through the woods, to Grandfather's house we go. - He saw them in the distance as they were coming toward him. - They went along the road, across the bridge, and hid among the trees - at the foot of the hill. - They came from Minneapolis down the river by boat. - The war between the classes is a struggle against exploitation. - The army was intrenched behind the barricades before dawn. - His claim was within the law but without justice. - - - CONJUNCTIONS - -+50.+ We have found that the preposition is a very important connective -word. It connects two words and shows what one of them has to do with -the other, but the preposition is not the only connective word which we -use in English. We have another part of speech which performs an -important function as a connective word. Notice the following sentence: - - Men and women struggle for their rights. - -Can you find a word in this sentence which is a connective word besides -the preposition _for_? Did you notice that little word _and_? The noun -_men_ and the noun _women_ are both subjects of the verb _struggle_, and -they are joined by this little connective word _and_. If we did not have -this word we would have to use two sentences to express our thought, -thus: - - Men struggle for their rights. - Women struggle for their rights. - -But with the use of this connective word _and_ we can combine these -two sentences and express it all in one sentence: - - Men _and_ women struggle for their rights. - -This word is used in a different manner from the preposition. The -preposition connects two words and makes one modify the other. When we -say, _Get the book on the table_, the phrase _on the table_ designates -the book just as much as if we had said, _Get the green book_. So the -use of the preposition enables us to show the relation between two words -and to make one word describe or modify the other. - -+51.+ This little word _and_ in the sentence, _Men and women struggle -for their rights_, is a connective word also, but it connects two words -that are used in the same way, so it is a different sort of connective -word from the preposition. Words used in this way are called -_conjunctions_. Conjunction is a word which is taken from the Latin, -being made up of the Latin word _con_, which means _together_, and the -Latin verb _juncto_, which means _to join_. So conjunction means -literally _to join together_. - -+52.+ +A conjunction is a word that connects sentences or parts of -sentences.+ - -Notice the following sentence: - - The class struggle is waged on the political field and on the - industrial field. - -Here we have the conjunction _and_ connecting the two phrases _on the_ -_political field_ and _on the industrial field_. Without the use of this -connective word, we would have to use two sentences to express these two -thoughts: - - The class struggle is waged on the political field. - The class struggle is waged on the industrial field. - -+53.+ So a conjunction may be used to connect phrases as well as words. - -Now notice the following sentences: - - He will speak. I will listen. - He will speak, _and_ I will listen. - He will speak, _but_ I will listen. - He will speak, _if_ I will listen. - He will speak, _therefore_ I will listen. - He will speak, _because_ I will listen. - He will speak, _until_ I will listen. - -+54.+ These _sentences_ are joined by different conjunctions, and the -conjunction used alters the meaning of the sentence. - -The conjunction is a very useful part of speech. Without it we would -have many disconnected sentences requiring tiresome repetition of the -same words. Like prepositions, there are not many conjunctions in -English and they are readily recognized. - -+55.+ We will study about these conjunctions at length in later lessons. -If you consult the following list of those most commonly used, you can -easily pick out the conjunctions in your reading: - - and - as - as if - after - although - as soon as - because - besides - before - but - either - for - hence - in order that - lest - neither - nor - or - since - still - so - then - though - that - than - therefore - till - until - unless - while - whether - yet - -The seven classes of words which we have studied make up all of our -sentences. The hundreds of words which we use in forming our sentences -and expressing our thoughts belong to these seven classes. They are -either nouns, pronouns, verbs, adverbs, adjectives, prepositions or -conjunctions. - - - Exercise 5 - -Underscore the conjunctions in the following sentences. Notice whether -they connect words or phrases or sentences. - - 1. We cannot win unless we are organized. - 2. Books and music are true friends. - 3. Men, women and children work under conditions neither proper nor - just. - 4. We must educate and organize. - 5. The workers on the farms and in the factories must be united. - 6. Winter has come and the birds are going South. - 7. We have been ignorant, therefore we have been exploited. - 8. We must learn before we can teach. - 9. We do not understand the situation, because we do not know the - facts. - 10. Do you know whether these statements are true or false? - - - IT CAN BE DONE - - Somebody said that it couldn't be done, - But he, with a chuckle, replied - That "maybe it couldn't," but he would be one - Who wouldn't say so till he tried. - So he buckled right in, with a trace of a grin - On his face. If he worried he hid it. - He started to sing as he tackled the thing - That couldn't be done--and he did it. - - Somebody scoffed, "Oh, you'll never do that; - At least no one ever has done it." - But he took off his coat and he took off his hat, - And the first thing we knew he'd begun it; - With the lift of his chin, and a bit of a grin, - Without any doubting or quiddit, - He started to sing as he tackled the thing - That couldn't be done--and he did it. - - There are thousands to tell you it can not be done; - There are thousands to prophesy failure; - There are thousands to point out to you, one by one, - The dangers that wait to assail you. - But buckle right in, with a lift of your chin, - Then take off your coat and go to it; - Just start in to sing as you tackle the thing - That "can not be done,"--and you'll do it. - - - INTERJECTIONS - -+56.+ There is another class of words which we use _with_ sentences, but -which are really not _parts_ of the sentences. They are emotional -expressions which seem to belong more to the natural language than to -the invented language. For example: - - Oh! You hurt me! - Aha! Now I have you. - -_Oh_, used in this way, is very apt to sound like a groan, and _aha_ -like a shout of triumph. These words do not really belong in the -construction of the sentence. The sentence would be complete without -them, but they are thrown in to express the emotion which accompanies -the thought. We call expressions such as these _interjections_. -Interjection is from the Latin and means literally _thrown into the -midst of_. It comes from the Latin word _inter_, which means _between_, -and the Latin verb _jecto_, _to throw_, so it literally means _to throw -between_. - -Some of these words imitate sounds, as for example: - - Bang! There goes another shot. - Ding-dong! There goes the first bell. - -We do not use interjections very frequently in writing on scientific -subjects that express deep thought, but you will find them often used in -poetry, fiction, oratory or any emotional writing. Therefore we have our -definition of an interjection: - -+57.+ +An interjection is an exclamatory word or phrase used to express -feeling or to imitate some sound.+ - -+58.+ Following is a list of commonly used interjections. Use them in -sentences of your own. - - oh - hello - bravo - ahoy - aha - hurrah - bow wow - ssh - alas - hist - whirr - pshaw - fie - whoa - ding-dong - rub-a-dub - - - Exercise 6 - -Mark the interjections in the following sentences. Notice those which -express emotion and those which imitate sound. - - 1. Oh! Is it possible. - 2. Hurrah! We have good news at last. - 3. Whirr! Whirr! goes the giant machine. - 4. Come! Keep up your courage. - 5. What! I cannot believe it. - 6. Courage! We shall yet win. - 7. Bravo! Let those words ring down the centuries. - 8. Ding-dong! the bells ring out the hour! - - - - - SPELLING - - LESSON 3 - -Since there are forty-two elementary sounds used in the formation of our -words and only twenty-six letters to represent these sounds, some of -these letters must necessarily represent more than one sound. - -Of the forty-two elementary sounds, eighteen are vowel sounds, but we -have only five vowels with which to represent these sounds, so each -vowel has several different sounds. - -Therefore we must have a key to pronunciation to indicate the various -sounds which are represented by these letters used in forming the words. -When you look up words in your dictionary you will find the vowels -marked by certain signs to indicate the pronunciation. These signs are -called diacritical marks. - -The following table gives the diacritical marks for the vowels. Study -this table and learn to pronounce the words you look up. When you have -determined the correct pronunciation of the word, repeat it over to -yourself aloud a number of times until you have accustomed your ear to -the correct pronunciation. - -Different dictionaries use different keys to pronunciation. This table -is taken from the dictionary which we are using in connection with this -course--Winston's New Universal Self-Pronouncing Dictionary. - - Key to Pronunciation - - [=a] as in _late_, _fade_. - a-umlaut as in _mar_, _father_. - [.a] as in _mask_, _dance_. - a as in _cat_, _had_. - aw as in _awl_, _fall_. - [=e] as in _he_, _feet_. - [~e] as in _her_, _verge_. - e as in _let_, _men_. - [=i] as in _line_, _time_. - i as in _tin_, _little_. - [=o] as in _vote_, _home_. - o-circumflex as in _orb_, _form_. - o as in _lot_, _odd_. - oi as in _oil_, _join_. - [=oo] as in _moon_, _school_. - oo as in _cook_, _foot_. - ou as in _out_, _house_. - [=u] as in _mute_, _unit_. - u as in _nut_, _drum_. - - -The spelling lesson for this week is composed of words containing the -different vowel sounds. Look up in your dictionary and mark all the -_a's_ in Monday's lesson, all the _e's_ in Tuesday's lesson, all the -_i's_ in Wednesday's lesson, all the _o's_ in Thursday's lesson, and all -the _u's_ in Friday's lesson. In Saturday's lesson note the use of _w_ -and _y_ as vowels. - - +Monday+ - - Pause - Adjective - Lazy - Quality - Advance - - +Tuesday+ - - Resemble - Descend - Adverb - Interjection - Complete - - +Wednesday+ - - Limit - Define - Distinct - Imprison - Civilize - - +Thursday+ - - Form - Footsteps - Proof - Report - Common - - +Friday+ - - Union - Under - Unusual - Summer - Commune - - +Saturday+ - - Comply - Employ - Vowel - News - Lawful - - - - - PLAIN ENGLISH - - LESSON 4 - - -Dear Comrade: - -We are studying in this lesson a most interesting part of our language, -the words that are the names of things. If we could trace these names of -things and the order and time of their coming into the language of men -we would have a progressive history of mankind. Way back yonder in the -dim dawn of history, men lived upon fruit and nuts. They had no -knowledge of the use of fire and could not use foods that required -cooking. They communicated with one another by signs. Then they -discovered fire and invented the bow and arrow. They could now use fish -and flesh for food and they commenced to use articulate speech. This -stage has been called the Middle Stage of Savagery. With the invention -of the bow and arrow, began the third stage of savagery which merged -into the first stage of barbarism with the invention of pottery. - -There are three stages of barbarism before we come to the beginning of -the era of civilization which begins with the use of the phonetic -alphabet and the production of literary records. All tribes that have -never attained the art of pottery are classed as savages and those who -possess this art but have never attained a phonetic alphabet and the use -of writing are classed as barbarians. Civilization began with the spoken -and written language and it has been well said that all that separates -us from savagery is a wall of books. It is upon the accumulated wisdom -of the past that we build. Without this we would be helpless. - -So these various names of things have come to us with developing -evolving life. As the men of the past gained a knowledge of the use of -fire, as they learned to bake the clay and make various utensils; to -heat and forge the iron into weapons; to conquer nature in all her -phases, to feed the race, to clothe the race, to shelter the race more -adequately, our language has grown in volume, strength and beauty. - -The study of words and their uses is of great importance to you. Master -the few rules necessary and watch your words daily. We are living in an -age full of wondrous things and yet many of us have almost as limited a -vocabulary as the men of those bygone days, who had never dreamed of the -marvels that are commonplace to us. - -As you use your dictionary watch closely the meaning of the words and -choose the words that most aptly express your ideas. Listen to good -English spoken as often as you can. _Read_ good English. Mark the -difference between good and bad English and gradually you will find -yourself using good English naturally and continually. - - Yours for Education, - - THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. - - - CLASSES OF NOUNS - -+59.+ We have learned that the words in a sentence are classified -according to the work which each word does. The words which assert are -called verbs; the words which are the names of things are called nouns. -But now we shall see that these words are again divided into classes -according to the _special_ work which they perform. Just as we may -gather the people of the world into one great class, the working class, -then classify them according to the industry in which they work, thus -some are farmers, some teachers, some factory workers; then each class -may be subdivided according to the special work which they perform, as -truck farmers, high school teachers, machinists, etc. - -So we find that nouns are divided into classes according to their -meaning in the sentence. - -In the sentence, _Lincoln was a man of the people_, we have two nouns -referring to the same person, _Lincoln_ and _man_, but they are -different kinds of names. The word _man_ is a name that may apply to any -one of a million persons but the name _Lincoln_ applies to one person -only. Some nouns, then, represent a thing as being of a certain kind or -class, without showing which particular one is meant. Other nouns are -names given to designate a particular individual. These are called -_common_ and _proper_ nouns. - -+60.+ +A proper noun is a special name meant for only one person, place -or thing.+ - -All other nouns are common nouns. - -+A common noun is a name which belongs to all things of a -class of objects.+ - -+Every proper noun should begin with a capital letter.+ - -Indicate the proper nouns in the following list by drawing a line under -the letters that ought to be capitals: - - king - month - city - france - dog - virginia - war - wilson - november - doctor - colonel - napoleon - chicago - governor - independence day - freedom - ocean - atlantic ocean - thanksgiving - thanksgiving day - uncle william - thursday - week - general sherman - karl marx - union - labor - united mine workers - newspaper - the daily call - -Write the special or _proper_ names of several individuals in each of -the following classes:--as city,--Chicago, New York, etc. - -River, king, author, country, state, inventor, martyr, month, book, -college. - - - COLLECTIVE NOUNS - -+61.+ Some nouns are the names of groups or collections of things and -are called collective nouns. - -Many soldiers taken together form collectively an _army_--a number of -sheep form a _drove_. Many of these group or collective nouns will -readily occur to your mind. - -+A collective noun is one that in the singular form, denotes a number of -separate persons or things.+ - - - Exercise 1 - -Opposite each of the following collective nouns, write the name of the -individuals represented by the collection; as an army of _soldiers_; a -swarm of _bees_; a flock of _birds_. - - A gang of...... - A committee of...... - A herd of...... - A drove of...... - A hive of...... - A corps of...... - A suite of...... - A group of...... - A class of...... - A multitude of...... - -Fill the following blanks with appropriate collective nouns. - - A......of horses. - A......of sailors. - A......of wolves. - A......of savages. - A......of singers. - A......of girls. - A......of ships. - A......of quail. - A......of birds. - A......of workers. - - - ABSTRACT NOUNS - -+62.+ When primitive man began to name the objects about him, doubtless -he first named the things which he could see, hear, taste, smell and -touch,--the objects which he could perceive by the five senses. Then -gradually he came to understand that these objects had certain qualities -which he could consider apart from the object itself. - -He hunted among the stones to find those which were suitable for making -his arrow-heads. For this purpose he needed the hardest stone which he -could find, so _hardness_ became something which he could think of as -something apart from the object itself. - -He saw the men about him and found a name for them. Then he knew that -some men were stronger than others, so _strength_ was a quality which he -could consider apart from the man himself. - -These men performed certain actions; they ran, they climbed,--so -_running_ and _climbing_ became actions which he could think of as -something apart from any individual. - -He noted too that men lived in certain conditions; for example, some men -were free, some were slaves, so he came to think of _slavery_ and -_freedom_ as conditions which could be thought of as something apart -from the individual. - -So we draw away, or separate certain ideas; the _quality_ from the thing -which has it and the _action_ from the thing which does it and the -_condition_ from the thing which is in it. These nouns which are used to -describe these qualities, actions or conditions are called _abstract_ -nouns. Abstract is a word derived from the Latin _abs_, _away from_, and -_tractus_, _drawn_, so it literally means _drawn away from_. - -The nouns which are names of things which we can see, hear, taste, smell -and touch or perceive by any of the five senses are called _concrete_ -nouns. - -+63.+ +A concrete noun is the name of an object which may be perceived -by one or more of the five senses.+ - -+An abstract noun is the name of a quality, a condition or an action.+ - -+64.+ You remember we found in the study of adjectives that we have a -class of adjectives which are used to describe the qualities of objects, -as for example--_good_, _noble_, _honest_, _true_, _wise_, etc. Since -abstract nouns are the names of qualities, many of our abstract nouns -are formed from adjectives. Study carefully the following list of -adjectives and nouns. Note that the word is an _adjective_ when it is -used with a noun to _describe_ certain qualities. It is a _noun_ when it -is used by itself to _name_ that quality. - - +Adjectives+ +Abstract Nouns+ - - 1. honest honesty - 2. pure purity - 3. true truth - 4. strong strength - 5. wise wisdom - 6. good goodness - 7. bold boldness - 8. just justice - 9. silent silence - 10. wide width - 11. patient patience - 12. stupid stupidity - -+65.+ You will notice that another use of abstract nouns is to name -actions. The verb is the part of speech which expresses action, -therefore many abstract nouns are formed from verbs. Notice the -following list: - - +Verbs+ +Abstract Nouns+ - - 1. learn learning - 2. invent invention - 3. choose choice - 4. defend defense - 5. try trial - 6. judge judgment - 7. read reading - 8. please pleasure - 9. elect election - 10. move motion - -+66.+ An abstract noun is also the name of a condition. These nouns are -derived from the concrete noun which is the name of the person or thing -which is _in_ the condition. - - +Concrete Nouns+ +Abstract Nouns+ - - 1. slave slavery - 2. friend friendship - 3. thief theft - 4. man manhood - 5. child childhood - 6. leader leadership - 7. hero heroism - 8. martyr martyrdom - - - Exercise 2 - -Form abstract nouns from the following adjectives, verbs and nouns. - - long - simple - rapid - lovely - loyal - fresh - prove - sing - run - behave - believe - reflect - write - child - agent - infant - rascal - clerk - president - coward - - - NUMBER FORM - -+67.+ So we find that we classify our nouns according to the special -work which they do. Now sometimes we find it necessary to change the -form of the noun to make it express our thought. Thus we say, _book_, -_man_, _boy_, _knife_, when we wish to express the idea of only one of -each object mentioned. But when we wish to express the idea of more than -one of them, we say, _books_, _men_, _boys_, _knives_. - -We say, _The boy calls_; _the boys call_. The form of the noun _boy_ is -changed by adding an _s_ to it. The meaning has also changed. _Boy_ -denotes one lad; _boys_ denotes two or more lads. Any change in form and -meaning of words is called _inflection_. The change to denote more than -one object is called _number_. The word _boy_, denoting _one_ is in the -_singular number_; the word _boys_, denoting _more than one_ is in the -_plural number_. - -+68.+ +Inflection is a change in the form of a word to denote a -different application or use.+ - -+Number is the form of a noun which shows whether it denotes one or more -than one.+ - -+The singular number denotes one thing.+ - -+The plural number denotes more than one thing.+ - -There are a few rules governing the formation of plurals which we must -know, and these rules are of great assistance in correct spelling. - -+69.+ Most nouns form their plural by adding _s_--thus: - - boat - boats - - day - days - - book - books - - boy - boys - -Long ago in early English all plurals were formed by adding _es_, and -you will read in the first translation of the Bible, for instance, such -words as _bird-es_, _cloud-es_. Later the _e_ was dropped and _s_ added -to the singular without an increase of syllables. But when the singular -ends in an _s_ sound, the original syllable _es_ is retained, for two -hissing sounds will not unite. - -+70.+ So nouns ending in _s_, _x_, _z_, _sh_ or soft _ch_, form the -plural by adding _es_ to the singular. These words end with a sound so -much like that of _s_ that we cannot pronounce the plural easily without -making another syllable. Thus: - - class - classes - - tax - taxes - - topaz - topazes - - wish - wishes - - ditch - ditches - -+71.+ In words ending with the _s_ sound but with a final _e_, only _s_ -is added to form the plural, but in pronouncing the word we then have -two syllables, thus: - - house - houses - - place - places - - size - sizes - - cage - cages - - niche - niches - -+72.+ Letters, figures, signs, etc., are made plural by adding an -apostrophe and the letter _s_ ('s), thus: - - Cross your t's and dot your i's. - Do you know the table of 4's? - -While most of our nouns form their plural in this regular way by adding -_s_ or _es_, there are some nouns that form their plural by some other -change in the form of the word. - -+73.+ Notice the following list of words and their plurals: - - fly - flies - city - cities - key - keys - day - days - story - stories - enemy - enemies - tray - trays - boy - boys - -These nouns all end in _y_, yet they form the plural differently. Some -simply add _s_ and the rest change the _y_ to _i_ and add _es_. Can you -discover the reason? - -Wherever the _y_ is preceded by a vowel, as _e_ in _key_, _a_ in _tray_, -_o_ in _boy_, the plural is formed by adding _s_. But when the _y_ is -preceded by a consonant, as _l_ in _fly_, _r_ in _story_, _t_ in _city_, -and _m_ in _enemy_, the _y_ is changed to _i_ and _es_ added in forming -the plural. - -+If the singular ends in _y_ after a consonant, change _y_ to _i_ -and add _es_ in the plural.+ - -+74.+ There are thirteen nouns ending in _f_ and three in _fe_ which -form the plural in _ves_. They are: - - beef beeves - calf calves - elf elves - half halves - leaf leaves - loaf loaves - self selves - sheaf sheaves - shelf shelves - staff staves - thief thieves - wharf wharves - wolf wolves - knife knives - life lives - wife wives - -All other nouns in _f_ or _fe_ are regular; adding only _s_, to form the -plural. - -+75.+ About forty nouns ending in _o_ after a consonant form the plural -in _es_. The most common ones are: - - buffalo - cargo - potato - tomato - negro - veto - cargo - echo - calico - embargo - hero - mulatto - mosquito - motto - tornado - volcano - torpedo - flamingo - -Most nouns ending in _o_ form the plural regularly, adding only _s_, as -_pianos_, _banjos_, _cameos_, etc. - -+76.+ A few words form their plurals by a change in the word and without -adding _s_ or _es_. - -The most common of these words are: - - man men - goose geese - ox oxen - woman women - foot feet - mouse mice - brother brethren - tooth teeth - child children - louse lice - -+77.+ Proper nouns, when made plural, generally follow the same rule as -common nouns. Thus we write: - - All the Smiths, the Joneses, both the Miss Johnsons, one of the Dr. - Davidsons, and the Mrs. Wilsons, were present. - -But to prevent the confusion and misunderstanding which might arise in -changing the form of a proper noun, we do not change its form in writing -the plurals; for example: - - There were eight Henrys, kings of England. - The two Marys reigned in the kingdom. - -It would be confusing to say _eight Henries_, the _two Maries_. - -The title is made plural when several are referred to, thus: - - Mr. Hayes The Messrs. Hayes - Miss Smith The Misses Smith - -+78.+ The title is made plural when used with several names, thus: - - Messrs. Brown and White. - Generals Lee and Grant. - Drs. Long and Larson. - -+79.+ In the case of nouns formed of two or more words, when -the compound word is so familiar that the parts are not thought -of separately the _s_ is added to the whole compound word, as -_four-in-hands_; _forget-me-nots_; _court-yards_; _spoonfuls_; -_green-houses_; etc. But when one of the parts is more important than -the others, the _s_ is added to the more important part, thus: - - mothers-in-law - commanders-in-chief - hangers-on - men-of-war - by-standers - attorneys-at-law - passers-by - step-sons - -+80.+ We have many words in our language taken from other languages. -They do not form the plural in these languages as we do, and some of -these words retain their foreign plurals. Some of the most commonly used -of these nouns are the following: - - +Singular+ +Plural+ - - alumnus alumni - analysis analyses - axis axes - datum data - erratum errata - ellipsis ellipses - appendix appendices - bacterium bacteria - basis bases - crisis crises - parenthesis parentheses - radius radii - terminus termini - hypothesis hypotheses - larva larvae - madame mesdames - memorandum memoranda - phenomenon phenomena - stratum strata - thesis theses - -+81.+ The following nouns are treated as singular: _news_, _pains_ -(meaning care), _acoustics_, _mathematics_, _economics_, _ethics_, -_molasses_, _physics_, _politics_, and other nouns ending in _ics_ -except _athletics_. With these always use the s-form of the verb. For -example: - - The news _is_ distorted. Not, The news _are_ distorted. - Economics _is_ an important study. Not, Economics _are_, etc. - -+82.+ The following nouns are always plural: - - alms - annals - amends - antipodes - bellows - billiards - clothes - dregs - eaves - fireworks - hysterics - measles - mumps - matins - nippers - nuptials - oats - premises - proceeds - pincers - riches - rickets - suds - scissors - thanks - tidings - tongs - trousers - vitals - victuals - vespers - -With all these nouns always use the form of the verb which is used with -the plural subject. Thus: - - Alms are given. - Riches are easily lost. - -+83.+ The following nouns have the same form for both plural and -singular, _corps_, _cannon_, _deer_, _grouse_, _heathen_, _hose_, -_means_, _odds_, _series_, _sheep_, _species_, _swine_, _vermin_, -_wages_. You can tell whether the singular or plural is meant by the -meaning of the sentence. For example: - -_The cannon is loaded._ Here we are speaking of _one_ cannon. - -_The cannon used in the war are of tremendous size._ Here we know are -meant all the big guns used in the war. - -When you say, _The sheep is lost_, we know you mean _one_ sheep, but -when you say, _The sheep are in the pasture_, we know you mean the -entire drove. - -+84.+ When preceded by a numeral, the following nouns have the same form -for both singular and plural. Without the numerals, the plural is formed -by the adding of _s_; _brace_, _couple_, _dozen_, _hundred_, _pair_, -_score_, _thousand_, _yoke_. For example: - - Thousands enlisted. - Three thousand enlisted. - Dozens came at my call. - Two dozen came when I called. - - - GENDER - -+85.+ All of the changes we have studied so far have been for the -purpose of indicating number; but among the nouns that name living -beings, many change to show to which sex the object named belongs. These -nouns change in form to distinguish between the masculine and the -feminine. This is called _gender_. - - +Gender is the distinction in words that denotes sex.+ - - +The nouns that denote females are called feminine nouns.+ - - +The nouns that denote males are called masculine nouns.+ - -+86.+ The feminine form is generally made by the addition of _ess_ -to the masculine form. Thus: - - prince princess - master mistress - host hostess - count countess - tiger tigress - lion lioness - actor actress - god goddess - -+87.+ Names of things without sex are, of course, of neither gender, and -are called _neuter nouns_. Neuter means literally _neither_. Such nouns -as _mountain_, _iron_, _river_, _chair_, are neuter. - -Sometimes the feminine is an entirely different word from the masculine. -Thus: - - king queen - lord lady - man woman - youth maiden - sir madam - stag hind - -+88.+ Many nouns that denote living beings apply alike to male and -female, and are said to be of _common gender_. As woman enters more and -more into the business world and pursues the same occupations as man, -the change in form to denote the feminine is used less frequently, and -what we have called the masculine form is used for both sexes, thus: - -_Poet_, _waiter_, _doctor_, _editor_--these nouns are used for both men -and women. - - - POSSESSIVE FORM - -+89.+ There is just one more change made in the form of a noun, and that -is when we wish to show who or what owns or possesses a thing. Thus we -write: - - John's book. - The boy's hat. - -And since this form of the noun denotes possession, it is called the -_possessive form_. Some grammarians call this the possessive case. - -The possessive form of nouns is made by adding an apostrophe and _s_, -('s); thus, _day's_, _lady's_, _girl's_, _clerk's_. - -To plural nouns ending in _s_ add only an apostrophe; thus, _days'_, -_ladies'_, _girls'_, _clerks'_. - -When plural nouns do not end in _s_, their possessive forms are made by -adding the apostrophe and _s_, the same as singular nouns, thus: - - They make _men's_ and _women's_ shoes. - -+90.+ In words which end with a sound that resembles that of _s_, the -apostrophe with _s_ forms an additional syllable. Thus: - - James's (pronounced James-ez.) - Mr. Lynch's (pronounced Lynch-ez.) - -The only exception to the rule occurs when the addition of another _s_ -would make too many hissing sounds, then we add the apostrophe alone. -Thus: - - For goodness' sake. - In Jesus' name. - -+91.+ In forming the possessive of compound nouns, the possessive sign -is always placed at the end, thus: - - My son-in-law's sister. - The man-of-war's cannon. - -+92.+ When we wish to show that a thing belongs to two or more persons -who are joint owners of it, we add the possessive sign to the last word -only, thus: - - Carson, Price and Scott's store. - Mason and Hamlin's pianos. - -If it is a separate ownership that we wish to denote, we place the -possessive sign after each name, thus: - - Bring me John's and Mary's books. - Lee's and Grant's armies met in battle. - -Remember that the noun has just _three_ changes in form, one for the -plural number, one to denote gender and one for the possessive form. -Watch carefully your own language and that of your friends and note if -these changes are correctly made. - - - Exercise 3 - -Write the plural form of each of the following: - - ax - beef - chief - hero - knife - T - hoof - man-of-war - axis - basis - cherry - leaf - son-in-law - Mr. Smith - thief - Doctor Wood - alley - buffalo - chimney - staff - Frenchman - Miss Brown - ox - spoonful - alto - calf - cargo - two - 3 - tooth - foot - turkey - - - Exercise 4 - -Underscore the nouns in the following: - -How many abstract nouns? - -How many concrete? - -How many singular? - -How many plural? - - - FIVE AND FIFTY - - _Charlotte Perkins Gilman_ - - If fifty men did all the work - And gave the price to five; - And let those five make all the rules-- - You'd say the fifty men were fools, - Unfit to be alive. - - And if you heard complaining cries - From fifty brawny men, - Blaming the five for graft and greed, - Injustice, cruelty indeed-- - What would you call them then? - - Not by their own superior force - Do five on fifty live, - But by election and assent-- - And privilege of government-- - Powers that the fifty give. - - If fifty men are really fools-- - And five have all the brains-- - The five must rule as now we find; - But if the fifty have the mind-- - Why don't they take the reins? - - - Exercise 5 - -Select all the nouns in the following. Write their singular, plural and -possessive forms. Decide whether they are abstract or concrete, common -or proper or collective, masculine, feminine or neuter. - - Brother! - - Whoever you are, wherever you are on all the earth, I greet you. - - I extend to you my right hand. - - I make you a pledge. - - Here is my pledge to you:-- - - I refuse to kill your father. I refuse to slay your mother's son. I - refuse to plunge a bayonet into the breast of your sister's brother. I - refuse to slaughter your sweetheart's lover. I refuse to murder your - wife's husband. I refuse to butcher your little child's father. I - refuse to wet the earth with blood and blind kind eyes with tears. I - refuse to assassinate you and then hide my stained fists in the folds - of _any_ flag. - - Will you thus pledge me and pledge all the members of our working - class?--_Kirkpatrick._ - - - - - SPELLING - - LESSON 4 - - -Some of our consonants also have more than one sound. We have also -certain combinations of consonants which represent one sound. This -combination of two letters to represent one sound is called a digraph, -as _gh_, in _cough_, _ch_ in _church_. A digraph may either be a -combination of two consonants or of two vowels or of a vowel and a -consonant. The following table contains the consonants which have more -than one sound: - - c--k as in _cat_ - c--s as in _vice_ - g--j as in _ginger_ - g--_hard_ as in _go_ - s--sh as in _sure_ - s--zh as in _usual_ - s--_soft_ as in _also_ - s--z as in _does_ - x--_soft_ as in _extra_ - x--gz as in _exist_ - -The following table gives the digraphs most commonly used: - - ng--as in _ring_, _tongue_ - ch--as in _church_ and _much_ - ch--k as in _chasm_ - ch--sh as in _chagrin_ - th--as in _then_, _those_ - th--as in _thin_ and _worth_ - ce--sh as in _ocean_ - ci--sh as in _special_ - dg--j as in _edge_ - gh--f as in _rough_ - ph--f as in _sylph_ - qu--kw as in _quart_ - qu--k as in _conquer_ - sh--as in _shall_ - si--sh as in _tension_ - si--zh as in _vision_ - ti--sh as in _motion_ - - -The use of these digraphs gives us a number of additional sounds. Notice -the use of the consonants which have more than one sound and also the -digraphs in the spelling lesson for the week. Mark the consonants and -digraphs. - - +Monday+ - - Commence - Certain - General - Gradual - Sugar - - +Tuesday+ - - Soldier - Season - Pleasure - Exact - Exercise - - +Wednesday+ - - Singular - Chemistry - Chapter - Machine - Changing - - +Thursday+ - - Theory - Thither - Ocean - Racial - Budget - - +Friday+ - - Philosophy - Enough - Quorum - Bouquet - Phonetic - - +Saturday+ - - Permission - Asia - Attention - Marshall - Martial - - - - - PLAIN ENGLISH - - LESSON 5 - - -Dear Comrade: - -We want to say just a word about the lesson assignment. This has been -arranged on a schedule of days merely to assist you in systematizing -your time and making the most of the leisure at your disposal. It is not -intended that you should slavishly follow it. We thoroughly believe in -individuality and all that contributes toward its development. But we -are also confident that many foolish things are done in the name of -liberty. Whenever we set ourselves to the performance of any task we -necessarily limit our activities in some other direction. Power comes by -concentration of force. Whenever we combine with others for the -accomplishment of any purpose, it becomes necessary to have some plan of -action and we give and take for the end which we have in view. The -musician because he follows the law of harmony in music has not given up -his liberty. He has only found a new freedom which enables him to make -glorious music where only discord reigned before. System in our work -does not mean loss of liberty or of individuality but only finding a -channel through which individuality can flow into the great ocean of -real freedom. - -So use this suggestive lesson assignment to meet your own need and find -expression for your real individuality in full freedom. - -This is the first of several lessons concerning verbs. The verb is -perhaps the most difficult part of speech to thoroughly master, so do -not be discouraged if there are some parts of this lesson you do not -understand. Succeeding lessons will clear up these difficult points. -Keep your eyes open as you read every day, and be careful of your -spelling and pronunciation. - -Some of us mis-spell the common words which we see and use every day. In -a student's letter we recently noted that, with our letter before him in -which the word was printed in large type and correctly spelled, he -spelled College, _Colledge_. - -Do not be satisfied with half-way things or less than that which is -worthy of you. Demand the best for yourself. Read aloud this little -verse from the Good Grey Poet, Walt Whitman: - - "O, the joy of a manly self-hood; - To be servile to none, to defer to none, not to any tyrant known or - unknown, - To walk with erect carriage, a step springy and elastic, - To look with calm gaze or with a flashing eye, - To speak with a full and sonorous voice out of a broad chest, - To confront with your personality all the other personalities of the - earth." - - Yours for Education, - - THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. - - - THE WORD THAT ASSERTS - -+93.+ You remember when we studied sentences we found that we could not -have a sentence without a verb or a word that asserts. The life of a -sentence is the verb, for without the verb we cannot assert, question or -command. It was on account of this importance that the Romans called the -verb, _verbum_, which meant the word. Verbs, like nouns, are divided -into classes. - -+94.+ In some of our sentences the verb alone is enough to make a -complete assertion, but in other sentences we use verbs that need to be -followed by one or more words to complete the assertion. Notice the -following sentences: - - The boy ran. - The boy found the ball. - The earth revolves. - The earth is round. - -Do you notice any difference in the verbs used in these sentences? -Notice that the verbs _ran_ and _revolves_ make the complete assertion -about their subjects. Notice the verbs _found_ and _is_. These are not -complete without the addition of the words _ball_ and _round_. If we say -_The boy found_, _The earth is_, you at once ask, _The boy found WHAT?_ -_The earth is WHAT?_ The sense is incomplete without the addition of -these words _ball_ and _round_. A part of the thought is unexpressed; -but when we say _The boy found the ball_, _The earth is round_, the -sense is complete. - -So we have two classes of verbs, _COMPLETE AND INCOMPLETE VERBS_. - -+95.+ +An incomplete verb is one that requires the addition of one or -more words to complete its meaning.+ - -+The word or words added to an incomplete verb to complete its meaning -are called the complement.+ - -+A complete verb is one that requires no complement to complete its -meaning.+ - -+96.+ You can readily tell when a verb is complete and when it is -incomplete by asking the question _What?_ If you put the question _what_ -after the verb, and it makes a sensible question the verb is -_incomplete_. For example: - - Farmers raise--_what?_ - The employer discharged--_what?_ - We were--_what?_ - The earth is--_what?_ - -If the question _what?_ does not make sense after the verb, then the -verb is _complete_. For example: - - The sun shines. - Water flows. - Men work. - -The question _what_ after these verbs would not make sense, as: - - The sun shines--_what?_ - Men work--_what?_ - Water flows--_what?_ - -So these verbs are _complete_ verbs. - -+97.+ The same verb, however, may be complete or incomplete, according -to the way in which it is used. For example: - - The corn grows. - The farmer grows corn. - -In the sentence, _Corn grows_, _grows_ is a complete verb. You could not -say _The corn grows--what?_ for it does not grow anything. It merely -grows, and the verb _grows_ in this sense is a complete verb. But in the -sentence, _The farmer grows corn_, you are using the verb _grows_ in a -slightly different sense. It is an _incomplete verb_, for you do not -mean, _The farmer grows_, but you mean that _the farmer grows CORN_. - - - Exercise 1 - -In the following sentences, underscore the complete verbs with one line, -the incomplete with two lines. Ask the question _what?_ after each verb -to determine whether it is complete or incomplete. - - He returned today. - He returned the book. - The rose smells sweet. - He smelled the rose. - The trees shake in the wind. - The wind shakes the trees. - The ship plows through the waves. - The farmer plows the field. - The birds sing sweetly. - They sang the Marseillaise. - He worries over the matter. - The matters worry him. - The table feels rough. - He feels the rough surface. - It tastes bitter. - He tasted the bitter dregs. - - - Exercise 2 - -Use the following verbs in sentences as both complete and incomplete -verbs, as for example, _The snow melts._ _The sun melts the snow._ - - melts - write - stopped - answer - rings - fall - see - strike - - - INCOMPLETE VERBS - -+98.+ Do you notice any difference in the two verbs in the following -sentences: - - The boy found the ball. - The earth is round. - -In the sentence, _The boy found the ball_, the word _ball_ tells _what_ -the boy _found_. The verb _found_ expresses action; it tells what the -boy _does_. _Boy_ is the subject of the action--the one who performs the -action. The word _ball_ is the _object_ of the action. It shows the -receiver of the action. In the sentence, _The earth is round_, _is_ does -not express action. The earth is not doing anything, it simply _is_. The -verb _is_ expresses a state or condition and is incomplete, for you do -not know what state or condition is expressed until we add the other -word or words which describe the state or condition. - -Notice the following sentences: - - The earth is round. - The earth is our home. - The earth is a sphere. - The earth is large. - -The words _round_, _sphere_, _home_ and _large_, describe the earth -which is the subject of the verb _is_. - -+99.+ So we have two classes of incomplete verbs, the verbs that express -action and the verbs that express state or condition. The verbs which -express action are called _transitive_ verbs. Transitive is a word -derived from the Latin, and means literally _passing over_. - -+100.+ So a transitive verb describes an action which _passes over_ -from the subject to the object. As for example in the sentence, _The -player struck the ball_, _struck_ is a transitive verb--a verb of -action--describing the action of the subject, _player_, which passes -over to the object, _ball_. Therefore we have our definition of a -transitive verb: - -+A transitive verb is one that has a complement showing who or what -receives the action expressed by the verb.+ - -+The complement or word that denotes the receiver of the action -expressed by a transitive verb is called the object.+ - -When you look up the meaning of verbs in your dictionary, you will find -some verbs marked _v.i._, and some verbs marked _v.t._ _V.t._ is the -abbreviation for _verb transitive_. Whenever you find a verb marked -_v.t._, you know that it is a transitive verb, a verb of action, one -which requires an object to complete its meaning. _V.i._ is the -abbreviation for _verb intransitive_. Some grammarians use the term -_intransitive_ to include both _complete_ and _copulative_ verbs. We -have used the terms complete and incomplete because they are much -simpler and clearer in describing the two general classes of verbs, but -you will remember that when you find verbs marked _v.i._ in the -dictionary that these include _complete_ and _copulative_ verbs. - -+101.+ Now notice these sentences: - - The earth is round. - The earth is a sphere. - -In these sentences the verb _is_ does not express action, but _connects_ -or _couples_ the complements _round_ and _sphere_ with the subject -_earth_. Verbs used in this way are called _copulative_ verbs, from the -word _copula_, which means to _complete_ or to _connect_. The words -_round_ and _sphere_ are not the objects of the verb, for they do not -describe the receiver of any action. They are the words which describe -the state or condition expressed in the verb _is_, and are called the -attribute complement of the verb. - -You note that this complement may be either an adjective or a noun. In -the sentence, _The earth is round_, the adjective, _round_, is used as -the complement; in the sentence, _The earth is a sphere_, the noun, -_sphere_, is used as the complement. So we have our definition of -copulative verbs. - -+102.+ +Verbs that express state or condition are called copulative -verbs.+ - -+The word or words that complete the meaning of an incomplete verb -expressing state or condition, are called the complement, or attribute -complement.+ - -There are only a few of these copulative verbs. All forms of the verb, -_be_; like _am_, _is_, _are_, _was_ and _were_, and the verb phrases -like _must be_, _can be_, _will be_, _shall be_, _have been_, _had -been_, etc.; and the verbs _seem_, _appear_, _become_, _look_, _feel_, -_taste_, _sound_ and _smell_, are the principal copulative verbs. - - - Exercise 3 - -Study carefully the following sentences. Note whether the complement of -the copulative verb is an adjective or a noun. Draw one line under each -_adjective_ used as a complement and two lines under each _noun_ used as -a complement. - - The day is beautiful. - I am weary and tired. - The men were soldiers. - The tasks seem endless. - All men must be free. - The workers have been slaves. - The burden becomes heavier every day. - The children feel happy and care-free. - Evolution is the development of life. - Grammar is the study of words and their use. - Knowledge is freedom. - The music sounds sweet on the midnight air. - He looks well today. - The dregs taste bitter. - The incense smells sweet. - - - Exercise 4 - -Complete the following sentences by adding an object or a complement. - - - 1. Perseverance in your study will bring....... - 2. The great need of the working class is....... - 3. We shall never acknowledge....... - 4. By the sweat of no other's brow shalt thou eat....... - 5. The Revolutionary fathers founded....... - 6. The workers demand....... - 7. Labor's only road to freedom is....... - 8. Life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness are....... - 9. If you struggle, you will gain....... - 10. An incomplete verb requires....... - 11. The complement of a transitive verb is called....... - 12. The complement of a copulative verb may be either......or....... - - -+103. There are two classes of verbs, complete and incomplete.+ - -+A complete verb is one that requires no complement.+ - -+An incomplete verb is one that requires a complement to complete its -meaning.+ - -+Incomplete verbs are of two kinds: 1. Those that express action; 2. -Those that express state or condition.+ - -+Incomplete verbs that express action are called transitive verbs.+ - -+Incomplete verbs that express state or condition are called copulative -verbs.+ - -+The complement or the word that denotes the receiver of the action -expressed in a transitive verb is called the object.+ - -+The word or words that complete the meaning of a copulative verb are -called the complement, or attribute complement.+ - -+The same verb may be complete or incomplete, according to the way in -which it is used.+ - - - Exercise 5 - -In the following sentences draw a single line under the complete verbs -and a double line under the incomplete verbs. Then determine whether the -incomplete verbs are transitive or copulative verbs, and draw a line -through the object or the complement. - - 1. Some plants are poisonous. - 2. A rolling stone gathers no moss. - 3. Perseverance brings success. - 4. Delays are dangerous. - 5. A man's actions show his character. - 6. He looks well and feels stronger. - 7. The snows come and the flowers fade. - 8. Labor creates all wealth. - 9. Labor must be free. - 10. The boy writes well. - 11. The man wrote a letter. - 12. The skies are clear. - 13. The hail destroyed the wheat. - 14. No man is ever too old to learn. - 15. Competition makes enemies. - 16. Co-operation makes friends. - 17. Competition breeds hatred. - 18. Co-operation breeds good will. - 19. Competition ensures war. - 20. Co-operation ensures peace. - - - Exercise 6 - -In the following quotation all of the verbs are printed in _italics_. -Determine whether they are complete or incomplete verbs. If incomplete, -determine whether they are transitive or copulative verbs. Draw a line -under the object of every transitive verb and two lines under the -complement of every copulative verb. Remember that sometimes we have -several words combined into a verb phrase and used as a single verb. -Watch for the verb phrases in the following, as for example: _must be_, -in the sentence, _Labor must be free_. - - - The history of man _is_ simply the history of slavery. Slavery - _includes_ all other crimes. It _degrades_ labor and _corrupts_ - leisure. With the idea that labor _is_ the basis of progress _goes_ - the truth that labor _must be_ free. The laborer _must be_ a free man. - - There _is_ something wrong in a government where honesty _wears_ a rag - and rascality _dons_ a robe; where the loving _eat_ a crust while the - infamous _sit_ at banquets. - - _Talk_ about equal opportunity! Capitalism _ties_ a balloon to the - shoulders of the rich child; it _ties_ a ball and chain to the feet of - the poor child; and _tells_ them that they _have_ an equal - opportunity! - - Once the master _hunted_ for the slaves, now the slave _hunts_ for a - master. - - - Exercise 7 - -Mark the verbs in the following poem. Often in poetry words are omitted -which in strict grammatical construction should be expressed. As for -example in the fourth line of this poem _which are_, is omitted before -the word _bought_. In prose this would read, _The pews which are bought -by the profits_, etc. So the word _bought_ is a part of the verb phrase, -_are bought_. In the last line of the third stanza there is another -omission before the word _planning_. The meaning is, _while they are -planning slaughter_. _Planning_ is a part of the verb phrase _are -planning_. And in the last line _is_ is omitted before the word -_beloved_. _Is beloved_ is the verb phrase. Determine whether the verbs -in this poem are complete, transitive or copulative, and mark the -objects and the complements of the transitive and the copulative verbs. - - - WHO IS A CHRISTIAN? - - _Ella Wheeler Wilcox_ - - "Who is a Christian in this Christian land - Of many churches and of lofty spires? - Not he who sits in soft, upholstered pews - Bought by the profits of unholy greed, - And looks devotion while he thinks of gain. - - Not he who sends petitions from the lips - That lie to-morrow in the street and mart. - Not he who fattens on another's toil, - And flings his unearned riches to the poor - Or aids the heathen with a lessened wage, - And builds cathedrals with an increased rent. - - Christ, with Thy great, sweet, simple creed of love, - How must Thou weary of earth's "Christian" clans, - Who preach salvation through Thy saving blood - While planning slaughter of their fellow men. - - Who is a Christian? It is one whose life - Is built on love, on kindness and on faith; - Who holds his brother as his other self; - Who toils for justice, equity and peace, - And hides no aim or purpose in his heart - That will not chord with universal good. - Though he be a pagan, heretic or Jew - That man is Christian and beloved of Christ." - - - - - SPELLING - - LESSON 5 - - -We often have two vowels used in the same syllable as a single sound, as -_ou_ in _round_, _oi_ in _oil_, etc. - -+A diphthong is a union of two vowels to represent a single -sound different from that of either alone.+ - -Sometimes we have two vowels used together in a combination which is -really not a diphthong for they do not unite in a different sound. Only -one of the vowels is used and the other is silent as _ai_ in _rain_, -_oa_ in _soap_, etc. - -The most common diphthongs are: - - ou as in _sound_. - ow as in _owl_. - oi as in _oil_. - oy as in _boy_. - -In the spelling lesson for this week mark the words in which the -combination of vowels forms a diphthong. In some of the words the -combination of vowels does not form a diphthong for only one of the -vowels is sounded. Draw a line through the silent letter. - - +Monday+ - - Straight - Aisle - Search - Breadth - Defeat - - +Tuesday+ - - Exploit - Ceiling - Height - People - Feudal - - +Wednesday+ - - Brought - Shoulder - Group - Compound - Trouble - - +Thursday+ - - Royal - Coarse - Course - Broad - Flower - - +Friday+ - - Laughter - Haunted - Plaid - Invoice - Chair - - +Saturday+ - - Guide - Build - Grieve - Sieve - Renown - - - - - PLAIN ENGLISH - - LESSON 6 - - -Dear Comrade: - -We have this week another lesson in verbs. Do not be discouraged if you -do not understand it all at once. Little by little, it will grow clearer -and you will master this important word. - -The verb may seem involved to you, but a little application will soon -make it clear. It is the most important word in the language to master. -It almost seems as though the verb were a living, thinking thing. It -changes outward form to accommodate itself to its subject in the number -form and person form change. If it is entertaining a subject in the -singular it adopts one dress; if it is entertaining a plural subject, -more than one, the verb wears a different dress. - -So also if the subject is the first person, the person speaking, or the -second person, the person spoken to, or the third person, the person -spoken of, the verb accommodates itself to the subject. The verb is the -most agreeable thing for it changes its form to agree with its subject! -So watch your verb and see that it agrees. - -Refer constantly to your list of irregular verbs given in this lesson -for we so often make mistakes in the use of these verb forms. - -Then, too, the verb kindly changes its form to accommodate itself to the -time of the action--action in the present, in the past, in the -future--action completed before the present time--before some time -past--or before some future time--and action progressing and not yet -completed in the present, in the past or in the future. Then it can also -change to show whether its subject is acting or being acted upon. Isn't -the verb a wonderfully accommodating member of the co-operative -commonwealth of words? - -And can you not see hidden under all this, a marvelous development in -the intellectual needs of men from the day of the savage's signs and -grunts to the day when we can express such shades of meaning? This tool -of expression, language, has had a wonderful evolution side by side with -the evolution of the other tools by which man expresses his creative -genius; from the forked stick with which man scratched the soil to the -great machine-driven plow of today; from the simple threshing flail to -the monster threshing machine of modern times. - -There is nothing so wonderful as man's ability to express himself. Add a -little to your knowledge every day and the sum total will soon surprise -you. - - Yours for Education, - - THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. - - - INFLECTION--CHANGES IN FORM - -+104.+ You remember that nouns have certain changes in form to indicate -changes in use. Verbs also have several changes in form to correspond -with changes in their use or meaning. Notice the following sentences: - - I think. - I thought. - I work. - I worked. - -What is the difference in the meaning of _I think_ and _I thought_? of -_I work_ and _I worked_? When we say, _I think_, or _I work_, we mean -that the action is now, to-day, in the present; but when we say, _I -thought_, or _I worked_, we mean that _now_ is not the time of the -action, but that the action was performed sometime in the past. So we -have a change in the verb form to denote _time_. The simple form of the -verb, like _think_ or _work_, is used to denote _present time_. When we -wish to express _past time_ we do it by changing the form of the verb. -Now note the following: - - } call - I, We, You, They, } send - } fall - The men } bring - } hide - - } calls - He, She, It, } sends - } falls - The man } brings - } hides - -Now let us write this in another way. - - +Present Time+ - - _Singular_ _Plural_ - - 1st person--I call. We call. - 2nd person--You call. You call. - - He } - 3rd person She } calls. They, or } call. - It } The men } - The man } - -+105.+ You notice in this table we use the expressions _first person_, -_second person_, and _third person_. _I_ and _we_ indicate the person or -persons speaking and are called the first person. _You_ indicates the -person or persons spoken to and is called the second person. _He_, -_she_, _it_, _they_, and the person or persons or things spoken of, are -called the third person. - -We use the word _you_ when speaking to one or more than one now-a-days. -It used to be that when speaking to a single person, people said _thou_, -and in speaking to two or more they said _you_. But we today have -dropped the old form _thou_, and use _you_ for both singular and plural. - -+106.+ Now note, in the above table, that there is only one form change -in the verb, and this is in the _third person singular_. We say _I -call_, _You call_, _We call_, _They_, or _The men call_, but we say -_He_, or _the man calls_, in speaking of one person or thing. So we -change the form of the verb with any subject which denotes the third -person and the singular number. This form is made by adding _s_ to the -simple form of the verb, therefore we may call it the _s-form_ because -it always ends in _s_. - -Remember that this _s-form_ is used to express present time with a third -person, singular subject. _BE CAREFUL NOT TO USE THIS FORM WITH ANY -PLURAL SUBJECT._ There is no other change in the verb form in expressing -the present time in any verb, except in the verb _be_. - -+107.+ This little verb _be_ is one of the most troublesome verbs in our -language, and since it is used in forming verb phrases, it will be well -to commit the following table to memory. Watch closely your use of this -bothersome little word. Note that it has a change in form for the _first -person singular_, as well as for the third person singular. All other -verbs have just the one change, the _s-form_ for the third person -singular. The verb _be_ has a form also to use with the first person -singular, the pronoun _I_. - - +Present Time+ +Past Time+ - - _Singular_ _Singular_ - - 1. I am. 1. I was. - 2. You are. 2. You were. - 3. He is. 3. He was. - - _Plural_ _Plural_ - - 1. We are. 1. We were. - 2. You are. 2. You were. - 3. They are. 3. They were. - -+108.+ +The present time form is the form which expresses present time. -It is expressed by the simple form of the verb with the exception of the -third person singular, which is expressed by the _s-form_.+ - - - PAST TIME - -+109.+ To express _past time_ we change the form of the verb. Notice the -following: - - I } called We } called - She } sent You } sent - He } fell They } fell - It } brought The men } brought - The man } hid } hid - -Notice that these various forms of the verb which express past time are -all made by changes from the simple form, which expresses present time. -You will also notice that these five verbs used in the above table all -form their past time form in different ways. For example, _call_ adds -_ed_; _send_ changes the final letter from _d_ to _t_; _fall_ changes -the vowel in the middle of the word from _a_ to _e_; _bring_ changes -both the vowel and the final letter from _bring_ to _brought_; _hide_ -drops the final letter _e_. - -+110.+ +Verbs whose past time forms are made by adding _d_ or _ed_ -to the simple form are called regular verbs.+ - -+Verbs whose past time forms are made in some other way than by adding -_d_ or _ed_ are called irregular verbs.+ - -+111.+ There are about two hundred of these irregular verbs which form -their past time in the following ways: - -1. By change in the vowel letter, as _fall_, _fell_; _write_, _wrote_; -_see_, _saw_; _sing_, _sang_; _come_, _came_. - -2. By dropping the final vowel; as _hide_, _hid_; _slide_, _slid_; -_bite_, _bit_. - -3. By dropping a vowel from the middle of the word; as _bleed_, _bled_; -_feed_, _fed_; _lead_, _led_. - -4. By changing the final letter or letters; as _send_, _sent_; _lose_, -_lost_; _spend_, _spent_. - -5. By changing the vowel and final letters; as _bring_, _brought_; -_seek_, _sought_; _catch_, _caught_. - -6. By changing the vowel sound and adding _t_ or _d_; as _sleep_, -_slept_; _feel_, _felt_; _flee_, _fled_. - -There are some irregular forms which we must learn and be exceedingly -careful in their use. Study the list in this lesson. - - - Exercise 1 - -Write the _present_ and _past_ time forms of the following verbs as the -verb _think_ is written in the table given below. - - think - ride - have - give - write - ask - make - try - speak - run - see - do - - +Present Time+ +Past Time+ - - _Singular_ _Singular_ - - 1. I think 1. I thought - 2. You think 2. You thought - 3. He thinks 3. He thought - - _Plural_ _Plural_ - - 1. We think 1. We thought - 2. You think 2. You thought - 3. They think 3. They thought - -+112.+ Be very careful not to use the _s-form_ except for the third -person singular. Be especially careful in the use of different forms of -the verb _be_. It is in the use of this verb that we so frequently make -mistakes. Watch your own language and the conversation of your friends -and note these mistakes and correct them in your own mind. These common -blunders in the use of English mark us as careless or uneducated by -everyone who hears us speak. We have fallen into bad habits oftentimes -and make these mistakes when we know better, and only constant -watchfulness for a time can overcome the habit. After a time we learn to -speak correctly without effort, and then these mistakes made by others -offend the ear like a false note in music. - - - Exercise 2 - -Cross out the wrong form in the following: - - They _was_--_were_ not here. - The clouds _has_--_have_ gathered. - People _is_--_are_ indifferent. - The train _was_--_were_ on time. - The men _was_--_were_ armed. - Our school building _is_--_are_ inadequate. - The workers _earn_--_earns_ their wages. - The voters _elect_--_elects_ the President. - They _do_--_does_ as they please. - We _was_--_were_ there on time. - - - DOING DOUBLE WORK - -+113.+ We have found now three forms of the verb, the _simple form_, the -_s-form_, and the _past time form_, and, in addition, the _I-form_, or -the first person form of the verb _be_. There are no other real verb -forms, but there are two other changes made in the form of the verb when -it ceases to be used as the predicate, the asserting word of the -sentence, and becomes, in part, another part of speech. - -Notice in the following sentences: - - Making shoes is his work. - He enjoys making shoes. - -In each of these sentences the word _making_, from the verb _make_, is -used as a noun. In the first, _Making shoes is his work_, _making_ is -used as the subject of the sentence. In the second, _He enjoys making -shoes_, _making_ is used as the object of the verb _enjoys_. But -_making_ is not like the ordinary noun, for it has an object -_making_--_what?_--_making shoes_. _Shoes_ is the object of the action -expressed in _making_. A noun never takes an object; so while the word -_making_ is used as a noun, it is also partly a verb. It is a form of -the verb used as a noun, but keeping in part its verb nature, partaking -of the nature of two parts of speech at the same time. - -Hence these forms of the verb are called _participles_. Participle means -_partaker_. - -The participle may also be used as an adjective. Notice the following: - - The _crying_ child came toward us. - The _rescuing_ party arrived. - -In these sentences _crying_ and _rescuing_ are formed from the verbs -_cry_ and _rescue_, and are used as adjectives to describe the noun -_child_ and the noun _party_. So a participle is a mixed part of speech. -It is partially a verb, but is not a true verb. A true verb is always -used as the predicate, the asserting word in the sentence and _always_ -has a subject. The participle _never_ has a subject; it may have an -object, but not a subject. - -+114.+ There are two forms of the participle. The active form or the -present form as it is sometimes called, ends in _ing_, as, _waiting_, -_walking_, _saying_. It expresses action, existence, or possession as -going on at the time mentioned in the sentence. - -+115.+ The other form of the participle is the passive form or the past -form of the participle. This ends in _ed_ in the regular verbs, and has -various forms in the irregular verbs. It is formed in regular verbs by -adding _d_ or _ed_ to the simple form, hence has the same form as the -past time form, as for example, present time form, _call_--past time -form, _called_--past participle, _called_. You will find the past -participle forms of irregular verbs in the list of irregular verbs given -in this lesson, as for example--present time form, _go_--past time form, -_went_--past participle, _gone_. - -+116.+ You will find as we study the verb phrases in later lessons that -these participles are used in forming verb phrases. As for example: - - He is coming. - They are trying. - He has gone. - -+A participle is a word derived from a verb, partaking of the nature of -a verb and also of an adjective or a noun.+ - - - LET US SUM UP - -+117.+ +Verbs have five form changes.+ - - Simple S-Form Past Time Present Part. Past Part. - - call calls called calling called - - go goes went going gone - - - Exercise 3 - -Write in columns like the above the five forms of the following verbs: - - do - try - give - hope - live - rob - have - think - sing - get - wave - lose - come - make - - - Exercise 4 - -Study carefully the following quotation. You will find in it all five of -the form changes of the verb--_the present time form_, _the s-form_, -_the past time form_, _the present participle_ and _the past -participle_. In the verb phrases _had been filled_, _has survived_, _has -gone_, _has proved_ and _be dismayed_, you will find the past participle -used in forming the verb phrase. We will study these verb phrases in -later lessons. - -In the verb phrases, _was stumbling_, _was groping_, _is conquering_, -_are carrying_, the present participle is used in forming the verb -phrases. _Could reconcile_ is also a verb phrase. We will study these -verb phrases also in later lessons. - -The present participles, _struggling_, _persevering_ and _regaining_ are -used as adjectives. Study them carefully and find the words which they -describe. The present participles _imagining_, _learning_ and -_suffering_ are used as nouns. Note their use. - -The past participles _rebuffed_, _self-reproached_, _discouraged_ and -_promised_ are used as adjectives. Find the words which they modify. -There are several _present time forms_, several _past time forms_, and -several _s-forms_. Find them and study carefully their usage. - - - OUT OF THE DARK - - _By Helen Keller_ - - _America's famous blind girl, who has come to see more than most - people with normal eyes._ - - Step by step my investigation of blindness _led_ me into the - industrial world. And what a world it _is_. I _faced_ unflinchingly a - world of facts--a world of misery and degradation, of blindness, - crookedness, and sin, a world _struggling_ against the elements, - against the unknown, against itself. How _could_ I _reconcile_ this - world of fact with the bright world of my _imagining_? My darkness - _had been filled_ with the light of intelligence, and, _behold_, the - outer day-lit world _was stumbling_, _was groping_ in social - blindness. At first, I _was_ most unhappy, but deeper study _restored_ - my confidence. By _learning_ the _suffering_ and burdens of men, I - _became_ aware as never before of the life-power which _has survived_ - the forces of darkness--the power which, though never completely - victorious, _is_ continuously _conquering_. The very fact that we - _are_ still carrying on the contest against the hosts of annihilation - _proves_ that on the whole the battle _has gone_ for humanity. The - world's great heart _has proved_ equal to the prodigious undertaking - which God _set_ it. _Rebuffed_, but always _persevering_; - _self-reproached_, but ever _regaining_ faith; undaunted, tenacious, - the heart of man _labors_ towards immeasurably distant goals. - _Discouraged_ not by difficulties without, or the anguish of ages - within, the heart _listens_ to a secret voice that _whispers_: "_Be_ - not _dismayed_; in the future _lies_ the _Promised_ Land." - - -List of Irregular Verbs - -Here is a list of the principal irregular verbs--the present and past -time forms and the past participle are called the principal parts of a -verb. - -(Those marked with an _r_ have also the regular form.) - - +Present T.+ +Past T.+ +Past Part.+ - - abide abode abode - arise arose arisen - awake awoke, _r_ awaked - be or am was been - bear bore borne - beat beat beaten - begin began begun - bend bent, _r_ bent, _r_ - bereave bereft, _r_ bereft, _r_ - beseech besought besought - bet bet bet - bid bid or bade bid (den) - bind bound bound - bite bit bit (ten) - bleed bled bled - blow blew blown - break broke broken - breed bred bred - bring brought brought - build built, _r_ built, _r_ - burn burnt, _r_ burnt, _r_ - burst burst burst - buy bought bought - cast cast cast - catch caught caught - chide chid chid (den) - choose chose chosen - cling clung clung - clothe clad, _r_ clad, _r_ - come came come - cost cost cost - creep crept crept - cut cut cut - deal dealt, _r_ dealt, _r_ - dig dug, _r_ dug, _r_ - do did done - draw drew drawn - dream dreamt, _r_ dreamt, _r_ - drink drank drunk - drive drove driven - dwell dwelt, _r_ dwelt, _r_ - eat ate eaten - fall fell fallen - feed fed fed - feel felt felt - fight fought fought - find found found - flee fled fled - fling flung flung - fly flew flown - forget forgot forgotten - forgive forgave forgiven - forsake forsook forsaken - get got got (ten) - give gave given - go went gone - grind ground ground - grow grew grown - hang hung, _r_ hung, _r_ - have had had - hear heard heard - hew hewed hewn, _r_ - hide hid hidden - hit hit hit - hold held held - hurt hurt hurt - keep kept kept - kneel knelt, _r_ knelt, _r_ - knit knit, _r_ knit, _r_ - know knew known - lay laid laid - lead led led - leave left left - lend lent lent - let let let - lie lay lain - light lit, _r_ lit, _r_ - lose lost lost - make made made - mean meant meant - meet met met - mistake mistook mistaken - mow mowed mown, _r_ - pay paid paid - plead pled, _r_ pled, _r_ - put put put - quit quit, _r_ quit, _r_ - read read read - rend rent rent - rid rid rid - ride rode ridden - ring rang rung - rise rose risen - run ran run - saw sawed sawn, _r_ - say said said - see saw seen - seek sought sought - sell sold sold - send sent sent - set set set - shake shook shaken - shape shaped shapen, _r_ - shave shaved shaven, _r_ - shear sheared shorn, _r_ - shed shed shed - shine shone, _r_ shone, _r_ - shoe shod shod - shoot shot shot - show showed shown, _r_ - shrink shrank shrunk (en) - shut shut shut - sing sang sung - sink sank sunk - sit sat sat - slay slew slain - sleep slept slept - slide slid slid (en) - sling slung slung - slink slunk slunk - slit slit slit - smite smote smitten - sow sowed sown, _r_ - speak spoke spoken - speed sped sped - spend spent spent - spill spilt, _r_ spilt, _r_ - spin spun spun - spit spit spit - split split split - spoil spoilt, _r_ spoilt, _r_ - spread spread spread - spring sprang sprung - stand stood stood - stave stove, _r_ stove, _r_ - steal stole stolen - stick stuck stuck - sting stung stung - stink stunk stunk - strike struck struck - strike struck stricken - stride strode stridden - string strung strung - strive strove striven - strew strewed strewn, _r_ - swear sworn sworn - sweat sweat, _r_ sweat, _r_ - sweep swept swept - swell swelled swollen, _r_ - swim swam swum - swing swung swung - take took taken - teach taught taught - tear tore torn - tell told told - think thought thought - throw threw thrown - thrust thrust thrust - tread trod trod (den) - wake woke, _r_ woke, _r_ - wear wore worn - weave wove woven - wed wed, _r_ wed, _r_ - weep wept wept - wet wet, _r_ wet, _r_ - whet whet, _r_ whet, _r_ - win won won - wind wound wound - work wrought, _r_ wrought, _r_ - wring wrung wrung - write wrote written - - - - - SPELLING - - LESSON 6 - - -Every vowel or every vowel combination pronounced as one vowel sound -indicates a syllable (excepting final _e_ in such words as _fate_, -_late_, _rode_, etc.) Take the word _combination_, for example. In this -word we have four syllables, thus: _Com-bi-na-tion_. - -+A syllable is that part of a word which can be uttered distinctly by a -single effort of the voice.+ Remember that each syllable must contain a -vowel or a vowel combination like _oi_ or _ou_, which is pronounced as -one vowel. Sometimes the vowel alone makes the syllable as in _a-lone_, -_e-qual_, etc. The final _e_ in words like _late_, and _fate_ is not -sounded. It is silent, we say. - -All words ending in silent _e_ have the long vowel sound, with a very -few exceptions. Words without the final _e_ have the short vowel sound -as for example: _fate_, _fat_; _mate_, _mat_; _hide_, _hid_; _rode_, -_rod_. - -In dividing words into syllables the consonant is written with the -preceding vowel when that vowel is short. If the vowel is long the -consonant is written with the next syllable, as for example, de-fine and -def-i-ni-tion. In de-fine the _e_ is long therefore _f_, the consonant -following, is written with the next syllable, _fine_. In def-i-ni-tion -the _e_ has the short sound, therefore the _f_ is written with the _e_ -in the syllable, _def_. - -When there are two consonants following the vowel, divide between the -consonants, as for example, _in-ven-tion_, _foun-da-tion_, etc. Never -divide a digraph, that is, two consonants which are sounded together as -one sound, as for example, _moth-er_, _catch-er_, _te-leg-ra-pher_, etc. - -In writing words containing double consonants like _dd_, _ll_, _ss_, -divide the word into syllables between the double consonants, as for -example, _per-mit-ted_, _ad-mis-sion_, _sad-dest_, etc. - - +Monday+ - - Important - Accommodate - Person - Correspond - Action - - +Tuesday+ - - Difference - Notice - Indicate - Remember - Irregular - - +Wednesday+ - - Mistake - Conversation - Correctly - President - Ordinary - - +Thursday+ - - Participle - Passive - Various - Phrase - Quotation - - +Friday+ - - Imagine - Confidence - Humanity - Faith - Future - - +Saturday+ - - Whisper - Thought - Ability - Knowledge - Genius - - - - - PLAIN ENGLISH - - LESSON 7 - - -Dear Comrade: - -I wonder if you have ever thought as to how our language grew. - -We get the words in our language from many sources. The English language -today is a development of the early Anglo-Saxon. England was called -originally Angle-land which was gradually shortened into England. So we -have in our language what are called pure English or Anglo-Saxon words. -These words form the bulk of our every day vocabulary, being simple, -strong, forceful words. Then we have in our English many foreign words -which we have adopted from other languages. There are many Latin and -Greek words; these we use in our more elegant speech or writing. - -There is an interesting bit written by Sir Walter Scott in his novel of -early England, "Ivanhoe," which illustrates the manner in which words -have come into our language and also the difference in speech which -marks the working class and the exploiting class. As those who do the -work of the world rid themselves of the parasites who have appropriated -the produce of their labor, through the ages, they will demand that -which belongs to them--the best--the best in language as in everything -else. - - "'... I advise thee to call off Fangs and leave the herd to their - destiny, which, whether they meet with bands of traveling soldiers, or - of outlaws, or of wandering pilgrims, can be little else than to be - converted into Normans before morning, to thy no small ease and - comfort.' - - "'The swine turned into Normans to my comfort!' quoth Gurth. 'Expound - that to me, Wamba, for my brain is too dull and my mind too vexed to - read riddles.' - - "'Why, how call you these grunting brutes running about on their four - legs?' demanded Wamba. - - "'Swine, fool, swine,' said the herd; 'every fool knows that.' - - "'And swine is good Saxon,' said the jester; 'but how call you the sow - when she is flayed, and drawn, and quartered, and hung by the heels - like a traitor?' - - "'Pork,' answered the swineherd. - - "'I am glad every fool knows that too,' said Wamba; 'and pork, I - think, is good Norman-French, and so when the brute lives and is in - charge of a Saxon slave, she goes by her Saxon name; but becomes a - Norman and is called pork when she is carried to the castle-hall to - feast among the nobles. What dost thou think of that, friend Gurth, - ha?' ..." - -So you see even in words the distinction is made between those who -produce and those who possess. - -But the day is at hand when those who work shall also enjoy. We have -fought for religious and political freedom. Today we are waging the -battle for industrial freedom. It is _your_ struggle. Study--prepare -yourself to do battle for your rights. - - Yours for Freedom, - - THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. - - - FUTURE TIME - -+118.+ We have learned how to express present time and past time, by -changes in the form of the verb. But we very often desire to make a -statement in which we do not express either present or past time, thus -we may say: - - We shall enjoy our rights some day. - He will join us in the struggle. - -We do not mean to say that we do enjoy our rights now, in the present, -or that we did in the past, but that we _shall_ enjoy our rights some -time in the future. In the second sentence, _will join_ expresses the -same idea of future time. To indicate future time, we do not make a -change in the verb form, but we use _shall_ and _will_ with the simple -form of the verb. - -+119.+ +We denote future time by use of a verb phrase made by placing -_shall_ or _will_ before the simple form of the verb.+ - -+120.+ The rule of some grammarians is to use _shall_ always in the -first person, the person speaking, to denote future time, and _will_ -with the second person, the person spoken to, and with the third person, -the person spoken of, to denote future time. But common usage does not -always follow the rules of the grammarians, and, in the course of time, -affects and changes these rules. So our common usage of today uses -_will_ in the first person to express future time, as well as _shall_. - -This rule of grammarians marks a nicety of speech and conveys a -distinction of meaning which it really seems worth while to retain. The -idea of the grammarians is that when we use _will_ with the first person -and _shall_ with the second or third person, we express a _promise_ or -_determination_. Thus if I say, _I shall go_, I simply mean that my -going will be in the future. But if I say, _I will go_, I either mean -that I am promising to go or that I am expressing my determination to -go. So also if we use _shall_ in the second and third persons. If we -say, _You will go_ or _He will go_, we are simply stating that the going -will be in the future, but if we say, _You shall go_, or _He shall go_, -we mean that we promise or are determined that you or he shall go. - -To be technically correct this distinction should be observed. _Shall_ -in the first person, and _will_ in the second and third express simple -futurity. _Will_ in the first person and _shall_ in the second and third -express promise or determination. But in every day conversation this -distinction is not observed, and many of our best writers do not follow -this rule. - - - Exercise 1 - -Mark the future time forms in the following sentences: - - 1. I shall speak of liberty. - 2. I will never give up. - 3. I shall write to him. - 4. He shall not starve. - 5. We shall expect you. - 6. They shall suffer for this. - 7. I shall go to New York. - 8. He will call for me. - 9. The hungry shall be fed. - 10. You will soon see the reason. - 11. You shall never want for a friend. - 12. They shall some day see the truth. - 13. We will not fight against our class. - 14. We will stand together. - - - PERFECT TIME - -+121.+ Past, present and future, being the three divisions of time, one -would naturally expect that when we had found how to express these three -forms, we would be through, but if you stop to think, you will find that -there are other verb phrases of which we have need. - -When we wish to speak of action as completed at the present time, we do -not say: - - I study my lessons every day, _but_, I have studied my lessons every - day. - _Not_, You work for him every day, _but_, You have worked for him - every day. - _Not_, He sees her frequently, _but_, He has seen her frequently. - -Can you not readily see the difference in the meaning expressed in _I -work every day_, and _I have worked every day_? In the first sentence -you express a general truth, _I work every day_, a truth which has been -true in the past, is true in the present, and the implication is that it -will continue to be true in the future. But when you say, _I have worked -every day_, you are saying nothing as to the future, but you are -describing an action which is completed at the present time. This is -called the _present complete_ or _present perfect_ time. - -+122.+ Perfect means complete, and present perfect describes an action -perfected or completed at the present time. So it is possible for us to -express a necessary shade of meaning by the present perfect time form. - -+123.+ +The present perfect time form describes an action completed at -the present time, and is formed by using the present time form of -_have_ and the _past_ participle of the verb.+ - - +Present Perfect Time+ - - _Singular_ _Plural_ - - 1st. I have seen. We have seen. - 2d. You have seen. You have seen. - 3d. He has seen. They have seen. - -+124.+ Review in the last lesson how to form the past participle. -Remember that it is one of the principal parts of the verb. In regular -verbs the past participle is the same form as the past time form. In -irregular verbs the past participle is quite often different from the -past time form, as for example: _go_, _went_, _gone_; _do_, _did_, -_done_, etc. - -Watch closely your irregular verbs and see that you always use the past -_participle_ with _have_ or _had_; never use the past _time_ form with -_have_ or _had_. - - - PAST PERFECT - -+125.+ When you desire to express an action complete at some definite -past time, you do not say: - - We finished when they came, _but_, We had finished when they came. - _Not_, They went when we arrived, _but_, They had gone when we - arrived. - _Not_, I worked six months when he began, _but_, I had worked six - months when he began. - -Can you see a difference in the meaning expressed in these sentences: _I -worked six months when he began_; and _I had worked six months when he -began_? This last sentence describes an action completed or perfected -before some definite past time. - -+126.+ +Past perfect time denotes an action perfected or completed at -some definite past time. It is formed by using _had_ and the past -participle of the verb.+ - -Remember always, with irregular verbs, to use the _past participle_. -Never use the _past time form_ with _had_. - - +Past Perfect Time+ - - _Singular_ _Plural_ - - 1st. I had seen. We had seen. - 2d. You had seen. You had seen. - 3d. He had seen. They had seen. - - - Exercise 2 - -Correct the following sentences in which the past time form is used -instead of the past participle. Look up the word in the list of -irregular verbs and use the past participle instead of the past time -form. - - 1. I have saw it often. - 2. He had shook his fist. - 3. She has sang for us. - 4. The boat has sank here. - 5. He has spoke the truth. - 6. They had stole the books. - 7. He has swore to the truth. - 8. He had took the wrong road. - 9. She has tore her dress. - 10. He had threw the ball away. - 11. The girl had wore the dress. - 12. He had wrote the letters. - 13. He had drank too much. - 14. He had rode the horse. - 15. The sun has rose. - 16. He has bore his part. - 17. They have began already. - 18. The wind has blew all night. - 19. It had broke when it fell. - 20. He has chose the right. - 21. You have did your duty. - 22. He has ate his breakfast. - 23. A heavy rain has fell. - 24. They had gave it to me. - 25. He has became rich. - 26. It has grew rapidly. - 27. He has knew it always. - 28. He has mistook her for another. - - - FUTURE PERFECT TIME - -+127.+ We find also that we need a verb phrase to express time _before_ -some other future time, to describe an action that will be finished, -perfected, or completed, before some other future action. Thus, - - I shall have gone before you arrive. - You will have earned your money before you get it. - I shall have worked thirty days when pay-day comes. - -Can you not see a difference in saying, _I shall work thirty days when -pay-day comes_, and _I shall have worked thirty days when pay-day -comes_? The first sentence expresses simple future time, or what you -will do when pay-day comes; the second describes an action which will be -completed or perfected _before_ pay-day comes. So there is quite a -difference in the meaning of the future and the future perfect time. - -+128.+ +The future perfect time form expresses or describes an action -that will be perfected or completed before some other future time. It is -formed by using _shall have_ or _will have_ with the past -participle.+ - -Be careful to use the past participle. Never use the past time form with -_shall have_ or _will have_. - - +Future Perfect Time+ - - _Singular_ _Plural_ - - 1st. I shall have seen. We shall have seen. - 2d. You will have seen. You will have seen. - 3d. He will have seen. They will have seen. - - - LET US SUM UP - -+129.+ We have three time forms, _present_, _past_, _future_. - - +Present+ +Past+ +Future+ - - I see I saw I shall see. - -Each of these three time forms has a _perfect_ form; that is, a time -form which expresses an action as completed or perfected at the present -time, or before some definite past or future time. - - +Present+ +Past+ +Future+ - +Perfect Time+ +Perfect Time+ +Perfect Time+ - - I have seen I had seen I shall have seen - -+130.+ It is wonderful how a knowledge of words and their uses enables -us to express so many shades of meaning. It is like our development in -observing colors. You know the savage always admires vivid reds and -greens and blues. He does not yet see the beautiful shades and -gradations of color. We enjoy the delicate pinks and blues and all the -varying shades between the primal seven colors of the spectrum. And as -we develop our artistic ability we see and enjoy all the beauties of -color. - -In music too, we observe the same development. The barbarian enjoys -loud, crashing, discordant sounds which he calls music, but which to the -educated ear are only harsh noises. The trained musician catches the -delicate overtones and undertones and finds deepest ecstasy in sounds -which the uneducated ear does not even catch. So as we study words and -their uses, we find ourselves able to express shades of meaning, to -paint our word pictures, not in gaudy, glaring chromo-tints, but in the -wondrous blending of color that reveals the true artist. - -Now get these modes of expressing time firmly fixed in your mind. - -+131.+ +Let us get all we have learned about verbs into a summary and -have it clearly in mind.+ - - - VERBS--SUMMARY - - +Two Classes+ - - _Complete_--Taking _no_ complement. - - _Incomplete_--{ Verbs of action requiring object. - { Copulative verbs requiring complement. - - +Inflection--Changes of Form+ - - _Simple Form_ _S-Form_ _Past Time_ _Present Part._ _Past Part._ - see sees saw seeing seen - - - TIME FORMS - - Present - - _Singular_ _Plural_ - - 1. I see. We see. - 2. You see. You see. - 3. He sees. They see. - - - Past - - _Singular_ _Plural_ - - 1. I saw. We saw. - 2. You saw. You saw. - 3. He saw. They saw. - - - Future - - _Singular_ _Plural_ - - 1. I shall see. We shall see. - 2. You will see. You will see. - 3. He will see. They will see. - - - Present Perfect - - _Singular_ _Plural_ - - 1. I have seen. We have seen. - 2. You have seen. You have seen. - 3. He has seen. They have seen. - - - Past Perfect - - _Singular_ _Plural_ - - 1. I had seen. We had seen. - 2. You had seen. You had seen. - 3. He had seen. They had seen. - - - Future Perfect - - _Singular_ _Plural_ - - 1. I shall have seen. We shall have seen. - 2. You will have seen. You will have seen. - 3. He will have seen. They will have seen. - - - Exercise 3 - -Read carefully the following quotation. All of the verbs and verb -phrases are written in _italics_. Study these carefully and decide -whether they indicate present, past, future, present perfect, past -perfect or future perfect time. The verb phrases--_is seizing_, _is -put_, _is praised_, _is defended_, _can see_, _must have_, _are owned_, -and _are conducted_, do not belong to any of these six forms. They are -verb phrases used in ways which we shall study later. All of the other -verbs or verb phrases belong to one of the six time forms which we have -studied. Classify them. - - - The Working Class Must Strike the Blow - - You _remember_ Victor Hugo's story of the devil-fish; how the monster - _put_ forth one tentacle after another and _coiled_ it around his - victim; how the hero _recalled_ that there _was_ but one vulnerable - spot in his brute enemy; how at the strategic moment he _struck_ a - blow at that spot, and the terrible demon of the deep _shuddered_, - _released_ his grasp and _fell_ dead. - - Capitalism _is_ a monster which _is seizing_ the body politic. One - tentacle _is put_ forth to grasp the major part of the earnings of the - working class; another _has seized_ the working-woman; another - _reaches_ forth to the child; another _has fastened_ upon government - and _has made_ that the instrument of the powerful classes; still - another _has turned_ the pen of the journalist into a weapon by which - the injustice of Capitalism _is praised_ and _is defended_; and still - another _has seized_ the pulpit, _has silenced_ those who _profess_ to - speak for God and man, or _has turned_ their phrases into open apology - and defense for the crimes of Capitalism! - - But there _is_ one vulnerable spot in Capitalism. If the working class - of the world _can see_ that spot and _will strike_, they _shall be_ - free. - - The fundamental wrong, the basic injustice of the Capitalist System, - _is_ that the resources of land and machinery, to which all the people - _must have_ access, in order to live and labor, _are owned_ by the few - and _are conducted_ by the few for their private profit. - - This _is_ the social tragedy, the monstrous wrong of our time.--_J. - Stitt Wilson_. - - - Exercise 4 - -Select two verbs out of the following poem and write their six time -forms, in the same manner as the time forms of the verb _see_ are given -in section 131. - - - A MAGIC WORD - - There's a little word below, with letters three, - Which, if you only grasp its potency, - Will send you higher - Toward the goal where you aspire, - Which, without its precious aid, you'll never see-- - _NOW!_ - - Success attends the man who views it right. - Its back and forward meanings differ quite; - For this is how it reads - To the man of ready deeds, - Who spells it backwards from achievement's height-- - _WON!_ - - - TENSE - -The grammatical term for the time form of the verb is _TENSE_, which is -derived from a Latin word meaning _time_. The present time-form of the -verb is called the _present tense_; the past time-form, the _past -tense_; the future time-form, the _future tense_; the present perfect -time-form, the _present perfect tense_, etc. - - - Exercise 5 - -Write each of the following four sentences in the six time-forms, or -tenses,--present, past, future, present perfect, past perfect and future -perfect, as follows: - - _Present_--Labor _creates_ all wealth. - _Past_--Labor _created_ all wealth. - _Future_--Labor _will create_ all wealth. - _Present Perfect_--Labor _has created_ all wealth. - _Past Perfect_--Labor _had created_ all wealth. - _Future Perfect_--Labor _will have created_ all wealth. - - 1. Hope stirs us to action. - 2. Human progress is our business. - 3. The majority demand justice. - 4. The workers fight all the battles. - - - - - SPELLING - - LESSON 7 - - -The division of words into syllables is quite important as an aid to -pronunciation. It is also a very important matter to understand in our -written speech for it is often necessary to divide a word at the end of -a line. If the word is not properly divided, it is much more difficult -to read and understand. The hyphen is used to divide words into -syllables when carrying a portion to the next line. - -When you must divide a word at the end of a line divide it only between -syllables. Never divide a word of one syllable, no matter how long it -may be. If you cannot get all of it on the line, write it all on the -next line. Do not divide a short word of two syllables if you can avoid -it and never divide such a word when it leaves only one letter on the -line or only one letter to be carried over to the next line, as for -example: _luck-y_, _a-loud_, etc. - -When two or more vowels are used together to make one sound they should -never be separated by the hyphen, as for example, joy-ous, anx-ious, -trail, dis-course, de-feat, boor-ish. - -When two or more vowels placed together are not used to form one sound -then these vowels may be divided, as for example, _tri-al_, -_co-or-di-nate_, _he-ro-ic_. - -Look up the words in this week's lesson in the dictionary carefully and -divide into syllables. Notice specially the division of words into -syllables where the word contains a diphthong and where it contains two -vowels written together which are not diphthongs. Notice also the words -which have a single vowel as the first or last syllable. - - +Monday+ - - Museum - Creatures - Peaceable - Accruing - Already - - +Tuesday+ - - Persuade - Trivial - Plague - Alert - Inquiry - - +Wednesday+ - - Piteous - Patriot - Poetry - Evil - Business - - +Thursday+ - - Obey - Breathe - Society - Ether - Sociable - - +Friday+ - - Idealism - Pledge - Ache - Acre - Pronunciation - - +Saturday+ - - Idle - Idol - Mutual - Wealthy - Neighbors - - - - - PLAIN ENGLISH - - LESSON 8 - - -Dear Comrade: - -You have often read the words _organic_ and _inorganic_ but did you ever -stop to think of the meaning of these words? We say a body is organic--a -rock is inorganic; one grows from within, the other is built from -without. A tree is organic; it grows. A house is inorganic; it is built. -The house was never a baby house, growing from a tiny house to a large -one. But the tree was once a baby tree, a sapling, and grew branch by -branch to its present height. So we have two classes of things--those -which grow and those which are made. - -Language belongs to the class of things which grows. It is organic. We -have even used the same terms in speaking about language that we use in -talking of a tree. We use the words ROOT, STEM and BRANCH to describe -its growth. - -Language, too, has its different terms of life like a tree, its youth, -its maturity, its old age, its death. - -So we have dead languages like Latin and Greek--languages which are no -longer living,--no longer serving mankind. But these dead languages have -left living children, languages that have descended from them. - -The Italian language for example is the child, the descendant of the -classical Latin. We have many words in our English language from these -dead languages. About five-sevenths of the words in our English are from -these classical languages. The remaining two-sevenths are from the -Anglo-Saxon. We use the Anglo-Saxon words more frequently, however, in -our every day speech. - -And it is interesting to note that our best poetry--that which stirs our -blood and touches our hearts--is written in the strong forceful -Anglo-Saxon words. - -These words we are studying have been through some interesting -experiences as they have passed from race to race down to us and the -history of life is mirrored in their changes. How much more interesting -they seem when we know something of their sources, just as we are more -interested in a man when we know something of his boyhood and youth and -the experiences through which he has passed. - -You may think that the study of verbs is rather difficult and involved, -but it is more simple in English than in any other language. There are -fewer changes in the verb form in order to express time and person. Do -not rely on the memorizing of the rules. Rules never made one a fluent -speaker. Write sentences in which the correct form is used. Read aloud -from the best authors until the sound of the words is familiar and they -come readily to the tongue. We have used for the exercises in these -lessons excerpts from the best authors. - -Study these exercises carefully and note the use of the different verbs -especially, this week. Verbs, like all else, are yours to command. -Command them. - - Yours for Education, - - THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. - - - PROGRESSIVE VERB PHRASES - -+132.+ We have learned how to form the three principal time forms, -_present_, _past_ and _future_ and the perfect or completed form of each -of the three, _present perfect_, _past perfect_ and _future perfect_. -And still we have such a wonderful language that we can express other -shades of meaning in _time_. - -+133.+ There is still another phase of action which we must have a verb -phrase to express. Suppose you want to describe something you are now -doing and are continuing to do, something not yet completed. To say, _I -do it now_, is not satisfactory. Instead we say, _I am doing it now_. - -You have by the verb phrase, _am doing_, described a progressive action, -an action _going on_ in the present. You may also want to describe what -you were doing yesterday, an action that continued or _progressed_ in -the past. You would not say, _I built the house yesterday_ but, _I was -building the house yesterday_. Again you may want to describe an action -which will be _progressing_ or going on in the future. You do not say, -_I shall build the house next week_ but, _I shall be building the house -next week_. - -So we have progressive verb phrases. - -+134.+ +The present progressive describes an action as continuing or -progressing in the present.+ - -+It is formed by using the present time form of the verb _be_ and the -present participle.+ - -You remember that the present participle is formed by adding _ing_ -to the simple form of the verb. - - Present Progressive - - _Singular_ _Plural_ - - 1st. I am seeing. We are seeing. - 2d. You are seeing. You are seeing. - 3d. He is seeing. They are seeing. - -+135.+ +The past progressive time form describes an action which was -continuing or progressing in the past. It is formed by using the past -time form of the verb _be_ and the present participle.+ - - Past Progressive - - _Singular_ _Plural_ - - 1st. I was seeing. We were seeing. - 2d. You were seeing. You were seeing. - 3d. He was seeing. They were seeing. - -+136.+ +The future progressive describes an action which will be -progressing or going on in the future. It is formed by using the future -time form of the verb _be_ and the present participle.+ - - Future Progressive - - _Singular_ _Plural_ - - 1st. I shall be seeing. We shall be seeing. - 2d. You will be seeing. You will be seeing. - 3d. He will be seeing. They will be seeing. - -+137.+ The perfect time forms also have a progressive form. There is a -difference of meaning in the _present perfect_ and its progressive form. -You say for instance, _I have tried all my life to be free_. You mean -you have tried until the present time and the inference is that now you -have ceased to try. But, if you say, _I have been trying all my life to -be free_, we understand that you have tried and are _still_ trying. - -+138.+ +So we have the present perfect progressive which describes an -action which progressed in the past and continued up to the present -time. It is formed by using the present perfect form of the verb _be_ -and the present participle.+ - - Present Perfect Progressive - - _Singular_ _Plural_ - - 1st. I have been seeing. We have been seeing. - 2d. You have been seeing. You have been seeing. - 3d. He has been seeing. They have been seeing. - -+139.+ +The past perfect progressive describes an action which was -continuing or progressing at some past time. It is formed by using the -past perfect time form of the verb _be_ and the present participle.+ - - Past Perfect Progressive - - _Singular_ _Plural_ - - 1st. I had been seeing. We had been seeing. - 2d. You had been seeing. You had been seeing. - 3d. He had been seeing. They had been seeing. - -+140.+ +The future perfect progressive describes an action which will be -progressing at some future time. It is formed by using the future -perfect time form of the verb _be_ and the present participle.+ - - Future Perfect Progressive - - _Singular_ _Plural_ - - 1st. I shall have been seeing. We shall have been seeing. - 2d. You will have been seeing. You will have been seeing. - 3d. He will have been seeing. They will have been seeing. - - - Exercise 1 - -In the following sentences mark all the progressive forms, and note -whether they are present, past, future, present perfect, past perfect or -future perfect. - - 1. The old order is passing. - 2. Men will be struggling for freedom so long as slavery exists. - 3. The class struggle has been growing more intense as wealth has - accumulated. - 4. The workers are realizing their power. - 5. He had been talking for an hour when we arrived. - 6. Next Monday I shall have been working for one year. - 7. The workers will be paying interest on war debts for generations - to come unless they repudiate. - 8. While Marx was writing his books, he lived in abject poverty. - 9. The Industrial Relations Commission has been investigating - industrial conditions. - 10. Ferrer was martyred because the Modern Schools were educating the - people. - 11. The nations of Europe had been preparing for war for many years. - - - ACTIVE AND PASSIVE - -+141.+ Notice carefully the following sentences; select the subjects in -these sentences which show _who_ or _what_ performed the action; select -the subjects that show _who_ or _what_ receives the action. Do you -notice any difference in the meaning of these sentences? Do you notice -any difference in their form? - - The engine struck the man. - The man was struck by the engine. - - The system enslaves men. - Men are enslaved by the system. - - Leaders often betray the people. - The people are often betrayed by leaders. - -Let us look carefully at the first two sentences. You remember when we -studied transitive verbs we found that every transitive verb had an -_object_ which was the receiver of the action expressed in the verb. Now -you notice in this first sentence, _The engine struck the man_, we have -the transitive verb _struck_. _Engine_ is the subject of the verb and -_man_ is the object of the verb, the receiver of the action expressed by -the verb _struck_. - -Now in the sentence, _The man was struck by the engine_, we have the -same thought expressed but in a different manner. The word _man_, which -was the object of the verb _struck_ in the first sentence, has now -become the subject of the sentence, and we have changed our verb form -from _struck_ to _was struck_. In the first sentence of the subject, -_engine_ was the _actor_. In the second sentence, _The man was struck by -the engine_, the subject of the sentence, _man_, is the _receiver_ of -the action expressed in the verb. - -+142.+ So we have thus changed the verb form from _struck_ to _was -struck_ to indicate that the subject of the verb is the receiver of the -action. _Struck_ is called the active form of the verb because the -subject of the verb is the actor. _Was struck_ is called the passive -form of the verb because the subject receives the action. Passive means -_receiving_. In the passive form the subject is the receiver of the -action expressed in the verb. - -+143.+ You remember that complete verbs have no object or complement, -therefore it would follow that they cannot be put in the passive form -for there is no object to become the receiver of the action. Take the -complete verb, _sleep_, for example. We do not _sleep_ anything, hence -_sleep_ has no passive form for there is no object which can be used as -the subject, the receiver of the action. - -+Only transitive verbs can be put into the passive form.+ Remember that -a transitive verb in the passive form is one that represents its subject -as receiving the action. - -The present, past, future and all the perfect time forms of transitive -verbs can be changed from active to passive. The progressive time forms -can be changed into the passive, but it makes an awkward construction -and should be avoided as much as possible. Occasionally, however, we -find it worth our while to use these forms, as for example: - - The book is being written by the man. - -This is the passive form of the present progressive, _The man is writing -a book_. - - The book was being written by the man. - -This is the passive form of the past progressive, _The man was writing -the book_. - -+144.+ The future progressive passive is awkward, and the present and -past progressive forms are the only forms we find used in the passive. -The best writers use them sparingly for we can usually say the same -thing by using the active form of the verb and have a sentence which -sounds much better. - - - Exercise 2 - -All the verbs in the following sentences are _transitive_ verbs in the -_active_ form. Rewrite each sentence, putting the verb into the -_passive_ form and making the _object_ of the _active_ verb the -_subject_ of the _passive_ verb; as, for example, the first sentence -should be rewritten as follows: - - _War on Russia was declared by Germany on August 1, 1914._ - - 1. Germany declared war on Russia, August 1, 1914. - 2. Who will sign the Emancipation Proclamation of the Proletariat? - 3. Marx and Engels wrote the Communist Manifesto. - 4. Spain murdered Francisco Ferrer, October 13, 1909. - 5. We celebrate the first of May as International Labor Day. - 6. The people of Paris stormed the Bastille, July 14, 1789. - 7. Wat Tyler was leading the English workers in rebellion against - the King when the Mayor of London stabbed him in 1381. - 8. The Inquisition burned Bruno at the stake for heresy in 1600. - 9. The Paris Commune followed the German siege of Paris in 1871. - - - SUMMARY - -+145.+ Now let us take the verb _see_ and name all the time forms which -we can describe with the changes in the verb forms which we have learned -to make and also with the verb phrases which we can construct with the -help of the verbs, _be_, _have_, _shall_ and _will_. - -First, we want to express the present, what is happening now, and we -want to put it in both the active and passive forms, so we say: - - +PRESENT TIME+ - - +Active+ +Passive+ - - _Singular_ _Singular_ - - I see. I am seen. - You see. You are seen. - He sees. He is seen. - - _Plural_ _Plural_ - - We see. We are seen. - You see. You are seen. - They see. They are seen. - -Note that the only change in the verb form in the present ACTIVE is the -_s-form_ for the third person singular. In the present passive the only -change is the special form of the verb _be_ for the first and third -persons, singular. - -When we want to tell what occurred yesterday or some time in the past, -stated in the active and passive form, we say: - - +PAST TIME+ - - +Active+ +Passive+ - - _Singular_ _Singular_ - - I saw. I was seen. - You saw. You were seen. - He saw. He was seen. - - _Plural_ _Plural_ - - We saw. We were seen. - You saw. You were seen. - They saw. They were seen. - -We have one other division of time which we must express--the future. -Primitive man doubtless lived principally in the present, but with the -development of memory and the means of recording events by a written -language, he was able to make the deeds and achievements of the past a -vital part of his life. But not until the faculty of thinking developed -was the mind able to project itself into the future and make tomorrow -the hope of today. Future time expresses hope, desire, growth. - - +FUTURE TIME+ - - +Active+ +Passive+ - - _Singular_ _Singular_ - - I shall see. I shall be seen. - You will see. You will be seen. - He will see. He will be seen. - - _Plural_ _Plural_ - - We shall see. We shall be seen. - You will see. You will be seen. - They will see. They will be seen. - -Then you remember we had to devise a way of describing an action -perfected or completed at the present or at some time in the past or at -some time in the future--so we have present perfect, past perfect and -future perfect. - - +PRESENT PERFECT+ - - +Active+ +Passive+ - - _Singular_ _Singular_ - - I have seen. I have been seen. - You have seen. You have been seen. - He has seen. He has been seen. - - _Plural_ _Plural_ - - We have seen. We have been seen. - You have seen. You have been seen. - They have seen. They have been seen. - - +PAST PERFECT+ - - +Active+ +Passive+ - - _Singular_ _Singular_ - - I had seen. I had been seen. - You had seen. You had been seen. - He had seen. He had been seen. - - _Plural_ _Plural_ - - We had seen. We had been seen. - You had seen. You had been seen. - They had seen. They had been seen. - - +FUTURE PERFECT+ - - +Active+ +Passive+ - - _Singular_ _Singular_ - - I shall have seen. I shall have been seen. - You will have seen. You will have been seen. - He will have seen. He will have been seen. - - _Plural_ _Plural_ - - We shall have seen. We shall have been seen. - You will have seen. You will have been seen. - They will have seen. They will have been seen. - -+146.+ But these are not all the phases of time which we can express. We -have progressive, continuous action. So each of these six time forms has -a progressive form. - - +PRESENT PROGRESSIVE+ - - +Active+ +Passive+ - - _Singular_ _Singular_ - - I am seeing. I am being seen. - You are seeing. You are being seen. - He is seeing. He is being seen. - - _Plural_ _Plural_ - - We are seeing. We are being seen. - You are seeing. You are being seen. - They are seeing. They are being seen. - - +PAST PROGRESSIVE+ - - +Active+ +Passive+ - - _Singular_ _Singular_ - - I was seeing. I was being seen. - You were seeing. You were being seen. - He was seeing. He was being seen. - - _Plural_ _Plural_ - - We were seeing. We were being seen. - You were seeing. You were being seen. - They were seeing. They were being seen. - -Only the Present and Past Progressive forms have a passive form. The -rest of the Progressive forms are expressed in the active forms only. - - +FUTURE PROGRESSIVE+ - - _Singular_ _Plural_ - - I shall be seeing. We shall be seeing. - You will be seeing. You will be seeing. - He will be seeing. They will be seeing. - - +PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE+ - - _Singular_ _Plural_ - - I have been seeing. We have been seeing. - You have been seeing. You have been seeing. - He has been seeing. They have been seeing. - - +PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE+ - - _Singular_ _Plural_ - - I had been seeing. We had been seeing. - You had been seeing. You had been seeing. - He had been seeing. They had been seeing. - - - +FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE+ - - _Singular_ _Plural_ - - I shall have been seeing. We shall have been seeing. - You will have been seeing. You will have been seeing. - He will have been seeing. They will have been seeing. - - - Exercise 3 - -Write the four following sentences in their active and passive forms, as -the sentence, _War sweeps the earth_, is written. - - 1. Education gives power. - 2. Knowledge frees men. - 3. Labor unions help the workers. - 4. The people seek justice. - - +Present+ _Active_ War sweeps the earth. - _Passive_ The earth is swept by war. - - +Past+ _Active_ War swept the earth. - _Passive_ The earth was swept by war. - - +Future+ _Active_ War shall sweep the earth. - _Passive_ The earth shall be swept by war. - - +Pres. Per.+ _Active_ War has swept the earth. - _Passive_ The earth has been swept by war. - - +Past Per.+ _Active_ War had swept the earth. - _Passive_ The earth had been swept by war. - - +Fut. Per.+ _Active_ War shall have swept the earth. - _Passive_ The earth shall have been swept by war. - - - Exercise 4 - -Underscore all the verbs and verb phrases in the following quotation. -Write all the time forms of the transitive verb, _lose_, as the time -forms of the verb _see_ are written in the foregoing table. - - When we study the animal world and try to explain to ourselves that - struggle for existence which is maintained by each living being - against adverse circumstances and against its enemies, we realize that - the more the principles of solidarity and equality are developed in an - animal society, and have become habitual to it, the more chance it has - of surviving and coming triumphantly out of the struggle against - hardships and foes. The more thoroughly each member of the society - feels his solidarity with each other member of the society, the more - completely are developed in all of them those two qualities which are - the main factors of all progress; courage, on the one hand, and, on - the other, free individual initiative. And, on the contrary, the more - any animal society, or little group of animals, loses this feeling of - solidarity--which may chance as the result of exceptional scarcity or - else of exceptional plenty--the more the two other factors of - progress, courage and individual initiative, diminish; in the end they - disappear, and the society falls into decay and sinks before its foes. - Without mutual confidence no struggle is possible; there is no - courage, no initiative, no solidarity--and no victory!--_Kropotkin_. - - - - - SPELLING - - LESSON 8 - - -In pronouncing words of more than one syllable we always lay a little -greater stress upon one syllable of the word; that is, that syllable -receives the emphasis of the voice so as to make it more prominent than -the other syllables. This is called accent, and the syllable which -receives the special stress is called the accented syllable. - -+Accent is the stress of the voice upon one syllable of the word.+ - -You will notice when you look up the pronunciation of words in your -dictionary that a little mark called the accent mark is placed after the -accented syllable, as for example: di-vide'. - -Many words differ in meaning according to which syllable receives the -accent. Our spelling lesson for this week contains a number of these -words. - -These words, when accented on the first syllable, are nouns; when -accented on the second syllable, they are verbs. - - +Monday+ - - Con' tract Con tract' - Pro' test Pro test' - Rec' ord Re cord' - Im' port Im port' - De' tail De tail' - - +Tuesday+ - - Con' vert Con vert' - Con' flict Con flict' - Prog' ress Pro gress' - Im' press Im press' - Ref' use Re fuse' - - +Wednesday+ - - Con' test Con test' - Con' duct Con duct' - Proj' ect Pro ject' - Des' ert De sert' - Ex' tract Ex tract' - - +Thursday+ - - Con' trast Con trast' - Con' sort Con sort' - Reb' el Re bel' - Con' script Con script' - Pres' ent Pre sent' - - +Friday+ - - Com' pound Com pound' - Re' tail Re tail' - Com' press Com press' - Im' print Im print' - Com' bine Com bine' - - +Saturday+ - - Con' fine Con fine' - Sus' pect Sus pect' - Com' mune Com mune' - Ex' port Ex port' - In' crease In crease' - - - - - PLAIN ENGLISH - - LESSON 9 - - -Dear Comrade: - -You have been studying several weeks now in this Plain English Course -and we trust you are enjoying the unfolding of the powers of expression. -We have been necessarily studying rules to some extent but you have seen -how these grew out of the need for expression. We have been breaking the -sentence up into its different parts. First we had the names of things -and now we are studying the words used to tell what these things _do_ -and _are_--namely verbs. And as our life has grown complex and our -powers of thinking diversified covering the whole range of time, past, -present and future, we have had to invent many forms of the verb to -express it all. - -Now do not try to commit these facts concerning the verb to memory. You -are not studying English in order to know rules. You are studying -English that you may be able to say and write the things you _think_. So -first of all, _think_, _think_! That is your inalienable right! Do not -accept anything just by blind belief. Think it out for yourself. Study -until you see the '_why_' of it all. "Independent thinking has given us -the present, and we will forever continue to make tomorrow better than -today. The right to think is inalienable, or a man is a machine. Thought -is life or a human soul is a thing." - -And do not lack the courage of your own thoughts. _You_ do not need to -cringe or apologize to any man. "Our life is not an apology but a life." -Dare to think and dare to express and live your thought. - -Did you ever read Emerson's definition of genius? "To believe your own -thought, to believe that what is true for you in your private heart is -true for all men,--that is genius." Then he says, "We dismiss without -notice our own thoughts, because they are ours. Tomorrow a stranger will -say with masterly good sense, precisely what we have thought and felt -all along and we shall be forced to take with shame our own opinion from -another." - -Have you not experienced this? How often we hear some one express a -truth and we say to ourselves, "That is just what I have long believed -but I have never dared say so." We have been so taught all our lives to -depend on some outside power and discredit the power within ourselves, -that we pay no attention to the thoughts that are ours for who are we -that we should dare to think and perchance disagree with those who have -assumed authority over us! But that is precisely what we should dare to -do--to think and to do our own thinking always. Who dares place anything -before a man! - -So _think_ as you study these lessons and use these rules and formulas -simply as means to an end, as tools to aid you in expressing these -thoughts. - - Yours for Education, - - THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. - - - PARTICIPLES - -+147.+ We have found that the verb has five forms, made by internal -changes in the verb itself,--the present time form, the s-form, the past -time form, the present participle and the past participle. - -We have also found that we can express various time forms by verb -phrases formed by using the helping verbs, _shall_, _will_, _have_ and -_be_ with one of the verb forms. All of these forms are used as the -asserting word in the sentence. So long as the verb or verb phrase forms -the predicate--the word or words that assert something of the -subject--it still remains a verb. But we have found that the participle -forms of the verb may be used as other parts of speech while still -retaining some of the qualities of the verb. - -+148.+ You remember a sentence which we used when we studied -participles, _Making shoes is his work_. Here we have the present -participle _making_, with its object _shoes_, used as the subject of the -verb _is_. Now a noun never takes an object, so _making_ in this -sentence is partly a verb, partly a noun, and is called a participle, -which means _partaker_. - -We have studied and used two forms of participles, the present and the -past participle. The present participle always ends in _ing_ and -expresses action or existence in the present, or at the time mentioned -in the sentence. For example, _being_, _bringing_, _working_, _seeing_, -_loving_, _hating_, etc. - -The past participle we found to be one of the principal parts of the -verb. It expresses action or existence which is past or completed, at -the time mentioned in the sentence. It is formed by adding _d_ or _ed_ -to the regular verbs and by a change in the form in irregular verbs. For -example, regular verbs: _learned_ from _learn_, _defeated_ from -_defeat_, _watched_ from _watch_. Irregular verbs: _taught_ from -_teach_, _seen_ from _see_, _won_ from _win_. - -+We have found that these participles may be used either as nouns or as -adjectives.+ As for example: - - The _crying_ of the child annoyed the people. - The _crying_ child ran to its mother. - The _coming_ of the new day will bring peace. - We await the _coming_ day of peace. - - - PARTICIPLE PHRASES - -+149.+ The present and the past participles are each single words; but -we may also have participle phrases; that is, two or more words used as -a participle, as for example: - - His _having joined_ the strikers caused him to lose his job. - The man, _having been discharged_, left the mill. - -In these sentences we have the participle phrases, _having joined_ and -_having been discharged_. _Having joined_ is a participle phrase used as -a noun, the subject of the verb _caused_. _Having been discharged_ is a -participle phrase used as an adjective to modify the noun _man_. Notice -that _having joined_ is an active participle describing the action -performed by the man who is referred to by the pronoun _his_. _Having -been discharged_ is a passive participle expressing an action of which -the subject of the sentence, _man_, is the receiver. - -These are both perfect participles, expressing actions which are -complete at the present time. - -+150.+ We have also progressive participles expressing action which is -continuing or progressing. These progressive participles are also used -in both the active and the passive forms. The progressive active -participle is formed by using _having been_ with the present participle, -as _having been working_. The progressive passive participle is formed -by using _being_ with the past participle, as for example, _being -watched_, _being driven_, _being gone_, etc. So we have six participles, -three active and three passive. - -Note the following table: - - +Active+ - - _Present._ Sending. - - _Perfect._ Having sent. - - _Progressive._ Having been sending. - - - +Passive+ - - _Past._ Sent. - - _Perfect._ Having been sent. - - _Progressive._ Being sent. - -+These participle phrases may be used either as nouns or as -adjectives.+ - - - Exercise 1 - -In the following sentences mark the participles and the participle -phrases. Underscore those used as _nouns_ with a single line; those used -as _adjectives_ with two lines. - - 1. He denies having been hired by the employer. - 2. Our friends, having arrived, joined us at dinner. - 3. The rain, falling incessantly, kept us from going. - 4. Having often seen him passing, I judged he lived near. - 5. The man, being discouraged and ill, was unable to do his work well. - 6. Happiness shared is happiness doubled. - 7. Having finished his work, he rests at last. - 8. The army, beaten but not vanquished, waited for the morrow. - 9. The men, having been unemployed for months, were desperate. - 10. Being prepared will not save us from war. - 11. "Rest is not quitting this busy career; - Rest is the fitting of self to its sphere. - It's loving and serving the highest and best; - It's onward, not swerving; and that is true rest." - - - Exercise 2 - -Write the six participle forms of the verbs _see_ and _teach_, and use -in sentences of your own construction. - - - INFINITIVES - -+151.+ We have found that the various forms of the participles may be -used as other parts of speech. They partake of the nature of a verb and -either of a noun or an adjective. Notice the following sentences: - - Traveling is pleasant. - Eating is necessary. - -Can you think of any other way in which you could express the same -thought? Do you not sometimes say, - - To travel is pleasant. - To eat is necessary. - -We have expressed practically the same thought in these two sentences, -which is expressed in the sentences above, where we used the participle. -_To travel_ and _to eat_ are used as nouns, subjects of the verb _is_ -just as _traveling_ and _eating_ are used as nouns, the subjects of the -verb _is_. - -Here we have another form of the verb used as a noun. When we use the -verb in this way, we are not speaking of the _traveling_ or _eating_ as -belonging to or being done by any particular person, nor do we indicate -whether one person or more than one is concerned in the action. It might -be anyone doing the traveling or eating, and it might be one person or a -thousand. We are making a general statement of everybody in the world, -so we call this form the _infinitive_. - -+152.+ Infinite means _unlimited_, without limit as to persons or -number. Almost every verb in the language may be used in this way, and -since _to_ is generally used before the infinitive, _to_ is often called -the sign of the infinitive. For example: - - _To be_, or not _to be_, that is the question. - _To have_ and _to hold_ is the problem. - He likes _to travel_. - -You note in all of these infinitives _to_ is used with the simple form -of the verb. - -+153.+ _To_ is generally omitted after verbs like _help_, _hear_, _bid_, -_feel_, _let_, _make_, _see_ and _have_, or words of similar meaning. -For example: - - Help me (to) find it. - He bade me (to) stay. - Feel it (to) shake. - Make him (to) come. - Hear me (to) sing. - Let us (to) go. - See him (to) run. - Have him (to) copy this. - -+154.+ _To_ is also omitted after _need_ and _dare_ when _not_ is used. - - They need to work. - They need not work. - - They dared to come. - They dared not come. - -+155.+ _To_ is sometimes omitted after prepositions: - - He will do anything for his class, except (to) fight for it. - He would do nothing but (to) go away. - -+156.+ We have a number of different forms of the infinitive, both -active and passive. Note the following table: - - +Active+ - - _Present._ To love. - _Perfect._ To have loved. - _Present Prog._ To be loving. - _Perfect Prog._ To have been loving. - - +Passive+ - - _Present._ To be loved. - _Perfect._ To have been loved. - -+157.+ Notice that only the _present_ and _perfect_ infinitives have the -_passive_ form. The progressive infinitives cannot be used in the -passive. Remember also that only _incomplete_ verbs, those which require -an object to receive the action, can have a passive form. - -The verb _loved_, which we have used in the above table, has a passive -form because it is an incomplete verb, for there must be that which is -the object of our love. - -+158.+ The complete verbs,--verbs which require no object,--cannot have -a passive form for there is no object to become the receiver of the -action. Take for example the verb _dwell_. This is a complete verb which -can have no passive form. You cannot dwell anything, therefore you -cannot say _to be dwelt_ or _to have been dwelt_. - -+So complete verbs have only the four active forms+, as follows: - - +Active+ - - _Present._ To dwell. - _Perfect._ To have dwelt. - _Present Prog._ To be dwelling. - _Perfect Prog._ To have been dwelling. - -+159.+ Infinitives, like participles, may be used either as nouns or -adjectives. When used as nouns, they are used in the various ways in -which nouns are used. The infinitive may be the _subject_ of a sentence, -thus: - - _To hesitate_ now will be fatal. - _To be defeated_ is no crime. - -+160.+ The infinitive may be the _object_ or _complement_ of the verb. -For example: - - He wanted _to see_ you. - His desire is _to learn_. - -+161.+ The infinitive may be used as the object of a _preposition_; as, - - He is about _to go_. - They will do anything for the cause except _to live_ for it. - -+162.+ The infinitive may be used as an adjective to modify a noun. For -example: - - He showed me the way _to go_. - We must have food _to eat_ and clothes _to wear_. - The question _to be decided_ is before us. - Claim your right _to live_. - -+163.+ The infinitive may also be used as an adverb to modify the -meaning of a verb, adjective or adverb, thus: - - He was forced _to go_. - They are slow _to learn_. - The fruit was not ripe enough _to eat_. - -Note that the infinitives in these sentences may all be changed into -adverb phrases. As for example in the first sentence, He was forced _to -go_, the infinitive _to go_, which modifies the verb _forced_, may be -changed to the adverb phrase, _into going_, thus, _He was forced into -going_. In the second sentence, _They are slow to learn_, the infinitive -_to learn_ may be changed into the adverb phrase _in learning_, thus, -_They are slow in learning_. In the last sentence, _The fruit is not -ripe enough to eat_, the infinitive _to eat_, which modifies the adverb -_enough_, may be changed into the adverb phrase, _for eating_, as for -example, _The fruit was not ripe enough for eating_. - -+164.+ The infinitive is quite a useful form of the verb, and we will -find that we use it very frequently in expressing our ideas. While it is -not the asserting word in the sentence, it retains the nature of a verb -and may have both an object and an adverb modifier. As for example, in -the sentence: - - I wish _to learn_ my lesson quickly. - -_To learn_ is the infinitive, used as a noun, the object of the verb -_wish_. The infinitive also has an object, to learn--_what?_ _My lesson_ -is the object of the infinitive _to learn_. We also have an adverb -modifier in the adverb _quickly_, which tells _how_ I wish to learn my -lesson. So the infinitive retains its verb nature, in that it may have -an object and it may be modified by an adverb. - - - Exercise 3 - -Notice carefully the use of the infinitives in the following sentences. -Underscore all infinitives. - - 1. To remain ignorant is to remain a slave. - 2. Teach us to think and give us courage to act. - 3. Children love to be praised, but hate to be censured. - 4. To obey is the creed taught the working class by the masters. - 5. To be exploited has always been the fate of the workers. - 6. Ferrer wrote on his prison wall, "To love a woman passionately, to - have an ideal which I can serve, to have the desire to fight - until I win--what more can I wish or ask?" - 7. The people wish the man to be punished for the crime. - 8. Primitive man found plenty of wood to burn. - 9. We have learned to use coal and oil. - 10. The lecture to have been given this evening has been postponed. - 11. They are eager to hear the news. - 12. He has failed to come. - 13. We felt the house shake on its foundation. - 14. Have him find the book for me. - 15. To be defeated is no crime; never to have dared is the real crime. - 16. The rich will do anything for the poor except to get off their - backs. - 17. To have slept while others fought is your shame. - 18. Claim your right to do, to dream and to dare. - - - Exercise 4 - -Write sentences containing the six infinitive forms of the verb _obey_. - - - DON'TS FOR INFINITIVES - -+165.+ +Don't split your infinitives.+ Keep the _to_ and the infinitive -together as much as possible. Don't say, _They intended to never come -back_. Say rather, _They intended never to come back_. Sometimes, -however, the meaning can be more aptly expressed by placing the adverb -modifier between the _to_ and the infinitive, as for example: - - To almost succeed is not enough. - It will be found to far exceed our expectations. - -In these sentences the adverbs _almost_ and _far_ express our meaning -more closely if they are placed between the _to_ and the infinitive. -Ordinarily, however, do not split your infinitives, but place the adverb -modifier either before or after the infinitive. - -+166.+ +Don't use _to_ by itself without the rest of the infinitive.+ -Don't say, _Do as I tell you to_. Say instead, _Do as I tell you to do_; -or, _Do as I tell you_. Don't say, _He deceived us once and he is likely -to again_. Say rather, _He deceived us once and he is likely to deceive -us again_, or _to do so again_. - -+167.+ +Don't use _and_ for _to_. Don't say, _Try and go if you can_. -Say instead, _Try to go if you can_. - -Correct the following sentences: - - We ought to bravely fight for our rights. - I will do all my employer tells me to. - We shall try and get our lessons. - I ought to at least help my comrades but I am afraid to. - - - Exercise 5 - -Study carefully the infinitives in the following quotation. Notice which -are active and which are passive infinitives. - - The twenty thousand men prematurely slain on a field of battle, mean, - to the women of their race, twenty thousand human creatures _to be - borne_ within them for months, _to be given_ birth to in anguish, _to - be fed_ from their breasts and _to be reared_ with toil, if the - members of the tribe and the strength of the nation are _to be - maintained_. In nations continually at war, incessant and unbroken - child-bearing is by war imposed on all women if the state is _to - survive_; and whenever war occurs, if numbers are _to be maintained_, - there must be an increased child-bearing and rearing. This throws upon - woman, as woman, a war tax, compared with which all that the male - expends in military preparations is comparatively light. - - It is especially in the domain of war that we, the bearers of men's - bodies, who supply its most valuable munition, who, not amid the - clamor and ardor of battle, but singly, and alone, with a - three-in-the-morning courage, shed our blood and face death that the - battle-field might have its food, a food more precious to us than our - heart's blood; it is we, especially, who, in the domain of war, have - our word _to say_, a word no man can say for us. It is our intention - _to enter_ into the domain of war and _to labor_ there till in the - course of generations we have extinguished it.--_Olive Schreiner_. - - - Exercise 6 - -Mark the participles and infinitives. - - Gold! Gold! Gold! Gold! - Bright and yellow, hard and cold, - Molten, graven, hammer'd and roll'd; - Heavy to get, and light to hold; - Hoarded, barter'd, bought, and sold, - Stolen, borrow'd, squander'd, doled: - Spurn'd by the young, but hugg'd by the old - To the very verge of the churchyard mould; - Price of many a crime untold: - Gold! Gold! Gold! Gold! - Good or bad a thousand-fold! - How widely its agencies vary-- - To save--to ruin--to curse--to bless-- - As even its minted coins express, - Now stamp'd with the image of Good Queen Bess, - And now of a bloody Mary.--_Thos. Hood_. - - - - - SPELLING - - LESSON 9 - - -In our English lessons, we have been studying the division of words into -parts of speech. We have been studying them as we use them in expressing -our thoughts but we may study them in other ways also. We may study them -as words alone. - -Studied in this way we find that we have simple, compound and derivative -words. For example, _man_, _man-slaughter_, _manly_. _Man_ is a simple -word. _Man-slaughter_ is a compound word formed of two simple words. -_Manly_ is a derivative word derived from _man_. - -When a compound word is first formed, it is usually written with a -hyphen; but after the word has been used awhile the hyphen is often -dropped and the two parts are written together as a simple word. - -+A simple word is a single word which cannot be divided into other words -without changing its meaning.+ - -+A compound word is composed of two or more simple words into which it -may be divided, each retaining its own meaning.+ - -+A derivative word is one which is derived from a simple word by the -addition of another syllable.+ - -In next week's lesson we will take up the study of these derivatives. - -Divide the compound words in this week's lesson into the simple words of -which they are composed. - - +Monday+ - - Birthday - Coal-tar - Craftsman - Foreman - Gunpowder - - +Tuesday+ - - Handkerchief - Headquarters - Lawsuit - Lockout - Bookkeeper - - +Wednesday+ - - Motorman - Newspaper - Pasteboard - Postage-stamp - Postmaster - - +Thursday+ - - Salesman - Second-hand - Shirtwaist - Sidewalk - Staircase - - +Friday+ - - Trademark - Time-table - Typewriter - Tableware - Sewing-machine - - +Saturday+ - - Undergarment - Underhand - Water-mark - Woodwork - Workshop - - - - - PLAIN ENGLISH - - LESSON 10 - - -Dear Comrade: - -We have been studying this course in Plain English for some weeks now -and I trust that you have been enjoying as well as benefiting by the -study of our wonderful and expressive language. Did you ever stop to -think what a wonderful step it was in evolution when man first began to -use the spoken word? And yet it was a still more wonderful step in -advance when he began to use the written word for our highest evolution, -and development would have been impossible without the help of written -speech. An illiterate man may be a good workman and prosperous so far as -the material things of life and his immediate contact with his fellow -men are concerned, but we have only to think for a moment of what this -world would be if we had no written language, to understand what a -mighty power it has been in evolution. - -Suppose we had no way by which we could communicate with our friends at -a distance. Suppose there were no written words by which we could set -down the countless dealings between man and man. What a hopeless tangle -this social life of ours would soon become! Suppose also that we had no -knowledge of the past, no knowledge of the discoveries and inventions of -past generations except that which could be handed down to us through -oral speech. All our knowledge of history, of the deeds and development -of the past, all the observations by which science has uncovered to us -the mysteries of nature would be largely lost to us. It was the -invention of writing alone which made possible man's growth from -barbarism to civilization, and it is more true than we oftentimes -realize, that it is "only a wall of books that separates the civilized -man of to-day from the savage of yesterday." And yet I wonder if we have -ever stopped to think how this art of writing developed. Knowledge of -the alphabet and of the letters by which we form our words and hence are -able to express our ideas, has become such a common-place thing to us -that we have forgotten what a wonder it is and how it has slowly grown -and developed through the centuries. Yet there are races to-day that -have no written language such as we know and to whom our written -language seems truly a miracle. - -The story is told of an Indian who was sent from one colony to another -with four loaves of bread accompanied by a letter stating their number. -The Indian ate one of the loaves and of course, was found out. The next -time when he was sent upon a similar errand he repeated the theft but he -took the precaution to hide the letter under a stone while he was eating -the bread so that it might not see him! - -But it is only the things that we do not understand which we invest with -mystery and as we study the story of the alphabet in this series of -letters we find that it has been a natural development accomplished by -the growing powers of man. In succeeding letters we will trace this most -interesting story of the alphabet. - - Yours for Education, - - THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. - - - HELPING VERBS - -+168.+ We have found that whenever a verb is used by itself in making an -assertion it denotes either present or past time. When we use a verb -phrase, it expresses some other time than the past or present. These -verb phrases are formed by using _shall_, _will_, _have_, _had_, and the -various forms of the verb _be_ with some form of the principal verb. -These verbs which help to form verb phrases are called _helping_, or -_auxiliary verbs_. Auxiliary means helping. - -We have used _have_ and _had_ with the past participle to form the -present perfect and past perfect time forms. We have used _shall_ and -_will_ with different forms of the verb to denote future time, and we -have used different forms of the verb _be_ in making the various other -time forms. So _shall_, _will_, _have_, _had_ and the various forms of -the verb _be_ are _helping verbs_, which we use to help us in making -verb phrases. - -+169.+ But these are not all of the helping verbs. There are other -helping verbs which we use in forming verb phrases to express different -ideas. These are such verbs as _should_ and _would_, _may_ and _might_, -_can_ and _could_, _must_ and _ought_, _do_ and _did_. - - - Exercise 1 - -Fill the blank spaces in the following sentences with the appropriate -forms of the helping verbs, _shall_, _will_, _have_, _had_ and _be_. - - 1. When......the workers organize? - 2. Education......help us win. - 3. The world......had enough of war. - 4. We......deceived by the masters. - 5. The workers......organized into craft unions. - 6. They......never ceased the struggle. - 7. The state......founded on exploitation. - 8. Mutual aid......been an important factor in evolution. - 9. The truth......taught to the people. - 10. The victory......gained by the proletariat. - 11. The nations of Europe......preparing for war for years. - 12. The International......recognized war for defense. - 13. We......not made the class distinctions, but we......recognize - them as long as they exist. - 14. The evolution of animals and the evolution of - plants......proceeded according to the same general laws. - 15. We......never win while the majority remains ignorant. - 16. The strikers......betrayed by their leaders. - - - SHOULD AND WOULD - -+170.+ _Should_ and _would_ are the past-time forms of _shall_ and -_will_. We use them to express action or existence dependent upon some -condition, thus: - - I should go if I were well enough. - He should join us if you asked him. - -In these sentences _should_ and _would_ express action which is possible -now or will be in the future, provided some other action takes place. - -The same distinction which we found made in the use _shall_ and _will_ -has been made with _should_ and _would_; that is, that _should_ used -with the first person, expresses action dependent upon condition; but -_would_, used with the first person, implies exercise of the will. This -rule is not closely followed, though it expresses a nice distinction in -the use of _should_ and _would_. In ordinary usage we use either -_should_ or _would_ with the first person without any distinction of -meaning, as for example: - - I should struggle on even if it meant death. - I would stand for my principles though I stood entirely alone. - -We do not use _should_ however, with the second and third persons to -express an action or existence dependent upon some condition. _Should_ -used with the second and third person implies obligation. _Would_ is -used with the second or third person to express an action dependent upon -some condition, as for example: - - He would not go, even if you insisted. - They would come if you invited them. - You would believe him if you could hear him. - You would be surprised if I should tell you the reason. - -+171.+ _Should_ and _would_ in all of the sentences which we have quoted -are used to express action or existence dependent upon some condition -which is expressed in that part of the sentence introduced by such -conjunctions as _if_ and _though_. - -The parts of the sentence introduced by these conjunctions express the -condition upon which the other action is dependent. When we use _should_ -in sentences without this condition, it means practically the same as -_ought_, and implies an obligation. We use _should_ with the first and -second and third persons when we use it with this meaning, as for -example: - - I should have gone yesterday. - You should be with us in this fight. - They should never fear defeat. - -+172.+ _Ought_ could be used in all these sentences and express -practically the same meaning. _Should_ used in this way implies -obligation. - - - Exercise 2 - -Study carefully the following sentences. Write in the blank space -preceding each sentence the number of the paragraph in the lesson which -governs the use of the helping verb in that sentence. - - 1. ...... The workers should organize if they desire to control - production. - 2. ...... The proletariat would destroy this system if they - understood their power. - 3. ...... Every worker would join his fellows if he could but realize - the class struggle. - 4. ...... We would all enjoy plenty if we produced for use instead of - for profit. - 5. ...... The ruling class would not give up their privileges even - though they knew that their cupidity endangers society. - 6. ...... The injury of one should be the injury of all. - 7. ...... The workers' International should stand for the - international solidarity of the workers. - 8. ...... You should never fear the ridicule of little minds. - 9. ...... You would never fear ridicule if you were conscious of your - own power. - 10. ...... No man should fear to think for himself. - 11. ...... No man would fear to think for himself if the world were - truly free. - 12. ...... Compromise now would mean defeat. - - - MAY AND MIGHT - -+173.+ _May_ used as a helping verb means present permission in regard -to an action or possession, as: - - You may come with us. - He may have the money. - -+174.+ It may also mean a possible action or possession. _You may come -with us_, for example, might mean that some time in the future it is -possible that you will come with us. _He may have the money_, might mean -either _He is given permission to have the money_, or _It is possible -that he has it_. - -_May_, used with many verb forms, means _it is possible_. For example: -_He may be hungry_, _He may have starved_. _He may have been starving_; -that is, it is possible that _he is hungry_; that _he has starved_; that -_he was starving_. - -+175.+ _Might_ is the past form of _may_ and expresses past permission -to do or to be and also possibility in the past. For example: _The -officer said he might go_. That is, he gave him permission to go. _You -might have helped your comrades_; that is, _you had the power to have -helped_. - -_Might_ is also used to express permission or the power to do in the -present and future, on condition. For example: - - He might find work if he were trained. - The workers might destroy this insane system if they would. - - - Exercise 3 - -Study carefully the following sentences. Write in the blank space -preceding each sentence the number of the paragraph in the lesson which -governs the use of the helping verbs _may_ or _might_ in that sentence. - - 1. ...... The solidarity of the workers might have averted this war. - 2. ...... "Of all sad words of tongue or pen, - The saddest are these--'it might have been.'" - 3. ...... You might join us. - 4. ...... The people struggle that they may live. - 5. ...... Try; you might succeed. - 6. ...... The day may come when this day's deeds shall be remembered. - 7. ...... Victory might be ours if we dared to face the issue. - 8. ...... "Men may come and men may go; - But I go on forever." - 9. ...... It seemed possible that we might win. - 10. ...... May we ever be loyal and true! - 11. ...... It appeared for a time that we might be involved in war. - 12. ...... Let come what may, we will not yield. - - - CAN AND COULD - -+176.+ _Can_ is the present-time form and _could_ the past-time form, -and both imply ability or power to do or to be. _You can go_ means _You -are able to go_,--_You have the power to go_. _You may go_ means _You -have permission to go_. _Can_ is often used when we should use _may_, -when we mean to give permission. Habit plays a great part in our life -and knowledge of the right way does not always suffice. It is only -continued effort that will establish correct habits of speech. Good -English would be easy of accomplishment if "to do were as easy as to -know what it were good to do." - -We are too often like the mother in the story. "Can I have a piece of -pie?" asked the child. "May I?" the mother corrected. Then the child -asked, "May I have a piece of pie?" and the mother answered, "Yes, you -can." Knowledge said, _may_; habit said _can_, and the ready tongue -obeyed the force of habit. - -Say the correct word over and over aloud until it sounds right to your -ear and flows readily to your tongue. - -+177.+ _Could_ is sometimes used in the present sense to denote power to -do, conditioned upon willingness, as: - - He could if he would. - - - Exercise 4 - -Study carefully the following sentences. Write in the blank space -preceding each sentence the number of the paragraph in the lesson which -governs the use of the helping verbs _can_ or _could_ in that sentence. - - 1. ...... I can say love when others say hate; - I can say every man when others say one man; - What can I do? I can give myself to life, - When other men refuse themselves to life. - 2. ...... No one can be free till all are free. - 3. ...... They could win their freedom if they would prepare - themselves to be free. - 4. ...... What can I do, being alone? - 5. ...... If all men could catch the vision of freedom, wars would - cease. - 6. ...... Could you find a better way to spend your time than in - study? - 7. ...... Men would rise in revolt if they could know the facts. - - - MUST AND OUGHT - -+178.+ _Must_ and _ought_ imply obligation. _Must_ conveys the idea of -being obliged to do an action from necessity or compulsion, as, - - You must have known it. - He must go. - -_Ought_ was originally the past time form of _owe_, hence means _to be -indebted to_, _to owe_. It conveys the idea of a moral obligation, as, - - You ought to help the cause. - You ought to understand. - -+179+. _Ought_ is always used with the infinitive, and the same form is -used to express both the present and the past time. The difference in -time is expressed by a change in the infinitive instead of a change in -the form of the helping verb. With _may_ and _might_ and _can_ and -_could_, present and past time are expressed by a change in the form of -the helping verb. With the helping verb _ought_, the difference in time -is expressed in the infinitive. For example: - - He ought to pay us our wages. - -This means, _He owes it to us to pay us our wages now_. - - He ought to have paid us our wages. - -This means, _He owed it to us to pay us our wages some time in the -past_. - -+180.+ The present infinitive is used with the helping verb _ought_ to -express present time and the perfect infinitive is used with _ought_ to -express past time. - - - Exercise 5 - -Study carefully the following sentences. Write in the blank space -preceding each sentence the number of the paragraph in the lesson which -governs the use of the helping verb _must_ or _ought_ in that sentence. - - 1. ...... Service must be the key note of the future. - 2. ...... Competition must give place to co-operation. - 3. ...... Ought we to fear, who know the truth? - 4. ...... Government ought to be the administration of things. - 5. ...... No man ought to have the power of life and death over any - other human being. - 6. ...... It may cost much but humanity must be set free at any cost. - 7. ...... What ought to be the attitude of the workers toward war? - 8. ...... "For man must work and woman must weep, - For there is little to do and many to keep." - 9. ...... The day must come when we can live the dream. - - - DO AND DID - -+181.+ _Do_ and _did_ are used as helping verbs to give emphasis--to -form emphatic verb phrases. _Do_ is the present time form and _did_ the -past time form, as for example: - - I do wish you would come. - I did hope he would win. - -+182.+ When we use the negative _not_ we use the helping verbs _do_ and -_did_ to form our verb phrases. For example, we do not say: - - I obey not. - I walked not. - He comes not. - They arrived not. - -But in expressing the present and past time forms with the negative -_not_, we say instead: - - I do not obey. - I did not walk. - He does not come. - They did not arrive. - -+183.+ We also use _do_ and _did_ with the present and past time forms -of the verb in writing interrogative sentences. For example, we do not -say: - - Comes he with them? - Studied you yesterday? - Found they the book? - Think you it is true? - -But we say instead: - - Does he come with them? - Did you study yesterday? - Did they find the book? - Do you think it is true? - - - Exercise 6 - -Write in the blank space before each sentence the number of the -paragraph which governs the use of the helping verb _do_ or _did_ in -that sentence. - - 1. ...... Slaves do not think; they obey. - 2. ...... Men do not obey; they think. - 3. ...... Do you know that two per cent of the people own sixty per - cent of the wealth? - 4. ...... The children of the masses do not have the opportunity to - attend school. - 5. ...... Did not every nation claim a war for defense? - 6. ...... "We did not dare to breathe a prayer, - Or give our anguish scope." - 7. ...... We do desire the freedom of the people. - 8. ...... We did hope that war might be averted. - -+Let us sum up the auxiliary or helping verbs.+ - -+184.+ Helping verbs are used to express: - - +The different time forms+--_shall_, _will_, _have_, _had_, _be_. - +Power to do or to be+--_can_, _could_, _might_. - +Permission+--_may_ and _might_. - +Possibility+--_may_ and _might_. - +Obligation+--_must_, _ought_ and _should_. - +Necessity+--_must_. - +Condition+--_would_. - -Mark the helping verbs in the following exercise: - - - Exercise 7 - - The earth shall rise on new foundations. - We have been naught, we shall be all. - No more tradition's chains shall bind us. - Oh! Liberty! Can man resign thee? - Can dungeon's bolts and bars confine thee? - Capital could never have existed if labor had not first existed. - What can I do? I can talk out when others are silent. I can say man - when others say money. - Do you hear the children weeping, O my brothers? - Political freedom can exist only where there is industrial freedom. - Political democracy can exist only where there is industrial - democracy. - Who would be free, themselves must strike the blow. - If there is anything that cannot bear free thought, let it crack. - No doctrine, however established, should be protected from discussion. - Society can overlook murder, adultery or swindling; it never forgives - the preaching of a new gospel. - The tree of liberty must be refreshed from time to time with the - blood of patriots and tyrants. - Every man is a consumer and ought to be a producer. - No picture of life can have any variety which does not admit the - odious facts. - I know not what course others may take, but as for me, give me liberty - or give me death. - - - Exercise 8 - -Note the use of the helping verbs in the following quotation. Could you -use _might_ or _must_ or _ought_ anywhere and strengthen the emphasis? - - "I have looked at this claim by the light of history and my own - confidence, and it seems to me, so looked at, to be a most just claim, - and that resistance to it means nothing short of a denial of the whole - of civilization. - - This then is the claim: - - It is right and necessary that all men should have work to do which - shall be worth doing and be of itself pleasant to do; and which should - be done under such conditions as would make it neither over-wearisome - nor over-anxious. - - Turn that claim about as I may, think of it as long as I can, I cannot - find that it is an exorbitant claim; yet if society would or could - admit it, the face of the earth would be changed; discontent and - strife and dishonesty would be ended. To feel that we were doing work - useful to others and pleasant to ourselves, and that such work and its - due reward could not fail us! What serious harm could happen to us - then? And the price to be paid for so making the world happy, must be - revolution."--_William Morris_. - - - - - SPELLING - - LESSON 10 - - -Simple words are sometimes spoken of as root words. _Root_ means that -from which something grows. We know our language is a living, growing -thing and these root words are the roots where the growth begins. One -way in which this growth is accomplished and new words added to our -language is by placing syllables before or after the root word--the -simple word--as, for example: _unmanly_. - -In this we have a syllable placed before and a syllable placed after the -root word _man_. The syllable placed before the root word is called the -prefix from the Latin _pre_ meaning _before_ and the Latin word to -place. Therefore, prefix means literally _to place before_. - -+A prefix consists of one or more syllables placed before a word -to qualify its meaning.+ - -The syllable placed after the root word, or simple word, is called the -suffix, from the Latin _sub_ meaning after and the Latin word to place. -_Subfix_ the word should be literally, but for the sake of the -sound--the euphony, the good sound--we say _suffix_. - -+A suffix consists of one or more syllables placed after a word to -qualify its meaning.+ - -+The words made by adding prefixes and suffixes are called derivative -words.+ - -You remember we used a suffix in forming participles. The present -participle is formed by adding the suffix _ing_ to the simple form of -the verb. The past participle is formed by adding the suffix _ed_ to the -simple form of the verb. - -The words in the spelling lesson for this week are derivative words -formed by adding a prefix or suffix, or both, to the simple word. Draw a -line through the prefix and the suffix and leave the simple or root -word. - - +Monday+ - - Wonderful - Prosperous - Disloyalty - Uncovered - Government - - +Tuesday+ - - Memorize - Unreality - Co-operation - Dependent - Truly - - +Wednesday+ - - Beautify - Countless - Uncomfortable - Dishonesty - Producer - - +Thursday+ - - Existence - Untruthfulness - Discontentment - Victory - Removable - - +Friday+ - - Impurity - Unwillingness - Indebted - Overwearisome - Enjoyable - - +Saturday+ - - Obligation - Hopeless - Endanger - Precaution - Denial - - - - - PLAIN ENGLISH - - LESSON 11 - - -Dear Comrade: - -As we begin the study of the story of the alphabet and the evolution of -written speech, we discover that primitive man imagined the art of -writing to have had divine origin, to have been handed down from the -powers above. - -It is natural for us to personify and envelop in mystery the things that -we do not understand. So these primitive people have attributed the -discovery of the art of writing to the gods and have looked upon the -parchment containing the written word which they cannot understand, as -possessing magical power; but as we come to learn the origin and causes -of things, they are divested of their mystery and become no longer gods -and enslavers of men. We understand the laws that govern their action -and they become our servants. Take lightning for example. Primitive -people personified the lightning or called it the thunder bolts of Jove -or attributed it to an act of divine providence. We have learned the -laws that govern the action of electricity and so this mighty giant is -no longer a god to whom we bow in submission, and who slays us at his -whim. He has become our most faithful servant who travels along the -wires at our behest and obeys our every bidding. So in the early stages, -the art of writing belonged only to the favored few and was made the -means of enslavement of the common people instead of the means of -liberation. - -Knowledge has always been power and the ruling classes of the world, -desiring power over the people, have striven to keep knowledge within -their own circle; so the art of writing was known only to the few. The -few books in circulation were laboriously written by hand and -circulated, largely among the clergy, who used it as priests have ever -used their power--from medicine man to Pope,--for the enslavement of the -people and the protection of the privileges of a few. This is aptly -illustrated in the law which was known as "the benefit of clergy" which -was not entirely repealed until the year 1827. Under this statute, -exemption from trial for criminal offenses was given to the clergy and -also to any man who could read. If a person were sentenced to death for -some criminal offense, the bishop of that community might claim him as a -clerk and if, when given a Latin book, he could read a verse or two, the -court would declare "he reads like a clerk" and the offender was only -burned in the hand and then set free. - -The invention of the printing press in the fifteenth century which made -possible the diffusion of knowledge among the people, was the beginning -of the emancipation of the workers of the world. But while we realize, -perhaps, what this art of writing means to us and by the knowledge of -its growth and development no longer ascribe it to divine origin or -consider it a blessing designed by a supreme being for a favored few, -still most of us know very little of the interesting evolution which -made possible the alphabet which is the basis of our written and spoken -language of to-day. When we realize how through all these long centuries -man has been struggling, striving, evolving, developing, reaching out -toward fuller, freer and richer life, it gives us courage in our -struggle and makes us see ourselves, not as individuals alone, but as -links in a mighty chain clasping hands with that primitive man of the -past, from whom we have inherited the power we now possess, and reaching -forth also to clasp the hands of those who shall come and handing on to -them the things for which we have struggled and added to the inheritance -of the past. - -Next week we will have the story of man's first beginning in the art of -writing. - - Yours for Education, - - THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. - - - THE VERB "BE" - -+185.+ The verb is perhaps the most difficult part of speech to master -because it has more form changes than any other part of speech. - -In this lesson we are going to emphasize the most important things to -remember in the study of the verb and also call attention to the most -common mistakes. - -+186.+ First, master that little verb be in all its forms. The only way -to do this is to commit to memory these forms. Say them over and over -until any other form does not sound right. - - +Present+ +Past+ +Future+ - - _Singular_ _Singular_ _Singular_ - - 1. I am. I was. I shall be. - 2. You are. You were. You will be. - 3. He is. He was. He will be. - - _Plural_ _Plural_ _Plural_ - - 1. We are. We were. We shall be. - 2. You are. You were. You will be. - 3. They are. They were. They will be. - - _Pres. Perf._ _Past Perf._ _Fut. Perf._ - - Have been. Had been. Shall have been. - -+187.+ Do not use _aint_ for _is not_ or _am not_. Do not say, _He aint -here_, or _I aint going_. Say, _He isn't here_; _I am not going_. - - - A FREQUENT MISTAKE - -+188.+ Perhaps one of the most frequent mistakes is the confusion in the -use of the past time form and the past participle. Remember that the -past time form is never used except in expressing past time; never use -it in forming a verb phrase. Take the verb _do_, for example--say, _He -did the work_, never, _He done the work_; but we should say, _He has -done the work_, never, _He has did the work_. _Say_ and _seen_ are -confused in the same manner. Watch this carefully. - - - Exercise 1 - -Underline the correct word in the following: - - 1. Who did--done it? - 2. He sung--sang well. - 3. He sunk--sank before we could reach him. - 4. She written--wrote him a letter. - 5. He taken--took the book. - 6. They swum--swam the river. - 7. I saw--seen him do it. - 8. They drank--drunk too much. - 9. He soon began--begun to fail. - 10. The lad ran--run home. - 11. They come--came yesterday. - - - WITH HELPING VERBS - -+189.+ Never use the past time form with the helping verbs _has_, _had_, -_was_ and _were_. Always use the past participle. Watch this carefully. -For example, never say, _He has went_. _Went_ is the past time form. -Say, _He has gone_. - - - Exercise 2 - -Underscore the correct word in the following sentences: - - 1. He had tore--torn the book. - 2. Have you ever sang--sung this tune? - 3. They have showed--shown us how to win. - 4. She has went--gone away. - 5. The trees were shook--shaken by the wind. - 6. He was chose--chosen for leader. - 7. He has rose--risen from the ranks. - 8. It was wrote--written by him. - 9. He has took--taken the prize. - 10. He was gave--given the money. - 11. I have forgot--forgotten the rule. - 12. The river was froze--frozen over. - 13. The machine was broke--broken. - 14. It was wore--worn out. - 15. The meal was ate--eaten in silence. - - - PAST TIME FORMS - -+190.+ Watch your speech to see if you use an incorrect verb form for -the past time form. Study the table of irregular verbs and refer to it -frequently. We often make the mistake of forming the past time form by -adding _ed_ when properly it is formed irregularly. For example: we -often say _drawed_ for _drew_, _throwed_ for _threw_, etc. - - - Exercise 3 - -Draw a line under the correct form in the following: - - 1. He grew--growed rapidly. - 2. He knew--knowed better. - 3. He catched--caught the ball. - 4. He drew--drawed the water. - 5. They threw--throwed him over. - 6. I drinked--drank the water. - 7. I climbed--clumb the tree. - 8. I seed--saw him do it. - 9. She teached--taught school. - - - VERBS OF SIMILAR FORM - -+191.+ Do not use one verb for another of similar form but different -meaning. The following are the most common of these: - -+Lay+ (incomplete verb, requires an object) meaning to place or to put; -as, _to lay the book down_. Principal parts: _Present_, lay; _Past_, -laid; _Past participle_, laid. - -+Lie+ (complete verb, takes no object) meaning to recline, to rest; as, -_to lie in bed_. Principal parts: _Present_, lie; _Past_, lay; _Past -participle_, lain. - -+Set+ (incomplete verb, requires an object) meaning to place or to put; -as, _to set the table_. Principal parts: _Present_, set; _Past_, set; -_Past participle_, set. - -+Sit+ (complete verb, takes no object) meaning to rest, as, _to sit in a -chair_. Principal parts: _Present_, sit; _Past_, sat; _Past participle_, -sat. - -+Raise+ (incomplete verb, requires an object) meaning to cause to rise, -to lift up. Principal parts: _Present_, raise; _Past_, raised; _Past -participle_, raised. - -+Rise+ (complete verb, takes no object) meaning to get up, to ascend. -Principal parts: _Present_, rise; _Past_, rose; _Past participle_, -risen. - -+192.+ +NOTE--These three verbs need an object to complete their -meaning:+ - - _Present_ _Past_ _Past Participle_ - - set set set - lay laid laid - raise raised raised - -+193.+ +NOTE--These three verbs need no object:+ - - _Present_ _Past_ _Past Participle_ - - sit sat sat - lie lay lain - rise rose risen - - - Exercise 4 - -Fill in the following blanks with the correct form of the verbs _sit_, -_set_, _lay_, _lie_, _raise_ and _rise_: - - 1. I......it on the table and there it....... - 2. They......the battle ship, Maine. - 3. Where did you......it? - 4. A mile of pipe has been....... - 5. The miners......a large strike fund. - 6. She......down to sleep. - 7. The body......in state three days. - 8. The farmers of the U. S.......an enormous wheat crop. - 9. The city......on the right bank. - 10. We have......the corner stone. - 11. When wages are......, prices are......too. - 12. He......in bed all morning. - 13. ......down Fido. - 14. The sun......at six this morning. - 15. She has been......there all day. - 16. The ship......to during the storm. - 17. They have been......new tracks. - 18. The hen is......on the eggs. - 19. Somebody said, "Early to bed and early to......, - Makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise." - 20. He......motionless for an hour. - 21. He......out the trees in rows. - 22. He will......in his position. - 23. The court will......in May. - 24. Where did he......? - 25. She......the table while he......there. - 26. He......the clock for six o'clock. - 27. The water has......two feet since the rain. - 28. He......the book down and......on it. - 29. The hen has been......a week. - 30. ......it on the table. - 31. He......in the shade and watched her......the plants. - - - COMMON ERRORS - -+194.+ Remember that in the present time form the third person singular -takes the s-form, but the s-form is never used _except_ with the _third -person singular_. We often make the mistake of using the _s-form_ with a -_plural_ subject. Notice carefully the following sentences, and correct -the errors. All of the sentences are wrong. - - 1. The days is getting shorter. - 2. The men has struck. - 3. The trains was late. - 4. These papers is written for you. - 5. You was disappointed, wasn't you? - 6. There is several coming. - 7. The nights was dark and cloudy. - 8. The clouds has gathered. - 9. They was anxious to come. - -+195.+ +When two subjects are connected by _and_, the s-form of the -verb must not be used+, unless both subjects refer to one person; as: - - The president and the secretary (two persons) were late. - The president and secretary (one person) was elected. - -+196.+ +But when the two subjects are connected by _or_ or _nor_ -then use the s-form of the verb+; as: - - Neither Germany nor Russia admits a war of offense. - Either the House or the Senate rejects the bill. - -+197.+ +Never use the infinitive sign _to_ by itself+; as: - - I have not written and do not expect _to_. - He has not gone nor does he intend _to_. - -+198.+ +Never use don't for doesn't.+ The use of _don't_ for _doesn't_ -is a very common mistake. _Don't_ is a contraction of _do not_ and -_doesn't_ of _does not_. When you are in doubt as to which to use, think -or speak the two words in full and see if the verb agrees with the -subject. _Do not_ is used with a plural subject, and _does not_ with a -singular subject. For example: _He don't believe me_. This sentence in -full would be, _He do not believe me_, which is incorrect. _He does not_ -(_doesn't_) _believe me_ is correct. Or, _They doesn't believe me_. This -sentence in full would read, _They does not believe me_, which is -incorrect. _They do not_ (_don't_) _believe me_ is correct. - -+199.+ +Do not use _has got_, or _have got_ for _must_.+ For -example, do not say, _We have got to go_. Say, _We must go_. Not, _He -has got to do what I say_; but, _He must do as I say_. - -+200.+ +Do not say _had ought_.+ For example: _You had ought to know -better_. Omit the _had_; it is unnecessary and incorrect. Say, _You -ought to know better_. - -+201.+ +Do not say _says I_ or _thinks I_.+ - - Says I, "Will you go?" - Says he, "That's what will happen." - Thinks I to myself, "I'll show you." - -These are incorrect. Say instead: - - I said, "Will you go?" - He said, "That's what will happen." - I thought, "I'll show you." - - - Exercise 5 - -Mark all the verbs in the following quotations and note carefully their -use. - - 1. Speak properly and in as few words as you can but always plainly; - for the end of speech is not ostentation but to be - understood.--_Penn_. - - 2. "Freedom's battle, once begun, - Bequeathed from bleeding sire to son, - Though baffled oft, is ever won." - -Note the use of _may_ and _can_ in this quotation: - - 3. Knowledge cannot be stolen from us. It cannot be bought or sold. We - may be poor, and the sheriff may come and sell our furniture, or - drive away our cow, or take our pet lamb and leave us homeless and - penniless; but he cannot lay the law's hand upon the jewelry of our - minds.--_E. Burritt_. - -Note the use of _shall_ and _will_ and _would_ and _should_ in the -following. Richard Grant White says: "I do not know in English -literature another passage in which the distinction between _shall_ and -_will_ and _would_ and _should_ is at once so elegantly, so variously, -so precisely, and so compactly illustrated." - - 4. "How long I shall love him I can no more tell, - Than, had I a fever, when I should be well. - My passion shall kill me before I will show it, - And yet I would give all the world he did know it; - But oh how I sigh, when I think, should he woo me, - I cannot refuse what I know would undo me." - - 5. I want it said of me by those who know me best that I always - plucked a thistle and planted a flower where I thought a flower - would grow.--_Abraham Lincoln_. - - - Exercise 6 - -Note the nouns as well as the verbs in the following quotation. Note -also the use of infinitives and participles. Mark every verb and use it -in a sentence of your own. - - - +Faith and Truth+ - - You say "Believe;" I say "Trust." - - Between those two words is a great gulf fixed. - - The idea that there can be a moral obligation to believe external - facts is unworthy of a freeman, but to trust is as much the true - nature of man as it is that of a babe to draw in its mother's - milk. - - You say "Creed;" I say "Faith." - - A creed at best is but a sorry caricature of a faith. - - Faith is the proper atmosphere of man, trust is his native buoyancy, - and his only obligation is to follow the highest law of his being. - - You have one supreme duty above all creeds and conventions--namely, - to think honestly, and say what you think. - - Have you doubts about your creed? say so; only thus has the true faith - ever advanced. - - It is not God, but the devil, who whispers: "Think at your peril!" - - Do you see flaws in the ancient structure of respectability and law - and order? Say so; only thus has the condition of man ever - improved. - - Have courage to be the heretic and traitor that you are by nature, and - do not worry about the consequences. - - Be a creator, as you were born to be, and spurn beyond all infamies - the wretched role of a repeater and apologist. - - The world lives and grows by heresy and treason. - - It dies by conformity to error and loyalty to wrong. - - _Ernest Crosby_. - - - Exercise 7 - -In the following paragraph, the predicates are printed in italics, and -the participles and infinitives in italic capitals. Study carefully. - - If it _were taught_ to every child, and in every school and college, - that it _is_ morally wrong for anyone _TO LIVE_ upon the _COMBINED_ - labor of his fellowmen without _CONTRIBUTING_ an approximately equal - amount of useful labor, whether physical or mental, in return, all - kinds of _GAMBLING_, as well as many other kinds of useless - occupations, _would be seen_ _TO BE_ of the same nature as direct - dishonesty or fraud, and, therefore _would_ soon _come_ _TO BE - CONSIDERED_ disgraceful as well as immoral. - - _Alfred Russel Wallace_. - - - Exercise 8 - -Underscore all the verbs in the following and note the participles, the -infinitives and the various time forms; also the helping verbs: - - What, speaking in quite unofficial language, is the net purport of - war? To my knowledge, for example, there dwell and toil, in the - British village of Dumrudge, usually some five hundred souls. From - these, by certain 'natural enemies' of the French, there are selected, - say thirty able-bodied men; Dumrudge, at her own expense, has suckled - and nursed them; she has, not without difficulty and sorrow, fed them - up to manhood and trained them in the crafts, so that one can weave, - another build and another hammer. Nevertheless, amidst much weeping - and swearing, they are selected; all dressed in red and shipped away, - at the public charges, some two thousand miles, or, say only to the - south of Spain, and fed there till wanted. And now to that same spot - in the south of Spain are thirty similar French artisans, in like - manner, wending their ways; till at length the thirty stand facing the - thirty, each with his gun in his hand. Straightway, the word 'Fire' is - given, and they blow the souls out of one another; and in the place of - the sixty brisk, useful craftsmen, the world has sixty dead carcasses, - which it must bury and anew shed tears for. - - Had these men any quarrel? Busy as the devil is, not the smallest! - They lived far enough apart; were the entirest strangers; nay, in so - wide a universe, there was even, unconsciously, by commerce, some - mutual helpfulness between them. - - How then? - - Simpleton! Their governors had fallen out; and instead of shooting one - another, had these poor blockheads shoot.--_Carlyle_. - - - - - SPELLING - - LESSON 11 - - -There are but few rules which can be learned to aid in the spelling of -English words. The spelling of words must be largely mastered by -concentration and effort of the memory. It will help you to memorize the -correct spelling if you will write each word a number of times. This -gives you a visual image of the word. Then spell it aloud a number of -times. This will give you an auditory image. - -Words which you find difficult to master, write in a list by themselves -and review frequently. There are a few rules, however, which are helpful -to know. There is one rule of spelling we want to learn this week -concerning words formed by adding a suffix. - -+A word of one syllable which ends in a single consonant before which -stands a single vowel, doubles the final consonant when a suffix -beginning with a vowel is added.+ - -For example: _mat_, _matted_, _matting_; _sun_, _sunned_, _sunning_. - -_Mat_ ends in _t_, a single consonant which is preceded by the single -vowel _a_,--so you double the _t_ when you add the suffix _ed_ or _ing_, -which begin with a vowel. - -Notice these: _Blend_, _blended_, _blending_; _Help_, _helped_, -_helping_. - -These words do not end in a single consonant, so you do not double the -consonant. - -Notice also: _Lean_, _leaned_, _leaning_; _Rain_, _rained_, _raining_. - -These words end in a single consonant, but before the consonant is a -double vowel, _ea_ in _lean_ and _ai_ in _rain_. So we do not double the -final consonant. - -This same rule holds true of any suffix, beginning with a vowel, as _er_ -and _est_, for example: _sad_, _sadder_, _saddest_. _Slim_, _slimmer_, -_slimmest_. - -Learn to spell the following words. Add the suffixes _ed_ and _ing_ to -the words for Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday. Add _er_ and _est_ to the -words for Thursday, Friday and Saturday. - - +Monday+ - - Chat - Cheat - Grin - Groan - Suit - - +Tuesday+ - - Sap - Soap - Bet - Beat - Rot - - +Wednesday+ - - Talk - Teach - Gain - Stir - Plan - - +Thursday+ - - Thin - Dear - Flat - Cheap - Straight - - +Friday+ - - Clean - Brief - Fair - Shrill - Wet - - +Saturday+ - - Strong - Great - Mad - Fleet - Fat - - - - - PLAIN ENGLISH - - LESSON 12 - - -Dear Comrade: - -In this lesson we are beginning the study of still another part of -speech. You will notice that in words, at least, we give credit and -place in society only because of _work performed_. In the society of -men, people are given place and position too often because of outward -dress and form or because of some special privilege. They are not given -their place in society because of the work which they do or because they -perform any useful function. In fact, in our topsy-turvy world, those -who perform no work at all, but are simply parasites upon society, have -claimed for themselves the best of everything and the highest positions. - -Surely some time we shall see a society as successfully organized as our -society of words, when men will be received, not because of that which -they possess, but because of that which they do and are. Man has really -laid the foundation for an ideal commonwealth in his organization of -words into a spoken and written language. - -When we think back across the centuries and think of the primitive man -as he dwelt in trees to protect himself from the wild animals, we wonder -what sort of speech he used then. Possibly it was only a little more -articulate than the speech of some animals. - -But man had within him the instinct to question, and this has been the -root of all his progress. We can imagine these primitive men witnessing -the wonder of fire, as the terrible unknown god of the lightning set -fire to the forest in which they lived; but after the fear had subsided, -some adventurous, inquiring forefather of ours ventured near the ashes, -and began to investigate concerning this fearful and wonderful thing. - -So gradually they discovered the use of fire, and with it a wonderful -new future opened before the primitive man. With these great -discoveries, he needed a better form of communication with his comrades, -so articulate speech developed. But when we go back into the beginning -of written speech, it is difficult for us to trace it to its beginning. - -The first evidence we find was of man as a sign maker. On the walls of -caves in France and Belgium and here in America, we have found rude -sketches which the scientists tell us date back to the Ice Age and the -Old Stone Age. Here the primitive man has drawn for us crude pictures -describing different phases of his life, the animals about him, the hunt -and the chase, and in these pictures we find the very beginning of our -alphabet of to-day. - -How much more wonderful it makes our spoken and written language to know -that man has developed it himself. It has not been handed down by some -god or powers above; but the spirit of rebellion against the things that -be; the great desire to know more and to find out the reason _why_ of -all the things around us,--these have been the forces that have led the -race from the animal-like beings that lived in trees to the race of -today that understands in a large measure the laws that govern life. - -It is only as we, through this spirit of rebellion, this same divine -discontent with the things that are, seek to do our own thinking that we -can add our share to the heritage of the race. Let us have the same -courage that must have inspired the heart of that primitive man who -dared to venture and inquire concerning the fearful things of nature -round about him. Let us think for ourselves. Ask always the question -"why" and demand the reason for all things. Thus we shall free ourselves -and help to free the race. - - Yours for Education, - - THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. - - - IN PLACE OF A NOUN - -+202.+ You remember in our study of the parts of speech we found that we -have one part of speech that can be used in place of a noun. This is a -very helpful part of speech for it saves us a great deal of tiresome -repetition. Notice the following sentences: - - John Smith is a machinist. - John Smith works at the machine. - The machine is John Smith's master. - -This is awkward and the repetition is tiresome. So we say instead: - - John Smith is a machinist. - He works at the machine. - It is his master. - -You readily understand who and what we mean by _he_ and _it_ and _his_, -and we will all agree that the latter is a much better way of making the -statements. These words like _he_ and _his_ and _it_, which we use in -place of the noun, we call _pronouns_. _Pro_ means literally in the -Latin, _for_ or _in place of_; so when we say pronoun we are practically -saying, in place of a noun. - -+A pronoun is a word that is used in place of a noun.+ - -+203.+ The word for which a pronoun stands or the noun in whose place it -is used is called its antecedent. _Ante_ means _before_ and _cedent_ -comes from the Latin word meaning _go_, hence antecedent means -literally, _going before_. - -Notice this sentence: _The manager spoke to the men before he left and -told them to stop at the office_. _Manager_ is the antecedent of the -pronoun _he_, and _men_ is the antecedent of the pronoun _them_. - -+The word for which a pronoun stands is called its antecedent.+ - - - KINDS OF PRONOUNS - -+204.+ The Latin language has had a great deal of influence upon -English. Many of our words are taken from the Latin. You remember that -all of the names of our parts of speech are derived from Latin words. We -also feel the influence of the Latin language in the way in which we -number our personal pronouns. The Romans naturally thought that one -would think of one's self first, and so the pronouns referring to one's -self, or the person speaking, are called the _first_ person pronouns. -They are, _I_, _my_, _mine_, _me_ and _we_, _our_, _ours_, and _us_. - -Then they naturally thought that one would think second of the person -spoken to, so the pronouns referring to the person spoken to are called -the _second_ person pronouns. Formerly _thou_ was used in speaking to -one person. In German and many other languages this form is still used, -but in English we do not today use the singular form _thou_ with its -variations, _thy_, _thine_, and _thee_, except in poetry or poetic -prose. In every-day speech we use _you_ and its forms, _your_ and -_yours_, for both the singular and the plural. - -Then the Romans considered last the person or thing of whom they were -speaking; so pronouns referring to the person or thing spoken of are -called the _third_ person pronouns. These are _he_, _she_, and _it_, -with their other forms, _his_, _him_, _her_, _hers_, _its_, in the -singular, and _they_, _their_, _theirs_ and _them_ in the plural. - -+A personal pronoun is one that denotes the speaker, the person spoken -to, or the person or thing spoken of.+ - - - COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS - -+205.+ All of these forms of pronouns which we have named are simple -forms; but we have several personal pronouns which have a compound form; -that is, a form made by the addition of _self_ or _selves_ to the simple -forms. - -These are called compound personal pronouns. They are, in the singular, -_myself_, _thyself_, _yourself_, _himself_, _herself_, _itself_, and in -the plural, _ourselves_, _yourselves_ and _themselves_. - -The compound personal pronouns have two uses, reflexive and emphatic. - - - Reflexive - -+206.+ A compound personal pronoun has a reflexive use when the actor -becomes the object of its own action or in other words when the subject -and the object refer to the same thing; as in this sentence, _He has -hurt himself_, _himself_ is the object of the incomplete verb _has -hurt_, but it refers to the subject _he_. Reflexive is from the Latin -_re_ meaning _back_ and from the Latin verb meaning _throw_, so -reflexive means literally _thrown_ back. These pronouns throw their -meaning back to the subject. - - - Emphatic - -+207.+ A compound personal pronoun has also an emphatic use when it -directs especial attention to the noun or pronoun to which it refers. -For example in the sentence, _He did the work himself_, or, _He, -himself, did the work_, _himself_ gives emphasis or intensifies the -meaning of the pronoun _he_. - -Remember a compound personal pronoun is correctly used only in these two -ways, reflexive and emphatic. For example, the following sentences are -incorrect: - - This is for yourself and your comrade. - Ourselves will find out the reason. - -The correct form would be: - - This is for you and your comrade. - We, ourselves, will find out the reason. - -+208.+ You can readily distinguish between the reflexive and the -emphatic use. In the reflexive, the compound personal pronoun is always -the _object_ of a verb or preposition, and the subject of the sentence -is its antecedent. The subject and the object always refer to the same -thing. - -In the emphatic use, the compound personal pronoun is neither the -subject nor the object, but is thrown into the sentence simply to render -it emphatic, and to call special attention to its antecedent. - - - Exercise 1 - -Supply the compound personal pronoun in the following blanks and tell -whether the use is reflexive or emphatic. - - 1. He discovered the truth....... - 2. The workers have robbed......by their ignorance. - 3. You must educate....... - 4. You must do the work....... - 5. He must defend....... - 6. Capitalism overreaches....... - 7. The people will rule....... - 8. We will settle the question....... - - -Write six sentences in which the compound personal pronouns are -correctly used. - - - SINGULAR AND PLURAL - -+209.+ Personal pronouns, like nouns, have number form. Nouns simply add -_s_ to the singular form to denote the plural, but in personal pronouns -we have different words which we use to express one or more than one -person or thing. In the first, second, and third person forms, personal -pronouns also have different forms for the object form, the possessive -and the subject form. The following table gives the singular and plural -of the subject form,--that is the form which is used as the subject of -the sentence. - - +Subject Form+ - - _Singular_ _Plural_ - - _First person._ I We - _Second person._ You You - _Third person._ He, she, it. They - - +Compound Personal Pronouns+ - - _Singular_ _Plural_ - - _First._ Myself Ourselves - _Second._ Yourself Yourselves - _Third._ Himself, herself, itself. Themselves - -+210.+ Remember that the first person refers to the person speaking, the -second to the person spoken to, and the third person to the person or -things spoken of. When we speak of things, we never use the first or -second person, unless we are speaking of them in a personified form. So -in the third person singular, we have the pronoun _it_ which refers to -one thing. In the plural, we have no special pronoun referring to -things, but the pronoun _they_ is used to refer both to persons and -things. - - - Exercise 2 - -Which of the following pronouns refer to the person speaking, which to -the person spoken to, and which to the person or thing spoken of? Which -are singular, which plural? - - I will defend my principles. - Give them to me for they are mine. - Do you believe him to be your friend? - We saw their mistake at once. - They acknowledged it was their fault. - Success will be your portion if you persevere. - He struggles for his rights; she does not understand her rights. - It forces us to struggle for our education. - Woman craves her freedom. - Workers of the world, unite; you have a world to gain and nothing to - lose but your chains. - -Form sentences of your own containing all these pronouns. - - - POSSESSIVE FORM - -+211.+ You will note in these sentences above that we have used the -pronoun _my_ and _your_ and _his_ and _her_ as _my principles_, _your -friend_, _his rights_, _her freedom_. This is the possessive form of -these personal pronouns, the form that denotes ownership or possession. -You remember that nouns had a possessive form, a form to denote -possession or ownership, as, _The man's book._ _The boy's school._ _The -worker's college._ So pronouns also have a possessive form which we use -to show that an object belongs to such and such a person or thing. If I -want to tell you that I own or possess a home, I say, _I own my home_. -Each personal pronoun has its possessive form, thus: - - +Singular+ - - _Subject Form_ _Possessive_ - - _First person._ I My, mine - _Second person._ You Your, yours - _Third person._ He, she, it His, her, hers, its - - +Plural+ - - _Subject Form_ _Possessive_ - - _First person._ We Our, ours - _Second person._ You Your, yours - _Third person._ They Their, theirs - - - POSSESSIVE FORM - -+212.+ You will notice that the possessive forms, _my_, _our_, _her_, -_your_, _its_, _his_ and _their_, are always used with the name of the -object possessed. As for example; _my work_, _our library_, _her -delight_, _your task_, _its purpose_, _his home_, _their mistake_. - -+213.+ The possessive forms, _mine_, _thine_, _hers_, _ours_, _yours_ -and _theirs_, are always used by themselves and are used either as -subject, object or complement. As for example: - - That letter is mine. - The work is hers. - Thine is the glory. - Is that yours? - Theirs not to reason why; theirs but to do and die. - -The possessive form _his_ may be used either in connection with the name -of the object possessed or by itself. For example: - - This is _his_ home. - This home is _his_. - - - OBJECT FORM - -+214.+ Pronouns have one form which nouns do not have. We use the same -form for the noun no matter whether it is the subject or the object. For -example: - - The man saw me. - I saw the man. - -In the first sentence _man_ is the subject of the verb _saw_, and in the -second sentence _man_ is the object of the verb _saw_. The same word is -used; but you will notice that in the first sentence _me_ is the object -of the verb _saw_, and in the second _I_ is the subject; yet both refer -to the same person, the first person, the person speaking. - -So we have a different form of the pronoun for the object, for example: -_I saw him._ _He saw me._ _She watched us._ _We watched her._ _You found -them._ _Him_, _me_, _us_, _her_, and _them_ in these sentences are used -as the objects of the verbs, _see_, _watch_ and _found_, and are called -the object forms of the pronouns. _You_ and _it_ have the same form for -both the subject and object; as, _You did it._ _It frightens you._ _Her_ -is used as both the possessive form and the object form, as, _Her work -tires her._ - -+215.+ The following table gives the subject and the object forms of the -personal pronouns, and these should never be confused in their usage. We -must not use the object form as the subject of the verb, nor the subject -form as the object of the verb. - - +Singular+ - - _Subject_ _Object_ - - _First._ I Me - _Second._ You You - _Third._ He, she, it Him, her, it - - - +Plural+ - - _Subject_ _Object_ - - _First._ We Us - _Second._ You You - _Third._ They Them - - - GENDER - -+216.+ You notice in all of these tables that there are three forms -given for the third person singular, _he_, _she_, and _it_. These are -the only forms in which pronouns express gender. In all other forms the -gender can be determined only by the gender of the antecedent. - -+He, representing a male, is masculine.+ - -+She, representing a female, is the feminine.+ - -+It represents a sexless thing, and hence is said to be of the neuter -gender.+ - - - THE LITTLE VERB _BE_ - -+217.+ You remember when we studied verbs, we had the incomplete verb -that took an object; the complete verb that needed no object, since it -was complete in itself; and one other kind of a verb. Do you remember -this third kind of verb? This third kind is the copulative verb, and the -copulative verb which we use most frequently is the one in the use of -which we make the most mistakes. - -It is that troublesome, bothersome, little verb _be_, which is so -difficult to master. You remember it is an incomplete verb, but instead -of taking an object, it takes a complement or completing word. So when -you see a pronoun with any form of this verb _be_, you must use the -_subject_ form and not the _object_ form. This copulative verb _be_ is -simply a connecting word, not a verb that asserts action or takes an -object. - -+218.+ Here is where we make so many mistakes. We say, _It was me_, _It -was them_, _It was him_, _It wasn't her_; instead of, _It was I_, _It -was they_, _It was he_, _It wasn't she_. We have used the incorrect form -in this particular so often that the correct form has a strange sound to -our ears. - -The only way to remedy this is to repeat over and over aloud the correct -form until it has a familiar sound. Don't think this is putting words, -as you should do in everything. We of the working class have built the -world in its beauty. Why should we live in shacks, dress in shoddy, talk -in slang? There is no reason except that we endure it. When the united -working class demands its own, it will receive it. Demand yours and -arouse the stupid from their sleep as rapidly as you can. - -Repeat the following sentences aloud ten times every day this week and -see if the correct form does not come to your lips more readily. We can -learn the rule, but only continued practice and watchfulness can break -us of our old habits. - - It is I who seek my own. - It shall be they who are defeated. - It was I who was ignorant. - It is they who cause all wars. - It is he who must be aroused. - It is we who strive for freedom. - It shall be I who shall win. - It was she who was enslaved. - It shall be we who shall demand equality. - It shall be they who shall conquer. - - - Agreement - -+219.+ Pronouns are very agreeable members of the co-operative -commonwealth of words. They strive to agree with their antecedents. -Sometimes we do not allow the pronoun to agree, and then our sentence is -incorrect. - -+A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number, gender and person.+ - -For example, if you are referring to one man, you must use a masculine -pronoun, singular, third person form, as _I saw the man but he did not -see me_. _Man_ is the antecedent. It is singular, masculine, third -person and so we use the pronoun _he_. - -_The girl came, but she could not stay._ In this sentence _girl_ is the -antecedent; it is singular, feminine, third person, and so we use the -pronoun _she_. - -_The boys did not come when the teacher called them._ In this sentence -_boys_ is the antecedent; it is plural, masculine, third person, and so -we use the pronoun _them_. - -+220.+ +Sometimes there are two words used as the antecedent, joined by -_and_.+ We use a singular pronoun in referring to them if they denote the -same person or thing; as: - - The secretary and treasurer (one person) resigned _his_ position. - My comrade and friend (one person) gave me _his_ help. - -+221.+ +But two nouns joined by _and_, that mean different persons or -things, must be represented by a plural pronoun, thus+: - - Marx and Engels (two persons) wrote _their_ call to liberty, the - Communist-Manifesto. - Men and women will struggle for _their_ freedom. - Childhood and youth should have _their_ rightful joys. - -+222.+ +Use the singular pronoun when the nouns are kept separate by the -use of _each_, _every_, _many a_, or _no_.+ - - Each man and boy must do _his_ part. (Not _their_ part.) - Every soldier and every officer must do _his_ duty. - Many a city and many a village gave _its_ best to the army. - No comrade and no Socialist will give _his_ consent to war. - -+223.+ +If you have two singular nouns as antecedents, joined by _or_, -or _nor_, use the singular pronoun+, thus: - - Either Germany or France must abandon _its_ position. - Neither Wilson nor Bryan kept _his_ promise to the people. - -+224.+ +When you use a collective noun and are speaking of the -collection as a whole, use a singular pronoun+, as: - - The committee will make _its_ report. - The audience was hearty in _its_ appreciation. - The jury has returned _its_ verdict. - -+225.+ +But if you are referring to the individuals of the collection -separately, use a plural pronoun+; as: - - The committee adjourned for _their_ dinner. - The audience kept _their_ seats until the close. - The jury argued until _their_ nerves were on edge. - - - PERSONIFICATION - -+226.+ We sometimes speak of things as if they were persons, and so use -either masculine or feminine pronouns in referring to them. Such objects -are said to be personified. Thus, we say: - - The sun his ceaseless course doth run. - The moon sheds her silvery ray. - Nature dons her robes of green. - -Here we speak of the sun as though it were a man or possessing the -qualities of a man and use the pronoun _his_. Then we speak of the moon -and nature as though they were women and use the pronoun in the feminine -form. - - - REMEMBER - -+227.+ +A pronoun must agree with its antecedent.+ - -+Use the subject form of the pronoun if the pronoun is the subject of -the sentence.+ - -+Use the object form when the pronoun is the object of a verb or a -preposition.+ - -+Use the compound personal pronouns only in their reflexive or emphatic -use.+ - -+With all forms of the verb _be_, use the subject form of the -pronouns.+ - - - SUMMARY - - SUBJECT POSSESSIVE OBJECT - First person (_Singular_ I my (mine) me - (_Plural_ we our (ours) us - - Second person (_Singular_ - (_Plural_ you your (yours) you - - Third person (_Sing. Masc._ he his him - (_Sing. Fem._ she her (hers) her - (_Sing. Neut._ it its it - (_Plural_ they their (theirs) them - - - Exercise 3 - -Read carefully the following beautiful dream of Olive Schreiner's. Mark -all of the personal pronouns and note carefully their use and by -referring to the table above decide just what form each pronoun is. -Watch carefully too for the antecedents of the pronouns and note the -agreement of the pronoun with its antecedent. - - - "I THOUGHT I STOOD" - - I. - - I thought I stood in Heaven before God's throne, and God asked me what - I had come for. I said I had come to arraign my brother, Man. - - God said, "What has he done?" - - I said, "He has taken my sister, Woman, and has stricken her and - wounded her and thrust her out into the streets; she lies there - prostrate. His hands are red with blood. I am here to arraign him; - that the kingdom be taken from him, because he is not worthy, and - given unto me. My hands are pure." - - I showed them. - - God said, "Thy hands are pure. Lift up thy robe." - - I raised it; my feet were red, blood-red, as if I had trodden in wine. - - God said, "How is this?" - - I said, "Dear Lord, the streets on earth are full of mire. If I should - walk straight on in them my outer robe might be bespotted, you see how - white it is! Therefore I pick my way." - - God said, "_On what?_" - - I was silent, and let my robe fall. I wrapped my mantle about my - head. I went out softly. I was afraid that the angels would see me. - - - II. - - Once more I stood at the gate of Heaven, I and another. We held fast - by one another; We were very tired. We looked up at the great gates; - angels opened them, and we went in. The mud was on our garments. We - walked across the marble floor, and up to the great throne. Then the - angels divided us. Her, they set upon the top step, but me, upon the - bottom; for, they said, "Last time this woman came here she left red - foot-marks on the floor; we had to wash them out with our tears. Let - her not go up." - - Then she with whom I came, looked back and stretched out her hands to - me; and I went and stood beside her. And the angels, they, the shining - ones who never sinned and never suffered, walked by us, to and fro, up - and down; I think we should have felt a little lonely there if it had - not been for one another, the angels were so bright. - - God asked me what I had come for; and I drew my sister forward a - little that He might see her. - - God said, "How is it you are here together today?" - - I said, "She was upon the ground in the street, and they passed over - her; I lay down by her, and she put her arms around my neck, and so I - lifted her, and we two rose together." - - God said, "Whom are you now come to accuse before Me?" - - I said, "We are come to accuse no man." - - And God bent and said, "My children--what is it that you seek?" - - And she beside me drew my hand that I should speak for both. - - I said, "We have come to ask that Thou shouldst speak to Man, our - brother, and give us a message for him that he might understand, and - that he might----" - - God said, "Go, take the message down to him!" - - I said, "But what _is_ the message?" - - God said, "Upon your hearts it is written; take it down to him." - - And we turned to go; the angels went with us to the door. They looked - at us. - - And one said, "Ah! but their dresses are beautiful!" - - And the other said, "I thought it was mire when they came in, but see, - it is all golden!" - - But another said, "Hush, it is the light from their faces!" - - And we went down to him. - - --_Olive Schreiner_. - - - The Cry of the People - - Tremble before your chattels, - Lords of the scheme of things! - Fighters of all earth's battles, - Ours is the might of kings! - Guided by seers and sages, - The world's heart-beat for a drum, - Snapping the chains of ages, - Out of the night we come! - - Lend us no ear that pities! - Offer no almoner's hand! - Alms for the builders of cities! - When will you understand? - Down with your pride of birth - And your golden gods of trade! - A man is worth to his mother, Earth, - All that a man has made! - - We are the workers and makers! - We are no longer dumb! - Tremble, O Shirkers and Takers! - Sweeping the earth--we come! - Ranked in the world-wide dawn, - Marching into the day! - The night is gone and the sword is drawn - And the scabbard is thrown away! - - --_Neihardt_. - - - SPELLING - - LESSON 12 - - -Last week we learned the rule governing the spelling of derivatives of -_one_ syllable ending in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel -when we add a suffix beginning with a vowel. - -The same rule applies to words of two or more syllables, accented on the -last syllable. - -For example: - - _Compel_, compelled, compelling. - _Prefer_, preferred, preferring. - -+Words accented on the last syllable, when they end in a single -consonant preceded by a single vowel, double the final consonant when -you add a suffix beginning with a vowel.+ - -When these words take a suffix that begins with a _consonant_, they do -_not_ double the final consonant; as, _preferment_. - -Words accented on any syllable but the last, do _not_ double the final -consonant; as, _offer_, _offered_, _offering_. - -Words that have two vowels before a single final consonant do not double -the final consonant; as, _reveal_, _revealed_, _revealing_. - -Words that end in a double consonant or any two consonants, keep the two -consonants, no matter what suffix they take; as, _indent_, _indented_; -_skill_, _skilled_, _skillful_. - -The only exception to this rule is when the addition of the suffix -throws the accent back to a preceding syllable. When this is the case, -the final consonant is not doubled. For example: _refer_, _referred_, -_ref'erence_; _confer_, _conferring_, _con'ference_. - -Look up the following words in the dictionary, watch for the accent, -mark and add the suffixes, _ed_, _ing_, _ence_ or _ance_, if possible. - - +Monday+ - - Repel - Alter - Prefer - Debar - Answer - - +Tuesday+ - - Inter - Offer - Demur - Wonder - Succeed - - +Wednesday+ - - Detain - Combat - Compel - Occur - Cancel - - +Thursday+ - - Permit - Travel - Repeal - Control - Profit - - +Friday+ - - Forbid - Neglect - Expel - Render - Infer - - +Saturday+ - - Benefit - Retain - Submit - Reveal - Limit - - - - - PLAIN ENGLISH - - LESSON 13 - - -Dear Comrade: - -Did you ever tie a knot in your handkerchief to help you remember to get -something you felt almost sure you would forget? Well, tying a knot in a -cord was one of the first ways devised by our ancestors of long ago to -aid them to remember. They also used this plan to send word to those at -a distance or to keep track of things for succeeding generations. A -relic of this old device of our forefathers is also found in the rosary -on which the Roman Catholic counts his beads as an aid to memory. - -There are some primitive tribes to-day who still use knotted strings as -an aid to memory. These consist of a main cord, and fastened at given -distances are finer cords of different colors. Each cord is knotted in -different ways to mean different things and each color, too, has its own -meaning. A red string stands for soldiers, a yellow for gold, and a -green for corn, and so on, while a single knot may mean ten, two single -knots twenty, a double knot 100, two double knots 200. In this way, they -keep a record of things, transmit orders and use them for various -purposes. - -Only a generation ago the tax gatherers in the Island of Hawaii kept -account of the assessable property on lines of cordage knotted in this -manner, and these cords in some cases were three thousand feet long. The -method of keeping track of things by means of a notched stick is easily -within the memory of many people living today. For in England in the -early part of the last century, accounts of debts to the government were -kept by means of tally sticks, which were merely notched sticks. - -Such methods as these were the only ways primitive man had of keeping -track of things before he had discovered the art of written speech. And -even after written speech was known and used, these old methods -persisted. - -Gradually, step by step, man has come along the path of progress. -Adventurous spirits, not satisfied with the old way of doing things, -sought new ways. The conservatives of their day thought them dangerous -people, no doubt, and feared that they would destroy the very -foundations of society. And this they oft-times did, but only that there -might rise a more perfect form of society. It is the seeking, -questioning mind that demands the reason for all things, that seeks ever -better ways of doing things. They have always throughout the ages -refused to bow to the authority of the past but have dared to live their -own lives. To them we owe the progress of the world and we are the -inheritors of their spirit. - -Let us prove our kinship by daring to live our own lives and think our -own thoughts. - - Yours for Freedom, - - THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. - - - INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS - -+228+. You recall that in our first lesson we studied concerning the -four different kinds of sentences which we use in expressing our -thoughts, the _assertive_, the _interrogative_, the _imperative_ and the -_exclamatory_. The interrogative sentence is the form which we use in -asking a question, _interrogative_ being derived from the Latin _inter_, -meaning _between_, and _rogare_, _to ask_, meaning literally _to ask -between_. The interrogative sentence differs from the assertive sentence -in the arrangement of the words; for in order to ask questions, we -usually place the predicate, or part of it at least, before the subject, -thus: - - _Can_ you _use_ good English? - _Did_ you _spell_ the word correctly? - _Has_ he _studied_ grammar? - -In these sentences, you note that the helping verbs, _can_, _did_ and -_has_, are placed first instead of the subject. It is by this -arrangement that we put the sentence in the interrogative form. - -+229.+ Frequently, however, in asking questions we wish to ask -concerning a person or thing whose name we do not know. So we need a -word to refer to the unknown object. See how these uses of words grow -out of our need! We have three interrogative pronouns, _who_ and _which_ -and _what_, that we use to meet this need. Notice the use of these three -pronouns in the following sentences: - - _Who_ wrote the Communist Manifesto? - _Which_ of the two men is the better known? - _What_ are the closing words of this famous document? - -In these sentences, _who_ and _which_ and _what_ are the interrogative -pronouns, used to ask questions concerning the unknown persons or -objects. - -+230.+ +Who refers only to human beings or to personified objects.+ - -+Which refers either to human beings, animals or things.+ - -+What refers only to things.+ - -_Which_ and _what_ have the same form for both the subject and the -object. _Who_ has a different form for all three forms, the subject -form, the possessive form, and the object form. It uses the same form, -however, both in singular and plural. - - _Subject form_ _Possessive form_ _Object form_ - - Who Whose Whom - -+231.+ We often make mistakes in the use of the different forms of the -pronoun _who_. We often use the subject form for the object form, using -_who_ where we should have used _whom_. For example: - - Who did you see? - -The correct form is: - - Whom did you see? - -The pronoun _whom_ is the object of the verb _see_, hence the object -form should be used. However, the use of the subject form _who_ instead -of _whom_ is coming into such general use today that some grammarians -accept it as a permissible usage. The will of the people influences -language, as it does all other human institutions, and gradually creates -new rules. - -Write three sentences, using _who_, _which_ and _what_ as interrogative -pronouns. - -+An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun used to ask a question.+ - - - RELATIVE PRONOUNS - -+232.+ There is one other class of pronouns which plays a great part in -our speech and is a wonderful help to us. For example, suppose I want to -tell you several things about this book. I say: _I am reading this book. -It interests me greatly._ Now it would be a great advantage to me if I -could put these two sentences together, and we have for this use a -pronoun which makes it possible for us to combine these sentences, and -so I say: - - The book which I am reading interests me greatly. - -Thus I am able to unite two short sentences into a long sentence, which -conveys my meaning better than the two short sentences and gives a -smoother bit of reading. We have four pronouns which we use in this way, -_who_, _which_, _that_ and _what_ and they are called relative pronouns -because they refer or relate to some noun in the sentence and they also -serve to connect two statements. - -+233.+ +A relative pronoun is a pronoun that relates to an antecedent -and at the same time connects two statements.+ - -A relative pronoun always relates to its antecedent and at the same time -connects the statement that it introduces with the one that contains the -antecedent to which it relates, as in the sentence above, _The book -which I am reading, interests me greatly._ _Which_ is the relative -pronoun; first, because it relates to the antecedent, _book_; and -second, because it connects the statement, _I am reading_, with the rest -of the sentence. Notice these sentences also: - - The man who thinks will not enlist in the army. - We will destroy the system that enslaves us. - -_Who_ and _that_ are the relative pronouns in these two sentences and -their antecedents are _man_ and _system_, and they connect the -statements, _who thinks_ and _that enslaves us_, with the rest of the -sentence. - -+234.+ +Who is used to relate to persons.+ - -+Which is used to relate only to animals and things.+ - -+That may relate to either persons, animals or things.+ - -+What relates to things.+ - -Note that _which_, as an interrogative, may refer to persons as well as -to animals and things; but as a relative, _which_ never refers to -persons. - -+235+. Note that we use the same pronouns _who_, _which_ and _what_ as -both relative and interrogative pronouns. You will not be confused in -this matter if you will remember that they are called interrogative -pronouns only when they are used to ask questions. When they are used as -interrogative pronouns they never have an antecedent. _Who_ and _which_ -and _what_ are always relative pronouns when used in an assertive -sentence and referring to an antecedent. - -_That_ and _what_ have the same form for both the subject and object -forms. They have no possessive form. _Who_ has a different form for the -subject form and the possessive form and the object form. _Which_ has -the same form for subject and object forms, and a different form for the -possessive form. Note the following: - - _Subject form_ _Possessive form_ _Object form_ - - who whose whom - which whose which - - I know the man _who_ called him. - I know the man _whose_ voice I hear. - I know the man _whom_ they called. - -In these three sentences we have the pronoun _who_ used in its three -forms, subject, possessive and object form. We should be very careful -not to confuse the subject and the object forms of the pronoun _who_. - - This is the book _which_ tells the truth. - This is the book _whose_ author is in prison. - This is the book _which_ I wanted. - -In these three sentences we have the pronoun _which_ used in its three -forms, _subject_ form, _possessive_ form and _object_ form. In the first -sentence the pronoun is the subject of the verb _tells_; in the second -sentence, it is used in the possessive form with the noun _author_; in -the third sentence, it is used as the object of the verb _wanted_. - -+236.+ _What_ differs from the other relative pronouns in that its -antecedent is never expressed, for it is implied in the word itself. -_What_ is always equivalent to _that which_, or _the thing which_. For -example, the sentence, _Do not tell what I have told you_, is equivalent -to saying, _Do not tell that which I have told you_, or _the thing which -I have told you_. - -+237+. Never use _what_ in a sentence as a _relative_ pronoun unless you -can replace it and make good sense by using _that which_, or _the thing -which_ in place of _what_. - -For example, do not say, _I know that what he would say_. This is -incorrect. You should say, _I know that which he would say_, or _I know -what he would say_, using _what_ in place of _that which_. Here is a -sentence that occurred in an English examination recently, which -illustrates most aptly this point. _A subject is that what something is -said about._ Here _what_ is used incorrectly. _A subject is that about -which something is said_, would have been the correct form. - -Watch for this in your speech for it is a most common error and to the -educated ear is harsh and marks the speaker as uneducated. All of these -mistakes which we make so commonly will require a considerable amount of -effort to overcome, but the result is worth the effort, for even those -about us who will not take the pains or give the required time and -effort to acquiring an education for themselves, will give greater heed -to the speech of those who do speak correctly, and will readily -acknowledge the leadership of those who have given the time and effort -to self-development. - -+238.+ The antecedent of _who_ is sometimes omitted and understood; for -example, _Who follows the cause must endure hardship_, _He_, is -understood and omitted. _He who follows the cause must endure hardship._ - -+239.+ The relative pronoun itself is often omitted. For example: - - These are the men (whom) you must help. - The words (that) you use and the deeds (that) you do, are your judges. - -+240.+ The relative pronouns have compound forms also, such as -_whoever_, _whosoever_, _whichever_, _whichsoever_, _whatever_ and -_whatsoever_, which are used in the same manner as the simple forms. - - - COMMON ERRORS - -+241.+ Here are a number of common errors which only constant practice -and watchfulness can overcome. Study these over and watch your -conversation closely. Force yourself to speak correctly for a time, and -soon correct speech will become a habit. - -+1.+ +Do not use both a noun and a pronoun as the subject of a -sentence+; as, _John, he waited for me._ _Mary, she refused to go._ -Leave out the pronouns _he_ and _she_ in these sentences. They are -unnecessary and incorrect. - -+2.+ +Never use+ _hern_, _ourn_, _hisn_ or _yourn_ for _hers_, _ours_, -_his_ and _yours_; as, _The book is hisn._ _Ourn stopped on the first._ -_Did you get yourn?_ Say: _This book is his._ _Ours stopped on the -first._ _Did you get yours?_ - -+3.+ +Never say+ _hisself_ for _himself_. There is no such word as -_hisself_. Do not say, _He hurt hisself_. Say, _He hurt himself_. - -+4.+ +Do not say+ _them_ for _those_; as, _Did you bring them songs?_ -_Them things are not right._ Say, _Did you bring those songs?_ _Those -things are not right._ - -+5.+ +Do not use an apostrophe in writing the possessive forms of -pronouns+, as _her's_, _our's_, _it's_. Leave out the apostrophe and -write _hers_, _ours_, _its_. - -+6.+ +Do not use _who_ to relate to animals or things+; as, _The dog -who bit me was killed_. Say, _The dog that bit me was killed_. - -+7.+ +Do not use _myself_ as the subject+. It can be used only as an -emphatic or reflexive pronoun. It is correct to say, _I found the book -myself_, and _I hurt myself_. But do not say, _They asked my friend and -myself_, or _Myself and my wife will go_. Say, _They asked my friend and -me_. _My wife and I will go._ - -+8.+ +Avoid the use of pronouns when the reference to the antecedent is -not clear.+ Better repeat the nouns or re-write the sentence. For -example: - - He said to his friend that if he did not feel better soon he thought - he had better go home. - -Now you can interpret this in at least four different ways. No one but -the speaker can ever know to whom the pronouns _he_ refer, whether to -the speaker or to his friend. Or in the sentence, - - A tried to see B in the crowd, but could not because he was so short. - -Who was short, _A_ or _B_? _John's father died before he was born._ Did -John's father die before John was born or did John's father die before -John's father, himself, was born? Be careful in the use of pronouns in -this way. - -+9.+ +Remember that _I_, _we_, _he_, _she_, _they_ and _who_ are -always used as subject forms and also as the complement of all forms of -the verb _be_.+ - -+10.+ +Remember that _me_, _him_, _her_, _them_, _us_ and _whom_ are -always object forms+. Never say, _They charged he and I too much_. Say, -_They charged him and me too much_. In an attempt to speak correctly and -follow the niceties of English, this mistake is so often made. Always -use the object form as the object of a verb or preposition. - -+11.+ +When a participle is used as a _noun_, and a pronoun is used -with it, the pronoun should always be in the _possessive_ form+. We -make this mistake so frequently. For example, we say: _Us going there -was a mistake_. We should have used the possessive form, _Our going -there was a mistake_. _I have never known of him being absent from -work._ We should say: _I have never known of his being absent from -work_. _Did he tell you about me joining with them?_ This should be, -_Did he tell you about my joining with them?_ _You talking to him set -him to thinking._ This should be, _Your talking to him set him to -thinking_. Watch this and wherever you have used a participle as a -_noun_, use the pronoun in the _possessive_ form, as you would with any -other noun. - -+12.+ +Watch carefully that the number of the pronoun always agrees with -the number of its antecedent.+ If you are speaking of one person or -thing use a singular pronoun. If you are speaking of more than one -person or thing in your antecedent, use the plural pronoun. For example: -_Each man must do his own work._ _The soldiers fully understood their -danger._ - -+13.+ +When a singular noun, in the common gender (this means that it -may name either a male or female being), is the antecedent of the -pronoun, it is customary for us to use the masculine pronoun.+ For -example: - - Every student should send in _his_ examination paper promptly. - - Every member of the class may select _his_ own subject. - -Do not use the pronoun _their_ when the antecedent is a singular noun. - - - SUMMARY - - Pronoun--In Place of a Noun - - CLASSES - - _Personal_ {Simple-- {1st Person, _speaking_. - {Compound-- {2nd Person, _spoken to_. - {3rd Person, _spoken of_. - - _Interrogative_ {To ask questions. - {_Who_, _which_ and _what_. - - _Relative_ {To refer to another word and connect two statements. - {_Who_, _which_, _that_ and _what_. - - - Exercise 1 - -Complete the following sentences by using the correct form of _I_, _me_, -or _myself_, in the blank spaces: - - 1. My partner and......joined the union. - 2. They asked Henry and......to go. - 3. May my friend and......call? - 4. I will attend to that....... - 5. Let my comrade and......go with you. - 6. Are you sure it was......? - 7. I blame......for joining with them. - 8. They accused......of bothering them. - 9. I am nearly beside......with grief. - 10. The manager dismissed the men......among the rest. - - - Exercise 2 - -Complete the following sentences by using the correct form of _we_, _us_ -or _ourselves_ in the blank spaces: - - 1. They are better off than....... - 2. The French as well as......claim a war of defense. - 3. Can you blame......who have always stood by you? - 4. We will do that for....... - 5. Between......comrades there should be no differences. - 6. They gave......men work. - 7. Do not trouble;......will attend to this....... - 8. They sent a special notice to our friends and....... - - - Exercise 3 - -Complete the following sentences by using the correct form of _thou_, -_thee_, _thy_ or _thyself_ in the blank spaces: - - 1. To......be true, and it follows as the night the day...... - canst not then be false to any man. - 2. Paul,......art beside......; much learning hath made ......mad. - 3. ......shalt love......neighbor as....... - 4. Trust....... Every heart vibrates to that iron string. - - - Exercise 4 - -Complete the following sentences by using the correct form of _he_, -_him_, or _himself_ in the blank spaces: - - 1. ......and John are to blame. - 2. I think it was....... - 3. My friend and......called on you. - 4. He blamed......for the accident. - 5. You are no better than....... - 6. I shall call for you and....... - 7. You and......must come on time. - 8. He found the place....... - 9. There should be no quarrel between you and......who loves you. - 10. If you were......would you go? - - - Exercise 5 - -Complete the following sentences by using the correct form of _she_, -_her_, or _herself_ in the blank spaces: - - 1. They asked Mary and......to go. - 2. Mary and......went. - 3. May......and I go with you? - 4. Let......and Harry go. - 5. Is that Mary? Yes, it is....... - 6. There are many points of difference between......and me. - 7. You are more beautiful than....... - 8. She brought it to me....... - 9. If......and I join you, will you go? - 10. They must not quarrel over......and me. - - - Exercise 6 - -Complete the following sentences using the correct form of _they_, -_them_, or _themselves_ in the blank spaces: - - 1. They gave......up. - 2. ......and I will finish the work. - 3. I found......where......hath thrown......down to rest. - 4. I am sure it was......for I saw......plainly. - 5. The workers enslave......by their lack of solidarity. - 6. ......must learn the lesson....... - - - Exercise 7 - -Cross out the wrong word in the following sentences: - - 1. Everybody do--does as he pleases--they please. - 2. No one should waste his--their opportunities. - 3. The jury rendered its--their verdict. - 4. If anyone wishes war, let him--them do the fighting. - 5. The audience displayed its--their approval by its--their applause. - 6. The audience remained quietly in its--their seats. - 7. The jury adjourned for its--their dinner. - 8. Nobody willingly gives up his--their rights. - 9. Each one may express his--their opinion. - 10. Every man received his--their wages. - - - Exercise 8 - -Complete the following sentences by using the correct form of the -pronouns _who_, _whose_, or _whom_: - - 1. ......do you think I am? - 2. I am the man......you taught yesterday. - 3. With......are you going? - 4. The contract was let to a man......we are sure cannot fulfill it. - 5. The contractor......wishes to bid will come tomorrow. - 6. On......are you depending? - 7. The friends......counsel I took, stood by me. - 8. He is a man......I am sure will succeed. - 9. We tried to talk to those......we thought would understand us. - 10. For......did you work? - - - Exercise 9 - -Insert _who_, _whose_, _whom_, _which_, _that_ or _what_ in the blanks -in the following sentences: - - 1. Man is the only animal......uses a written speech. - 2. Can you save......you earn? - 3. Ricardo's law was that the workers always receive a - wage......permits them to produce and reproduce. - 4. Have you read the book "War, What For"......Kirkpatrick wrote. - 5. Newspapers......distort the news......they print to serve the - ruling class are dangerous foes to the workers. - 6. The massacre at Ludlow was an event......aroused the working - class. - 7. They......live by the labor of others are drones in society and - should be given the fate......they deserve. - 8. The big machine gun......will destroy slavery is the printing - press. - 9. The man......leadership we should follow is he......preaches - social equality. - 10. We know......we need and we will demand......is our right. - - - Exercise 10 - -In the following quotations note the use of the pronouns and mark -whether they are _personal_, _relative_ or _interrogative_, whether they -are used in the _subject_ form, _possessive_ form or _object_ form: - - 1. "Camerado, I give you my hand, - I give you my love more precious than money, - I give you myself before preaching or law; - Will you give me yourself, will you come travel with me, - Shall we stick by each other as long as we live?" - - 2. "I think I could turn and live with animals they are so placid and - self-contained, - I stand and look at them long and long, they do not sweat and whine - about their condition, - They do not lie awake in the dark and weep for their sins, - They do not make me sick discussing their duty to God; - Not one is dis-satisfied, not one is demented with the mania of - owning things. - Not one kneels to another nor to his kind, that lived thousands of - years ago, - Not one is respectable or unhappy over the whole earth." - --_Whitman_. - - - Exercise 11 - -Note the omission of the antecedent in the first sentence, also the use -of the relative _what_ in the last sentence of the first paragraph: - - "Whoso would be a man, must be nonconformist. He who would gather - immortal palms must not be hindered by the name of goodness, but must - explore if it be goodness. Nothing is at last sacred but the integrity - of our own mind. Absolve you to yourself, and you shall have the - suffrage of the world. I remember an answer which, when quite young, I - was prompted to make to a valued adviser who was wont to importune me - with the dear old doctrines of the church. On my saying, "What have I - to do with the sacredness of traditions, if I live wholly from - within?" my friend suggested--"But these impulses may be from below, - not from above." I replied, "They do not seem to me to be such; but if - I am the devil's child, I will live then from the devil." No law can - be sacred to me but that of my nature. Good and bad are but names very - readily transferable to that or this; the only right is what is after - my constitution; the only wrong what is against it. - - A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds, adored by - little statesmen and philosophers and divines. With consistency a - great soul has simply nothing to do. He may as well concern himself - with his shadow on the wall. Out upon your guarded lips! Sew them up - with pack threads, do. Else, if you would be a man, speak what you - think today in words as hard as cannon balls, and tomorrow speak what - tomorrow thinks in hard words again, though you contradict everything - you said today. Ah, then, exclaim the aged ladies, you shall be sure - to be misunderstood. Misunderstood! It is a right fool's word. Is it - so bad then to be misunderstood? Pythagoras was misunderstood, and - Socrates, and Jesus, and Luther, and Copernicus, and Galileo, and - Newton, and every pure and wise spirit that ever took flesh. To be - great is to be misunderstood."--_Emerson_. - - - - - SPELLING - - LESSON 13 - - -There are a few more rules governing the spelling of derivative words. -Words ending in silent _e_ keep the _e_ before the suffix beginning with -a consonant. Notice the following words: - - excite excitement - like likeness - force forceful - shame shameless - lone lonesome - live lively - -Words ending in silent _e_ drop the _e_ before the suffix beginning with -a vowel, as: - - excite excitable - live living - grieve grievous - force forcible - -Some words ending in silent _e_ retain the _e_ before the suffix -beginning with a vowel, to prevent a change in the pronunciation or to -preserve the identity of the word. Notice the following words: - - peace peaceable - courage courageous - singe singeing - change changeable - shoe shoeing - notice noticeable - -These are words ending in the soft sound of _c_ and _g_, where the _e_ -is retained to preserve the correct pronunciation of the _c_ and _g_, -and with some few words like _toe_, _dye_, etc., where the dropping of -the _e_ would lose the identity of the word. - -The _e_ is dropped in a few words before the suffix beginning with a -consonant, as in _wholly_, _nursling_, _judgment_, _wisdom_, _lodgment_. - -Add the suffixes _ment_ and _ing_ to the words in Monday's lesson; the -suffix _able_ to the words for Tuesday and Wednesday; the suffixes -_some_ and _ous_ to the words for Thursday; the suffixes _ly_ or _ness_ -to the words for Friday and Saturday. - - +Monday+ - - Excite - Advise - Chastise - Disfranchise - Enslave - - +Tuesday+ - - Manage - Receive - Blame - Exchange - Imagine - - +Wednesday+ - - Admire - Service - Desire - Peace - Pronounce - - +Thursday+ - - Whole - Meddle - Courage - Advantage - Outrage - - +Friday+ - - Accurate - Positive - False - Definite - Distinct - - +Saturday+ - - Agreeable - Careful - Awful - Sure - Secure - - - - - PLAIN ENGLISH - - LESSON 14 - - -Dear Comrade: - -You remember our definition of a word; a word is the sign of an idea. In -our lessons we have been studying the different kinds of words which we -use in the expression of our complete thoughts. Probably the first step -in the development of language was to name the objects about us. Then -the next logical step would be to invent words which would tell what -these objects did. So we have our nouns, which are the names of things; -our verbs, which tell what these things do; and in these we have the -foundation for spoken and written speech. We soon found, however, that -the constant repetition of a name was tiresome and annoying, so we -invented words which we could use in place of these nouns; and we have -pronouns. - -All of the things about us possess certain qualities and our next great -need was for words to describe these qualities; so we have adjectives. -Each adjective is a sign of an idea. It adds its part to the expression -of our complete thought. So we find that each part of speech comes -logically in its place to fill a certain need. Without any one of them, -we would be crippled in our power of expression. Each different word is -the sign of an idea and the combination of these ideas as represented by -the various signs gives us the complete expression of our thought. - -So primitive man in the development of written speech had signs to -express the various things about him. Naturally his first sign was a -picture, as nearly as he could draw it, of the object itself. If he -wanted to tell you about a tree he drew a picture of the tree; the -picture of a man represented a man, and so on. You will notice among -children that this is the first development in their endeavor to express -their thoughts in writing. They draw pictures. The average small child -cannot understand why you read those strange marks on the page. They -want you to read the pictures. To their mind that is the only way to -communicate ideas. - -These early forefathers of ours grew to be very adept at this picture -writing. We have examples of this among the Indians of our own country. -There is a picture on the face of a big rock on the shores of Lake -Superior which records an expedition across the lake led by a noted -Indian chief. Canoes are shown in the picture with the crew denoted by a -series of upright strokes and there is a picture of the chief on -horseback. You or I would have great difficulty in reading this picture -writing, but an Indian could read it right off just as we would read a -written page. Aids to memory such as knotted strings and tally sticks -were the first step toward written speech. This picture writing was the -second step toward the development of written speech. - -We owe a great deal to the work which these primitive ancestors of ours -accomplished. It took them years and years to develop through these -different stages and our rapid development of the last few centuries has -only been made possible because of this slow and patient building of the -foundation. An understanding of this helps us to appreciate the place we -occupy in this great struggle of the ages. The power of written speech -opens up to us such tremendous possibilities. Let us make the most of -them, that we too may hand on worth while things to those who follow us. - - Yours for Education, - - THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. - - - CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES - -+242.+ Adjectives, like nouns and pronouns, are divided into classes. -Adjectives are divided into two main classes, _qualifying_ and -_limiting_. - -+243.+ An adjective which qualifies a noun is one which names some -quality which is possessed by the word which it modifies. When we say, -_Trees grow_, we are making a general statement; that is, we are saying -something that is true of any kind of trees. We have not described any -particular tree. But when we say, _The tall trees grow_, _The old trees -grow_, _The young trees grow_, the words _tall_, _old_ and _young_ -describe certain qualities of the trees, which separate them into -classes. So these adjectives are _qualifying adjectives_. - -An adjective qualifies a noun when it attributes some quality to the -noun, as, _The brave man_, _The sweet apple_, _The pretty girl_, _The -large house_, etc. - -+244.+ But if we say, _this tree_, _that tree_, _some trees_, _many -trees_, _three trees_, or _four trees_, we are not giving any quality of -the tree, but are pointing out a particular tree or trees and limiting -the word to the ones pointed out. So such adjectives as _the_, _this_, -_that_, _some_, _many_, _three_ and _four_ are limiting adjectives. An -adjective limits a noun when it restricts or limits its meaning as to -quantity or number. - -+245.+ So adjectives are divided into two classes, _qualifying_ -adjectives and _limiting_ adjectives. - -+Words that limit or qualify other words are called _modifiers_ -because they modify or affect the meaning of the words to which they -are added.+ So adjectives are modifiers of the nouns and pronouns to -which they are added because they modify or qualify or limit the meaning -of the noun or pronoun. - -The limiting adjectives answer the questions _which_ and _how many_. The -qualifying adjectives answer the questions _which_ and _what kind_. - -+246.+ +A qualifying adjective is an adjective which describes the noun -it modifies by attributing to it some quality.+ - -+A limiting adjective is an adjective which merely shows which one or -how many, without describing the noun it modifies.+ - - - HOW TO DISCOVER AN ADJECTIVE - -+247.+ Sometimes the noun may have several adjectives qualifying or -modifying it; as, - - The beautiful, old elm tree shades the lawn. - -_The_, _beautiful_, _old_ and _elm_, all modify _tree_, telling -something of the qualities or pointing out which tree we are speaking -of. You can discover an adjective in a sentence by asking the questions, -_which_, _what kind_, or _how many_; and the words that answer these -questions will be the adjectives in the sentence. For example in this -sentence: - - Those three immense factories employ thousands of men. - -_Factories_ is the noun, subject of the sentence. _Which_ factory is -indicated by the adjective _those_. _How many_ factories is indicated by -the adjective _three_. _What kind_ of factories is indicated by the -adjective _immense_. So we have three adjectives answering the three -questions, _which_, _what kind_ and _how many_. - - - Exercise 1 - -In the following sentences the adjectives are printed in _italics_. -Study them carefully and determine which are qualifying and which are -limiting adjectives. Note that the possessive nouns and possessive -pronouns are _not_ adjectives. _Its_ in the phrases _its cruel fangs_ -and _its savage claws_, is a possessive pronoun, third person singular. -In the last sentence _beggar's_, _miser's_, and _Ingersoll's_, are nouns -in the possessive form. - - _This terrible_ war in Europe is slaughtering _the_ working-class. - _Gaunt_ famine follows war. - A _docile_, _meek_, _humble_, working-class makes war _possible_. - _The shrieking_ shell snarls like a _living_ thing; like _some wild_ - beast in _ferocious_ glee it thrusts its _cruel_ fangs in earth and - rock and rends _living_ flesh with its _savage_ claws. - Its _fetid_ breath of _poison_ powder scorches in _the autumn_ winds. - _Shattered_ bones, _torn_ flesh and _flowing_ blood were mingled on - _the_ battlefield with _broken_ swords and _split_ rifles. - _The best modern_ rifles will force _a_ bullet through _five human_ - bodies at _a_ range of _twelve hundred_ feet. - _The pitiful_ dead, _slain_ in war, sleep under _the solemn_ pines, - _the sad_ hemlock, _the tearful_ willow and _the embracing_ vines. - A world without _the_ beggar's _outstretched_ palm, _the_ miser's - _heartless_ _stony_ stare, _the piteous_ wail of want, _the livid_ - lips of lies, _the cruel_ eyes of scorn, was Ingersoll's vision of - _the_ future. - - - QUALIFYING ADJECTIVES - -+248.+ Qualifying adjectives are also called _descriptive_ adjectives -because they describe the noun. They answer the questions _which_ and -_what kind_. - -You remember we found in the beginning of our study of English, that -words were grouped into classes according to the work which they do in -the sentence, not according to the form of the word itself. For -instance, we have already found that some words, without changing their -form, may be used either as a noun or as a verb. Take the word _oil_, -for instance. I may say, _I oil the engine_. Here I have used the word -_oil_ as a verb telling what I do. But I may say, _The oil is gone_. -Here I have used the word _oil_ as a noun, subject of the sentence. The -part of speech to which a word belongs in the English language, always -depends upon the work which it does in the sentence. - -+1.+ So we have nouns which are used as descriptive adjectives, for -example the word _oil_, which we have found we can use either as a noun -or a verb, may also be used as an adjective. For example; I may say, -_the oil tank_. Here I have used the word _oil_ as a descriptive -adjective modifying the word _tank_. So also we may say, _the oak tree_, -_the stone curb_, _the earth wall_. In these expressions _oak_, _stone_ -and _earth_ are nouns used as descriptive adjectives. - -+2.+ We have descriptive adjectives derived from proper nouns, as -French, English, American. These are called proper adjectives; and since -all proper nouns must begin with a capital letter, these proper -adjectives, also, should always begin with a capital letter. - -+3.+ We have also descriptive adjectives derived from verbs as _active_, -_talkative_, _movable_, _desirable_, derived by the addition of suffixes -to the verbs _act_, _talk_, _move_ and _desire_. - - - LIMITING ADJECTIVES - -+249.+ Limiting adjectives are also divided into classes, the -_numerals_, the _demonstratives_ and the _articles_. - - - Numeral Adjectives - -+250.+ Numeral adjectives are those which limit nouns as to number or -order. They are such adjectives as _one_, _two_, _three_, _four_, etc., -and _first_, _second_ and _third_, etc., as for example: - - _Three_ men applied for work. - The train ran at the rate of _forty_ miles an hour. - There have always been _two_ classes in the world. - The _first_ martyr to anti-militarism was Jaures. - The _eighteenth_ day of March is the anniversary of the Paris Commune. - -In these sentences the adjectives _three_, _forty_, _two_, _first_ and -_eighteenth_ are all numeral adjectives. They limit the nouns which they -modify as to number or order. - -+Adjectives that limit nouns as to number or order are called numeral -adjectives. Numeral adjectives answer the question how many or in what -order.+ - - - Demonstratives - -+251.+ We have also a class of adjectives which are used to point out -some particular person or thing. These are called _demonstrative_ -adjectives. Demonstrate means literally _to point out_. So these -adjectives point out from a number of things, one particular thing to -our attention. These demonstrative adjectives are _this_, _that_, -_those_, _these_, _yonder_, _former_, _latter_ and _same_. - -_These_ and _those_ are the plural forms of _this_ and _that_. _This_ -and _these_ are used to point out things near at hand. _That_ and -_those_ are used to point out things more distant, as _This is my book_. -_These are my papers_, meaning _this book_ or _these papers_, close to -me. By, _That is my pencil_ and _Those are my letters_, I mean _that -pencil_, and _those letters_, which are farther away from me. - -_Former_ and _latter_ are used to show which of two things already -mentioned is referred to, and to point out things in point of time, not -of place. For example, we may say: - - We no longer observe the _former_ customs, but rather prefer the - _latter_. - He did not like his _former_ job but this _latter_ job pleases him. - -You understand from this that we have been discussing and describing two -kinds of work, and that the first in point of time was unpleasant and -the second pleasant. - -The demonstrative adjective _same_ refers to something of which we have -just spoken, as for example, _He has gone to work, I must do the same -thing_. These demonstrative adjectives answer the question which, so -when you wish to discover a demonstrative in a sentence, ask the -question _which_, and the answer will be the demonstrative adjective. - - - Exercise 2 - - 1. _This_ study is very interesting. - 2. _These_ comrades will stand by us. - 3. _That_ solution will never deceive the people. - 4. _Those_ books have opened our eyes. - 5. _Yonder_ battle appals the world. - 6. _Former_ investigations have had no results. - 7. _This latter_ decision has reversed the _former_. - 8. The class struggle has persisted through the centuries; we are - engaged in the _same_ struggle. - -Make sentences of your own containing these demonstrative adjectives. - - - ARTICLES - -+252.+ We have three adjectives which are used so commonly that we have -put them in a class by themselves. These three little words are _a_, -_an_ and _the_, and we call them articles. The word _article_ literally -means a little joint or limb, and these three little words are so -closely connected with the nouns with which they are used that they seem -to be a part or joint or limb of the noun itself, and so we have called -them articles. - -_A_ and _an_ are called the _indefinite_ articles because they point out -an object in a very indefinite manner. _The_ is called the _definite_ -article for it points out in a more definite way. - -We use _a_ before words beginning with a consonant sound, as _a man_, _a -tree_, _a book_; and we use _an_ before words beginning with a vowel -sound, as _an apple_, _an editor_, _an orange_, _an heir_. In _heir_ the -_h_ is silent, and we say _an_ because the word begins with a vowel -sound. _A_ is used before words beginning with _u_ because long _u_ is -equivalent in sound to a consonant, for the blending of the sounds of -which long _u_ is composed produces the initial sound of _y_, which is a -consonant sound. For example, we say, _a university_, _a useful work_, -etc., and not _an university_. Before words beginning with short _u_, -use _an_, as, _an upstart_, etc. - -In deciding whether to use _a_ or _an_, watch the initial _sound_ of the -word, not the initial _letter_. If it is a vowel sound use _an_, if a -consonant sound, use _a_. - - - Exercise 3 - -Underscore the correct article in the following sentences: - - 1. Bring me an--a apple. - 2. He is a--an able orator. - 3. A--an heir was born to the German King. - 4. He built a--an house for his family. - 5. He is an--a honest man. - 6. He is a--an undertaker. - 7. I had to take a--an upper berth. - 8. He joined a--an union. - 9. It is a--an unique book. - 10. He is a--an unruly member of society. - 11. He told a--an untruth. - 12. He wears a--an uniform. - 13. It is a--an honor to be chosen. - -+253.+ When a singular noun is modified by several adjectives, only one -of the articles _an_ or _a_ must be used if the noun denotes but _one_ -object; but if the noun denotes more than one object the article must be -repeated before each noun. For example, I say, _A red, white and blue -flag_. You know I mean but one flag, containing the three colors, red, -white and blue. But if I say, _A red, a white and a blue flag_, you know -I mean three flags, one red, one white, and one blue. - -Note the use of the article in the following sentences: - - He wears a black and white suit. - He wears a black and a white suit. - He sold a red and white cow. - He sold a red and a white cow. - He bought a gas and coal stove. - He bought a gas and a coal stove. - -The first sentences in each of the above series refers to only one -object. The second sentences all refer to two objects. - -+254.+ There are some rules concerning the article _the_ that it is well -to know because we do not always say what we wish to say, if we do not -observe these rules or customs of speech. For example, I say, _The -editor and publisher of this book is unknown_. I have used the article -_the_ but once, and I mean that the editor and publisher is one person. -But I may say, _The editor and the publisher of this book are well -known_. In this sentence I have used the article _the_ twice, _the_ -editor and _the_ publisher, and I mean that the editor and the publisher -are two different persons. - -So when two or more nouns following each other denote the same person or -thing, the article is not repeated, but when the nouns denote different -persons or things, the article must be repeated before each noun. Be -sure to use the proper form of the verb. - -Note the following sentences and underscore the proper verb to complete -the meaning: - - The secretary and treasurer were--was here. - The secretary and the treasurer were--was elected. - The singer and artist were--was with me. - The singer and the artist were--was on the program. - -Sometimes we have two things so closely associated in use that they may -be considered as forming a single idea, so that we may use the article -before the first one only. For example: - - The pen and ink is gone. - He bought a horse and buggy. - The bread and butter is on the plate. - - - INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVES - -+255.+ You remember we found in the study of pronouns that we have -interrogative pronouns which we use in asking questions when we do not -know the name of the object concerning which we are asking. We also have -adjectives which we use in asking questions when we do not know the -number or quality of the object concerning which we are asking. For -example: - - _Which_ book did you enjoy most? - _What_ work are you doing now? - _What_ machine did you order? - -_Which_ and _what_ are the interrogative adjectives in these sentences. - -+Interrogative adjectives are adjectives used in asking questions.+ - - - INDEFINITES - -+256.+ We have one more class of adjectives called indefinites. - -+An indefinite adjective is one that does not denote any particular -person or thing.+ - -All such adjectives as _each_, _every_, _either_, _neither_, _some_, -_any_, _many_, _much_, _few_, _all_, _both_, _no_, _none_, _several_ and -_certain_ are indefinite adjectives. We use them when we are not -speaking of any particular person or thing, but are speaking in a broad, -general sense and in an indefinite manner. - -+257.+ The interrogative adjectives are sometimes used in this -indefinite way. They are sometimes used to modify nouns when a direct -question is not asked, and they are then used, not as interrogative -adjectives, but as indefinite adjectives. For example: - - He did not know which party to join. - I have not learned what time he will go. - -In these sentences _which_ and _what_ are not used to ask questions, but -are used to describe an unknown object. - - - Exercise 4 - -All the words in italics are adjectives. Decide to which class each -adjective belongs. - -Note in this exercise the compound words used as adjectives, as: -_earth-born_, _self-made_, _new-lit_, _blood-rusted_. Look up the -meaning of these adjectives and see if you can use other adjectives in -their places and keep the same meaning. Note the use of _fellest_. - - Slavery, _the earth-born_ Cyclops, _fellest_ of _the giant_ brood, - Sons of _brutish_ Force and Darkness, who have drenched _the_ earth - with blood, - _Famished_ in his _self-made_ desert, _blinded_ by our _purer_ day, - Gropes in yet _unblasted_ regions for his _miserable_ prey;-- - Shall we guide his _gory_ fingers where our _helpless_ children play? - They have rights who dare maintain them; we are traitors to our sires, - _Smothering_ in their _holy_ ashes Freedom's _new-lit_ altar-fires; - Shall we make their creed our jailer? Shall we, in our haste to slay, - From the tombs of _the old_ prophets steal _the funeral_ lamps away - To light up _the_ martyr-fagots round _the_ prophets of to-day? - - _New_ occasions teach _new_ duties; Time makes _ancient_ good, - _uncouth_; - They must upward still, and onward, who would keep _abreast_ of - Truth; - Lo, before us gleam her camp-fires! We ourselves must Pilgrims be, - Launch our Mayflower, and steer boldly through _the desperate winter_ - sea, - Nor attempt _the_ Future's portal with _the_ Past's _blood-rusted_ - key. - --_Lowell_. - - - Exercise 5 - -The following is from Oscar Wilde's story of _The Young King_. Oscar -Wilde was a master of English, and if you have the opportunity, read all -of this beautiful story and watch his use of adjectives. Mark the -adjectives in this excerpt and use them in sentences of your own. - - And as the young King slept he dreamed a dream, and this was his - dream. He thought that he was standing in a long, low attic, amidst - the whirr and clatter of many looms. The meager daylight peered in - through the grated windows and showed him the gaunt figures of the - weavers, bending over their cases. Pale, sickly-looking children were - crouched on the huge crossbeams. As the shuttles dashed through the - warp they lifted up the heavy battens, and when the shuttles stopped - they let the battens fall and pressed the threads together. Their - faces were pinched with famine, and their thin hands shook and - trembled. Some haggard women were seated at a table, sewing. A - horrible odor filled the place. The air was foul and heavy, and the - walls dripped and streamed with damp. - - The young King went over to one of the weavers and stood by him and - watched him. - - And the weaver looked at him angrily and said, "Why art thou watching - me? Art thou a spy set on us by our master?" - - "Who is thy master?" asked the young King. - - "Our master!" cried the weaver, bitterly. "He is a man like myself. - Indeed, there is but this difference between us--that he wears fine - clothes while I go in rags, and that while I am weak from hunger he - suffers not a little from overfeeding." - - "The land is free," said the young King, "and thou art no man's - slave." - - "In war," answered the weaver, "the strong make slaves of the weak, - and in peace the rich make slaves of the poor. We must work to live, - and they give us such mean wages that we die. We toil for them all day - long, and they heap up gold in their coffers, and our children fade - away before their time, and the faces of those we love become hard and - evil. We tread out the grapes, another drinks the wine. We sow the - corn, and our own board is empty. We have chains, though no eye - beholds them; and are slaves, though men call us free." - - "Is it so with all?" he asked. - - "It is so with all," answered the weaver, "with the young as well as - with the old, with the women as well as with the men, with the little - children as well as with those who are stricken in years. The - merchants grind us down, and we must needs do their bidding. The - priest rides by and tells his beads, and no man has care of us. - Through our sunless lanes creeps Poverty with her hungry eyes, and Sin - with his sodden face follows close behind her. Misery wakes us in the - morning, and Shame sits with us at night. But what are these things to - thee? Thou art not one of us. Thy face is too happy." And he turned - away scowling, and threw the shuttle across the loom, and the - young King saw that it was threaded with a thread of gold. - - And a great terror seized upon him, and he said to the weaver, "What - robe is this that thou art weaving?" - - "It is the robe for the coronation of the young King," he answered; - "What is that to thee?" - - And the young King gave a loud cry and woke and lo! he was in his own - chamber, and through the window he saw the great honey-colored moon - hanging in the dusky air. - - - - - SPELLING - - LESSON 14 - - -You remember in the formation of plurals, we learned that words ending -in _y_ change _y_ to _i_ when _es_ is added; as, _lady, ladies_; _baby, -babies_; _dry, dries_, etc. - -There are several rules concerning words ending in _y_, knowledge of -which will aid us greatly in spelling. - -+1.+ +Words ending in _ie_ change the _ie_ to _y_ before _ing_ -to prevent a confusing number of vowels.+ For example, _die, dying_; -_lie, lying_; _tie, tying_. - -+2.+ +Words of more than one syllable ending in _y_ preceded by a -consonant, change _y_ into _i_ before all suffixes except those -beginning with _i_.+ For example: - - happy, happily, happiness; - witty, wittier, wittiest; - satisfy, satisfied, satisfying; - envy, enviable, envying. - -This exception is made for suffixes beginning with _i_, the most common -of which is _ing_, to avoid having a confusing number of _i's_. - -+3.+ +Most words ending in _y_ preceded by a vowel retain the _y_ -before a suffix.+ For example: - - destroy, destroyer, destroying; - buy, buyer, buying; - essay, essayed, essayist. - -The following words are exception to this rule: - - laid, - paid, - said, - daily, - staid. - -Make as many words as you can out of the words given in this week's -spelling lesson by adding one or more of the following suffixes: _er_, -_est_, _ed_, _es_, _ing_, _ly_, _ness_, _ful_, _ment_, _al_. - - +Monday+ - - Beauty - Portray - Deny - Rare - Multiply - - +Tuesday+ - - Mercy - Bury - Obey - Lovely - Envy - - +Wednesday+ - - Tie - Defy - Study - Decry - Crazy - - +Thursday+ - - Merry - Silly - Lusty - Imply - Day - - +Friday+ - - Dismay - Duty - Employ - Satisfy - Pretty - - +Saturday+ - - Pay - Joy - Journey - Qualify - Sorry - - - - - PLAIN ENGLISH - - LESSON 15 - - -Dear Comrade: - -In this week's lesson we are finishing the study of adjectives, which -adds another part of speech to those which we have studied. We can see -in the study of each additional part of speech how each part has its -place in the expression of our ideas. We could not express ourselves -fully if we lacked any of these parts of speech. Each one is not an -arbitrary addition to our language but has come to us out of the need -for it. We see that there are no arbitrary rules but in language, as in -all things else, growing needs have developed more efficient tools. With -these have grown up certain rules of action so we can have a common -usage and system in our use of these tools. It has taken years of effort -to accomplish this. The changes have been slow and gradual, and this -language which we are studying is the finished product. - -This slow development in the use of language, even in our own lives, -makes us realize how many thousands of years it must have taken our -primitive ancestors to reach a point where they could use the phonetic -alphabet. We have found that at first they used simple aids to memory, -as knotted strings and tally sticks. Then they began to draw pictures of -things about them and so were able to communicate with one another by -means of these pictures. When a man was going away from his cave and -wanted to leave word for those who might come, telling them where he had -gone and how soon he would return, he drew a picture of a man over the -entrance with the arm extended in the direction in which he had gone. -Then he drew another picture of a man in a sleeping position and also -one of a man with both hands extended in the gesture which indicated -many. These two pictures showed that he would be away over many nights. -In some such rude manner as this, they were able to communicate with one -another. - -But man soon began to _think_, and he needed to express ideas concerning -things of which he could not draw pictures. He could draw a picture of -the sun, but how could he indicate light? How could he indicate the -different professions in which men engaged, such as the farmer and -priest, etc.? - -He was forced to invent symbols or signs to express these ideas, so his -writing was no longer a picture of some object, but he added to it -symbols of abstract ideas. A circle which stood for the sun written with -the crescent which stood for the moon, indicated light. The bee became a -symbol of industry. An ostrich feather was a symbol of justice, because -these feathers were supposed to be of equal length. A picture of a woman -stood simply for a woman, but a picture of two women stood for strife, -and three women stood for intrigue. These old ancestors of ours became -wise quite early concerning some things. The symbol for a priest in the -early Egyptian picture writing was a jackal. Perhaps not because he -"devoured widows' houses," but because the jackal was a very watchful -animal. The symbol for mother was a vulture because that bird was -believed to nourish its young with its own blood. - -It naturally required a good memory and a clear grasp of association to -be able to read this sort of writing. It required many centuries for -this slow development of written speech. - -The development of language has been a marvelous growth and a wonderful -heritage has come to us. Let us never be satisfied until we have a -mastery of our language and find a way to express the ideas that surge -within us. A mastery of these lessons will help us. - - Yours for Education, - - THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. - - - ADJECTIVES AND PRONOUNS - -+258.+ From our study of the adjective, we know that it is a word used -with a noun to qualify or limit its meaning. But a great many times we -find these adjectives used without the noun which they modify. As, for -example, I may say, _This is mine_, and the adjective _this_ is used -alone without the noun which it modifies, and you are able to tell only -by what I have been saying or by some action of mine to what I am -referring when I say _this_. - -When adjectives are used in this manner, they are used like pronouns--in -place of a noun. So sometimes we find an adjective used with a noun, and -sometimes used as a pronoun, in place of a noun; and since we name our -parts of speech by the work which they do in the sentence, an adjective -used in this way is not an adjective, but a pronoun or word used in -place of a noun. - -So these words are pronouns when they stand alone to represent -things--when they are used in place of a noun. They are adjectives when -they are used _with_ a noun to limit or qualify the noun. For example, I -may say, _This tree is an elm, but that tree is an oak_. _This_ and -_that_ in this sentence are adjectives used to modify the noun _tree_. -But I may say, _This is an oak and that is an elm_, and in this sentence -_this_ and _that_ are used without a noun, they are used as pronouns. - -+259.+ Our being able to name every part of speech is not nearly so -important as our being able to understand the functions of the different -parts of speech and being able to use them correctly. But still it is -well for us to be able to take a sentence and point out its different -parts and tell what each part is and the function which it serves in the -sentence. So sometimes in doing this we may find it difficult to tell -whether certain words are adjectives or pronouns. We can distinguish -between adjectives and pronouns by this rule: - -When you cannot supply the noun which the adjective modifies, from the -_same_ sentence, then the word which takes the place of the noun is a -pronoun, but if you can supply the omitted noun from the same sentence, -then the word is used as an adjective. Thus, we do not say that the noun -is understood unless it has already been used in the same sentence and -is omitted to avoid repetition. We make each sentence a law unto itself -and classify each word in the sentence according to what it does in its -own sentence. - -So if a noun does not occur in the same sentence with the word about -which we are in doubt as to whether it is a pronoun or adjective, it is -a pronoun or word used in place of a noun. For example, in the sentence, -_This book is good but that is better_; _book_ is understood after the -word _that_ and left out to avoid tiresome repetition of the word -_book_. Therefore _that_ is an adjective in this sentence. But if I say, -_This is good, but that is better_; there is no noun understood, for -there is no noun in the sentence which we can supply with _this_ and -_that_. Therefore in this sentence _this_ and _that_ are pronouns, used -in place of the noun. And since _this_ and _that_, when used as -adjectives, are called demonstrative adjectives; therefore when _this_ -and _that_, _these_ and _those_, and similar words, are used as pronouns -they are called demonstrative pronouns. - -+260.+ Be careful not to confuse the possessive pronouns with -adjectives. Possessive pronouns modify the nouns with which they are -used, but they are not adjectives, they are possessive pronouns. _My_, -_his_, _her_, _its_, _our_, _your_ and _their_ are all possessive -pronouns, not adjectives. Also be careful not to confuse nouns in the -possessive form with adjectives. - - - ADJECTIVES AS NOUNS - -+261.+ Sometimes you will find words, which we are accustomed to look -upon as adjectives, used alone in the sentence without a noun which they -modify. For example, we say, _The strong enslave the weak_. Here we have -used the adjectives _strong_ and _weak_ without any accompanying noun. -In sentences like this, these adjectives, being used as nouns, are -classed as nouns. Remember, in your analysis of a sentence, that you -name every word according to the work which it does in that sentence, so -while these adjectives are doing the work of nouns, we will consider -them as nouns. - -These words are not used in the same manner in which demonstrative -adjectives are used as pronouns. There is no noun omitted which might be -inserted, but these adjectives are used rather to name a class. As, for -example; when we say, _The strong_, _The weak_, we mean all those who -are strong and all those who are weak, considered as a class. You will -find adjectives used in this way quite often in your reading, and you -will find that you use this construction very often in your ordinary -speech. As, for example: - - The rich look down upon the poor. - The wise instruct the ignorant. - -Many examples will occur to you. Remember these adjectives are nouns -when they do the work of nouns. - - - ADJECTIVES WITH PRONOUNS - -+262.+ Since pronouns are used in place of nouns, they may have -modifiers, also, just as nouns do. So you will often find adjectives -used to modify pronouns. As, for example; _He, tired, weak and ill, was -unable to hold his position_. Here, _tired_, _weak_ and _ill_ are -adjectives modifying the pronoun _he_. - -+263.+ We often find a participle used as an adjective with a pronoun. -As, for example: - - She, having finished her work, went home. - They, having completed the organization, left the city. - He, having been defeated, became discouraged. - -In these sentences, the participles, _having finished_, _having -completed_, and _having been defeated_, are used as adjectives to modify -the pronouns _she_, _they_ and _he_. - - - COMPARISON - -+264.+ We have found that adjectives are a very important part of our -speech for without them we could not describe the various objects about -us and make known to others our ideas concerning their various -qualities. But with the addition of these helpful words we can describe -very fully the qualities of the things with which we come into contact. -We soon find, however, that there are varying degrees of these -qualities. Some objects possess them in slight degree, some more fully -and some in the highest degree. So we must have some way of expressing -these varying degrees in the use of our adjectives. - -This brings us to the study of comparison of adjectives. Suppose I say: - - That orange is sweet, the one yonder is sweeter, but this one is - sweetest. - -I have used the adjective _sweet_ expressing a quality possessed by -oranges in three different forms, _sweet_, _sweeter_ and _sweetest_. -This is the change in the form of adjectives to show different degrees -of quality. This change is called comparison, because we use it when we -compare one thing with another in respect to some quality which they -possess, but possess in different degrees. - -The form of the adjective which expresses a simple quality, as _sweet_, -is called the positive degree. That which expresses a quality in a -greater degree, as _sweeter_, is called the comparative degree. That -which expresses a quality in the greatest degree, as _sweetest_, is -called the superlative degree. - -+265.+ +Comparison is the change of form of an adjective to denote -different degrees of quality.+ - -+There are three degrees of comparison, positive, comparative and -superlative.+ - -+The positive degree of an adjective denotes simple quality.+ - -+The comparative degree denotes a higher degree of a quality.+ - -+The superlative degree denotes the highest degree of a quality.+ - -+266.+ Most adjectives of one syllable and many adjectives of two -syllables regularly add _er_ to the positive to form the comparative -degree, and _est_ to the positive to form the superlative degree, as: - - _Positive_ _Comparative_ _Superlative_ - - sweet sweeter sweetest - cold colder coldest - soft softer softest - brave braver bravest - clear clearer clearest - -+267.+ Adjectives ending in _y_ change _y_ to _i_ and add _er_ and _est_ -to form the comparative and superlative degree, as: - - _Positive_ _Comparative_ _Superlative_ - - busy busier busiest - lazy lazier laziest - sly slier sliest - witty wittier wittiest - -+268.+ Many adjectives cannot be compared by this change in the word -itself, since the addition of _er_ and _est_ would make awkward or -ill-sounding words. Hence we must employ another method to form the -comparison of this sort of words. To say, _beautiful_, _beautifuller_, -_beautifullest_, is awkward and does not sound well. So we say -_beautiful_, _more beautiful_, _most beautiful_. - -Many adjectives form the comparative and superlative degree by using -_more_ and _most_ with the simple form of the adjective, as: - - _Positive_ _Comparative_ _Superlative_ - - beautiful more beautiful most beautiful - thankful more thankful most thankful - sensitive more sensitive most sensitive - wonderful more wonderful most wonderful - -+269.+ Adjectives of two syllables, to which _er_ and _est_ are added to -form the comparison, are chiefly those ending in _y_ or _le_, such as: - - _Positive_ _Comparative_ _Superlative_ - - happy happier happiest - noble nobler noblest - steady steadier steadiest - feeble feebler feeblest - able abler ablest - witty wittier wittiest - -+270.+ Some adjectives, few in number, but which we use very often, are -irregular in their comparison. The most important of these are as -follows: (It would be well to memorize these.) - - _Positive_ _Comparative_ _Superlative_ - - good better best - well " " - bad worse worst - ill " " - much more most - many " " - little less least - late later latest - latter last - far farther farthest - (up) adv. upper uppermost - (in) adv. inner innermost - - - DESCENDING COMPARISON - -+271.+ The change in form of adjectives in the positive, comparative and -superlative shows that one object has more of a quality than others with -which it is compared. But we also wish at times to express the fact that -one object has less of the quality than is possessed by others with -which it is compared; so we have what we may call the descending -comparison, by means of phrases formed by using _less_ and _least_ -instead of _more_ and _most_. Using _less_ with the positive degree -means a degree less than the positive, while using _least_ expresses the -lowest degree. For example: - - Descending Comparison - - _Positive_ _Comparative_ _Superlative_ - - beautiful less beautiful least beautiful - intelligent less intelligent least intelligent - sensitive less sensitive least sensitive - thankful less thankful least thankful - - - PARTICIPLES AS ADJECTIVES - -+272.+ You remember, when we studied the participle, that we found it -was called a participle because it partook of the nature of two or more -parts of speech. For example; in the sentence, _The singing of the birds -greeted us_; _singing_ is a participle derived from the verb _sing_, and -is used as a noun, the subject of the verb _greeted_. - -But participles are used not only as nouns; they may also be used as -adjectives. For example; we may say, _The singing birds greeted us_. -Here the participle _singing_ describes the birds, telling what kind of -birds greeted us, and is used as an adjective modifying the noun -_birds_. - -You will recall that we found there were two forms of the participle, -the present participle and the past participle. The present participle -is formed by adding _ing_ to the root form of the verb; and the past -participle in regular verbs is formed by adding _d_ or _ed_ to the root -form, and in irregular verbs by a change in the verb form itself. These -two simple forms of participles are often used as adjectives. - -+273.+ The present participle is almost always active; that is, it -refers to the actor. As, for example; _Vessels, carrying soldiers, are -constantly arriving_. Here the present participle _carrying_ describes -the noun _vessels_, and yet retains its function as a verb and has an -object, _soldiers_. So it partakes of two parts of speech, the verb and -the adjective. - -+274.+ The past participle, when used alone, is almost always passive, -for it refers not to the actor, but to what is acted upon, thus: - - The army, beaten but not conquered, prepared for a siege. - -In this sentence _beaten_ is the past participle of the irregular verb -_beat_, and _conquered_ is the past participle of the regular verb -_conquer_, and both modify the noun _army_, but refer to it, not as the -actor, but as the receiver of the action. Hence, the past participle is -also the _passive_ participle. - -Note in the following sentences the use of the present and past -participle as adjectives: - - A _refreshing_ breeze came from the hills. - They escaped from the _burning_ building. - _Toiling_, _rejoicing_, _sorrowing_, onward through life he goes. - The man, _defeated_ in his purpose, gave up in despair. - The child, _driven_ in its youth to work, is robbed of the joy of - childhood. - The army, _forced_ to retreat, destroyed all in its path. - The children, _neglected_ by society, grow up without their rightful - opportunities. - - - Exercise 1 - -The adjectives and participles used as adjectives in the following -sentences are printed in _italics_. Determine which adjectives are -capable of comparison, and whether they are compared by adding _er_ or -_est_, or by the use of _more_ and _most_. - - In _a_ community _regulated_ by laws of demand and supply, but - _protected_ from _open_ violence, _the_ persons who become _rich_ are, - generally _speaking_, _industrious_, _resolute_, _proud_, _covetous_, - _prompt_, _methodical_, _sensible_, _unimaginative_, _insensitive_ and - _ignorant_. _The_ persons who remain _poor_ are _the_ entirely - _foolish_, _the_ entirely _wise_, _the idle_, _the reckless_, _the - humble_, _the thoughtful_, _the dull_, _the imaginative_, _the - sensitive_, _the well-informed_, _the improvident_, _the_ irregularly - and impulsively _wicked_, _the clumsy_ knave, _the open_ thief, and - _the_ entirely _merciful_, _just_ and _godly_ persons.--_Ruskin_. - - - PARTICIPLE PHRASES - -+275.+ If you will refer now to Lesson 9 you will find that we studied -in that lesson concerning participle phrases; that is, several words -used as a participle. We found that these participle phrases may also be -used as nouns; as, for example: - - His having joined the union caused him to lose his position. - -_Having joined_ is here a participle phrase used as a noun, subject of -the verb _caused_. Participle phrases may also be used as adjectives. - -You remember that we had four participle phrases, as follows: - - +Present perfect+, _active_, having called. - +Present perfect+, _passive_, having been called. - +Progressive+, _active_, having been calling. - +Progressive+, _passive_, being called. - -These participle phrases are used as adjectives to describe and modify -nouns, thus: - - The soldier, _having joined_ his comrades, fought in the trenches. - The nurse, _having been watching_ for days, was nearly exhausted. - -The passive phrases also are used as adjectives, thus: - - The woman, _having been hired_ by the manager, went to work. - The man, _being attacked_, fought bravely. - -Here the participle phrases _having been hired_ and _being attacked_ are -used as adjectives to modify the nouns _woman_ and _man_. - -Use the participles and participle phrases of the verbs _see_ and _obey_ -in sentences of your own. - - - USES OF ADJECTIVES - -+276.+ In our use of adjectives, we find it convenient to use them in -several different ways. The most common use is closely connected with -the noun as a modifying word, seeming in a sense almost a part of the -noun; as in the sentence, _These brave men have bequeathed to us -splendid victories_. In this sentence _these_ and _brave_ are easily -discovered to be adjectives, being used in such close connection with -the noun. - -But sometimes we find the adjectives a little farther away from the noun -which it describes, and then it becomes a little more difficult to find. -You will recall, in our study of the copulative verb _be_, that we found -it was simply a connecting word, connecting that which followed the verb -with its subject. So we often find an adjective used in the predicate -with a copulative verb showing what is asserted of the subject. When an -adjective is used in this way, it modifies the subject just as much as -if it were directly connected by being placed immediately before the -noun. For example: - - The lesson was long and difficult. - -_Long_ and _difficult_ are used in the predicate after the copulative -verb _was_, but are used to modify the subject _lesson_ just as much as -though we said instead, _It was a long and difficult lesson_. So watch -carefully for adjectives used with the copulative verb _be_ in all its -forms, _am_, _is_, _are_, _was_, _were_; and the phrases, _has been_, -_will be_, _must be_, etc. - -+277.+ You may find adjectives also used following the noun. As, for -example: _The man, cool and resolute, awaited the attack_. _Cool_ and -_resolute_ are adjectives modifying the noun _man_, but they follow the -noun, instead of being placed before it. - - - COMMON ERRORS - -+278.+ There are a number of common errors which we make in comparison, -which we should be careful to avoid. - -1. A number of adjectives cannot be compared for they in themselves -express the highest degree of quality, so they have no shades of meaning -and will not admit of comparison. For example: _full_, _empty_, _level_, -_round_, _square_. If a thing is full or empty or level or round or -square, it cannot be more full, or more empty, or more level, or more -round, or more square. So do not compare adjectives that already express -the highest degree of a quality. Also such words as _supreme_, -_eternal_, and _infallible_, cannot be compared for they also express -the highest degree of quality. - -2. Do not use _more_ with the comparative form made by using _er_, or -_most_ with the superlative form, made by using _est_. For example: do -not say, _They cannot be more happier than they are_. Say, _They cannot -be happier_; or _They cannot be more happy_. Use either form but never -both. Do not say, _That is the most wisest plan_. Say either, _That is -the wisest plan_; or _That is the most wise plan_, but never use both -forms. Never use _most_ with a superlative form. - -3. Do not use the superlative form in comparing _two_ objects. The -superlative form is used only when more than two are compared. For -example; do not say, _He is the smallest of the two_. Say, _He is the -smaller of the two_. _Which is the largest end?_ is incorrect. _Which is -the larger end?_ is correct. _Which is the oldest, John or Henry?_ is -also incorrect. This should be, _Which is the older, John or Henry?_ Use -the _comparative_ form always when comparing _two_ objects. - -4. In stating a comparison, avoid comparing a thing with itself. For -example; _New York is larger than any city in the United States_. In -this sentence, when you say _any_ city in the United States, you are -including New York; so you are really comparing New York with itself, -and you are saying that New York is larger than itself. You should have -said, _New York is larger than any other city in the United States_; or, -_New York is the largest city in the United States_. When you compare an -object with all others of its kind be sure that the word _other_ follows -the comparative word _than_. - -5. When an adjective denoting _one_ or _more than one_ modifies a noun, -the adjective and the noun must agree in number. For example; _The house -is 30 foot square_. _Thirty_ denotes more than one, so a plural noun -should be used, and this sentence should be, _The house is 30 feet -square_. _We are traveling at the rate of 40 mile an hour._ This should -be, _We are traveling at the rate of 40 miles an hour_. - -6. Only two adjectives, _this_ and _that_ change their form when -modifying a plural noun. _These_ and _those_ are the plural forms of -_this_ and _that_. So remember always to use _this_ and _that_ with -singular nouns and _these_ and _those_ with plural nouns. For example; -do not say, _These kind of people will never join us_. You should say, -_This kind of people will never join us_. Or, _Those sort of flowers -grows easily_. You should say, _That sort of flowers grows easily_. - -7. Place your adjectives where there can be no doubt as to what you -intend them to modify. Put the adjective _with_ the noun which it -modifies. For example; do not say, _a fresh bunch of flowers_, _a new -pair of shoes_, _a salt barrel of pork_, _an old box of clothes_, _a -cold cup of water_, _a new load of hay_. Put the adjective with the noun -which it modifies, and say, _a bunch of fresh flowers_, _a pair of new -shoes_, _a barrel of salt pork_, _a box of old clothes_, _a cup of cold -water_, _a load of new hay_. - -8. Adjectives are usually placed before the nouns they qualify, but -sometimes, especially in poetry or in the use of participles, they -follow the nouns. They should not, however, be placed too far away from -the noun which they modify or be unnecessarily separated from the noun. -Where there are two or more adjectives used to qualify the same noun, -place nearest the noun the adjective most closely connected with the -object described and place farthest from the noun the adjective least -closely connected with the noun. If they are all of the same rank, place -them where they will sound best, usually according to their length, -naming the shortest adjective first. - -Correct the following sentences by arranging the adjectives in the -proper order: - - The summer sky was a blue, soft, beautiful sky. - He bought a brown, fine, big horse. - A gold, beautiful, expensive watch was given her. - The new, beautiful apartment building is on the corner. - He advertised for a young, intelligent, wide awake man. - -9. Never use _them_ as an adjective. _Them_ is a pronoun. One of the -worst mistakes which we can make is to use such phrases as _them -things_, _them men_, _them books_. Say, _those things_, _those men_, -_those books_. - -10. Do not use _less_ for the comparative form of _few_. The comparative -form of _few_ is _fewer_. _Less_ refers only to quantity, _fewer_ to -number. For example: - - He raised _less_ grain this year than last, because he has _fewer_ - horses now than he had then. - He uses _fewer_ words because he has _less_ to say. - There are but _few_ people here today; there were still _fewer_ (not - less) yesterday. - - - Exercise 2 - -Correct the adjectives in this exercise: - - 1. Hand me the little knife. - 2. He claims to be more infallible than anyone else. - 3. Mary is the oldest of the two. - 4. He was the bestest boy in school. - 5. The barn is forty foot long. - 6. Yonder is a happy crowd of children. - 7. Which is the largest end? - 8. I found the bestest book. - 9. This is the most principal rule. - 10. Give me a cold cup of water. - 11. These kind of books will not do. - 12. Give me them books. - 13. Who is the tallest, you or John? - - - Exercise 3 - -Mark all the adjectives in this poem. Note especially the participles -used as adjectives. - - THE COLLECTION - - I passed the plate in church. - There was a little silver, but the crisp bank-notes heaped - themselves up high before me; - And ever as the pile grew, the plate became warmer and warmer, until - it fairly burned my fingers, and a smell of scorching flesh rose - from it, and I perceived that some of the notes were beginning - to smolder and curl, half-browned, at the edges. - And then I saw through the smoke into the very substance of the - money, and I beheld what it really was: - I saw the stolen earnings of the poor, the wide margin of wages - pared down to starvation; - I saw the underpaid factory girl eking out her living on the street, - and the over-worked child, and the suicide of the discharged - miner; - I saw the poisonous gases from great manufactories, spreading - disease and death; - I saw despair and drudgery filling the dram-shop; - I saw rents screwed out of brother men for permission to live on - God's land; - I saw men shut out from the bosom of the earth and begging for the - poor privilege to work, in vain, and becoming tramps and paupers - and drunkards and lunatics, and crowding into almshouses, insane - asylums and prisons; - I saw ignorance and vice and crime growing rank in stifling, filthy - slums; - I saw shoddy cloth and adulterated food and lying goods of all - kinds, cheapening men and women, and vulgarizing the world; - I saw hideousness extending itself from coal-mine and foundry over - forest and river and field; - I saw money grabbed from fellow grabbers and swindled from fellow - swindlers, and underneath the workman forever spinning it out of - his vitals; - I saw the laboring world, thin and pale and bent and care-worn and - driven, pouring out this tribute from its toil and sweat into - the laps of the richly dressed men and women in the pews, who - only glanced at them to shrink from them with disgust; - I saw all this, and the plate burned my fingers so that I had to - hold it first in one hand and then in the other; and I was glad - when the parson in his white robes took the smoking pile from me - on the chancel steps and, turning about, lifted it up and laid - it on the altar. - It was an old-time altar, indeed, for it bore a burnt offering of - flesh and blood--a sweet savor unto the Moloch whom these people - worship with their daily round of human sacrifices. - The shambles are in the temple as of yore, and the tables of the - money-changers waiting to be overturned. - - --_Ernest Crosby_. - - - - - SPELLING - - LESSON 15 - - -There is a class of words having the sound of long _e_, represented by -the diphthong _ie_, and another class having the same sound represented -by _ei_. It is a matter of perplexity at times to determine whether one -of these words should be spelled with _ie_ or _ei_. Here is a little -rhyme which you will find a valuable aid to the memory in spelling these -words: - - When the letter _c_ you spy, - Put the _e_ before the _i_. - -For example, in such words as _deceit_, _receive_ and _ceiling_, the -spelling is _ei_. On the other hand, when the diphthong is not preceded -by the letter _c_, the spelling is _ie_, as in _grief_, _field_, -_siege_, etc. - -There are a few exceptions to this rule, such as _either_, _neither_, -_leisure_, _seize_ and _weird_. Most words, however, conform to the -rule--when preceded by _c_, _ei_ should be used; when preceded by any -other letter, _ie_. - -Observe that this rule applies only when there is a diphthong having the -sound of long _e_. When the two letters do not have the sound of long -_e_, as in _ancient_, the rule does not apply. - - +Monday+ - - Deceive - Belief - Conceive - Brief - Ceiling - - +Tuesday+ - - Field - Receive - Piece - Chief - Leisure - - +Wednesday+ - - Receipt - Wield - Weird - Thief - Perceive - - +Thursday+ - - Deceit - Yield - Grief - Seize - Conceit - - +Friday+ - - Relieve - Neither - Liege - Shield - Niece - - +Saturday+ - - Relief - Achievement - Reprieve - Lien - Siege - - - - - PLAIN ENGLISH - - LESSON 16 - - -Dear Comrade: - -We have been tracing the development of written speech in order that we -might have a clearer understanding of our own language. We have found -how our earliest ancestors communicated with each other by signs and an -articulate speech that was probably a little better than that of some -animals of today. They gradually developed this articulate speech and -then began to have need for some form of written speech. That which -distinguishes man from the animals primarily is his power to remember -and to associate one idea with another. From this comes his ability to -reason concerning the connection of these ideas. Without this power of -associative memory we would not be able to reason. If you could not -recall the things that happened yesterday and had not the power of -imagination concerning the things that may happen tomorrow, your -reasoning concerning today would not be above that of the animals. - -So man soon found it necessary to have some way of recalling accurately, -in a manner that he could depend upon, the things that happened -yesterday and the day before and still farther back in time. So that his -first step was the invention of simple aids to memory such as the -knotted strings and tally sticks. Then he began to draw pictures of the -objects about him which he could perceive by the five senses, the things -which he could see and hear and touch and taste and smell. - -But man, the Thinker, began to develop and he began to have ideas about -things which he could not see and hear and touch and taste and smell. He -began to think of abstract ideas such as light and darkness, love and -hate, and if he was to have written speech he must have symbols which -would express these ideas. So we have found that he used pictures of the -things he perceived with his five senses to symbolize some of his -abstract ideas, as for example; a picture of the sun and moon to -represent light; the bee to symbolize industry; the ostrich feather to -represent justice. But as his ideas began to develop you can readily see -that in the course of time there were not enough symbols to go around -and this sort of written speech became very confusing and very difficult -to read. - -Necessity is truly the mother of invention, and so this need of man -forced him to invent something entirely new--something which had been -undreamed of before. He began now to use pictures which were different -in sense but the names of which had the same sound. You can find an -example of this same thing on the Children's Puzzle Page in the rebus -which is given for the children to solve. As for example: A picture of -an eye, a saw, a boy, a swallow, a goose and a berry, and this would -stand for the sentence, I saw a boy swallow a gooseberry. - -Perhaps you have used the same idea in some guessing game where a mill, -a walk and a key stands for Milwaukee. And so we have a new form of -picture writing. Notice in this that an entirely new idea has entered -in, for the picture may not stand for the whole word but may stand for -one syllable of the word as in the example given above. The mill stands -for one syllable, walk for another and key for another. This was a great -step for it meant the division of the word into various sounds -represented by the syllables. - -What a new insight it gives us into life when we realize that not only -our bodies but the environment in which we live, the machines with which -we work and even the language which we use has been a product of man's -own effort. Man has developed these things for himself through a -constant and steady evolution. It makes us feel that we are part of one -stupendous whole; we belong to the class which has done the work of the -world and accomplished these mighty things. The same blood flows in us; -the same power belongs to us. Truly, with this idea, we can stand erect -and look the whole world in the face and demand the opportunity to live -our own lives to the full. - - Yours for Freedom, - - THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. - - - WORDS ADDED TO VERBS - -+279.+ We have just finished the study of adjectives and we have found -that adjectives are words added to nouns to qualify or to limit their -meaning. Without this class of words it would be impossible for us to -express all of our ideas, for we would be at a loss to describe the -objects about us. Adjectives enable us to name the qualities or tell the -number of the objects with which we come in contact. - -The verb, we have found, expresses the action of these objects; in other -words, the verb tells what things do. So with adjectives and verbs we -can describe the objects named by the nouns and tell what they do. For -example, I may say, _Men work_. Here I have used simply a noun and a -verb; then I may add various adjectives to this and say, _Strong, -industrious, ambitious men work_. By the use of these adjectives, I have -told you about the kind of men who work; but I have said nothing about -the action expressed in the verb _work_. I may want to tell you _how_ -they work and _when_ they work; _where_ they work and _how much_; in -other words, describe fully the action expressed in the verb _work_, so -I say: - - The men work busily. - The men work late. - The men work well. - The men work inside. - The men work hard. - The men work here. - The men work now. - The men work more. - -Words like _busily_, _hard_, _late_, _here_, _well_, _now_, _inside_, -and _more_, show _how_, _when_, _where_ and _how much_ the men work. - -We could leave off these words and still have a sentence, since the -other words make sense without them, but these words describe the action -expressed in the verb. - -Words used in this way are called adverbs because they are added to -verbs to make our meaning more definite, very much as adjectives are -added to nouns. - -+280.+ The word adverb means, literally, _to the verb_, and one would -suppose from this name that the adverb was strictly a verb modifier, but -an adverb is used to modify other words as well. An adverb may be used -to modify an adjective; for example, we might say: _The man was very -busy_. _This lesson is too long._ Here _very_ and _too_ are added to the -adjectives _busy_ and _long_ to qualify their meaning. - -+281.+ You remember in the comparison of adjectives, we used the words -_more_ and _most_ to make the comparative and superlative degrees. Here -_more_ and _most_ are adverbs used with the adjectives to qualify their -meaning. Adverbs used in this way will always answer the question, _how -much_, _how long_, etc. In the sentence, _The man is very busy_, _very_ -is used to answer the question _how_ busy. And in the sentence, _The -lesson is too long_, the adverb _too_ answers the question _how_ long. - -An adverb is also added to another adverb sometimes to answer the -question _how_. For example; we say, _The man works very hard_. Here the -adverb _hard_ tells _how_ the man works and _very_ modifies the adverb -_hard_, and answers the question _how hard_. So we have our definition -of an adverb: - -+282.+ +An adverb is a word that modifies the meaning of a verb, an -adjective or another adverb.+ - -Remember that adjectives are used only with nouns or pronouns, but the -adverb may be used with a verb or an adjective or another adverb. You -remember that we had in our first lesson, as the definition of a word, -that, _a word is a sign of an idea_. The idea is a part of a complete -thought. See how all of these various words represent ideas, and each -does its part to help us express our thoughts. - - - HOW TO TELL ADVERBS - -+283.+ We need not have much difficulty in always being able to tell -which words in a sentence are adverbs, for they will always answer one -of the following questions: _How?_ _When?_ _Where?_ _Why?_ _How long?_ -_How often?_ _How much?_ _How far?_ or _How little?_ etc. Just ask one -of these questions and the word that answers it is the adverb in your -sentence. Take the following sentence: - - He _always_ came _down too rapidly_. - -The word _always_ answers the question _when_. So _always_ is an adverb, -describing the time of the action expressed in the verb _came_--He -_always_ came. _Down_ answers the question _where_. So _down_ is the -adverb describing the _place_ of the action. _Rapidly_ answers the -question _how_, and is the adverb describing the _manner_ of the action. -_Too_ also answers the question _how_, and modifies the adverb -_rapidly_. - - - Exercise 1 - -Underscore the adverbs in the following sentences and tell which -word they modify: - - 1. He writes correctly. - 2. She answered quickly. - 3. A very wonderful future awaits us. - 4. You should not speak so hastily. - 5. You can speak freely here. - 6. He could never wait patiently. - 7. We very often make mistakes. - 8. She very seldom goes there. - 9. He usually walks very rapidly. - 10. I have read the lesson quite carefully. - 11. We would willingly and cheerfully give our all for the cause. - 12. He frequently comes here but I do not expect him today. - 13. If we work diligently and faithfully we will soon learn to speak - correctly and fluently. - 14. I am almost sure I can go there tomorrow. - 15. It was more beautifully painted than the other. - 16. We eagerly await the news from the front. - 17. He always gladly obeyed his father. - 18. She spoke quite simply and met with a very enthusiastic reception. - 19. The difficulty can be easily and readily adjusted. - - - Exercise 2 - -Use the following adverbs in sentences to modify verbs: - - slowly - here - now - gently - loudly - never - soon - carefully - nobly - down - seldom - easily - -Use the following adverbs in sentences to modify adjectives: - - quite - very - more - too - most - less - nearly - so - -Use the following adverbs in sentences to modify adverbs: - - too - very - quite - less - more - most - least - so - - - CLASSES OF ADVERBS - -+284.+ There are a good many adverbs in our language, yet they may be -divided, according to their meaning, into six principal classes: - -+1. Adverbs of time.+ These answer the question _when_, and are such -adverbs as _now_, _then_, _soon_, _never_, _always_, etc. - -+2. Adverbs of place.+ These answer the question _where_, and are such -adverbs as _here_, _there_, _yonder_, _down_, _above_, _below_, etc. - -+3. Adverbs of manner.+ These answer the question _how_, and are such -adverbs as _well_, _ill_, _thus_, _so_, _slowly_, _hastily_, etc. - -+4. Adverbs of degree.+ These answer the questions _how much_, _how -little_, _how far_, etc., and are such adverbs as _much_, _very_, -_almost_, _scarcely_, _hardly_, _more_, _quite_, _little_, etc. - -+5. Adverbs of cause.+ These answer the question _why_, and are such -adverbs as _therefore_, _accordingly_, _hence_, etc. - -+6. Adverbs of number.+ These are such adverbs as _first_, _second_, -_third_, etc. - - - Exercise 3 - -In the following sentences there are adverbs of each class used. Find -the adverbs of the different classes. - - 1. We shall always be found in the forefront of the struggle. - 2. It is much more effective to train the young. - 3. He came first and remained through the entire program. - 4. It is pleasant to know that we have done well. - 5. Our comrades are fighting yonder in the trenches. - 6. Therefore we shall never acknowledge defeat. - 7. Come down and discuss the matter with us. - 8. We would soon be able to agree if we understood the facts. - 9. Study your lessons slowly and carefully. - 10. He was scarcely able to tell his story. - 11. Accordingly I am sending you full particulars of the plan. - 12. He came third in the ranks. - - - INTERROGATIVE ADVERBS - -+285.+ The adverbs _how_, _when_, _where_, _why_, _whither_, _whence_, -etc., are used in asking questions, and when they are used in this way -they are called interrogative adverbs. For example: - - _How_ did it happen? - _Where_ are you going? - _Whence_ came he? - _When_ did he come? - _Why_ did you do it? - _Whither_ are you going? - -These adverbs, _how_, _when_, _where_, _why_, _whence_ and _whither_, -are used in these sentences to modify the verbs and ask the questions -concerning the _time_ or _place_ or _manner_ of action expressed in the -verb. - -_How_ may also be used as an interrogative adverb modifying an adjective -or another adverb. For example: - - How late did he stay? - How large is the house? - -In the first sentence, the adverb _how_ modifies the adverb _late_, and -introduces the question. In the second sentence _how_ modifies the -adjective _large_ and introduces the question. - - - Exercise 4 - -Write sentences containing the interrogative adverbs _how_, _when_, -_where_ and _why_, to modify verbs and ask simple questions. - -Write sentences using the interrogative adverb _how_ to modify an -adjective and an adverb and to introduce a question. - - - ADVERBS OF MODE - -+286.+ There are some adverbs which scarcely fall into any of the above -classes and cannot be said to answer any of these questions. They are -such adverbs as _indeed_, _certainly_, _fairly_, _truly_, _surely_, -_perhaps_ and _possibly_. These adverbs really modify the entire -sentence, in a way, and are used to show how the statement is -made,--whether in a positive or negative way or in a doubtful way. For -example: - - _Surely_ you will not leave me. - _Truly_ I cannot understand the matter as you do. - _Perhaps_ he knows no better. - _Indeed_, I cannot go with you. - -Here, these adverbs, _truly_, _surely_, _perhaps_ and _indeed_, show the -manner in which the entire statement is made; so they have been put in a -class by themselves and called +adverbs of mode+. _Mode_ means literally -_manner_, but these are not adverbs that express manner of action, like -_slowly_ or _wisely_ or _well_ or _ill_. They express rather the manner -in which the entire statement is made, and so really modify the whole -sentence. - - - PHRASE ADVERBS - -+287.+ We have certain little phrases which we have used so often that -they have come to be used and regarded as single adverbs. They are such -phrases as _of course_, _of late_, _for good_, _of old_, _at all_, _at -length_, _by and by_, _over and over_, _again and again_, _through and -through_, _hand in hand_, _ere long_, _in vain_, _to and fro_, _up and -down_, _as usual_, _by far_, _at last_, _at least_, _in general_, _in -short_, etc. These words which we find used so often in these phrases we -may count as single adverbs. - - - ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS - -+288.+ Sometimes the same word may be used either as an adjective or as -an adverb, and you may have some difficulty in telling whether it is an -adjective or an adverb. Some of these words are: _better_, _little_, -_late_, _far_, _hard_, _further_, _first_, _last_, _long_, _short_, -_much_, _more_ and _high_. For example: - - The _late_ news verifies our statement. - The man came _late_ to his work. - -In the first sentence, the word _late_ is used as an adjective modifying -the noun _news_. In the second sentence, the word _late_ is used as an -adverb to modify the verb _came_. - -+289.+ You can always distinguish between adjectives and adverbs by -this rule: Adjectives modify _only nouns_ and _pronouns_, and the one -essential characteristic of the adverb, as a limiting word, is that it -is _always_ joined to some other part of speech than a noun. An adverb -may modify a verb, adjective or other adverb, but never a noun or -pronoun. - -You recall the rule which we have made the very foundation of our study: -namely, that every word is classified in the sentence according to the -_work_ which it does in that sentence. So a word is an adjective when it -limits or modifies or qualifies a noun or pronoun; a word is an adverb -when it qualifies any part of speech other than a noun or pronoun, -either a verb or an adjective or an adverb, or even an entire sentence, -as is the case with adverbs of mode. - -+290.+ Many adverbs are regularly made from nouns and adjectives by -prefixes and suffixes. Adverbs are made from adjectives chiefly by -adding the suffix _ly_, or by changing _ble_ to _bly_. For example: -_honestly_, _rarely_, _dearly_, _ably_, _nobly_, _feebly_. But all words -that end in _ly_ are not adverbs. Some adjectives end in _ly_ also, as, -_kingly_, _courtly_, etc. The only way we can determine to which class a -word belongs is by its use in the sentence. - - - Exercise 5 - -In the following sentences, tell whether the words printed in italics -are used as adjectives or as adverbs: also note the words ending in -_ly_. Some are adverbs and some adjectives. - - 1. The boy was very _little_. - 2. It was a _little_ early to arrive. - 3. It was a _hard_ lesson. - 4. She works _hard_ every day. - 5. I read the _first_ book. - 6. I read the book _first_ then gave it to him. - 7. He went to a _high_ mountain. - 8. The eagle flew _high_ in the air. - 9. We saw clearly the lovely picture. - 10. He is a wonderfully jolly man. - 11. His courtly manner failed when he saw his homely bride. - 12. He speaks slowly and clearly. - 13. They are very cleanly in their habits. - - - NOUNS AS ADVERBS - -+291.+ Words that are ordinarily used as nouns, are sometimes used as -adverbs. These are the nouns that denote time, distance, measure of -value or direction. They are added to verbs and adjectives to denote the -definite time at which a thing took place, or to denote the extent of -time or distance and the measure of value, of weight, number or age. -They are sometimes used to indicate direction. For example: - - They were gone a _year_. - He talked an _hour_. - They will return next _week_. - They went _south_ for the winter. - They traveled 100 _miles_. - The wheat is a _foot_ high. - The man weighed 200 _pounds_. - -In these sentences, the nouns, _year_, _miles_, _hour_, _foot_, _week_, -_pounds_ and _south_ are used as adverbs. Remember every word is -classified according to the work which it does in the sentence. - - - Exercise 6 - -Mark the adverbs in the following poem and determine what words they -modify: - - THE BRIDGE OF SIGHS - - One more Unfortunate - Weary of breath, - Rashly importunate, - Gone to her death! - - Take her up tenderly, - Lift her with care; - Fashion'd so slenderly, - Young, and so fair! - - Look at her garments - Clinging like cerements; - Whilst the wave constantly - Drips from her clothing; - Take her up instantly, - Loving, not loathing. - - Touch her not scornfully; - Think of her mournfully, - Gently and humanly; - Not of the stains of her-- - All that remains of her - Now is pure womanly. - - Make no deep scrutiny - Into her mutiny - Rash and undutiful; - Past all dishonor, - Death has left on her - Only the beautiful. - - * * * * * * * - - Alas! for the rarity - Of Christian charity - Under the sun! - O! it was pitiful! - Near a whole city full, - Home, she had none. - - * * * * * * * - - - The bleak wind of March - Made her tremble and shiver; - But not the dark arch, - Or the black flowing river: - Mad from life's history - Glad to death's mystery - Swift to be hurled-- - Anywhere, anywhere - Out of the world! - - In she plunged boldly, - No matter how coldly - The rough river ran; - Over the brink of it,-- - Picture it, think of it, - Dissolute Man! - Lave in it, drink of it, - Then, if you can! - - Take her up tenderly, - Lift her with care; - Fashion'd so slenderly, - Young and so fair! - - Ere her limbs frigidly - Stiffen too rigidly, - Decently, kindly, - Smooth and compose them; - And her eyes, close them, - Staring so blindly! - - Dreadfully staring - Thro' muddy impurity, - As when with the daring - Last look of despairing - Fix'd on futurity. - - Perishing gloomily, - Spurr'd by contumely, - Cold inhumanity, - Burning insanity, - Into her rest. - Cross her hands humbly - As if praying dumbly, - Over her breast! - - Owning her weakness, - Her evil behavior, - And leaving, with meekness, - Her sins to her Saviour! - - --_Thomas Hood_. - - - - - SPELLING - - LESSON 16 - - -The English language is truly a melting pot, into which have been thrown -words from almost every language under the sun. This makes our spelling -very confusing many times. Because of this also, we have in our -language, words which have the same sound but different meaning, having -come into the language from different sources. These words are called -_homonyms_. - -+Homonyms are words having the same sound but different meaning.+ For -example: - - Plane, plain; - write, right. - -Synonyms are words which have the same meaning. For example: - - Allow, permit; - lazy, idle. - -Our spelling lesson for this week contains a list of most of the -commonly used homonyms. Look up the meaning in the dictionary and use -them correctly in sentences. You will note that in some instances there -are three different words which have the same sound, but different -meanings. - -Notice especially _principal_ and _principle_. Perhaps there are no two -words which we use frequently which are so confused in their spelling. -_Principle_ is a noun. _Principal_ is an adjective. You can remember the -correct spelling by remembering that _adjective_ begins with _a_. -_Principal_, the adjective, is spelled with an _a_, _pal_. - -Notice also the distinction between _two_, _to_ and _too_. Look these up -carefully, for mistakes are very often made in the use of these three -words. Also notice the words _no_ and _know_ and _here_ and _hear_. - - +Monday+ - - Buy--by - Fair--fare - Meat--meet - Our--hour - Pain--pane - - +Tuesday+ - - Deer--dear - Hear--here - New--knew - No--know - Peace--piece - - +Wednesday+ - - Two--to--too - Pair--pare--pear - Birth--berth - Ore--oar - Ought--aught - - +Thursday+ - - Seen--scene - Miner--minor - Aloud--allowed - Stare--stair - Would--wood - - +Friday+ - - Bear--bare - Ascent--assent - Sight--site--cite - Rain--reign--rein - Rote--wrote - - +Saturday+ - - Great--grate - Foul--fowl - Least--leased - Principle--principal - Sale--sail - - - - - PLAIN ENGLISH - - LESSON 17 - - -Dear Comrade: - -We are finishing in this lesson the study of a very important part of -speech. Adverbs are a necessary part of our vocabulary, and most of us -need a greater supply than we at present possess. We usually have a few -adverbs and adjectives in our vocabulary which are continually -overworked. Add a few new ones to your vocabulary this week. - -Do not slight the exercises in these lessons. The study of the lesson is -only the beginning of the theoretical knowledge. You do not really know -a thing until you put it into practice. You may take a correspondence -course on how to run an automobile but you can not really know how to -run a machine until you have had the practical experience. There is only -one way to become expert in the use of words and that is to use them. -Every day try to talk to some one who thinks and reads. While talking -watch their language and your own. When a word is used that you do not -fully understand, look it up at your very first opportunity and if you -like the word use it a number of times until it has become your word. - -We have been following in these letters, which are our weekly talks -together, the development of the alphabet. It is really a wonderful -story. It brings to us most vividly the struggle of the men of the past. -Last week we found how they began to use symbols to express syllables, -parts of a word. We found that this was a great step in advance. Do you -not see that this was not an eye picture but an ear picture? The symbol -did not stand for the picture of the object it named but each symbol -stood for the sound which composed part of the word. - -After a while it dawned upon some one that all the words which man used -were expressed by just a few sounds. We do not know just when this -happened but we do know that it was a wonderful step in advance. -Cumbersome pictures and symbols could be done away with now. The same -idea could be expressed by a few signs which represented the few sounds -which were used over and over again in all words. Let us not fail to -realize what a great step in advance this was. These symbols represented -sounds. The appeal was through the _ear gate_ of man, not through the -_eye gate_. - -Thus came about the birth of the alphabet, one of the greatest and most -momentous triumphs of the human mind. Because of this discovery, we can -now form thousands of combinations expressing all our ideas with only -twenty-three or twenty-four symbols,--letters that represent sounds. -Since we have at our command all of this rich fund of words, let us not -be content to possess only a few for ourselves. Add a word daily to your -vocabulary and you will soon be surprised at the ease and fluency of -your spoken and written speech; and with this fluency in speech will -come added power in every part of your life. - - Yours for Education, - - THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. - - - COMPARISON OF ADVERBS - -+292.+ You will recall that we found that adjectives change in form to -show different degrees of quality. A few adverbs are compared the same -as adjectives. Some form the comparative and superlative degree in the -regular way, just as adjectives, by adding _er_ and _est_; for example: - - _Positive_ _Comparative_ _Superlative_ - - soon sooner soonest - late later latest - often oftener oftenest - early earlier earliest - fast faster fastest - -+293.+ Most adverbs form their comparative and superlative by the use of -_more_ and _most_ or _less_ and _least_, just as adjectives do; for -example: - - _Positive_ _Comparative_ _Superlative_ - - clearly more clearly most clearly - nobly more nobly most nobly - ably more ably most ably - truly more truly most truly - -Or, in the descending comparison: - - clearly less clearly least clearly - nobly less nobly least nobly - ably less ably least ably - truly less truly least truly - -+294.+ The following adverbs are compared irregularly. It would be well -to memorize this list: - - _Positive_ _Comparative_ _Superlative_ - - ill worse worst - well better best - badly worse worst - far further (farther) furthest (farthest) - little less least - much more most - -Some adverbs are incapable of comparison, as _here_, _there_, _now_, -_today_, _hence_, _therefore_, etc. - - - Exercise 1 - -In the following sentences mark which adverbs are used in the positive, -which in the comparative and which in the superlative degree: - - 1. He came too late to get his letter. - 2. I can understand clearly since you have explained the matter to me. - 3. He speaks most truly concerning a matter of which he is well - informed. - 4. If he comes quickly he will arrive in time. - 5. I will be able to speak more effectively when I have studied the - subject. - 6. Those who argue most ably are those who are in complete possession - of the facts. - 7. He needs to take a course such as this very badly. - 8. I am too weary to go farther today. - 9. This is the least expensive of them all. - 10. If he arrives later in the day I will not be able to see him. - 11. I can understand him more clearly than I can his friend. - 12. You must work more rapidly under the Taylor system of efficiency. - 13. Those who are least trained lose their positions first. - 14. Those who are best fitted for the positions do not always receive - them. - - - POSITION OF ADVERBS - -+295.+ When we use an adverb with an adjective or other adverb, we -usually place the adverb before the adjective or adverb which it -modifies. For example: - - She is _very_ studious. - Results come _rather_ slowly. - It is _quite_ evident. - He speaks _too_ rapidly. - -When we use an adverb with the simple form of the verb, (that is, either -the present or past time form or any time form in which we do not need -to use a phrase), if the verb is a complete verb, we place the adverb -after the verb. For example: - - The boat arrived _safely_. - The man came _quickly_. - The boy ran _fast_. - The teacher spoke _hastily_. - -But when the verb is an incomplete verb used in the simple form, the -adverb usually precedes it in order not to come between the verb and its -object. As, for example: - - He _willingly_ gave his consent to the proposition. - She _gladly_ wrote the letter which we requested. - A soldier _always_ obeys the command of a superior officer. - -When the object of the incomplete verb is short, then the adverb is -sometimes placed after the object. As, for example: - - I study my lessons _carefully_. - He wrote a letter _hastily_. - -The object is more closely connected with the verb and so is placed -nearer the verb. However, when the object is modified by a phrase the -adverb is sometimes placed immediately after the verb, as: - - I studied _carefully_ the lessons given for this month. - He wrote _hastily_ a short letter to his son. - -When we use an adverb with a verb phrase, we usually place the adverb -after the first word in the verb phrase. For example: - - The boy has _always_ worked. - The workers will _then_ understand. - He will _surely_ have arrived by that time. - -When the verb is in the passive form the adverb immediately precedes the -principal verb, as for example: - - The work can be _quickly_ finished. - The obstacles can be _readily_ overcome. - The lesson must be _carefully_ prepared. - The workers must be _thoroughly_ organized. - -When an adverb of time and an adverb of manner or place are used to -modify the same verb, the adverb of time is placed first and the adverb -of manner or place second, as for example: - - I _often_ stop _there_. - He _usually_ walks _very rapidly_. - They _soon_ learn to work _rapidly_. - -If the sentence contains adverbs of time, of place, and of manner; the -adverb of time should come first; of place, second; and of manner, -third; as: - - He _usually_ comes _here quickly_. - - - Exercise 2 - -Improve the location of the adverbs in the following sentences and -observe how the change of place of the adverb may alter the meaning of -the sentence: - - 1. I _only_ saw the President once. - 2. Such prices are _only_ paid in times of great scarcity. - 3. No man has _ever_ so much wealth that he does not want more. - 4. It seems that the workers can be _never_ aroused. - 5. I want to _briefly_ state the reason for my action. - 6. I shall be glad to help you _always_. - 7. I _only_ mention a few of the facts. - 8. He _nearly_ walked to town. - 9. We are told that the Japanese _chiefly_ live upon rice. - 10. They expected them to sign a treaty _daily_. - 11. Having _nearly_ lost all his money he feared _again_ to venture. - - - ADVERBS AND INFINITIVES - -+296.+ You remember when we studied the infinitive in Lesson 9, we found -that it was not good usage to split the infinitive; that is, to put the -modifying word between _to_ and the verb. For example: _We ought to -bravely stand for our rights_. The correct form of this is: _We ought to -stand bravely for our rights_. - -But we have found, also, that common usage breaks down the old rules and -makes new rules and laws for itself, and so we frequently find the -adverb placed between the infinitive and its sign. - -Sometimes it seems difficult to express our meaning accurately in any -other way; for example, when we say: _To almost succeed is not enough_, -we do not make the statement as forceful or as nearly expressive of our -real idea, if we try to put the adverb _almost_ in any other position. -This is also true in such phrases as _to far exceed_, _to more than -counterbalance_, _to fully appreciate_, and various other examples which -you will readily find in your reading. The purpose of written and spoken -language is to express our ideas adequately and accurately. - -So we place our words in sentences to fulfill this purpose and not -according to any stereotyped rule of grammarians. Ordinarily, though, it -would be best not to place the adverb between the infinitive verb and -its sign _to_. Do not split the infinitive unless by so doing you -express your idea more accurately. - - - COMMON ERRORS - -+297.+ The position in the sentence of such adverbs as, _only_, _also_ -and _merely_, depends upon the meaning to be conveyed. The place where -these adverbs occur in the sentences, may completely alter the meaning -of the sentence. For example: - -_Only the address can be written on this side._ We mean that nothing but -the address can be written on this side. - -_The address can only be written on this side._ We mean that the address -cannot be printed, but must be written. - -_The address can be written only on this side._ We mean that it cannot -be written on any other side, but on this side only. - -So you see that the place in which the adverb appears in the sentence -depends upon the meaning to be conveyed and the adverb should be placed -in the sentence so as to convey the meaning intended. - -+Never use an adjective for an adverb.+ One common error is using an -adjective for an adverb. Remember that adjectives modify nouns only. -Whenever you use a word to modify a verb, adjective or another adverb, -use an adverb. For example, _He speaks slow and plain_. This is -incorrect. The sentence should be, _He speaks slowly and plainly_. Watch -this carefully. It is a very common error. - -+Another very common error is that of using an adverb instead of an -adjective with the copulative verb.+ Never use an adverb in place of an -adjective to complete a copulative verb. When a verb asserts an action -on the part of the subject, the qualifying word that follows the verb is -an adverb. For example, you would say: - - The sea was calm. - -Here we use an _adjective_ in the predicate, for we are describing the -appearance of the sea, no action is expressed. But if we say: _He spoke -calmly_, we use the adverb _calmly_, for the verb _spoke_ expresses an -action on the part of the subject, and the adverb _calmly_ describes -that action, it tells how he spoke. So we say: _The water looks clear_, -but, _We see clearly_. _She appears truthful._ _They answered -truthfully._ _She looked sweet._ _She smiled sweetly._ - -With all forms of the verb _be_, as _am_, _is_, _are_, _was_, _were_, -_have been_, _has been_, _will be_, etc., use an adjective in the -predicate; as, _He is glad_. _I am happy._ _They were eager._ _They will -be sad._ Use an adjective in the predicate with verbs like _look_, -_smell_, _taste_, _feel_, _appear_ and _seem_. For example: _He looks -bad._ _It smells good._ _The candy tastes sweet_. _The man feels fine -today._ _She appears anxious._ _He seems weary._ - -+Never use two negative words in the same sentence.+ The second negative -destroys the first and we really make an affirmative statement. The two -negatives neutralize each other and spoil the meaning of the sentence. -For example, never say: - - I don't want no education. - He didn't have no money. - Don't say nothing to nobody. - She never goes nowhere. - He won't say nothing to you. - He does not know nothing about it. - He never stops for nothing. - The stingy man gives nothing to nobody. - -In all of these sentences we have used more than one negative; _not_ and -_no_, or _not_ and _nothing_, or _never_ and _no_, or _never_ and -_nothing_. Never use these double negatives. The correct forms of these -sentences are: - - I don't want any education. - He didn't have any money. - Don't say anything to any one. - She never goes anywhere. - He won't say anything to you. - He knows nothing about it. - He never stops for anything. - The stingy man gives nothing to any one. - -+Where to place the negative adverb, not.+ In English we do not use the -negative adverb _not_ with the common verb form, but when we use _not_ -in a sentence, we use the auxiliary _do_. For example, we do not say: - - I like it not. - They think not so. - He loves me not. - We strive not to succeed. - -Only in poetry do we use such expressions as these. In ordinary English, -we say: - - I do not like it. - They do not think so. - He does not love me. - We do not strive to succeed. - -+We often use _here_ and _there_ incorrectly after the words _this_ -and _that_.+ For example, we say: - - This here lesson is shorter than that there one was. - -This should be: _This lesson is shorter than that one_. - - Bring me that there book. - This here man will not listen. - -These sentences should read: - - Bring me that book. - This man will not listen. - -Never use _here_ and _there_ in this manner. - -+Another common mistake is using _most_ for _almost_.+ - -For example, we say: - - We are most there. - I see her most every day. - -These sentences should read: - - We are almost there. - I see her almost every day. - -_Most_ is the superlative degree of _much_, and should be used only in -that meaning. - -+We often use the adjective _real_ in place of _very_ or _quite_, -to modify an adverb or an adjective.+ - -For example, we say: - - I was real glad to know it. - She looked real nice. - You must come real soon. - -Say instead: - - I am very glad to know it. - She looked very nice. - You must come quite soon. - -_Really_ is the adverb form of the adjective _real_. You might have -said: - - I am really glad to know it. - -But never use _real_ when you mean _very_ or _quite_ or _really_. - -+We use the adjective _some_ many times when we should use the adverb -_somewhat_.+ For example, we say: - - I am some anxious to hear from him. - I was some tired after my trip. - -What we intended to say was: - - I am somewhat anxious to hear from him. - I was somewhat tired after my trip. - -+Do not use _what for_ when you mean _why_.+ Do not say: - - What did you do that for? - -Or worse still, - - What for did you do that? - -Say: - - Why did you do that? - -+Do not use _worse_ in place of _more_.+ Do not say: - - I want to go worse than I ever did. - -Say: - - I want to go _more_ than I ever did. - -+Observe the distinction between the words _further_ and _farther_.+ -Farther always refers to distance, or extent. For example: - - He could go no farther that day. - We will go farther into the matter some other time. - -Further means more. For example: - - He would say nothing further in regard to the subject. - -+Never use _good_ as an adverb+. _Good_ is always an adjective. _Well_ -is the adverb form. _Good_ and _well_ are compared in the same way, -_good_, _better_, _best_, and _well_, _better_, _best_. So _better_ and -_best_ can be used either as adjectives or adverbs; but _good_ is always -an adjective. Do not say, _He talks good_. Say, _He talks well_. Note -that _ill_ is both an adjective and an adverb and that _illy_ is always -incorrect. - - - Exercise 3 - -Correct the adverbs in the following sentences. All but two of these -sentences are wrong. - - 1. Come quick, I need you. - 2. The boy feels badly. - 3. Give me that there pencil. - 4. I am some hungry. - 5. The people learn slow. - 6. He never stopped for nothing. - 7. What did you say that for? - 8. This here machine won't run. - 9. I make a mistake most every time. - 10. Watch careful every word. - 11. The man works good. - 12. The tone sounds harsh. - 13. I don't want no dinner. - 14. I hope it comes real soon. - 15. I want to learn worse than ever. - 16. She looked lovely. - 17. She smiled sweet. - 18. He sees good for one so old. - 19. She answered correct. - 20. He won't say nothing about it. - 21. I will be real glad to see you. - 22. That tastes sweetly. - 23. The man acted too hasty. - 24. We had most reached home. - 25. They ride too rapid. - - - DO NOT USE TOO MANY ADVERBS - -+298.+ Like adjectives it is better to use adverbs sparingly. This is -especially true of the adverbs used to intensify our meaning. Do not use -the adverbs, _very_, _awfully_, etc., with every other word. It makes -our speech sound like that of a gushing school girl, to whom everything -is _very, awfully sweet_. More than that, it does not leave us any words -to use when we really want to be intense in speech. Save these words -until the right occasion comes to use them. - - - Exercise 4 - -Adverbs should always be placed where there can be no doubt as to what -they are intended to modify. A mistake in placing the adverb in the -sentence often alters the meaning of the sentence. Choose the right word -in each of the following sentences: - - 1. He looked glad--gladly when I told him the news. - 2. Slaves have always been treated harsh--harshly. - 3. I prefer my eggs boiled soft--softly. - 4. The lecturer was tolerable--tolerably well informed. - 5. Speak slower--more slowly so I can understand you. - 6. The evening bells sound sweet--sweetly. - 7. The house appears comfortable--comfortably and - pleasant--pleasantly. - 8. If you will come quick--quickly you can hear the music. - 9. I was exceeding--exceedingly glad to hear from you. - 10. The bashful young man appeared very awkward--awkwardly. - 11. The young lady looked beautiful--beautifully and she sang - beautiful--beautifully. - 12. I looked quick--quickly in the direction of the sound. - 13. The sun is shining bright--brightly today and the grass looks - green--greenly. - - - - - SPELLING - - LESSON 17 - - -In our study of adjectives we have found that we use them to express -some quality possessed by a noun or pronoun which they modify. You will -recall when we studied nouns, we had one class of nouns, called abstract -nouns, which were the names of qualities. So we find that from these -adjectives expressing quality we form nouns which we use as the name of -that quality. - -For example from the adjective _happy_, we form the noun _happiness_, -which is the name of the quality described by the adjective _happy_, by -the addition of the suffix _ness_. We use this suffix _ness_ quite often -in forming these derivative nouns from adjectives but there are other -suffixes also which we use; as for example, the suffix _ty_ as in -_security_, formed from the adjective _secure_, changing the _e_ to _i_ -and adding the suffix _ty_. When the word ends in _t_ we sometimes add -only _y_ as in _honesty_, derived from the adjective _honest_. - -You remember that an abstract noun may express not only quality but also -action, considered apart from the actor; so abstract nouns may be made -from verbs. For example: - -_Running_, from the verb _run_; _settlement_, from the verb _settle_. - -In our lesson for this week the list for Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday -contains adjectives of quality from which abstract nouns expressing -quality can be made, by the addition of the proper suffix, either -_ness_, _y_, _ty_ or _tion_. The list for Thursday, Friday and Saturday -consists of verbs from which abstract nouns can be made by the addition -of the suffixes _ment_ and _ing_. - -Make from each adjective and verb in this week's lesson an abstract noun -by the addition of the proper suffix. Be able to distinguish between the -use of the qualifying adjective and the noun expressing quality. - - +Monday+ - - Stately - Forgetful - Real - Concise - Noble - - +Tuesday+ - - Slender - Empty - Equal - Righteous - Deliberate - - +Wednesday+ - - Submissive - Dreadful - Eager - Sincere - Resolute - - +Thursday+ - Enlist - Defile - Adorn - Nourish - Commence - - +Friday+ - - Content - Adjust - Induce - Indict - Adjourn - - +Saturday+ - - Discourage - Refine - Acquire - Enrich - Infringe - - - - - PLAIN ENGLISH - - LESSON 18 - - -Dear Comrade: - -Last week we finished the study of adverbs and we found that they were a -very important part of our vocabulary, and that most of us needed a -greater supply than we at present possess. This is true of both adverbs -and adjectives. While we do not use as many adverbs as adjectives in our -ordinary speech, nevertheless, adverbs are a very important factor in -expression. A great many adjectives can be readily turned into adverbs. -They are adjectives when they are used to describe a noun, but by the -addition of a suffix, they become adverbs used to describe the action -expressed by the verb. So in adding to our stock of adjectives we also -add adverbs to our vocabulary as well. - -Watch your speech this week and make a list of the adverbs which you use -most commonly, then go to your dictionary and see if you cannot find -synonyms for these adverbs. Try using these synonyms for awhile and give -the adverbs which you have been using for so long, a well earned rest. -Remember that our vocabulary, and the power to use it, is like our -muscles, it can only grow and develop by exercise. - -The best exercise which you can possibly find for this purpose is -conversation. We spend much more time in talking than in reading or in -writing. Conversation is an inexpensive pleasure and it does not even -require leisure always, for we can talk as we work; yet our conversation -can become a great source of inspiration and of influence as well as a -pleasant pastime. But do not spend your time in vapid and unprofitable -conversation. Surely there is some one in the list of your acquaintances -who would like to talk of things worth while. Hunt up this some one and -spend some portion of your day in profitable conversation. - -Remember also that a limited vocabulary means also a limited mental -development. Did you ever stop to think that when we think clearly we -think in words? Our thinking capacity is limited, unless we have the -words to follow our ideas out to their logical conclusions. - -This matter of vocabulary is a matter, too, that is exceedingly -practical. It means success or failure to us in the work which we would -like to do in the world. A command of words means added power and -efficiency; it means the power to control, or at least affect, our -environment; it means the power over men and things; it means the -difference between being people of ability and influence and being -obscure, inefficient members of society. - -So feel when you are spending your time in increasing your vocabulary -that you are not only adding to your enjoyment of life but that you are -doing yourself the best practical turn; you are increasing your -efficiency in putting yourself in a position where you can make your -influence felt upon the people and circumstances about you. This effort -upon your part will bear practical fruit in your every day life. - - Yours for Education, - - THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. - - - A GROUP OF WORDS - -+299.+ We have studied about the independent parts of speech, that is, -the nouns and pronouns and verbs. These are independent because with -them we can form sentences without the help of other words. And these -are the only three parts of speech which are so independent--with which -we can form complete sentences. Then we have studied also the words that -modify,--that is, the words that are used with nouns and pronouns and -verbs to describe and explain more fully the ideas which they express. -So we have studied adjectives, which modify nouns and pronouns; and -adverbs, which modify verbs or adjectives or other adverbs. - -+300.+ The adjectives and adverbs which we have studied thus far are -single words; but we find that we may use little groups of words in -about the same way, to express the same idea which we have expressed in -the single adjective or adverb. For example, we may say: - - Strong men, _or_, men of strength. - City men, _or_, men from the city. - Jobless men, _or_, men without jobs. - Moneyed men, _or_, men with money. - -These groups of words like, _of strength_, _from the city_, _without -jobs_, and _with money_, express the same ideas that are expressed in -the single adjectives, _strong_, _city_, _jobless_ and _moneyed_. - -You recall that we defined any group of words used as a single word as a -_phrase_; so these groups of words are phrases which are used as -adjectives. The phrase, _of strength_, modifies the noun _men_, just as -the adjective _strong_ modifies the noun _men_. So we may call these -phrases which modify nouns, or which may be used to modify pronouns -also, _adjective phrases_, for they are groups of words used as -adjectives. - - - Exercise 1 - -Change the adjectives which are printed in italics in the following -sentences into phrases: - - 1. _Strong_ men know no fear. - 2. She bought a _Turkish_ rug. - 3. He followed the _river_ bed. - 4. _Fashionable_ women are parasites. - 5. He left on his _homeward_ journey. - 6. _Sensible_ men readily understand their economic slavery. - 7. _Intelligent_ people will not always submit to robbery. - 8. _Senseless_ arguments cannot convince us of the truth. - - - USED AS ADVERBS - -+301.+ These phrases may be used in the place of single adverbs also. -You remember an adverb is a word that modifies a verb or an adjective or -another adverb. Let us see if we can not use a phrase or a group of -words in the place of a single adverb. For example: - - The man works rapidly, or, The man works with rapidity. - The man works now, or, The man works at this time. - The man works here, or, The man works at this place. - -In these sentences _rapidly_, _now_ and _here_ are single adverbs -modifying the verb _work_. The phrases, _with rapidity_, _at this time_, -and _at this place_, express practically the same ideas, conveyed by the -single adverbs, _rapidly_, _now_ and _here_. These phrases modify the -verb in exactly the same manner as the single adverbs. Therefore we call -these groups of words used as single adverbs, _adverb phrases_. - -We also use adverbs to modify adjectives. Let us see if we can use -adverb phrases in the same way: - - Rockefeller is _excessively_ rich; or, Rockefeller is rich _to - excess_. - He is _bodily_ perfect, but _mentally_ weak; or, He is perfect _in - body_ but weak _in mind_. - -In the sentences above, the adverb _excessively_ modifies the adjective -_rich_; the same meaning is expressed in the adverb phrase, _to excess_. -In the sentence, _He is bodily perfect, but mentally weak_, the adverb -_bodily_ modifies the adjective _perfect_ and the adverb _mentally_ -modifies the adjective _weak_. In the last sentence, the same meaning is -expressed by the adverb phrases, _in body_ and _in mind_. These phrases -modify the adjectives _perfect_ and _weak_, just as do the single -adverbs _bodily_ and _mentally_. - -+302.+ We can use a phrase in the place of almost any adverb or -adjective. It very often happens, however, that there is no adjective or -adverb which we can use to exactly express our meaning and we are forced -to use a phrase. For example: - - He bought the large house _by the river_. - The man _on the train_ is going _to the city_. - He came _from the country_. - -It is impossible to find single words that express the meaning of these -phrases, _by the river_, _on the train_, _to the city_, and _from the -country_. You could not say the _river house_; that is not what you -mean. You mean the large house _by the river_, yet the phrase _by the -river_ modifies and describes the house quite as much as the adjective -_large_. It is an adjective phrase used to modify the noun _house_, yet -it would be impossible to express its meaning in a single word. - - - Exercise 2 - -Which phrases in the following sentences are used as adjectives and -which phrases are used as adverbs? - -Change these phrases to adjectives or adverbs, if you can think of any -that express the same meaning. - - 1. Men lived _in caves_ long ago. - 2. Man's discovery _of fire_ was the beginning _of industry_. - 3. _After this discovery_, men lived _in groups_. - 4. The work _of the world_ is done _by machinery_. - 5. The workers _of Europe_ were betrayed. - 6. They are fighting _for their country_. - 7. The struggle _for markets_ is the cause _of war_. - 8. The history _of the world_ records the struggle _of the workers_. - 9. The idea _of democracy_ is equal opportunity _for all_. - 10. The invention _of the printing press_ placed knowledge _within the - reach_ _of the masses_. - 11. If you will study _with diligence_ you can learn _with ease_. - 12. This knowledge will be _of great value_ _to you_. - 13. Diplomacy means that the plans _of nations_ are made _in secret_. - 14. The men _in the factory_ are all paid _by the month_. - 15. They are afraid to take a trip _through Europe_ _at this time_. - - - Exercise 3 - -Use a phrase instead of the adjective or adverb in the following -sentences: - - 1. The men in the trenches are fighting _bravely_. - 2. An _uneducated_ man is _easily_ exploited. - 3. Our _educational_ system is inadequate. - 4. The _skilled_ workers must be organized. - 5. _Careless_ men endanger the lives of others. - 6. The plans have been _carefully_ laid. - 7. _Ambitious_ men often trample on the rights of others. - 8. Shall our education be controlled by _wealthy_ men? - 9. We want to live _courageously_. - 10. We want to face the future _fearlessly_. - 11. We want to possess _peacefully_ the fruits of our labor. - 12. By constant practice we can learn to speak _effectively_. - 13. This book will be a _valuable_ addition to your library. - 14. The number of _unemployed_ men _constantly_ increases. - 15. The men mastered each step _thoroughly_ as they proceeded. - 16. In order to express one's self _eloquently_ it is necessary to - think _clearly_. - 17. We must consecrate ourselves _completely_ to the cause of - humanity. - 18. A _kind_ act is its own reward. - 19. _Experienced_ workers can _more easily_ secure positions. - 20. He spoke _thoughtlessly_ but the people listened _eagerly_. - 21. The soldier was rewarded for his _heroic_ deed. - 22. He is an _honorable_ man and I am not surprised at this _brave_ - act. - 23. A _prudent_ man should be chosen to fill that _important_ office. - - - PREPOSITIONS - -+303.+ Have you noticed that all of these phrases, which we have been -studying and using as adjectives and adverbs, begin with a little word -like _of_, _with_, _from_, _in_, _at_ or _by_, which connects the phrase -with the word it modifies? We could scarcely express our meaning without -these little words. They are connecting words and fill an important -function. These words usually come first in the phrase. For this reason, -they are called _prepositions_, which means _to place before_. - -Let us see what a useful place these little words fill in our language. -Suppose we were watching the play of some boys outside our windows and -were reporting their hiding place. We might say: - - The boys are hiding _in_ the bushes. - The boys are hiding _among_ the bushes. - The boys are hiding _under_ the bushes. - The boys are hiding _behind_ the bushes. - The boys are hiding _beyond_ the bushes. - -These sentences are all alike except the prepositions _in_, _among_, -_under_, _behind_ and _beyond_. If you read the sentences and leave out -these prepositions entirely, you will see that nobody could possibly -tell what connection the _bushes_ had with the rest of the sentence. The -prepositions are necessary to express the relation of the word _bushes_ -to the rest of the sentence. - -But this is not all. You can readily see that the use of a different -preposition changes the meaning of the sentence. It means quite a -different thing to say, _The boys are hiding in the bushes_, and to say, -_The boys are hiding beyond the bushes_. So the preposition has a great -deal to do with the true expression of our ideas. - -The noun _bushes_ is used as the object of the preposition, and the -preposition shows the relation of its object to the word which it -modifies. You remember that nouns have the same form whether they are -used as subject or as object, but if you are using a pronoun after a -preposition, always use the object form of the pronoun. For example: - - I bought the book from _him_. - I took the message to _them_. - I found the place for _her_. - -In these sentences the pronouns, _him_, _them_, and _her_ are used as -objects of the prepositions _from_, _to_ and _for_. So we have used the -object forms of these pronouns. - -+304+. The noun or pronoun that follows the preposition, and is used -with it to make a phrase, is the object of the preposition. The -preposition is used to show the relation that exists between its object -and the word the object modifies. In the sentence above, _The boys are -hiding in the bushes_, the preposition _in_ shows the relationship -between the verb phrase, _are hiding_ and the object of the preposition, -_bushes_. - -The noun or pronoun which is the object of a preposition may also have -its modifiers. In the sentences used about the noun _bush_, which is the -object of the prepositions used, is modified by the adjective _the_. -Other modifiers might also be added, as for example: - - The boys are hiding in the tall, thick bushes. - -The entire phrase, _in the tall, thick bushes_, is made up of the -preposition _in_, its object _bushes_ and the modifiers of bushes, -_the_, _tall_ and _thick_. - -+305+. The preposition, with its object and the modifiers of the object, -forms a phrase which we call a _prepositional phrase_. These -prepositional phrases may be used either as adjectives or as adverbs, so -we have our definitions: - -+A preposition is a word that shows the relation of its object to some -other word.+ - -+A phrase is a group of words used as a single word.+ - -+A prepositional phrase is a phrase composed of a preposition and its -object and modifiers.+ - -+An adjective phrase is a prepositional phrase used as an adjective.+ - -+An adverb phrase is a prepositional phrase used as an adverb.+ - -+306.+ Here is a list of the most common and most important -prepositions. Use each one in a sentence: - - above - about - across - after - against - along - around - among - at - before - behind - below - beneath - beside - between - beyond - by - down - for - from - in - into - of - off - on - over - to - toward - through - up - upon - under - with - within - without - - - ADVERBS AND PREPOSITIONS - -+307.+ Many of the words that are used as prepositions are used also as -adverbs. It may be a little confusing to tell whether the word is an -adverb or a preposition, but if you will remember this simple rule you -will have no trouble: - -+A preposition is always followed by either a noun or a pronoun as its -object, while an adverb never has an object.+ - -So when you find a word, that can be used either as a preposition or an -adverb, used alone in a sentence without an object, it is an adverb; but -if it is followed by an object, then it is a preposition. This brings -again to our minds the fundamental rule which we have laid down, that -every word is classified according to the work which it does in a -sentence. The work of a preposition is to show the relation between its -object and the word which that object modifies. So whenever a word is -used in this way it is a preposition. For example: _He went about his -business_. - -Here, _about_ is a preposition and _business_ is its object. But in the -sentence, _He is able to be about_, _about_ is used as an adverb. It has -no object. - -_He sailed before the mast._ Here, _before_ is a preposition introducing -the phrase _before the mast_, which modifies the verb _sailed_. But in -the sentence, _I told you that before_, _before_ is an adverb modifying -the verb _told_. - -By applying this rule you can always readily determine whether the word -in question is an adverb or a preposition. - - - Exercise 4 - -Tell whether the words printed in italics in the following sentences, -are prepositions or adverbs and the reason why: - - 1. He came _across_ the street. - 2. He is _without_ work. - 3. Come _in_. - 4. He lives _near_. - 5. He brought it _for_ me. - 6. I cannot get _across_. - 7. We will go _outside_. - 8. This is _between_ you and me. - 9. He can go _without_. - 10. Stay _in_ the house. - 11. Do not come _near_ me. - 12. They all went _aboard_ at six o'clock. - 13. He enlisted _in_ the navy and sailed _before_ the mast. - 14. I do not know what lies _beyond_. - 15. I will soon be _through_. - 16. The aeroplane flew _above_ the city for hours. - - - PHRASE PREPOSITIONS - -+308.+ Sometimes we have a preposition made up of several words which we -have used so commonly together that they are used as a single word and -we call the entire phrase a preposition. As, for example: _According -to_--_on account of_--_by means of_, etc. - - 1. He answered _according to_ the rule. - 2. I could not go _on account of_ illness. - 3. He won the election _by means of_ fraud. - 4. The strike was won _by help of_ all the comrades. - 5. You can learn to spell only _by dint of_ memory. - 6. We speak incorrectly _by force of_ habit. - 7. He went to New York _by way of_ Chicago. - 8. Ferrer died _for the sake of_ his ideals. - 9. _In consideration of_ this payment, we will send you the set of - books. - 10. Germany issued her ultimatum _in defiance of_ the world. - 11. _In view of_ all the facts, we are convinced of his innocence. - 12. He will gladly suffer _in place of_ his comrade. - 13. _In conformity with_ the information contained in your letter, - I will join you on the 10th. - - - Exercise 5 - -Mark the prepositions in the following quotation. In the first three -paragraphs the prepositional phrases are printed in italics. Determine -whether they are used as adjective phrases or as adverb phrases. -Underscore the prepositional phrases in the remainder of the quotation -and determine which word is used as the object of the preposition. - - - THE SUNLIGHT LAY ACROSS MY BED - -_In the dark_ one night I lay _upon my bed_. And _in the dark_ I dreamed -a dream. I dreamed God took my soul _to Hell_. - -And we came where hell opened _into a plain_, and a great house stood -there. Marble pillars upheld the roof, and white marble steps led up _to -it_. The wind _of heaven_ blew _through it_. Only _at the back_ hung a -thick curtain. Fair men and women there feasted _at long tables_. They -danced, and I saw the robes _of women_ flutter _in the air_ and heard -the laugh _of strong men_. They feasted _with wine_; they drew it _from -large jars_ which stood somewhat _in the background_, and I saw the wine -sparkle as they drew it. - -And I said _to God_, "I should like to go up and drink." And God said, -"Wait." And I saw men coming _into the banquet house_; they came in -_from the back_ and lifted the corner _of the curtain_ _at the sides_ -and crept in quickly; and they let the curtain fall _behind them_; they -bore great jars they could hardly carry. And the men and women crowded -_round them_, and the newcomers opened their jars and gave them _of the -wine_ to drink; and I saw that the women drank even more greedily than -the men. And when others had well drunken they set the jars _among the -old ones_ _beside the wall_, and took their places _at the table_. And I -saw that some _of the jars_ were very old and mildewed and dusty, but -others had still drops _of new must_ _on them_ and shone _from the -furnace_. - -And I said to God, "What is that?" For amid the sounds of the singing, -and over the dancing of feet, and over the laughing across the winecups, -I heard a cry. - -And God said, "Stand away off." - -And He took me where I saw both sides of the curtain. Behind the house -was a wine-press where the wine was made. I saw the grapes crushed, and -I heard them cry. I said, "Do not they on the other side hear it?" - -God said, "The curtain is thick; they are feasting." - -And I said, "But the men who came in last. They saw?" - -God said, "They let the curtain fall behind them--and they forgot!" - -I said, "How came they by their jars of wine?" - -God said, "In the treading of the press these are they who came to the -top; they have climbed out over the edge and filled their jars from -below; and have gone into the house." - -And I said, "And if they had fallen as they climbed--?" - -God said, "They had been wine." - -I stood away off watching in the sunshine, and I shivered. - -And after a while I looked, and I saw the curtain that hung behind the -house moving. - -I said to God, "Is it a wind?" - -God said, "A wind." - -And it seemed to me that against the curtain I saw pressed the forms of -men and women. And after a while, the feasters saw it move, and they -whispered one to another. Then some rose and gathered the most worn-out -cups, and into them they put what was left at the bottom of other -vessels. Mothers whispered to their children, "Do not drink all, save a -little drop when you have drunk." And when they had collected all the -dregs they slipped the cups out under the bottom of the curtain without -lifting it. After a while the curtain left off moving. - -I said to God, "How is it so quiet?" - -He said, "They have gone away to drink it." - -I said, "They drink it--their own!" - -God said, "It comes from this side of the curtain, and they are very -thirsty." - -And still the feast went on. - -Men and women sat at the tables quaffing great bowls. Some rose, and -threw their arms about each other and danced and sang. They pledged each -other in the wine, and kissed each other's blood-red lips. - -Men drank till they could drink no longer, and laid their heads upon the -table, sleeping heavily. Women who could dance no more leaned back on -the benches with their heads against their lovers' shoulders. Little -children, sick with wine, lay down upon the edge of their mothers' -robes. - -I said, "I cannot see more, I am afraid of Hell. When I see men dancing -I hear the time beaten in with sobs; and their wine is living! Oh, I -cannot bear Hell!" - -God said, "Where will you go?" - -I said, "To the earth from which I came; it was better there." - -And God laughed at me; and I wondered why He laughed. - - --_Olive Schreiner_. - - - - - SPELLING - - LESSON 18 - - -There are a number of words that are ordinarily followed by a -preposition with its phrase. We make a great many mistakes in the use of -the proper preposition with these words. Our spelling lesson this week -covers a number of these words with examples illustrating the -appropriate preposition to be used with each word. Learn to spell these -words, look up their meaning in the dictionary and use each word with -its proper preposition in sentences of your own construction. - - +MONDAY+ - - +Abhorrence+, of; We have an abhorrence _of_ war. - +Abhorrent+, to; War is abhorrent _to_ us. - +Acquaint+, with; I will acquaint you _with_ the facts in the case. - You will then be acquainted _with_ the facts. - +Acquit+, of; The man was acquitted _of_ the charge. - +Adequate+, to; Our resources are not adequate _to_ the demand. - - +TUESDAY+ - - +Angry+, with, at; We are angry _with_ persons and angry _at_ things. - +Astonished+, at or by; (Never with) I am astonished _at_ you, or - _by_ you, not _with_ you. - +Confer+; We confer _with_ people, _upon_ or _about_ matters. - +Contrary+; A thing is contrary _to_ our ideas, (not _from_ or - _than_). - +Controversy+; with, between, or about, (not over). I had a - controversy _with_ you. There is a controversy _between_ the two - _about_ the result. - - +WEDNESDAY+ - - +Convicted+, of (not for). He was convicted _of_ the crime. - +Copy+; We copy _after_ people, _from_ things, and _out_ of books. - +Deprive+, of, (not from). We are deprived _of_ an education. - +Desire+, of and for; We may speak of the desire _of_ a man, meaning - man's desire; but we should always say "He has a desire _for_ - position, _for_ wealth," etc. - +Die+, of, for and from; A person dies _of_, not _from_, a disease. He - dies _from_ the effects of an injury. One person may die _with_ - another, but never _with_ a disease, for the disease does not die. - - +THURSDAY+ - - +Differ+, from, among, about, concerning, with; Persons or things - differ _from_ each other; that is, they are dissimilar in - appearance. Two persons may differ _with_ each other; that is, - contend or disagree. Several persons differ _among_ themselves - _about_ or _concerning_ some matter. - +Dissent+, from (not to). There was a general dissent _from_ that - idea. - +Guilty+, of (not for). He is guilty _of_ the crime. - +Incentive+, to (not for). It is a great incentive _to_ action. - +Receive+, from, (not of). Received _from_ John Smith, thirty dollars, - etc. - - +FRIDAY+ - - +Infer+, from, (not by). I infer this _from_ your remarks, not _by_ - your remarks. - +Introduce+; A man is introduced _to_ a woman, a speaker _to_ an - audience; _into_ society or _into_ new surroundings. We introduce - a bill _in_ Congress or a resolution _in_ a committee. - +Involved+, in (not with). We are involved _in_ difficulties. - +Listen+; We listen +for+ the expected news; we listen +to+ our - friends, not _at_. - +Married+; One person is married +to+ another, not +with+ another. - - +SATURDAY+ - - +Matter+, with, (not of). What is the matter _with_ this? - +Opposition+, to (not against). There is opposition _to_ the motion. - +Part+, to part _from_, means to leave. I will part _from_ my friends. - To part _with_ means to give up. A fool soon parts _with_ his - money. - +Remedy+, for; We have a remedy _for_ the disease. - +Preventive+, against; We have a preventive _against_ disease. - - * * * * * - - It is easy to sit in the sunshine - And talk to the man in the shade; - It is easy to float in a well-trimmed boat, - And point out the places to wade. - - But once we pass into the shadows - We murmur and fret and frown; - At our length from the bank, we shout for a plank, - Or throw up our hands and go down. - - It is easy to sit in a carriage - And counsel the man on foot; - But get down and walk and you'll change your talk, - _As_ you feel the peg in your boot. - - It is easy to tell the toiler - _How_ best he can carry his pack; - But not one can rate a burden's weight - _Until_ it has been on his back. - - The up-curled mouth of pleasure - Can preach of sorrow's worth; - But give it a sip, and a wryer lip, - Was never made on earth. - - --_Ella Wheeler Wilcox_. - - - - - PLAIN ENGLISH - - LESSON 19 - - -Dear Comrade: - -In this lesson we are completing our study of the preposition. The -preposition is one of the last parts of speech which we take up for -study and it is also one of the last parts of speech to be added to our -vocabulary. The child does not use the preposition when it first begins -to talk. It uses the names of things; words of action; words that -describe objects and actions. It does not begin to use prepositions -until it begins to relate ideas. - -The relation of ideas means that we are thinking; combining ideas into -thoughts. Then we begin to need prepositions, which are words of -relation, connecting words, expressing the relationship between ideas. -The measure of the fullness and richness of our lives is the measure of -our understanding of the world about us, of the relationship existing -between the different phases of that world and of our relationship to it -all. - -So words do not mean much to us until we can relate them to our own -lives and our own experiences. When you look up a word in the -dictionary, do not study the word alone; study also the thing for which -it stands. A person with a good memory might acquire a vocabulary by -sheer feat of memory; but what good would it do unless each word could -be related to practical experience? It is only in this way that words -become _alive_ to us. We must have an idea, a concept and knowledge of -the thing for which the word stands. - -So let us use our dictionary in this way. Do not be satisfied when you -have looked up a word simply to know how to spell and pronounce the word -and understand somewhat of its meaning. Do not be satisfied until it has -become a live word to you. Have a clear image and understanding of just -what each word stands for. Use the words in sentences of your own. Use -them in your conversation. Make them a part of your every-day life. - -Do not pass over any of the words in the lesson without understanding -their meaning. Study the poem _Abou Ben Adhem_ in this week's lesson. -After you have read it over a number of times, close the book and -rewrite the poem in prose in your own language. Then compare your -version with the poem. Note where you have used different expressions -and decide which is the better, the words used in the poem or your own -words. Rewrite it several times until you have a well-written version of -this poem. - -Exercises such as this will increase your vocabulary and quickly develop -the power of expression. No power can come in any department of life -without effort having been expended in its acquisition. Our great -writers have been careful students. Robert Louis Stevenson says that he -has often spent a half a day searching for the particular word which he -needed to express precisely the idea in mind. Stevenson is a master of -the English and this power came to him by this sort of studious and -earnest work. - - Yours for Education, - - THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. - - - AN IMPORTANT WORD - -+309.+ Things are not always to be judged by their size. Sometimes the -most important things are very small and unimportant in appearance. A -great machine is before you. You see its giant wheels, its huge levers. -These may seem to be the most important parts of the machine, but here -and there throughout this great machine are little screws and bolts. -These bind the giant parts together. Without these connecting links, the -great wheels and levers and revolving belts could not work together. Let -a little bolt slip out of its place in the mechanism, and the great -wheels stop, the throbbing machinery comes to a standstill. No work is -possible until this little bolt has been replaced. - -So in our sentence building, the _preposition_ is the bolt that joins -words together. The importance of the preposition in a language -increases just in proportion as the nation learns to think more exactly -and express itself more accurately. - -We found in our last lesson that by changing a preposition we can change -the entire meaning of the sentence. A man's life may depend upon the use -of a certain preposition. You may swear his life away by bearing -testimony to the fact whether you saw him _within_ the house, or -_without_ the house; or _before_ dark, or _after_ dark. - -+310.+ The preposition is an important word in the sentence. We can use -it to serve our purpose in various ways. We have found, for instance, -that we can use it: - -_First_, to change an adjective into an adjective phrase. As, for -example: - - The _fearless_ man demands his rights. - The man _without fear_ demands his rights. - -_Second_, to change an adverb into an adverb phrase. As, for example: - - We want to possess _peacefully_ the fruits of our labor. - We want to possess _in peace_ the fruits of our labor. - -_Third_, to express a meaning which we can express in no other way; as, -for example, _They are fighting for their country_. There is no single -word which we can use to express the meaning which we express in the -phrase, _for their country_. - -+311.+ So the preposition has given us a new means of expression, _the -prepositional phrase_. We can, by its help, use a phrase in place of an -adjective to modify a noun or a pronoun, and in place of an adverb to -modify a verb or an adjective. And we can also use the prepositional -phrase to express relationship which we cannot express by a single -adjective or adverb. - -If I want to tell you that I see a bird in yonder tree, such an -expression would be impossible without that little preposition _in_. By -the use of various prepositions, I can express to you the relationship -between the bird and the tree. I can tell you whether it is _under_ the -tree, or _in_ the tree, or _over_ the tree, or flying _around_ the tree, -or _near_ the tree. By the use of the various prepositions, I can -express accurately the relationship that exists between the _bird_ and -the _tree_. - - - Exercise 1 - -Look up the list of prepositions in Section 306, on page 184. Use the -following pairs of words in sentences and use as many different -prepositions as you can to express the different relationships which may -be expressed between these words. For example, take the two words, _man_ -and _house_. You may say: - - The man went _around_ the house. - The man went _about_ the house. - The man went _over_ the house. - The man went _under_ the house. - The man went _without_ the house. - The man went _into_ the house. - The man went _by_ the house. - The man went _beyond_ the house. - The man went _to_ the house. - - enemy city - soldiers cannon - man machine - woman factory - children school - government people - - - A GOVERNING WORD - -+312.+ The preposition shows the relation between two words. In this way -it enables us to use a noun or a pronoun as a modifying word. For -example, in the sentence given above, _I see the bird in the tree_, the -preposition _in_ shows the relationship between _bird_ and _tree_, and -makes of _tree_ a modifying word. It expresses a different meaning than -if we used the word _tree_ as an adjective. For we do not mean that we -see a tree bird, but a bird in a tree. So with the help of the -preposition _in_, we have used _tree_ as a modifying word. - -But the preposition _in_ also governs the form of the word that follows -it. Since nouns have the same form whether they are used as subject or -object, this does not mean any change in the form of the nouns. But -pronouns have different forms for the subject and object, so when we use -a pronoun with a preposition, we must use the object form. There are -seven object forms of the personal pronouns, and after a preposition, -always use one of these object forms. - - He gave it to _me_. - Give it to _him_. - Give it to _her_. - Add this to _it_. - Bring it to _us_. - I will give it to _you_. - He gave it to _them_. - -+313.+ Be careful to always use the object form of the pronoun following -a preposition. Observe this also in the use of the relative and -interrogative pronoun "who." The object form is "whom." For example: - - To whom will you go? - This is the man to whom I wrote. - For whom are you looking? - Where is the woman for whom you would make such a sacrifice? - - - Where to Put the Preposition - -+314.+ The preposition generally precedes its object. This is the reason -it was given its name, _preposition_, meaning _to place before_. -Sometimes, however, the preposition is separated from its object. This -is often true when it is used with an interrogative or relative pronoun. -With these pronouns, the preposition is often thrown to the end of the -sentence. For example: - - This is the book about which I was speaking; _or_, This is the book - which I was speaking about. - To whom shall I give this letter; _or_, Who shall I give this - letter to? - -The sentence, _To whom shall I give this letter_, is grammatically -correct; but in ordinary usage we use the form, _Who shall I give this -letter to?_ - -While the rule calls for the object form of the relative pronoun after a -preposition--so that the use of _to whom_ is grammatically correct--in -common usage we use the subject form of the pronoun when it is used so -far away from the preposition which governs it. So we find this use -common. For example, instead of saying, _For whom is this letter?_ we -say, _Who is this letter for?_ - -+315.+ In poetry also, we often find the object coming before the -preposition. For example: - - "The interlacing boughs between - Shadows dark and sunlight sheen, - Alternate, come and go." - -_Boughs_ is here the object of the preposition _between_, but in this -poetic expression the object is placed before the preposition. Note also -in the following: - - "The unseen mermaid's pearly song, - Comes bubbling up the weeds _among_." - - "Forever panting and forever young, - All breathing human passion far _beyond_." - -+316.+ After an interrogative adjective, the preposition is also often -thrown to the end of the sentence. As, for example: - - What men are the people talking _about_? - Which person did you write _to_? - -With these few exceptions, however, the preposition usually precedes its -object, as: - - We were astonished _at_ the news. - He arose _from_ his sleep. - - - POSSESSIVE PHRASES - -+317.+ Review Lesson 4, in which we studied the possessive use of nouns. -You will recall that we make the possessive form of the nouns by the use -of the apostrophe and _s_. But instead of using the possessive forms of -the name of inanimate things; that is, things without life, we generally -denote possession by the use of a phrase. Thus we would say, _The arm of -the chair_, instead of, _The chair's arm_; or, _The roof of the house_, -instead of, _The house's roof_. - -+318.+ We also use a possessive phrase when the use of a possessive form -would give an awkward construction. As, for example: _Jesus' sayings_. -So many hissing sounds are not pleasant to the ear and so, we say -instead, _The sayings of Jesus_. - -+319.+ We use a phrase also where both nouns are in the plural form. In -many words, there is no difference in the sound between a single noun in -the possessive form and a plural noun in the possessive form. We can -readily tell the meaning when it is written, because the place of the -apostrophe indicates the meaning, but when it is spoken the sound is -exactly the same. As, for example: - - The lady's hats. - The ladies' hats. - -Written out in this way, you know that in the first instance I am -speaking of the hats belonging to one lady, but in the second instance -of the hats belonging to two or more ladies. But when it is spoken, you -can not tell whether I mean one lady or a number of ladies. So we use a -phrase and say, _The hats of the lady_; or, _The hats of the ladies_. -Then the meaning is entirely clear. - -+320.+ Sometimes we want to use two possessives together, and in this -case it is better to change one of them into a phrase; for example, -_This is my comrade's father's book_. This is an awkward construction. -Say instead, _This is the book belonging to my comrade's father_. - -+321.+ Do not overlook the fact, however, that the phrase beginning with -_of_ does not always mean possession. Consider the following examples -and see if there is not a difference in meaning: - - The history of Wilson is interesting. - Wilson's history is interesting. - -In the first instance, I mean the history of Wilson's life is -interesting; in the second instance I mean the history belongs to or -written by Wilson is interesting. So there is quite a difference in the -meaning. The phrase _of Wilson_ used in the first example does not -indicate possession. - -Note the difference in meaning between the following sentences: - - The picture of Millet is good. - Millet's picture is good. - - The statue of Rodin stands in the park. - Rodin's statue stands in the park. - -Would you say: - - The invention of gunpowder, or gunpowder's invention? - The destruction of Louvain, or Louvain's destruction? - The siege of Antwerp, or Antwerp's siege? - The boat's keel, or the keel of the boat? - - - COMMON ERRORS - -+322.+ Prepositions are usually very small and seemingly unimportant -words, yet we make a great many mistakes in their use. It is these -little mistakes that are most difficult to avoid. - -Notice carefully in your own speech this week, and in the conversation -which you overhear, the use of the prepositions. Notice especially the -following cautions: - -+1. Do not use prepositions needlessly.+ We often throw a preposition in -at the close of a sentence which we have already used in the sentence, -and which we should not use again. The little preposition _at_ is most -frequently used in this way. See how many times this week you hear -people use such phrases as: - - At which store do you trade at? - At what corner did you stop at? - -The last _at_ is entirely unnecessary. It has already been used once and -that is enough. We also use _at_ and _to_ at the close of sentences -beginning with an interrogative adverb, where they are not necessary. -For example, we say: - - Where did you go to? - Where did you stop at? - Where am I at? - -The correct form of these sentences is: - - Where did you go? - Where did you stop? - Where am I? - -Do not use _at_ and _to_ in this way, they are entirely superfluous and -give a most disagreeable sound to the sentence. Do not close a sentence -with a preposition in this way. - -+2. Do not omit the preposition where it properly belongs.+ For example, -we often say: - - The idea is no use to me. - -We should say, _The idea is of no use to me_. - - I was home yesterday. - -We should say, _I was at home_ yesterday. - -+3. Do not use the preposition _of_ with a verb that requires an -object.+ The noun cannot be the object of both the verb and the -preposition. As, for example: - - He does not remember _of_ seeing you. - Do you approve _of_ his action? - -_Remember_ and _approve_ are both incomplete verbs requiring an object, -and the nouns _seeing_ and _action_ are the objects of the incomplete -verbs _remember_ and _approve_. The preposition _of_ is entirely -superfluous. The sentences should read: - - He does not remember seeing you. - Do you approve his action? - -Other verbs with which we commonly use the preposition _of_ in this way -are the verbs _accept_ and _recollect_. As, for example: - - Will you accept _of_ this kindness? - Will you try to recollect _of_ it? - -These sentences should read: - - Will you accept this kindness? - Will you try to recollect it? - - - The Correct Preposition - -+323.+ We make a great many mistakes also in the choice of -prepositions. For example, the preposition _between_ refers to two -objects and should never be used when you are speaking of more than two, -thus: - - We settled the quarrel _between_ the two men. - -This is correct, but it is incorrect to say: - - We settled the quarrel _between_ the members of the Union. - -We cannot settle a quarrel between a _dozen_ people. When there are more -than two, use the word _among_. We can perhaps attempt to settle a -quarrel _among_ a dozen people. _Between_ refers to two objects, _among_ -refers to more than two. For example: - - Divide the work _between_ the two men. - Divide the work _among_ twenty men. - -+324.+ Do not confuse the use of _in_ and _into_. When entrance is -denoted use _into_. As, for example: - - He came into the room. - He got into the auto. - -Often the use of _in_ will give an entirely different meaning to the -sentence. For example: - - He ran _in_ the water. - He ran _into_ the water. - The man acted as our guide _in_ the city. - The man acted as our guide _into_ the city. - The horse ran _in_ the pasture. - The horse ran _into_ the pasture. - -+325.+ Do not use _below_ and _under_ to mean _less_ or _fewer_ in -regard to an amount or number. _Below_ and _under_ have reference to -place only. It is correct to say: - - He went _under_ the bridge. - He came out _below_ the falls. - -But it is incorrect to say: - - The price is _below_ cost. - There were _under_ fifty present. - -Say instead: - - The price is _less_ than cost. - There were _fewer_ than fifty present. - -+326.+ Do not misuse _over_ and _above_. These prepositions have -reference only to _place_. They are incorrectly used to mean _more than_ -or _greater than_. - -It is correct to say: - - The boat anchored above the landing. - He flew over the city. - -It is incorrect to say: - - He bought above a hundred acres. - He lives over a mile from here. - -These sentences should be: - - He bought more than a hundred acres. - He lives more than a mile from here. - - - THE PREPOSITION WITH VERBS - -+327.+ In our first lesson on prepositions, we had a list of verbs and -the correct preposition to use with these verbs. There are a few words -which we use very commonly in which the meaning is slightly different -according to the preposition which we use in connection with the verb. -Foreigners especially who are learning the English language have great -difficulty with the prepositions. Here are a few of these common words: - -+Adapt.+ With _adapt_ we can use either the preposition _to_ or _for_. -For example; we adapt ourselves _to_ circumstances, that is, we -accommodate or conform ourselves; but a thing can be adapted _for_ a -certain purpose. - -+Agree.+ We can use the prepositions _with_ and _to_ with the verb -_agree_, but with different meanings. For example, we say, We agree -_with_ you about a certain matter; and, We agree _to_ the proposal which -you make. - -+Ask.+ We ask a favor _of_ a person. We ask a friend _for_ a favor. We -ask _about_ some one or thing that we wish to hear about. - -+Charge.+ There are several prepositions we can use with the verb -_charge_. Your grocer charges you _for_ the things that you buy. If you -run an account you are charged _with_ a certain amount. These things are -charged _to_ you; but in war the enemy charges _upon_ you. - -+Compare.+ One thing is compared _with_ another in quality, but it is -compared _to_ another when we are using the comparison for an -illustration. - -+Complain.+ We make complaint _to_ the manager _of_ the things we do not -like. - -+Comply.+ We comply _with_ the request of another, but he does a thing -_in_ compliance _with_ that request. Do not use the preposition _to_ -with compliance. - -+Correspond.+ With correspond, we use either the preposition _with_ or -_to_. For example, I may correspond _with_ you, meaning that I -communicate with you by letter, but one thing corresponds _to_ another, -meaning that it is like the other. - -+Disgust.+ We are disgusted _with_ our friends sometimes _at_ the things -which they do. We are disgusted _with_ people and _at_ things. - -+Reconcile.+ With reconcile, we use either the preposition _with_ or -_to_. For example, I may become reconciled _with_ you; that is, I am -restored to friendship or favor after an estrangement. But we reconcile -one thing _to_ another; that is, we harmonize one thing with another. - -+Taste.+ We have a taste _for_ music, art or literature, but we enjoy -the taste _of_ good things to eat. When taste refers to one of the five -senses, use the preposition _of_, but when you use it to mean -intellectual relish or enjoyment, use the preposition _for_. - - - Exercise 2 - -Mark all of the prepositional phrases in the following poem: - - THE ANGEL OF DISCONTENT - - When the world was formed and the morning stars - Upon their paths were sent, - The loftiest-browed of the angels was made - The Angel of Discontent. - - And he dwelt with man in the caves of the hills, - Where the crested serpents sting, - And the tiger tears and the she-wolf howls, - And he told of better things. - - And he led them forth to the towered town, - And forth to the fields of corn, - And told of the ampler work ahead, - For which his race was born. - - And he whispers to men of those hills he sees - In the blush of the misty west; - And they look to the heights of his lifted eye-- - And they hate the name of rest. - - In the light of that eye does the slave behold - A hope that is high and brave; - And the madness of war comes into his blood-- - For he knows himself a slave. - - The serfs of wrong by the light of that eye - March with victorious songs; - For the strength of the right comes into their hearts - When they behold their wrongs. - - 'Tis by the light of that lifted eye - That error's mists are rent; - A guide to the table-lands of Truth - Is the Angel of Discontent. - - And still he looks with his lifted eye, - And his glance is far away, - On a light that shines on the glimmering hills - Of a diviner day. - - --_Sam Walter Foss_. - - - Exercise 3 - -Mark all of the prepositions in the following poem. Write out the entire -phrases and mark the word which is the object of the preposition. For -example, in the phrase in the second line; _from a rich dream_, _dream_ -is the object of the preposition _from_; and _a_ and _rich_ modify the -noun _dream_. - - Abou Ben Adhem (may his tribe increase) - Awoke one night from a rich dream of peace, - And saw, within the moonlight of his room, - Making it rich, and like a lily in bloom, - An angel, writing in a book of gold. - Exceeding peace had made Ben Adhem bold, - And to the Presence in the room he said, - "What writest thou?" The Vision raised its head, - And, with a look made of all sweet accord, - Answered, "The names of those who love the Lord." - "And is mine one?" said Abou. "Nay, not so," - Replied the Angel. Abou spoke, more low, - But cheerily still; and said, "I pray thee, then, - Write me as one that loves his fellow-men." - The angel wrote and vanished. The next night - It came again, with a great wakening light, - And showed the names whom love of God had blessed, - And lo! Ben Adhem's name led all the rest. - - --_Leigh Hunt_. - - - - - SPELLING - - LESSON 19 - - -There are a few prepositions which might really be called derivative -prepositions. - -1. A few prepositions are formed from verbs. These are really participle -prepositions, for they are the present participles of the verbs but have -come to be used like prepositions. These are such as _concerning_, -_excepting_, _regarding_, _respecting_, _during_, _according_, etc. -Nearly all of these participle prepositions can be expressed by a -preposition phrase, as for example, we can either say; I wrote -_regarding_ these facts, or I wrote you _in regard to_ these facts. I -mentioned them all _excepting_ the last, or, I mentioned them all _with -the exception of_ the last. I have gone _according_ to the directions, -or, I have gone _in accord with_ the directions. - -2. Derivative prepositions are also formed by prefixing _a_ to other -parts of speech, as _along_, _around_, _abroad_, etc. Strictly speaking -these might be called compound prepositions for the prefix _a_ is really -from the preposition _on_. - -3. We have also compound prepositions formed: - -By uniting two prepositions, as _into_, _within_, _throughout_, etc. - -By uniting a preposition and some other part of speech, usually a noun -or an adjective, as _beside_, _below_ and _beyond_. - -We also have a number of compound verbs which are made by prefixing a -preposition to a verb. Some of these compound words have quite a -different meaning from the meaning conveyed by the two words used -separately; as for example, the compound verb _withstand_, derived from -the preposition _with_ and the verb _stand_, has almost the opposite -meaning from _stand with_. - -Our spelling lesson this week includes a number of these compound verbs -formed by the use of the verb and a preposition. Look up the meaning in -the dictionary. Use them in sentences in the compound form; then the two -words separately as a verb and a preposition and note the difference in -the meaning. - - +Monday+ - - Upset - Withdraw - Outrun - Overlook - Understand - - +Tuesday+ - - Oversee - Undergo - Outnumber - Withhold - Overcome - - +Wednesday+ - - Overflow - Undertake - Overreach - Overthrow - Outshine - - +Thursday+ - - Overhear - Withstand - Overgrow - Overhaul - Overrun - - +Friday+ - - Concerning - Regarding - Respecting - According - Excepting - - +Saturday+ - - Against - Throughout - Around - Between - Beneath - - - - - PLAIN ENGLISH - - LESSON 20 - - -Dear Comrade: - -We are taking up in this lesson the study of the last important part of -speech. We have spent some little time on the study of these parts of -speech, but it has been time well spent. We cannot use good English and -construct sentences that express our thoughts without an adequate -knowledge of the words we use in sentence building. As soon as we finish -the study of the parts of speech, we will spend several weeks in -sentence building. This will give us a review of these lessons in which -we have studied separate words. - -The English language is one of the most interesting of all to study. It -is the most truly international of all languages, for the English -language contains words from almost every language in the world. Did you -ever stop to think that we could have internationalism in language as -well as in other things? We can be as narrowly patriotic concerning -words as concerning anything else. - -Nations have been prone to consider all those who do not speak their -language as barbarians. Germany, perhaps, possesses as strong a -nationalistic spirit as any country, and in Germany this spirit has -found expression in a society formed for the purpose of keeping all -foreign words out of the German language. They have published handbooks -of native words for almost every department of modern life. They insist -that the people use these words, instead of foreign importations. The -German State takes great pride in the German language and considers it -the most perfect of any spoken today. The rulers of Germany believe that -it is a part of their duty to the world to see that all other nations -speak the German language. In conquered Poland, only German is permitted -to be taught in the schools or to be spoken as the language of commerce. -The patriots in language seem to believe that there is some connection -between purity of language and purity of race. - -In English, however, we have the beginnings of an international speech. -Our civilization is derived from various sources. Here in America we are -truly the melting-pot of the nations, and this is mirrored forth in our -language which is, in a way, a melting-pot also, in which have been -thrown words from every tongue. Those for whom nationalism is an -important thing will probably cling to the idea of a pure unmixed -language, but to those of us to whom Internationalism is not an empty -word, but a living ideal, an international language becomes also part of -the ideal. - -There is a wealth of wonderful literature open to us once we have gained -a command of the English language. Pay especial attention to the -quotations given in each lesson. These are quotations from the very best -literature. If there are any of them that arouse your interest and you -would like to read more from the same author, write us and we shall be -glad to furnish you full information concerning further reading. - - Yours for Education, - - THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. - - - CONJUNCTIONS - -+328.+ You remember that in Lesson 3, where we studied the parts of -speech, we found that we had another connective word besides the -preposition,--the conjunction. - -A preposition connects two words and shows what one of them has to do -with the other. The conjunction plays a different part as a connective, -for it connects not only words but also phrases and clauses. Note the -following sentences: - - Shall we be men _or_ machines? - We must struggle for ourselves _and_ for our children. - We pray for peace _but_ furnish ammunition for war. - -The use of the conjunction saves a great deal of tiresome repetition, -for, by its use, where two subjects have the same predicate or two -predicates have the same subject, we can combine it all into one -sentence. - -You will readily realize how important this part of speech is to us. If -we did not have conjunctions our speech would be cumbersome and we would -have to use a great many short sentences and a great deal of repetition. -If we wanted to make the same statement concerning a number of things, -without conjunctions, we would have each time to repeat the entire -statement. Try to write a description of a scene and avoid the use of -conjunctions and you will see what an important part these connective -words play in our power of expression. - -Without the use of the conjunction, you would necessarily use a great -many short expressions and repeat the same words again and again, and -your description would be a jerky, tiresome, unsatisfactory piece of -writing. - - - Exercise 1 - -Rewrite the following sentences, writing in separate sentences the -clauses that are united by the conjunctions: - - - 1. The birds are singing _and_ spring is here. - 2. We talk of peace, _but_ war still rages. - 3. The unemployed cannot find work _and_ they are dying of hunger. - 4. We believed in war for defense _and_ every nation is now fighting - for defense. - 5. We believe in education _and_ we are struggling for universal - education. - 6. The old order is fast passing _and_ the new order is rapidly - appearing. - 7. Profit is the keynote of the present, _but_ service shall be the - keynote of the future. - 8. All children should be in school, _but_ thousands must earn their - bread. - -Note that these sentences are made up of two or more simple sentences -combined; and each of these simple sentences is called a clause, and -each clause must contain a subject and a predicate. - - - Exercise 2 - -Rewrite the following simple sentences, using conjunctions to avoid a -repetition of the same subject and predicate. Rewrite these into a -paragraph, making as well written a paragraph as you possibly can: - - One hundred years ago the workers fought for universal education. - As a result we have our public schools of today. - Our public schools have been our chief bulwark against oppression. - Our public schools are our chief bulwark against oppression. - Our public schools are our greatest safeguard for the protection of - such liberty as we enjoy. - Our public school system embodies a socialistic ideal. - Our public school system is the most democratic of our institutions. - There has been a subtle subversion of the ideal. - The public school system has been made to serve the master class. - We have spent millions to make the ideal a reality. - Have we realized the ideal? - Is there universal education? - Is there education for every child beneath the flag? - The grounds of our public schools have cost millions. - The buildings have cost millions. - The courses of study are many. - They are varied. - They are elaborate. - But the workers of the world do not enjoy this feast. - The children of the workers do not enjoy this feast. - - - CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS - -+329.+ Conjunctions are divided into classes, as are other parts of -speech, according to the work which they do. Notice the following -sentences and notice how the use of a different conjunction changes the -meaning of the sentence. - - We are united _and_ we shall win. - _When_ we are united, we shall win. - -In the first sentence the conjunction _and_ connects the two clauses, -_we are united_ and _we shall win_. They are both independent clauses, -neither is dependent upon the other, and both are of equal importance. -But by the use of the conjunction _when_, instead of the conjunction -_and_, we have changed the meaning of the sentence. There is quite a -difference in saying, _We are united and we shall win_, and _When we are -united we shall win_. - -By connecting these two statements with the conjunction _when_, we have -made of the clause, _we are united_, a dependent clause, it modifies the -verb phrase _shall win_. It tells _when_ we shall win, just as much as -if we had used an _adverb_ to modify the verb phrase, and had said, _We -shall win tomorrow_, instead of, _We shall win when we are united_. - -So in these two sentences we have two different kinds of conjunctions, -the conjunction _and_, which connects clauses of equal rank or order, -and the conjunction _when_, which connects a dependent clause to the -principal clause. - -+330.+ So the conjunctions like _and_ are called co-ordinate -conjunctions. _Co-ordinate_ means literally of equal rank or order. -Conjunctions like _when_ are called sub-ordinate conjunctions. -_Sub-ordinate_ means of inferior rank or order. - -So we have our definitions: - -+331.+ +A conjunction is a word that connects words or phrases or -clauses.+ - -+A co-ordinate conjunction is one that joins words, phrases or clauses -having the same rank.+ - -+A subordinate conjunction is one that connects a dependent clause to -the principal clause.+ - - - CO-ORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS - -+332.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions connect words, phrases or clauses of -equal rank.+ The most commonly used co-ordinate conjunctions are; _and_, -_but_, _or_, _nor_. - -+333.+ But there are a number of words which we often use as adverbs, -which may also be used as co-ordinate conjunctions. These words are not -always conjunctions, for they are sometimes used as adverbs. When they -are used as conjunctions they retain something of their adverbial -meaning; but still they are conjunctions, for they are used to show the -connection between two clauses of equal rank. Thus: - - I am not in favor of the motion, _nevertheless_ I shall vote for it. - The deputies voted for the war appropriation, _notwithstanding_ they - had carried on an extensive anti-war propaganda. - I did not believe in the change, _however_ I did not oppose it. - -+334.+ The co-ordinate conjunctions which we use with this adverbial -meaning also, are; _therefore_, _hence_, _still_, _besides_, -_consequently_, _yet_, _likewise_, _moreover_, _else_, _than_, _also_, -_accordingly_, _nevertheless_, _notwithstanding_, _otherwise_, -_however_, _so_ and _furthermore_. - -These conjunctions always refer to what has been said before and serve -to introduce and connect new statements. - -+335.+ We often use these conjunctions, and also, _and_, _but_, _or_, -and _nor_, at the beginning of a separate sentence or paragraph to -connect it in meaning with that which has gone before. You will often -see the use of these conjunctions as the first word of a new paragraph, -thus relating this paragraph to that which has preceded it. - -+336.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions connect words of equal rank.+ - - - NOUNS - -Co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two or more _nouns_ used as the -subject of a verb. As: - - _Death_ and _disaster_ follow in the wake of war. - -In this sentence, _death_ is just as much the subject of the verb -_follow_ as is the word _disaster_, but no more so. You can omit either -of these words and the other will make a subject for the sentence. They -are both of equal importance, both of the same rank in the sentence, and -neither depends upon the other. These two words taken together form the -subject of the sentence. This is called the _compound subject_, for it -consists of two simple subjects. - -Co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two or more nouns used as the -_object_ of a verb. - - He studies history and science. - -In this sentence the words _history_ and _science_ are both used as -objects of the verb _studies_. - -Co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two or more nouns used as the -object of a _preposition_. - - He called for the letters and the papers. - -In this sentence _letters_ and _papers_ are both objects of the -preposition _for_, connected by the co-ordinate conjunction _and_. - - - Exercise 3 - -Note in the following sentences the nouns which are connected by -conjunctions and decide whether they are used as the subject of the -sentences or the object of verbs or of prepositions. Draw a line under -compound subjects. - - 1. John and Henry are going home. - 2. Music and painting are fine arts. - 3. The grounds and buildings of our public schools have cost millions. - 4. The time calls for brave men and women. - 5. We struggle for truth and freedom. - 6. Will you study English or arithmetic? - 7. Education and organization are necessary for success. - 8. We must learn the truth about production and distribution. - 9. We demand justice and liberty. - 10. The great struggle is between the working class and the ruling - class. - - - PRONOUNS - -+337.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions may also connect pronouns.+ - -These are used in the same way as nouns,--either as subject or object. -Nouns have the same form whether used as subject or object. Pronouns, -however, have different forms when used as the object. Here is where we -often make mistakes in the use of pronouns. When the pronouns are -connected by co-ordinate conjunctions they are of the same rank and are -used in the same construction;--if they are used as subjects both must -be used in the subject form;--if they are used as objects, both must be -used in the object form. For example, it is incorrect to say, _He told -the story to her and I_. Here _her_ is properly used in the object form, -for it is the object of the preposition _to_; the pronoun _I_ connected -with _her_ by the use of the conjunction _and_ is also the object of the -preposition _to_, and the object form should be used. You would not say, -_He told the story to I_. The sentence should read, _He told the story -to her and me_. - -Co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two pronouns used as the _subject_ -of a sentence, as for example: - - _She_ and _I_ arrived today. - -Co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two pronouns used as the _object_ -of the verb, as for example: - - Did you call _her_ or _me_? - -Co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two pronouns used as the object of -the _preposition_, as: - - He gave that to _you_ and _me_. - - - Exercise 4 - -Study closely the following sentences and correct those in which the -wrong form of the pronoun is used. - - 1. He and I are old friends. - 2. Did you ask him or me? - 3. They promised him and I that they would come. - 4. Find the place for she and me. - 5. Me and him will get it for you and she. - 6. She and I will go with you. - 7. You and I must decide matters for ourselves. - 8. You will find him and her to be loyal comrades. - - - VERBS - -+338.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions are also used to connect verbs.+ Verbs -connected in this way have the same subject; and with the use of the -conjunction to connect the verbs, we save repeating the subject. - - He _reads_ and _studies_ constantly. - -In this sentence _reads_ and _studies_ are words of the same kind and of -the same rank; either could be omitted and the other would make a -predicate for the sentence. They are of equal importance in the sentence -and are connected by the conjunction _and_. They have a single subject, -the pronoun _he_. - -This is called a compound predicate. - -In the sentence, _He reads constantly_, we have a simple predicate, the -single verb _reads_; but in the sentence, _He reads and studies -constantly_, we have a compound predicate, compound of the two verbs -_reads_ and _studies_. A sentence may have both a compound subject and a -compound predicate. As, for example: - - John and James read and study constantly. - -In this sentence _John_ and _James_ is the compound subject of both the -verbs, _read_ and _study_. So we have a compound subject and a compound -predicate. - - - Exercise 5 - -Notice the verbs in the following sentences connected by co-ordinate -conjunctions. Draw lines under each compound predicate. - - 1. The days come _and_ go in a ceaseless round. - 2. The brave man dreams _and_ dares to live the dream. - 3. The coward dreams _but_ dares not live the dream. - 4. We produce splendidly _but_ distribute miserably. - 5. The bought press twists _and_ distorts the facts. - 6. Only a traitor aids _or_ supports the enemy. - 7. We agitate _and_ educate for the cause of liberty. - - - ADJECTIVES - -+339.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions are used to connect adjectives.+ - -In this way we use a number of adjectives to modify the same word -without tiresome repetition. When several adjectives are used to modify -the same word, the conjunction is used only between the last two -adjectives. As, for example: - -A _simple_, _clear_ and _concise_ course has been prepared. - - - Exercise 6 - -In the following sentences, underscore the adjectives which are -connected by co-ordinate conjunctions. - - 1. The plains of France are covered with the dead and dying soldiers. - 2. Education should be both universal and free. - 3. They are faithful and loyal comrades. - 4. This was only our just and legal right. - 5. Old and hoary was the man who sat on the stool by the fireless and - godless altar. - 6. The service of humanity is a sweet and noble task. - 7. We must be brave and true. - 8. He lived a noble and courageous life. - 9. All was old and cold and mournful. - 10. Most powerful and eloquent is the voice of the disinherited. - - - ADVERBS - -+340.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions are also used to connect adverbs.+ This -gives us the power to describe the action expressed in verbs without the -tiresome repetition of the verb. For example: - - He spoke _fluently_ and _eloquently_. - - - Exercise 7 - -In the following sentences underscore the adverbs which are connected -by co-ordinate conjunctions: - - 1. Man selfishly and greedily prevents his fellow men from the - enjoyment of nature's bounties. - 2. She is wonderfully and gloriously brave. - 3. He speaks eloquently and impressively, but very slowly. - 4. Nature has provided lavishly and bountifully for her children. - 5. Advice spoken truly and wisely is always in season. - 6. We must resist injustice bravely and courageously. - 7. He feels keenly and deeply the wrongs of his class. - 8. He writes easily and rapidly. - 9. The words, calmly and coolly spoken, were instantly opposed. - 10. He reached that conclusion naturally and inevitably. - 11. He was gently but unwaveringly firm. - 12. The revolution comes slowly but surely. - - - PHRASES - -+341.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions are used, not only to connect words, -but also to connect phrases.+ - - - Verb Phrases - -+342.+ Verb phrases may be connected by conjunctions. For example: - - The People's College _is owned_ and _controlled_ by the working class. - We _have made_ and _are making_ a fierce struggle for a free press. - - -In this last sentence the two verb phrases, _have made_ and _are making_ -are connected by the co-ordinate conjunction _and_. Often in using verb -phrases, we use phrases in which the same helping verb occurs in both -phrases. When this is the case the helping verb is quite often omitted -in the second phrase and only the participle is connected by the -conjunction. As, for example: - - The People's College is owned and controlled by the working class. - -In this sentence the helping verb _is_ belongs in both the phrases but -is omitted in the second phrase in order to make a smoother sounding -sentence. In the second phrase, only the past participle _controlled_ is -used. It is understood that we mean, - - The People's College _is owned_ and _is controlled_ by the working - class. - - - Exercise 8 - -Note the use of the conjunction in the following sentences to connect -the verb phrases. Supply the helping verb where it is omitted. - - 1. Our system of education is rooted and grounded in outgrown dogmas. - 2. We have written but have received no answer. - 3. Will you come or stay? - 4. Man must struggle or remain in slavery. - 5. The workers are organizing and demanding their rights. - 6. We must arouse and educate our comrades. - 7. We have sought but have not found. - - - Prepositional Phrases - -+343.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions are used to connect prepositional -phrases.+ - -These phrases may be used as adjective phrases. For example: - - The books _in the book case_ and _on the table_ belong to me. - -These phrases may be used as adverb phrases. For example: - - He works _with speed_ and _with ease_. - - - Exercise 9 - -Note in the following sentences, the prepositional phrases which -are connected by co-ordinate conjunctions. Mark which are used as -adjective and which as adverb phrases. - - 1. Education is the road out of ignorance and into the light. - 2. The army charged over the plain and up the hill. - 3. The first men lived in groups and in clans. - 4. Democracy means government of the people and by the people. - 5. Shall we take the path toward progress or toward barbarism. - 6. They are not fighting for their country but for their king. - 7. Human rights are not protected by the law nor by the courts. - 8. The problem of the working class and of society is the problem of - equitable distribution. - 9. They are deceived by their leaders and by their press. - 10. You can pay either by the week or by the month. - 11. Our government is not the rule of the majority but of the - minority. - - - Infinitives and Participles - -+344.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions are also used to connect infinitives -and participles.+ - - - Exercise 10 - -In the following sentences mark the infinitives and participles -connected by co-ordinate conjunctions. - - 1. Those words will inspire us to dream and to dare. - 2. We shall learn to produce and to distribute. - 3. To be or not to be, that is the question. - 4. Puffing and panting, the great engine pulled up to the station. - 5. A cringing and trembling coward fears to demand his own. - 6. The warped and twisted facts in the daily press deceive the masses. - 7. Singing and dancing should be enjoyed by all children. - 8. The exploiting and robbing of the people is made a virtue in ruling - class ethics. - - - CLAUSES - -+345.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions are also used to connect clauses of -equal rank.+ For example: - - _The floods came and the winds blew._ - -Each of these clauses is a complete sentence in itself, but they are -combined into one compound sentence by the use of the co-ordinate -conjunction, _and_. Clauses united in this way may have a compound -subject and a compound predicate, but two complete clauses must be -united by a co-ordinate conjunction in order to form a compound -sentence. For example: - -The rain and snow fell, _and_ the wind blew a mighty gale. - -Here the first clause in the compound sentence, _the rain and snow -fell_, contains a compound subject, _rain and snow_. - -The boys are running and shouting, _and_ the girls are gathering -flowers. - -Here the first clause has a compound predicate, _are running_ and -_shouting_. The second _and_ connects the two clauses forming the -compound sentence. - - - CORRELATIVES - -+346.+ Certain co-ordinate conjunctions are used in pairs, such as -_both, and_; _either, or_; _neither, nor_; _whether, or_. These pairs -are called correlatives. The first word in the pair, as, _both_, -_either_, _neither_, or _whether_, is used as an assistant conjunction -helping the other to do the connecting. These are used in such sentences -as: - - I have _both_ seen _and_ heard him. - They will join us _either_ in April _or_ in May. - Labor has received _neither_ liberty _nor_ justice. - _Whether_ to go forward _or_ to retreat was the problem. - -Note that _nor_ is always the proper correlative to use with _neither_ -and also with the negatives _not_ and _never_ when they apply to what -follows as well as to what precedes. For example: - - There are thousands in this country who can _neither_ read _nor_ - write. - _Neither_ you _nor_ I can foretell the future. - He will _not_ write _nor_ should you. - Capital punishment is _nothing_ more _nor_ less than legalized murder. - We shall _never_ lower our colors _nor_ retreat. - -_Or_ is always used with the correlative _either_. For example: - - We will _either_ come _or_ write you. - _Either_ he was mistaken _or_ he deliberately lied. - - - Exercise 11 - -Note the use of the co-ordinate conjunctions _and_, _but_, _or_ and -_nor_, in the following quotation. Mark especially the use of _and_ as -an introductory conjunction, introducing a new sentence, but connecting -it with that which has gone before. - - In my judgment slavery is the child of ignorance. Liberty is born of - intelligence. Only a few years ago there was a great awakening in the - human mind. Men began to inquire, "By what right does a crowned robber - make me work for him?" The man who asked this question was called a - traitor. - - They said then, and they say now, that it is dangerous for the mind of - man to be free. I deny it. Out on the intellectual sea there is room - for every sail. In the intellectual air, there is space enough for - every wing. And the man who does not do his own thinking is a slave, - and does not do his duty to his fellow men. For one, I expect to do my - own thinking. And I will take my oath this minute that I will express - what thoughts I have, honestly and sincerely. I am the slave of no man - and of no organization. I stand under the blue sky and the stars, - under the infinite flag of nature, the peer of every human being. - - All I claim, all I plead is simple liberty of thought. That is all. I - do not pretend to tell what is true nor all the truth. I do not claim - that I have floated level with the heights of thought, nor that I have - descended to the depths of things; I simply claim that what ideas I - have, I have a right to express, and any man that denies it to me is - an intellectual thief and robber. - - Every creed that we have today has upon it the mark of the whip or the - chain or the fagot. I do not want it. Free labor will give us wealth, - and has given us wealth, and why? Because a free brain goes into - partnership with a free hand. That is why. And when a man works for - his wife and children, the problem of liberty is, how to do the most - work in the shortest space of time; but the problem of slavery is, how - to do the least work in the longest space of time. Slavery is poverty; - liberty is wealth. - - It is the same in thought. Free thought will give us truth; and the - man who is not in favor of free thought occupies the same relation to - those he can govern that the slaveholder occupied to his slaves, - exactly. Free thought will give us wealth. There has not been a - generation of free thought yet. It will be time to write a creed when - there have been a few generations of free-brained men and splendid - women in this world. I don't know what the future may bring forth; I - don't know what inventions are in the brain of the future; I don't - know what garments may be woven, with the years to come; but I do - know, coming from the infinite sea of the future, there will never - touch this "bank and shoal of time" a greater blessing nor a grander - glory, than liberty for man, woman and child. - - Oh, liberty! Float not forever in the far horizon! Remain not forever - in the dream of the enthusiast and the poet and the philanthropist. - But come and take up thine abode with the children of men - forever.--_Ingersoll_. - - - - - SPELLING - - LESSON 20 - - -We found that we often formed adjectives by adding suffixes to other -words. We also form many adverbs by the addition of suffixes to other -words. Derivative adverbs are formed in the following ways: - -1. By adding suffixes to adjectives, chiefly the suffix _ly_, as for -example; _chiefly_, _truly_, _really_, _lately_, etc. - -2. By changing _ble_ to _bly_, as in _ably_, _nobly_, etc. - -3. By adding the suffix _ward_, as in _forward_, _upward_, _skyward_, -_downward_, _homeward_, etc. - -4. We have some adverbs formed by adding the prefix _a_ to adjectives -and nouns, as _ahead_, _afoot_, _afresh_, also by adding the prefix -_be_, as in _besides_, _beyond_. - -We often misspell a number of adverbs by adding _s_ where it does not -rightfully belong; as, _anywheres_, _everywheres_, _backwards_, -_forwards_, _towards_, _upwards_, _downwards_, _afterwards_, -_homewards_, etc. All of these words should be written without the _s_. - -We also have a number of compound adverbs which are made by the union of -two other parts of speech, such as _sometime_, _henceforth_, _forever_, -_overheard_, _outside_, etc. - -In the lesson for Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday, adjectives are given -having opposite meanings. Make the proper adverbs from these adjectives -by the addition of the suffix _ly_. - -Thursday's and Friday's lessons are made up of both adjectives and -adverbs that end in _ly_. Look up in your dictionary and be sure you -know which are adjectives and which are adverbs. - -Saturday's lesson is made up of compound adverbs. - - +Monday+ - - Haughty--Humble - Wise--Ignorant - Careful--Careless - Firm--Wavering - - +Tuesday+ - - Honest--Deceitful - Fearful--Fearless - Punctual--Tardy - Identical--Different - - +Wednesday+ - - Thoughtful--Thoughtless - Rich--Poor - Attentive--Inattentive - Industrious--Lazy - - +Thursday+ - - Quickly - Lovely - Clearly - Cleanly - - +Friday+ - - Homely - Truly - Courtly - Nearly - - +Saturday+ - - Otherwise - Herewith - Sometime - Always - - - - - PLAIN ENGLISH - - LESSON 21 - - -Dear Comrade: - -In this lesson we are completing the study of conjunctions. We have -studied the conjunction last among the parts of speech and in the order -of the development of language, the conjunction naturally comes last. -The need of connective words does not come in any language until the -language is quite well developed. You will notice that the connective -words, such as prepositions and conjunctions are the last words the -child begins to use. The child first begins to use the names of the -things with which it comes in contact, then it learns the words that -express what these things do. But it is not until the child begins to -reason that it begins to use connective words. These become necessary -when we have reached a stage of development where we can consider the -relationship existing between things. - -The use of conjunctions, however, can be greatly overdone. The long and -involved sentences are more difficult to understand. If you will note -the authors which you enjoy the most, it will probably be those who use -short and crisp sentences. We have some authors who by the use of -conjunctions can string one sentence out over several pages. You wonder -how they manage to exist so long without stopping for breath. It is very -easy for us to fall into this error when we are thinking rapidly and our -thoughts all seem to be closely connected. But no mind can grasp many -ideas at one time. Break your sentences up and express your ideas -concisely and clearly. Use conjunctions rather sparingly, especially -these subordinate conjunctions. Do not have too many subordinate clauses -in one sentence. - -Notice in your reading for this week those who use the short, crisp -sentences and those who use the longer and more involved sentences. -Notice which are understood more readily and which are more enjoyable to -read. Take some of the paragraphs from those who write long and involved -sentences and break them up into short sentences and see if these -shorter sentences do not make the meaning simpler and clearer. This will -be excellent practice also in gaining the power of expression. - -Especially in the class struggle do we need those who can write clearly -and simply of the great problems of the day. As the work of the world is -conducted today, the workers have too little time for reading. They are -apt, after a hard day's work, to be too tired to follow an author -through long, winding, involved passages. - -In the spoken word, this is also true. You will find your hearers much -more in sympathy with you if you will use short sentences. Break your -thought up so they can readily grasp your meaning and follow you to your -conclusion. - -Conjunctions are very important to save us from tiresome repetitions and -short, jerky sentences, but we must avoid using them too frequently. - - Yours for Education, - - THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. - - - SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS - -+347.+ We have found that co-ordinate conjunctions connect words, -phrases and also clauses that are entirely independent; that is, they do -not depend in the slightest degree upon any other word, phrase or -clause. Subordinate conjunctions connect inferior clauses to the main -clauses of the sentence. These inferior clauses are dependent clauses. -Subordinate conjunctions never connect words or phrases; but only -dependent clauses, to the rest of the sentence. Note the following -sentences: - - He came _quickly_. - He came _on time_. - He came _when he was called_. - -In the first sentence the word _quickly_ is an adverb modifying the verb -_came_ and answers the question _when_. It tells _when_ he came. In the -second sentence, the phrase _on time_ is an adverb phrase modifying the -verb _came_, and answers the question _when_. It tells _when_ he came. -In the third sentence, the clause _when he was called_, also answers the -question _when_, and tells _when_ he came. Therefore, it is a clause -used as an adverb. It is different from the phrase _on time_, for the -phrase _on time_ does not contain a subject and a predicate. - -+348.+ The difference between the phrase and the clause is that the -phrase does not contain either a subject or a predicate, while the -clause _always_ contains both a subject and a predicate. So in the -clause, _when he was called_, _he_ is the subject and _was called_ is -the predicate, and _when_ is the subordinate conjunction, which connects -this adverb clause to the verb _came_, which it modifies. The clause _he -came_, and the clause _when he was called_, are not of equal rank and -importance, because the clause, _when he was called_, simply modifies -the verb contained in the clause _he came_, by describing the _time_ of -the action expressed in the verb _came_. So the clause, _when he was -called_, is a subordinate or dependent clause, and the conjunctions -which connect this class of clauses to the main clause are called -subordinate conjunctions. - -+349.+ +A subordinate conjunction is one that connects a dependent -clause to the principal clause.+ - - - CLASSES OF SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS - -+350.+ Most subordinate conjunctions are used to make adverb clauses. -These clauses will answer some one of the questions answered by adverbs. -They will tell _how_, _when_, _where_ or _why_ the action expressed in -the verb in the principal clause occurred. There are six classes of -these subordinate conjunctions which are used to introduce adverb -clauses. They introduce: - -+351.+ +Adverb clause of time.+ These clauses will answer the question -_when_ and are introduced by such subordinate conjunctions as, _before_, -_since_, _as_, _while_, _until_, _when_, _after_ and _as soon as_. -Notice in the following sentences the difference made in the meaning of -the sentences by the use of the different conjunctions: - - We waited _until_ you came. - We waited _after_ you came. - We waited _as_ you came. - We waited _before_ you came. - We waited _since_ you came. - We left _while_ you were gone. - We left _when_ you were gone. - We left _as soon as_ you were gone. - -+352.+ +Adverb clause of place.+ These answer the question _where_, and -are introduced by the conjunctions, _where_, _whence_, _whither_. - - I will go _where_ you go. - The wind blows _whither_ it listeth. - He went _whence_ he came. - -+353.+ +Adverb clauses expressing cause or reason.+ These will answer -the question _why_. They are introduced by such subordinate conjunctions -as, _because_, _for_, _since_, _as_, _whereas_, _inasmuch as_, etc. - -Note the difference in the meaning of the following sentences expressed -by the use of different conjunctions: - - I will come _because_ you expect me. - I will come _since_ you expect me. - I will come _as_ you expect me. - I will come _for_ you expect me. - I will come _inasmuch as_ you expect me. - -+354.+ +Adverb clauses of manner.+ These clauses will answer the -question _how_, and are introduced by such subordinate conjunctions as, -_as_, _as if_, _as though_, etc. - - Study _as though_ you were in earnest. - Come _as if_ you had been called. - Do _as_ I say, not _as_ I do. - -In these clauses of _manner_, introduced by _as if_, and _as though_, -_were_ is used in the present form with either singular or plural -subjects. For example: - - He writes as if he _were_ informed of the facts. - They talk as though they _were_ confident of success. - You act as though I _were_ your slave. - -+355.+ +Adverb clauses of comparison.+ These clauses are introduced by -the subordinate conjunctions _than_ and _as_. The verbs are often -omitted in these dependent clauses introduced by _than_ and _as_. For -example: _He is taller than I_. The complete sentence would be: _He is -taller than I am_. _He is not so tall as I._ Here the sentence would be: -_He is not so tall as I am_. - -When the pronoun occurs in these dependent clauses, be sure to use the -proper form of the pronoun. It may be the subject or the object of the -verb which is not expressed. For example; it is incorrect to say: _I am -not so tall as him_. The correct form is: _I am not so tall as he_. The -complete sentence would be: _I am not so tall as he is_, and the pronoun -should be in the subject form, for it is the subject of the verb _is_, -which is understood and omitted. - -The use of the _subject_ or of the _object_ form may make a difference -in the meaning of your sentence. For example, you say: _I admire them as -much as he_. You mean that you admire them as much as he admires them. -But if you say, _I admire them as much as him_, you mean that you admire -them as much as you admire him. Quite a different meaning! - -Be careful in the use of your pronouns in this way, for you can express -quite a different meaning. For example, if you say, _I care more for you -than he_, you mean, I care more for you than he cares for you. But if -you say, _I care more for you than him_, you mean, I care more for you -than I care for him. A mistake like this might mean a great deal to you -some time, if the one to whom you had been speaking had been studying a -course in Plain English! - -+356.+ +Adverb clauses of condition.+ These clauses are introduced by -such conjunctions as, _if_, _provided_, _supposing_, _unless_, _except_, -_otherwise_, _though_, _notwithstanding_, _albeit_, and _whether_. For -example: - - I will come _if_ you need me. - I will come _provided_ you need me. - I will go _notwithstanding_ you need me. - I will not go _unless_ I am called. - He will not go _except_ he is called. - He will not go _though_ he is called. - He came, _otherwise_ I would go. - He will go _whether_ you go or stay. - -When subordinate clauses beginning with _if_, _though_ or _unless_ are -joined to clauses containing _might_, _could_, _would_ or _should_, the -verb _were_ is sometimes used with a singular subject, in such sentences -as: - - If this _were_ true, I should know it. - Unless I _were_ positive, I would not say so. - Though our leader _were_ lost, yet we would not despair. - If he _were_ here, he would explain it himself. - If I _were_ with you, I might make you understand. - -Sometimes in sentences like these, _if_ is omitted in the clause, and -the verb placed first. For example: - - _Were_ he here, he would deny these slanders. - _Were_ he truly class-conscious, he would oppose this war. - _Were_ this fact known, the people would never submit. - -These clauses express something which is uncertain, or which is to be -decided in the future; a supposition contrary to a fact or a wish. -Occasionally you will find the verb _be_ used instead of _is_, in -clauses of this kind introduced by _if_, _though_, _unless_, _except_, -_lest_, etc. For example: - - If it _be_ true, I will hear it. - Though he _be_ guilty, we will not desert him. - -In subordinate clauses connected by _if_, _unless_, etc., with a -principal clause which expresses future time, the present form of the -verb is used in the subordinate clause. For example: - - If they are willing, we will join them. - Unless he comes, I shall not leave. - If it rains, we will not go. - -+357.+ +Adverb clauses expressing purpose.+ These are introduced by such -subordinate conjunctions as, _that_, _in order that_ and _lest_. For -example: - - Take good care _that_ you understand this lesson. - I will go today _in order that_ I may meet him. - Watch these carefully _lest_ they be stolen. - Read the labor press _that_ you may know the truth. - -Notice that _that_, when used in this way, as a pure conjunction, means -_in order that_. For example, the sentence above might read: - - Read the labor press _in order that_ you may know the truth. - -+358.+ +Adverb clauses expressing result.+ These are introduced by the -subordinate conjunction _that_, as for example: - - They were so late _that_ I could not go. - - - SUMMARY - -+359.+ We have then adverb clauses introduced by subordinate -conjunctions expressing: - - 1. +Time.+ Answer the question _when_. - 2. +Place.+ Answer the question _where_. - 3. +Cause or reason.+ Answer the question _why_. - 4. +Manner.+ Answer the question _how_. - 5. +Comparison.+ Used to compare. - 6. +Condition.+ Answer the question _on what condition_. - 7. +Purpose.+ Answer the question _for what purpose_. - 8. +Result.+ Answer the question _to what result_. - - - Exercise 1 - -In the following sentences, mark the conjunctions and tell to what class -they belong; ask the question _when_, _where_, _why_, _how_, _on what -condition_, _for what purpose_, _to what result_. Underscore the -subordinate clauses. The subjects of the subordinate clauses are printed -in italics. - - 1. Speech was developed that _we_ might be able to communicate with - one another. - 2. The International failed in the crisis because _it_ had no - definite war program. - 3. We will fail if _we_ have no definite program. - 4. If _labor_ were united, we could destroy wage slavery. - 5. When the _people_ understand, they will no longer submit. - 6. Labor cannot win until _it_ learns solidarity. - 7. After the terrible _war_ is over, the workers in all countries may - come closer together. - 8. We are convinced of the folly of nationalism since the _war_ has - been declared. - 9. If _we_ knew the facts we could not be misled. - 10. Inform yourself before _you_ seek to teach others. - 11. We must unite in order that _we_ may possess power. - 12. It is more than the _heart_ can bear. - 13. May you have courage to dare ere _you_ have ceased to dream. - 14. If _we_ remain ignorant, we shall remain enslaved. - 15. We sometimes fear to trust our own thought because _it_ is our - own. - 16. Though _we_ should lose the strike we will not despair. - 17. The battle waged so fiercely that _thousands_ were slain. - - - PHRASE CONJUNCTIONS - -+360.+ There are certain phrases which have come to be used together as -conjunctions so commonly that we may consider them as conjunctions. They -are: - -_As if_, _as though_, _but also_, _but likewise_, _so that_, _except -that_, _inasmuch as_, _notwithstanding that_, _in order that_, _as well -as_, _as far as_, _so far as_, _as little as_, _provided that_, _seeing -that_, etc. - - - Exercise 2 - -Write sentences using these phrase conjunctions to introduce clauses. - - - NOUN CLAUSES - -+361.+ We have found that there are two kinds of clauses, principal -clauses and subordinate clauses. - -+A principal clause is one that does not depend on any word.+ - -+A subordinate clause is one that depends upon some word or words in the -principal clause.+ - -We have found, also, that these principal clauses are always connected -by co-ordinate conjunctions, for they are of equal rank and importance; -neither is dependent upon the other. - -Subordinate clauses are always connected with the principal clause by a -subordinate conjunction. The subordinate clauses which we have been -studying have all been adverb clauses which are used to describe the -action expressed in the verb contained in the principal clauses. - -The subordinate clause in a sentence may also be used as a noun. When -the subordinate clause is used as a noun it is called a noun clause. - -+362.+ +A noun clause is a clause used as a noun.+ - -A noun clause may be used in any way in which a noun is used, except as -a possessive. It may be used as a subject, an object, a predicate -complement, or in apposition with a noun. These noun clauses may be -introduced by either relative pronouns, interrogative pronouns or by -conjunctions. For example: - - I know _who_ he is. - He asked, "_what_ do you want?" - I know _where_ it is. - -In the first sentence, _who he is_, is a noun clause used as the object -of the verb _know_. It tells _what_ I know, and is the object of the -verb _know_,--just as if I had said; _I know the facts_. In this -sentence the noun, _facts_, is the object of the verb _know_. - -In the second sentence, _He asked, "what do you want?_" the noun clause -_what do you want_ is the object of the verb _asked_, and is introduced -by the interrogative pronoun _what_. - -We will study in a subsequent lesson the use of noun clauses introduced -by relative pronouns. In this lesson we are studying the conjunctions. - -In the last sentence, _I know where it is_, the noun clause _where it -is_, is the object of the verb _know_, and is introduced by the -conjunction _where_. - -+363.+ Noun clauses are introduced by the subordinate conjunctions, -_where_, _when_, _whence_, _whither_, _whether_, _how_, _why_, and also -by the subordinate conjunction _that_. For example: - - I know _where_ I can find it. - I inquired _when_ he would arrive. - We do not know _whence_ it cometh nor whither it goeth. - Ask _whether_ the train has gone. - I don't know _how_ I can find you. - I cannot understand _why_ he does so. - I believe _that_ he is honest. - -In all of these examples the noun clauses are used as the objects of the -verb. Noun clauses may also be used as objects of prepositions. As, for -example: - - You do not listen to _what is said_. - He talked to me about _what had happened_. - He told me to come to _where he was_. - -+364.+ Noun clauses may also be used as the subject of a sentence. As -for example: - - _That he is innocent_ is admitted by all. - _That he was guilty_ has been proven. - _Why he should do this_ is very strange. - _How we are to live_ is the great problem. - -In all of these sentences, the noun clause is used as the subject of the -verb. You will note that most frequently the noun clause used as subject -of the verb is introduced by the subordinate conjunction _that_. But -quite often we write these sentences in a somewhat different way. For -example: - - It is admitted by all _that he is innocent_. - It has been proven _that he was guilty_. - -You will notice in these sentences we have expressed practically the -same thought as in the sentences where the noun clause was used as the -subject of the verb. - -But now we have this little pronoun _it_ used as the subject, instead of -the clause, which is the real subject of the sentence. _It_ is simply -used as the introductory word in the sentence. The noun clause is in -reality the subject of the sentence. - -+365.+ Noun clauses may also be used as the predicate complement with a -copulative verb. For example: - - The general opinion is _that he is innocent_. - The problem is _how we may accomplish this quickly_. - The question was _why any one should believe such statements_. - -In all of these sentences the noun clause is used as the complement of -the incomplete verbs _is_ and _was_, to complete the meaning, just as we -use a noun as the predicate complement of a copulative verb in such -sentences as, _Socialism is a science._ _War is murder._ - -+366.+ A noun clause may also be used in apposition to a noun to explain -its meaning. Apposition means to place alongside of. Note in the -following sentences: - - The fact, _that such a law had been passed_, alters the situation. - His motion, _that the matter should be laid on the table_, was - adopted. - -In the first sentence, the clause, _that such a law had been passed_, is -placed beside the noun _fact_ and explains _what_ that fact is. The -clause, _that the matter should be laid on the table_, is in apposition -to and explains the noun _motion_. - -These noun clauses are used in apposition. - - - Exercise 3 - -Complete the following sentences by inserting the appropriate -conjunctions and pronouns in the blank spaces: - - 1. Can you tell......Germany has a million fighting men? - 2. Would you be pleased......the United States should intervene in - Mexico? - 3. The Mexican revolution will continue......the people possess the - land. - 4. No one may vote in the convention......he has credentials. - 5. ......Debs was in Woodstock jail, he became in Socialist. - 6. ......the treaty was signed, hostilities ceased. - 7. We shall win......we have the courage. - 8. ......we have lost this battle we shall not cease to struggle. - 9. All are enslaved......one is enslaved. - 10. Humanity will be free......labor is free. - 11. Let us do our duty......we understand it. - 12. Man will never reach his best......he walks side by side with - woman. - 13. We must struggle......we would be free. - 14. ......we shout for peace, we support war. - 15. All our sympathies should be with the man......toils,......we - know......labor is the foundation of all. - 16. ......all have the right to think and to express their thoughts - every brain will give to all the best......it has. - 17. ......man develops he places greater value upon his own rights. - 18. ......man values his own rights he begins to value the rights of - others. - 19. ......all men give to all others the rights......they claim for - themselves this world will be civilized. - - - Exercise 4 - -Note all the co-ordinate and subordinate conjunctions in the following -verses from "The Ballad of Reading Gaol." Underscore the subordinate -clauses. Are they adverb or noun clauses? Do the co-ordinate -conjunctions connect words, phrases or clauses? - - I know not _whether_ Laws be right, - Or _whether_ Laws be wrong; - All that we know who lie in gaol - Is _that_ the wall is strong; - _And that_ each day is like a year, - A year whose days are long. - - _But_ this I know, _that_ every Law - That men have made for Man, - _Since_ first Man took his brother's life, - _And_ the sad world began, - But straws the wheat _and_ saves the chaff - With a most evil fan. - - This too I know--_and_ wise it were - _If_ each could know the same-- - _That_ every prison that men build - Is built with bricks of shame, - _And_ bound with bars _lest_ Christ should see - _How_ men their brothers maim. - - With bars they blur the gracious moon, - _And_ blind the goodly sun: - _And_ they do well to hide their Hell, - _For_ in it things are done - That son of God _nor_ son of Man - Ever should look upon! - - In Reading gaol by Reading town - There is a pit of shame, - _And_ in it lies a wretched man - Eaten by teeth of flame, - In a burning winding sheet he lies, - _And_ his grave has got no name. - - _And_ there, _till_ Christ call forth the dead, - In silence let him lie: - No need to waste the foolish tear, - _Or_ heave the windy sigh: - The man had killed the thing he loved, - _And so_ he had to die. - - _And_ all men kill the thing they love, - By all let this be heard, - Some do it with a bitter look, - Some with a flattering word, - The coward does it with a kiss, - The brave man with a sword. - - --_Oscar Wilde_. - - - - - SPELLING - - LESSON 21 - - -In Lesson No. 17 we studied concerning abstract nouns derived from -qualifying adjectives. We found that we formed these nouns expressing -quality from adjectives that describe quality by the addition of -suffixes. - -Adjectives may likewise be formed from nouns and also from verbs by the -addition of suffixes. There are a number of suffixes which may be used -to form adjectives in this way; as, _al_, _ous_, _ic_, _ful_, _less_, -_able_, _ible_, _ary_ and _ory_. Notice the following words: nation, -_national_; peril, _perilous_; reason, _reasonable_; sense, _sensible_; -custom, _customary_; advise, _advisory_; hero, _heroic_; care, -_careful_, _careless_. - -To some words, more than one suffix may be added and an adjective of -different meaning formed; for example, use, _useless_, _useful_; care, -_careless_, _careful_. - -Make as many adjectives as you can from the nouns and verbs given in the -spelling lesson for this week by the addition of one or more of the -following suffixes: - -_Al_, _less_, _ous_, _ic_, _ful_, _able_, _ible_, _ary_, _ory_, and -_ly_. - - +Monday+ - - Accident - Danger - Origin - Commend - Element - - +Tuesday+ - - Critic - Libel - Attain - Revolution - Contradict - - +Wednesday+ - - Cynic - Injury - Respect - Station - Migrate - - +Thursday+ - - Event - Parent - Order - Virtue - Marvel - - +Friday+ - - Second - Fashion - Consider - Murder - Incident - - +Saturday+ - - Constitution - Industry - Vibrate - Tribute - Compliment - - - - - PLAIN ENGLISH - - LESSON 22 - - -Dear Comrade: - -We have practically finished the study of the different parts of speech. -We are now in possession of a knowledge of the tools which we need to -use in expressing ourselves. We are ready to make practical application -of this knowledge in writing and speaking. We will find that with our -increasing ability to express ourselves there comes also the power to -think clearly. The analysis of language has meant a growing power to -_think_ on the part of the people. - -We sometimes imagine that simplicity of language was a part of primitive -life, but this is not true. Simplicity of language is the product of -high civilization. Primitive life was marked, not by simplicity of -language, but by the scarcity of language. They made one word stand for -an entire sentence, and if they wished to express a little different -meaning, an entirely different word had to be used, as for example, in -the primitive language: _I said to her_, would be one word, and _I said -to him_, would be another, entirely different, word. - -But as the power of thought began to develop, we began to analyze our -meaning and we found that this thought was identical except the _him_ -and the _her_. So as we analyzed our thought our expression of it became -more simple. In most languages, the different meaning of the verb, for -example, is expressed by an arbitrary change in the verb form. This is -called the inflection of the verb. In English we would use several words -to express the same thing. For example, the Latin word _Fuissem_ -requires four English words to express the same meaning; _I should have -been_, we say in English. So instead of having to learn a great number -of different changes in the verb form, we, by the use of auxiliary -verbs, _have_, _shall_, _do_, _be_, etc., are able to express all these -shades of thought much more simply and clearly. - -Most other languages also have changes for gender. Every noun has a -gender of its own and sometimes this form gives the wrong gender to -living beings and attributes sex to sexless objects and the only way to -know the gender of the noun is simply by memory. Then the adjectives, -possessive pronouns and the articles _a_ and _the_ have gender also and -have to be changed to suit the gender of the noun; this involves a great -effort of memory. So while the English may seem somewhat involved to -you, it is, after all, much simpler than other languages. It has been -freed from many superfluous endings and unnecessary complications. - -Take a little time each day to read something out of the best -literature. The quotations given in each of these lessons are from our -very best writers. A study of these will be a wonderful help and -inspiration to you and bring you in touch with some of the great -thinkers of the revolution. They are our comrades and are putting into -words the thoughts and hopes and dreams of our lives. - - Yours for the Revolution, - - THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. - - - ADJECTIVE CLAUSES - -+367.+ In our study of subordinate clauses, we have studied subordinate -clauses used as adverbs and as nouns. We have found that adverb clauses -can be used in the same way as adverbs, to describe the time, place, -manner, cause, condition or purpose of the action expressed in the verb. -We have found, also, that a noun clause may be used in any way in which -a noun can be used, as the subject of the sentence, the object of a verb -or preposition or as the predicate complement. But these are not the -only uses to which the subordinate clause may be put. Note the following -sentences: - - _Wealthy_ men desire to control the education of the people. - Men _of wealth_ desire to control the education of the people. - Men _who are wealthy_ desire to control the education of the people. - -Do you see any difference in the words which are used to modify the noun -_men_? In the first sentence, _wealthy_ is an adjective, modifying the -noun _men_. In the second sentence, _of wealth_ is a prepositional -phrase, used as an adjective modifying the noun _men_. In the last -sentence, _who are wealthy_ is a clause used in exactly the same way -that the adjective _wealthy_ and the adjective phrase _of wealth_ are -used, to modify the noun _men_. - -We have expressed practically the same meaning in these three ways: by a -word; by a phrase; by a clause. - -+368.+ +A word used to describe and modify a noun is an adjective.+ - -+A phrase used to describe and modify a noun is an adjective phrase.+ - -+A clause used to describe and modify a noun is an adjective clause.+ - -Note the difference between a phrase and a clause. - -+369.+ A prepositional phrase, used as an adjective, consists of the -preposition and the noun which is its object, together with its -modifiers. A phrase never has either a subject or a predicate. _Who are -wealthy_, is a clause because it does contain a subject and a predicate. -The pronoun _who_ is the subject in the clause, and the predicate is the -copulative verb _are_ with the predicate complement, the adjective -_wealthy_. - - - Exercise 1 - -In the following sentences change the adjective into a phrase and also -into a clause, if possible. For example: - - A _fearless_ man always defends his rights. - A man _without fear_ always defends his rights. - A man _who is fearless_ always defends his rights. - - 1. The _unemployed_ men are becoming desperate. - 2. The _uneducated_ masses are demanding equal opportunity. - 3. The discovery of gold was an _important_ discovery. - 4. _Unorganized_ labor is helpless. - 5. The revolution needs _intelligent_ rebels. - 6. A few _wealthy_ men are striving to control education. - 7. This will be a _progressive_ movement. - 8. _Labor-saving_ inventions throw men out of employment. - 9. _Scientific_ men prophesy a great advance for the mass. - - - THE INTRODUCING WORD - -+370.+ You will notice that these adjective clauses are introduced by -the relative pronouns _who_, _which_ and _that_. These relative pronouns -fulfil something of the office of a conjunction, because they are -serving as connecting elements; they join these subordinate clauses to -the words which they modify. But you will note, also, that these -relative pronouns not only serve as connecting elements, but they also -play a part in the subordinate clause, as either the subject or object. -For example: - - The man who has no education is handicapped in the struggle. - Are these the books that you ordered? - -In the first sentence, _who has an education_ is an adjective clause -modifying the noun _man_, introduced by the relative pronoun _who_, -which is also the subject of the verb _has_. - -In the second sentence, _that you ordered_ is an adjective clause, -modifying the noun _books_, introduced by the relative pronoun _that_, -which is also the object of the verb _ordered_. - -+371.+ There is no need to be confused in this matter of clauses. If the -clause is used as a noun, either as the subject or the object or in any -other way in which a noun can be used, it is a noun clause. If it is -used as an adverb and will answer any of the questions _why_, _when_, -_where_, or _how_, etc., it is an adverb clause. If it is used as an -adjective,--if it modifies a noun or pronoun,--it is an adjective -clause. - -You will note that the only way in which a noun is used that does not -have its corresponding clause is as a possessive. We do not have -possessive clauses. The clause used as an adjective always modifies a -noun or pronoun. - -+372.+ +An adjective clause is a clause used as an adjective and hence -always modifies a noun or pronoun.+ - -An adjective clause may be introduced by the relative pronouns, _who_, -_which_ or _that_. The use of this clause is a great help to us in the -expression of our ideas, for it enables us to combine several sentences -containing related thoughts into one sentence so we have it all -presented to the mind at once. - - - Exercise 2 - -In the following sentences, note which are the noun clauses and which -are the adjective clauses and which are the adverb clauses. The verb in -the subordinate clause is in italics. - - 1. Life is what we _make_ it. - 2. We acquire the strength that we _overcome_. - 3. While he _slept_ the enemy came. - 4. All that he _does_ is to distribute what others _produce_. - 5. When faith _is lost_, when honor _dies_, the man is dead. - 6. Thrice is he armed who _hath_ his quarrel just; he is naked though - he _be locked_ up in steel whose conscience with injustice is - _corrupted_. - 7. When strength and justice _are_ true yoke fellows, where can we - find a mightier pair than they? - 8. You will gain a good reputation if you _endeavor_ to be what you - _desire_ to appear. - 9. Live as though life _were_ earnest and life will be so. - 10. He that _loveth_ makes his own the grandeur that he _loves_. - 11. Who _does_ the best his circumstance _allows_ does well; angels - could do no more. - 12. He is not worthy of the honeycomb that _shuns_ the hive because - the bees _have_ stings. - 13. We always may be what we _might have been_. - 14. Rich gifts wax poor when givers _prove_ unkind. - 15. Let me make the songs of the people and I care not who _makes_ the - laws. - 16. Attention is the stuff that memory _is made_ of. - 17. A great writer has said that grace _is_ beauty in action; I say - that justice _is_ truth in action. - 18. If we do not _plant_ knowledge when young it will give us no shade - when we _are_ old. - 19. You can no more exercise your reason if you _live_ in constant - dread of laughter than you _can enjoy_ your life if you _live_ in - constant dread and terror of death. - - - WHICH RELATIVE PRONOUN TO USE - -+373.+ We are sometimes confused as to which relative pronoun to use in -introducing an adjective clause. We hesitate as to whether we should use -_that_ or _who_ or _which_. Remember that _who_ always refers to -_persons_, _which_ refers to _animals_ or _things_, and _that_ may refer -to either _persons_, _animals_ or _things_. - -So when referring to a _person_, we may use either _who_ or _that_, and -when referring to _animals_ or _things_, we may use either _which_ or -_that_. As, for example, we may say, either, _The man who was here -yesterday came back today_, or _The man that was here yesterday came -back today_. Either is correct, for _who_ and _that_ both refer to -persons. - -+374.+ We may make a little distinction in the use of _who_ and _that_ -when referring to _persons_, however. A clause introduced by _that_ is -usually a restrictive clause. It limits or restricts the meaning of the -noun which it modifies. When you say, _The man that was here yesterday_, -you mean _that_ man and no other, limiting your meaning to that -particular man. On the other hand, when you say, _The man who was here -yesterday_, there is no restriction or limitation expressed in the use -of the clause, but it is merely a descriptive clause, adding a new fact -to our knowledge concerning that particular man. - -The same is true when we are speaking of _things_ using either _that_ or -_which_. The clause introduced by _which_ is presumably a descriptive -clause. We do, however, often use _who_ or _which_ when the sense of the -clause is restrictive, but we should never use _that_ to introduce an -adjective clause, unless the sense is restrictive. When in your -sentences you can use, instead of the relative pronoun _who_ or _which_, -the conjunction _and_, you can know that the use of the pronoun _who_ or -_which_ is correct. As, for example: - - I have read the book, _which_ I found very interesting. - -You could say instead: - - I have read the book _and_ I found it very interesting. - -This would express the same meaning. But if you say: _I have read the -book that I found very interesting_, you mean that you limit your idea -to this particular book. - -+375.+ We do not always observe these niceties in our spoken and written -speech, but it is interesting to know the shades of thought and meaning -which you can express by the proper use of the language. The man who -runs an engine and learns to know and love his machine almost as though -it were a human being, can easily recognize the slightest change in the -action of his machine. His ear catches the least difference in the sound -of the running of the machine, a difference which we, who do not know -and love the machine, would never notice. - -So it is in language. Once we have sensed its beauty and its wondrous -power of expression, we notice all these slight differences and shades -of meaning which may be expressed by the use of words. In just the same -manner the musician catches the undertones and overtones of the music, -which we, who possess an uneducated ear, cannot know; and the artist -also has a wondrous range of color, while we, who are not sensitive to -color, know only a few of the primal colors. - - - ADJECTIVE CLAUSES WITH CONJUNCTIONS - -+376.+ The adjective clauses which we have been studying so far have -been introduced by relative pronouns. Adjective clauses may also be -introduced by conjunctions, such as, _where_, _when_, _whence_, or -_why_. As, for example: - - Antwerp is the place where a terrible battle was fought. - No man knows the hour when opportunity will be his. - Each group has a different reason why this world-war was precipitated. - -Note in these sentences the clauses, _where a terrible battle was -fought_, _when opportunity will be his_, _why this world-war was -precipitated_, are all adjective clauses modifying the nouns _place_, -_hour_ and _reason_, and are introduced by the conjunctions _where_, -_when_, and _why_. These are adjective clauses because they modify, by -either limiting or describing, the nouns with which they are used. You -will note that we could omit the nouns in the first two of these -sentences and these clauses would become noun clauses, for they would be -used in the place of a noun. As, for example: - - Antwerp is where a terrible battle was fought. - No man knows when opportunity will be his. - -+377.+ We determine whether a clause is an adjective or an adverb or a -noun clause just as we determine whether a word is an adjective, adverb -or noun, by the work which it does in a sentence. Noun clauses are used -in the place of a noun; adverb clauses modify verbs, adjectives, and -adverbs; adjective clauses modify nouns and pronouns. - - - THE LITTLE WORD "AS" - -+378.+ Adjective clauses may also be introduced by _as_. _As_ is a very -convenient word and may be used in several different ways; sometimes as -an adverb, sometimes as a conjunction; and it may also be used as a -relative pronoun after _such_, _same_ and _many_. For example: - - Such books _as_ you should read are listed here. - No such person _as_ he ever came here. - We are facing the same crisis _as_ our comrades faced. - This is the same _as_ you gave before. - He has made as many mistakes _as_ you have. - -In these sentences _as_ is really used as a relative pronoun, connecting -these adjective clauses to the words which they modify. _As_ may also be -used as an adverb. _I am as tall as you are._ - -Here the first _as_ modifies _tall_ and is used as an adverb; the second -_as_ is a conjunction connecting the subordinate clause _you are_, with -the principal clause. Note that in making comparisons, _as_ is always -used when the comparison is equal, _so_ when it is unequal, thus: - - I am _as_ tall as you are. - She is not _so_ tall as you are. - -We have found that _as_ is also used as a conjunction to introduce an -adverb clause. For example: - - She is as beautiful _as_ she is good. - -The clause, _as she is good_, is an adverb clause, modifying the -adjective _beautiful_. In the sentence, _Do as I say_, _as I say_ is an -adverb clause of manner, modifying the verb _do_. - - - CONNECTIVE WORDS - -+379.+ Let us not be confused in this matter of connectives. There are -just four classes of connective words: - - 1. +Copulative verbs.+ - 2. +Relative pronouns.+ - 3. +Prepositions.+ - 4. +Conjunctions.+ - -+380.+ The copulative verb is not a pure connective, for it serves -another purpose in the sentence. For example, in the sentence, _The book -is interesting_, the copulative verb _is_ connects the adjective -_interesting_ with the noun _book_, which it modifies; but it also is -the asserting word in the sentence. So it fulfils a double function. It -is an asserting word and also a connective word. - -+381.+ The relative pronoun also is not a pure connective, for it serves -two purposes in the sentence. It not only connects the clause which it -introduces, with the word which it modifies, but it also serves as -either the subject or object in the clause. For example: _The man who -was here has gone_. The clause, _who was here_, is introduced by the -relative pronoun _who_, which connects that clause with the noun _man_, -which the clause modifies. _Who_ also serves as the subject of the verb -_was_. - -In the sentence, _The men whom we seek have gone_, the clause, _whom we -seek_, is introduced by the relative pronoun _whom_, which connects the -clause with the word _men_, which it modifies. _Whom_ also serves as the -object of the verb in the clause, the verb _seek_. - -+382.+ A preposition is not a pure connective, since it serves a double -function. It shows the relation of its object to the rest of the -sentence and also governs the form of its object. As, for example, in -the sentence: _The man before me is not the culprit_, the preposition -_before_ connects its object _me_ with the noun _man_, which the -prepositional phrase modifies, showing the relation between them; and it -governs the form of its object, for the pronoun following a preposition -must be used in the _object_ form. - -+383.+ Even co-ordinate conjunctions can scarcely be considered pure -connectives unless it be the co-ordinate conjunction _and_. Co-ordinate -conjunctions such as _but_, _yet_, _still_, _however_, etc., not only -connect words, phrases and clauses of equal rank, but in addition to -connecting the words and expressions they also indicate that they are -opposite in thought. - -+384.+ Co-ordinate conjunctions like _therefore_, _hence_, _then_, etc., -connect words, phrases and clauses of equal rank, and also introduce a -_reason_ or _cause_. Co-ordinate conjunctions like _or_, _either_, -_nor_, _neither_, _whether_, etc., connect words, phrases and clauses of -equal rank, and also express the choice of an alternative. Thus these -co-ordinate conjunctions can scarcely be considered as pure connectives. - -+385.+ Subordinate conjunctions are most frequently used to introduce -adverb clauses and have an adverbial meaning. They express, as do -adverbs, _place_, _time_, _manner_, _cause_, _reason_, _purpose_, -_condition_ or _result_. Some authorities indicate this double function -by calling such words as these conjunctive adverbs, because, even when -they are used as conjunctions, they retain some of their adverbial -force. - -But according to our rule that every word in the sentence is classified -according to the function which it performs in that sentence, all words -that perform the function of a conjunction are called conjunctions, -although we understand that these conjunctions which introduce dependent -clauses do still retain some of their adverbial meaning. - - - Exercise 3 - -In the following sentences the connectives are in italics. Determine -whether they are copulative verbs, relative pronouns, prepositions, -co-ordinate conjunctions or subordinate conjunctions. - - 1. They _are_ slaves _who_ dare not be _in_ the right _with_ two - _or_ three. - 2. _In_ the twentieth century war _will be_ dead, dogmas _will be_ - dead, _but_ man will live. - 3. The abuse _of_ free speech dies _in_ a day, _but_ its denial slays - the life _of_ the people _and_ entombs the race. - 4. Liberty _for_ the few _is_ not liberty. - 5. Liberty _for_ me _and_ slavery _for_ you means slavery _for_ both. - 6. The greatest thing _in_ the world _is for_ a man to know _that_ he - _is_ his own. - 7. Nothing can work me damage _except_ myself. - 8. He _that_ loveth maketh his own the grandeur _which_ he loves. - 9. My life _is_ not an apology, _but_ a life. - 10. I cannot consent to pay _for_ a privilege _where_ I have intrinsic - right. - 11. It _is_ difficult to free fools _from_ the chains _which_ they - revere. - 12. Desire nothing _for_ yourself _which_ you do not desire _for - others_. - 13. All our liberties _are_ due _to_ men _who_, _when_ their - conscience compelled them, have broken the laws _of_ the land. - 14. "It takes great strength to live _where_ you belong, - _When_ other people think _that_ you _are_ wrong." - 15. _If_ the truth shall make you free, ye _shall be_ free indeed. - 16. He _is_ true _to_ God _who is_ true _to_ man. - - - Exercise 4 - -In the following sentences underscore all the connectives--copulative -verbs, prepositions, relative pronouns, co-ordinate and subordinate -conjunctions. - -"There was a bird's egg once, picked up by chance upon the ground, and -those who found it bore it home and placed it under a barn-yard fowl. -And in time the chick bred out, and those who had found it chained it by -the leg to a log lest it should stray and be lost. And by and by they -gathered round it, and speculated as to what the bird might be. - -One said, "It is surely a waterfowl, a duck, or it may be a goose; if we -took it to the water it would swim and gabble." But another said, "It -has no webs to its feet; it is a barn-yard fowl; if you should let it -loose it will scratch and cackle with the others on the dungheap." But a -third speculated, "Look now at its curved beak; no doubt it is a parrot, -and can crack nuts." - -But a fourth said, "No, but look at its wings; perhaps it is a bird of -great flight." But several cried, "Nonsense! No one has ever seen it -fly! Why should it fly? Can you suppose that a thing can do a thing -which no one has ever seen it do?" And the bird, with its leg chained -close to the log, preened its wings. - -So they say about it, speculating and discussing it: and one said this, -and another that. - -And all the while, as they talked, the bird sat motionless, "Suppose we -let the creature loose to see what it will do?"--and the bird shivered. -But the others cried, "It is too valuable; it might get lost. If it were -to try to fly it might fall down and break its neck." And the bird, with -its foot chained to the log, sat looking upward into the clear sky; the -sky, in which it had never been--for the bird--the bird, knew what it -would do--because it was an eaglet!" - - --_Olive Schreiner_. - - - Exercise 5 - -These stirring lines are taken from Arturo Giovannitti's "Arrows in the -Gale" and are a part of the poem "The Sermon on the Common." Note the -use of the conjunctions. Mark all of the clauses. - - Ye are the power of the earth, the foundations of society, the - thinkers and the doers of all things good and all things fair and - useful, the makers and dispensers of all the bounties and the joys and - the happiness of the world, and if ye fold your mighty arms, all the - life of the world stands still and death hovers on the darkened abodes - of man. - - Ye are the light of the world. There was darkness in all the ages when - the torch of your will did not blaze forth, and the past and the - future are full of the radiance that cometh from your eyes. - - Ye are eternal, even as your father, labor, is eternal, and no power - of time and dissolution can prevail against you. - - Ages have come and gone, kingdoms and powers and dynasties have risen - and fallen, old glories and ancient wisdoms have been turned into - dust, heroes and sages have been forgotten and many a mighty and - fearsome god has been hurled into the lightless chasms of oblivion. - - But ye, Plebs, Populace, People, Rabble, Mob, Proletariat, live and - abide forever. - - Therefore I say unto you, banish fear from your hearts, dispel the - mists of ignorance from your minds, arm your yearning with your - strength, your vision with your will, and open your eyes and behold. - - Do not moan, do not submit, do not kneel, do not pray, do not wait. - - Think, dare, do, rebel, fight--ARISE! - - It is not true that ye are condemned to serve and to suffer in shame - forever. - - It is not true that injustice, iniquity, hunger, misery, abjection, - depravity, hatred, theft, murder and fratricide are eternal. - - There is no destiny that the will of man cannot break. - - There are no chains of iron that other iron cannot destroy. - - There is nothing that the power of your arms, lighted by the power of - your mind, cannot transform and reconstruct and remake. - - Arise, then, ye men of the plow and the hammer, the helm and the - lever, and send forth to the four winds of the earth your new - proclamation of freedom which shall be the last and shall abide - forevermore. - - Through you, through your united, almighty strength, order shall - become equity, law shall become liberty, duty shall become love and - religion shall become truth. - - Through you, the man-beast shall die and the man be born. - - Through you, the dark and bloody chronicles of the brute shall cease - and the story of man shall begin. - - Through you, by the power of your brain and hand, - - All the predictions of the prophets, - - All the wisdom of the sages, - - All the dreams of the poets, - - All the hopes of the heroes, - - All the visions of the martyrs, - - All the prayers of the saints, - - All the crushed, tortured, strangled, maimed and murdered ideals of - the ages, and all the glorious destinies of mankind shall become a - triumphant and everlasting reality in the name of labor and bread and - love, the great threefold truth forever. - - And lo and behold, my brothers, this shall be called the revolution. - - - - - SPELLING - - LESSON 22 - - -In our study of the spelling of English words we have found that there -are not many rules that apply. In fact, the only way to learn to spell -correctly is by sheer dint of memory. - -In last week's lesson we found that a number of adjectives can be formed -from nouns or verbs by the addition of _able_ or _ible_, but we find it -difficult to determine whether to add _able_ or _ible_. The sound is -practically the same and we are confused as to whether we should use _a_ -or _i_. There is no rule which applies in this case and there is nothing -to do but to master the spelling of these words by memory. These are -words which we use a great deal and which are very helpful members of -our working vocabulary. - -Our list of words in this week's lesson contain some of the most common -words which we use ending in _ible_ or _able_. The words for Monday, -Tuesday, and Wednesday all end in _able_; the words for Thursday, -Friday, and Saturday will end in _ible_. Notice them carefully and get -fixed firmly in mind the correct spelling. Notice also that most of -these adjectives can be changed into adverbs by changing _ble_ to _bly_. -So when you have added these adjectives to your vocabulary, you have -also added the adverbs as well. - - +Monday+ - - Probable - Capable - Usable - Considerable - Respectable - - +Tuesday+ - - Durable - Salable - Advisable - Available - Equitable - - +Wednesday+ - - Tolerable - Profitable - Remarkable - Valuable - Comfortable - - +Thursday+ - - Possible - Horrible - Plausible - Intelligible - Terrible - - +Friday+ - - Credible - Visible - Infallible - Responsible - Sensible - - +Saturday+ - - Forcible - Permissible - Feasible - Corruptible - Eligible - - - - - PLAIN ENGLISH - - LESSON 23 - - -Dear Comrade: - -In this lesson we are taking up the study of interjections. -Interjections are the language of emotion. This was probably the -earliest form of speech. You notice that children use these exclamations -often, and the sounds which are imitations of the noises about them. -This language belongs also to the savage, whose peculiar and expressive -grunts contain whole areas of condensed thought. As we progress from -feeling to thinking, the use of the interjection diminishes. - -You will not find interjections used in a book on mathematics or -physical science or history. To attempt to read one of these books may -make you use interjections and express your emotion in violent language, -but you will not find interjections in these books. These books of -science are books that express thought and not feeling. But if you turn -to fiction and to oratory you will find the interjection used freely, -for these are the books which treat of the human emotions and feelings. -Especially in poetry will you find the interjection used, for poetry is -the language of feeling and the interjection is an important part of the -poet's stock in trade. - -In conversation, these exclamatory words are very useful. They fill the -gaps in our conversation and they help to put the listener and the -speaker in touch with one another. They are usually accompanied by a -gesture, which adds force to the word. The tone of the voice in which -they are expressed also means a great deal. You can say, Oh! in half a -dozen different ways; you may express surprise, wonder, joy, sorrow, -pain, or disgust. A great many different and widely separated feelings -can be expressed simply by the tone in which you use the exclamatory -words. Some one has said that these words grease the wheels of talk. -They serve to help the timid, to give time to the unready and to keep up -a pleasant semblance of familiarity. - -When we use them in the stress of emotion to express deep feeling, their -use is perfectly justified. But one author has called these words "the -miserable refuge of the speechless." We use them many times because we -have no words with which to express ourselves. This use is unjustified. -Be careful that you do not use them in this way. It has been said that -the degree of a man's civilization can be pretty fairly judged by the -expletives which he uses. Do not sprinkle your conversation with -interjections and even stronger words because you are at a loss for -other words. - -There is a rich mine of words at your disposal. Do not be satisfied with -bits of glass that have no value, when the rich diamonds of real -expression can be yours for just a little digging. Save your emotional -language for the time when you really need it to express deep emotion. - - Yours for Education, - - THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. - - - INTERJECTIONS - -+386.+ We have been studying the parts of speech,--the elements of which -sentences are composed. But we have another class of words which we call -parts of speech because they are spoken and written as words, but which -are really not parts of speech in the same sense as the words which we -have been discussing. These are words which we call interjections. - -Interjection means, literally, thrown between, from _jecto_, to throw, -and _inter_, between. So interjections do not enter into the -construction of sentences but are only thrown in between. Every word -that is really a part of the sentence is either a noun, a pronoun, a -verb, an adjective, an adverb, a preposition or a conjunction. - -There are words, however, that we use with sentences which do not enter -into the construction. For example, you say: - - Oh! I am wounded. - Aha! I have conquered. - Alas! He came too late. - -+387.+ Words which we use in these sentences, like, _oh_, _aha_, _alas_, -are used to express the emotion which you feel in making the statement. -Your _Oh!_ in a sentence like: _Oh! I am wounded_, would probably sound -very much like a groan. But your _Aha!_ in the, _Aha! I have conquered_, -will sound like a shout of victory, and your _Alas!_ in the sentence, -_Alas! He came too late_, will express grief or regret over the fact -that he came too late. - -These words do not assert anything and very much of the meaning which we -give them must come from the tone in which they are uttered. Every one, -upon hearing them, knows at once whether they express grief or delight. - -+388.+ +An interjection is an exclamatory word or phrase used to express -feeling or to imitate some sound.+ - -+389.+ Interjections may be divided into four classes: - -1. +Words which we use instead of an assertion to express feeling of -various kinds+, as: - - (a) Surprise or wonder; as, _Oh_, _Aha_, _What_. - (b) Pleasure, joy, or exaltation; as, _Hurrah_, _Ha, Ha_. - (c) Pain, sadness or sorrow; as, _Alas_, _Alack_. - (d) Contempt or disgust; as _Fie_, _Fudge_, _Ugh_, _Pshaw_. - -2. +Words used instead of a question+; as, _Eh?_ _Hey?_ - -3. +Words used instead of a command+; as: - - (a) To call attention; as, _Hello_, _Ahoy_, _Whoa_. - (b) To express silence; as, _Shh_, _Hush_, _Hist_. - (c) To direct or drive out, etc., as, _Whoa_, _Gee_, _Haw_, _Scat_. - -4. +Words used to imitate sounds made by animals, machines, etc.+, as, -_Bow-wow_, _Ding-dong_, _Bang_, _Rub-a-dub_. - -When we wish to imitate noises or sounds made by animals, machines, -etc., in writing, we spell out the words as nearly as we can, just as we -write _ding-dong_ to represent the sound of the bell or _tick-tock_ to -indicate the ticking of a clock. - -Note that a number of our verbs and nouns have been formed from -imitating the sound which these nouns or verbs describe or express, as -for instance, _crash_, _roar_, _buzz_, _hush_, _groan_, _bang_, _puff_, -etc. - - - Exercise 1 - -Mark the interjections in the following sentences. Which express -surprise? Which joy? Which sorrow? Which disgust? - - 1. Alas! We shall never meet again. - 2. Bravo! You have done well. - 3. Pshaw! Is that the best you can do? - 4. Ship ahoy! All hands on deck. - 5. Hello! When did you come? - 6. Hurrah! We have won the victory. - 7. Alas, alack! Those days will never come again. - 8. Hist! You must be as still as mice. - - - Exercise 2 - -Write sentences using an interjection to express: 1. Joy. 2. Surprise. -3. Pain. 4. Sorrow. 5. Disgust. 6. To ask a question. 7. To call -attention. 8. To silence. 9. To direct. 10. To imitate the sound made by -an animal. 11. By a machine. - - - EXCLAMATORY WORDS - -+390.+ Interjections express only emotion or feeling. They do not -express ideas. However, we have a number of words which are used -somewhat as interjections are used, which we may class as exclamatory -words, but they express more than interjections, for they express ideas -as well as emotions; but, like interjections, they are used -independently and have no part in the construction of the sentence. - -+391.+ Many ordinary words and phrases are used in this way as -exclamations. When they are so used they have no place in the -construction of the sentence; that is, they do not depend upon the -sentence in which they are used, in any way. A noun used in this way is -not used as the subject or the object, but simply as an exclamation. - -For example; the noun _nonsense_ may be used as an interjection, as in -the sentence; _Nonsense! I do not believe a word of it_. In this -sentence, _nonsense_ is a noun used as an interjection and plays no part -in the sentence, either as subject or object, but is an independent -construction. There are a number of words used in this way: - -1. Nouns and pronouns, as _fire_, _mercy_, _shame_, _nonsense_, _the -idea_, _what_. - -2. Verbs like, _help_, _look_, _see_, _listen_, _hark_, _behold_, -_begone_. - -3. Adjectives like, _good_, _well_, _brave_, _welcome_, _strange_. - -4. Adverbs like, _out_, _indeed_, _how_, _why_, _back_, _forward_. - -5. Prepositions like, _on_, _up_, _down_. - -6. Phrases like, _Oh dear_, _dear me_, _good bye_. - -Words and phrases such as these, used as exclamations, are not true -interjections, for they express a little more than feeling. They express -an idea which, in our haste, we do not completely express. The other -words necessary to the expression of the idea are omitted because of the -stress of emotion. For example: - - Silence! I will hear no more. - -In this sentence it is understood that we mean, _Let us have silence, I -will hear no more_. But in the stress of our emotion, we have omitted -the words, _Let us have_. - -If we say, _Good! that will do splendidly_, you know that we mean, _That -is good_, we have simply omitted _That is_, which is necessary to -complete the sentence. Sometimes when we are greatly excited we abandon -our sentence construction altogether and use only the most important -words. For example: - - A sail! a sail! - -This is not a sentence, for it does not contain a verb, yet we know that -what was meant was, _I see a sail, I see a sail_. - - - Exercise 3 - -Write sentences using the words given in the foregoing list as -exclamatory words, and add as many more to the list as you can think of. - - - YES AND NO - -+392.+ The words _yes_ and _no_, which we use in reply to questions were -originally adverbs, but we no longer use them as adverbs. We no longer -combine them with other words as modifying or limiting words, but use -them independently. They are in themselves complete answers. Thus, if -you ask me the question, _Will you come?_ I may say _Yes_, meaning, _I -will come_; or, _No_, meaning, _I will not come_. - -The responsives _yes_ and _no_ thus stand for whole sentences, so they -are really independent words. We may use them in connection with other -sentences. For example; I may say, _Yes, I will come_, or _No, I will -not come_. Used in this way, they still retain an independent -construction in the sentence. We call them responsives because they are -used in response to questions. - - - OTHER INDEPENDENT EXPRESSIONS - -+393.+ Other words may be used in an independent construction in -sentences, without depending upon the sentence in which they are used or -without having the sentences depend upon them, such as: - -1. +A word used in address.+ For example: - - Mr. President, I move that a committee be now appointed. - Fellow Workers, I rise to address you. - -In these sentences, _Mr. President_ and _Fellow Workers_ are nouns used -independently; that is, they are neither the subject of the sentence nor -used as object or predicate complement. They are independent of all -other words in the sentence. - -The most common use of words used independently in direct address occurs -with imperative sentences. For example: - - _Comrades_, rouse yourselves. - _Men_, strike for freedom. - -2. +Exclamatory expressions.+ These are nouns used in the manner in -which we have already discussed, as in the sentence: - - _Nonsense!_ I do not believe a word of it. - Alas! poor _Yorick_! I knew him well. - -3. +Words and phrases used parenthetically+, as for example: - - _By the way_, I met a friend of yours today. - We cannot, _however_, join you at once. - He called, _it seems_, while we were gone. - -In these sentences such words as, _however_, and such phrases as, _by -the way_, and, _it seems_, are used independently,--in parenthesis, as -it were; that is, they are just thrown into the sentences in such a way -that they do not modify or depend upon any other word in the sentence. -When we analyze our sentences, these independent words are not -considered as elements of the sentences in which they are used. It is -sufficient to say that they are independent words. - -4. +Conjunctions used as introductory words.+ We have noted the use of -conjunctions like the co-ordinates _and_, _but_, etc., and the -subordinates _because_, _in order that_, _so_, _for_, _wherefore_, -_how_, _whether_, etc., which are used to introduce sentences and -connect them in thought with sentences and paragraphs which have gone -before. - - - INTRODUCTORY WORDS - -+394.+ +We have a number of words which we use to introduce our -sentences.+ They are such words as, _so_, _well_ and _why_. These are -ordinarily adverbs, but when they are used merely to introduce a -sentence they retain little of their adverbial force. For example: - - _So_, that is your only excuse. - _Well_, I cannot understand why you should accept it. - _Why_, that is no reason at all. - -In these sentences, _so_, _well_ and _why_ do not modify any of the -words in the sentences, but are used merely to introduce the sentences. -They serve in a measure to connect them with something which has gone -before. - -+395.+ +The adverb _there_ is also used as an introductory word.+ When -it is used in this manner, it loses its adverbial force. _There_, as -ordinarily used, is an adverb of place, but it is often used to -introduce a sentence. For example: _There is some mistake about it_. In -this sentence _there_ is not used as an adverb, but it is used simply as -an introductory word. It is used to introduce a sentence in which the -verb comes before the real subject. _Mistake_ is the real subject of the -verb is, and _there_ is used simply as the introductory word. - -+396.+ +The indefinite pronoun _it_ is also used as an introductory -word+, to introduce a sentence in much the same manner as _there_. The -real subject of the verb occurs later in the sentence. For example: - - It is best to know the truth. - -This could be written, _To know the truth is best_, and the entire -meaning of the sentence would be conveyed. - -+397.+ +Adverbs of mode.+ You remember in our study of adverbs, we had -certain adverbs which were called adverbs of mode. These are used to -modify the entire sentence. They express the feeling in which the entire -sentence is uttered. Adverbs of mode may be regarded also as independent -words. They are such words as, _indeed_, _surely_, _certainly_, -_perhaps_, etc. For example: - - _Indeed_, I cannot tell you now. - _Surely_, I will comply with your request. - _Perhaps_ it may be true. - I _certainly_ hope to do so before long. - - - Exercise 4 - -Note in the following sentences the words which are pure interjections, -and those which are other parts of speech used as exclamatory words. -Mark those which are used in direct address, those which are used -parenthetically, and those which are used as mere introductory words. - - 1. Oh, it seems impossible to believe it. - 2. Surely, you will accept my word. - 3. Nonsense, there is not the least truth in the story. - 4. It will be impossible for us to join. - 5. Therefore we urge you to join in this campaign. - 6. There is only one solution to the problem. - 7. It is difficult to discover the true facts. - 8. Well, I have done my best to persuade you. - 9. Mr. Chairman, I rise to a point of order. - 10. Comrades, come and stand for your rights. - 11. Yes, I have studied that philosophy. - 12. Enough! we have been enslaved too long. - 13. Hark! we hear the tramp of the army of labor. - 14. Alas! that any should refuse to join in this battle. - 15. You have not, it seems, understood the issue. - 16. Indeed, solidarity is our only hope. - 17. Br-r-r-r-r-r-r, thus whirl the machines that grind our children's - lives. - 18. Hush! Over the crash of the cannon sounds the wail of Europe's - women and children. - - - EXPLANATORY WORDS - -+398.+ We sometimes use words which do not belong in the construction of -a sentence to explain other words in the sentence. For example: - - We, _the undersigned_, subscribe as follows: - Helen Keller, _the most wonderful woman of this age_, champions the - cause of the working class. - -In the first sentence, the words, _the undersigned_, are added to the -pronoun _we_ to explain who _we_ means. In the second sentence, the -words, _the most wonderful woman of this age_, are added to explain who -Helen Keller is. Words added to other words in this way are called -explanatory words. They are placed in apposition to the noun which they -explain. Apposition means _by the side of_, or _in position near_. You -remember that in clauses we found that a clause may be placed in -apposition with a noun to explain the meaning of that noun. For example: - - There is an old saying, _in union there is strength_. - -These words in apposition may themselves be modified or limited by other -words or phrases or clauses. For example: - - Helen Keller, the most wonderful woman of this age, champions the - cause of the working class. - -In this sentence, _woman_ is the noun placed in apposition to the -particular name, Helen Keller, and the noun _woman_ is modified by the -adjectives _the_, and _wonderful_, and by the phrase _of this age_. - -Sometimes a second explanatory word is placed in apposition to the first -one. This is quite often the case in legal documents or resolutions, -where the language is quite formal. For example: - - We, the undersigned, _members of Local No. 38_, do hereby move, etc. - I, John Smith, _Notary Public_, in and for the county of Clay, etc. - -These words, _undersigned_ and _members_, are both placed in apposition -to the pronoun _We_, explaining to whom that pronoun refers. - - - Exercise 5 - -In the following sentences note the explanatory words and their -modifiers: - - 1. Wendell Phillips, the great abolitionist, was a man of genius. - 2. Buckle, the historian, writes from the view point of the - materialistic conception of history. - 3. Giovannitti, the poet, wrote "Arrows in the Gale." - 4. Helen Keller, champion of the working class, wrote the introduction - to this book. - 5. We, the workers of the world, will some day claim our own. - 6. He was found guilty of treason, a crime punishable by death. - 7. Ferrer, the martyr of the twentieth century, was put to death by - the Spanish government. - 8. Jaures, the great French socialist, was the first martyr to peace. - 9. But ye, Plebs, Populace, People, Rabble, Mob, Proletariat, live and - abide forever. - 10. Ye are eternal, even as your father, labor, is eternal. - 11. This document, the Constitution of the United States, hinders the - progress of the people. - 12. The memory of Guttenberg, the inventor of the printing press, - should be reverenced by every class-conscious worker. - 13. Wallace, the scientist and author, was co-discoverer with Darwin - of the theory of evolution. - 14. Karl Marx, the thinker, applied this theory to social forces. - 15. Do you understand the three basic principles of Socialism--the - class struggle, economic determinism and surplus value? - - - Exercise 6 - -Read the following list of words and note the ideas which they suggest -to you, then make sentences containing these words, _modified by a word -or group of words in apposition_, which explain more fully these words. - - Law, martyr, society, education, inventor, commander, freedom, Eugene - V. Debs, Karl Marx, Kaiser Wilhelm, The Balkan, Lawrence, Colorado, - Calumet. - - - ABSOLUTE CONSTRUCTION - -+399.+ We have found that every word in a sentence bears some relation -to every other word, except these words which we have been studying, -which we use independently. These explanatory words which we have just -been studying are not used independently, but do in a sense modify the -noun with which they are placed in apposition. Sometimes we place a noun -or a pronoun and its modifiers alongside the whole sentence and it does -not really modify any part of the sentence, but modifies the whole -sentence in a way, for it expresses an attendant thought or an -accompanying circumstance. For example: - - The workers being unorganized, the strike was easily defeated. - The strikers having won, work was resumed on their terms. - -_The workers being unorganised_ and _the strikers having won_ are not -clauses for they do not contain a verb. _Being unorganized_ and _having -won_ are participles. Neither do they modify any word in the sentence. -They are not placed in apposition with any other word. While they do -express a thought in connection with the sentence, in construction they -seem to be cut loose from the rest of the sentence; that is, they are -not closely connected with the sentence, hence they are called absolute -constructions. _Ab_ means from, and _solute_, loose; so this means, -literally, loose from the rest of the sentence. - -We speak of these as absolute constructions, instead of independent, -because the thought expressed is connected with the main thought of the -sentence and is really a part of it. Notice that the noun used in the -absolute construction is not the _subject_ of the sentence. - -Take the sentence, _The workers being unorganized, the strike was_ -_easily defeated_, the noun _strike_ is the subject of the sentence, and -the noun _workers_ is used in the absolute construction with the -participle, _being unorganized_. - -These absolute constructions can ordinarily be rewritten into adverb -clauses. For example, this sentence might read: _The strike was easily -defeated because the workers were unorganized_. Do not make the mistake -of rewriting your sentences and using the noun in the absolute -construction as the subject of the sentence. For example: - - The workers, being unorganized, were easily defeated. - -This is not the meaning of this sentence. The meaning of the sentence is -that the _strike_ was easily defeated _because_ the workers were -unorganized. But the adverb clause, _because the workers were -unorganized_, instead of being written as an adverb clause, has been -written in the absolute construction, _the workers being unorganized_. - -While it is nearly always possible to change these absolute -constructions into adverb clauses the sentences are sometimes weakened -by the change. These absolute constructions often enable us to make a -statement in a stronger manner than we could make it with a clause or in -any other way. - - - Exercise 7 - -In the following sentences, note the groups of words which are used in -absolute construction. Rewrite these sentences and if possible change -these words used in absolute construction into equivalent adverb phrases -or clauses. Note how some of the sentences are weakened when you make -this change. - - 1. _Nationalism having been taught to generation after generation_, - the workers obeyed the call of the master class to slaughter their - fellow workers. - 2. _The hour having arrived_, Ferrer was blindfolded and led forth to - die. - 3. _The mass being without education_, capitalism gains an easy - victory. - 4. _The class struggle being a fact_, why should we hesitate to join - our class? - 5. _These facts being true_, such a conclusion is inevitable. - 6. _Darwin having stated the theory of evolution_, Marx applied its - principles to social science. - 7. _Chattel slavery having been destroyed_, wage-slavery became the - corner stone of capitalism. - 8. _The price having been paid_, we claim our own. - 9. _The battle ended_, the army left the trenches. - - - Exercise 8 - -Mark the interjections in the following quotations. Note the independent -constructions. Mark the words used as explanatory words in apposition. - - In the mind's eye, I see a wonderful building, something like the - Coliseum of ancient Rome. The galleries are black with people; tier - upon tier rise like waves the multitude of spectators who have come to - see a great contest. A great contest, indeed! A contest in which all - the world and all the centuries are interested. It is the contest--the - fight to death--between Truth and Error. - - The door opens, and a slight, small, shy and insignificant looking - thing steps into the arena. It is Truth. The vast audience bursts into - hilarious and derisive laughter. What! Is this Truth? This shuddering - thing in tattered clothes, and almost naked? And the house shakes - again with mocking and hisses. - - The door opens again, and Error enters--clad in cloth of gold, - imposing in appearance, tall of stature, glittering with gems, sleek - and huge and ponderous, causing the building to tremble with the thud - of its steps. The audience is for a moment dazzled into silence, then - it breaks into applause, long and deafening. "Welcome!" "Welcome!" is - the greeting from the multitude. "Welcome!" shout ten thousand - throats. - - The two contestants face each other. Error, in full armor--backed by - the sympathies of the audience, greeted by the clamorous cheering of - the spectators; and Truth, scorned, scoffed at, and hated. "The issue - is a foregone conclusion," murmurs the vast audience. "Error will - trample Truth under its feet." - - The battle begins. The two clinch, separate, and clinch again. Truth - holds its own. The spectators are alarmed. Anxiety appears in their - faces. Their voices grow faint. Is it possible? Look! See! There! - Error recedes! It fears the gaze of Truth! It shuns its beauteous - eyes! Hear it shriek and scream as it feels Truth's squeeze upon its - wrists. Error is trying to break away from Truth's grip. It is making - for the door. It is gone! - - The spectators are mute. Every tongue is smitten with the palsy. The - people bite their lips until they bleed. They cannot explain what they - have seen. "Oh! who would have believed it?" "Is it possible?"--they - exclaim. But they cannot doubt what their eyes have seen--that puny - and insignificant looking thing called Truth has put ancient and - entrenched Error, backed by the throne, the altar, the army, the - press, the people and the gods--to rout. - - The pursuit of truth! Is it not worth living for? To seek the truth, - to love the truth, to live the truth? Can any religion offer - more?--_Mangasarian_. - - - - - SPELLING - - LESSON 23 - - -Many words contain letters for which there are no corresponding sounds -in the spoken words. Thus, in the spoken word _though_ there are only -two sounds, the _th_ and the _o_; _u_ and _g_ and _h_ are silent. There -are a great many words in the English language which contain these -silent letters. There has been a movement inaugurated for the purpose of -simplifying the spelling of these words, omitting these silent letters. -Some writers have adopted this method of simplified spelling, and so in -some magazines and books which you read you will find these silent -letters dropped; for example, you will find _though_ spelled _tho_, -_through_ spelled _thru_. - -This method of simplified spelling has not been universally adopted and -we have not followed it in these lessons because we feared that it would -be confusing. Probably in most of your reading you will find the old -method of spelling followed and all of these silent letters included. No -doubt, as time goes on, we shall adopt this simplified method of -spelling and drop all of these silent and useless letters. - -In our spelling lesson for this week we have a number of words -containing silent letters. - - - +MONDAY+ - -In a number of words you will find _ea_ pronounced as short _e_. The -board of simplified spelling has suggested that we drop the _a_, which -is a silent letter, from these words. If we adopted their suggestion, -words like _head_ would be spelled _hed_. Note the spelling of the -following words in which _ea_ is pronounced as short _e_ and the _a_ is -silent. - -Spread, stead, threat, meant, pleasant, stealth. - - - +TUESDAY+ - -We have a number of words ending in _ough_ in which the _gh_ is silent. - -1. In some of these words the _ou_ is pronounced like _ow_. We have -already changed the spelling of a few of these words, for example, we no -longer use _plough_, but write it _plow_. - -2. In other words ending with _ough_ the _ugh_ is silent and the words -end with a long _o_ sound, as in _though_. Many writers have dropped the -silent letters ugh and spell this simply _tho_. - -3. A few other words ending with _ough_ end with a _u_ sound and those -who adopt the simplified spelling have dropped the _ough_ and used -simply _u_, as in _through_; many writers spell it simply _thru_. -Observe the spelling of the following words and mark the silent letters: - -Bough, through, thorough, furlough, borough, though. - - - +WEDNESDAY+ - -We have a number of words ending in _mn_ in which the _n_ is silent. -Note the spelling of the following words: - -Autumn, solemn, column, kiln, hymn, condemn. - - - +THURSDAY+ - -We have a number of words containing a silent _b_. Notice the spelling -of the following words: - -Doubt, debt, dumb, limb, thumb, lamb. - - - +FRIDAY+ - -A number of words end with silent _ue_ after _g_. Some writers omit the -ue and probably after a while we will drop this silent _ue_, but you -will find it used now in most of your reading. These are such words as: - -Catalogue, demagogue, decalogue, tongue, league, harangue. - - - +SATURDAY+ - -We have a number of words ending with _gh_ in which the _gh_ has the -sound of _f_, as in the following words: - -Trough, rough, enough, laugh, tough, cough. - - - - - PLAIN ENGLISH - - LESSON 24 - - -Dear Comrade: - -We have finished our study of the different parts of speech and are -going to enter upon the work of sentence building. In the next few -lessons we will gather up all that we have been studying in these -lessons so far. This is a good time to give this work a thorough review. -Perhaps there have been a number of things in the lessons which you have -not thoroughly understood, or perhaps there have been some rules for -which you have not seen the reason. Now as we begin to construct our -sentences, all of this will fit into its place. We shall find the reason -for many of the things which may not have seemed thoroughly clear to us. - -There _is_ a science in language as in everything else, and language, -after all, is governed by the will of the people. This has seemed so -self-evident to those who make a special study of the language and its -development that they have given this power a special name. They speak -of the "Genius of the Language" as though there was some spirit guiding -and directing the developing power of language. - -There is a spirit guiding and directing the developing power of -language. That spirit is the creative genius of the people. It is the -same spirit that would guide and direct all phases of life into full and -free expression, if it were permitted to act. There being no private -profit connected with the control of the language, the creative genius -of the people has had fuller sway. - -The educator sitting in his study cannot make arbitrary rules to change -or conserve the use of words. The people themselves are the final -arbiter in language. It is the current usage among the masses which puts -the final stamp upon any word. Think what this same creative genius -might do if it were set free in social life, in industrial life. It -would work out those principles which were best fitted to the advance of -the people themselves. But those who would profit by the enslavement of -the people have put stumbling blocks,--laws, conventions, morals, -customs,--in the way of the people. - -Their creative genius does not have full sway or free sweep, but let us -rejoice that in language, at least, we are free. And let us, as we -realize the power of the people manifest in this phase of life, -determine that the same power shall be set free to work out its will in -all life. Some day the revolution will come. The people will be free to -rule themselves, to express their will, not in the realms of words -alone, but in their social and economic life; and as we become free -within, dare to think for ourselves and to demand our own, we each -become a torch of the revolution, a center of rebellion--one of those -who make straight the path for the future. - - Yours for the Revolution, - - THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. - - - SENTENCE BUILDING - -+400.+ Every expression of a complete thought is a sentence. A sentence -is the unit in language. Words are the material out of which we build -our sentences, so we have been studying the various parts of speech that -are used in sentence building. Now we are ready to use these parts of -speech in the building of sentences. We have found that there are eight -parts of speech, though the interjection, which is termed the eighth -part of speech, is not in reality a part of the sentence; but is a -complete, independent construction. So in your sentences all of the many -hundreds of words which we use can be grouped into seven divisions; -_nouns_, _pronouns_, _adjectives_, _verbs_, _adverbs_, _prepositions_ -and _conjunctions_. - -+401.+ You remember in our first lesson we found that there were just -three kinds of sentences. The _assertive_, the _interrogative_ and the -_imperative_; or in other words, sentences which state a _fact_, ask a -_question_ or give a _command_. We also found that these three kinds of -sentences could all be expressed in _exclamatory_ form. - - - THREE KINDS OF SENTENCES - - +Assertive.+ Makes a statement. - +Interrogative.+ Asks a question. - +Imperative.+ Gives a command. - - +Assertive sentence;+ _I remember the day._ - +Interrogative sentence;+ _Do you not remember the day?_ - +Imperative sentence;+ _Remember the day._ - - - In Exclamatory Form - - +Assertive;+ _Nonsense! I remember the day._ - +Interrogative;+ _What! Do you not remember the day?_ - +Imperative;+ _Oh come! Remember the day._ - - - ANALYSIS--SIMPLE SENTENCES - -+402.+ Now that we have finished the study of the various parts of -speech, we are ready for sentence building and for sentence analysis. -Sentence analysis is the breaking up of the sentence into its different -parts in order to find out how and why it is thus put together. To -analyze anything is to break it up or separate it into its different -parts. We speak of analyzing a sentence when we pick out the subject and -the predicate and their modifiers, because we thus unloosen them or -separate them from one another. - -These parts of the sentence are called the elements of the sentence. The -elements of a sentence consist of the words, phrases and clauses used in -forming the sentence. - -+403.+ Let us begin from the simplest beginning and build up our -sentences, using the various parts of speech as we have studied them. -Let us take the simplest form of sentence which we can consider. For -example: - - Men work. - -There are only three parts of speech which can be used to make a simple -sentence in this manner, and these are, either the noun and the verb, or -the pronoun and the verb. We might say instead of _Men work_, _They -work_, and have a complete sentence. - -In the sentence _Men work_, _men_ is the subject and _work_ is the -predicate. The subject and the predicate are the two principal elements -in a sentence. No sentence can be formed without these two parts and -these two parts can express a thought without the help of other -elements. Now we may begin to enlarge the subject by adding modifiers. - -You remember we have found that a noun may be modified by an adjective. -So we add the adjective _busy_, and we have: - - Busy men work. - -Our simple subject is still the noun _men_, but the complete subject is -the noun with its modifier, _busy men_. We may add other adjectives and -say: - - The busy, industrious men with families work. - -Here we have our simple subject _men_ modified by the adjectives, _the_, -_busy_ and _industrious_, and also by the adjective phrase, _with -families_. So the complete subject of the sentence now is, _the busy, -industrious men with families_. - -Our predicate is still the single verb _work_. Let us now enlarge the -predicate. We have found that adverbs are used to modify verbs, and so -we may say: - - The busy, industrious men with families work hard. - The busy, industrious men with families work hard in the factory. - -Our simple predicate, _work_ is now enlarged. It is modified by the -adverb, _hard_ and the adverb phrase, _in the factory_. So our complete -predicate is now, _work hard in the factory_. - -+404.+ These sentences with the simple subject and the simple predicate -and their modifying words and phrases form simple sentences. - -+A simple sentence is one which expresses a single statement, question -or command.+ - -+405.+ A simple sentence, therefore, will contain but one subject and -one predicate. The subject may be a compound subject and the predicate -may be a compound predicate, but still the sentence expresses a single -thought. For example: _The boys sing_. This is a simple statement with a -simple subject and a simple predicate. Then we may say: _The boys sing -and play_. We still have a single statement, but a compound predicate, -_sing and play_. - -Now we may make a compound subject, and say, _The boys and girls sing -and play_, but we have still a single statement, for both predicates are -asserted of both subjects. So, _The boys and girls sing and play_, is a -simple sentence. - -If we say, _The boys sing and the girls play_, we have a compound -sentence, composed of two simple sentences, _The boys sing_, _The girls -play_. - -If we say, _The boys sing while the girls play_, we have a complex -sentence formed of the simple sentence, _The boys sing_, and the -dependent clause, _while the girls play_. - -+406.+ Now let us sum up our definitions: - -+Every sentence must contain two parts, a subject and a predicate.+ - -+The subject of a sentence is that part about which something is said.+ - -+The predicate is that part which asserts something of the subject.+ - -+The simple subject of a sentence is a noun, or the word used in place -of a noun, without modifiers.+ - -+The simple predicate is the verb or verb phrase without its modifiers.+ - -+The complete subject of a sentence is the simple subject with all of -its modifiers.+ - -+The complete predicate of a sentence is the simple predicate with all -of its modifiers.+ - -+A simple sentence is one which expresses a single statement, question -or command.+ - -+A complex sentence is one containing an independent clause and one or -more dependent clauses.+ - -+A compound sentence is one containing two or more independent clauses.+ - -+A clause is a part of a sentence containing a subject and a predicate.+ - - - Exercise 1 - -In the following sentences the simple subject and the simple predicate -are printed in _italics_. Find all of the modifiers of the subject and -all of the modifiers of the predicate, and draw a single line under the -complete subject and two lines under the complete predicate. - - 1. Beautiful _pictures hang_ on the wall. - 2. Those elm _trees grow_ rapidly every year. - 3. A terrible _storm broke_ unexpectedly at sea. - 4. The clear, crystal _water runs_ swiftly to the sea. - 5. The beautiful _flowers fade_ quickly in the heat. - 6. The happy, boisterous _children play_ at school every day. - 7. The sturdy _oak_ in the forest _stands_ bravely through every - storm. - 8. Their arching _tops_ almost _speak_ to us. - 9. A _cry_ of joy _rings_ through the land. - 10. The _leaves_ of the trees _flutter_ in the wind. - 11. Great _clouds_ of smoke _float_ in the air. - - - Exercise 2 - -Note carefully the following simple sentences. Each of these groups of -two words will suggest ideas and pictures to you. Lengthen each sentence -by adding modifiers to the simple subject and to the simple predicate so -as to make a fuller and more definite statement. For example: _Ships -sail_. This is a simple subject and simple predicate. We add adjectives -and an adjective phrase and adverbs and an adverb phrase as modifiers -and we have, as follows: - - The stately _ships_ in the bay _sail_ proudly away to foreign shores. - - Snow melts. - Winds blow. - House stands. - Boys run. - Soldiers fight. - Tides flow. - Children play. - Ships sail. - Guns boom. - Women endure. - - - ANOTHER ELEMENT - -+407.+ You will note that all of these verbs which we have used in these -sentences have been complete verbs as _hang_, _grow_, _runs_, _fade_, -etc. A complete verb, you will remember, is a verb that does not need an -object or a complement. It is complete within itself. It may be modified -by an adverb or an adverb phrase, but when you leave off these modifiers -you still have complete sense. - -In any of the sentences above you may cross out the adverb or the adverb -phrase which modifies the verb and you will still have complete -sentences. For example: - - Great clouds of smoke float in the air. - -Here, the adverb phrase, _in the air_, may be omitted and still we have -complete sense, thus: - - Great clouds of smoke float. - -+408.+ The incomplete verbs, however, require either an object or -complement to complete their meaning. - -Incomplete verbs are of two kinds; those that express _action_ and those -that express _state_ or _condition_. - -An incomplete verb that expresses action requires an object which is the -receiver of the action expressed in the verb, so we have another element -which enters into the simple sentence, when we use an incomplete verb. -For example: - - The busy man makes shoes. - -In order to complete the sentence, we must use an object with the -incomplete verb _makes_. To say, _The busy man makes_, is not enough. We -must have an object which is the receiver of the action expressed in the -verb, _makes_. Verbs of action often have two objects. One object names -the _thing_ that _receives_ the action and the other names the _thing_ -indirectly _affected_ by the action. For example: - - The tailor made him a coat. - -+409.+ _Coat_ is the _direct_ object of the verb _made_. But we have -another object in the pronoun _him_. We do not mean that the tailor made -_him_, but that the tailor made him a _coat_. _Coat_ is the direct -object and _him_ is the indirect object. The indirect object is always -placed before the direct object. The indirect object may be used as the -object of the preposition _to_ or _for_. As for example, this sentence -might be rewritten to read, _The tailor made a coat for him_. In this -sentence, _him_ is not the indirect object of the verb, but is the -object of the preposition _for_. - -+410.+ The direct object of the verb always answers the question _what?_ -As for example, the tailor made _what?_--_a coat_. The indirect object -of the verb names the person or thing _to_ or _for_ which the act is -done,--_the tailor made a coat for whom?_--for _him_. - -The direct and indirect object become a part of the complete predicate -of the sentence. There may be other modifiers also, as adverbs or adverb -phrases, and all of these taken together form the complete predicate in -the sentences where you have used an incomplete verb. As for example: - - The tailor gladly made him a coat for the occasion. - -The complete predicate is, _gladly made him a coat for the occasion_, -formed of the verb _made_, the direct object, _coat_, the indirect -object _him_, the adverb modifier, _gladly_, and the phrase modifier, -_for the occasion_. - - - Exercise 3 - -In the following sentences, underscore the direct object with one line -and the indirect object with two lines. The verb is in italics. - - 1. He _gave_ her a book. - 2. He _wrote_ me a long letter. - 3. Her father _bought_ her a watch. - 4. The nurse _gave_ the patient his medicine. - 5. The mother _gave_ her daughter a present. - 6. _Give_ me time to think. - 7. The clerk _sold_ her a dress. - 8. The teacher _read_ the children a story. - 9. The company _furnishes_ the men food and shelter. - 10. The man _showed_ us his wounds. - - - Exercise 4 - -In the following sentences underscore the complete subject and the -complete predicate. Notice especially the direct and the indirect -objects of the incomplete verbs. The simple subjects and the direct -objects are in italics. - - 1. A great many _miles_ separate _us_ from our friends. - 2. The merry _shouts_ of the children fill the _air_ with music. - 3. A gentle _breeze_ brings us the _perfume_ of the flowers. - 4. A careless _druggist_ gave the unfortunate man the wrong - _medicine_. - 5. His admiring _friends_ gave him a beautiful _ring_. - 6. _Soldiers_ obey _orders_ from their superiors. - 7. This terrible _war_ claims _thousands_ of victims. - 8. The _power_ of hunger drives the _unemployed_ to rebellion. - 9. The _workers_ of the world produce _enough_ for all. - 10. The retiring _secretary_ showed us a _letter_ from the president. - 11. The old sea _captain_ told them an interesting _story_ of life at - sea. - 12. _Labor_ produces all _wealth_. - - - COPULATIVE VERBS - -+411.+ We have another class of incomplete verbs which require a -complement to complete their meaning. These are the copulative verbs. -The number of copulative verbs is small. They are: all forms of the verb -_be_; also, _like_, _appear_, _look_, _feel_, _sound_, _smell_, -_become_, _seem_, etc. These verbs require a noun or an adjective or a -phrase as a complement, to complete their meaning. They are really -connective words serving to connect the noun or adjective or phrase used -in the predicate with the noun which they modify. The noun or adjective -or phrase used to complete the meaning of the copulative verb is called -a predicate complement. For example: - - The man is a hero. - -Here we have a noun, _hero_, used as a predicate complement after the -copulative verb, _is_, to describe the noun _man_. - - The man is class-conscious. - -In this sentence, we have an adjective, _class-conscious_, in the -predicate to modify the subject, _man_. It is connected with the subject -by the copulative verb _is_. - - The man is in earnest. - -Here we have a phrase, _in earnest_, used in the predicate to modify the -noun _man_, and connected with the subject by the copulative verb _is_. - -+412.+ So in the predicate with the copulative verbs--incomplete verbs -which express state or condition--we may use a noun or an adjective or a -phrase. A noun used as the predicate complement may have modifiers. It -may be modified by one or more adjectives or adjective phrases. These -adjectives in turn may be modified by adverbs. The complete predicate, -then, is the copulative verb with its predicate complement and all its -modifiers. For example: - - Grant was the most famous general of the Civil war. - -In this sentence, _Grant_ is the complete subject, _was the most famous -general of the Civil war_ is the complete predicate. _Was_ is the -copulative verb; _general_ is the noun used as the predicate complement; -_the_ and _famous_ are adjectives modifying _general_; _most_ is an -adverb modifying the adjective _famous_, and, _of the Civil war_ is an -adjective phrase modifying _general_, so our complete predicate is, _was -the most famous general of the Civil war_. - -When an adjective is used in the predicate complement it, too, may have -modifiers and more than one adjective may be used. For example: - - The man is very brave and loyal to his class. - -Here we have two adjectives used in the predicate complement, _brave_ -and _loyal_. _Brave_ is modified by the adverb _very_, and _loyal_ is -modified by the adverb phrase, _to his class_. The complete predicate -is, _is very brave and loyal to his class_. - -When we use a phrase as a predicate complement, it, too, may have -modifiers and more than one phrase may be used. For example: - - The man is in the fight and deeply in earnest. - -In this sentence, two phrases are used in the predicate complement, _in -the fight_ and _in earnest_. The second phrase, _in earnest_ is modified -by the adverb _deeply_. The complete predicate is, _is in the fight and -deeply in earnest_. - - - Exercise 5 - -Fill the blanks in the following sentences with a noun and its modifiers -used as predicate complement. Name all of the parts of speech which you -have used in the predicate complement as we have done in the sentences -analyzed above: - - The men are _loyal members of the Union_. - Slavery is....... - Liberty will be....... - War is....... - The machine is....... - The children were....... - -Fill the blanks in the following sentences with one or more adjectives -and their modifiers used in the predicate complement. - - The work is _hard and destructive to the children_. - The history will be....... - Labor has been....... - Peace will be....... - Poverty is....... - -Fill the blanks in the following sentences with a phrase used in the -predicate complement. - - His service was _for his class_. - Socialism is....... - The workers are....... - The message shall be....... - The government is....... - The opportunity is....... - - - VERB PHRASES - -+413.+ Note that in most of the sentences which we have used, we have -used the simple form of the verb, the form that is used to express -_past_ and _present_ time. In expressing other time forms we use verb -phrases. Note the summary given in section 145, which gives the -different time forms of the verb. - -+414.+ Sometimes in using the verb phrase you will find that other words -may separate the words forming the phrase. When you analyze your -sentence this will not confuse you. You will easily be able to pick out -the verb phrase. For example: - - I shall very soon find out the trouble. - -Here the adverbs, _very_ and _soon_, separate _find_ from its auxiliary -_shall_. The verb phrase is, _shall find_. The negative _not_ very often -separates the words forming a verb phrase. For example: - - I will not go. - -In this sentence, _will go_ is the verb phrase. - -When we use the auxiliary verb _do_ to express emphasis, and also the -negative _not_, _not_ comes between the auxiliary verb _do_, and the -principal verb. For example: - - I do not obey, I think. - -In this sentence, _do obey_ is the verb phrase. - -In interrogative sentences, the verb phrase is inverted and a part of -the verb phrase is placed first and the subject after. For example: - - Will you go with us? - -_You_ is the subject of this interrogative sentence and _will go_ is the -verb phrase; but in order to ask the question, the order is inverted and -part of the verb phrase placed first. In using interrogative adverbs in -asking a question, the same inverted order is used. For example: - - When will this work be commenced? - -In this sentence, _work_ is the subject of the sentence and _will be -commenced_ is the verb phrase. If you should write this in assertive -form, it would be: - - This work will be commenced when? - -By paying close attention we can easily distinguish the verb phrases -even when they are used in the inverted form or when they are separated -by other parts of speech. - - - LET US SUM UP - -+415.+ The elements of a sentence are the words, phrases or clauses of -which it is composed. - -+A simple sentence is one which contains a single statement, question or -command.+ - -+A simple sentence contains only words and phrases.+ It does not contain -dependent clauses. The elements of a simple sentence are: - - {The simple subject--the noun, or the - The complete subject { word used in place of the noun--and - { all its modifiers. - - The complete predicate {The simple predicate--the verb, and - { all its modifiers. - - - Exercise 6 - -In the following sentences, the simple subjects and the simple -predicates of the principal clauses are printed in italics. Locate all -the modifiers of the subjects and predicates, and determine the part of -speech of each word in the sentence. - -Sentences Nos. 1, 5, 6, 14, 15, 16, 18, 30, 31, 32 and 37 are simple -sentences. - -Sentences Nos. 2, 4, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 22, 26, 28, 33, 34 and 36 are -complex. - -Sentences Nos. 3, 10, 12, 21, 23, 24, 25, 29 and 35 are compound. - -No. 8 is incomplete, having neither subject nor predicate. - -No. 9 is incomplete, there being no predicate in the principal clause. - -No. 20 is a simple sentence, with a complex sentence in parenthesis. - -No. 27 consists of two dependent clauses. - -In the complex sentences, draw a line under the dependent clauses. - - "Br--r--r--r--r--r--r--r--r--." - - 1. What _are_ the _machines saying_, a hundred of them in one long - room? - 2. _They must be talking_ to themselves, for I see no one else for - them to talk to. - 3. But yes, there _is_ a boy's red _head_ bending over one of them, - and beyond _I see_ a pale face fringed with brown curly locks. - 4. There _are_ only five _boys_ in all, on the floor, half-hidden by - the clattering machines, for one bright lad can manage twenty-five - of them. - 5. Each _machine makes_ one cheap, stout sock in five minutes, - without seam, complete from toe to ankle, cutting the thread at the - end and beginning another of its own accord. - 6. The _boys have_ nothing to do but to clean and burnish and oil the - steel rods and replace the spools of yarn. - 7. But how rapidly and nervously _they do_ it--the slower hands - straining to accomplish as much as the fastest! - 8. Working at high tension for ten hours a day in the close, greasy - air and endless whirr---- - 9. _Boys_ who ought to be out playing ball in the fields or taking a - swim in the river this fine summer afternoon. - 10. And in these good times, the _machines go_ all night, and other - _shifts_ of boys _are kept_ from their beds to watch them. - 11. The young _girls_ in the mending and finishing rooms downstairs - _are_ not so strong as the boys. - 12. _They have_ an unaccountable way of fainting and collapsing in - the noise and smell, and then _they are_ of no use for the rest of - the day. - 13. The kind _stockholders have had_ to provide a room for collapsed - girls and to employ a doctor, who finds it expedient not to - understand this strange new disease. - 14. Perhaps their _children will be_ more stalwart in the next - generation. - 15. Yet this _factory is_ one of the triumphs of our civilization. - 16. With only twenty boys at a time at the machines in all the rooms, - _it produces_ five thousand dozen pairs of socks in twenty-four - hours for the toilers of the land. - 17. _It would take_ an army of fifty thousand hand-knitters to do what - these small boys perform. - - "Br--r--r--r--r--r--r--r--r--." - - 18. What _are_ the _machines saying_? - 19. _They are saying_, "We are hungry." - 20. "_We have eaten_ up the men and women. (There is no longer a - market for men and women, they come too high)-- - 21. _We have eaten_ up the men and women, and now _we are devouring_ - the boys and girls. - 22. How good _they taste_ as we suck the blood from their rounded - cheeks and forms, and cast them aside sallow and thin and - careworn, and then call for more. - 23. Br--r--r--r--r--r--r--r! how good _they taste_; but _they give_ - us so few boys and girls to eat nowadays, although there are so - many outside begging to come in--. - 24. Only one _boy_ to twenty of us, and _we are_ nearly _famished_! - 25. _We eat_ those they give us and _those_ outside _will starve_, and - soon _we shall be left_ almost alone in the world with the - stockholders. - 26. Br--r--r--r--r--r--r--r! What shall we do then for our food?" the - _machines chatter_ on. - 27. "When we are piling up millions of socks a day for the toilers - and then there are no toilers left to buy them and wear them. - 28. Then perhaps we shall have to turn upon the kind stockholders and - feast on them (how fat and tender and toothsome they will be!) - until at last we alone remain, clattering and chattering in a - desolate land," _growled the machines_. - 29. While the _boys went_ on anxiously, hurriedly rubbing and - polishing, and the _girls_ downstairs _went_ on collapsing. - 30. "Br--r--r--r--r--r--r--r!" _growled_ the _machines_. - 31. The _devil has_ somehow _got_ into the machines. - 32. _They came_ like the good gnomes and fairies of old, to be our - willing slaves and make our lives easy. - 33. Now that, by their help, one man can do the work of a score, why - _have we_ not plenty for all, with only enough work to keep us - happy? - 34. _Who could have foreseen_ all the ills of our factory workers and - of those who are displaced and cast aside by factory work? - 35. The good wood and iron _elves came_ to bless us all, but _some_ of - us _have succeeded_ in bewitching them to our own ends and turning - them against the rest of mankind. - 36. _We must break_ the sinister charm and _win_ over the docile, - tireless machines until they refuse to shut out a single human - being from their benefits. - 37. _We must cast_ the devil out of the machines. - - --_Ernest Crosby_. - - - - - SPELLING - - LESSON 24 - - -Among the common suffixes in English are the suffixes _or_ and _er_. -These suffixes mean _one who_ or _that which_. For example, _builder_, -one who builds; _actor_, one who acts; _heater_, that which heats. But -we are confused many times to know whether to add the suffix _or_ or -_er_ to form these derivative words. There is no exact rule which can be -given, but the following rule usually applies with but few exceptions: - -To the shorter and commoner words in the language add the suffix _er_. -For example, _writer_, _boxer_, _singer_, etc. To the longer and less -common words, usually those derived from the Latin or the Greek, add the -suffix _or_. For example, _legislator_, _conqueror_, etc. - -There are a number of words in the English like _honor_, in which the -last syllable used to be spelled _our_ instead of _or_. You will -probably run across such words as these in your reading. This mode of -spelling these words, however, is being rapidly dropped and the ending -_or_ is being used instead of _our_. There are also a number of words in -our language like _center_, which used to be spelled with _re_ instead -of _er_. The _re_ ending is not used any more, although you may run -across it occasionally in your reading. The proper ending for all such -words as these is _er_. There are a few words, however, like _timbre_ (a -musical term) and _acre_, which are still properly spelled with the _re_ -ending. - -The spelling lessons for Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday and Thursday, -contain words from which derivatives can be formed by adding _er_ or -_or_. Look these words up in the dictionary and be sure that you have -added the proper suffix. The list for Friday consists of words which you -may find in your reading spelled with the _our_ ending. The list for -Saturday contains words which you may find spelled with the _re_ ending -instead of the _er_. - - +Monday+ - - Create - Produce - Profess - Debate - Govern - - +Tuesday+ - - Edit - Consume - Consign - Legislate - Design - - +Wednesday+ - - Solicit - Pay - Success - Observe - Invent - - +Thursday+ - - Vote - Debt - Organize - Sail - Strike - - +Friday+ - - Labor - Neighbor - Rumor - Valor - Candor - - +Saturday+ - - Theater - Scepter - Fiber - Somber - Meager - - - - - PLAIN ENGLISH - - LESSON 25 - - -Dear Comrade: - -In logic, we have two ways of reasoning, from the general to the -particular and from the particular to the general. In other words, we -may take a certain number of facts and reason to a conclusion; or we may -go the other way about and start with our conclusion and reason back to -the facts which produce the conclusion. Scientists use the former -method. They gather together all the facts which they possibly can and -from these facts they reach their conclusions. - -This was what Karl Marx did for the social problems of his day. He -analyzed these problems. He gathered together all of the facts which he -could obtain concerning conditions of his day and from these facts he -reached certain conclusions. He foretold the rise of capitalism and -outlined present day conditions so perfectly that had he lived long ago -among superstitious people, they would probably have called him a -prophet. - -This mastery of analysis, of marshaling our facts and from them reaching -conclusions, is a wonderful power to possess, and this is exactly what -we are doing in our English work. We are analyzing our sentences, -finding the elements of which they are composed, and then building the -sentence; and since neither the thought nor the sentence can be really -studied except in connection with each other, this analysis of sentences -gives us an understanding of the thought. The effort to analyze a -difficult sentence leads to a fuller appreciation of the meaning of the -sentence. This, in turn, cultivates accuracy in our own thought and in -its expression. - -So do not slight the analysis of the sentence or this work in sentence -building. You will find it will help you to a quicker understanding of -that which you are reading and it will also give you a logical habit of -mind. You will be able to think more accurately and express yourself -more clearly. After a little practice in analysis you will find that in -your reading you will be able to grasp the author's meaning quickly. You -will see at a glance, without thinking about it consciously, the subject -and the predicate and the modifiers in the sentence. Then you will not -confuse the meaning. You will not have to go back and reread the passage -to find out just what the author was talking about; and when you come to -write and speak yourself, you will have formed the habit of logical -expression. In this way you will be able to put your thought in such a -manner that your listener can make no mistake as to just what you mean. - -Now, no habit comes without practice. You cannot do a thing -unconsciously until you have done it consciously a great many times. So -practice this analysis of sentences over and over. It really is an -interesting game in itself, and the results which it will bring to you -are tremendously worth while. - -Nothing is too much trouble which will give us the power to think for -ourselves and to put that thought into words. - - Yours for Freedom, - - THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. - - - THE SUBJECT OF A SIMPLE SENTENCE - -+416.+ We have found that the two parts of a simple sentence are the -complete subject and the complete predicate. The noun is most often used -as the subject of a sentence. It may have a number of modifiers, but -when we strip away these modifiers we can usually find a noun which is -the subject of the sentence. Occasionally the subject is a pronoun or a -participle or adjective used as a noun but most frequently the subject -is a noun. As for example: - - A wild piercing _cry_ rang out. - Hopeless, helpless _children_ work in the cotton mills. - The golden _age_ of peace will come. - Little child _lives_ are coined into money. - Defenseless, helpless _children_ suffer most under capitalism. - Every neglected _child_ smites my conscience in the name of humanity. - The thrilling, far-sounding _battle-cry_ shall resound. - -Note that in all of these sentences the word in italics is a noun, which -is the simple subject of the sentence. All of the other words which -comprise the complete subject are the modifiers of this noun, or -modifiers of its modifiers. - -But in our study of words, we have found that there are a number of -other words which can be used in place of a noun and these may all be -used as the subject of a sentence. - -+417.+ +A pronoun may be used as the subject of a sentence+, for the -pronoun is a word used in place of the noun; and a pronoun used as the -subject of a sentence may have modifiers just as a noun. It may be -modified by adjectives or adjective phrases, as for example: - - _We_ are confident of success. - _He_, worried and out of employment, committed suicide. - _She_, heartsick and weary, waited for an answer. - _She_, with her happy, watchful ways, blessed the household. - _They_, victorious and triumphant, entered the city. - How can _I_, without money or friends, succeed? - - "Out of the night that covers me, - Black as the pit from pole to pole, - _I_ thank whatever Gods there be - For my unconquerable soul." - -In all of these sentences the pronoun is the simple subject of the -sentence, and the pronoun with all of its modifiers is the complete -subject of the sentence. - -+418.+ +The participle may be used as a noun, the subject of the -sentence.+ For example: - - _Traveling_ is pleasant. - -Here the present participle _traveling_ is used as a noun, subject of -the sentence. - -Participle phrases may also be used as nouns, as for example: - - _Being prepared_ will not save us from war. - His _having signed_ the note was the cause of the trouble. - -In these sentences, _being prepared_ and _having signed_ are participle -phrases used as nouns, the subjects of the verbs _will save_ and _was_. -Note the use of the participle used as the subject in the following -sentences: - - _Painting_ is an art. - _Making_ shoes is his work. - _Being discovered_ seems to be the real crime. - His _having joined_ his comrades was a brave act. - Your _remaining_ here will be dangerous. - -Note that when the participle is used as a noun, the possessive form -of the pronoun is always used with it, as in the sentence above: - - _Your_ remaining here will be dangerous. - -Notice that in some of these sentences the participle has an object; as, -making _shoes_, his having joined his _comrades_. The participle still -retains some of its verb nature in that it may take an object. The -entire phrases, _His having joined his comrades_, and, _Making shoes_, -are the subjects of the sentences. - -+419.+ +The infinitive may also be used as a noun, the subject of the -sentence.+ Note in the following sentences the use of the infinitive as -the subject of the sentence: - - _To err_ is human; _to forgive_ is divine. - _To be_ or not _to be_ is the question. - _To toil_ all day is wearisome. - _To aim_ is one thing; _to hit_ the mark is another. - _To remain_ ignorant is to remain a slave. - -+420.+ +An adjective can also be used as the subject.+ You remember in -our study of adjectives we found that an adjective may be used as a -noun, as for example: - - The _strong_ enslave the weak. - -Here the adjective _strong_ is used as a noun, subject of the sentence. -Note in the following sentences, the use of the adjectives as subjects: - - The _wise_ instruct the ignorant. - The _dead_ were left upon the battlefields. - The _rich_ look down upon the poor. - The _mighty_ of the earth have forced this war upon us. - The _poor_ are enslaved by their ignorance. - The _wounded_ were carried to the hospitals. - - - PLACE OF THE SUBJECT IN A SENTENCE - -The subject usually comes first in the sentence. If it has any -modifiers, they alone precede the subject, as for example: - - A wonderful, inspiring _lecture_ was given. - The weary _army_ slept in the trenches. - -But occasionally we find the subject after the verb. - -+421.+ +By simple inversion.+ - -We will often find this use in poetry or in poetic prose, as for -example: - - Never have _I_ heard one word to the contrary. - -In this sentence _I_ is the subject of the sentence, _have heard_ is the -verb, and _never_ is an adverb modifying the verb phrase, _have heard_. -But in order to place emphasis upon the word _never_, which is the -emphatic word in the sentence, _never_ is placed first, and the verb -phrase inverted so that the subject _I_ comes in between the two words -which form the verb phrase. The sentence expressed in its usual order -would be: - - I have never heard one word to the contrary. - -You will note that this statement does not carry the same emphasis upon -the word _never_ as the inverted statement. - -+422.+ +In interrogative sentences, the subject comes after the helping -verb or after the interrogative used to introduce the sentence.+ As for -example: - - Have _you_ heard the news? - When will _we_ hear from you? - How have the _people_ been managing? - What will the _children_ do then? - Will the _students_ come later? - Can the _work_ be accomplished quickly? - Must our _youth_ end so quickly? - -+423.+ +The real subject comes after the verb when we use the -introductory word it.+ As for example: - - It will not be safe _to go_. - -_To go_ is really the subject of the sentence. _To go will not be safe._ - -_It_ is sometimes the real subject of a sentence, as in the sentence; -_It is a wonderful story_. - -Here _it_ is the subject of the sentence and _a wonderful story_ is the -predicate complement. But in the sentence: - - It is wonderful to hear him tell the story. - -_To hear him tell the story_ is the real subject of the sentence. The -first sentence, _It is a wonderful story_, could not be rewritten, but -the second sentence could be rewritten, as follows: - - To hear him tell the story is wonderful. - -+424.+ +The introductory word there reverses the order of the sentence+, -just as the introductory word _it_. The real subject is used later in -the sentence. As for example: - - There were a great many people present. - -This could be rewritten, omitting the introductory word _there_. We -could say: - - A great many people were present. - -The noun _people_ is the subject of the sentence. - - - Exercise 1 - -In the following sentences, underscore the complete subject with one -line, and the simple subject with two lines, and decide whether the -simple subject is a noun, pronoun, participle, infinitive or an -adjective used as a noun: - - - 1. A great man is universal and elemental. - 2. To love justice was his creed. - 3. A more inspiring and noble declaration of faith was never born of - human heart. - 4. The reading of good books should begin in childhood. - 5. Dreaming of great things will not bring us to the goal. - 6. The weary seek for rest. - 7. To believe in yourself is the first essential. - 8. He, speaking and writing constantly for the cause, has given his - life to the movement. - 9. To remain ignorant is to remain a slave. - 10. A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds. - 11. A great soul has simply nothing to do with consistency. - 12. To be great is to be misunderstood. - 13. Traveling is a fool's paradise. - 14. It is not enough to be sincere. - 15. We, seeking the truth, have found our own. - 16. There are thousands of comrades with us. - - - THE COMPLETE PREDICATE - -+425.+ Look first in the predicate for your verb. It will always be the -principal part of your predicate. It may be a verb or a verb phrase, but -the first thing in analyzing the complete predicate of the sentence is -to find the verb. The verb or verb phrase without any of its modifiers -constitutes the simple predicate. If the verb is a complete verb, its -only modifiers will be adverbs or adverb phrases. For example: - - A splendid statue of Lincoln stands yonder in the park. - -In this sentence, _stands yonder in the park_ is the complete predicate. -_Stands_ is a complete verb. It requires no object, but it is modified -by the adverb _yonder_ and by the adverb phrase _in the park_. - - - INCOMPLETE VERBS - -+426.+ If the verb in the predicate is an incomplete verb of action, -then the object of the verb is also part of the predicate. The complete -predicate containing an incomplete verb of action may contain five -parts; a verb, a direct object, an indirect object, an adverb and an -adverb phrase. As for example: - - The tailor gladly made him a coat at that time. - -In this sentence, the complete predicate is _gladly made him a coat at -that time_. _Made_ is the verb. It is an incomplete verb of action, and -_coat_ is its direct object. _Him_ is the indirect object. _Made_ is -also modified by the adverb _gladly_, and the adverb phrase, _at that -time_. - -All of these are not always used, of course, in every predicate; but -these are the elements which may occur in the predicate with an -incomplete verb. - - - THE OBJECT OF THE VERB - -+427.+ Words used as objects of a verb are practically the same as those -which may be used for its subject. - -+We may have a noun used as the object of the verb.+ For example: - - Hail destroyed the _crops_. - The banks rob the _farmers_. - We must educate the _children_. - Labor produces all _wealth_. - -In these sentences, _crops_, _farmers_, _children_ and _wealth_ are -nouns used as the object of the verb. - -+A pronoun may also be used as the object of a verb.+ For example: - - Will you not teach _me_? - Send _them_ to her. - They have invited _us_. - The comrades will remember _him_. - -In the above sentences, _me_, _them_, _us_ and _him_ are the objects of -the verbs, _will teach_, _send_, _have invited_ and _will remember_. - -Remember that in pronouns we have a different form for the object form, -as, _me_, _her_, _him_, _us_ and _them_. - -+428.+ +An infinitive may also be used as the object of a verb+, thus: - - I like _to study_. - He asked _to go_. - I want _to learn_ all that I can. - -In this last sentence, the infinitive, _to learn_, is the direct object -of the verb _want_. The object of the infinitive, _to learn_, is _all -that I can_. All of this taken together with the verb _want_, forms the -complete predicate, _want to learn all that I can_. - -+429.+ +The participle may also be used as the object of a verb+, thus: - - We heard the _thundering_ of the cannon. - We enjoyed the _dancing_. - Do you hear the _singing_ of the birds? - -In these sentences, the participles _thundering_, _dancing_, and -_singing_ are the objects of the verbs _heard_, _enjoyed_ and _do hear_. - -+430.+ +An adjective used as a noun may also be used as the object of a -verb+, thus: - - I saw the _rich_ and the _poor_ struggling together. - The struggle for existence crushes the _weak_. - Seek the _good_ and the _true_. - -In these sentences the adjectives _rich_, _poor_, _weak_, _good_ and -_true_, are used as nouns and are the objects of the verbs _saw_, -_crushes_ and _seek_. - - - VERBS OF STATE OR CONDITION - -We have found that with the incomplete verbs of state or condition, or -copulative verbs, the predicate complement may be either a noun, as, -_The man is a hero_; or an adjective, as, _The man is class-conscious_; -or a phrase, as, _The man is in earnest_. - -The predicate complement may also be: - -+431.+ +A pronoun+; as, - - Who is she? - That was he. - This is I. - -In these sentences the subjects of the verbs are _she_, _that_ and -_this_, and the pronouns _who_, _he_ and _I_ are used as predicate -complements. - -+432.+ +Infinitives may also be used as the predicate complement+, thus: - - To remain ignorant is _to remain_ a slave. - -_To remain ignorant_, is the subject of the copulative verb _is_, and -the infinitive, _to remain_, with its complement, _a slave_, is the -predicate complement. - -+433.+ +A participle used as a noun may also be used as the predicate -complement+, thus: - - Society is the mingling of many elements. - -_Mingling_, in this sentence is a participle of the verb _mingle_, but -is used as a noun, the predicate complement of the verb _is_. _Society_ -is the subject of the verb. - -Where the present participle is used to form a verb phrase, the -participle is part of the verb phrase, thus: - - We are mingling in society. - -Here, _are mingling_, is the present progressive verb phrase, and the -participle _mingling_ is not used as a noun or adjective, but is part of -the verb phrase _are mingling_. - -If you will observe the different parts of speech carefully, you will -not be easily confused as to whether the participle is a noun or a part -of the verb phrase. - - - Exercise 2 - -In the following sentences the incomplete verbs, including infinitives -and participles, are in italics. Mark the words, phrases or clauses -which are used as objects or complements, to complete the meaning of -these verbs. - - There _is_ no such thing in America as an independent press, unless it - _is_ in the country towns. - - You _have_ and I _know_ it. There _is_ not one of you who _dares to - write_ his honest opinions. If you did, you _know_ beforehand that it - would never appear in print. - - I _am paid_ $150.00 a week for _keeping_ my honest opinions out of the - paper with which I am connected. Others of you _are paid_ similar - salaries for similar things. Any one of you who _would be_ so foolish - as _to write_ his honest opinions _would be_ out on the streets - looking for another job. - - The business of the New York journalist _is to destroy_ the truth, to - lie outright, to pervert, to villify, to fawn at the feet of Mammon, - and _to sell_ his race and his country for his daily bread. - - You _know_ this and I _know_ it. So what folly _is_ this _to be - toasting_ an "Independent Press." - - We _are_ the tools and vassals of rich men behind the scenes. We _are_ - the jumping-jacks; they _pull_ the strings and we dance. Our talents, - our possibilities and our lives _are_ all the property of other men. - We _are_ intellectual prostitutes.--_John Swinton_. - - - MODIFIERS OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE - -+434.+ Remember that a simple sentence is one that contains a single -statement, question or command. It is a clause, for it contains a -subject and a predicate; but it contains only the one subject and the -one predicate. A sentence containing two principal clauses, or a -principal clause and a subordinate clause, would contain two complete -statements, questions or commands, therefore it would not be a simple -sentence, but compound or complex. - -Remember, however, that the simple sentences may contain two or more -subjects with the same predicate, or two or more predicates with the -same subject, or both a compound subject and a compound predicate. - -+435.+ The modifiers in a simple sentence are always words or phrases. -The modifiers of the subject are either adjectives or adjective phrases. -The modifiers of the predicate are either adverbs or adverb phrases. If -an adjective or an adverb clause is used as a modifier, then the -sentence is no longer a simple sentence, but becomes a _complex_ -sentence, for it now contains a dependent clause. - - - ORDER OF ELEMENTS - -+436.+ The usual order of the principal elements in the sentence is the -subject, the predicate and the object or complement, thus: - - _Subject_ _Predicate_ - _Men_ _work_ - - _Subject_ _Predicate_ _Object_ - _Men_ _build_ _houses_ - - _Subject_ _Predicate_ _Complement_ - _Books_ _are_ _helpful_ - -This is called the natural or logical order. Logical means according to -sense or reason. - -Adjectives usually stand before the nouns they modify, thus: - - _Good_ books are helpful. - -Adverbs may be placed either before or after the verbs they modify, -thus: - - The men _then_ came _quickly_ to the rescue. - -The adverb _then_ precedes the verb _came_, which it modifies; and the -adverb _quickly_ is placed after the verb. - -Adverbs which modify adjectives or other adverbs are placed before the -words which they modify, thus: - - The _more_ industrious students learn _quite_ rapidly. - -In this sentence, the adverb _more_ is placed before the adjective -_industrious_, which it modifies; and the adverb _quite_ is placed -before the adverb _rapidly_, which it modifies. - -Adjective and adverb phrases usually follow the words which they modify, -thus: - - The men _in the car_ came quickly _to the rescue_. - The manager _of the mine_ remained _with the men_. - -In this last sentence, the adjective phrase, _of the mine_, is placed -after the noun _manager_, which it modifies, and the adverb phrase, -_with the men_, is placed after the verb _remained_, which it modifies. - -+437.+ These sentences illustrate the logical order in which the -elements of the sentence usually come. But this logical order is not -strictly adhered to. Many times, in order to place the emphasis upon -certain words, we reverse this order and place the emphasized words -first, as: - - _Without your help_, we cannot win. - -The logical order of this sentence is: - - We cannot win without your help. - -But we want to place the emphasis upon _your help_, so we change the -order of the words and place the phrase, _without your help_, first. - -+438.+ This inversion of the order helps us to express our thought with -more emphasis. Our language is so flexible that we can express the same -thought in different ways by simply changing the order of the elements -in the sentence. Notice in the following sentences, the inversion of the -usual order, and see what difference this makes in the expression of the -thought. - - Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown. - A more terrible scene you cannot imagine. - With the shrieking of shot and shell the battle raged. - Louder and louder thundered the tempest. - Silently and sadly the men returned to their homes. - -To transpose these inverted sentences--that is to place the elements in -their logical order, gives us an insight into the thought expressed in -the sentence. It is worth a great deal to us to be able in our reading -to see the live elements in the sentence at a glance, and in this way we -can grasp at once the thought of the sentence. So you will find that -this analyzing of the sentences is very helpful to us in our reading. - -+439.+ When we have learned to analyze a sentence quickly we will not be -lost in the maze of words. A paragraph is often like a string of pearls. -The author has a single thread of thought running through the different -sentences which compose the paragraph and if we have trained ourselves -well in sentence analysis, we will never lose this thread. It will be -like a life line to which we cling while the breakers of thought and -emotion roar about us. - - - Exercise 3 - -In the following poem, study carefully the inverted order of the -sentences. Rewrite them, placing the elements in their logical order. As -for example: - - To the poor man you've been true from of old. - -The elements of the sentence are inverted in this quotation. Rewritten -in their logical order this would read: - - You've been true to the poor man from of old. - -You will note that this inversion is quite common in poetry. - - - HUNGER AND COLD - - Sisters, two, all praise to you, - With your faces pinched and blue; - To the poor man you've been true, - From of old; - You can speak the keenest word, - You are sure of being heard, - From the point you're never stirred, - Hunger and Cold! - - Let sleek statesmen temporize; - Palsied are their shifts and lies - When they meet your bloodshot eyes, - Grim and bold; - Policy you set at naught, - In their traps you'll not be caught, - You're too honest to be bought, - Hunger and Cold! - - Let them guard both hall and bower; - Through the window you will glower, - Patient till your reckoning hour - Shall be tolled; - Cheeks are pale, but hands are red, - Guiltless blood may chance be shed, - But ye must and will be fed, - Hunger and Cold! - - God has plans man must not spoil, - Some were made to starve and toil, - Some to share the wine and oil, - We are told; - Devil's theories are these, - Stifling hope and love and peace, - Framed your hideous lusts to please, - Hunger and Cold! - - Scatter ashes on thy head, - Tears of burning sorrow shed, - Earth! and be by Pity led - To love's fold; - Ere they block the very door - With lean corpses of the poor, - And will hush for naught but gore, - Hunger and Cold! - - --_Lowell_. - - - - - SPELLING - - LESSON 25 - - -You remember in our lesson in the study of consonants we found there -were a number of consonants in English which had more than one sound; -for example, _c_, _s_, _g_, _x_, etc. - -A number of other consonants have sounds which are similar; that is, -they are made with the organs of articulation in the same position, only -one is a soft, and the other a hard sound; for example, _p_ and _b_, _t_ -and _d_, _f_ and _v_, etc. These sounds are called cognate sounds. -Cognate means literally _of the same nature_, and so these sounds are of -the same nature, only in one the obstruction of the vocal organs is more -complete than in the other. - -Our language contains a number of words in which there is a difference -in the pronunciation of the final consonant when the word is used as a -noun and as a verb. The final consonants in these words are the cognate -sounds, _f_, _v_; _t_, _d_; _th_ soft or _th_ hard, _s_ soft, or _s_ -hard. When the consonant sound is a soft sound, the word is a noun; and -when the consonant sound is a hard sound the word is a verb. For -example; _use_ and _use_; _breath_ and _breathe_; _life_ and _live_, -etc. - -The spelling lessons for Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday contain words -ending in cognate sounds, in which the words ending with a soft sound -are nouns and the words ending in the hard sounds are verbs. Add others -to this list as they occur to you. - -We have a number of words in the English beginning with _ex_. In some of -these words, the _ex_ has the sound of _eks_, and in some of the words -the _ex_ has the sound of _egs_. It is not easy at times to know which -sound to use. - -In regard to the use of _ex_, follow this rule: When a word beginning -with _ex_ is followed by an accented syllable beginning with a vowel, -the _ex_ is pronounced _egs_; in all other words _ex_ is pronounced -_eks_; for example, in _executor_, the _ex_ is followed by an accented -syllable beginning with a vowel, therefore, _ex_ is pronounced _egs_. In -_execute_, the _ex_ is followed by an unaccented syllable beginning with -a vowel, and therefore _ex_ is pronounced _eks_. In _explain_, _ex_ is -followed by a syllable beginning with a consonant, and it is therefore -pronounced _eks_. - -Note that in words like _exhibit_, _exhort_, etc., the _ex_ is followed -by a vowel sound, the _h_ being silent, and it is therefore, pronounced -_egs_, for it is followed by an accented syllable beginning with a vowel -sound. - -The spelling list for Thursday, Friday and Saturday contains words -beginning with _ex_. Watch carefully the pronunciation. - - +Monday+ - - Excuse Excuse - Abuse Abuse - Grease Grease - Sacrifice Sacrifice - Device Devise - - +Tuesday+ - - Intent Intend - Advice Advise - Relief Relieve - Cloth Clothe - Reproof Reprove - - +Wednesday+ - - Ascent Ascend - Strife Strive - Mouth Mouth - Grief Grieve - Bath Bathe - - +Thursday+ - - Exile - Except - Exhibit - Expert - Exempt - - +Friday+ - - Example - Excellent - Exhaust - Exit - Expropriate - - +Saturday+ - - Exercise - Exist - Experiment - Exaggerate - Explanation - - - - - PLAIN ENGLISH - - LESSON 26 - - -Dear Comrade: - -There are really two things which will come to us out of the study of -grammar. One of these, which we discussed in our letter last week, is -the power of logical thinking. The second is the ability to express our -thoughts correctly; that is, according to accepted usage. So you can -consider your spoken and written speech from two viewpoints. First, you -can look to see if you have used the words correctly. We have noted -these common errors especially in our study of the various parts of -speech. There are certain errors we often make, as for example, using a -plural noun with a singular verb, or using the past time form of the -verb for the past participle. - -We have noted a great many of these errors in our speech. We might make -ourselves understood and express ourselves fairly accurately and still -make these mistakes, but it is wise for us to try to eliminate them from -our speech for several reasons. To those who understand the use of -correct English, these mistakes mark us as ignorant and uneducated. No -matter how important and absolutely accurate the thought we are -expressing, if we make these grammatical errors, they very naturally -discount our thought also. They feel that if we cannot speak correctly, -in all probability we cannot think accurately, either. - -Then, too, these words in our speech distract the attention of our -hearers from the things which we are saying. It is like the mannerism of -an actor. If he has any peculiar manner of walking or of talking and -persists in carrying that into whatever character he is interpreting, we -always see the actor himself, instead of the character which he is -portraying. His mannerisms get in the way and interfere with our grasp -of the idea. - -So in music. You may be absorbed in a wonderful selection which some one -is playing and if suddenly he strikes a wrong note, the discord -distracts your attention and perhaps you never get back into the spirit -of the music again. - -So we must watch these common errors in our speech, but we must not let -our study of English be simply that alone. The greatest benefit which we -are deriving from this study is the analytic method of thought and the -logical habit of mind, which the effort to express ourselves clearly and -accurately and in well-chosen words will give us. Put as much time as -you can possibly spare into this analysis of sentences. Take your -favorite writer and analyze his sentences and find out what is his -particular charm for you. If there is any sentence which gives you a -little trouble and you cannot analyze it properly, copy it in your next -examination paper and state where the difficulty lies. Rewrite the -passages which please you most and then compare your version with the -author's and see if you really grasped his meaning. In this way you will -add quickly to your enjoyment of the writing of others and to your power -of expressing yourself. - - Yours for Freedom, - - THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. - - - THE SIMPLE SENTENCE - -+440.+ We have been analyzing the simple sentence, which contains only -words and phrases. We have found that there may enter into the simple -sentence, the following elements: - - 1. The simple subject. - 2. The simple predicate. - 3. The modifiers of the subject. - 4. The object of the verb. - 5. The predicate complement. - 6. The modifiers of the predicate. - -This is not the order in which the elements will appear in the sentence, -but this is the order of their importance. We first look for the simple -subject and the simple predicate; then we can determine which words are -the modifiers of the subject; then we find the object or predicate -complement of the verb and the modifiers of the verb; and thus we have -all of the elements which go into the construction of the simple -sentence. - -We may also have two nouns used as the subject or two verbs used in the -predicate, connected by a co-ordinate conjunction, thus: - - Marx and Engels lived and worked together. - -Here we have two proper nouns used as the subject, _Marx_ and _Engels_. -We have also two verbs used as the predicate, _lived_ and _worked_. We -call this a compound subject and compound predicate. - -So in one simple sentence, that is a sentence which makes a single -assertion, we may have every part of speech. For example: - - The most intelligent men and women think for themselves. - -In this sentence, we have a _noun_, _verb_, _pronoun_, _adjective_, -_adverb_, _conjunction_ and _preposition_--every part of speech except -the _interjection_, which is an independent element and does not enter -into the construction of the sentence. - - - Exercise 1 - -Write simple sentences of your own containing: - - 1. A compound subject. - 2. A compound predicate. - 3. A noun as subject modified by one or more adjectives. - 4. A noun as subject modified by a phrase. - 5. An incomplete verb with a direct and an indirect object. - 6. An incomplete verb with a predicate complement. - 7. A predicate modified by one or more adverbs. - 8. A predicate modified by an adverb phrase. - - - COMPLEX SENTENCES - -+441.+ The simple sentence is the unit of speech. It is a combination of -words which makes a single statement, question or command. But many -times a constant repetition of these short sentences would become -tiresome, and our written and spoken speech would not flow as smoothly -and rapidly as we desire. So we have evolved a way in which we may -combine these sentences into longer statements. Let us take the two -_simple_ sentences: - - - We are united. - We shall succeed. - -We may combine these into a single sentence by using the co-ordinate -conjunction _and_. Then our sentence reads: - - We are united and we shall succeed. - -This is a _compound_ sentence, formed by uniting two simple sentences. -Both of the clauses are independent and are of equal rank. Neither -depends upon the other. They are united by the co-ordinate conjunction -_and_. We can combine these sentences in a different way. For example, -we may say: - - If we are united, we shall succeed. - -Now we have a subordinate clause, _if we are united_, which is used to -modify the verb of the main clause, _succeed_. We have used the -subordinate conjunction _if_, and so we have a _complex_ sentence formed -by uniting the principal clause and a dependent clause. - -+442.+ The next step in sentence building, after the simple sentence, is -the complex sentence. A complex sentence is a combination of two or more -simple sentences, which are so united that one sentence remains the main -sentence--the backbone, as it were--and the other sentence becomes -subordinate or dependent upon it. - -+443.+ +A complex sentence is one containing a principal clause and one -or more subordinate clauses.+ - -+A principal clause is one which makes a complete statement without the -help of any other clause or clauses.+ - -+A subordinate or dependent clause is one which makes a statement -dependent upon or modifying some word or words in the principal clause.+ - - - KINDS OF DEPENDENT CLAUSES - -+444.+ Dependent clauses are of three kinds. They may be used either as -_nouns_, _adjectives_ or _adverbs_, and so are called _noun clauses_, -_adjective clauses_ or _adverb clauses_. - - - NOUN CLAUSES - -+445.+ +Noun clauses are those which are used in place of a noun.+ They -may be used in any way in which a noun may be used, except as a -possessive. - -1. +The noun clause may be used as the subject of the sentence.+ For -example: - - _That he is innocent_ is admitted by all. - -The clause, _that he is innocent_ is used as a _noun_, the subject of -the sentence. - -2. +The noun clause may be used as the object of a verb+, thus: - - I admit _that I cannot understand your argument_. - -The clause, _that I cannot understand your argument_, is in this -sentence the object of the verb _admit_. - -3. +The noun clause may be used as the predicate complement+, thus: - - The fact is _that this policy will never win_. - -The clause, _that this policy will never win_, is here used in the -predicate with the copulative verb _is_. - -4. +The noun clause may also be used in apposition, explaining the noun -with which it is used+, thus: - - The motion, _that the question should be reconsidered_, was carried. - -_That the question should be reconsidered_, is here a noun clause, used -in apposition with the noun _motion_, and explains the meaning of the -noun. - -5. +The noun clause may also be used as the object of a preposition+, -thus: - - I now refer to _what he claims_. - -The noun clause, _what he claims_, is here the object of the -preposition, _to_. - - - Exercise 2 - -In the following sentences the noun clauses are printed in italics. -Determine whether they are used as the subject, or object of the verb, -as predicate complement, in apposition, or as the object of a -preposition. - - 1. The fact is _that I was not listening_. - 2. _Whatever King Midas looked upon_ turned to gold. - 3. He acknowledged _what we had suspected_. - 4. We will never know _what the real situation was_. - 5. The fact _that the wage is insufficient_ can be easily proved. - 6. He replied to _what had been asked_. - 7. The claim was _that he had made a speech inciting to riot_. - 8. The law _that labor unions are in restraint of trade_ was upheld. - 9. _That we cannot win by compromise_ is readily apparent. - 10. Labor demands _that it shall have its full product_. - 11. _Whoever controls education_ controls the future. - 12. He came to _where the militia was in camp_. - - - Exercise 3 - -Write sentences containing noun clauses used: - - 1. As the subject of a verb. - 2. As the object of a verb. - 3. As a predicate complement. - 4. In apposition. - 5. As the object of a preposition. - - - ADJECTIVE CLAUSES - -+446.+ A dependent clause in a complex sentence may also be an adjective -clause. - -+An adjective clause is a clause used as an adjective+, and, hence, -always modifies a noun or some word used as a noun, such as a pronoun or -a participle. In Lesson 22, we studied adjective clauses and found that -they could be introduced by the relative pronouns, _who_, _which_, -_that_ and _as_, and also by conjunctions such as, _when_, _where_, -_whither_, _whence_, etc. An adjective clause may modify any noun or any -word used as a noun in the sentence. - -1. +An adjective clause may modify the subject+, thus: - - Men _who have become class-conscious_ do not make good soldiers. - -In this sentence the clause, _who have become class-conscious_, modifies -the noun _men_, and is introduced by the relative pronoun _who_. - -2. +An adjective clause may modify the noun which is the object of the -verb+, as: - - The men supported the party _which fought for their rights_. - -Here the clause, _which fought for their rights_, is an adjective clause -introduced by the pronoun _which_, and it modifies the noun _party_, -which is the object of the verb _supported_. - -3. +An adjective clause may also be used to modify the noun which is -used in the predicate complement+, as: - - That was the book _which I enjoyed_. - -In this sentence the clause, _which I enjoyed_, is an adjective clause -modifying the noun _book_, which is used as the predicate complement -with the copulative verb _was_. - -4. +An adjective clause may also be used to modify the noun which is -used as the object of a preposition+, as: - - He arrived on the train _which was late_. - -Here the adjective clause, _which was late_, modifies the noun _train_, -which is the object of the preposition _on_. - -Sometimes it is a little difficult to discover these adjective clauses, -for frequently the connecting word is omitted, as for example: - - I could not find the man _I wanted_. - -In this sentence, the pronoun _whom_ is omitted; the complete sentence -would read: - - I could not find the man _whom I wanted_. - -_Whom I wanted_ is an adjective clause modifying the noun _man_. - - - Exercise 4 - -In the following sentences the relative pronouns and the conjunctions -introducing adjective clauses are omitted. Rewrite the sentences using -the proper relative pronouns and conjunctions. The adjective clauses are -in italics. - - 1. The people _you are seeking_ are not here. - 2. I have read the book _you brought_. - 3. The articles _you mentioned_ are not listed. - 4. I will go to the place _you say_. - 5. This is a book _you should read_. - 6. Those are ideals _the people will readily grasp_. - 7. We make Gods of the things _we fear_. - 8. I listened to every word _he said_. - 9. I should love the cause _you love_. - 10. The things _the people demand_ are just and right. - - - Exercise 5 - -In the following sentences the adjective clauses are all printed in -italics. Determine whether they modify the subject or the object, the -predicate complement or the object of the preposition. - - 1. In that moment _when he saw the light_ he joined our cause. - 2. Other men are lenses _through which we read our own minds_. - 3. This is perhaps the reason _why we are unable to agree_. - 4. He _that loveth_ maketh his own the grandeur _that he loves_. - 5. The other terror _that scares us from self-trust_ is our - consistency. - 6. There is a popular fable of a sot _who was picked up dead drunk in - the street, carried to the Duke's house, washed and dressed and - laid in the Duke's bed, and, on his waking, treated with all - ceremony like a duke and assured that he had been insane_. - 7. He _who would gather immortal palms_ must not be hindered by the - name of goodness, but must explore if it be goodness. - 8. Superstition, _who is the mother of fear and faith_, still rules - many people. - 9. We are looking for the time _when the useful shall be the - honorable_. - 10. He _who enslaves another_ cannot be free. - 11. He _who attacks the right_ assaults himself. - 12. The force _that is in every atom and every star, in everything - that grows and thinks, that hopes and suffers_, is the only - possible God. - 13. He _who adds to the sum of human misery_ is a blasphemer. - 14. The grandest ambition _that can enter the soul_ is the desire to - know the truth. - - - ADVERB CLAUSES - -+447.+ The third kind of clause which we may use in a complex sentence -is the adverb clause. - -+An adverb clause is a clause which takes the place of an adverb.+ It -may modify a _verb_, an _adjective_, or an _adverb_. We studied adverb -clauses in lesson 21 and we found eight classes of adverb clauses, -expressing _time_, _place_, _cause_ or _reason_, _manner_, _comparison_, -_condition_, _purpose_ and _result_. For example: - - 1. +Adverb clause of time:+ - No man is truly free _until all are free_. - - 2. +Adverb clause of place:+ - We must live _where we can find work_. - - 3. +Adverb clause expressing cause or reason:+ - We lost the strike _because the men were not class-conscious_. - - 4. +Adverb clause of manner:+ - We must work _as if the result depended entirely upon us_. - - 5. +Adverb clause of comparison:+ - The working class must become more class-conscious _than it is - today_. - - 6. +Adverb clause of condition:+ - We will continue to be exploited _if we do not demand our rights_. - - 7. +Adverb clause expressing purpose:+ - We must read the labor press _in order that we may know the truth - concerning conditions_. - - 8. +Adverb clause expressing result:+ - The battle raged so furiously _that thousands were slain_. - - - ANALYZING COMPLEX SENTENCES - -+448.+ To analyze a complex sentence; that is, to break it up into its -different parts--treat the sentence first as a whole, then find the -simple subject and the simple predicate. If a noun clause is the -subject, treat it first as a noun. Treat adjective clauses as adjectives -modifying certain words and the adverb clauses as adverbs modifying -certain words. - -In other words, analyze the sentence first as a simple sentence with -dependent clauses considered as modifying words; then analyze each -dependent clause as though it were a simple sentence. Make an outline -like the following and use it in your analysis of the sentence. Let us -take this sentence and analyze it: - - Conscious solidarity in the ranks would give the working class of the - world, now, in our day, the freedom which they seek. - - +Simple subject+, _solidarity_. - - +Simple predicate+, _would give_. - - Modifiers of the subject: - - Adjective, _conscious_. - Adjective phrase, _in the ranks_. - Adjective clause, (_none_). - - +Complete subject+, _Conscious solidarity in the ranks_. - - Modifiers of the predicate: - - Adverb, _now_. - Adverb phrase, _in our day_. - Adverb clause, (_none_). - - +Direct object+, _freedom_. - - Modifiers of direct object: - - Adjective, _the_. - Adjective phrase, (_none_). - Adjective clause, _which they seek_, - - +Indirect object+, _class_. - - Modifiers of indirect object: - - Adjectives, _the_, _working_. - Adjective phrase, _of the world_. - Adjective clause, (_none_). - - +Complete predicate+, _would give the working class of the world, - now, in our day, the freedom which they seek_. - -Analyze the dependent clause, _which they seek_, just as a principal -clause is analyzed. _They_ is the simple subject, _seek_ is the simple -predicate, _which_ is the direct object. The complete predicate is _seek -which_. - -+449.+ Notice that the first two sentences given in the exercise below -are imperative sentences,--the subject, the pronoun _you_, being omitted -so that the entire sentence is the complete predicate. As for example: -_Take the place which belongs to you_. The omitted subject is the -pronoun _you_. _Take the place which belongs to you_ is the complete -predicate, made up of the simple predicate _take_; its object, the noun -_place_; the adjective _the_, and the adjective clause, _which belongs -to you_, both of which modify the noun _place_. - - - Exercise 6 - -Using the outline given above, analyze the following complex sentences. - - 1. Take the place which belongs to you. - 2. Let us believe that brave deeds will never die. - 3. The orator knows that the greatest ideas should be expressed in - the simplest words. - 4. Gratitude is the fairest flower that sheds its perfume in the - human heart. - 5. Children should be taught that it is their duty to think for - themselves. - 6. We will be slaves as long as we are ignorant. - 7. We must teach our fellow men that honor comes from within. - 8. Cause and effect cannot be severed for the effect already blooms - in the cause. - 9. Men measure their esteem of each other by what each has. - 10. Our esteem should be measured by what each is. - 11. What I must do is all that concerns me. - 12. The great man is he who, in the midst of the crowd, keeps the - independence of solitude. - 13. The only right is what is after my constitution. - 14. Whoso would be a man must be a non-conformist. - 15. They who build on ideas build for eternity. - - - Exercise 7 - -We have studied all the parts of speech, and now our work is to combine -these parts for the expression of thought. It will be good practice and -very helpful to us to mark these different parts of speech in our -reading. This helps us to grow familiar with their use. It also helps us -to add words to our vocabulary and to learn how to use them correctly. -In the following quotation, mark underneath each word, the name of every -part of speech. Use _n._ for noun, _v._ for verb, _pro._ for pronoun, -_adv._ for adverb, _adj._ for adjective, _p._ for preposition and _c._ -for conjunction. Write _v. p._ under the verb phrases. For example: - - +The workers of the world do not have, - _adj._ _n._ _p._ _adj._ _n._ _v.p._ _adv._ _v.p._ - - under this system, very many opportunities - _p._ _adj._ _n._ _adv._ _adj._ _n._ - - for rest and pleasure for themselves.+ - _p._ _n._ _c._ _n._ _p._ _pro._ - - -Mark in this manner every part of speech in the following quotation: - - The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class - struggles. - - Freeman and slave, patrician and plebeian, lord and serf, guildmaster - and journeyman,--in a word, oppressor and oppressed,--stood in - constant opposition to one another, carried on an uninterrupted, now - hidden, now open fight, a fight that each time ended, either in a - revolutionary re-constitution of society at large, or in the common - ruin of the contending classes. - - In the earlier epochs of history, we find almost everywhere a - complicated arrangement of society into various orders, a manifold - gradation of social rank. In ancient Rome we have patricians, knights, - plebeians, slaves; in the middle ages, feudal lords, vassals, - guild-masters, journeymen, apprentices, serfs; in almost all of these - classes, again, subordinate gradations. - - The modern bourgeois society, that has sprouted from the ruins of - feudal society, has not done away with class antagonisms. It has but - established new classes, new conditions of oppression, new forms of - struggle in place of the old ones. - - --_Communist Manifesto_. - - - Exercise 8 - -In the following quotation, mark all of the clauses and determine -whether they are dependent or independent clauses. If they are dependent -clauses, determine whether they are noun, adjective or adverb clauses. -Mark all the sentences and tell whether they are simple or complex. - -I see in the near future a crisis approaching that unnerves me, and -causes me to tremble for the safety of my country. As a result of war, -corporations have been enthroned, and an era of corruption in high -places will follow. The money power of the country will endeavor to -prolong its reign by working upon the prejudices of the people, until -all the wealth is aggregated in a few hands, and the republic is -destroyed. I feel at this moment more anxiety for the safety of our -country than ever before, even in the midst of war. God grant that my -forebodings may be groundless. Monarchy itself is sometimes hinted at as -a refuge from the power of the people. In my present position I could -scarcely be justified were I to omit to raise a warning voice against -the approach of a returning despotism.... It is assumed that labor is -available only in connection with capital; that nobody labors unless -somebody else, owning capital, somehow, by the use of it, induces him to -labor. Labor is prior to and independent of capital. Capital is only the -fruit of labor, and could not have existed if labor had not first -existed. Labor is the superior of capital, and deserves much the higher -consideration. I bid the laboring people beware of surrendering the -power which they possess, and which, if surrendered, will surely be used -to shut the door of advancement for such as they, and fix new -disabilities and burdens upon them until all of liberty shall be lost. - - * * * * * - -In the early days of our race the Almighty said to the first of mankind, -"In the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread," and since then, if we -except the light and air of Heaven, no good thing has been or can be -enjoyed by us without first having cost labor. And inasmuch as most good -things have been produced by labor, it follows that all such things -belong of right to those whose labor has produced them. But it has so -happened, in all ages of the world, that some have labored and others -have without labor enjoyed a large portion of the fruits. This is wrong, -and should not continue. To secure to each laborer the whole product of -his labor, as nearly as possible, is a worthy object of any government. - - * * * * * - -It seems strange that any man should dare to ask a just God's assistance -in wringing bread from the sweat of other men's faces. - - * * * * * - -This country, with its institutions, belongs to the people who inhabit -it. - - --_Lincoln_. - - - Exercise 9 - -In the following poem find all of the assertive, interrogative and -imperative sentences. Mark all of the simple sentences and all of the -complex sentences. Mark all of the dependent clauses and determine -whether each is used as a noun, adjective or adverb clause. The verbs -and the verb phrases are in italics. - - _Shall_ you _complain_ who _feed_ the world, - Who _clothe_ the world, - Who _house_ the world? - _Shall_ you _complain_ who _are_ the world, - Of what the world _may do_? - As from this hour you _are_ the power, - The world _must follow_ you. - - The world's life _hangs_ on your right hand, - Your strong right hand, - Your skilled right hand; - You _hold_ the whole world in your hand; - _See_ to it what you _do_! - For dark or light or wrong or right, - The world _is made_ by you. - - Then _rise_ as you never _rose_ before, - Nor _hoped_ before, - Nor _dared_ before; - And _show_ as never _was shown_ before - The power that _lies_ in you. - _Stand_ all as one; _see_ justice done; - _Believe_ and _dare_ and _do_. - - --_Charlotte Perkins Gilman_. - - - - - SPELLING - - LESSON 26 - - -In our last lesson we had examples of words in which the _s_ had the -soft sound, and also of words in which the _s_ had the sound of _z_. In -some English words, it is difficult to determine which sound to use. -There are a number of words in English beginning with _dis_. In a few of -the words, the _s_ has the sound of _z_, and in other words it has the -sound of _s_. There are only a few words which are pronounced with the -_diz_ sound. _Discern_, _dismal_ and _dissolve_ are always pronounced -with the _diz_ sound. _Disease_ and _disaster_ are pronounced both ways. -Some dictionaries give the _diz_ sound and some give the _dis_ sound. - -The spelling lesson for Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday contains a number -of words beginning with _dis_. Be sure of the pronunciation. Run through -the words in the dictionary beginning with the _dis_ sound and mark -those in which the _dis_ has the sound of _diz_. - -We have also a number of words in the English language which end in -_ise_ or _ize_, and we are often confused to know which ending to use. -There is a rule, which has very few exceptions, which covers the use of -_ise_ and _ize_. Words should be spelled with the _ize_ ending when the -_ize_ can be cut off, and the word that is left can be used alone. For -example; _author_, _authorize_. In this word you can cut off the _ize_ -and the word _author_ can be used alone. But in the word _exercise_, if -you cut off the _ise_, the remaining portion cannot be used alone. - -_Recognize_ and _criticise_ are exceptions to this rule. When used as a -suffix added to a noun or adjective to form a verb, _ize_ is the proper -ending; as _theory_, _theorize_, _civil_, _civilize_, etc. Final _e_ or -_y_ is dropped before _ize_, as in the words _memorize_, _sterilize_, -etc. - -The spelling lesson for Thursday, Friday and Saturday contains a number -of common words ending with _ize_ or _ise_. Study carefully this list -and add as many words to it as you can. - - +Monday+ - - Disappear - Distress - Discern - Disburse - Discipline - - +Tuesday+ - - Discount - Discredit - Distribute - Dismal - Disseminate - - +Wednesday+ - - Disguise - Distance - Dissolve - Discontent - Disposition - - +Thursday+ - - Franchise - Civilize - Surprise - Organize - Compromise - - +Friday+ - - Monopolize - Revise - Legalize - Enterprise - Capitalize - - +Saturday+ - - Memorize - Advertise - Theorize - Comprise - Systematize - - - - - PLAIN ENGLISH - - LESSON 27 - - -Dear Comrade: - -Ingersoll said: "Words are the garments of thought and the robes of -ideas." This is a beautiful and poetic way of expressing the -relationship between words and thoughts. Words are really the body which -we give to our thoughts. Until they are clothed in words, our thoughts -are only ghosts of ideas. Other people cannot see or come into contact -with them, and they can have but little influence upon the world. - -Without thought, no language is possible. It is equally true that -without language, no growth of thought is possible. It is futile to try -to determine which is first, language or thought. The two are entirely -necessary to each other and make possible social and individual -development. - -Every time that you add a word to your vocabulary, you have added to -your mental equipment. You have also added greatly to your power of -enjoyment. Through these words you will come into a new relationship to -your fellow men. Each new word enlarges the circle of your acquaintance. -A knowledge of language brings us into a circle of wonderful friends. -When we have learned to read we need never more be lonely. Some one has -written in a book somewhere just the thing we are hungry for at this -moment. - -In the pages of a book we can meet and talk with the great souls who -have written in these pages their life's experience. No matter what mood -you are in, you can find a book to suit that mood. No matter what your -need, there is a book which meets that need. Form the habit of reading -and you will find it a wonderful source of pleasure and of profit. - -Nor do we need to be barred because of our lack of educational -advantages in our youth. Buckle, the author of the greatest history that -has ever been written, left school at the age of fourteen, and it is -said that at that age, except a smattering of mathematics, he knew only -how to read; but when he died at the age of forty, this man, who did not -know his letters when he was eight years old, could read and write seven -languages and was familiar with ten or twelve more. He had written a -wonderful book and had become a teacher of teachers. Engraven upon his -marble altar tomb is the following couplet: - - "The written word remains long after the writer. - The writer is resting under the earth, but his words endure." - -Good books are so cheap nowadays that they are within the reach of every -one of us. Let us not be content to live in the narrow world of work and -worry. Let us forget the struggle occasionally in the reading of books, -and let us prepare ourselves, by reading and studying, for the battle -for the emancipation of the workers of the world. - - Yours for Education, - - THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. - - - KINDS OF SENTENCES - -+450.+ +A simple sentence is a sentence which makes a single assertion, -question or command.+ - -The simple sentence contains only words and phrases. - -+451.+ +A complex sentence is one which contains a principal statement -and one or more modifying statements.+ - -The statements made in addition to the principal statement are made in -dependent clauses. The complex sentence has only one main clause and one -or more dependent clauses. - -+452.+ +A compound sentence is one which contains two or more -independent clauses.+ - -These compound sentences may contain any number of dependent clauses but -they must always have at least two independent or principal clauses. -These principal clauses are always connected by co-ordinate -conjunctions, for the principal clauses in a compound sentence are -always of equal rank or order. - - - Exercise 1 - -Review the lesson on co-ordinate conjunctions and notice which -conjunctions are used to unite principal clauses into single sentences. -Use these co-ordinate conjunctions to unite the following pairs of -simple sentences into compound sentences. For example: - - The sun rises _and_ the day dawns. - The men work _but_ the boys play. - -The sun rises. The day dawns. - -He studies diligently. He learns rapidly. - -He came early. He could not stay. - -The weather is cold. The plants are not growing. - -The men work. The boys play. - -The day is cold. The wind is blowing. - -Take the above sentences and use subordinate instead of co-ordinate -conjunctions, and make complex sentences instead of compound out of each -pair of simple sentences. For example: - - _When_ the sun rises, the day dawns. - The men work _while_ the boys play. - - - KINDS OF COMPOUND SENTENCES - -+453.+ +Compound sentences may be made up of two simple sentences.+ - -Rewrite the following compound sentences, making of each sentence two -simple sentences: - - The birds are singing and spring is here. - He believes in war but his brother is against it. - We must arouse ourselves or we shall be involved. - He will not study nor will he allow any one else to study. - -+454.+ +A compound sentence may be made up of a simple sentence and a -complex sentence, joined by a co-ordinate conjunction.+ For example: - - John goes to school, but Mary stays at home in order that she may help - her mother. - -This compound sentence is made up of the simple sentence, _John goes to -school_, and the complex sentence, _Mary stays at home in order that she -may help her mother_. - -+455.+ +Both parts of the compound sentence may be complex; that is, -both principal clauses in a compound sentence may contain dependent -clauses.+ For example: - - John goes to school where his brother goes, but Mary stays at home in - order that she may help her mother. - -This compound sentence is made up of two complex sentences. The -sentence, _John goes to school where his brother goes_, is complex -because it contains the dependent clause, _where his brother goes_; the -sentence, _Mary stays at home in order that she may help her mother_, is -complex because it contains the dependent clause, _in order that she may -help her mother_. - - - Exercise 2 - -Read carefully the following sentences, determine which are simple -sentences, which are complex and which are compound. - - 1. When the state is corrupt, then the laws are most multiplied. - 2. To teach the alphabet is to inaugurate revolution. - 3. Freedom degenerates unless it has to struggle in its own defense. - 4. The destroyers have always been honored. - 5. Liberty of thought is a mockery if liberty of speech is denied. - 6. Where slavery is, there liberty cannot be; and where liberty is, - there slavery cannot be. - 7. All our greatness was born of liberty and we cannot strangle the - mother without destroying her children. - 8. In the twentieth century, war will be dead, but man will live. - 9. The abuse of free speech dies in a day, but the denial entombs the - hope of the race. - - - SENTENCE ANALYSIS - -+456.+ There is no more important part of the study of English than the -analysis of sentences. The very best result that can come to one from -the study of grammar is the logical habit of mind. The effort to analyze -a difficult passage gives us a fuller appreciation of its meaning. This -cultivates in us accuracy, both of thought and of expression. So, spend -as much time as you can on the analysis of sentences. - -The subject and the predicate are the very body of the sentence, upon -which all the rest of the sentence is hung. The other parts of the -sentence are but the drapery and the garments which clothe the body of -the sentence. Hence, the most important thing in sentence analysis is to -be able to discover the _subject_ and _predicate_. - -In the expression of a thought, there are always two important -essentials, that about which something is said,--which constitutes the -subject,--and that which is said about the subject, which constitutes -the predicate. - -There may be a number of modifying words, phrases or subordinate -clauses, but there is always a main clause which contains a simple -subject and a simple predicate. Find these first, and you can then fit -the modifying words and phrases and clauses into their proper places. - -+457.+ Let us take for study and analysis the following paragraph from -Jack London: - - Man's efficiency for food-getting and shelter-getting has not - diminished since the day of the cave-man. It has increased a - thousand-fold. Wonderful artifices and marvelous inventions have been - made. Why then do millions of modern men live more miserably than the - cave-man lived? - -Let us take the first sentence out of this paragraph and analyze it. -_Man's efficiency for food-getting and shelter-getting has not -diminished since the day of the cave-man._ What is the main word in this -sentence--the word about which the entire statement is made? Clearly it -is the word _efficiency_. _Efficiency_ is the noun which is the subject -of the sentence. - -Then you might ask _what sort of_ efficiency and _whose_ efficiency? -What sort of efficiency is explained by the adjective phrase, _for -food-getting and shelter-getting_. Whose efficiency is explained by the -possessive noun, _man's_. Therefore, the complete subject is, _Man's -efficiency for food-getting and shelter-getting_. - -Now we are ready to consider the predicate. What has efficiency done? It -_has not diminished_. _Has diminished_ is the verb phrase, which is the -simple predicate of this sentence. It is modified by the adverb _not_, -so we have _Man's efficiency has not diminished_. Then we might ask, -_when_ has it not diminished? And this is answered by the phrase, _since -the day of the cave-man_. So we have our complete predicate, _Has not -diminished since the day of the cave-man_. - -In this way we can analyze or break up into its different parts, every -sentence. First find the subject, then ask what that subject does, and -the answer will be the predicate or verb. Do not confuse the verb with -the words which state _how_ or _why_ the action is performed, and do not -confuse the verb with the _object_ of the action. The verb simply -asserts the action. The other words will add the additional information -as to how or why or when or upon whom the action was performed. - -Let us finish the analysis of the sentences in the paragraph quoted from -Jack London. In the second sentence, _It has increased a thousand-fold_, -the personal pronoun _it_, which refers to the noun _efficiency_, is the -subject of the sentence; and when you ask what _it_ has _done_, you find -that the question is answered by the verb, _has increased_. Therefore, -_has increased_ is the verb in the sentence. The noun, _thousand-fold_ -is used as an adverb telling how much it has increased. It is an -adverb-noun, which you will find explained in Section 291. - -In the next sentence, _Wonderful artifices and marvelous inventions have -been made_, we find two _nouns_ about which a statement is made. -_Artifices_ have been made and _inventions_ have been made; so -_artifices_ and _inventions_ are both the _subjects_ of the sentence. -Therefore, we have a compound subject with a single verb, _have been -made_. _Artifices_ is modified by the adjective _wonderful_, and -_inventions_ is modified by the adjective _marvelous_, so we have -_wonderful artifices and marvelous inventions_, as the complete subject, -and _have been made_, as the complete predicate. - -In the last sentence, _Why then do millions of modern men live more -miserably than the cave-man lived?_, we find a sentence which is a -trifle more difficult of analysis. It is written in the interrogative -form. If you find it difficult to determine the subject and the verb or -verb phrase in an interrogative sentence, rewrite the sentence in the -assertive form, and you will find it easier to analyze. - -When we rewrite this sentence we have, _Millions of modern men do live -more miserably than the cave-man lived_. Now it is evident that the noun -_millions_ is the subject of the sentence. We see quickly that _men_ -cannot be the subject because it is the object of the preposition _of_, -in the phrase, _of modern men_. So we decide that the noun _millions_ is -the simple subject. - -When we ask the question what millions _do_, our question is answered by -the verb phrase, _do live_. So _do live_ is the simple predicate, and -the skeleton of our sentence, the simple subject and the simple -predicate, is _millions do live_. The subject _millions_ is modified by -the adjective phrase _of modern men_. - -Then we ask, _how_ do men live? And we find our question answered by -_they live miserably_. But we are told _how_ miserably they live by the -adverb _more_ and the adverb clause, _than the cave-man lived_, both -modifying the adverb _miserably_. So we have our complete predicate, _do -live more miserably than the cave-man lived_. - -This interrogative sentence is introduced by the interrogative adverb -_why_. - -Do not drop this subject until you are able to determine readily the -_subject_ and _predicate_ in every sentence and properly place all -modifying words. There is nothing that will so increase your power of -understanding what you read, and your ability to write clearly, as this -facility in analyzing sentences. - - - Exercise 3 - -The following is Elbert Hubbard's description of the child-laborers of -the Southern cotton-mills. Read it carefully. Notice that the sentences -are all short sentences, and the cumulative effect of these short -sentences is a picture of the condition of these child-workers which one -can never forget. The subjects and predicates are in italics. When you -have finished your study of this question, rewrite it from memory and -then compare your version with the original version. - - _I thought_ that _I would lift_ one of the little toilers. _I wanted_ - to ascertain his weight. Straightway through his thirty-five pounds of - skin and bone there _ran_ a _tremor_ of fear. _He struggled_ forward - to tie a broken thread. _I attracted_ his attention by a touch. _I - offered_ him a silver dime. _He looked_ at me dumbly from a face _that - might have belonged_ to a man of sixty. _It was_ so furrowed, tightly - drawn and full of pain. _He did_ not _reach_ for the money. _He did_ - not _know_ what _it was_. There _were dozens_ of such children in this - particular mill. A _physician who was_ with me _said_ that _they - would_ probably all _be_ dead in two years. Their _places would be_ - easily _filled_, however, for there _were_ plenty _more_. _Pneumonia - carries_ off most of them. Their _systems are_ ripe for disease and - when _it comes_ there _is_ no _rebound_. _Medicine_ simply _does_ not - _act_. _Nature is whipped, beaten, discouraged._ _The child sinks_ - into a stupor and _dies_. - - - Exercise 4 - -In the following sentences, mark the simple sentences, the complex -sentences and the compound sentences, and analyze these sentences -according to the rules given for analyzing simple sentences, complex -sentences and compound sentences: - - 1. Force is no remedy. - 2. Law grinds the poor, and the rich men rule the law. - 3. Force and fraud are in war the two cardinal virtues. - 4. Freedom is a new religion, a religion of our time. - 5. Desire nothing for yourself which you do not desire for others. - 6. An ambassador is a man who goes abroad to lie for the good of his - country. - 7. A journalist is a man who stays at home to pursue the same - vocation. - 8. Without free speech no search for truth is possible. - 9. Liberty for the few is not liberty. - 10. Liberty for me and slavery for you mean slavery for both. - 11. No revolution ever rises above the intellectual level of those who - make it. - 12. Men submit everywhere to oppression when they have only to lift - their heads to throw off the yoke. - 13. Many politicians of our time are in the habit of saying that no - people ought to be free till they are fit to use freedom. The - maxim is worthy of the fool in the old story who resolved not to - go into the water till he had learned to swim. If men are to wait - for liberty till they become wise and good in slavery they may - indeed wait forever. - - - SUMMARY - -+458.+ The following is a summary of that which we have learned in -sentence building: - - { { Assertive - { Use { Interrogative - Sentences are { { Imperative - classified { { Exclamatory - according to { - { { Simple - { Form { Complex - { { Compound - - Elements { +Words+, the eight parts of speech. - of { +Phrases+, adjective, adverb and verb phrases. - The Sentence. { +Clauses+, adjective, adverb and noun clauses. - - -+459.+ - ESSENTIALS OF A SIMPLE SENTENCE - - +Subject+ +Predicate+ - - Subject Complete Verb - Subject Copulative Verb Predicate Complement - Subject Transitive Verb Direct Object - Subject Transitive Verb Direct Object Indirect Object - -+460.+ - THE SUBJECT - - { _Noun_--The _man_ came. - { _Pronoun_--_He_ came. - +The simple subject+ { _Adjective_--The _poor_ came. - may be { _Infinitive_--_To find_ work is difficult. - { _Participle_--_Walking_ is good exercise. - { _Clause_--_What I learn_ cannot be lost. - - +Complete subject+--Simple subject and modifiers. - - Modifiers of the Subject - - { Word--_Wealthy_ men rule. - +Adjective+ { Phrase--Men _of wealth_ rule. - { Clause--Men _who are wealthy_ rule. - - +Possessive+--The _man's_ energy was great. - - { Word--The poet, _Lowell_, was the author. - +Appositive+ { Clause--The fact, _that you came_, pleases me. - - { The soldiers, _wounded and dying_, were - +Participle+ { left on the field - - +Infinitive+--A plan _to end the war_ was discussed. - -+461.+ - THE PREDICATE - - +The simple+ { _Verb_--The man _came_. - +predicate+ { _Verb phrase_--The man _has been coming_ daily. - - { +Predicate Complement+--The man was a _hero_. - A COMPLETE { +Direct Object+--The man brought the _book_. - PREDICATE { +The Indirect Object+--The man brought _me_ the book. - _equals a verb { - or verb phrase { {_Word_--The man works _rapidly_. - and_ { +Adverb+ { _Phrase_--The man works _in the factory_. - { +Modifiers+ { _Clause_--The man works _whenever he - { can_. - - { _Words_--The man works hard. - SIMPLE SENTENCES { _Phrases_--The man _on your right_ works _in the - CONTAIN ONLY { factory._ - - { _Words_, The man works steadily - +Complex sentences+ { _Phrases_ in the factory _whenever - +contain+ { and there is work_. - { _Dependent clauses._ - -+Compound sentences contain+ two or more principal clauses, as: - - _The sun rises_ and _the day dawns_. - -+462.+ Take the simple subjects and simple predicates in Exercise 5, and -build up sentences; first, by adding a word, then a phrase and then a -clause to modify the subject; then add a word and a phrase and a clause -to modify the predicate. - -So long as you have only words and phrases you have simple sentences. -When you add a dependent clause you have a complex sentence. When you -unite two independent clauses in one sentence, then you have a compound -sentence, and the connecting word will always be a co-ordinate -conjunction. These will be readily distinguished for there are only a -few co-ordinate conjunctions. - -Go back to the lesson on co-ordinate conjunctions and find out what -these are, and whenever you find two clauses connected by these -co-ordinate conjunctions you know that you have a compound sentence. -Remember that each clause must contain a subject and predicate of its -own. When you have two words connected by these co-ordinate conjunctions -you do not have a clause. Each clause must contain a subject and a -predicate of its own. - -+463.+ Here is an example of a sentence built up from a simple subject -and a simple predicate: - - - SIMPLE SUBJECT ENLARGED - -+Simple Subject and Predicate+--_Soldiers obey._ - -_Adjectives_ added--_The enlisted_ soldiers obey. - -_Phrase_ added--The enlisted soldiers _in the trenches_ obey. - -_Clause_ added--The enlisted soldiers in the trenches, _who are -doomed to die_, obey. - - - SIMPLE PREDICATE ENLARGED - -+Simple Subject and Predicate+--_Soldiers obey._ - -_Object_ added--Soldiers obey _orders_. - -_Adverb_ added--Soldiers obey orders _quickly_. - -_Phrase_ added--Soldiers obey orders quickly and _without -question_. - -_Clause_ added--Soldiers obey orders quickly and without question -_because they are taught to do so_. - -Combining our enlarged subject and predicate we have the sentence: - - The enlisted soldiers in the trenches, who are doomed to die, obey - orders quickly and without question because they are taught to do so. - -This is a complex sentence because it contains dependent clauses. We -might add another independent clause and make of this a compound -sentence. For example: - - The enlisted soldiers in the trenches, who are doomed to die, obey - orders quickly and without question because they are taught to do so, - and _this is patriotism_. - - - Exercise 5 - -Enlarge the following simple subjects and simple predicates: - - - Men write. - Boys play. - People study. - The law rules. - - - Exercise 6 - - In the following poem underscore all of the dependent clauses. - Determine whether they are noun, adjective or adverb clauses. Do you - find any simple or compound sentences in this poem? - - MEN! whose - boast it is that ye - Come of fathers brave and free, - If there breathe on earth a slave, - Are you truly free and brave? - If ye do not feel the chain, - When it works a brother's pain, - Are ye not base slaves indeed, - Slaves unworthy to be freed? - - Women! who shall one day bear - Sons to breathe New England air, - If ye hear without a blush, - Deeds to make the roused blood rush - Like red lava through your veins, - For your sisters now in chains,-- - Answer! are you fit to be - Mothers of the brave and free? - - Is true Freedom but to break - Fetters for our own dear sake, - And, with leathern hearts, forget - That we owe mankind a debt? - No! true freedom is to share - All the chains our brothers wear, - And, with heart and hand, to be - Earnest to make others free! - - They are slaves who fear to speak - For the fallen and the weak; - They are slaves who will not choose - Hatred, scoffing, and abuse, - Rather than in silence shrink - From the truth they needs must think; - They are slaves who dare not be - In the right with two or three. - - --_Lowell_. - - - - - SPELLING - - LESSON 27 - - -We have studied concerning the formation of derivatives by the addition -of suffixes. Derivatives are also formed by the addition of prefixes. -You remember that a prefix is a syllable which is placed before a simple -word to form the derivative. Among the most common of these prefixes are -_in_, _un_ and _mis_. The prefix _in_ used with an adjective or adverb -means _not_; for example, _insane_ means _not_ sane; _incorrect_ means -_not_ correct, etc. - -The prefix _in_ used with a noun means _lack of_; for example, -_inexperience_ means _lack of_ experience; _inability_ means _lack of_ -ability, etc. - -In words beginning with _m_ or _p_, _in_, meaning _not_ or _lack of_, is -changed to _im_. This is done for the sake of euphony. The _n_ does not -unite readily with the sound of _m_ or _p_. So we do not say _inmodest_ -and _inpartial_, but _immodest_ and _impartial_. - -The prefix _un_, used with participles, means _not_; for example, -_unprepared_ means _not_ prepared; _unguarded_ means _not_ guarded, etc. - -The prefix _un_ used with verbs, means to take off or to reverse; for -example, _uncover_ means to take off the cover; _untwist_ means to -reverse the process of the twisting. - -The prefix _un_ used with adjectives means _not_; for example, -_uncertain_ means _not_ certain; _uncommon_ means _not_ common. - -The prefix _mis_ used with nouns or verbs, means _wrong_. For example, -_mistreatment_ means _wrong_ treatment; _to misspell_ means to spell -_wrong_. - -Add the prefix _in_ to the nouns given in Monday's list; add the prefix -_in_ to the adjectives given in Tuesday's list; add the prefix _im_ to -the adjectives and nouns in Wednesday's lesson; add the prefix _un_ to -the participles and adjectives in Thursday's lesson; add the prefix _un_ -to the verbs in Friday's lesson, and add the prefix _mis_ to the nouns -and verbs in Saturday's lesson. - - +Monday+ - - Tolerance - Frequency - Competence - Efficiency - Coherence - - +Tuesday+ - - Convenient - Expedient - Famous - Adequate - Solvent - - +Wednesday+ - - Pertinent - Morality - Patience - Moderate - Pious - - +Thursday+ - - Balanced - Biased - Gracious - Stable - Solicited - - +Friday+ - - Burden - Veil - Fasten - Screw - Furl - - +Saturday+ - - Construe - Apprehension - Inform - Guide - Judge - - - - - PLAIN ENGLISH - - LESSON 28 - - -Dear Comrade: - -We are beginning with this lesson the study of the use of capitals and -of punctuation. The use of capitals as well as punctuation has nothing -to do with our spoken words, but both are very important in our written -language. - -There is nothing that will mark us as uneducated more quickly than bad -spelling, faulty punctuation and the incorrect use of capitals. - -The rules for the use of capitals may seem somewhat arbitrary. After an -understanding of them, however, you will discover that they are not -arbitrary, but are based upon a single principle. The word which is of -the most importance, or which should receive the most emphasis is the -word which is capitalized, as for example, the principal words in a -title, the first words in a sentence, proper names, etc. - -Study these rules carefully, note the use of the capitals in your -reading and watch your written language carefully for a time. Soon the -proper use of capitals will seem easy and most natural. In the meantime -do not fail to keep up your study of words. Add at least one word to -your vocabulary every day. - -Did you ever consider how we think in pictures? Nearly every word that -we use calls up a certain image or picture in our minds. The content of -words has grown and developed as our ability to think has developed. - -Take, for example, words like head or hand. Head originally referred to -a portion of the body of a living thing; then it was used to refer to -some part of an inanimate object which might resemble or call up a -picture of an animal's head, for example, the head of a pin. Again, it -was used to refer to some part of an inanimate thing which was -associated with the head of a human being, as the head of the bed. Then, -by the power of association, since the head was considered the most -conspicuous and important part of the body, that which was most -conspicuous and important was called the head, as the head of the army, -the head of the nation. - -Then, since the head was the seat of the brain and of the mental -faculties, the head was often used instead of the brain or mental -faculties. We speak of a clear head or a cool head. Thus we have a -number of idiomatic expressions. We may speak of the head of the river; -or the subject matter was divided under four heads; or again, the matter -came to a head; he is head and ears in debt; we cannot make head against -the opposition, etc. - -This transfer of our ideas from the physical to the mental and spiritual -marks vividly the growth of the language and the development of thought. -Trace the words like hands, arm, foot, eye, tongue, in their use, first -as physical then as mental or spiritual. - -This will be the most interesting pastime and will enlarge the content -of the words which you use. - - Yours for Education, - - THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. - - - CAPITAL LETTERS - -+464.+ In our written speech we often display our lack of education by -our use of capital letters and punctuation. We may understand the use of -words and be able to speak fairly well, but if we do not understand the -proper use of capitals and of punctuation marks, our written language -readily betrays our ignorance. - -+465.+ There are a number of rules for the use of capitals which we must -observe. Some of the writers in our magazines defy these rules of -capitalization, in an effort to seem different from other people, -perhaps. These rules for the use of capital letters, like all other -rules, are not arbitrary rules laid down by any body of men, but are -simply a statement of accepted usage among people. We should not feel -that we should say this or that or we are violating a rule of grammar. -We should feel rather that the majority of the people who speak and -write good English do thus, and so, for this reason, I shall do it also. - -This is simply obeying the standard of majority rule. If there is any -good and sufficient reason why we feel this should not be a rule, we may -be justified in breaking it and making a new rule. Many people feel that -our spelling should be simplified and so they insist upon spelling -certain words in a more simple way. They feel that they have good and -sufficient reason for insisting upon this change and gradually if these -reasons appeal to the majority as being good and sufficient reasons, -then this simplified mode of spelling will become the accepted usage. - -But there seems no good reason why any writer should scatter capital -letters with a lavish hand throughout his writing. One feels as though a -writer in so doing is expressing his desire to be different, in a very -superficial manner. Let us be unique and individual in our thought. If -this forces us to a different mode of living or of expression from the -rest of the world, then we are justified in being different from the -rest. We have thought and reason behind our action. This is far -different from the attitude of one who poses as a radical and whose only -protest is in the superficial external things. So let us learn and -observe these rules for the use of capital letters. - - - RULES FOR THE USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS - -+466.+ +Use a capital for the first word of every sentence.+ - -When you begin a new sentence always begin that sentence with a capital -letter. Each sentence is a statement of a complete thought and is -independent of every other sentence. The use of the capital letter -indicates this independence and calls attention to the fact that you are -beginning a new thought. - -+467.+ +Begin every line of poetry with a capital letter.+ Sometimes in -poetry, the line is too long to be printed on a single line and must be -carried over into another line; in this case, the first word of the -second line does _not_ begin with a capital letter. - -+468.+ +Use a capital for every proper noun.+ This includes names of -persons, countries, states, towns, cities, streets and geographical -names, as the names of seas, lakes, mountains, rivers, etc. - -+469.+ +The words North, South, East and West are capitalized when they -are used to refer to geographical divisions.+ When these words simply -refer to the points of the compass, they should not begin with a -capital. - -+470.+ +The pronoun _I_ and the interjection _O_ should always be -capitals.+ Never write the pronoun _I_ with a small _i_. - -+471.+ +Every proper adjective should begin with a capital letter.+ -Proper adjectives are adjectives derived from proper nouns. For example: -the _Marxian_ philosophy, the _Darwinian_ theory, _Indian_ money, -_Japanese_ labor, etc. - -+472.+ +Always begin the names of the months and the days of the week -with capital letters.+ For example: _January_, _February_, _August_, -_Monday_, _Tuesday_, _Friday_, etc. - -+473.+ +Use a capital letter for every name or title of the Deity.+ For -example: _God_, _Jehovah_, _Christ_, _Jesus_, etc. It is also customary -to capitalize all personal pronouns referring to God or Christ. - -+474.+ +Begin with a capital letter names of all religious sects and -political parties, also all adjectives derived from them.+ As for -example: _Christian Church_, _Methodism_, _Republican Party_, -_Mohammedan_, _Socialist_, etc. - -+475.+ +Begin the names of all things spoken of as persons with a -capital.+ In poetry or poetic prose we often speak of _war_, _fame_, -_death_, _hope_, _fancy_, _liberty_, etc., as persons. Whenever these -words are used in this way they should begin with a capital letter. - -+476.+ +Use capital letters to begin important words in the title of a -book or the subject of a composition.+ In titles the nouns, pronouns, -adjectives, verbs and adverbs should begin with a capital, while the -prepositions and conjunctions should begin with small letters. The -articles, _the_, _a_ and _an_ are not capitalized unless they are the -initial word in the title. - -+477.+ +Use a capital to begin every direct quotation.+ The first word -of an indirect quotation should begin with a small letter. A direct -quotation is one which uses the exact words of the speaker. For example: -_He said_, "_I will come_." This is a direct quotation, but _He said -that he would come_, is an indirect quotation. - -+478.+ +Use a capital to begin an important statement or to ask a -question.+ For example: _Resolved; That the United States should -democratize war. The question is, Shall the people determine the -question of war?_ - -+479.+ +Use capitals for the chief items of any enumeration of -particulars.+ For example; - - The bill is as follows: - For Composition $20.00 - For Press Work 10.00 - Paper 25.00 - -+480.+ +Begin the words indicating titles of offices and honor with a -capital.+ For example, _President Wilson_, _Doctor Smith_, _Professor -Locke_. When you use a title of this kind as a general term, that is, -not indicating any particular person, do not use a capital. As for -example: _The society has had several presidents._ But if you use the -title to take the place of the person's name, for example: _The -President read the message to Congress_, always use a capital. - -+481.+ +Use capitals for the titles at the beginning of a letter or in -written composition and in direct address.+ For example: _My dear -Father_, _My dear Mother_, _My dear Comrade_, _Dear Aunt Emma_, _Dear -Friend_, _Dear Fellow Workers_, etc. Also in conversation. - - Are you coming with me, Mother? - What did the Doctor say, Comrade Smith? - -When these words are not used in direct address, however, they should -not be capitalized. For example, at the close of a letter you would -write: - - Your sincere friend. - Your loving brother. - -Or in conversation: - - I asked my mother to go with me. - My brother wrote me concerning the matter. - -+482.+ +Begin the names of important buildings and localities with a -capital.+ For example: - - Public Library, High School, The East Side, The Union Square, Central - Market, etc. - -These words used in a general sense, however, should not begin with a -capital letter. For example: - -Our public libraries, our high schools, jails, prisons, post offices, -etc. - -+483.+ +The words state and territory, when they refer to particular -divisions of the country, should be capitalized.+ For example: - -The State of New York, The Territory of Alaska, The French Government, -etc. - -_State_ and _government_ are also capitalized when they are used in -place of proper names. For example: - - The State is based on exploitation. - The Government has issued an edict of war. - -We do not use a capital in such expressions as: - - Church and state, state affairs; they occupy a large territory, etc. - -+484.+ +In directing letters or other matter for the mail, capitalize -all words except prepositions, conjunctions or articles.+ These should -be capitalized only when they begin a line. - - - Exercise 1 - -Draw a line under each word in the following that should be begun with a -capital: - - john joffre, lake michigan, day, thursday, friday, spring, august, - december, germany, country, france, man, jones, smith, doctor, doctor - george, professor moore, girl, mary, susan, methodist, mohammedan, - church, party, republican party, socialist, company, national electric - light company, river, mississippi river, the red river, essex county, - state of illinois, iowa, railway, new york, new york central railway, - the french revolution, novel, the sea wolf, poem, arrows in the gale, - american. - - - Exercise 2 - -Notice carefully the following quotations and sentences and capitalize -every word that should begin with a capital letter. - - 1. iron, the twin brother of fire, the first born out of the matrix - of the earth, a witness everlasting to the glory of thy labor, am - i, o man. - 2. therefore i say unto you, banish fear from your hearts. - 3. but ye, plebs, populists, people, rebels, mob, proletariat, live - and abide forever. - 4. and they came here from all parts of the earth, the syrians and - the armenians, the thracians and the tartars, the jews, the greeks - and the romans, the gauls and the angles and the huns and the - hibernians, even from the deserts of the sands to the deserts of - ice they came to listen unto his words. - 5. marx and engels wrote the communist manifesto. - 6. its closing words are; working men of all countries unite. - 7. italy was the last of the great powers of europe to become - involved in the war. - 8. john randolph submitted an amendment to the constitution providing - that the judges of the supreme court of the united states shall be - removed by the president on the joint address of both houses of - congress. - 9. eugene v. debs spent six months in woodstock jail for exercising - his right of free speech. - 10. col. the abbreviation for colorado, is easily confused with cal. - the abbreviation for california. - 11. the people's college is a college maintained by the working - class. - 12. william jennings bryan won his first nomination for president of - the united states by a very dramatic speech delivered in the - national democratic convention. - 13. marion craig wentworth, a socialist playwright, has written a play - called "war brides." - 14. the play closes with these words; a message to the emperor: i - refuse to bear my child until you promise there shall be no more - war. - 15. olive schreiner's "woman and labor" is full of fascinating - thought. - - - Exercise 3 - -Notice carefully the use of capitals in the following quotations, and -determine the reason for the use of every capital: - - As the nobles of England wrung their independence from King John, and - as the tradesmen of France broke through the ring of privilege - enclosing the Three Estates; so today the millions who serve society - in arduous labor on the highways, and aloft on the scaffoldings, and - by the sides of the whirring machines, are demanding that they, too, - and their children, shall enjoy all of the blessings that justify and - make beautiful this life.--_Frank Walsh_. - - "The toad beneath the harrow knows - Exactly where the tooth-point goes. - The butterfly beside the road - Doth preach contentment to that toad." - - "When I came here, it was said that the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company - voted every man and woman in their employ without any regard to their - being naturalized or not; and even their mules, it used to be - remarked, were registered if they were fortunate enough to possess - names." _From a letter written by Mr. L. M. Bowers, Chairman of The - Board of Directors of the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company, to the - Secretary of Mr. John D. Rockefeller, Jr., under date of May 13, - 1913._ - - Master, I've done Thy bidding, wrought in Thy many lands. - Not by my sins wilt Thou judge me, but by the work of my hands. - Master, I've done Thy bidding, and the light is low in the west, - And the long, long shift is over ... Master, I've earned it--Rest. - - --_Robert Service_. - - It's O! to be a slave - Along with the barbarous Turk, - Where woman has never a soul to save, - If this is Christian work! - - --_Thos. Hood_. - - While there is a lower class, I am in it. - While there is a criminal element, I am of it. - While there is a soul in jail, I am not free. - - --_Eugene V. Debs_. - - When Adam delved and Eve span, - Who was then the gentleman? - - The vilest deeds, like poison weeds, - Bloom well in prison-air; - It is only what is good in man - That wastes and withers there: - Pale Anguish keeps the heavy gate, - And the Warder is Despair. - - --_Oscar Wilde_. - - - ABBREVIATIONS AND CONTRACTIONS - -+485.+ There are a number of words which we abbreviate or contract, in -our every-day use. A contraction is a shortened form of the word used to -save time or space and is made by omitting a letter or letters. The -apostrophe is used to indicate the omission in a contracted word. As, -for example: - - B'ld'g, B'l'v'd, M'f'g. - -When the word is contracted in this way and the apostrophe is used, -these contractions are not followed by the period but are used just as -the completely written word would be used. There is no accepted list of -these contractions. We devise them according to our need at the moment. - -An abbreviation, however, is an authorized contraction of the word. It -is the shortening of a term which is habitually used to save time and -space. The apostrophe is not used and the abbreviation should be -followed by a period. As for example: - - Bldg. Blvd. Mfg. - -These abbreviations and contractions are very helpful to us in saving -time and space but should not be used too frequently. Too many -contractions or abbreviations make writing ridiculous. Take time to -write out the majority of words. Only use abbreviations or contractions -for certain accepted words. Avoid an excessive use of abbreviations. - - - COMMONLY USED ABBREVIATIONS - -+486.+ We quite often abbreviate the names of the months, especially -those which have long names. Short names like _March_, _April_, _May_, -_June_ and _July_, should never be abbreviated. For the other months we -use in correspondence the abbreviations, _Jan._, _Feb._, _Aug._, -_Sept._, _Oct._, _Nov._, _Dec._ Days of the week are also sometimes -abbreviated as follows: _Sun._, _Mon._, _Tues._, _Wed._, _Thur._, -_Fri._, _Sat._ Do not use these abbreviations too often. Spell out the -names of the months and of the days of the week except in lists of dates -or something that calls for abbreviations to save time or space. - -_Mr._, _Mrs._, _Messrs._, _Jr._, _Sr._, are never spelled out, but are -always written in the abbreviated form. You will often find _Doctor_ and -_Professor_ abbreviated to _Dr._, _Prof._ This is permissible but it is -always good form to write them out in full. - -+487.+ We have abbreviated forms for a number of names; as for example: -_Geo._, _Chas._, _Thos._, _Wm._, etc. But it is always much better to -write these names out in full: _George_, _Charles_, _Thomas_, _William_, -etc. - -Remember that nicknames are not abbreviations and do not require a -period after them. _Jim_, _Charley_, _Tom_, and _Bill_ are not -abbreviations but nicknames. - -In correspondence or in any circumstance that demands the saving of time -or space, we abbreviate the names of states and territories, as follows: - - Alabama, Ala. - Arizona, Ariz. - Arkansas, Ark. - California, Cal. - Colorado, Colo. - Connecticut, Conn. - Delaware, Del. - District of Columbia, D. C. - Florida, Fla. - Georgia, Ga. - Idaho, Ida. - Illinois, Ill. - Indiana, Ind. - Iowa, Ia. - Kansas, Kan. - Kentucky, Ky. - Louisiana, La. - Maine, Me. - Maryland, Md. - Massachusetts, Mass. - Michigan, Mich. - Minnesota, Minn. - Mississippi, Miss. - Missouri, Mo. - Montana, Mont. - Nebraska, Neb. - Nevada, Nev. - New Hampshire, N. H. - New Jersey, N. J. - New Mexico, N. M. - New York, N. Y. - North Carolina, N. C. - North Dakota, N. D. - Ohio, O. - Oklahoma, Okla. - Oregon, Ore. - Pennsylvania, Pa. or Penna. - Rhode Island, R. I. - South Carolina, S. C. - South Dakota, S. D. - Tennessee, Tenn. - Texas, Tex. - Vermont, Vt. - Virginia, Va. - Washington, Wash. - West Virginia, W. Va. - Wisconsin, Wis. - Wyoming, Wyo. - -+488.+ Use _a. m._ and _p. m._ after dates in lists of dates or -schedules of trains or for any similar purpose, but in the text of a -letter or manuscript it is better to write them out in full. As for -example, do not say: - - I will arrive tomorrow a. m., or, You may call about eight p. m. - -Say rather: - - I will arrive tomorrow morning. You may call at eight o'clock this - evening. - -The letters _a. m._ are the abbreviation for ante meridiem, Latin for -before noon; and _p. m._ for post meridiem, meaning afternoon. - -+489.+ Two consecutive years may be written 1914-15, but use 1915 rather -than '15. In the heading of letters it is better to write the date out -in full, as, _May 28, 1915_, instead of 5-28-15. - -In the back of your dictionary you will find a complete list of accepted -abbreviations used in writing and printing. The list that follows -contains abbreviations most commonly used, especially in business -correspondence: - - @ for at - acct. for account - agt. for agent - amt. for amount - ans. for answer - asst. for assistant - atty. for attorney - av. for average - bal. for balance - bbl. for barrel - bdl. for bundle - bro. for brother - bros. for brothers - blk. for black - bls. for bales - bu. or bush. for bushels - Co. for company - chgd. for charged - C. O. D. for "cash on delivery" - cr. creditor - cts. cents - cwt. for hundred weight - cu. for cubic - do. for the same - dr. for debtor - doz. for dozen - ea. for "each" - et al. for "and others" - e. g. for example - etc. for "and so forth" - ft. for foot or feet - frt. freight - f. o. b. "free on board" - gal. gallon - guar. for guaranty - hdkfs. for handkerchiefs - h. p. horse power - in. for inches - ins. for insurance - inst. for this month - i. e. for "that is" - Jr. for junior - lb. for pound - memo. for memorandum - Mon. for Monday - mo. for month - mos. for months - mdse. for merchandise - mfg. for manufacturing - Mss. for manuscript - no. for number - N. B. for take notice - O. K. for "all correct" - oz. for ounce - % for per cent - pp. pages - pr. for pair - pt. for pint - pk. for peck - prox. for next month - qt. for quart - recd. for received - sec. for second - Sec. for secretary - Sr. for senior - Supt. for superintendent - ult. for last month - via by way of - viz. namely - vol. for volume - wt. for weight - yd. for yard - yds. for yards - yr. for year - - - Exercise 4 - -Write the proper abbreviations for the following words: - - Building - Charles - Boulevard - Tuesday - Arkansas - Mississippi - Foot - Virginia - Georgia - Senior - By way of - Per cent - Charged - Avenue - October - Delaware - Professor - Thursday - Colorado - Kansas - Handkerchiefs - January - Secretary - Superintendent - Received - That is - Free on board - Monday - Oklahoma - July - Thomas - California - Company - Account - Friday - Merchandise - Number - All correct - Cash on delivery - And so forth - Colonel - Maine - August - William - Missouri - Brothers - Amount - Wyoming - - - - - SPELLING - - LESSON 28 - - -There is no way to learn to spell except by constant application. Watch -in your reading the spelling of all words. Whenever you wish to add a -certain word to your vocabulary, master immediately the spelling as well -as the meaning of that word. Keep your dictionary handy; use it -constantly in the study of your lessons. Do not guess at the spelling of -the word. You are not likely to forget quickly the spelling of any word -which you have taken the trouble to look up. - -Read your examinations over carefully before sending them in, watching -closely for any error in spelling and in punctuation. When your papers -are graded and returned you, make a list of all the words which are -misspelled and master then and there the spelling of these words. Do not -be guilty of the same error twice. Remember that correct spelling is a -mark of intelligence and scholarship and that nothing will so detract -from the influence of your written work as incorrect spelling. - -While there is always a certain word which more aptly expresses our -meaning than any other, we can usually find two or more words which -express practically the same meaning. - -+Words which have nearly the same meaning are called synonyms.+ - -It is always an interesting exercise and will add greatly to your -vocabulary to select a certain paragraph and go through it replacing -certain words with other words which have practically the same meaning. -It is this mastery of synonyms which gives the great writers and orators -their power. They do not use the same word over and over again until our -ears have grown weary of it. With their wonderful mastery of language -they are never at a loss for words in which to re-clothe their meaning. - -For the first three days of this week's work in spelling we have words -and their synonyms. For the words given in the lessons for the last -three days, look up in your dictionary a suitable synonym. - - +Monday+ - - Abundant - Plenty - - Precarious - Uncertain - - Behavior - Conduct - - +Tuesday+ - - Abuse - Invective - - Hateful - Odious - - Praise - Applause - - +Wednesday+ - - Sufficient - Enough - - Refuge - Asylum - - Achieve - Attain - - +Thursday+ - - Insolent - Revenge - Curb - Repudiate - Censure - Regret - - +Friday+ - - Prosperity - Subterfuge - Event - Observe - Portion - Destroy - - +Saturday+ - - Talkative - Indolent - Profit - Volunteer - Cordial - Enormous - -There are a number of nouns very similar in form, yet different in -meaning, which we very often use incorrectly. - -Cross out in these sentences the incorrect word. Look them up in the -dictionary and be sure of the exact meaning: - - Roger's _essay_--_assay_ won him praise. - The _assay_--_essay_ indicated the quantity of gold in the metal. - The _completion_--_completeness_ of the course entitled me to a - Diploma. - The _completion_--_completeness_ of the arrangements fills us with - hope of success. - _Confidants_--_confidence_ often betray us. - The business world is built upon _confidants_--_confidence_. - The _conscience_--_consciousness_ of a religious person is very - sensitive. - The class struggle develops class _conscience_--_consciousness_. - The strikers listened to unwise _counsel_--_council_. - The _council_--_counsel_ refused the franchise. - You knew he was a _cultured_--_cultivated_ man, the moment you met - him. - It is a highly _cultured_--_cultivated_ plant. - I asked her for the _recipe_--_receipt_ for making cake. - He gave her a _receipt_--_recipe_ for the money. - _Emigration_---_immigration_ has reduced the population of Servia. - _Emigration_--_immigration_ is flooding the United States with cheap - labor. - Edison's _discovery_--_invention_ of the storage battery was a - momentous event. - The _discovery_--_invention_ of gold in Alaska attracted the attention - of the world. - The state placed a _limitation_--_limit_ upon the sale of liquor - within certain _limits_--_limitations_. - - - - - PLAIN ENGLISH - - LESSON 29 - - -Dear Comrade: - -The spirit of self-help is the root of all genuine growth in any man or -woman. It is the things which we do for ourselves in any line of work -that count the most for us. The things which come to us without any -effort on our part do not stay with us very long nor do us much good -while we have them. - -Sometimes we feel discouraged because we have not had the opportunity to -attend school as much as we would like. There is no gainsaying but that -this is a tremendous handicap and yet, after all, it is not an -insurmountable obstacle. It is much better to have the appetite without -the food than to have the food without the appetite. There is always a -chance of securing the food if we want it bad enough and will struggle -hard enough. So in the matter of an education. Many a man who has never -seen the inside of a college is better educated than those who have been -through college. - -These men have really wanted knowledge, have sought it early and late, -and have found knowledge; and because they were in the work-a-day world, -in constant contact with their fellow-men, they were able to relate the -knowledge which they gained out of books to the world in which they -lived and this is true education. This is, also, what many college-bred -people lack. A student is half made as soon as he seeks knowledge for -its own sake. If you are striving to learn, not to make grades or to -pass examinations or to secure a degree, but simply for the sake of -knowing things, then indeed you are on the way to become really -educated. - -Stimulate within yourself a desire for knowledge, observe the things -about you, add to your store of information daily; read a good book each -day, even if you have time to read only a page or two, and you will be -surprised at the result in your life. - -Take, for example, our spelling. Why should we continually misspell the -words which we use every day and which we see every day on a printed -page. If we are wide-awake and have our eyes open, we can soon learn to -spell correctly all these common words, at least. Make a list this week -of fifty things with which you come in contact in your daily work, then -look these words up in your dictionary and see how many of them you have -misspelled. There is no reason why we should not be learning constantly -and the more we observe, the more acute becomes our power of -observation. - -Let us determine more than ever to feel that we are part of the great -world movement, that we belong in the ranks of those who have caught the -vision of what the world might be, and that we belong to that glorious -army of those who are fighting for the dream; so we may take courage; so -we may find joy in the struggle, bitter as it may be, and so we may do -our part in the fight. - - Yours for Education, - - THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. - - - PUNCTUATION - -+490.+ Marks of punctuation are very important in our written language. -They take the place of the gesture and pause and inflection and -intonation of the voice, by which we make our meaning clear in vocal -speech. So the marks of punctuation do not become mere mechanical -devices. They are marks full of meaning and necessary to express our -thought. - -Punctuation is a word derived from the Latin word _punctum_ which means -_a point_. We have other words from the same derivation, as puncture, -etc. - -+Punctuation is the art of pointing off our written language so as to -make its meaning clear.+ - -Some very amusing errors have occurred because of the misplacing or the -omission of punctuation marks. It is said, that a toast was one time -given at a public dinner; "Woman! without her, man would be a savage." -The next day it appeared in print; "Woman, without her man, would be a -savage." You can readily see that the punctuation in this instance made -a very great difference in the meaning of the sentence. - -+491.+ In conversation, the tone of the voice which we use, has a great -effect upon our meaning, for example I might say, _The International -failed_, in such a tone of voice, that it would express despair and -chagrin, and indicate that the International was a thing of the past; or -I might say, _The International failed_, with such an inflection, that -you would understand that even the suggestion was to be treated with -contempt, that the International was still powerful and its triumph -inevitable. And in writing, the only way we have of expressing these -shades of meaning is by means of punctuation marks. - -So these marks of punctuation are not thrown upon a page haphazardly, or -put there simply for decoration; they have a meaning and a very great -meaning. Those who use short, crisp sentences have less need for -punctuation marks than those who use longer and more involved sentences. -When we have learned to express ourselves directly and simply, we will -naturally use fewer marks of punctuation. - -+492.+ You will find that, in writing in connection with business, there -is much less need of punctuation than in literary and philosophical -writings. Business writing is usually direct and simple in style. Its -purpose is to state facts. The literary and philosophical writing, -however, expresses more involved ideas and emotions, and in these, the -punctuation is exceedingly important. - -+493.+ One of the great purposes served by punctuation is to indicate a -pause or break in the thought. A very good rule to go by in punctuating -is to repeat the sentence aloud, and whenever you pause for breath or -because of a break in the thought, it is a pretty safe indication that -in that place, you should have a punctuation mark. - -+494.+ The following are the chief marks of punctuation: - - 1. The Comma , - 2. The Semi-colon ; - 3. The Colon : - 4. The Period . - 5. The Interrogation Point ? - 6. The Exclamation Point ! - 7. The Dash -- - 8. The Parenthesis () - 9. The Bracket [] - 10. The Quotation Marks "" - 11. The Apostrophe ' - 12. The Hyphen - - - - THE COMMA - -+495.+ The comma is the mark used to indicate a slight break in the -thought. - -There are a number of rules given for the use of commas. These rules, -like the rules for the use of capitals, you cannot commit to memory; -but, after repeated practice in your own writing and paying attention to -your reading, you will gradually develop an instinctive sense of the use -of the comma. Select some book which you are reading and go through it, -noticing especially the use of the commas. See if you can determine the -reason which prompted the author to place his commas where he did. -Notice, also, what effect the placing or the omission of the comma would -have upon the meaning of the sentence. - -+496.+ +The Comma indicates the slightest degree of separation between -the parts of a sentence.+ - -+RULE 1.+ - -+497.+ +Words, phrases and clauses, forming a series and used in the -same construction, should be separated from each other by commas when -the conjunctions are omitted.+ - - - WORDS WHICH FORM A SERIES - -+498.+ The words which form a series, separated by a comma may -be either nouns, adjectives, adverbs or verbs. The comma is only used -where the conjunction is omitted. Note carefully the following -sentences: - - Love, laughter and happiness are the right of every child. - He visited every city, town and village. - The working class has been meek, humble, docile and gullible. - All the crushed, tortured, strangled, maimed and murdered ideals of - the ages shall become an everlasting reality. - He struggled patiently, faithfully and fearlessly for the cause. - If labor thinks, dares, rebels, fights, it will be victorious. - - - PHRASES WHICH FORM SERIES - -+499.+ Phrases which are used in the same construction and form a series -are separated by commas where the conjunction is omitted. For example: - - Day after day, year after year, century after century, the class - struggle has proceeded. - The struggle in the mines, in the fields, in the factories and in the - shops, will go on until labor receives the product of its toil. - - - CLAUSES USED IN A SERIES - -+500.+ Sometimes clauses are used without the co-ordinate conjunction -and a comma is used to indicate the omission. For example: - - Do not moan, do not submit, do not kneel, do not pray, do not wait. - Speak as you mean, do as you profess, perform what you promise. - - -+RULE 2.+ - -+501.+ +Explanatory and introductory expressions, words in direct -address, parenthetical words and phrases, are separated from the rest of -the sentence by commas.+ - -Note carefully the following examples: - - Jaures, the great French Socialist, was the first martyr to peace. - War having been declared, the troops were mobilized. - No, I cannot believe you. - Mr. Chairman, I desire to speak to the convention. - We can, of course, give you the information you desire. - - -+RULE 3.+ - -+502.+ +Words, phrases or clauses written in the sentence out of their -natural order should be separated from the rest of the sentence by -commas.+ - -These words, phrases and clauses are often written at the beginning of -the sentences or at the end of the sentences, or in some place out of -their natural order, for the sake of emphasis, instead of with the words -they modify. - -Notice in the following sentences how these words, phrases and clauses -are separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. Rewrite these -sentences, placing these words, phrases and clauses in their natural -order and omit the commas. - - Longingly and anxiously, he waited. - With this exception, the figures are correct. - The music, sweet and dreamy, floated upon the air. - The waves came rolling in, white with foam. - To deceive the men, he resorted to shameful tricks. - Before anyone else could speak, he was on his feet. - - -+RULE 4.+ - -+503.+ +Co-ordinate clauses, when closely related in meaning are -separated by commas. The comma should precede the co-ordinate -conjunction.+ For example: - - I have not intended to detain you, but the matter required - explanation. - - -+RULE 5.+ - -+504.+ +The omission of the verb in a sentence or a clause should be -indicated by a comma.+ Sometimes in writing for effect or to give -emphasis we omit the verb in the sentence; at other times we omit the -verb when the same verb occurs in a series of brief sentences, and its -continued use would mean a tiresome repetition. For example: - - Reading maketh a full man; conference, a ready man; writing, an - exact man. - -Here the verb is omitted in the last two clauses and the omission is -indicated by the use of the comma. - - -+RULE 6.+ - -+505.+ +Short, direct quotations should be preceded by a comma.+ For -example: - - Their slogan is, "An injury to one is the concern of all." - Ferrer's last words were, "Long live the modern school." - - -+RULE 7.+ - -+506.+ +Separate the figures in large numbers into groups of three -figures each by the use of commas.+ For example: - - The population of the United States has now reached 100,000,000. - According to the census of 1900, there are 29,073,233 people engaged - in gainful occupations in the United States. - - - Exercise 1 - -Supply commas in the following sentences in the proper places: - - 1. Food clothes and shelter are the fundamental needs of life. - 2. We believe in education free from theocracy aristocracy or - plutocracy. - 3. Man is the master of nature of law of life. - 4. We shall struggle rebel arise and claim all being for our own. - 5. Sickness and suffering sorrow and despair crime and war are the - fruits of poverty. - 6. You should seek after knowledge steadily faithfully and - perseveringly. - 7. The most inspiring powerful and impressive oratory is the voice of - the disinherited. - 8. Through your united almighty strength order shall become equity law - shall become liberty duty shall become love and religion shall - become truth. - 9. First let us consider the main question. - 10. Mr. President I rise to a point of order. - 11. We the workers of the world must unite. - 12. The class struggle being a fact why should we hesitate to join our - class? - 13. You have not it seems understood the issue. - 14. Of all our needs education is the greatest. - 15. Regularly and monotonously the machine whirs to and fro. - 16. Before any one can take special training he must have a good - knowledge of English. - 17. We plead for education universal and free. - 18. The first ingredient in conversation is truth the next good sense - the third good humor and the fourth wit. - 19. The slogan of the People's College is The education of the workers - by the workers. - 20. According to the last census the enrollment of the schools of the - United States is 18521002. - 21. There are 4611000 in the first grade and 155000 in the last year - of high school. - - - THE SEMI-COLON - -+507.+ The semi-colon indicates a break more complete than that of the -comma. The period indicates a complete break in the thought. So the -comma indicates a slight break, the semi-colon a greater break in the -thought, and the period, the completion of the thought. - - - RULES FOR THE USE OF THE SEMI-COLON - -+508.+ The semi-colon is often used instead of the comma where a longer -pause is desired or we wish to indicate a greater break in the thought. -For example: - - "The wind is chill; - But let it whistle as it will, - We'll keep our Christmas merry still." - -+509.+ As a rule we separate by semi-colons those parts of the sentences -that are already punctuated by commas. For example: - - After considerable delay, he came back to look for his friends; but, - though he looked diligently, he could not find them. - -+510.+ The semi-colon is used to separate closely connected simple -sentences when the conjunction is omitted. The continual repetition of -the conjunction would become very tiresome and detract from the -forcefulness of our sentences. So instead of continually repeating the -conjunction we separate these simple sentences by semi-colons. For -example: - - Through the industrial revolution, the face of the earth is making - over even as to its physical forms; political boundaries are wiped out - and moved about as if they were indeed only lines on a paper map; - population is hurriedly gathered into cities from the ends of the - earth; habits of living are altered with startling abruptness; the - search for the truths of nature is infinitely stimulated; and the - application of these truths to life is made not only practicable, but - commercially necessary. - -+511.+ The semi-colon should be used after each item in a series of -specific statements. For example: - - We quote you the following prices: Grade No. 1, $1.00; Grade No. 2, - $2.90; poorer grades not in demand. - - - RULES FOR THE USE OF THE COLON - -+512.+ The colon is not used as much as it formerly was. The comma and -the semi-colon and the period are now used in most of the places where -older writers used the colon. - -One authority in English says that, "in strict logic the colon is to the -sentence in which it is used what the mark of equality is in -mathematics." - -+513.+ The colon is used before a formal list of items. For example: - - Economics has three important divisions: production, distribution, - consumption. - -+514.+ The colon is used after a salutation at the beginning of a -letter. For example: _Dear Sir:_ _Gentlemen:_ _Comrades:_ - -In such cases the dash is also frequently used with the colon. For -example: _My dear Sir:--_ _Gentlemen:--_ _Comrades:--_ - -+515.+ The colon is more often used instead of the semi-colon after such -expressions as, _thus:_ _as follows:_ _the following:_ _for example:_ -etc. - -The colon is also used to separate a series of sentences which are -explanatory of the main clause. For example: - - The People's College has two great aims: the first is to bring - education within the reach of every worker; the second is to teach - from the viewpoint of the working class. - We were advised to proceed thus: first, to be systematic in our work; - second, to concentrate; third, to go slowly and surely; and last of - all, to think for ourselves. - - - RULES FOR THE USE OF THE PERIOD - -+516.+ +The period is a mark of punctuation that denotes the completion -of a sentence.+ - -+517.+ The period is used at the close of all assertive and imperative -sentences. For example: - - There is talk of peace but preparation for war. - Claim your own at any hazard. - -+518.+ The period is used after all initials and all abbreviations, as -for example: E. V. Debs; T. P. O'Connor; Mr., Dr., Co., Mass., N. Y., C. -O. D., F. O. B., U. S. A., etc. - -+519.+ The period is used to separate whole numbers and decimal numbers. -For example: 3.1416 9.342. - -A period is used for the decimal point between dollars and cents; -as: $4.50, $2.25, $16.54, $35926.72. - -It is also used to separate the various denominations of sterling money, -as: L14. 15s. 6d. - -+520.+ The period is used after letters used as numerals or after -figures used to number paragraphs, notes, remarks, questions or any list -of particulars. For example: - -The letters which are used to denote sub-heads in the enumeration of -rules as _a. b. c._, etc., also the numerals and letters marking -sections or sub-sections in chapters, as _Chapter 8._ _Paragraph 1._ -_Rule 1._ _Page 4._ _Volume 2._ _Paragraph 3._ _P. 16._ - -+521.+ The period is also used after headings and titles, after dates -and signatures to letters and other documents; also at the close of the -address at the beginning of a letter, and of the name at the close of -the letter; also after the last item in the direction of an envelope or -package. - - - Exercise 2 - -In the following quotations place the commas, semi-colons, colons and -periods in their proper places, and be able to give a reason for what -you do: - - The man who stabs his brother to death is a criminal and is hanged the - general who under a flag slays a regiment is a hero and is decorated - with a cross - - The most thrilling oratory the most powerful and impressive eloquence - is the voice of the disinherited the oppressed the suffering and the - submerged it is the voice of poverty and misery of wretchedness and - despair it is the voice of humanity crying to the infinite it is the - voice that resounds throughout the earth and reaches heaven it is the - voice that wakens the conscience of the race and proclaims the truths - that fill the world with life liberty and love - - The number of lives lost in the great wars of the world have been as - follows Napoleonic wars 1900000 our Civil War 656000 Franco-German War - 290000 Boer War 90898 Russo-Japanese 555900 and in the present - world-war untold millions - - Walt Whitman who represents individualism at its best writes "I sing - the song of myself" To this the Socialist replies "Inasmuch as my - redemption is bound up in that of my class I sing the song of my - class" - - We believe with John Ruskin "whether there be one God or three no God - or ten thousand children should be fed and their bodies should be kept - clean" - - My dear Mr Smith Your letter of the 15th has been received - - Through the dreams of all the ages rings the voice of labor beginning - as a murmur growing in volume and grandeur as it rolls round the world - And this is the burden of its message By the sweat of no other's brow - shalt thou eat bread - - The sun of the new world is rising it is rising out of the solidarity - of the working class Its rays of light are bursting through the dark - horizon which ignorance and deceit have so long riveted upon us It is - lighting up the faces of a new order of men and women supermen and - women men and women not discouraged by defeat god-like men and women - who have found the secret springs of life and are already drinking - deep and glorious draughts men and women who are standing erect and - whose joined hands encircle the world men and women who see the - world's wretchedness and the world's poverty and are ready to throw - away their lives with a song on their lips that such things shall not - be - - - Exercise 3 - -Note the punctuation in the following poem and determine for yourself, -in accordance with the rules we have studied, why the commas, -semi-colons, colons and periods are used as they are: - - JOHN BROWN - - States are not great - Except as man may make them; - Men are not great except they do and dare. - But States, like men, - Have destinies that take them-- - That bear them on, not knowing why or where. - - The _why_ repels - The philosophic searcher-- - The _why_ and _where_ all questionings defy, - Until we find, - Far back in youthful nurture, - Prophetic facts that constitute the _why_. - - All merit comes - From braving the unequal; - All glory comes from daring to begin. - Fame loves the State - That, reckless of the sequel, - Fights long and well, whether it lose or win. - - * * * * * - - And there is one - Whose faith, whose fight, whose failing, - Fame shall placard upon the walls of time. - He dared begin-- - Despite the unavailing, - He dared begin, when failure was a crime. - - When over Africa - Some future cycle - Shall sweep the lake-gemmed uplands with its surge; - When, as with trumpet - Of Archangel Michael, - Culture shall bid a colored race emerge; - - * * * * * - - From boulevards - O'erlooking both Nyanzas, - The statured bronze shall glitter in the sun, - With rugged lettering: - "JOHN BROWN OF KANSAS: - HE DARED BEGIN; - HE LOST, - BUT, LOSING, WON." - - --_Eugene Ware_. - - - - - SPELLING - - LESSON 29 - - -Last week we studied words which had the same, or nearly the same, -meaning. There is always a slight distinction in the meaning of words, -but some of them are so nearly the same that it makes very little -difference which word we use. Some writers, however, are very careful -and spend a great deal of time in the selection of just the right word -to express their meaning. - -Robert Louis Stevenson once said a good writer would wait half a day in -order to secure the best word to convey a certain idea. - -A very amusing story is told of Thomas Carlyle, who was very careful to -use words expressing just the shade of meaning which he desired to -express. He had a habit of writing in a note book these words as they -occurred to him, so he would have them for ready reference and use. One -day he had searched all day for a certain word which eluded him. -Suddenly in the middle of the night he wakened with the word flashing in -his mind. He wanted to write it down immediately lest he should forget -it in the morning, but it was cold and he dreaded getting up in the cold -to secure his note book so he nudged Jeanie, his wife, and said: -"Jeanie, Jeanie, get up! I have thought of a good word, and I want you -to write it down." Now it was equally cold for Jeanie, so Jeanie nudged -Thomas and said: "Thomas, Thomas, get up yourself. I have thought of a -bad one!" - -Nevertheless, it is a good idea when these good words occur to you to -write them down. Possibly to save trouble, you had better write them for -yourself! - -But in addition to words which have the same meaning, or almost the same -meaning, there are also words which express just the opposite meaning, -and it is well for us to be master of these words also. - -+These words which express opposite meaning are called antonyms.+ Words -and their antonyms are given in this week's spelling lesson in the words -for the first three days' study. For the last three days, words only are -given. Look these words up in your dictionary and determine upon the -most suitable antonyms. - - +Monday+ - - Legal - Illegal - - Artificial - Natural - - Assert - Deny - - +Tuesday+ - - Civilized - Barbarous - - Courage - Cowardice - - Active - Passive - - +Wednesday+ - - Initial - Final - - Temporary - Permanent - - History - Legend - - +Thursday+ - - Addition - Cleverness - Assured - Genuine - Acquit - Increase - - +Friday+ - - Affection - Composure - Enlarge - Anxious - Prompt - Discord - - +Saturday+ - - Succeed - Describe - Winning - Wasteful - Superficial - Grieve - -Write the proper word in the following blanks: - - PATIENTS or PATIENCE - - The Doctor has many....... - We have no......with stupidity. - - NEGLIGENCE or NEGLECT - - The accident was due to the......of the employer. - He has been guilty of......of his family for he was injured by the - criminal......of the Railroad Company. - - OBSERVANCE or OBSERVATION - - The troops were concealed from....... - Trade Unions never fail in the......of Labor Day. - A man's own......will guide him in the......of all good customs. - - RELATIVES or RELATIONS - - Taft and Roosevelt did not always have pleasant......with each other. - He has gone to visit his....... - We do not always have pleasant......with our....... - - SECTS or SEX - - There are many religious....... - Woman is refused the ballot because of her....... - - STATUE or STATUTE - - The law was placed upon the......books. - The world will sometime erect a......to the man of the people. - -Do not fear to be thought a "high-brow" if you use these words in your -every day speech. The very people who may laugh are in their hearts -admiring you, and are, in all probability, envious. The man who has -accused another of being a "high-brow" has by that very act, admitted -his own inferiority. - -Demand the best for yourself in words, as in everything else. - - - - - PLAIN ENGLISH - - LESSON 30 - - -Dear Comrade: - -With this lesson we are finishing this course in Plain English. We have -covered a great deal of ground and have studied the essentials of -grammar. We have tried, as far as possible, to avoid the stupid conning -of rules or learning by rote. We have attempted at least to make the -reason and necessity for every rule apparent before the rule was stated. - -We have also tried to weave into the lessons something of the romance of -language, for language is a romance; in its growth is written the epic -of the race. Our words portray the struggle of man from savage to sage. -So, feeble as our efforts in this regard may have been, we trust that -you have enjoyed and profited by this course and have caught a new -vision of life. Most of us are forced so inexorably into the bitter -struggle for existence that we have little time or opportunity to catch -much of the beauty of life. That is the curse of a society that dooms -its citizens to weary, toil-burdened lives, robbed of the joy and beauty -of living. - -Yet, if we know how to read we can always have access to books and -through them we can escape the sordidness and ugliness of the life in -which we are compelled to live and spend at least a little time each day -in the company of great souls who speak to us from the printed page. The -quotations in these lessons have been taken from these great writers. - -Will you not pursue the acquaintanceship and become real friends with -these men and women? Above all things they will bring you into the -atmosphere of liberty and of freedom. For throughout all the pain of the -struggle of the past and of the present, there has been the fight of man -for freedom. We have gained the mastery over nature. Wild animals, which -were a constant menace to savage man, have been destroyed. We have been -freed from fear and superstition by the discovery of the laws of nature. -With the invention of the machine, man has increased his ability to -provide the essentials of life,--food, clothing and shelter--a -thousandfold. The past has seen revolution after revolution in the -struggle for mastery. - -We now stand on the threshold of another great revolution when man shall -master the machines which he has invented and shall cease serving them -and make them serve him. His increased facilities for food-getting and -shelter-getting shall be made to serve all mankind. We have a part to -play in that great revolution. - -Whatever you may have gained from the study of this course; what -increased facility of understanding or of expression may have come to -you; may it be not only for the service of yourself but also for the -service of the revolution that shall bring the worker into his own. - - Yours for Education, - - THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. - - - THE ETERNAL WHY - -+522.+ There is no more important mark of punctuation than the -Interrogation Point. Asking questions is the foundation and beginning of -all wisdom. Progress is based upon the eternal _Why_. If men had always -been satisfied with the knowledge of their age and had not continually -asked questions which they set themselves to answer, we would still be -living in caves or dwelling in trees. - -The natural child, that is, the child whose will has not been broken, is -an animated Interrogation Point. He is full of questions. He wants to -know _why_ this and _why_ that. This is a most natural trait and one -that should not be destroyed. It may sadly interfere sometimes with the -things that we wish to do, to stop and answer the child's questions as -to why cats have tails or who made the world and what did he stand on -while he was doing it; but it is decidedly important that some one -should answer these questions which the child asks, in a manner to -satisfy its present craving for knowledge. The fact that this trait has -been quenched in so many children by the impatient grown-ups explains -their stupidity in later years. Encourage every child to ask questions. -Encourage it also to be persistent until it finds somewhere the answer -to its questions. - -Cultivate also this trait yourself. Do not accept a thing simply because -some one says it is so. Insist upon knowing for yourself. This is the -secret of progress, that we should think for ourselves, investigate for -ourselves and not fear to face the facts of life or to express our own -ideas. The wise man does not accept a thing because it is old nor does -he reject it because it is new. He inquires, demands, reasons and -satisfies himself as to the merit of the question. So the Interrogation -Point in the written language of man has a tremendous meaning. It stands -for the open and inquiring mind; for the courage that dares question all -things and seek the truth. - - - THE INTERROGATION POINT - -+523.+ An Interrogation Point should be placed after every direct -question. - -A direct question is one that can be answered. An indirect question is -one that cannot be answered. If I say, _Why do you not study?_, I am -asking a direct question to which you can give an answer; but if I say, -_I wonder why you do not study_, I have asked an indirect question which -does not require a direct answer. - - Why do you not go? (_Direct_) - He asked why you did not go. (_Indirect_) - -+524.+ When an interrogative clause is repeated in the body of another -sentence, use the interrogation point after the clause, and begin the -clause with a capital letter. For example: - - The question, _Shall we be involved in war?_, should be settled by - the people. - - - THE EXCLAMATION POINT - -+525.+ The exclamation point should be placed after words, phrases or -sentences that express strong emotion. For example: - - Oh! When shall peace reign again? - Alas! I am undone! - To the firing line! the battle rages! - -+526.+ Ordinarily the exclamation point is placed immediately after the -interjection or word used as an interjection, but frequently when the -strong emotion continues throughout the expression, the exclamation -point is placed at the close of the sentence instead of after the -interjection, even though the interjection comes first in the sentence. -For example: - - On, Comrades, on! - Charge, Chester, charge! - - - THE DASH - -+527.+ The dash is a much abused punctuation mark. A great many writers -who are not familiar with the rules of punctuation use a dash whenever -they feel the need of some sort of a punctuation mark. Their rule seems -to be, "whenever you pause make a dash." Punctuation marks indicate -pauses but a dash should not be used upon every occasion. The dash -should not be used as a substitute for the comma, semi-colon, colon, -etc. In reality, the dash should be used only when these marks cannot be -correctly used. - -+528.+ The chief use of the dash is to indicate a sudden break in the -thought or a sudden change in the construction of the sentence. For -example: - - In the next place--but I cannot discuss the matter further under the - circumstances. - -+529.+ The dash is frequently used to set a parenthetical expression off -from the rest of the sentence when it has not as close connection with -the sentence as would be indicated by commas. As for example: - - - The contention may be true--although I do not believe it--that this - sort of training is necessary. - -+530.+ The dash is also used in place of commas to denote a longer or -more expressive pause. For example: - - The man sank--then rose--then sank again. - -+531.+ The dash is often used after an enumeration of several items as a -summing up. For example: - - Production, distribution, consumption--all are a part of economics. - -+532.+ A dash is often used when a word or phrase is repeated for -emphasis. For example: - - Is there universal education--education for every child beneath the - flag? It is not for the masses of the children--not for the children - of the masses. - -+533.+ If the parenthetical statements within dashes require punctuation -marks, this mark should be placed before the second dash. For example: - - War for defense--and was there ever a war that was not for - defense?--was permitted by the International. - This sight--what a wonderful sight it was!--greeted our eyes with the - dawn. - -+534.+ The dash is also used to indicate the omission of a word, -especially such words as _as_, _namely_, _viz._, etc. For example: - - Society is divided into two classes--the exploited and the exploiting - classes. - -+535.+ After a quotation, use the dash before the name of the author. -For example: - - Life only avails, not the having lived.--_Emerson_. - -+536.+ The dash is used to mark the omission of letters or figures. For -example: - - It happened in the city of M--. - It was in the year 18--. - - - PARENTHESIS - -+537.+ In our study of the comma and the dash we have found that -parenthetical statements are set off from the rest of the sentence -sometimes by a comma and sometimes by a dash. When the connection with -the rest of the sentence is close, and yet the words are thrown in in a -parenthetical way, commas are used to separate the parenthetical -statement from the rest of the sentence. - -+538.+ When the connection is not quite so close, the dash is used -instead of the comma to indicate the fact that this statement is thrown -in by way of explanation or additional statement. But when we use -explanatory words or parenthetical statements that have little or no -connection with the rest of the sentence, these phrases or clauses are -separated from the rest of the sentences by the parenthesis. - -+539.+ +GENERAL RULE:--Marks of parenthesis are used to set off -expressions that have no vital connection with the rest of the -sentence.+ For example: - - Ignorance (and why should we hesitate to acknowledge it?) keeps us - enslaved. - Education (and this is a point that needs continual emphasis) is the - foundation of all progress. - - - THE PUNCTUATION OF THE PARENTHESIS - -+540.+ If the parenthetical statement asks a question or voices an -exclamation, it should be followed by the interrogation point or the -exclamation point, within the parenthesis. For example: - - We are all of us (who can deny it?) partial to our own failings. - The lecturer (and what a marvelous orator he is!) held the audience - spellbound for hours. - - - OTHER USES OF THE PARENTHESIS - -+541.+ An Interrogation Point is oftentimes placed within a parenthesis -in the body of a sentence to express doubt or uncertainty as to the -accuracy of our statement. For example: - - In 1858 (?) this great movement was started. - John (?) Smith was the next witness. - -+542.+ The parenthesis is used to include numerals or letters in the -enumeration of particulars. For example: - - Economics deals with (1) production, (2) distribution, - (3) consumption. - There are three sub-heads; (a) grammar, (b) rhetoric, (c) composition. - -+543.+ Marks of parenthesis are used to inclose an amount or number -written in figures when it is also written in words, as: - - We will need forty (40) machines in addition to those we now have. - Enclosed find Forty Dollars ($40.00) to apply on account. - - - THE BRACKET - -+544.+ The bracket [] indicates that the word or words included in the -bracket are not in the original discourse. - -+545.+ The bracket is generally used by editors in supplying missing -words, dates and the like, and for corrections, additions and -explanations. For example: - - This rule usually applies though there are some exceptions. [See Note - 3, Rule 1, Page 67]. - -+546.+ All interpretations, notes, corrections and explanations, which -introduce words or phrases not used by the author himself, should be -enclosed in brackets. - -+547.+ Brackets are also used for a parenthesis within a parenthesis. If -we wish to introduce a parenthetical statement within a parenthetical -statement this should be enclosed in a bracket. For example: - - He admits that this fact (the same fact which the previous witness - [Mr. James E. Smith] had denied) was only partially true. - - - QUOTATION MARKS - -+548.+ Quotation marks are used to show that the words enclosed by them -are the exact words of the writer or speaker. - -+549.+ A direct quotation is always enclosed in quotation marks. For -example: - - He remarked, "I believe it to be true." - -But an indirect quotation is not enclosed in quotation marks. For -example: - - He remarked that he believed it was true. - -+550.+ When the name of an author is given at the close of a quotation -it is not necessary to use the quotation marks. For example: - - All courage comes from braving the unequal.--_Eugene F. Ware_. - -When the name of the author precedes the quotation, the marks are used, -as in the following: - - It was Eugene F. Ware who said, "Men are not great except they do and - dare." - -+551.+ When we are referring to titles of books, magazines or -newspapers, or words and phrases used in illustration, we enclose them -in quotation marks, unless they are written in italics. For example: - - "Whitman's Leaves of Grass" or _Whitman's Leaves of Grass_. "The New - York Call" or _The New York Call_. The word "book" is a noun, or, The - word _book_ is a noun. - - - THE QUOTATION WITHIN A QUOTATION - -+552.+ When a quotation is contained within another, the included -quotation should be enclosed by single quotation marks and the entire -quotation enclosed by the usual marks. For example: - - He began by saying, "The last words of Ferrer, 'Long live the modern - school' might serve as the text for this lecture." - The speaker replied, "It was Karl Marx who said, 'Government always - belongs to those who control the wealth of the country.'" - -You will note in this sentence that the quotation within the quotation -occurs at the end of the sentence so there are three apostrophes used -after it, the single apostrophe to indicate the included quotation and -the double apostrophe which follows the entire quotation. - - - PUNCTUATION WITH QUOTATION MARKS - -+553.+ Marks of punctuation are (except the interrogation point and the -exclamation point which are explained later) placed inside the quotation -marks. For example: - - A wise man said, "Know thyself." - -Notice that the period is placed after the word _thyself_ and is -followed by the quotation marks. - - "We can easily rout the enemy," declared the speaker. - -Notice that the comma is placed after _enemy_, and before the quotation -marks. - -+554.+ The Interrogation Point and the Exclamation Point are placed -within the quotation marks if they refer _only_ to the words quoted, but -if they belong to the entire sentence they should be placed outside the -quotation marks. For example: - - He said, "Will you come now?" - Did he say, "Will you come now"? - He said, "What a beautiful night!" - How wonderfully inspiring is Walt Whitman's poem, "The Song of the - Open Road"! - -+555.+ Sometimes parenthetical or explanatory words are inserted within -a quotation. These words should be set off by commas, and both parts of -the quotation enclosed in quotation marks. For example: - - "I am aware," he said, "that you do not agree with me." - "But why," the speaker was asked, "should you make such a statement?" - "I do not believe," he replied, "that you have understood me." - - - THE APOSTROPHE - -+556.+ The apostrophe is used to indicate the omission of letters or -syllables, as: _He doesn't_, instead of _does not_; _We're_, instead of -_we are_; _I'm_, instead of _I am_; _ it's_, instead of _it is_; -_ne'er_, instead of _never_; _they'll_, instead of _they will_, etc. - -+557.+ The apostrophe is also used to denote possession. In the single -form of the nouns it precedes the _s_. In the plural form of nouns -ending in _s_ it follows the _s_. For example: - - Boy's, man's, girl's, king's, friend's, etc. - Boys', men's, girls', kings', friends', etc. - -Note that the apostrophe is not used with the possessive pronouns -_ours_, _yours_, _its_, _theirs_, _hers_. - -+558.+ The apostrophe is used to indicate the plural of letters, figures -or signs. For example: - - Dot your _i's_ and cross your _t's_. - He seems unable to learn the table of 8's and 9's. - Do not make your _n's_ and _u's_ so much alike. - -+559.+ The apostrophe is used to mark the omission of the century in -dates, as: '87 instead of 1887, '15 instead of 1915. - - - THE HYPHEN - -+560.+ The hyphen is used between the parts of a compound word or at the -end of a line to indicate that a word is divided. We have so many -compound words in our language which we have used so often that we have -almost forgotten that they were compound words so it is not always easy -to decide whether the hyphen belongs in a word or not. As, for example; -we find such words as _schoolhouse_, _bookkeeper_, _railway_ and many -others which are, in reality, compound words and in the beginning were -written with the hyphen. We have used them so frequently and their use -as compound words has become so commonplace, that we no longer use the -hyphen in writing them. Yet frequently you will find them written with -the hyphen by some careful writer. - -+561.+ As a general rule the parts of all words which are made by -uniting two or more words into one should be joined by hyphens, as: - - Men-of-war, knee-deep, half-hearted, full-grown, mother-in-law, etc. - -+562.+ The numerals expressing a compound number should be united by a -hyphen, as; _forty-two_, _twenty-seven_, _thirty-nine_, etc. - -+563.+ When the word _self_ is used with an adverb, a noun or an -adjective, it is always connected by the hyphen, as; _self-confidence_, -_self-confident_, _self-confidently_, _self-command_, _self-assertive_, -_self-asserting_, etc. - -+564.+ When the word _fold_ is added to a number of more than one -syllable, the hyphen is always used, as; _thirty-fold_, _forty-fold_, -_fifty-fold_, etc. If the numeral has but one syllable, do not use the -hyphen, as; _twofold_, _threefold_, _fourfold_, etc. - -+565.+ When fractions are written in words instead of figures always use -the hyphen, as; _one-half_, _one-fourth_, _three-sevenths_, -_nine-twelfths_, etc. - -+566.+ The words _half_ and _quarter_, when used with any word, should -be connected by a hyphen, as; _half-dollar_, _quarter-pound_, -_half-skilled_, _half-barbaric_, _half-civilized_, _half-dead_, -_half-spent_, etc. - -+567.+ Sometimes we coin a phrase for temporary use in which the words -are connected by the hyphen. For example: - - It was a never-to-be-forgotten day. - He wore a sort of I-told-you-so air. - They were fresh-from-the-pen copies. - - - ADDITIONAL MARKS OF PUNCTUATION - -There are a few other marks of punctuation which we do not often use in -writing but which we find on the printed page. It is well for us to know -the meaning of these marks. - -+568.+ The caret (^) is used to mark the omission of a letter or word or -a number of words. The omitted part is generally written above, and the -caret shows where it should be inserted. For example: - - s - I cannot give you this permis ion. - ^ - received - I have just a letter from him. - ^ - - Please write your matriculation number on all examination - and all letters - papers sent in to the College. - ^ - -The above examples illustrate the use of the caret with the omission of -a letter, a word or phrase. - -+569.+ If a letter or manuscript is not too long, it should always be -rewritten and the omissions properly inserted. Occasionally, however, we -are in a hurry and our time is too limited to rewrite an entire letter -because of the omission of a single letter or word so we can insert it -by the use of the caret. If, however, there are many mistakes, the -letter or paper should be rewritten, for the too frequent use of the -caret indicates carelessness in writing and does not produce a favorable -impression upon the recipient of your letter or manuscript. - - - MARKS OF ELLIPSIS - -+570.+ Sometimes a long dash (--------) or succession of asterisks (* * -* * * *) or of points (. . . . . .) is used to indicate the omission of -a portion of a sentence or a discourse. In printed matter usually the -asterisks are used to indicate an omission. In typewritten matter -usually a succession of points is used to indicate an omission. In -writing, these are difficult to make and the omission of the portion of -material is usually indicated by a succession of short dashes (-- -- -- ---). - - - MARKS OF REFERENCE - -+571.+ On the printed page you will often find the asterisk (*), or the -dagger, ([Symbol: dagger]), the section (symbol for Section), or parallel -lines (||), used to call your attention to some note or remark written at -the close of the paragraph or on the margin, at the bottom of the page or -the end of the chapter. It is advisable to hunt these up as soon as you -come to the mark which indicates their presence, for they usually contain -some matter which explains or adds to the meaning of the sentence which -you have just finished reading. - - - Exercise 1 - -In the following exercise, note the various marks of punctuation and -determine why each one is used: - - - THE MARSEILLAISE - - Ye sons of toil, awake to glory! - Hark, hark, what myriads bid you rise; - Your children, wives and grandsires hoary-- - Behold their tears and hear their cries! - Shall hateful tyrants, mischief breeding, - With hireling hosts, a ruffian band,-- - Affright and desolate the land, - While peace and liberty lie bleeding? - - CHORUS - - To arms! to arms! ye brave! - Th' avenging sword unsheathe! - March on, march on, all hearts resolved - On Victory or Death. - - With luxury and pride surrounded, - The vile, insatiate despots dare, - Their thirst for gold and power unbounded, - To mete and vend the light and air; - Like beasts of burden would they load us, - Like gods would bid their slaves adore, - But Man is Man, and who is more? - Then shall they longer lash and goad us? (CHORUS) - - O Liberty! can man resign thee, - Once having felt thy generous flame? - Can dungeons' bolts and bars confine thee, - Or whip thy noble spirit tame? - Too long the world has wept bewailing, - That Falsehood's dagger tyrants wield; - But Freedom is our sword and shield, - And all their arts are unavailing! (CHORUS) - - --_Rouget de Lisle_. - - - THUS SPAKE ZARATHUSTRA - - I teach ye the Over-man. The man is something who shall be overcome. - What have ye done to overcome him? - - All being before this made something beyond itself: and you will be - the ebb of this great flood, and rather go back to the beast than - overcome the man? - - What is the ape to the man? A mockery or a painful shame. And even so - shall man be to the Over-man: a mockery or a painful shame. - - Man is a cord, tied between Beast and Over-man--a cord above an abyss. - - A perilous arriving, a perilous traveling, a perilous looking - backward, a perilous trembling and standing still. - - What is great in man is that he is a bridge, and no goal; what can be - loved in man is that he is a going-over and a going-under. - - I love them that know how to live, be it even as those going under, - for such are those going across. - - I love them that are great in scorn, because these are they that are - great in reverence, and arrows of longing toward the other - shore!--_Nietzsche_. - - - - - SPELLING - - LESSON 30 - -There are a great many words in English which are frequently -mispronounced; the accent is placed upon the wrong syllable; for -example, _thea'ter_ instead of _the'ater_; the wrong sound is given to -the vowel, for example, _hearth_ is pronounced _hurth_. Sometimes, too, -an extra letter is added in the pronunciation; for example, _once_ is -often pronounced as though it were spelled _wunst_. - -The following is a list of common words that are frequently -mispronounced, and there are many others which you may add to this list -as they occur to you. Look up the correct pronunciation in the -dictionary and pronounce them many times aloud. - -In the second column in this list is given the incorrect pronunciation, -which we often hear. - - Acoustics a-cow-stics - Aeroplane air-e-o-plane - Apron a-pron - Athlete ath-a-lete - Autopsy au-top'-sy - Awkward awk-ard - Column col-yum - Coupon coo-pon - Deficit de-fic'it - Diphtheria dip-ther-y - Economic ee'co-nom-ic - Errand ur-rant - Faucet fos-set - Figure fig-ger - Film fill-um - Finance fi'nance - Guardian guar-deen' - Height heighth - Hostile hos-tile' - Hundred hund'erd - Idea i-dee' - Inaugurate in-aug-er-ate - Inquiry in'qui-ry - Inventory in-ven'-to-ry - Length lenth - Magazine mag'-a'zinn - Mischievous mis-chie'-vi-ous - Municipal mu-ni-cip'-al - Opponent op'-ponent - Overalls over-hauls - Rheumatism rheumatiz - Stomach stum-ick - Twice twict - Vaudeville vaw'de-ville - -There are a number of words in English which sound very much alike and -which we are apt to confuse. For example, I heard a man recently say in -a speech that the party to which he belonged had taken slow poison and -now needed an anecdote. It is presumed that he meant that it needed an -antidote. Some one else remarked that a certain individual had not been -expelled but simply expended. He undoubtedly meant that the individual -had been suspended. - -This confusion in the use of words detracts from the influence which our -statements would otherwise have. There are a number of words which are -so nearly alike that it is very easy to be confused in the use of them. -In our spelling lesson for this week we have a number of the most common -of these easily confounded words. Add to the list as many others as you -can. - - +Monday+ - - Lightening, _to make light_ - Lightning, _an electric flash_ - Prophesy, _to foretell_ - Prophecy, _a prediction_ - Accept, _to take_ - Except, _to leave out_ - - +Tuesday+ - - Advice, _counsel_ - Advise, _to give counsel_ - Attendants, _servants_ - Attendance, _those present_ - Stationary, _fixed_ - Stationery, _pens_, _paper_, _etc._ - - +Wednesday+ - - Formerly, _in the past_ - Formally, _in a formal way_ - Addition, _process of adding_ - Edition, _publication_ - Celery, _a vegetable_ - Salary, _wages_ - - +Thursday+ - - Series, _a succession_ - Serious, _solemn_ - Precedent, _an example_ - President, _chief or head_ - Partition, _a division_ - Petition, _a request_ - - +Friday+ - - Ingenious, _skillful_ - Ingenuous, _honest_ - Jester, _one who jests_ - Gesture, _action_ - Lose, _to suffer loss_ - Loose, _to untie_ - - +Saturday+ - - Presence, _nearness_ - Presents, _gifts_ - Veracity, _truthfulness_ - Voracity, _greediness_ - Disease, _illness_ - Decease, _death_ - - - THE END AND THE BEGINNING - -As we look back over the study of these thirty lessons we find that we -have covered quite a little ground. We have covered the entire field of -English grammar including punctuation. But our study of English must not -conclude with the study of this course. This is simply the foundation -which we have laid for future work. You know when students graduate from -high school or college the graduation is called the Commencement. That -is a peculiarly fitting term, for the gaining of knowledge ought truly -to be the commencement of life for us. - -Some one has said that the pursuit of knowledge might be compared to a -man's marriage to a charming, wealthy woman. He pursued and married her -because of her wealth but after marriage found her so charming that he -grew to love her for herself. So we ofttimes pursue wisdom for practical -reasons because we expect it to serve us in the matter of making a -living; because we expect it to make us more efficient workers; to -increase our efficiency to such an extent that we may command a higher -salary, enter a better profession and be more certain of a job. - -All this is well; but we often find that after we have pursued wisdom -for these reasons, practical as they are, we have fallen in love with -her for her own sake. We begin to take pleasure in her society; we begin -to want to know things for the sake of knowing them, for the pleasure -that it brings us, quite divorced from any idea of monetary gain. - -So while we have urged upon you the study of English because of the -great practical benefit that it will be to you, we trust that you have -also grown to love the study for its own sake. - -Make this but the beginning of your work in the study of English. - - - - - INDEX - (by Section No.) - - Abbreviations, 486-489 - - Absolute Construction, 399 - - Adjectives - Defined, 36 - Classification of, 242-245 - Qualifying, 246 - Limiting, 246 - Descriptive, 248 - Numeral, 249-250 - Demonstrative, 251 - How to discover, 247 - Interrogative, 255 - Indefinite, 256-257 - Used as pronouns, 258-259 - Used as nouns, 261 - Comparison of, 264-271 - Participles used as, 272-274 - Participle phrases used as, 275 - - Adverbs - Defined, 41, 282 - Use of, 279-281 - How to tell, 283 - Classes of, 284 - Interrogative, 285 - Of mode, 286, 397 - Phrase Adverbs, 287 - To Distinguish from Adj, 288-289 - Derivation of, 290 - Nouns used as, 291 - Comparison of, 292-294 - Position of, 295 - With Infinitive, 296 - Common errors in use of, 297-298 - - Articles - A and An, use of, 252-253 - The, use of, 254 - - Capital Letters - Need of, 464 - Uses of, 22, 60, 465 - Rules for, 466-484 - - Clauses - Defined, 406 - Noun, 361-366, 371, 445 - Adjective, 367-372, 446 - With Conjunctions, 376 - Introduced by as, 378 - Adverb, 447 - Dependent, kinds of, 444-447 - - Conjunctions - Defined, 52, 331 - Uses of, 328 - Classes of, 329-330 - Co-ordinate, 332-334 - Uses of, 336-345 - Correlatives, 346 - Subordinate, defined, 349 - Use of, 347 - Classes of, 350-359 - Phrase Conjunctions, 360 - - Connective Words - Classes of, 379 - Uses of, 380-385 - - Contractions, 485 - - Dictionary, Use of, 4 - - Exclamatory Words, 390-391 - - Explanatory Words, 398 - - Good English, defined, 2 - - Grammar, English, defined, 10 - - Independent Expressions, 393 - - Infinitives - Use of, 151-167 - To, omitted, 153-155 - Forms of, 156 - Passive, 156-157 - - Interjections - Defined, 57, 388 - Classes of, 389 - - Introductory Words, 394-396 - - Language - Defined, 8 - Natural, 5 - Spoken, 6 - Written, 7 - - Nouns - Defined, 26 - Classification of, 59 - Proper, defined, 60 - Common, defined, 60 - Collective, defined, 61 - Abstract, 62-66 - Concrete, 63 - Number, defined, 68 - Number, Singular, 68 - Number, Plural, 68 - Formation of Plural, 69-84 - Formation of Possessive, 89-90, 92 - Compound, 91 - Gender, defined, 85 - Formation of Feminine, 86 - Neuter, 87 - Common, 88 - - Object - Direct, 100, 408-410, 427-430 - Indirect, 408-410 - - Participle - Defined, 116 - Active form, 114 - Present form, 114, 148 - Passive form, 115, 148 - Past form, 115 - Past irregular forms, 124 - Used as nouns, 148 - Used as adjective, 272-274 - Phrase, 149-150 - Phrase used as adjective, 275 - - Parts of Speech, 24 - - Phrases - Verb, 29, 413 - Adverbs, 287 - Prepositional, 300-305, 317-321 - Prepositions, 308 - Conjunctions, 360 - - Predicate - Defined, 17 - Complete, 406, 425 - Simple, 406 - Simple Enlarged, 463 - Complement, 411-412 - Modifiers of, 461 - - Prepositions - Defined, 47, 305 - Use of, 309-312 - Object of, 304, 313 - List of, 306 - How to Distinguish from Adverbs, 307 - Phrase prepositions, 308 - Place of, 314-316 - Common errors in use of, 322 - With verbs, 327 - Choice of, 323-326 - - Prepositional Phrases, 300-305 - Use of, 317-321 - - Pronouns - Defined, 43, 202 - Antecedent of, 203 - Personal, 204 - Compound personal, 205-208 - Number forms of, 209 - Object forms of, 214-215 - Possessive forms of, 211-213 - Gender forms of, 216 - With verb "be", 217-218 - Agreement of, 219-225 - Personification, 226 - Interrogative, 228-231 - Relative, 232-236 - What, 234, 236-240 - Who, 234, 235, 240 - Which, 234-236, 240 - That, 234-236 - Omitted, 239 - - Punctuation - Need of, 490-493 - Marks of, 494 - The Comma, 495-496 - Rules for use of, 497-506 - The Semi-colon, 407-511 - The Colon, 512-515 - The Period, 22, 516-521 - The Interrogation Point, 22, 523-524 - The Exclamation Point, 22, 525-526 - The Dash, 527-536 - The Parenthesis, 537-543 - The Bracket, 544-547 - The Quotation Marks, 548-555 - The Apostrophe, 556-559 - The Hyphen, 560-567 - The Caret, 568 - Marks of Ellipsis, 570 - Marks of Reference, 571 - - Responsives, 392 - - Sentence - Defined, 15 - Essentials of, 18 - Use of, 19 - Assertive, 20 - Interrogative, 20 - Imperative, 20 - Exclamatory, 21 - Elements, order of, 436-438 - Analysis of, 456-457 - Simple, defined, 404-406 - Modifiers of, 434-435 - Essentials of, 459 - Analysis of, 402-405 - Complex, 406, 443, 451 - Analysis of, 448 - Compound, defined, 406, 452 - Kinds of, 453-455 - Building of, 400 - Classification of, 401 - Summary of, 458 - Subject of, 416-420 - - Subject - Defined, 16 - Complete, 406 - Simple, 406 - Simple, enlarged, 462 - Place of, 421-424 - - Thought, Complete, 12-14 - - Verb - Defined, 29 - Complete, 95, 103, 131, 158 - Incomplete, 95, 103, 131, 426 - Classified, 99, 103 - Complement of, 95, 102 - Transitive, defined, 100, 103 - Object of, 100, 141 - Copulative, 102-103, 431-433 - Time forms - Present, 104, 108, 111 - Past, 104, 109, 111 - Future, 118-120 - Pres. Perf., 121-123, 145 - Past Perf., 126 - Future Perf., 128 - Regular, 110 - Irregular, 110 - Progressive Form, 133 - Present, 134, 146 - Past, 135, 146 - Future, 136, 146 - Pres. Perf., 138, 146 - Past Perf., 139, 146 - Fut. Perf., 140, 146 - Active, 142 - Passive, 141-146 - Helping, 168-184 - Be, 186 - Lay, lie, set, sit, raise, rise, 191-193 - S-form, 106, 194-196 - Phrase, 29, 413-414 - - Words - Defined, 8 - Mastery of, 10 - Use of, 23 - - - - - * * * * * - - - - -Transcriber's note: - - 1. Punctuation errors such as incorrect or missing end-of-sentence - punctuation, period for comma in mid-sentence, and missing end - quotation marks have been corrected without comment. Inconsistency - in the author's spelling of certain words, such as today/to-day have - been retained. - - 2. The list of foreign words broken across pp. 44-45 (section 80.) and - the list of abbreviations broken across pp. 295-296 (section 489.) - were rearranged to preserve alphabetical order. - - 3. The numbering in Exercise 4 on p. 110 (section 193.) was corrected. - - 4. Added ditto marks (") to the table on p. 153 (section 270). - - 5. Commas were added to the separate the abbreviations on p. 305 - (section 518). - - 6. The following typographical errors were corrected: - - Page - 10 "your vocabularly" changed to "your vocabulary" - 23 "verb-phrase" changed to "verb phrase" - 38 "as limited a vocabularly" changed to "as limited a vocabulary" - 41 "the name of person" changed to "the name of the person" - 44 "Mr. Hays" changed to "Mr. Hayes" - 82 "the Bastile" changed to "the Bastille" - 143 "publiher" changed to "publisher" - 157 "than he had them" changed to "than he had then" - 180 "the noun _man_" changed to "the noun _men_" (two instances) - 182 "a little work" changed to "a little word" - 187 "_of_ the desire of" changed to "of the desire _of_" - 191 "expresed" changed to "expressed" - 207 "He feels keenly and deeply and wrongs of his class." changed - to "He feels keenly and deeply the wrongs of his class." - 222 "our expression of it become more simple." changed to "our - expression of it became more simple." - 238 "in apposition to the pronoun I" changed to "in apposition to the - pronoun We". - 252 "_I_ see a pale face" changed to "_I see_ a pale face" - 265 "With your faces pinches and blue" changed to "with your faces - pinched and blue" - 271 "the _party which fought for their rights_" changed to "the - party _which fought for their rights_" - 277 "Find _e_ or _y_" changed to "Final _e_ or _y_" - 287 "The prefix _in_ used with adjectives" changed to "The prefix - _un_ used with adjectives" - 312 "The dash if often used" changed to "The dash is often used" - - - -***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PLAIN ENGLISH*** - - -******* This file should be named 40550.txt or 40550.zip ******* - - -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: -http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/4/0/5/5/40550 - - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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