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diff --git a/40550-0.txt b/40550-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..9df05a2 --- /dev/null +++ b/40550-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,20731 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 40550 *** + +Transcriber's note: + + Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). + + Text enclosed by plus signs is in bold face (+bold+). + + Text enclosed by tilde characters is underlined (~underlined~). + + Text enclosed by equal signs is double underlined + (=double underlined=). + + The Key to Pronunciation, p. 37 (Spelling Lesson 3), contains + characters with diacritical marks not available in Latin-1 + character encoding. Therefore, they have been transcribed as + follows: + [=x] character 'x' with macron (bar) above the letter + [.x] character 'x' with dot above the letter + [~x] character 'x' with tilde (curved bar) above the letter + + + + + +PLAIN ENGLISH + +by + +MARIAN WHARTON + +_For the Education of the Workers +by the Workers_ + + + + + + + +Published by +The People's College +Fort Scott, Kansas +1917 + + + + +¶ He who aspires to master the art of expression must first of all +consecrate himself completely to some great cause and the greatest cause +of all is the cause of humanity. He must learn to feel deeply and think +clearly, to express himself eloquently. He must be absolutely true to +the best there is in him, if he has to stand alone. + +¶ Such natural powers as he may have should be cultivated by the study +of history, science and literature. He must not only keep close to the +people but remember that he is one of them, and not above the meanest. +He must feel the wrongs of others so keenly that he forgets his own, and +resolve to combat these wrongs with all the power at his command. + +¶ The most thrilling, inspiring oratory, the most powerful and +impressive eloquence is the voice of the disinherited, the oppressed, +the suffering and submerged; it is the voice of poverty and misery, of +rags and crusts, of wretchedness and despair; the voice of humanity +crying to the infinite; the voice that resounds throughout the earth and +reaches Heaven; the voice that awakens the conscience of a race and +proclaims the truths that fill the world with life and liberty and love. + + --EUGENE V. DEBS. + + + + + FOREWORD + + +Every generation has added a little to the store of truth of which the +human race has possessed itself throughout the long sweep of the +centuries. Every truth expressed and preserved by those who lived in the +past, is a contribution which enriches the lives of those who live in +the present. We, as members of the human race, are not separate atoms +independent of the universe, but we are atoms of it. We are the product +of all time, and partake of the truth of all preceding generations, in +which the power to express ideas and preserve them has existed. + +One reason why the race has not profited more largely by the discoveries +of previous generations, is the fact that we feel so profoundly the +discovery of a truth of any nature, that we are prone to dogmatize it by +a rule or set of rules. + +This usually results in shutting away from us the real principle of +which the rule is but an evidence. A mechanic may learn every detail of +every rule for the construction of a steam engine, but if he lacks the +understanding of the principles which give rise to the rules, they will +avail nothing and his work must fail. If, however, he understands the +principles involved, his work will stand the test, though he has no +knowledge of rules as such. + +In teaching the English language, the rules have been stressed, while +the principles have been submerged, so that the teaching of rules has +not resulted in the improvement of the student. + +The People's College, realizing this, has, through the author of this +work, revolutionized the teaching of the fundamental principles that +underlie the use of language. The stress is laid upon principles instead +of rules, so that the student, whether he remember a rule or not, will +never forget the application of these principles to the use of the +written and spoken word. + +The assertion is ventured that no more practical and effective method +can be devised for the rapid and thorough teaching of these principles. +Moreover, the importance of this new departure in method cannot be +over-estimated, when we consider that only through the use of language +can information be disseminated concerning other branches of learning. +This science, then, lies at the very base of all real education, and a +mastery of it puts the student in possession of the only weapon by means +of which he may master all other sciences. + +The author has, with peculiar aptitude, grasped the fundamental +character of the foregoing facts and has adapted the study of language +to the real principles involved. All the dry rules that are the +witnesses of principles in the ordinary text are done away, while the +principles evidenced by those rules come forth to the light in practical +application, with a beauty of expression and a real utility that render +the mastery of the subject an entertaining excursion into the realms of +learning, rather than a dry imprisonment of the faculties in an effort +to memorize misunderstood rules without apparent reason or real use. + +It is the principle behind the rule that has power in it. When this is +understood, the method pursued by the author in this course will be +universally applied to all branches of learning, and will end forever +the imprisonment of children for the useless worship of rules. + +The author's grasp of this fact and the exemplification of it, contained +in this work are even more far-reaching than the foregoing would +indicate. It really means the application of a new viewpoint to life +itself. It means the questioning of the utility of authority; the +questioning of the utility of institutions; the application, we might +say, of such a test as this: Does any rule, does any authority, does any +principle, conserve the interests of humanity? If not, away with it. +This means rationalism, the use of common sense. It means that at last +the race is beginning to consciously direct its own destiny. + +It is with a profound sense of the necessity of education as a part of +the evolutionary process now in the conscious grasp of the race, and +with a conviction of the fundamental importance of the new viewpoint so +ably presented by the author that we dedicate this work "To the +Education of the Workers by the Workers." + + THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. + + + + + TABLE OF CONTENTS + + + PLAIN ENGLISH + + I. Language Study 9 + II. Nouns and Verbs 18 + III. Parts of Speech 27 + IV. Nouns 38 + V. Verbs 50 + VI. Inflection of Verbs 58 + VII. Time Forms of Verbs 69 + VIII. Time Forms, Cont'd. 78 + IX. Participles and Infinitives 88 + X. Helping Verbs 97 + XI. Verbs--Common Errors 106 + XII. Pronouns 115 + XIII. Pronouns, Cont'd. 127 + XIV. Adjectives 138 + XV. Adjectives, Cont'd. 148 + XVI. Adverbs 160 + XVII. Adverbs, Cont'd. 169 + XVIII. Prepositions 179 + XIX. Prepositions, Cont'd. 189 + XX. Conjunctions 200 + XXI. Conjunctions, Cont'd. 212 + XXII. Adjective Clauses 222 + XXIII. Independent Constructions 232 + XXIV. Sentence Building 243 + XXV. Sentence Analysis 255 + XXVI. Sentence Building 267 + XXVII. Sentence Building 278 + XXVIII. The Use of Capitals 288 + XXIX. Punctuation 299 + XXX. Punctuation, Cont'd. 310 + + + SPELLING + + I. Definition 17 + II. Vowels and Consonants 26 + III. Diacritical Marks 36 + IV. Digraphs 49 + V. Diphthongs 57 + VI. Syllabification 68 + VII. Syllabification, Cont'd. 77 + VIII. Accent 87 + IX. Compound Words 96 + X. Prefixes and Suffixes 105 + XI. Derivatives 114 + XII. Derivatives, Cont'd. 126 + XIII. Silent E 137 + XIV. Words Ending in Y 146 + XV. Words with ei or ie 159 + XVI. Homonyms 168 + XVII. Derivative Nouns 178 + XVIII. Verbs with Prepositions 187 + XIX. Derivative Prepositions 199 + XX. Derivative Adverbs 211 + XXI. Derivative Adjectives 221 + XXII. Words in able and ible 231 + XXIII. Simplified Spelling 241 + XXIV. Verbs with Suffixes 254 + XXV. Cognate Sounds 265 + XXVI. Words beginning with dis 277 + XXVII. The prefixes in, un and mis 287 + XXVIII. Synonyms 297 + XXIX. Antonyms 308 + XXX. Common Errors 320 + + + + + PLAIN ENGLISH + + Lesson I + + + Open Letter + +Dear Comrade: + +You are beginning a course of study in the use of Plain English. We do +not know what your previous study may have been, but the object of this +course is to give the basic principles and practice of the use of the +English Language for the benefit of those who have not had the +opportunity of a high school education and possibly have not finished in +the grade school. + +For this reason we have avoided, as much as possible, the statement of +rules and formulas to be learned by rote and have made the few rules +which it is necessary to know, grow naturally out of the need for them +in the development of expression in language. + +We have taken for granted several things in the preparation of this +course. First, we assume that you have never studied grammar, or if you +have, that you will be glad to review it in simplified form. This course +does not follow the lines laid down by technical grammarians. It has +been worked out on the basis of plain, common sense. Our purpose is not +to make of you a grammarian, versed in the knowledge of rules and +reasons, but to give you the power to express yourself more readily, +fluently and correctly--in other words to speak and write _good_ +English. + +Second, we assume that you are interested and willing to work and eager +to increase your store of knowledge. Your progress in this branch of +knowledge will depend, to a large extent, upon your own efforts. We have +endeavored to avoid unnecessary and uninteresting rules and make the +course as simple, clear and plain as possible; but that does not mean +you will not have to work in order to master this study. We trust it +will be pleasant and interesting work, bringing you joy as it brings you +a growing sense of power. + +Probably no two people will use the same plan of work. Your work, to be +a pleasure, must express your own individuality. However, we want to +make a few suggestions which we know from experience you will find +helpful. + ++1st.+ +Be Systematic.+ Find some time each day which you can regularly +spend in study. Do not be discouraged if it is only fifteen minutes each +day. The student who will spend fifteen minutes every day regularly in +intensive study can easily complete this course within the prescribed +time. + ++2d.+ +Concentrate.+ By this we mean that when you study, you should do +it to the exclusion of everything else. Keep your mind upon the subject. +You may find this difficult at first. Your mind will wander; but you +will soon acquire the student habit if you persevere. + ++3d.+ +Have Faith in Yourself.+ Do not be easily discouraged. You have +the power to master this subject and _you will_. You will find it of +immeasurable value to you to be able to speak and write fluently and +correctly. Those whom you admire for their ready use of good English +were not born with the "gift of gab." They learned how to speak by +studying the rules of grammar, the meaning of words, just as you are +studying them. What they have done, _you will do_. + ++4th.+ +Go Slowly and Surely.+ Do not skim through these lessons. Be +sure you understand thoroughly as you go along. Read carefully and +_think_ for yourself. If there is anything you do not understand at any +time, write us and ask about it. These lessons have been carefully +prepared and are for your benefit. Make them yours and call upon us +freely for help. This is your College and its only ideal is service. + ++5th.+ +Get a Note-Book.+ Make your note-book your work-shop. Write in +it an outline of each lesson. Fill it with notes, examples, anything +which is of interest on the subject. Note down your own frequent +mistakes in the use of English. Watch the conversation of your friends; +listen to good speakers. Write down the mistakes you notice. Whenever +you hear a word which seems particularly good, or when you see one in +your reading, write it in your note-book and make it part of your +vocabulary. You will find your interest continually growing and also +your ability to express the thoughts you yearn to express. + +If we can bring to you an increasing joy in life because of a growing +power of expression; if we can enlarge your ability to serve the world; +if we can, through the study of this wonderful language of ours, open +wider the door of opportunity for you,--our comrade,--The People's +College will have served its purpose and realized its ideal. + + Yours for Education, + + THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. + + + GOOD ENGLISH--WHAT IS IT? + ++1.+ People seem to differ in their idea as to what constitutes "Good +English." Have you never seen a man suddenly called upon to make a +formal speech or introduced into the company of distinguished men and +women? Quite often, he will drop his simple every-day mode of speech and +speak in stilted, unnatural language, using all the "big" words he can +possibly remember. He no doubt fondly imagines he is making an +impression and using "good" English. + +The purpose of language is to make one's self understood, and, of +course, this can be done in very simple and crude English. The man who +breaks every rule of grammar, intersperses his remarks with every +variety of slang phrase, may make himself understood, but he is not +using _good_ English. + ++2.+ +Good English is that which is good for its purpose and conforms to +the standards of usage.+ + +We have one purpose when we write a business letter and quite another +when we are writing or speaking of the great issues of life. There is a +place for the simple, direct, plain, unadorned language of every-day +business life--the life of the work-a-day world--and there is a place +also for the beauty and charm of the language of poetry. If we are +talking with the man who works beside us of the work of the day, we will +naturally use plain, simple, forceful words. But, if we are speaking to +our comrades, striving to arouse them out of their lethargy, to stir +them to action as men and women, we will just as naturally use the fine +and noble words which touch the depths of human emotion--the heights of +human endeavor. + ++3.+ There are certain rules for the use of English which have grown up +through the years, to which we must conform. These are not arbitrary. +They have not been made by any man or any set of men. In fact, they are +constantly changing, as the common usage of the people forces the +changes. For these rules are only the expression of the common usage, +and as usage changes, the rules change. + +But these changes come slowly, so we can set down in a book the rules +which express the established usage of today. The ability to use good +English does not mean the ability to use long, high-sounding words. To +be a master of good English means to be able to use the word that meets +your need and use it correctly. + +Do not strive for _effect_, strive for _effective expression_. + + + USE YOUR DICTIONARY + ++4.+ Do you know that the average individual cripples through life with +a vocabulary of a few hundred words when he might easily have at his +command as many thousands? + +We are misers with our words. Here hid away in this book we call the +dictionary is a wealth of words, a rich mine of expression, and yet in +our every-day conversation we halt and stammer, using meaningless words +and phrases largely made up of current slang. + +Never let a word pass by that you do not understand thoroughly. Look it +up at once in your dictionary and master it then and there. Dollars may +be difficult to earn and more difficult to keep, but here is a wealth +easily gained and the more you use it the more you possess it. + +You will find your dictionary an exceedingly interesting book when you +get acquainted with it. + +Use it constantly; make it your familiar companion. + + + OUR LANGUAGE + ++5.+ Did you ever stop to think what the world would be if we had no way +of communicating, one with another? Think of Helen Keller, shut up in +her prison-house of silence. Her only mode of communication with her +fellows is through the sense of touch. + +Every form of life that has consciousness has some way of expressing its +feelings. Every animal, by the movements of its body or the tones of its +voice, expresses its emotions of pain, pleasure, rage, hate, joy, hunger +and the many passions that sway its life. The child knows without being +taught how to express its wants. We understand its cry of hunger, its +scream of pain, its laugh of delight. This is the natural language, the +language of feeling. It is the universal language that needs no rules +and no interpreter. Life on every plane knows and understands it. + + + WHEN WE BEGIN TO THINK + ++6.+ Our feelings and desires are not the only things we wish to +communicate. The natural language satisfies a child for a time, but as +the child grows he begins to _think_, then he feels the need of a more +effective means of expressing himself. You can express your feelings to +a certain extent by the natural language. You can make one know that you +are glad by the expression of the face, the attitude of the body or the +tone of the voice. But could you make anyone understand _why_ you are +glad, by these signs and gestures? + ++7.+ To express thoughts and ideas, man had to devise another sort of +language. So the language of _words_ grew up out of the need to +communicate ideas to other people. As man's ability to think grew, so +his language grew. At first, this language was only a spoken language. +The ideas of one generation were handed down to the next by the spoken +word. Gradually a crude form of writing was invented from which our +written language has developed. This has made it possible to put the +wisdom of the ages into books for the benefit of the world. + ++8.+ +Hence, language is the means of expressing thought and feeling.+ +It has grown out of our need for expression. + ++A word is a symbol of an idea.+ It is a sound or combination of sounds +which we use to represent an idea. The use of words makes it possible +for us to readily convey our thoughts to other people. + +Through the medium of words we are able to communicate to others our +thoughts, not only of the external world about us, but also of the +mental world in which we live. We can tell of our loves, our hates, our +dreams and our ideals. Animals find the natural language of looks and +tones and gestures sufficient because they live almost wholly upon the +physical plane. But man lives in a mental world as well as in a physical +one, and must have a spoken and written language by which to express his +thoughts. + + + Exercise 1 + +Select from the following sentences those which it is possible to +express by a look or tone or gesture, and those which can not be +expressed without words: + + 1. I am glad. + 2. I am glad because men are struggling for freedom. + 3. I am hungry. + 4. I am hungry for the chance for an education. + 5. Come. + 6. Come, let us reason together. + 7. I am afraid. + 8. I am afraid that we must wait long for peace. + 9. Go. + 10. Go, search the world over for the truth. + 11. I am disgusted. + 12. I am disgusted with those who will not think for themselves. + 13. I am tired. + 14. I am tired of these petty squabbles among comrades. + + + OUR EXPRESSION + ++9.+ Our knowledge of language opens up a new world to us. We +can communicate with those about us; we can open the storehouse of +the knowledge of the past as recorded in books, or as two of our writers +have expressed it: + + Have you ever rightly considered what the mere ability to read + means--that it is the key which admits to the world of thought and + fancy and imagination--to the company of saint and sage, of the + wisest and wittiest at their wisest and wittiest moments--that it + enables us to see with the keenest eyes, hear with the finest ears + and listen to the sweetest voices of all time?--_Lowell_. + + Strip man of his books and his papers, and he becomes a mere slave, + ignorant of his own resources, ignorant of his rights and + opportunities. The difference between the free citizen of today and + the savage of yesterday is almost entirely a thing of books. The man + who dislikes books can never be entirely happy, and he who loves a + good book can never be wholly miserable.--_Hillis_. + +Have you never felt that struggle within and the sense of defeat when +you have tried to make some one feel as you feel, understand as you +understand, see some great truth as you see it, and could not find the +words with which to express your ideas? + ++10.+ The mastery of words gives; first, _the ability to understand the +spoken or written thoughts of others_; second, _the ability to +adequately express our own thoughts_; and third, _the ability to think +clearly and to grow in our intellectual life_. + +A connected chain of reasoning is impossible without the knowledge of +the words that express the development of the ideas and the varying +shades of meaning. To gain this mastery, you must know the words of our +language and their use. Words are the symbols of ideas and perform +certain functions in expressing our thoughts. This, simply stated, is +all that the study of English Grammar comprises--_the study of English +words and their use in the expression of thought and feeling_. + + + THE THOUGHT AND THE WORD + ++11.+ We have found that the invention of words grew out of the ability +to _think_ and the need for expression. But we first _thought_! So, in +order to express yourself clearly you must first _think_ clearly. Any +thought can be simply and clearly expressed. When you read something +difficult of understanding, where the thought is buried under an +avalanche of words, you can be assured the writer was not thinking +clearly. He did not have the perfect mastery of his thought. On the +other hand, one may have a valuable thought in mind and not be able to +express it because he does not have the words at his command. In the one +case, we have words and no idea; in the other, the idea and no words. + +This study is intended to enable you to master words, the tools of +expression. In whatever work you are engaged, it was first necessary to +learn to use the tools with which you work. So, you must master the use +of English words, the tools of your expression. You can in that way +learn to express your thoughts clearly and exactly. You will not need to +resort to slang, or to the tiresome repetition of a few words. + +The best of everything is none too good for you. It is your right, your +heritage, and the best in the English language will bring you into the +company and comradeship of the men and women who have striven and toiled +for humanity, who will talk to you of dreams and deeds worth while, who +will place in your hands the key to a new world. + + + A COMPLETE THOUGHT + ++12.+ When we want to express a thought we use more than one word. Words +are the symbols of ideas, but a thought is the expression of the +relation between ideas. For example, I say _man_, and you get an idea or +an image in your mind of a man, but I have not said anything about any +man. But if I say, _Man works_, then I have expressed a thought. I have +related the idea of a man and the idea of work and have expressed a +complete thought. + +So we express our thoughts by _groups of words_. The very smallest group +of words which will express a complete thought must, therefore, contain +two words. If I say _men_, _fire_, _flowers_, and stop, you wonder what +I mean, for I have not expressed a thought. Or, I might say, _work_, +_burns_, _bloom_, and you would still be in the dark as to my meaning; +but, when I say, _Men work_, _Fire burns_, _Flowers bloom_, you +understand, for I have told you my complete thought. I have put two +words together in a way to make sense; I have formed a sentence. + ++13.+ If we say, _Go_ or _Wait_, in the form of a command or entreaty, +the single word seems to make complete sense and to form a sentence in +itself. But this is only because _you_, who are to do the going or the +waiting, is clearly implied. The words _go_ or _wait_, by themselves, do +not make sense or form a sentence unless they are uttered in the +commanding or beseeching tone of voice which makes you understand that +_You go_ or _You wait_ is the intended meaning. With the exception of +words used in this way as a command or entreaty, it is always necessary +to use at least two words to express a complete thought. + +But will any two words make a sentence--express a complete thought? + ++14.+ Which of these combinations of words are sentences and which are +not? + + Busy men. + Men travel. + Snow flies. + Blue sky. + Red flag. + Rustling trees. + Workers strike. + Bees sting. + Grass grows. + Cold winds. + Green fields. + Happy children. + +_Busy men_ does not express a complete thought. We are wondering _busy +men do what?_ But, _men travel_ is a complete thought. It makes sense +and forms a sentence, and tells us what men _do_. In the words, _busy +men_, we have spoken the name of something but have made no assertion +concerning it. In the two words, _men travel_, we have spoken the name +_men_ and we have told what they _do_. + +If we were walking down the street together we might say: + + The street is crowded to-day. + Does the open road attract you? + See the jostling crowds. + +Or if we were discussing the class struggle, we might say: + + Two classes have always existed. + To which class do you belong? + Join your class in the struggle. + +In every one of these six groups of words we have a complete thought +expressed. Each of these groups of words we call a sentence. + ++15.+ +A sentence is a group of words expressing a complete thought.+ + + + Exercise 2 + +Write in each blank space the word necessary to express a complete +thought. + + Men...... ......fade. + + Leaves...... ......bloom. + + Water...... ......run. + + Fire...... ......write. + + Women...... ......grow. + + Children...... ......speak. + + + SUBJECT AND PREDICATE + ++16.+ We have found that every sentence must have at least two words, +one word to name that about which something is said and another word +which does the saying or makes the assertion. In the sentence, _Men +work_, we have these two parts; _men_ which is the part about which +something is said, and _work_ which tells what men do. + ++The part about which something is said is called the subject.+ + +In this sentence, _Men work_, _men_, therefore, is the subject, for it +names that about which something is said. + ++17.+ +The part that asserts or says something about the subject is +called the predicate.+ + +Therefore in this sentence, _Men work_, _work_ is the predicate. In the +following sentences draw a single line under the subject and a double +line under the predicate, thus, _~Birds~ =fly=_. + + Ships sail. + Soldiers fight. + Flowers fade. + Horses neigh. + Flags wave. + Snow comes. + War rages. + Winds blow. + Fish swim. + ++18.+ We may add other words to the subject or the predicate and so +enlarge their meaning, as for instance we may say: + + The stately ships sail proudly away. + The war in Europe rages furiously. + The soldiers in the army fight like men gone mad. + +Yet in every one of these sentences you will find the subject and the +predicate,--_Ships sail_, _War rages_, _Soldiers fight_. + +Every sentence must have a subject and a predicate, and it is a very +important part of the study of sentences to be able to distinguish +quickly and readily the subject and the predicate. Find that about which +something is said, and that will always be the subject. Find that which +is said about the subject, and that will be the predicate. + ++Every sentence must contain a subject and a predicate.+ + ++The subject of a sentence names that about which something is said.+ + ++The predicate tells that which is said about the subject.+ + + + Exercise 3 + +In the following sentences add other words to the subject and to the +predicate to enlarge their meaning, then draw a single line under the +subject and a double line under the predicate: + + Ships sail. + Tides flow. + Stars shine. + Rain falls. + Children play. + Nature sleeps. + Waves break. + War rages. + Birds sing. + + + Exercise 4 + +In the following sentences the subject and the predicate have other +words added to enlarge their meaning. Find the subject and predicate and +draw a single line under the subject and a double line under the +predicate, as in the sentence, + + _The ~workers~ of the world =build= palaces for other people._ + + 1. Our success lies in solidarity. + 2. New occasions teach new duties. + 3. Two classes exist in the world. + 4. Labor creates all wealth. + 5. The workers fight all battles. + 6. Our time calls for earnest deeds. + 7. Knowledge unlocks the door of life. + 8. Ignorance bars the path to progress. + 9. Few people think for themselves. + 10. Hope stirs us to action. + + + + + SPELLING + + LESSON 1 + + ++Spelling is the process of naming or writing in proper order the +letters of a word.+ There is nothing that marks us so quickly as lacking +in the qualities that go to make up a good education as our inability to +spell the words most commonly used. + +Spelling in English is rather difficult. If each letter represented but +one sound, spelling would be an easy matter. Every word would be spelled +just as it sounds. This is the goal of those who advocate phonetic +spelling. Phonetic spelling simply means spelling according to sound. +But our alphabet does not have a letter for every sound. + +There are some forty-two different sounds used in English words and we +have only twenty-six letters in the alphabet. Therefore some letters +must do duty for several sounds. Then we have words which contain +letters which are not sounded at all when the word is pronounced, so, +all in all, spelling is a matter of memorizing. + +The best way to become an accurate speller is to read much, to observe +closely the forms of words and to write frequently. Always spell any +word of which you are uncertain aloud several times and write it out +several times. In this way you have aided the memory both through the +eye and through the ear. If you are not sure of the spelling of a word +do not use it until you have looked it up in the dictionary and made +sure. + +The words in this lesson are taken out of Lesson 1, Plain English +Course. There are thirty in all, five for each day of the week. (1) Look +up the meaning in the dictionary. (2) Learn the correct spelling. (3) +Learn the correct pronunciation. (4) Use the word in a sentence of your +own construction. (5) Use it during the day in your conversation; strive +to make it a part of your working vocabulary. + + +Monday+ + + Mode + English + Grammar + Expression + Complete + + +Tuesday+ + + Language + Emotion + Group + Mastery + Dictionary + + +Wednesday+ + + Thought + Symbol + Ability + Idea + Knowledge + + +Thursday+ + + Subject + Predicate + Vocabulary + Practice + History + + +Friday+ + + Memory + Sentence + Write + Right + Purpose + + +Saturday+ + + Propose + Growth + Learn + Teach + Pronounce + + + + + PLAIN ENGLISH + + LESSON 2 + + +Dear Comrade: + +Review Lesson 1 before taking up this lesson. Do not try +to learn by rote the contents of these lessons. Our endeavor is to make +you see the reason for every rule and definition before they are given. +We want you to see unfolding before you the development of language and +through this evolution you can catch a glimpse of the developing life of +man. Language like customs, religion, government, has grown with the +economic advancement of man. As man has evolved on the economic plane, +the material plane, as he has improved his means of providing for +himself food and clothes and shelter, he has developed a language suited +to his needs. + +So we can trace the growth of the race as we study the development of +language from the sign language of the primitive savage to the language +of the philosopher of today by which he makes known to us the story of +the stars, and the innermost secrets of our hearts and minds. +Civilization began with the invention of the phonetic alphabet and the +use of writing. So the study of language becomes not a dull and stupid +conning of useless rules and formulas, but an absorbing study of a +living, growing, changing thing that mirrors forth the very life of man. + +Think while you study. As you look for the definition of words in your +dictionary and realize how many shades of meaning we can express in +words, remember that this power is a heritage that comes to us from a +long past of incessant struggle. + +We of to-day are also writing history in words. By our efforts we are +adding new words to the language and giving old words a richer meaning. +_Brotherhood_, _justice_, for example! The world is coming to understand +these glorious words more fully and giving them a new interpretation. + +You will see a new beauty and glory in words after you have finished +this course and you will have a mastery of this wonderful language of +ours. + +Watch carefully the use of words in your reading. Especially this week +distinguish the nouns and verbs. Use your dictionary constantly and add +a few words to your vocabulary every day. + +Whenever there is a word used in these lessons which you do not +thoroughly understand, look it up at once in your dictionary and master +it then and there. Make a list in your note book of the words you look +up and at the end of the week go over them again and see if you have +them clearly in mind. Watch also the pronunciation of the words. Do not +try to do everything all at once, nor should you be discouraged if your +progress seems slow. We approach the goal one step at a time and each +step takes us nearer and nearer. Just keep steadily at it, Comrade. + + Yours for Education, + + THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. + + + KINDS OF SENTENCES + ++19.+ We have found that we use sentences to express our thoughts. But +we also find that we use these sentences in different ways for different +purposes. Can you notice any difference in the following sentences? + + Two classes have always existed. + To which class do you belong? + Join your class in the struggle. + +When I say, _Two classes have always existed_, I am making a simple +assertion, stating what I know or believe to be true. + +When I say, _To which class do you belong?_ I am asking a question. + +When I say, _Join your class in the struggle_, I am giving a command or +making a request. + ++20.+ +These three kinds of sentences are called assertive, +interrogative and imperative.+ + ++An assertive sentence states a fact or an opinion.+ + ++An interrogative sentence asks a question.+ + ++An imperative sentence gives a command, makes a request or +expresses a wish.+ + ++21.+ Any of these three kinds of sentences may be exclamatory; that is, +it may express surprise, excitement, impatience, or some other emotion. +For example: + + Hurrah! Freedom is coming! + +This is an assertion expressed as an exclamation. + + Oh! Why should war continue? + +Here we have a question in the form of an exclamation. + + Come! Keep your courage up. + +In this, we have a command, an imperative sentence, expressed in the +form of an exclamation. + ++An exclamatory sentence expresses surprise, excitement or some other +emotion.+ + +In these three forms of sentences, the assertive, the interrogative and +the imperative, together with the exclamatory, we are able to express +every thought and feeling which demands expression, either for practical +or artistic purposes. + +The sentence is the basis of spoken and written language and as we trace +its development we trace the history of the evolution of man and the +growth of his power of expression, as he has developed his powers of +mind. + ++22.+ +Every sentence must begin with a capital letter.+ + ++Every assertive and imperative sentence should end with a period.+ + ++Every interrogative sentence should end with a question mark.+ + +The word in an exclamatory sentence which expresses strong emotion is +followed by an exclamation point. The sentence itself if in +interrogative form should be followed by a question mark; if in the +assertive or the imperative form it may be followed either by an +exclamation point or a period. + + + Exercise 1 + +Mark the assertive sentences among the following with an _a_ in the +blank space. Mark the interrogative sentences with a _q_ for question; +the imperative sentences with a _c_ for command; and the exclamatory +with an _e_ for exclamation. + + 1. ...... Books are the true levelers. + 2. ...... Put not your trust in princes. + 3. ...... To err is human; to forgive divine. + 4. ...... What are the rights of a child? + 5. ...... Seize common occasions and make them great. + 6. ...... Not until all are free, is any free. + 7. ...... Freemen! Shall not we demand our own? + 8. ...... Is a world of happiness but a Utopian dream? + 9. ...... He who will not work, shall not eat. + 10. ...... Strike at the polls for freedom! + 11. ...... Do the majority want social justice? + 12. ...... A friend is the hope of the heart. + 13. ...... How beautiful is the vision of peace! + 14. ...... Acquire the thinking habit. + 15. ...... Is it glorious to die for our country? + 16. ...... Lo! Women are waking and claiming their own! + 17. ...... Claim your right to the best. + 18. ...... What is the highest good? + 19. ...... Workers of the world, unite! + 20. ...... To remain ignorant is to remain a slave. + + + WORDS--THEIR USES + ++23.+ We have learned from our study that we use sentences to express +our thoughts. These sentences are made up of words; therefore we call +words _parts of speech_. Words are only fractions or parts of speech, +and it is by combining them into sentences that we are able to express +our thoughts. + +There are many thousands of words in the English language. It would be +impossible for us to study each word separately. But these words, like +people, are divided into classes, so we can study each class of words. +These thousands of words are divided into classes much as people are, or +rather as people ought to be; for words are divided into classes +according to the work which they do. In the Industrial Commonwealth +there will be no upper or lower class, but men will be divided into +groups according to the work which they do. There will be various +industrial groups, groups of agricultural workers, groups of clerical +workers, etc. So words are divided into classes according to the work +which they do in helping us to express our ideas. + ++24.+ +Words are divided into kinds or classes according to their use in +sentences.+ + ++There are eight of these classes of words, called parts of speech.+ + + + THE NAMES OF THINGS + ++25.+ What a word _does_ determines what part of speech it is. When +primitive man, long ago, first began to use words, in all probability +the first words which he invented were those used to name familiar +objects about him. He invented a word for _man_, _boy_, _tree_, +_animal_, etc. Gradually, all the things he met in his daily life +received a name. About one half of the words in our language are of this +class, the _names_ of things. + +Every word which is used as a name of something is called a _noun_. This +word _noun_ is derived from the Latin word which means _name_, so it is +quite the same thing as saying _name_. Notice the following sentences: + + Boys run. + Fish swim. + Horses neigh. + Soldiers march. + Flags wave. + Flowers fade. + Girls study. + Winds blow. + Men work. + +All of the words used like _boys_, _girls_, _fish_, _horses_, +_soldiers_, _flag_, _winds_, _flowers_ and _men_, are the names of +objects, therefore all of these words are _nouns_. The subject of a +sentence is always a noun or a word used as a noun. However, we may use +in a sentence many nouns besides the noun which is used as the subject, +the noun about which the statement is made. We will study the use of +these nouns later in our lessons. + +_The famous palace of the kings of the Moors, at Granada, in Spain, was +called the Alhambra._ We have six nouns in this sentence, _palace_, +_kings_, _Moors_, _Granada_, _Spain_ and _Alhambra_, but the noun +_palace_ is the noun which is the subject--the noun which is the name of +that about which something is said. _Palace_ is the subject; and _was +called_ is the predicate in this sentence. + ++26.+ +A noun is a word used as the name of something.+ + +Now we want to learn to distinguish every word that is used as a name. +Pick out the nouns as you read your books and papers until you are able +to tell every word which is used as a noun, the name of something. + +In the following paragraph, the nouns are printed in italics. Carefully +study these nouns: + +The _fire_ in the _grate_, the _lamp_ by the _bedside_, the _water_ in +the _tumbler_, the _fly_ on the _ceiling_ above, the _flower_ in the +_vase_ on the _table_, all _things_ have their _history_ and can reveal +to us _nature's_ invisible _forces_. + + + Exercise 2 + +Underscore every noun in the following quotation: + + The whole history of the earth has been one of gradual development, of + progress, of slow and painful climbing through the ages. Not only have + the hills and the mountains, the rivers and the stars, the trees and + the cattle, the beasts and the birds, been developing; but man + himself--his mind and his body--has been developing. Men are marvelous + little creatures; they have weighed the sun in their balances, + measured the stars and analyzed the light and beauty of the rainbow; + they have sounded the depths of the ocean; they have learned how the + sun and the mountains were born and the rivers were laid in their + mighty beds; they have learned how the seas became salt, what the + stars are made of. They have learned so much, and yet when it comes to + matters of time and space, and law and motion, they still know so + little. The only man who is conscious of his ignorance is he who has + learned a great deal.--_McMillan_. + + + WORDS THAT ASSERT + ++27.+ After the primitive man had invented names for the things about +him, probably his next step was to invent words of action. He very +naturally wanted to tell what all of these various things _did_. So the +words that tell what things do, the words of action, the words that +assert, came into the language. A child follows much the same +development. As you can readily observe, it first names the objects +about it, then learns the words that tell what these objects do. + +So the words that tell what things _do_, become the second class of +words. These words we call _verbs_. The word _verb_, like the word +_noun_, is taken into our language from the Latin. In Latin, the word +_verbum_ means _the word_; and the verb is practically _the_ word in a +sentence, for we cannot have a sentence without a verb. You may string a +number of words together, but if you do not have an asserting word, you +will not have a sentence. + +Notice the following sentences: + + Men work. + Flowers fade. + Snow flies. + Winds blow. + +In these sentences, the words _work_, _fade_, _flies_ and _blow_, are +the words used to assert or say something of the subject, hence they are +the verbs in these sentences. + ++28.+ Sometimes it takes more than one word to express the action or +make the assertion. Notice the following sentences: + + The men are working. + The boy has been studying. + +In the first sentence it takes two words, _are working_, to make the +assertion; in the second, three are required, _has been studying_. These +groups of words are called _verb phrases_. + ++29.+ +A verb is a word that asserts.+ + ++A verb phrase is a group of words used as a single verb.+ + +The verb is perhaps the most difficult part of speech to master. It is +not hard to find the verb in short sentences, but in longer sentences it +is sometimes difficult. + +For example: + + The sun shines. + The man walks. + The boys strike. + +We very easily see that _shine_, _walk_ and _strike_ are the verbs in +these sentences. But let us add other words, as for example: + + The sun shines brightly. + The man walks for his health. + The boys strike the dog. + +Now we are very apt to confuse the verb with the words which state _how_ +and _why_ the action is performed, or the _object_ towards which the +action is directed. But in these sentences, _shine_ and _walks_ and +_strike_ are still the verbs, just as in the first sentences. The verb +asserts the action; the other words merely give additional information +about _how_ or _why_ or _upon what_ the action is performed. + ++30.+ Another thing which makes it difficult for us to distinguish verbs +in English is that the same word may be used both as a noun and as a +verb; but always remember that words are separated into classes +according to the work which they do. When a word is used as a _name_ it +is a _noun_; when it is used as an _asserting_ word it is a _verb_. Note +the following sentences: + + The _play_ made the child tired. + The children _play_ in the yard. + +In the first sentence _play_ is a noun, the subject of the verb _made_. +In the second sentence _play_ is the verb, telling what the children +_do_. Always classify words according to the work which they perform in +the sentence. This will help you very much in finding your verb. + ++31.+ Then we have some verbs which do not assert action but express +rather a connection or relation between the subject and some other word +or words. For example: + + The dog belongs to the man. + The girl is happy. + +In these sentences _belongs_ and _is_ are the verbs. _Belongs_ asserts +or shows the relation between _the dog_ and _the man_. _Is_ shows the +relation between _the girl_ and _happy_. If we simply say _girl_ and +_happy_, we do not show any connection between them or make any +statement relating the two, but when we say, _The girl is happy_, we are +asserting something, and the word _is_ makes the assertion. + +Or when we say, _The girl was happy_, or _The girl will be_ or _may be +happy_, in each of these cases, it is the verb or verb phrase _was_ or +_will be_ or _may be_, that asserts or shows the relation between the +subject _girl_ and the descriptive word _happy_. You will observe that +the verbs _will be_ and _may be_ are composed of more than one word and +are _verb phrases_. + +We will study the verb in succeeding lessons, but let us remember from +this lesson that the word or group of words that makes the assertion in +the sentence is the verb. Remember too that every sentence must contain +a verb. + +Get this basic principle firmly fixed in mind that what a word _does_ +decides what it _is_--to what part of speech it belongs, and that every +class of words fulfills its own function in sentence building. + ++32.+ Remember:-- + ++Every sentence must have a subject and a predicate.+ + ++Every sentence must express a complete thought.+ + ++Every sentence must contain a verb.+ + ++A noun is the name of something.+ + ++A verb is a word that asserts.+ + ++What a word does determines what it is.+ + +Study carefully the following quotation. The verbs are printed in +_italics_. + + Slowly, painfully, _proceeds_ the struggle of man against the power of + Mammon. The past _is written_ in tears and blood. The future _is_ dim + and unknown, but the final outcome of this world-wide struggle _is_ + not in doubt. Freedom _will conquer_ slavery, truth _will prevail_ + over error, justice _will triumph_ over injustice, the light _will + vanquish_ the darkness; and humanity _will rise_ in the glory of + universal brotherhood.--_Warren_. + + + Exercise 3 + +Underscore all verbs and verb phrases in the following quotation: + ++The Dream of Labor+: Ours is not the cause of one class, of one sex, of +one tribe, of one city, of one state, of one continent. + +It is the wish for a better world where Man shall be Man; where the +beast shall become subdued; where everything shall lead to complete +development; where the good of each shall be bound up in the good of +all; where all shall feel the sorrows of each and shall run to his +rescue. + +A glimpse of this ideal takes us into the Land of Promise, where peace +and plenty shall reign supreme; where brothers shall no longer battle +among themselves, but for one another; where the atmosphere shall be +laden with love, the love that saves; where the hate that kills shall be +unknown; where heart and brain shall work together and shall make life +better and more complete; where the fullness of life shall be for all +and where men and women shall be as happy at their work as little +children at their play. + +The mere glimpse into that land makes life worth living, makes work +worth doing, makes dreams worth dreaming, gives us hope and faith--the +faith we need in the labor for our cause, the faith which shall help us +win.--_Oscar Leonard_. + + + Exercise 4 + +We have found that there are a number of words in English which may be +used either as nouns or verbs, depending upon the function they serve in +the sentence. In the following sentences underscore the nouns with a +single line, the verbs with two lines: + + 1. They _man_ the boats. + 2. The _man_ has a boat. + 3. The women _pass_ this way. + 4. They held the _pass_ for hours. + 5. Little children _work_ in the mines. + 6. The _work_ of the world is done by machinery today. + 7. The armies will _cross_ the bridge. + 8. He built a _cross_ of rude stones. + 9. The leopard cannot _change_ its spots. + 10. We will force a _change_ in the law. + + + Exercise 5 + +In the following poem, mark every noun and every verb and verb phrase. +You will find the verb phrases in several places divided by the word +_not_, as in _I do not obey_. _Do obey_ is the verb phrase. We will +learn to what part of speech _not_ belongs a little later. + + I DO NOT OBEY, I THINK. + + "Captain, what do you think," I asked, + "Of the part your soldiers play?" + The Captain answered, "I do not think-- + I do not think, I obey." + + "Do you think your conscience was meant to die, + And your brains to rot away?" + The Captain answered, "I do not think-- + I do not think, I obey." + + "Do you think you should shoot a patriot down, + And help a tyrant slay?" + The Captain answered, "I do not think-- + I do not think, I obey." + + "Then if this is your soldier's code," I cried, + "You're a mean, unmanly crew; + And with all your feathers and gilt and braid, + I am more of a man than you; + + "For whatever my lot on earth may be + And whether I swim or sink, + I can say with pride, 'I do not obey-- + I do not obey, I think.'" + + --_Ernest Crosby_. + + + + + SPELLING + + LESSON 2 + + +The twenty-six letters in the English alphabet are divided into vowels +and consonants. A vowel is a letter which represents a sound of the +human voice but slightly interrupted by the vocal organs. The vowels are +_a_, _e_, _i_, _o_ and _u_. All of the remaining letters of the alphabet +are consonants. A consonant is a letter which represents a sound of the +human voice greatly obstructed by the vocal organs. Consonant is from +the Latin _con_, meaning _with_, and _sono_--_I sound_. So it means +literally _I sound with_. + +The consonants are produced by union of the breath with the vocal +organs. The consonant sounds are so called because they are always +"sounded with" a vowel; they are used only in combination with vowels in +forming words or syllables. + +In English a consonant alone never forms a word or a syllable. Sound the +different consonants _b_, _c_, _d_, _f_, _g_, _h_, _j_, _k_, _l_, _m_, +_n_, _p_, _q_, _r_, _s_, _t_, _v_, _x_ and _z_, by themselves and you +will see how the sound of the breath is obstructed or changed by the use +of the vocal organs--the lips, the tongue, the teeth, etc.--in making +these various sounds. + +_W_ and _y_ are sometimes vowels and sometimes consonants. _W_ and _y_ +are vowels when they are used with another vowel representing a vowel +sound as in _awe_, _new_, _joy_, _eye_, etc. _Y_ is sometimes used as a +vowel by itself as in _by_, _cry_, etc. _W_ and _y_ are consonants when +they are used at the beginning of a syllable or before a vowel in the +same syllable as in _wine_, _twine_, _yield_ and _year_. + +Look up the meaning of the words in this week's lesson. Master the +spelling and use them in sentences of your own construction. + + +Monday+ + + Reason + Evolution + Justice + Thorough + Beauty + + +Tuesday+ + + Assertive + Review + Surprise + Basis + Separate + + +Wednesday+ + + Interrogative + Period + Capital + Capitol + Function + + +Thursday+ + + Example + Contain + Imperative + Question + Speech + + +Friday+ + + Method + Various + Familiar + Industry + Alphabet + + +Saturday+ + + Travel + Sense + Cents + Sail + Sale + + + + + PLAIN ENGLISH + + LESSON 3 + + +Dear Comrade: + +In this lesson we are taking up a short study of the different parts of +speech. In later lessons we will study each part of speech more +thoroughly but this lesson covers the ground quickly and briefly. It is +sufficient, however, to form a basis for our understanding of the +evolution of language. + +You will see, as you study this lesson, how each part of speech has been +added to meet a growing need. There are many, many thousand words in the +English language, but they can all be grouped under these eight parts of +speech, for they all answer in some way to one of these great needs. + +The object in studying grammar, as in studying any other science, is not +to fill one's mind with a great many unrelated facts--facts which may or +may not prove useful to one hereafter. The object of all study is to +develop one's power of observation and one's ability to think. Added to +this must be the practical ability to make use of this knowledge. Here +the study of grammar has an advantage over the study of every other +science. It deals with words, something which we use every day. + +You do not need any laboratory or expensive apparatus in order to study +grammar. All that you need lies ready to your hand. And in addition to +this the knowledge which you gain is something which is of practical use +to every man and woman no matter what their work, no matter what their +place or position in life may be. + +Remember that dogmatism has no place in the study of grammar. +"Grammarians are the guardians, not the authors, of language." We do not +say, "You should say this or that, or you violate a rule of grammar," +but we say "The common usage among those who use good English is thus +and so." If we do not believe that the common usage is the best usage, +then we follow the democratic method of seeking to change the common +usage into that which we consider the more sensible way. Thus, those who +advocate simplified spelling have not sought to pass a law whereby every +one should be compelled to spell words exactly as they sound, but they +have striven to influence our writers and people in general to use this +more sensible way of spelling words. + +So _think_ while you study. Do not try to learn rules and formulas. See +_why_ the rules and formulas exist. Once having seen this you do not +need to learn them--you know them already. The study of any language is +an intellectual discipline of the highest order. + +So apply yourself diligently to this most interesting study and you will +see that the result of this application will affect your daily life in +every particular. + + Yours for Education, + + THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. + + + WORDS ADDED TO NOUNS + ++33.+ When man began to invent words to express his ideas of the world +in which he lived, we have found that probably the first need was that +of names for the things about him. So we have nouns. The second need was +of words to tell what these things _do_, and so we have verbs. But +primitive man soon felt the need of other classes of words. + +The objects about us are not all alike. For example, we have a word for +man, but when we say _man_ that is not sufficient to describe the many +different kinds of men. There are tall men, short men, white men, black +men, strong men, weak men, busy men, lazy men. There are all sorts of +men in the world, and we need words by which we can describe these +different types and also indicate which man we mean. + ++34.+ So we have a class of words which are called adjectives. +_Adjective_ is a word derived from the Latin. It comes from the Latin +word _ad_, meaning _to_, and the Latin word _jecto_, which means _to +throw_; hence an adjective is a word _thrown to_ or _added to_ a noun. + +If you will stop to think for a moment, you will see that it is by their +qualities that we know the things about us. Some men are strong, some +are weak, some are tall, some are short. These qualities belong to +different men. And we separate or group them into classes as they +resemble each other or differ from one another in these qualities. +Things are alike which have the same qualities; things are unlike whose +qualities are different. Apples and oranges are alike in the fact that +both are round, both are edible. They are unlike in the fact that one is +red and one is yellow; one may be sour and the other sweet. So we +separate them in our minds because of their different qualities; and we +have a class of words, _adjectives_, which describe these various +qualities. + ++35.+ We use adjectives for other purposes also. For example, when we +say _trees_, we are not speaking of any particular trees, but of trees +in general. But we may add certain adjectives which point out particular +trees, as for example: _these_ trees, or _those_ trees, or _eight_ trees +or _nine_ trees. These adjectives limit the trees of which we are +speaking to the particular trees pointed out. They do not express any +particular qualities of the trees like the adjectives _tall_ or +_beautiful_ express, but they limit the use of the word _trees_ in its +application. So we have our definition of the adjective. + ++36.+ +An adjective is a word added to a noun to qualify or limit its +meaning.+ + + + Exercise 1 + +Underscore all of the adjectives in the following quotation. Notice also +the nouns and verbs in this quotation. + + Yet fearsome and terrible are all the footsteps of men upon the earth, + for they either descend or climb. + + They descend from little mounds and high peaks and lofty altitudes, + through wide roads and narrow paths, down noble marble stairs and + creaky stairs of wood--and some go down to the cellar, and some to the + grave, and some down to the pits of shame and infamy, and still some + to the glory of an unfathomable abyss where there is nothing but the + staring, white, stony eye-balls of Destiny. + + They descend and they climb, the fearful footsteps of men, and some + limp, some drag, some speed, some trot, some run--they are quiet, + slow, noisy, brisk, quick, feverish, mad, and most awful in their + cadence to the ears of the one who stands still. + + But of all the footsteps of men that either descend or climb, no + footsteps are so fearsome and terrible as those that go straight on + the dead level of a prison floor, from a yellow stone wall to a red + iron gate.--From _The Walker_. _Giovannitti_. + + + WORDS ADDED TO VERBS + ++37.+ From our study, you see how our classes of words grew out of man's +need of them in expressing his thoughts. And notice also how the many +thousands of words in our language can all be grouped under these few +classes. We _name_ the things about us; we invent words to tell what +these things _do_; we have another class of words which _describe_ the +things which we have named; and now we come to a fourth class of words +for which we also find great need. + +When we come to tell what things _do_, we find that we need words which +will tell us _how_ or _where_ or _when_ these things are done. Notice +the following sentences: + + The men work busily. + The men work late. + The men work now. + The men work here. + The men work hard. + The men work well. + The men work inside. + The men work more. + +We would have a complete sentence and express a complete thought if we +said simply, _The men work_, but each of these words which we have +added, like _busily_, _hard_, _late_, etc., adds something to the +meaning of the verb. These words add something to the action which is +asserted by the verb, for they show _how_ and _when_ and _where_ and +_how much_ the men work. + ++38.+ We call this class of words _adverbs_, because they are added to +verbs to make the meaning more definite, very much as adjectives are +added to nouns. Adverb means literally _to the verb_. + +An adverb will always answer one of these questions: _how?_ _when?_ _how +long?_ _how often?_ _how much?_ _how far?_ or _how late?_ If you want to +find the adverbs in your sentences just ask one of these questions, and +the word that answers it will be the adverb. + ++39.+ An adverb may be used also with an adjective. Notice the following +sentences: + + The book is _very_ long. + _Too_ many people never think. + +Notice here that the adverbs _very_ and _too_ modify the adjectives +_long_ and _many_. + ++40.+ Adverbs may also be used with other adverbs. Notice the following +sentences: + + He speaks _very_ distinctly. + He walks _too_ slowly. + +Here the adverbs _very_ and _too_ are used with the adverbs _distinctly_ +and _slowly_, and add to their meaning. We will study more fully in +later lessons concerning both the adjective and the adverb, but we can +see by this brief study why adverbs were added as a class of words, a +part of speech, for they are absolutely necessary in order to describe +the action expressed by verbs, and also to add to the meaning of +adjectives and other adverbs. Hence we have our definition of an adverb. + ++41.+ +An adverb is a word that modifies the meaning of a verb, an +adjective, or another adverb.+ + + + Exercise 2 + +Underscore all adverbs in the following sentences: + + 1. He will not come today. + 2. Here and now is the day of opportunity. + 3. Very slowly, but even then entirely too rapidly, the fire crept + forward. + 4. The room was very quiet and still. + 5. He was too weary to go farther. + 6. One must learn to feel deeply and think clearly in order to + express himself eloquently. + 7. Ferrer stood there, so calmly and so bravely facing the firing + squad. + 8. He was condemned to death because he stood uncompromisingly and + courageously for the education of the masses. + 9. Ferrer understood thoroughly that the schools of today cleverly + and effectively adapt their teaching to maintain the present + system of society. + 10. He said "The school imprisons the children physically, + intellectually and morally." + + + WORDS USED IN PLACE OF NOUNS + ++42.+ Now we come to study another class of words which are also very +necessary in order to express our ideas. Suppose you had just arrived in +a strange town and you wanted to find the way to a friend's house. You +inquire of a stranger, "Can you tell me who lives in the house on the +corner?" + +Notice the words _you_ and _me_ and _who_. You could not call the +stranger by name for you do not know his name, and hence you say _you_. +And if you used your own name instead of _me_, he would not recognize +it, and you would both be puzzled to find a substitute for that little +word _who_. + +If you knew the stranger and he knew your name, you might say, "Can Mr. +Smith tell Mr. Jones what person lives in the house on the corner." But +this would sound very stilted and unnatural and awkward. So we have +these little words like _you_ and _me_ and _who_, which we use _in place +of nouns_. These words are called pronouns. This word is taken from the +Latin also. In the Latin the word _pro_ means _in place of_. So the word +pronoun means literally in place of a noun. + ++43.+ +A pronoun is a word that is used in place of a noun.+ + +These pronouns are very useful little words. They save us a great deal +of tiresome repetition. Notice the awkwardness of the following: + + The workers will succeed in gaining the workers' freedom if the + workers learn solidarity. + +And yet this would be the way we would have to express this idea +if we did not have pronouns. Instead we say: + + The workers will succeed in gaining their freedom if they learn + solidarity. + ++44.+ We will study the pronoun in detail in later lessons, but we can +readily recognize these words which are used in place of nouns. The most +common pronouns are: + + I + you + he + she + it + we + they + me + him + her + us + them + my + your + his + her + its + our + their + that + which + who + whose + whom + what + + + Exercise 3 + +Underscore the pronouns in the following story: + + A man in South Africa picked up a small piece of stone. It was dirty + and Rough. + + "Make me beautiful," said the stone. + + "I shall have to hurt you," said the man. + + "Well, if it hurts me, I will bear it," said the stone. + + So the man took it to a clever craftsman, who put it into a tight + vise, and cut it with his sharp instrument. + + "Oh!" cried the stone. + + And he ground it till the dust fell all about it. + + "Oh!" cried the stone. + + And he polished it very hard. + + "Oh!" cried the stone. + + And then he set it in a crown and sent it to the Queen. On a sunny day + she wore her crown, and the stone--it was a diamond--sparkled in long + rays of crimson and green and yellow and silvery white. And all the + people greeted their queen. She showed them her crown and they praised + the beautiful stone. + + The training was hard, but the improvement was glorious. + + + PREPOSITIONS + ++45.+ Notice the following sentences: + + I want the book _on_ the box. + I want the book _under_ the box. + I want the book _in_ the box. + I want the book _beside_ the box. + I want the book _behind_ the box. + I want the book _beyond_ the box. + +Do you notice any word in these sentences which does not belong to any +of the classes of words which we have studied? _I_ is a pronoun, _want_ +is a verb, _the_ is an adjective, _book_ is a noun, _the_ is an +adjective, _box_ is a noun; but the words, _on_, _under_, _in_, +_beside_, _behind_ and _beyond_ are not nouns, verbs, adjectives, +adverbs or pronouns. + +Yet would it be possible to express the meaning in these sentences +without these words? Read the sentences without them, and you will see +that no one could tell the relation which you wish to express between +the _book_ and the _box_. And you will notice too that each word +expresses a different relation, for it means one thing to say _on the +box_ and another thing to say _in the box_, and so through the list. + ++46.+ The words which are used to show this relation are called +_prepositions_. The groups of words introduced by the preposition, like +_on the box_ and _in the box_, and so on, are called prepositional +phrases. The noun which follows a preposition as _box_ follows the +prepositions _in_, _on_, _beside_, _beyond_, etc., is called the +_object_ of the preposition. + +_Preposition_ is a word which comes into our language from the Latin. It +is formed from the Latin _pre_, which means _before_, and the Latin verb +which means _to place_, so preposition means literally _to place +before_. It is given this name because it is placed before the noun or +pronoun which is its object. Therefore our definition of a preposition +is as follows: + ++47.+ +A preposition is a word that shows the relation of its object to +some other word.+ + ++48.+ Either a noun or a pronoun may be the object of a preposition. +Notice the following sentences: + + Bring the book to me. + Lay the book on the table. + He will speak to you. + I will speak to the man. + +In these sentences the noun _table_ is the object of the preposition +_on_; the pronoun _me_ is the object of the preposition _to_; and in the +last two sentences the pronoun _you_ and the noun _man_ are the objects +of the preposition _to_. + ++49.+ There are not many prepositions in the language and they are +easily learned and easily distinguished. Here is a list of the most +common and the most important prepositions. Use each one in a sentence. + + at + across + around + about + among + above + against + along + behind + beside + between + below + beyond + by + before + beneath + down + for + from + in + into + off + on + over + to + toward + under + up + upon + with + within + without + + + Exercise 4 + +Underscore the prepositions in the following sentences: + + He went to the door and looked out upon the field. + Over the river and through the woods, to Grandfather's house we go. + He saw them in the distance as they were coming toward him. + They went along the road, across the bridge, and hid among the trees + at the foot of the hill. + They came from Minneapolis down the river by boat. + The war between the classes is a struggle against exploitation. + The army was intrenched behind the barricades before dawn. + His claim was within the law but without justice. + + + CONJUNCTIONS + ++50.+ We have found that the preposition is a very important connective +word. It connects two words and shows what one of them has to do with +the other, but the preposition is not the only connective word which we +use in English. We have another part of speech which performs an +important function as a connective word. Notice the following sentence: + + Men and women struggle for their rights. + +Can you find a word in this sentence which is a connective word besides +the preposition _for_? Did you notice that little word _and_? The noun +_men_ and the noun _women_ are both subjects of the verb _struggle_, and +they are joined by this little connective word _and_. If we did not have +this word we would have to use two sentences to express our thought, +thus: + + Men struggle for their rights. + Women struggle for their rights. + +But with the use of this connective word _and_ we can combine these +two sentences and express it all in one sentence: + + Men _and_ women struggle for their rights. + +This word is used in a different manner from the preposition. The +preposition connects two words and makes one modify the other. When we +say, _Get the book on the table_, the phrase _on the table_ designates +the book just as much as if we had said, _Get the green book_. So the +use of the preposition enables us to show the relation between two words +and to make one word describe or modify the other. + ++51.+ This little word _and_ in the sentence, _Men and women struggle +for their rights_, is a connective word also, but it connects two words +that are used in the same way, so it is a different sort of connective +word from the preposition. Words used in this way are called +_conjunctions_. Conjunction is a word which is taken from the Latin, +being made up of the Latin word _con_, which means _together_, and the +Latin verb _juncto_, which means _to join_. So conjunction means +literally _to join together_. + ++52.+ +A conjunction is a word that connects sentences or parts of +sentences.+ + +Notice the following sentence: + + The class struggle is waged on the political field and on the + industrial field. + +Here we have the conjunction _and_ connecting the two phrases _on the_ +_political field_ and _on the industrial field_. Without the use of this +connective word, we would have to use two sentences to express these two +thoughts: + + The class struggle is waged on the political field. + The class struggle is waged on the industrial field. + ++53.+ So a conjunction may be used to connect phrases as well as words. + +Now notice the following sentences: + + He will speak. I will listen. + He will speak, _and_ I will listen. + He will speak, _but_ I will listen. + He will speak, _if_ I will listen. + He will speak, _therefore_ I will listen. + He will speak, _because_ I will listen. + He will speak, _until_ I will listen. + ++54.+ These _sentences_ are joined by different conjunctions, and the +conjunction used alters the meaning of the sentence. + +The conjunction is a very useful part of speech. Without it we would +have many disconnected sentences requiring tiresome repetition of the +same words. Like prepositions, there are not many conjunctions in +English and they are readily recognized. + ++55.+ We will study about these conjunctions at length in later lessons. +If you consult the following list of those most commonly used, you can +easily pick out the conjunctions in your reading: + + and + as + as if + after + although + as soon as + because + besides + before + but + either + for + hence + in order that + lest + neither + nor + or + since + still + so + then + though + that + than + therefore + till + until + unless + while + whether + yet + +The seven classes of words which we have studied make up all of our +sentences. The hundreds of words which we use in forming our sentences +and expressing our thoughts belong to these seven classes. They are +either nouns, pronouns, verbs, adverbs, adjectives, prepositions or +conjunctions. + + + Exercise 5 + +Underscore the conjunctions in the following sentences. Notice whether +they connect words or phrases or sentences. + + 1. We cannot win unless we are organized. + 2. Books and music are true friends. + 3. Men, women and children work under conditions neither proper nor + just. + 4. We must educate and organize. + 5. The workers on the farms and in the factories must be united. + 6. Winter has come and the birds are going South. + 7. We have been ignorant, therefore we have been exploited. + 8. We must learn before we can teach. + 9. We do not understand the situation, because we do not know the + facts. + 10. Do you know whether these statements are true or false? + + + IT CAN BE DONE + + Somebody said that it couldn't be done, + But he, with a chuckle, replied + That "maybe it couldn't," but he would be one + Who wouldn't say so till he tried. + So he buckled right in, with a trace of a grin + On his face. If he worried he hid it. + He started to sing as he tackled the thing + That couldn't be done--and he did it. + + Somebody scoffed, "Oh, you'll never do that; + At least no one ever has done it." + But he took off his coat and he took off his hat, + And the first thing we knew he'd begun it; + With the lift of his chin, and a bit of a grin, + Without any doubting or quiddit, + He started to sing as he tackled the thing + That couldn't be done--and he did it. + + There are thousands to tell you it can not be done; + There are thousands to prophesy failure; + There are thousands to point out to you, one by one, + The dangers that wait to assail you. + But buckle right in, with a lift of your chin, + Then take off your coat and go to it; + Just start in to sing as you tackle the thing + That "can not be done,"--and you'll do it. + + + INTERJECTIONS + ++56.+ There is another class of words which we use _with_ sentences, but +which are really not _parts_ of the sentences. They are emotional +expressions which seem to belong more to the natural language than to +the invented language. For example: + + Oh! You hurt me! + Aha! Now I have you. + +_Oh_, used in this way, is very apt to sound like a groan, and _aha_ +like a shout of triumph. These words do not really belong in the +construction of the sentence. The sentence would be complete without +them, but they are thrown in to express the emotion which accompanies +the thought. We call expressions such as these _interjections_. +Interjection is from the Latin and means literally _thrown into the +midst of_. It comes from the Latin word _inter_, which means _between_, +and the Latin verb _jecto_, _to throw_, so it literally means _to throw +between_. + +Some of these words imitate sounds, as for example: + + Bang! There goes another shot. + Ding-dong! There goes the first bell. + +We do not use interjections very frequently in writing on scientific +subjects that express deep thought, but you will find them often used in +poetry, fiction, oratory or any emotional writing. Therefore we have our +definition of an interjection: + ++57.+ +An interjection is an exclamatory word or phrase used to express +feeling or to imitate some sound.+ + ++58.+ Following is a list of commonly used interjections. Use them in +sentences of your own. + + oh + hello + bravo + ahoy + aha + hurrah + bow wow + ssh + alas + hist + whirr + pshaw + fie + whoa + ding-dong + rub-a-dub + + + Exercise 6 + +Mark the interjections in the following sentences. Notice those which +express emotion and those which imitate sound. + + 1. Oh! Is it possible. + 2. Hurrah! We have good news at last. + 3. Whirr! Whirr! goes the giant machine. + 4. Come! Keep up your courage. + 5. What! I cannot believe it. + 6. Courage! We shall yet win. + 7. Bravo! Let those words ring down the centuries. + 8. Ding-dong! the bells ring out the hour! + + + + + SPELLING + + LESSON 3 + +Since there are forty-two elementary sounds used in the formation of our +words and only twenty-six letters to represent these sounds, some of +these letters must necessarily represent more than one sound. + +Of the forty-two elementary sounds, eighteen are vowel sounds, but we +have only five vowels with which to represent these sounds, so each +vowel has several different sounds. + +Therefore we must have a key to pronunciation to indicate the various +sounds which are represented by these letters used in forming the words. +When you look up words in your dictionary you will find the vowels +marked by certain signs to indicate the pronunciation. These signs are +called diacritical marks. + +The following table gives the diacritical marks for the vowels. Study +this table and learn to pronounce the words you look up. When you have +determined the correct pronunciation of the word, repeat it over to +yourself aloud a number of times until you have accustomed your ear to +the correct pronunciation. + +Different dictionaries use different keys to pronunciation. This table +is taken from the dictionary which we are using in connection with this +course--Winston's New Universal Self-Pronouncing Dictionary. + + Key to Pronunciation + + [=a] as in _late_, _fade_. + ä as in _mar_, _father_. + [.a] as in _mask_, _dance_. + a as in _cat_, _had_. + aw as in _awl_, _fall_. + [=e] as in _he_, _feet_. + [~e] as in _her_, _verge_. + e as in _let_, _men_. + [=i] as in _line_, _time_. + i as in _tin_, _little_. + [=o] as in _vote_, _home_. + ô as in _orb_, _form_. + o as in _lot_, _odd_. + oi as in _oil_, _join_. + [=oo] as in _moon_, _school_. + oo as in _cook_, _foot_. + ou as in _out_, _house_. + [=u] as in _mute_, _unit_. + u as in _nut_, _drum_. + + +The spelling lesson for this week is composed of words containing the +different vowel sounds. Look up in your dictionary and mark all the +_a's_ in Monday's lesson, all the _e's_ in Tuesday's lesson, all the +_i's_ in Wednesday's lesson, all the _o's_ in Thursday's lesson, and all +the _u's_ in Friday's lesson. In Saturday's lesson note the use of _w_ +and _y_ as vowels. + + +Monday+ + + Pause + Adjective + Lazy + Quality + Advance + + +Tuesday+ + + Resemble + Descend + Adverb + Interjection + Complete + + +Wednesday+ + + Limit + Define + Distinct + Imprison + Civilize + + +Thursday+ + + Form + Footsteps + Proof + Report + Common + + +Friday+ + + Union + Under + Unusual + Summer + Commune + + +Saturday+ + + Comply + Employ + Vowel + News + Lawful + + + + + PLAIN ENGLISH + + LESSON 4 + + +Dear Comrade: + +We are studying in this lesson a most interesting part of our language, +the words that are the names of things. If we could trace these names of +things and the order and time of their coming into the language of men +we would have a progressive history of mankind. Way back yonder in the +dim dawn of history, men lived upon fruit and nuts. They had no +knowledge of the use of fire and could not use foods that required +cooking. They communicated with one another by signs. Then they +discovered fire and invented the bow and arrow. They could now use fish +and flesh for food and they commenced to use articulate speech. This +stage has been called the Middle Stage of Savagery. With the invention +of the bow and arrow, began the third stage of savagery which merged +into the first stage of barbarism with the invention of pottery. + +There are three stages of barbarism before we come to the beginning of +the era of civilization which begins with the use of the phonetic +alphabet and the production of literary records. All tribes that have +never attained the art of pottery are classed as savages and those who +possess this art but have never attained a phonetic alphabet and the use +of writing are classed as barbarians. Civilization began with the spoken +and written language and it has been well said that all that separates +us from savagery is a wall of books. It is upon the accumulated wisdom +of the past that we build. Without this we would be helpless. + +So these various names of things have come to us with developing +evolving life. As the men of the past gained a knowledge of the use of +fire, as they learned to bake the clay and make various utensils; to +heat and forge the iron into weapons; to conquer nature in all her +phases, to feed the race, to clothe the race, to shelter the race more +adequately, our language has grown in volume, strength and beauty. + +The study of words and their uses is of great importance to you. Master +the few rules necessary and watch your words daily. We are living in an +age full of wondrous things and yet many of us have almost as limited a +vocabulary as the men of those bygone days, who had never dreamed of the +marvels that are commonplace to us. + +As you use your dictionary watch closely the meaning of the words and +choose the words that most aptly express your ideas. Listen to good +English spoken as often as you can. _Read_ good English. Mark the +difference between good and bad English and gradually you will find +yourself using good English naturally and continually. + + Yours for Education, + + THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. + + + CLASSES OF NOUNS + ++59.+ We have learned that the words in a sentence are classified +according to the work which each word does. The words which assert are +called verbs; the words which are the names of things are called nouns. +But now we shall see that these words are again divided into classes +according to the _special_ work which they perform. Just as we may +gather the people of the world into one great class, the working class, +then classify them according to the industry in which they work, thus +some are farmers, some teachers, some factory workers; then each class +may be subdivided according to the special work which they perform, as +truck farmers, high school teachers, machinists, etc. + +So we find that nouns are divided into classes according to their +meaning in the sentence. + +In the sentence, _Lincoln was a man of the people_, we have two nouns +referring to the same person, _Lincoln_ and _man_, but they are +different kinds of names. The word _man_ is a name that may apply to any +one of a million persons but the name _Lincoln_ applies to one person +only. Some nouns, then, represent a thing as being of a certain kind or +class, without showing which particular one is meant. Other nouns are +names given to designate a particular individual. These are called +_common_ and _proper_ nouns. + ++60.+ +A proper noun is a special name meant for only one person, place +or thing.+ + +All other nouns are common nouns. + ++A common noun is a name which belongs to all things of a +class of objects.+ + ++Every proper noun should begin with a capital letter.+ + +Indicate the proper nouns in the following list by drawing a line under +the letters that ought to be capitals: + + king + month + city + france + dog + virginia + war + wilson + november + doctor + colonel + napoleon + chicago + governor + independence day + freedom + ocean + atlantic ocean + thanksgiving + thanksgiving day + uncle william + thursday + week + general sherman + karl marx + union + labor + united mine workers + newspaper + the daily call + +Write the special or _proper_ names of several individuals in each of +the following classes:--as city,--Chicago, New York, etc. + +River, king, author, country, state, inventor, martyr, month, book, +college. + + + COLLECTIVE NOUNS + ++61.+ Some nouns are the names of groups or collections of things and +are called collective nouns. + +Many soldiers taken together form collectively an _army_--a number of +sheep form a _drove_. Many of these group or collective nouns will +readily occur to your mind. + ++A collective noun is one that in the singular form, denotes a number of +separate persons or things.+ + + + Exercise 1 + +Opposite each of the following collective nouns, write the name of the +individuals represented by the collection; as an army of _soldiers_; a +swarm of _bees_; a flock of _birds_. + + A gang of...... + A committee of...... + A herd of...... + A drove of...... + A hive of...... + A corps of...... + A suite of...... + A group of...... + A class of...... + A multitude of...... + +Fill the following blanks with appropriate collective nouns. + + A......of horses. + A......of sailors. + A......of wolves. + A......of savages. + A......of singers. + A......of girls. + A......of ships. + A......of quail. + A......of birds. + A......of workers. + + + ABSTRACT NOUNS + ++62.+ When primitive man began to name the objects about him, doubtless +he first named the things which he could see, hear, taste, smell and +touch,--the objects which he could perceive by the five senses. Then +gradually he came to understand that these objects had certain qualities +which he could consider apart from the object itself. + +He hunted among the stones to find those which were suitable for making +his arrow-heads. For this purpose he needed the hardest stone which he +could find, so _hardness_ became something which he could think of as +something apart from the object itself. + +He saw the men about him and found a name for them. Then he knew that +some men were stronger than others, so _strength_ was a quality which he +could consider apart from the man himself. + +These men performed certain actions; they ran, they climbed,--so +_running_ and _climbing_ became actions which he could think of as +something apart from any individual. + +He noted too that men lived in certain conditions; for example, some men +were free, some were slaves, so he came to think of _slavery_ and +_freedom_ as conditions which could be thought of as something apart +from the individual. + +So we draw away, or separate certain ideas; the _quality_ from the thing +which has it and the _action_ from the thing which does it and the +_condition_ from the thing which is in it. These nouns which are used to +describe these qualities, actions or conditions are called _abstract_ +nouns. Abstract is a word derived from the Latin _abs_, _away from_, and +_tractus_, _drawn_, so it literally means _drawn away from_. + +The nouns which are names of things which we can see, hear, taste, smell +and touch or perceive by any of the five senses are called _concrete_ +nouns. + ++63.+ +A concrete noun is the name of an object which may be perceived +by one or more of the five senses.+ + ++An abstract noun is the name of a quality, a condition or an action.+ + ++64.+ You remember we found in the study of adjectives that we have a +class of adjectives which are used to describe the qualities of objects, +as for example--_good_, _noble_, _honest_, _true_, _wise_, etc. Since +abstract nouns are the names of qualities, many of our abstract nouns +are formed from adjectives. Study carefully the following list of +adjectives and nouns. Note that the word is an _adjective_ when it is +used with a noun to _describe_ certain qualities. It is a _noun_ when it +is used by itself to _name_ that quality. + + +Adjectives+ +Abstract Nouns+ + + 1. honest honesty + 2. pure purity + 3. true truth + 4. strong strength + 5. wise wisdom + 6. good goodness + 7. bold boldness + 8. just justice + 9. silent silence + 10. wide width + 11. patient patience + 12. stupid stupidity + ++65.+ You will notice that another use of abstract nouns is to name +actions. The verb is the part of speech which expresses action, +therefore many abstract nouns are formed from verbs. Notice the +following list: + + +Verbs+ +Abstract Nouns+ + + 1. learn learning + 2. invent invention + 3. choose choice + 4. defend defense + 5. try trial + 6. judge judgment + 7. read reading + 8. please pleasure + 9. elect election + 10. move motion + ++66.+ An abstract noun is also the name of a condition. These nouns are +derived from the concrete noun which is the name of the person or thing +which is _in_ the condition. + + +Concrete Nouns+ +Abstract Nouns+ + + 1. slave slavery + 2. friend friendship + 3. thief theft + 4. man manhood + 5. child childhood + 6. leader leadership + 7. hero heroism + 8. martyr martyrdom + + + Exercise 2 + +Form abstract nouns from the following adjectives, verbs and nouns. + + long + simple + rapid + lovely + loyal + fresh + prove + sing + run + behave + believe + reflect + write + child + agent + infant + rascal + clerk + president + coward + + + NUMBER FORM + ++67.+ So we find that we classify our nouns according to the special +work which they do. Now sometimes we find it necessary to change the +form of the noun to make it express our thought. Thus we say, _book_, +_man_, _boy_, _knife_, when we wish to express the idea of only one of +each object mentioned. But when we wish to express the idea of more than +one of them, we say, _books_, _men_, _boys_, _knives_. + +We say, _The boy calls_; _the boys call_. The form of the noun _boy_ is +changed by adding an _s_ to it. The meaning has also changed. _Boy_ +denotes one lad; _boys_ denotes two or more lads. Any change in form and +meaning of words is called _inflection_. The change to denote more than +one object is called _number_. The word _boy_, denoting _one_ is in the +_singular number_; the word _boys_, denoting _more than one_ is in the +_plural number_. + ++68.+ +Inflection is a change in the form of a word to denote a +different application or use.+ + ++Number is the form of a noun which shows whether it denotes one or more +than one.+ + ++The singular number denotes one thing.+ + ++The plural number denotes more than one thing.+ + +There are a few rules governing the formation of plurals which we must +know, and these rules are of great assistance in correct spelling. + ++69.+ Most nouns form their plural by adding _s_--thus: + + boat + boats + + day + days + + book + books + + boy + boys + +Long ago in early English all plurals were formed by adding _es_, and +you will read in the first translation of the Bible, for instance, such +words as _bird-es_, _cloud-es_. Later the _e_ was dropped and _s_ added +to the singular without an increase of syllables. But when the singular +ends in an _s_ sound, the original syllable _es_ is retained, for two +hissing sounds will not unite. + ++70.+ So nouns ending in _s_, _x_, _z_, _sh_ or soft _ch_, form the +plural by adding _es_ to the singular. These words end with a sound so +much like that of _s_ that we cannot pronounce the plural easily without +making another syllable. Thus: + + class + classes + + tax + taxes + + topaz + topazes + + wish + wishes + + ditch + ditches + ++71.+ In words ending with the _s_ sound but with a final _e_, only _s_ +is added to form the plural, but in pronouncing the word we then have +two syllables, thus: + + house + houses + + place + places + + size + sizes + + cage + cages + + niche + niches + ++72.+ Letters, figures, signs, etc., are made plural by adding an +apostrophe and the letter _s_ ('s), thus: + + Cross your t's and dot your i's. + Do you know the table of 4's? + +While most of our nouns form their plural in this regular way by adding +_s_ or _es_, there are some nouns that form their plural by some other +change in the form of the word. + ++73.+ Notice the following list of words and their plurals: + + fly + flies + city + cities + key + keys + day + days + story + stories + enemy + enemies + tray + trays + boy + boys + +These nouns all end in _y_, yet they form the plural differently. Some +simply add _s_ and the rest change the _y_ to _i_ and add _es_. Can you +discover the reason? + +Wherever the _y_ is preceded by a vowel, as _e_ in _key_, _a_ in _tray_, +_o_ in _boy_, the plural is formed by adding _s_. But when the _y_ is +preceded by a consonant, as _l_ in _fly_, _r_ in _story_, _t_ in _city_, +and _m_ in _enemy_, the _y_ is changed to _i_ and _es_ added in forming +the plural. + ++If the singular ends in _y_ after a consonant, change _y_ to _i_ +and add _es_ in the plural.+ + ++74.+ There are thirteen nouns ending in _f_ and three in _fe_ which +form the plural in _ves_. They are: + + beef beeves + calf calves + elf elves + half halves + leaf leaves + loaf loaves + self selves + sheaf sheaves + shelf shelves + staff staves + thief thieves + wharf wharves + wolf wolves + knife knives + life lives + wife wives + +All other nouns in _f_ or _fe_ are regular; adding only _s_, to form the +plural. + ++75.+ About forty nouns ending in _o_ after a consonant form the plural +in _es_. The most common ones are: + + buffalo + cargo + potato + tomato + negro + veto + cargo + echo + calico + embargo + hero + mulatto + mosquito + motto + tornado + volcano + torpedo + flamingo + +Most nouns ending in _o_ form the plural regularly, adding only _s_, as +_pianos_, _banjos_, _cameos_, etc. + ++76.+ A few words form their plurals by a change in the word and without +adding _s_ or _es_. + +The most common of these words are: + + man men + goose geese + ox oxen + woman women + foot feet + mouse mice + brother brethren + tooth teeth + child children + louse lice + ++77.+ Proper nouns, when made plural, generally follow the same rule as +common nouns. Thus we write: + + All the Smiths, the Joneses, both the Miss Johnsons, one of the Dr. + Davidsons, and the Mrs. Wilsons, were present. + +But to prevent the confusion and misunderstanding which might arise in +changing the form of a proper noun, we do not change its form in writing +the plurals; for example: + + There were eight Henrys, kings of England. + The two Marys reigned in the kingdom. + +It would be confusing to say _eight Henries_, the _two Maries_. + +The title is made plural when several are referred to, thus: + + Mr. Hayes The Messrs. Hayes + Miss Smith The Misses Smith + ++78.+ The title is made plural when used with several names, thus: + + Messrs. Brown and White. + Generals Lee and Grant. + Drs. Long and Larson. + ++79.+ In the case of nouns formed of two or more words, when +the compound word is so familiar that the parts are not thought +of separately the _s_ is added to the whole compound word, as +_four-in-hands_; _forget-me-nots_; _court-yards_; _spoonfuls_; +_green-houses_; etc. But when one of the parts is more important than +the others, the _s_ is added to the more important part, thus: + + mothers-in-law + commanders-in-chief + hangers-on + men-of-war + by-standers + attorneys-at-law + passers-by + step-sons + ++80.+ We have many words in our language taken from other languages. +They do not form the plural in these languages as we do, and some of +these words retain their foreign plurals. Some of the most commonly used +of these nouns are the following: + + +Singular+ +Plural+ + + alumnus alumni + analysis analyses + axis axes + datum data + erratum errata + ellipsis ellipses + appendix appendices + bacterium bacteria + basis bases + crisis crises + parenthesis parentheses + radius radii + terminus termini + hypothesis hypotheses + larva larvae + madame mesdames + memorandum memoranda + phenomenon phenomena + stratum strata + thesis theses + ++81.+ The following nouns are treated as singular: _news_, _pains_ +(meaning care), _acoustics_, _mathematics_, _economics_, _ethics_, +_molasses_, _physics_, _politics_, and other nouns ending in _ics_ +except _athletics_. With these always use the s-form of the verb. For +example: + + The news _is_ distorted. Not, The news _are_ distorted. + Economics _is_ an important study. Not, Economics _are_, etc. + ++82.+ The following nouns are always plural: + + alms + annals + amends + antipodes + bellows + billiards + clothes + dregs + eaves + fireworks + hysterics + measles + mumps + matins + nippers + nuptials + oats + premises + proceeds + pincers + riches + rickets + suds + scissors + thanks + tidings + tongs + trousers + vitals + victuals + vespers + +With all these nouns always use the form of the verb which is used with +the plural subject. Thus: + + Alms are given. + Riches are easily lost. + ++83.+ The following nouns have the same form for both plural and +singular, _corps_, _cannon_, _deer_, _grouse_, _heathen_, _hose_, +_means_, _odds_, _series_, _sheep_, _species_, _swine_, _vermin_, +_wages_. You can tell whether the singular or plural is meant by the +meaning of the sentence. For example: + +_The cannon is loaded._ Here we are speaking of _one_ cannon. + +_The cannon used in the war are of tremendous size._ Here we know are +meant all the big guns used in the war. + +When you say, _The sheep is lost_, we know you mean _one_ sheep, but +when you say, _The sheep are in the pasture_, we know you mean the +entire drove. + ++84.+ When preceded by a numeral, the following nouns have the same form +for both singular and plural. Without the numerals, the plural is formed +by the adding of _s_; _brace_, _couple_, _dozen_, _hundred_, _pair_, +_score_, _thousand_, _yoke_. For example: + + Thousands enlisted. + Three thousand enlisted. + Dozens came at my call. + Two dozen came when I called. + + + GENDER + ++85.+ All of the changes we have studied so far have been for the +purpose of indicating number; but among the nouns that name living +beings, many change to show to which sex the object named belongs. These +nouns change in form to distinguish between the masculine and the +feminine. This is called _gender_. + + +Gender is the distinction in words that denotes sex.+ + + +The nouns that denote females are called feminine nouns.+ + + +The nouns that denote males are called masculine nouns.+ + ++86.+ The feminine form is generally made by the addition of _ess_ +to the masculine form. Thus: + + prince princess + master mistress + host hostess + count countess + tiger tigress + lion lioness + actor actress + god goddess + ++87.+ Names of things without sex are, of course, of neither gender, and +are called _neuter nouns_. Neuter means literally _neither_. Such nouns +as _mountain_, _iron_, _river_, _chair_, are neuter. + +Sometimes the feminine is an entirely different word from the masculine. +Thus: + + king queen + lord lady + man woman + youth maiden + sir madam + stag hind + ++88.+ Many nouns that denote living beings apply alike to male and +female, and are said to be of _common gender_. As woman enters more and +more into the business world and pursues the same occupations as man, +the change in form to denote the feminine is used less frequently, and +what we have called the masculine form is used for both sexes, thus: + +_Poet_, _waiter_, _doctor_, _editor_--these nouns are used for both men +and women. + + + POSSESSIVE FORM + ++89.+ There is just one more change made in the form of a noun, and that +is when we wish to show who or what owns or possesses a thing. Thus we +write: + + John's book. + The boy's hat. + +And since this form of the noun denotes possession, it is called the +_possessive form_. Some grammarians call this the possessive case. + +The possessive form of nouns is made by adding an apostrophe and _s_, +('s); thus, _day's_, _lady's_, _girl's_, _clerk's_. + +To plural nouns ending in _s_ add only an apostrophe; thus, _days'_, +_ladies'_, _girls'_, _clerks'_. + +When plural nouns do not end in _s_, their possessive forms are made by +adding the apostrophe and _s_, the same as singular nouns, thus: + + They make _men's_ and _women's_ shoes. + ++90.+ In words which end with a sound that resembles that of _s_, the +apostrophe with _s_ forms an additional syllable. Thus: + + James's (pronounced James-ez.) + Mr. Lynch's (pronounced Lynch-ez.) + +The only exception to the rule occurs when the addition of another _s_ +would make too many hissing sounds, then we add the apostrophe alone. +Thus: + + For goodness' sake. + In Jesus' name. + ++91.+ In forming the possessive of compound nouns, the possessive sign +is always placed at the end, thus: + + My son-in-law's sister. + The man-of-war's cannon. + ++92.+ When we wish to show that a thing belongs to two or more persons +who are joint owners of it, we add the possessive sign to the last word +only, thus: + + Carson, Price and Scott's store. + Mason and Hamlin's pianos. + +If it is a separate ownership that we wish to denote, we place the +possessive sign after each name, thus: + + Bring me John's and Mary's books. + Lee's and Grant's armies met in battle. + +Remember that the noun has just _three_ changes in form, one for the +plural number, one to denote gender and one for the possessive form. +Watch carefully your own language and that of your friends and note if +these changes are correctly made. + + + Exercise 3 + +Write the plural form of each of the following: + + ax + beef + chief + hero + knife + T + hoof + man-of-war + axis + basis + cherry + leaf + son-in-law + Mr. Smith + thief + Doctor Wood + alley + buffalo + chimney + staff + Frenchman + Miss Brown + ox + spoonful + alto + calf + cargo + two + 3 + tooth + foot + turkey + + + Exercise 4 + +Underscore the nouns in the following: + +How many abstract nouns? + +How many concrete? + +How many singular? + +How many plural? + + + FIVE AND FIFTY + + _Charlotte Perkins Gilman_ + + If fifty men did all the work + And gave the price to five; + And let those five make all the rules-- + You'd say the fifty men were fools, + Unfit to be alive. + + And if you heard complaining cries + From fifty brawny men, + Blaming the five for graft and greed, + Injustice, cruelty indeed-- + What would you call them then? + + Not by their own superior force + Do five on fifty live, + But by election and assent-- + And privilege of government-- + Powers that the fifty give. + + If fifty men are really fools-- + And five have all the brains-- + The five must rule as now we find; + But if the fifty have the mind-- + Why don't they take the reins? + + + Exercise 5 + +Select all the nouns in the following. Write their singular, plural and +possessive forms. Decide whether they are abstract or concrete, common +or proper or collective, masculine, feminine or neuter. + + Brother! + + Whoever you are, wherever you are on all the earth, I greet you. + + I extend to you my right hand. + + I make you a pledge. + + Here is my pledge to you:-- + + I refuse to kill your father. I refuse to slay your mother's son. I + refuse to plunge a bayonet into the breast of your sister's brother. I + refuse to slaughter your sweetheart's lover. I refuse to murder your + wife's husband. I refuse to butcher your little child's father. I + refuse to wet the earth with blood and blind kind eyes with tears. I + refuse to assassinate you and then hide my stained fists in the folds + of _any_ flag. + + Will you thus pledge me and pledge all the members of our working + class?--_Kirkpatrick._ + + + + + SPELLING + + LESSON 4 + + +Some of our consonants also have more than one sound. We have also +certain combinations of consonants which represent one sound. This +combination of two letters to represent one sound is called a digraph, +as _gh_, in _cough_, _ch_ in _church_. A digraph may either be a +combination of two consonants or of two vowels or of a vowel and a +consonant. The following table contains the consonants which have more +than one sound: + + c--k as in _cat_ + c--s as in _vice_ + g--j as in _ginger_ + g--_hard_ as in _go_ + s--sh as in _sure_ + s--zh as in _usual_ + s--_soft_ as in _also_ + s--z as in _does_ + x--_soft_ as in _extra_ + x--gz as in _exist_ + +The following table gives the digraphs most commonly used: + + ng--as in _ring_, _tongue_ + ch--as in _church_ and _much_ + ch--k as in _chasm_ + ch--sh as in _chagrin_ + th--as in _then_, _those_ + th--as in _thin_ and _worth_ + ce--sh as in _ocean_ + ci--sh as in _special_ + dg--j as in _edge_ + gh--f as in _rough_ + ph--f as in _sylph_ + qu--kw as in _quart_ + qu--k as in _conquer_ + sh--as in _shall_ + si--sh as in _tension_ + si--zh as in _vision_ + ti--sh as in _motion_ + + +The use of these digraphs gives us a number of additional sounds. Notice +the use of the consonants which have more than one sound and also the +digraphs in the spelling lesson for the week. Mark the consonants and +digraphs. + + +Monday+ + + Commence + Certain + General + Gradual + Sugar + + +Tuesday+ + + Soldier + Season + Pleasure + Exact + Exercise + + +Wednesday+ + + Singular + Chemistry + Chapter + Machine + Changing + + +Thursday+ + + Theory + Thither + Ocean + Racial + Budget + + +Friday+ + + Philosophy + Enough + Quorum + Bouquet + Phonetic + + +Saturday+ + + Permission + Asia + Attention + Marshall + Martial + + + + + PLAIN ENGLISH + + LESSON 5 + + +Dear Comrade: + +We want to say just a word about the lesson assignment. This has been +arranged on a schedule of days merely to assist you in systematizing +your time and making the most of the leisure at your disposal. It is not +intended that you should slavishly follow it. We thoroughly believe in +individuality and all that contributes toward its development. But we +are also confident that many foolish things are done in the name of +liberty. Whenever we set ourselves to the performance of any task we +necessarily limit our activities in some other direction. Power comes by +concentration of force. Whenever we combine with others for the +accomplishment of any purpose, it becomes necessary to have some plan of +action and we give and take for the end which we have in view. The +musician because he follows the law of harmony in music has not given up +his liberty. He has only found a new freedom which enables him to make +glorious music where only discord reigned before. System in our work +does not mean loss of liberty or of individuality but only finding a +channel through which individuality can flow into the great ocean of +real freedom. + +So use this suggestive lesson assignment to meet your own need and find +expression for your real individuality in full freedom. + +This is the first of several lessons concerning verbs. The verb is +perhaps the most difficult part of speech to thoroughly master, so do +not be discouraged if there are some parts of this lesson you do not +understand. Succeeding lessons will clear up these difficult points. +Keep your eyes open as you read every day, and be careful of your +spelling and pronunciation. + +Some of us mis-spell the common words which we see and use every day. In +a student's letter we recently noted that, with our letter before him in +which the word was printed in large type and correctly spelled, he +spelled College, _Colledge_. + +Do not be satisfied with half-way things or less than that which is +worthy of you. Demand the best for yourself. Read aloud this little +verse from the Good Grey Poet, Walt Whitman: + + "O, the joy of a manly self-hood; + To be servile to none, to defer to none, not to any tyrant known or + unknown, + To walk with erect carriage, a step springy and elastic, + To look with calm gaze or with a flashing eye, + To speak with a full and sonorous voice out of a broad chest, + To confront with your personality all the other personalities of the + earth." + + Yours for Education, + + THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. + + + THE WORD THAT ASSERTS + ++93.+ You remember when we studied sentences we found that we could not +have a sentence without a verb or a word that asserts. The life of a +sentence is the verb, for without the verb we cannot assert, question or +command. It was on account of this importance that the Romans called the +verb, _verbum_, which meant the word. Verbs, like nouns, are divided +into classes. + ++94.+ In some of our sentences the verb alone is enough to make a +complete assertion, but in other sentences we use verbs that need to be +followed by one or more words to complete the assertion. Notice the +following sentences: + + The boy ran. + The boy found the ball. + The earth revolves. + The earth is round. + +Do you notice any difference in the verbs used in these sentences? +Notice that the verbs _ran_ and _revolves_ make the complete assertion +about their subjects. Notice the verbs _found_ and _is_. These are not +complete without the addition of the words _ball_ and _round_. If we say +_The boy found_, _The earth is_, you at once ask, _The boy found WHAT?_ +_The earth is WHAT?_ The sense is incomplete without the addition of +these words _ball_ and _round_. A part of the thought is unexpressed; +but when we say _The boy found the ball_, _The earth is round_, the +sense is complete. + +So we have two classes of verbs, _COMPLETE AND INCOMPLETE VERBS_. + ++95.+ +An incomplete verb is one that requires the addition of one or +more words to complete its meaning.+ + ++The word or words added to an incomplete verb to complete its meaning +are called the complement.+ + ++A complete verb is one that requires no complement to complete its +meaning.+ + ++96.+ You can readily tell when a verb is complete and when it is +incomplete by asking the question _What?_ If you put the question _what_ +after the verb, and it makes a sensible question the verb is +_incomplete_. For example: + + Farmers raise--_what?_ + The employer discharged--_what?_ + We were--_what?_ + The earth is--_what?_ + +If the question _what?_ does not make sense after the verb, then the +verb is _complete_. For example: + + The sun shines. + Water flows. + Men work. + +The question _what_ after these verbs would not make sense, as: + + The sun shines--_what?_ + Men work--_what?_ + Water flows--_what?_ + +So these verbs are _complete_ verbs. + ++97.+ The same verb, however, may be complete or incomplete, according +to the way in which it is used. For example: + + The corn grows. + The farmer grows corn. + +In the sentence, _Corn grows_, _grows_ is a complete verb. You could not +say _The corn grows--what?_ for it does not grow anything. It merely +grows, and the verb _grows_ in this sense is a complete verb. But in the +sentence, _The farmer grows corn_, you are using the verb _grows_ in a +slightly different sense. It is an _incomplete verb_, for you do not +mean, _The farmer grows_, but you mean that _the farmer grows CORN_. + + + Exercise 1 + +In the following sentences, underscore the complete verbs with one line, +the incomplete with two lines. Ask the question _what?_ after each verb +to determine whether it is complete or incomplete. + + He returned today. + He returned the book. + The rose smells sweet. + He smelled the rose. + The trees shake in the wind. + The wind shakes the trees. + The ship plows through the waves. + The farmer plows the field. + The birds sing sweetly. + They sang the Marseillaise. + He worries over the matter. + The matters worry him. + The table feels rough. + He feels the rough surface. + It tastes bitter. + He tasted the bitter dregs. + + + Exercise 2 + +Use the following verbs in sentences as both complete and incomplete +verbs, as for example, _The snow melts._ _The sun melts the snow._ + + melts + write + stopped + answer + rings + fall + see + strike + + + INCOMPLETE VERBS + ++98.+ Do you notice any difference in the two verbs in the following +sentences: + + The boy found the ball. + The earth is round. + +In the sentence, _The boy found the ball_, the word _ball_ tells _what_ +the boy _found_. The verb _found_ expresses action; it tells what the +boy _does_. _Boy_ is the subject of the action--the one who performs the +action. The word _ball_ is the _object_ of the action. It shows the +receiver of the action. In the sentence, _The earth is round_, _is_ does +not express action. The earth is not doing anything, it simply _is_. The +verb _is_ expresses a state or condition and is incomplete, for you do +not know what state or condition is expressed until we add the other +word or words which describe the state or condition. + +Notice the following sentences: + + The earth is round. + The earth is our home. + The earth is a sphere. + The earth is large. + +The words _round_, _sphere_, _home_ and _large_, describe the earth +which is the subject of the verb _is_. + ++99.+ So we have two classes of incomplete verbs, the verbs that express +action and the verbs that express state or condition. The verbs which +express action are called _transitive_ verbs. Transitive is a word +derived from the Latin, and means literally _passing over_. + ++100.+ So a transitive verb describes an action which _passes over_ +from the subject to the object. As for example in the sentence, _The +player struck the ball_, _struck_ is a transitive verb--a verb of +action--describing the action of the subject, _player_, which passes +over to the object, _ball_. Therefore we have our definition of a +transitive verb: + ++A transitive verb is one that has a complement showing who or what +receives the action expressed by the verb.+ + ++The complement or word that denotes the receiver of the action +expressed by a transitive verb is called the object.+ + +When you look up the meaning of verbs in your dictionary, you will find +some verbs marked _v.i._, and some verbs marked _v.t._ _V.t._ is the +abbreviation for _verb transitive_. Whenever you find a verb marked +_v.t._, you know that it is a transitive verb, a verb of action, one +which requires an object to complete its meaning. _V.i._ is the +abbreviation for _verb intransitive_. Some grammarians use the term +_intransitive_ to include both _complete_ and _copulative_ verbs. We +have used the terms complete and incomplete because they are much +simpler and clearer in describing the two general classes of verbs, but +you will remember that when you find verbs marked _v.i._ in the +dictionary that these include _complete_ and _copulative_ verbs. + ++101.+ Now notice these sentences: + + The earth is round. + The earth is a sphere. + +In these sentences the verb _is_ does not express action, but _connects_ +or _couples_ the complements _round_ and _sphere_ with the subject +_earth_. Verbs used in this way are called _copulative_ verbs, from the +word _copula_, which means to _complete_ or to _connect_. The words +_round_ and _sphere_ are not the objects of the verb, for they do not +describe the receiver of any action. They are the words which describe +the state or condition expressed in the verb _is_, and are called the +attribute complement of the verb. + +You note that this complement may be either an adjective or a noun. In +the sentence, _The earth is round_, the adjective, _round_, is used as +the complement; in the sentence, _The earth is a sphere_, the noun, +_sphere_, is used as the complement. So we have our definition of +copulative verbs. + ++102.+ +Verbs that express state or condition are called copulative +verbs.+ + ++The word or words that complete the meaning of an incomplete verb +expressing state or condition, are called the complement, or attribute +complement.+ + +There are only a few of these copulative verbs. All forms of the verb, +_be_; like _am_, _is_, _are_, _was_ and _were_, and the verb phrases +like _must be_, _can be_, _will be_, _shall be_, _have been_, _had +been_, etc.; and the verbs _seem_, _appear_, _become_, _look_, _feel_, +_taste_, _sound_ and _smell_, are the principal copulative verbs. + + + Exercise 3 + +Study carefully the following sentences. Note whether the complement of +the copulative verb is an adjective or a noun. Draw one line under each +_adjective_ used as a complement and two lines under each _noun_ used as +a complement. + + The day is beautiful. + I am weary and tired. + The men were soldiers. + The tasks seem endless. + All men must be free. + The workers have been slaves. + The burden becomes heavier every day. + The children feel happy and care-free. + Evolution is the development of life. + Grammar is the study of words and their use. + Knowledge is freedom. + The music sounds sweet on the midnight air. + He looks well today. + The dregs taste bitter. + The incense smells sweet. + + + Exercise 4 + +Complete the following sentences by adding an object or a complement. + + + 1. Perseverance in your study will bring....... + 2. The great need of the working class is....... + 3. We shall never acknowledge....... + 4. By the sweat of no other's brow shalt thou eat....... + 5. The Revolutionary fathers founded....... + 6. The workers demand....... + 7. Labor's only road to freedom is....... + 8. Life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness are....... + 9. If you struggle, you will gain....... + 10. An incomplete verb requires....... + 11. The complement of a transitive verb is called....... + 12. The complement of a copulative verb may be either......or....... + + ++103. There are two classes of verbs, complete and incomplete.+ + ++A complete verb is one that requires no complement.+ + ++An incomplete verb is one that requires a complement to complete its +meaning.+ + ++Incomplete verbs are of two kinds: 1. Those that express action; 2. +Those that express state or condition.+ + ++Incomplete verbs that express action are called transitive verbs.+ + ++Incomplete verbs that express state or condition are called copulative +verbs.+ + ++The complement or the word that denotes the receiver of the action +expressed in a transitive verb is called the object.+ + ++The word or words that complete the meaning of a copulative verb are +called the complement, or attribute complement.+ + ++The same verb may be complete or incomplete, according to the way in +which it is used.+ + + + Exercise 5 + +In the following sentences draw a single line under the complete verbs +and a double line under the incomplete verbs. Then determine whether the +incomplete verbs are transitive or copulative verbs, and draw a line +through the object or the complement. + + 1. Some plants are poisonous. + 2. A rolling stone gathers no moss. + 3. Perseverance brings success. + 4. Delays are dangerous. + 5. A man's actions show his character. + 6. He looks well and feels stronger. + 7. The snows come and the flowers fade. + 8. Labor creates all wealth. + 9. Labor must be free. + 10. The boy writes well. + 11. The man wrote a letter. + 12. The skies are clear. + 13. The hail destroyed the wheat. + 14. No man is ever too old to learn. + 15. Competition makes enemies. + 16. Co-operation makes friends. + 17. Competition breeds hatred. + 18. Co-operation breeds good will. + 19. Competition ensures war. + 20. Co-operation ensures peace. + + + Exercise 6 + +In the following quotation all of the verbs are printed in _italics_. +Determine whether they are complete or incomplete verbs. If incomplete, +determine whether they are transitive or copulative verbs. Draw a line +under the object of every transitive verb and two lines under the +complement of every copulative verb. Remember that sometimes we have +several words combined into a verb phrase and used as a single verb. +Watch for the verb phrases in the following, as for example: _must be_, +in the sentence, _Labor must be free_. + + + The history of man _is_ simply the history of slavery. Slavery + _includes_ all other crimes. It _degrades_ labor and _corrupts_ + leisure. With the idea that labor _is_ the basis of progress _goes_ + the truth that labor _must be_ free. The laborer _must be_ a free man. + + There _is_ something wrong in a government where honesty _wears_ a rag + and rascality _dons_ a robe; where the loving _eat_ a crust while the + infamous _sit_ at banquets. + + _Talk_ about equal opportunity! Capitalism _ties_ a balloon to the + shoulders of the rich child; it _ties_ a ball and chain to the feet of + the poor child; and _tells_ them that they _have_ an equal + opportunity! + + Once the master _hunted_ for the slaves, now the slave _hunts_ for a + master. + + + Exercise 7 + +Mark the verbs in the following poem. Often in poetry words are omitted +which in strict grammatical construction should be expressed. As for +example in the fourth line of this poem _which are_, is omitted before +the word _bought_. In prose this would read, _The pews which are bought +by the profits_, etc. So the word _bought_ is a part of the verb phrase, +_are bought_. In the last line of the third stanza there is another +omission before the word _planning_. The meaning is, _while they are +planning slaughter_. _Planning_ is a part of the verb phrase _are +planning_. And in the last line _is_ is omitted before the word +_beloved_. _Is beloved_ is the verb phrase. Determine whether the verbs +in this poem are complete, transitive or copulative, and mark the +objects and the complements of the transitive and the copulative verbs. + + + WHO IS A CHRISTIAN? + + _Ella Wheeler Wilcox_ + + "Who is a Christian in this Christian land + Of many churches and of lofty spires? + Not he who sits in soft, upholstered pews + Bought by the profits of unholy greed, + And looks devotion while he thinks of gain. + + Not he who sends petitions from the lips + That lie to-morrow in the street and mart. + Not he who fattens on another's toil, + And flings his unearned riches to the poor + Or aids the heathen with a lessened wage, + And builds cathedrals with an increased rent. + + Christ, with Thy great, sweet, simple creed of love, + How must Thou weary of earth's "Christian" clans, + Who preach salvation through Thy saving blood + While planning slaughter of their fellow men. + + Who is a Christian? It is one whose life + Is built on love, on kindness and on faith; + Who holds his brother as his other self; + Who toils for justice, equity and peace, + And hides no aim or purpose in his heart + That will not chord with universal good. + Though he be a pagan, heretic or Jew + That man is Christian and beloved of Christ." + + + + + SPELLING + + LESSON 5 + + +We often have two vowels used in the same syllable as a single sound, as +_ou_ in _round_, _oi_ in _oil_, etc. + ++A diphthong is a union of two vowels to represent a single +sound different from that of either alone.+ + +Sometimes we have two vowels used together in a combination which is +really not a diphthong for they do not unite in a different sound. Only +one of the vowels is used and the other is silent as _ai_ in _rain_, +_oa_ in _soap_, etc. + +The most common diphthongs are: + + ou as in _sound_. + ow as in _owl_. + oi as in _oil_. + oy as in _boy_. + +In the spelling lesson for this week mark the words in which the +combination of vowels forms a diphthong. In some of the words the +combination of vowels does not form a diphthong for only one of the +vowels is sounded. Draw a line through the silent letter. + + +Monday+ + + Straight + Aisle + Search + Breadth + Defeat + + +Tuesday+ + + Exploit + Ceiling + Height + People + Feudal + + +Wednesday+ + + Brought + Shoulder + Group + Compound + Trouble + + +Thursday+ + + Royal + Coarse + Course + Broad + Flower + + +Friday+ + + Laughter + Haunted + Plaid + Invoice + Chair + + +Saturday+ + + Guide + Build + Grieve + Sieve + Renown + + + + + PLAIN ENGLISH + + LESSON 6 + + +Dear Comrade: + +We have this week another lesson in verbs. Do not be discouraged if you +do not understand it all at once. Little by little, it will grow clearer +and you will master this important word. + +The verb may seem involved to you, but a little application will soon +make it clear. It is the most important word in the language to master. +It almost seems as though the verb were a living, thinking thing. It +changes outward form to accommodate itself to its subject in the number +form and person form change. If it is entertaining a subject in the +singular it adopts one dress; if it is entertaining a plural subject, +more than one, the verb wears a different dress. + +So also if the subject is the first person, the person speaking, or the +second person, the person spoken to, or the third person, the person +spoken of, the verb accommodates itself to the subject. The verb is the +most agreeable thing for it changes its form to agree with its subject! +So watch your verb and see that it agrees. + +Refer constantly to your list of irregular verbs given in this lesson +for we so often make mistakes in the use of these verb forms. + +Then, too, the verb kindly changes its form to accommodate itself to the +time of the action--action in the present, in the past, in the +future--action completed before the present time--before some time +past--or before some future time--and action progressing and not yet +completed in the present, in the past or in the future. Then it can also +change to show whether its subject is acting or being acted upon. Isn't +the verb a wonderfully accommodating member of the co-operative +commonwealth of words? + +And can you not see hidden under all this, a marvelous development in +the intellectual needs of men from the day of the savage's signs and +grunts to the day when we can express such shades of meaning? This tool +of expression, language, has had a wonderful evolution side by side with +the evolution of the other tools by which man expresses his creative +genius; from the forked stick with which man scratched the soil to the +great machine-driven plow of today; from the simple threshing flail to +the monster threshing machine of modern times. + +There is nothing so wonderful as man's ability to express himself. Add a +little to your knowledge every day and the sum total will soon surprise +you. + + Yours for Education, + + THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. + + + INFLECTION--CHANGES IN FORM + ++104.+ You remember that nouns have certain changes in form to indicate +changes in use. Verbs also have several changes in form to correspond +with changes in their use or meaning. Notice the following sentences: + + I think. + I thought. + I work. + I worked. + +What is the difference in the meaning of _I think_ and _I thought_? of +_I work_ and _I worked_? When we say, _I think_, or _I work_, we mean +that the action is now, to-day, in the present; but when we say, _I +thought_, or _I worked_, we mean that _now_ is not the time of the +action, but that the action was performed sometime in the past. So we +have a change in the verb form to denote _time_. The simple form of the +verb, like _think_ or _work_, is used to denote _present time_. When we +wish to express _past time_ we do it by changing the form of the verb. +Now note the following: + + } call + I, We, You, They, } send + } fall + The men } bring + } hide + + } calls + He, She, It, } sends + } falls + The man } brings + } hides + +Now let us write this in another way. + + +Present Time+ + + _Singular_ _Plural_ + + 1st person--I call. We call. + 2nd person--You call. You call. + + He } + 3rd person She } calls. They, or } call. + It } The men } + The man } + ++105.+ You notice in this table we use the expressions _first person_, +_second person_, and _third person_. _I_ and _we_ indicate the person or +persons speaking and are called the first person. _You_ indicates the +person or persons spoken to and is called the second person. _He_, +_she_, _it_, _they_, and the person or persons or things spoken of, are +called the third person. + +We use the word _you_ when speaking to one or more than one now-a-days. +It used to be that when speaking to a single person, people said _thou_, +and in speaking to two or more they said _you_. But we today have +dropped the old form _thou_, and use _you_ for both singular and plural. + ++106.+ Now note, in the above table, that there is only one form change +in the verb, and this is in the _third person singular_. We say _I +call_, _You call_, _We call_, _They_, or _The men call_, but we say +_He_, or _the man calls_, in speaking of one person or thing. So we +change the form of the verb with any subject which denotes the third +person and the singular number. This form is made by adding _s_ to the +simple form of the verb, therefore we may call it the _s-form_ because +it always ends in _s_. + +Remember that this _s-form_ is used to express present time with a third +person, singular subject. _BE CAREFUL NOT TO USE THIS FORM WITH ANY +PLURAL SUBJECT._ There is no other change in the verb form in expressing +the present time in any verb, except in the verb _be_. + ++107.+ This little verb _be_ is one of the most troublesome verbs in our +language, and since it is used in forming verb phrases, it will be well +to commit the following table to memory. Watch closely your use of this +bothersome little word. Note that it has a change in form for the _first +person singular_, as well as for the third person singular. All other +verbs have just the one change, the _s-form_ for the third person +singular. The verb _be_ has a form also to use with the first person +singular, the pronoun _I_. + + +Present Time+ +Past Time+ + + _Singular_ _Singular_ + + 1. I am. 1. I was. + 2. You are. 2. You were. + 3. He is. 3. He was. + + _Plural_ _Plural_ + + 1. We are. 1. We were. + 2. You are. 2. You were. + 3. They are. 3. They were. + ++108.+ +The present time form is the form which expresses present time. +It is expressed by the simple form of the verb with the exception of the +third person singular, which is expressed by the _s-form_.+ + + + PAST TIME + ++109.+ To express _past time_ we change the form of the verb. Notice the +following: + + I } called We } called + She } sent You } sent + He } fell They } fell + It } brought The men } brought + The man } hid } hid + +Notice that these various forms of the verb which express past time are +all made by changes from the simple form, which expresses present time. +You will also notice that these five verbs used in the above table all +form their past time form in different ways. For example, _call_ adds +_ed_; _send_ changes the final letter from _d_ to _t_; _fall_ changes +the vowel in the middle of the word from _a_ to _e_; _bring_ changes +both the vowel and the final letter from _bring_ to _brought_; _hide_ +drops the final letter _e_. + ++110.+ +Verbs whose past time forms are made by adding _d_ or _ed_ +to the simple form are called regular verbs.+ + ++Verbs whose past time forms are made in some other way than by adding +_d_ or _ed_ are called irregular verbs.+ + ++111.+ There are about two hundred of these irregular verbs which form +their past time in the following ways: + +1. By change in the vowel letter, as _fall_, _fell_; _write_, _wrote_; +_see_, _saw_; _sing_, _sang_; _come_, _came_. + +2. By dropping the final vowel; as _hide_, _hid_; _slide_, _slid_; +_bite_, _bit_. + +3. By dropping a vowel from the middle of the word; as _bleed_, _bled_; +_feed_, _fed_; _lead_, _led_. + +4. By changing the final letter or letters; as _send_, _sent_; _lose_, +_lost_; _spend_, _spent_. + +5. By changing the vowel and final letters; as _bring_, _brought_; +_seek_, _sought_; _catch_, _caught_. + +6. By changing the vowel sound and adding _t_ or _d_; as _sleep_, +_slept_; _feel_, _felt_; _flee_, _fled_. + +There are some irregular forms which we must learn and be exceedingly +careful in their use. Study the list in this lesson. + + + Exercise 1 + +Write the _present_ and _past_ time forms of the following verbs as the +verb _think_ is written in the table given below. + + think + ride + have + give + write + ask + make + try + speak + run + see + do + + +Present Time+ +Past Time+ + + _Singular_ _Singular_ + + 1. I think 1. I thought + 2. You think 2. You thought + 3. He thinks 3. He thought + + _Plural_ _Plural_ + + 1. We think 1. We thought + 2. You think 2. You thought + 3. They think 3. They thought + ++112.+ Be very careful not to use the _s-form_ except for the third +person singular. Be especially careful in the use of different forms of +the verb _be_. It is in the use of this verb that we so frequently make +mistakes. Watch your own language and the conversation of your friends +and note these mistakes and correct them in your own mind. These common +blunders in the use of English mark us as careless or uneducated by +everyone who hears us speak. We have fallen into bad habits oftentimes +and make these mistakes when we know better, and only constant +watchfulness for a time can overcome the habit. After a time we learn to +speak correctly without effort, and then these mistakes made by others +offend the ear like a false note in music. + + + Exercise 2 + +Cross out the wrong form in the following: + + They _was_--_were_ not here. + The clouds _has_--_have_ gathered. + People _is_--_are_ indifferent. + The train _was_--_were_ on time. + The men _was_--_were_ armed. + Our school building _is_--_are_ inadequate. + The workers _earn_--_earns_ their wages. + The voters _elect_--_elects_ the President. + They _do_--_does_ as they please. + We _was_--_were_ there on time. + + + DOING DOUBLE WORK + ++113.+ We have found now three forms of the verb, the _simple form_, the +_s-form_, and the _past time form_, and, in addition, the _I-form_, or +the first person form of the verb _be_. There are no other real verb +forms, but there are two other changes made in the form of the verb when +it ceases to be used as the predicate, the asserting word of the +sentence, and becomes, in part, another part of speech. + +Notice in the following sentences: + + Making shoes is his work. + He enjoys making shoes. + +In each of these sentences the word _making_, from the verb _make_, is +used as a noun. In the first, _Making shoes is his work_, _making_ is +used as the subject of the sentence. In the second, _He enjoys making +shoes_, _making_ is used as the object of the verb _enjoys_. But +_making_ is not like the ordinary noun, for it has an object +_making_--_what?_--_making shoes_. _Shoes_ is the object of the action +expressed in _making_. A noun never takes an object; so while the word +_making_ is used as a noun, it is also partly a verb. It is a form of +the verb used as a noun, but keeping in part its verb nature, partaking +of the nature of two parts of speech at the same time. + +Hence these forms of the verb are called _participles_. Participle means +_partaker_. + +The participle may also be used as an adjective. Notice the following: + + The _crying_ child came toward us. + The _rescuing_ party arrived. + +In these sentences _crying_ and _rescuing_ are formed from the verbs +_cry_ and _rescue_, and are used as adjectives to describe the noun +_child_ and the noun _party_. So a participle is a mixed part of speech. +It is partially a verb, but is not a true verb. A true verb is always +used as the predicate, the asserting word in the sentence and _always_ +has a subject. The participle _never_ has a subject; it may have an +object, but not a subject. + ++114.+ There are two forms of the participle. The active form or the +present form as it is sometimes called, ends in _ing_, as, _waiting_, +_walking_, _saying_. It expresses action, existence, or possession as +going on at the time mentioned in the sentence. + ++115.+ The other form of the participle is the passive form or the past +form of the participle. This ends in _ed_ in the regular verbs, and has +various forms in the irregular verbs. It is formed in regular verbs by +adding _d_ or _ed_ to the simple form, hence has the same form as the +past time form, as for example, present time form, _call_--past time +form, _called_--past participle, _called_. You will find the past +participle forms of irregular verbs in the list of irregular verbs given +in this lesson, as for example--present time form, _go_--past time form, +_went_--past participle, _gone_. + ++116.+ You will find as we study the verb phrases in later lessons that +these participles are used in forming verb phrases. As for example: + + He is coming. + They are trying. + He has gone. + ++A participle is a word derived from a verb, partaking of the nature of +a verb and also of an adjective or a noun.+ + + + LET US SUM UP + ++117.+ +Verbs have five form changes.+ + + Simple S-Form Past Time Present Part. Past Part. + + call calls called calling called + + go goes went going gone + + + Exercise 3 + +Write in columns like the above the five forms of the following verbs: + + do + try + give + hope + live + rob + have + think + sing + get + wave + lose + come + make + + + Exercise 4 + +Study carefully the following quotation. You will find in it all five of +the form changes of the verb--_the present time form_, _the s-form_, +_the past time form_, _the present participle_ and _the past +participle_. In the verb phrases _had been filled_, _has survived_, _has +gone_, _has proved_ and _be dismayed_, you will find the past participle +used in forming the verb phrase. We will study these verb phrases in +later lessons. + +In the verb phrases, _was stumbling_, _was groping_, _is conquering_, +_are carrying_, the present participle is used in forming the verb +phrases. _Could reconcile_ is also a verb phrase. We will study these +verb phrases also in later lessons. + +The present participles, _struggling_, _persevering_ and _regaining_ are +used as adjectives. Study them carefully and find the words which they +describe. The present participles _imagining_, _learning_ and +_suffering_ are used as nouns. Note their use. + +The past participles _rebuffed_, _self-reproached_, _discouraged_ and +_promised_ are used as adjectives. Find the words which they modify. +There are several _present time forms_, several _past time forms_, and +several _s-forms_. Find them and study carefully their usage. + + + OUT OF THE DARK + + _By Helen Keller_ + + _America's famous blind girl, who has come to see more than most + people with normal eyes._ + + Step by step my investigation of blindness _led_ me into the + industrial world. And what a world it _is_. I _faced_ unflinchingly a + world of facts--a world of misery and degradation, of blindness, + crookedness, and sin, a world _struggling_ against the elements, + against the unknown, against itself. How _could_ I _reconcile_ this + world of fact with the bright world of my _imagining_? My darkness + _had been filled_ with the light of intelligence, and, _behold_, the + outer day-lit world _was stumbling_, _was groping_ in social + blindness. At first, I _was_ most unhappy, but deeper study _restored_ + my confidence. By _learning_ the _suffering_ and burdens of men, I + _became_ aware as never before of the life-power which _has survived_ + the forces of darkness--the power which, though never completely + victorious, _is_ continuously _conquering_. The very fact that we + _are_ still carrying on the contest against the hosts of annihilation + _proves_ that on the whole the battle _has gone_ for humanity. The + world's great heart _has proved_ equal to the prodigious undertaking + which God _set_ it. _Rebuffed_, but always _persevering_; + _self-reproached_, but ever _regaining_ faith; undaunted, tenacious, + the heart of man _labors_ towards immeasurably distant goals. + _Discouraged_ not by difficulties without, or the anguish of ages + within, the heart _listens_ to a secret voice that _whispers_: "_Be_ + not _dismayed_; in the future _lies_ the _Promised_ Land." + + +List of Irregular Verbs + +Here is a list of the principal irregular verbs--the present and past +time forms and the past participle are called the principal parts of a +verb. + +(Those marked with an _r_ have also the regular form.) + + +Present T.+ +Past T.+ +Past Part.+ + + abide abode abode + arise arose arisen + awake awoke, _r_ awaked + be or am was been + bear bore borne + beat beat beaten + begin began begun + bend bent, _r_ bent, _r_ + bereave bereft, _r_ bereft, _r_ + beseech besought besought + bet bet bet + bid bid or bade bid (den) + bind bound bound + bite bit bit (ten) + bleed bled bled + blow blew blown + break broke broken + breed bred bred + bring brought brought + build built, _r_ built, _r_ + burn burnt, _r_ burnt, _r_ + burst burst burst + buy bought bought + cast cast cast + catch caught caught + chide chid chid (den) + choose chose chosen + cling clung clung + clothe clad, _r_ clad, _r_ + come came come + cost cost cost + creep crept crept + cut cut cut + deal dealt, _r_ dealt, _r_ + dig dug, _r_ dug, _r_ + do did done + draw drew drawn + dream dreamt, _r_ dreamt, _r_ + drink drank drunk + drive drove driven + dwell dwelt, _r_ dwelt, _r_ + eat ate eaten + fall fell fallen + feed fed fed + feel felt felt + fight fought fought + find found found + flee fled fled + fling flung flung + fly flew flown + forget forgot forgotten + forgive forgave forgiven + forsake forsook forsaken + get got got (ten) + give gave given + go went gone + grind ground ground + grow grew grown + hang hung, _r_ hung, _r_ + have had had + hear heard heard + hew hewed hewn, _r_ + hide hid hidden + hit hit hit + hold held held + hurt hurt hurt + keep kept kept + kneel knelt, _r_ knelt, _r_ + knit knit, _r_ knit, _r_ + know knew known + lay laid laid + lead led led + leave left left + lend lent lent + let let let + lie lay lain + light lit, _r_ lit, _r_ + lose lost lost + make made made + mean meant meant + meet met met + mistake mistook mistaken + mow mowed mown, _r_ + pay paid paid + plead pled, _r_ pled, _r_ + put put put + quit quit, _r_ quit, _r_ + read read read + rend rent rent + rid rid rid + ride rode ridden + ring rang rung + rise rose risen + run ran run + saw sawed sawn, _r_ + say said said + see saw seen + seek sought sought + sell sold sold + send sent sent + set set set + shake shook shaken + shape shaped shapen, _r_ + shave shaved shaven, _r_ + shear sheared shorn, _r_ + shed shed shed + shine shone, _r_ shone, _r_ + shoe shod shod + shoot shot shot + show showed shown, _r_ + shrink shrank shrunk (en) + shut shut shut + sing sang sung + sink sank sunk + sit sat sat + slay slew slain + sleep slept slept + slide slid slid (en) + sling slung slung + slink slunk slunk + slit slit slit + smite smote smitten + sow sowed sown, _r_ + speak spoke spoken + speed sped sped + spend spent spent + spill spilt, _r_ spilt, _r_ + spin spun spun + spit spit spit + split split split + spoil spoilt, _r_ spoilt, _r_ + spread spread spread + spring sprang sprung + stand stood stood + stave stove, _r_ stove, _r_ + steal stole stolen + stick stuck stuck + sting stung stung + stink stunk stunk + strike struck struck + strike struck stricken + stride strode stridden + string strung strung + strive strove striven + strew strewed strewn, _r_ + swear sworn sworn + sweat sweat, _r_ sweat, _r_ + sweep swept swept + swell swelled swollen, _r_ + swim swam swum + swing swung swung + take took taken + teach taught taught + tear tore torn + tell told told + think thought thought + throw threw thrown + thrust thrust thrust + tread trod trod (den) + wake woke, _r_ woke, _r_ + wear wore worn + weave wove woven + wed wed, _r_ wed, _r_ + weep wept wept + wet wet, _r_ wet, _r_ + whet whet, _r_ whet, _r_ + win won won + wind wound wound + work wrought, _r_ wrought, _r_ + wring wrung wrung + write wrote written + + + + + SPELLING + + LESSON 6 + + +Every vowel or every vowel combination pronounced as one vowel sound +indicates a syllable (excepting final _e_ in such words as _fate_, +_late_, _rode_, etc.) Take the word _combination_, for example. In this +word we have four syllables, thus: _Com-bi-na-tion_. + ++A syllable is that part of a word which can be uttered distinctly by a +single effort of the voice.+ Remember that each syllable must contain a +vowel or a vowel combination like _oi_ or _ou_, which is pronounced as +one vowel. Sometimes the vowel alone makes the syllable as in _a-lone_, +_e-qual_, etc. The final _e_ in words like _late_, and _fate_ is not +sounded. It is silent, we say. + +All words ending in silent _e_ have the long vowel sound, with a very +few exceptions. Words without the final _e_ have the short vowel sound +as for example: _fate_, _fat_; _mate_, _mat_; _hide_, _hid_; _rode_, +_rod_. + +In dividing words into syllables the consonant is written with the +preceding vowel when that vowel is short. If the vowel is long the +consonant is written with the next syllable, as for example, de-fine and +def-i-ni-tion. In de-fine the _e_ is long therefore _f_, the consonant +following, is written with the next syllable, _fine_. In def-i-ni-tion +the _e_ has the short sound, therefore the _f_ is written with the _e_ +in the syllable, _def_. + +When there are two consonants following the vowel, divide between the +consonants, as for example, _in-ven-tion_, _foun-da-tion_, etc. Never +divide a digraph, that is, two consonants which are sounded together as +one sound, as for example, _moth-er_, _catch-er_, _te-leg-ra-pher_, etc. + +In writing words containing double consonants like _dd_, _ll_, _ss_, +divide the word into syllables between the double consonants, as for +example, _per-mit-ted_, _ad-mis-sion_, _sad-dest_, etc. + + +Monday+ + + Important + Accommodate + Person + Correspond + Action + + +Tuesday+ + + Difference + Notice + Indicate + Remember + Irregular + + +Wednesday+ + + Mistake + Conversation + Correctly + President + Ordinary + + +Thursday+ + + Participle + Passive + Various + Phrase + Quotation + + +Friday+ + + Imagine + Confidence + Humanity + Faith + Future + + +Saturday+ + + Whisper + Thought + Ability + Knowledge + Genius + + + + + PLAIN ENGLISH + + LESSON 7 + + +Dear Comrade: + +I wonder if you have ever thought as to how our language grew. + +We get the words in our language from many sources. The English language +today is a development of the early Anglo-Saxon. England was called +originally Angle-land which was gradually shortened into England. So we +have in our language what are called pure English or Anglo-Saxon words. +These words form the bulk of our every day vocabulary, being simple, +strong, forceful words. Then we have in our English many foreign words +which we have adopted from other languages. There are many Latin and +Greek words; these we use in our more elegant speech or writing. + +There is an interesting bit written by Sir Walter Scott in his novel of +early England, "Ivanhoe," which illustrates the manner in which words +have come into our language and also the difference in speech which +marks the working class and the exploiting class. As those who do the +work of the world rid themselves of the parasites who have appropriated +the produce of their labor, through the ages, they will demand that +which belongs to them--the best--the best in language as in everything +else. + + "'... I advise thee to call off Fangs and leave the herd to their + destiny, which, whether they meet with bands of traveling soldiers, or + of outlaws, or of wandering pilgrims, can be little else than to be + converted into Normans before morning, to thy no small ease and + comfort.' + + "'The swine turned into Normans to my comfort!' quoth Gurth. 'Expound + that to me, Wamba, for my brain is too dull and my mind too vexed to + read riddles.' + + "'Why, how call you these grunting brutes running about on their four + legs?' demanded Wamba. + + "'Swine, fool, swine,' said the herd; 'every fool knows that.' + + "'And swine is good Saxon,' said the jester; 'but how call you the sow + when she is flayed, and drawn, and quartered, and hung by the heels + like a traitor?' + + "'Pork,' answered the swineherd. + + "'I am glad every fool knows that too,' said Wamba; 'and pork, I + think, is good Norman-French, and so when the brute lives and is in + charge of a Saxon slave, she goes by her Saxon name; but becomes a + Norman and is called pork when she is carried to the castle-hall to + feast among the nobles. What dost thou think of that, friend Gurth, + ha?' ..." + +So you see even in words the distinction is made between those who +produce and those who possess. + +But the day is at hand when those who work shall also enjoy. We have +fought for religious and political freedom. Today we are waging the +battle for industrial freedom. It is _your_ struggle. Study--prepare +yourself to do battle for your rights. + + Yours for Freedom, + + THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. + + + FUTURE TIME + ++118.+ We have learned how to express present time and past time, by +changes in the form of the verb. But we very often desire to make a +statement in which we do not express either present or past time, thus +we may say: + + We shall enjoy our rights some day. + He will join us in the struggle. + +We do not mean to say that we do enjoy our rights now, in the present, +or that we did in the past, but that we _shall_ enjoy our rights some +time in the future. In the second sentence, _will join_ expresses the +same idea of future time. To indicate future time, we do not make a +change in the verb form, but we use _shall_ and _will_ with the simple +form of the verb. + ++119.+ +We denote future time by use of a verb phrase made by placing +_shall_ or _will_ before the simple form of the verb.+ + ++120.+ The rule of some grammarians is to use _shall_ always in the +first person, the person speaking, to denote future time, and _will_ +with the second person, the person spoken to, and with the third person, +the person spoken of, to denote future time. But common usage does not +always follow the rules of the grammarians, and, in the course of time, +affects and changes these rules. So our common usage of today uses +_will_ in the first person to express future time, as well as _shall_. + +This rule of grammarians marks a nicety of speech and conveys a +distinction of meaning which it really seems worth while to retain. The +idea of the grammarians is that when we use _will_ with the first person +and _shall_ with the second or third person, we express a _promise_ or +_determination_. Thus if I say, _I shall go_, I simply mean that my +going will be in the future. But if I say, _I will go_, I either mean +that I am promising to go or that I am expressing my determination to +go. So also if we use _shall_ in the second and third persons. If we +say, _You will go_ or _He will go_, we are simply stating that the going +will be in the future, but if we say, _You shall go_, or _He shall go_, +we mean that we promise or are determined that you or he shall go. + +To be technically correct this distinction should be observed. _Shall_ +in the first person, and _will_ in the second and third express simple +futurity. _Will_ in the first person and _shall_ in the second and third +express promise or determination. But in every day conversation this +distinction is not observed, and many of our best writers do not follow +this rule. + + + Exercise 1 + +Mark the future time forms in the following sentences: + + 1. I shall speak of liberty. + 2. I will never give up. + 3. I shall write to him. + 4. He shall not starve. + 5. We shall expect you. + 6. They shall suffer for this. + 7. I shall go to New York. + 8. He will call for me. + 9. The hungry shall be fed. + 10. You will soon see the reason. + 11. You shall never want for a friend. + 12. They shall some day see the truth. + 13. We will not fight against our class. + 14. We will stand together. + + + PERFECT TIME + ++121.+ Past, present and future, being the three divisions of time, one +would naturally expect that when we had found how to express these three +forms, we would be through, but if you stop to think, you will find that +there are other verb phrases of which we have need. + +When we wish to speak of action as completed at the present time, we do +not say: + + I study my lessons every day, _but_, I have studied my lessons every + day. + _Not_, You work for him every day, _but_, You have worked for him + every day. + _Not_, He sees her frequently, _but_, He has seen her frequently. + +Can you not readily see the difference in the meaning expressed in _I +work every day_, and _I have worked every day_? In the first sentence +you express a general truth, _I work every day_, a truth which has been +true in the past, is true in the present, and the implication is that it +will continue to be true in the future. But when you say, _I have worked +every day_, you are saying nothing as to the future, but you are +describing an action which is completed at the present time. This is +called the _present complete_ or _present perfect_ time. + ++122.+ Perfect means complete, and present perfect describes an action +perfected or completed at the present time. So it is possible for us to +express a necessary shade of meaning by the present perfect time form. + ++123.+ +The present perfect time form describes an action completed at +the present time, and is formed by using the present time form of +_have_ and the _past_ participle of the verb.+ + + +Present Perfect Time+ + + _Singular_ _Plural_ + + 1st. I have seen. We have seen. + 2d. You have seen. You have seen. + 3d. He has seen. They have seen. + ++124.+ Review in the last lesson how to form the past participle. +Remember that it is one of the principal parts of the verb. In regular +verbs the past participle is the same form as the past time form. In +irregular verbs the past participle is quite often different from the +past time form, as for example: _go_, _went_, _gone_; _do_, _did_, +_done_, etc. + +Watch closely your irregular verbs and see that you always use the past +_participle_ with _have_ or _had_; never use the past _time_ form with +_have_ or _had_. + + + PAST PERFECT + ++125.+ When you desire to express an action complete at some definite +past time, you do not say: + + We finished when they came, _but_, We had finished when they came. + _Not_, They went when we arrived, _but_, They had gone when we + arrived. + _Not_, I worked six months when he began, _but_, I had worked six + months when he began. + +Can you see a difference in the meaning expressed in these sentences: _I +worked six months when he began_; and _I had worked six months when he +began_? This last sentence describes an action completed or perfected +before some definite past time. + ++126.+ +Past perfect time denotes an action perfected or completed at +some definite past time. It is formed by using _had_ and the past +participle of the verb.+ + +Remember always, with irregular verbs, to use the _past participle_. +Never use the _past time form_ with _had_. + + +Past Perfect Time+ + + _Singular_ _Plural_ + + 1st. I had seen. We had seen. + 2d. You had seen. You had seen. + 3d. He had seen. They had seen. + + + Exercise 2 + +Correct the following sentences in which the past time form is used +instead of the past participle. Look up the word in the list of +irregular verbs and use the past participle instead of the past time +form. + + 1. I have saw it often. + 2. He had shook his fist. + 3. She has sang for us. + 4. The boat has sank here. + 5. He has spoke the truth. + 6. They had stole the books. + 7. He has swore to the truth. + 8. He had took the wrong road. + 9. She has tore her dress. + 10. He had threw the ball away. + 11. The girl had wore the dress. + 12. He had wrote the letters. + 13. He had drank too much. + 14. He had rode the horse. + 15. The sun has rose. + 16. He has bore his part. + 17. They have began already. + 18. The wind has blew all night. + 19. It had broke when it fell. + 20. He has chose the right. + 21. You have did your duty. + 22. He has ate his breakfast. + 23. A heavy rain has fell. + 24. They had gave it to me. + 25. He has became rich. + 26. It has grew rapidly. + 27. He has knew it always. + 28. He has mistook her for another. + + + FUTURE PERFECT TIME + ++127.+ We find also that we need a verb phrase to express time _before_ +some other future time, to describe an action that will be finished, +perfected, or completed, before some other future action. Thus, + + I shall have gone before you arrive. + You will have earned your money before you get it. + I shall have worked thirty days when pay-day comes. + +Can you not see a difference in saying, _I shall work thirty days when +pay-day comes_, and _I shall have worked thirty days when pay-day +comes_? The first sentence expresses simple future time, or what you +will do when pay-day comes; the second describes an action which will be +completed or perfected _before_ pay-day comes. So there is quite a +difference in the meaning of the future and the future perfect time. + ++128.+ +The future perfect time form expresses or describes an action +that will be perfected or completed before some other future time. It is +formed by using _shall have_ or _will have_ with the past +participle.+ + +Be careful to use the past participle. Never use the past time form with +_shall have_ or _will have_. + + +Future Perfect Time+ + + _Singular_ _Plural_ + + 1st. I shall have seen. We shall have seen. + 2d. You will have seen. You will have seen. + 3d. He will have seen. They will have seen. + + + LET US SUM UP + ++129.+ We have three time forms, _present_, _past_, _future_. + + +Present+ +Past+ +Future+ + + I see I saw I shall see. + +Each of these three time forms has a _perfect_ form; that is, a time +form which expresses an action as completed or perfected at the present +time, or before some definite past or future time. + + +Present+ +Past+ +Future+ + +Perfect Time+ +Perfect Time+ +Perfect Time+ + + I have seen I had seen I shall have seen + ++130.+ It is wonderful how a knowledge of words and their uses enables +us to express so many shades of meaning. It is like our development in +observing colors. You know the savage always admires vivid reds and +greens and blues. He does not yet see the beautiful shades and +gradations of color. We enjoy the delicate pinks and blues and all the +varying shades between the primal seven colors of the spectrum. And as +we develop our artistic ability we see and enjoy all the beauties of +color. + +In music too, we observe the same development. The barbarian enjoys +loud, crashing, discordant sounds which he calls music, but which to the +educated ear are only harsh noises. The trained musician catches the +delicate overtones and undertones and finds deepest ecstasy in sounds +which the uneducated ear does not even catch. So as we study words and +their uses, we find ourselves able to express shades of meaning, to +paint our word pictures, not in gaudy, glaring chromo-tints, but in the +wondrous blending of color that reveals the true artist. + +Now get these modes of expressing time firmly fixed in your mind. + ++131.+ +Let us get all we have learned about verbs into a summary and +have it clearly in mind.+ + + + VERBS--SUMMARY + + +Two Classes+ + + _Complete_--Taking _no_ complement. + + _Incomplete_--{ Verbs of action requiring object. + { Copulative verbs requiring complement. + + +Inflection--Changes of Form+ + + _Simple Form_ _S-Form_ _Past Time_ _Present Part._ _Past Part._ + see sees saw seeing seen + + + TIME FORMS + + Present + + _Singular_ _Plural_ + + 1. I see. We see. + 2. You see. You see. + 3. He sees. They see. + + + Past + + _Singular_ _Plural_ + + 1. I saw. We saw. + 2. You saw. You saw. + 3. He saw. They saw. + + + Future + + _Singular_ _Plural_ + + 1. I shall see. We shall see. + 2. You will see. You will see. + 3. He will see. They will see. + + + Present Perfect + + _Singular_ _Plural_ + + 1. I have seen. We have seen. + 2. You have seen. You have seen. + 3. He has seen. They have seen. + + + Past Perfect + + _Singular_ _Plural_ + + 1. I had seen. We had seen. + 2. You had seen. You had seen. + 3. He had seen. They had seen. + + + Future Perfect + + _Singular_ _Plural_ + + 1. I shall have seen. We shall have seen. + 2. You will have seen. You will have seen. + 3. He will have seen. They will have seen. + + + Exercise 3 + +Read carefully the following quotation. All of the verbs and verb +phrases are written in _italics_. Study these carefully and decide +whether they indicate present, past, future, present perfect, past +perfect or future perfect time. The verb phrases--_is seizing_, _is +put_, _is praised_, _is defended_, _can see_, _must have_, _are owned_, +and _are conducted_, do not belong to any of these six forms. They are +verb phrases used in ways which we shall study later. All of the other +verbs or verb phrases belong to one of the six time forms which we have +studied. Classify them. + + + The Working Class Must Strike the Blow + + You _remember_ Victor Hugo's story of the devil-fish; how the monster + _put_ forth one tentacle after another and _coiled_ it around his + victim; how the hero _recalled_ that there _was_ but one vulnerable + spot in his brute enemy; how at the strategic moment he _struck_ a + blow at that spot, and the terrible demon of the deep _shuddered_, + _released_ his grasp and _fell_ dead. + + Capitalism _is_ a monster which _is seizing_ the body politic. One + tentacle _is put_ forth to grasp the major part of the earnings of the + working class; another _has seized_ the working-woman; another + _reaches_ forth to the child; another _has fastened_ upon government + and _has made_ that the instrument of the powerful classes; still + another _has turned_ the pen of the journalist into a weapon by which + the injustice of Capitalism _is praised_ and _is defended_; and still + another _has seized_ the pulpit, _has silenced_ those who _profess_ to + speak for God and man, or _has turned_ their phrases into open apology + and defense for the crimes of Capitalism! + + But there _is_ one vulnerable spot in Capitalism. If the working class + of the world _can see_ that spot and _will strike_, they _shall be_ + free. + + The fundamental wrong, the basic injustice of the Capitalist System, + _is_ that the resources of land and machinery, to which all the people + _must have_ access, in order to live and labor, _are owned_ by the few + and _are conducted_ by the few for their private profit. + + This _is_ the social tragedy, the monstrous wrong of our time.--_J. + Stitt Wilson_. + + + Exercise 4 + +Select two verbs out of the following poem and write their six time +forms, in the same manner as the time forms of the verb _see_ are given +in section 131. + + + A MAGIC WORD + + There's a little word below, with letters three, + Which, if you only grasp its potency, + Will send you higher + Toward the goal where you aspire, + Which, without its precious aid, you'll never see-- + _NOW!_ + + Success attends the man who views it right. + Its back and forward meanings differ quite; + For this is how it reads + To the man of ready deeds, + Who spells it backwards from achievement's height-- + _WON!_ + + + TENSE + +The grammatical term for the time form of the verb is _TENSE_, which is +derived from a Latin word meaning _time_. The present time-form of the +verb is called the _present tense_; the past time-form, the _past +tense_; the future time-form, the _future tense_; the present perfect +time-form, the _present perfect tense_, etc. + + + Exercise 5 + +Write each of the following four sentences in the six time-forms, or +tenses,--present, past, future, present perfect, past perfect and future +perfect, as follows: + + _Present_--Labor _creates_ all wealth. + _Past_--Labor _created_ all wealth. + _Future_--Labor _will create_ all wealth. + _Present Perfect_--Labor _has created_ all wealth. + _Past Perfect_--Labor _had created_ all wealth. + _Future Perfect_--Labor _will have created_ all wealth. + + 1. Hope stirs us to action. + 2. Human progress is our business. + 3. The majority demand justice. + 4. The workers fight all the battles. + + + + + SPELLING + + LESSON 7 + + +The division of words into syllables is quite important as an aid to +pronunciation. It is also a very important matter to understand in our +written speech for it is often necessary to divide a word at the end of +a line. If the word is not properly divided, it is much more difficult +to read and understand. The hyphen is used to divide words into +syllables when carrying a portion to the next line. + +When you must divide a word at the end of a line divide it only between +syllables. Never divide a word of one syllable, no matter how long it +may be. If you cannot get all of it on the line, write it all on the +next line. Do not divide a short word of two syllables if you can avoid +it and never divide such a word when it leaves only one letter on the +line or only one letter to be carried over to the next line, as for +example: _luck-y_, _a-loud_, etc. + +When two or more vowels are used together to make one sound they should +never be separated by the hyphen, as for example, joy-ous, anx-ious, +trail, dis-course, de-feat, boor-ish. + +When two or more vowels placed together are not used to form one sound +then these vowels may be divided, as for example, _tri-al_, +_co-or-di-nate_, _he-ro-ic_. + +Look up the words in this week's lesson in the dictionary carefully and +divide into syllables. Notice specially the division of words into +syllables where the word contains a diphthong and where it contains two +vowels written together which are not diphthongs. Notice also the words +which have a single vowel as the first or last syllable. + + +Monday+ + + Museum + Creatures + Peaceable + Accruing + Already + + +Tuesday+ + + Persuade + Trivial + Plague + Alert + Inquiry + + +Wednesday+ + + Piteous + Patriot + Poetry + Evil + Business + + +Thursday+ + + Obey + Breathe + Society + Ether + Sociable + + +Friday+ + + Idealism + Pledge + Ache + Acre + Pronunciation + + +Saturday+ + + Idle + Idol + Mutual + Wealthy + Neighbors + + + + + PLAIN ENGLISH + + LESSON 8 + + +Dear Comrade: + +You have often read the words _organic_ and _inorganic_ but did you ever +stop to think of the meaning of these words? We say a body is organic--a +rock is inorganic; one grows from within, the other is built from +without. A tree is organic; it grows. A house is inorganic; it is built. +The house was never a baby house, growing from a tiny house to a large +one. But the tree was once a baby tree, a sapling, and grew branch by +branch to its present height. So we have two classes of things--those +which grow and those which are made. + +Language belongs to the class of things which grows. It is organic. We +have even used the same terms in speaking about language that we use in +talking of a tree. We use the words ROOT, STEM and BRANCH to describe +its growth. + +Language, too, has its different terms of life like a tree, its youth, +its maturity, its old age, its death. + +So we have dead languages like Latin and Greek--languages which are no +longer living,--no longer serving mankind. But these dead languages have +left living children, languages that have descended from them. + +The Italian language for example is the child, the descendant of the +classical Latin. We have many words in our English language from these +dead languages. About five-sevenths of the words in our English are from +these classical languages. The remaining two-sevenths are from the +Anglo-Saxon. We use the Anglo-Saxon words more frequently, however, in +our every day speech. + +And it is interesting to note that our best poetry--that which stirs our +blood and touches our hearts--is written in the strong forceful +Anglo-Saxon words. + +These words we are studying have been through some interesting +experiences as they have passed from race to race down to us and the +history of life is mirrored in their changes. How much more interesting +they seem when we know something of their sources, just as we are more +interested in a man when we know something of his boyhood and youth and +the experiences through which he has passed. + +You may think that the study of verbs is rather difficult and involved, +but it is more simple in English than in any other language. There are +fewer changes in the verb form in order to express time and person. Do +not rely on the memorizing of the rules. Rules never made one a fluent +speaker. Write sentences in which the correct form is used. Read aloud +from the best authors until the sound of the words is familiar and they +come readily to the tongue. We have used for the exercises in these +lessons excerpts from the best authors. + +Study these exercises carefully and note the use of the different verbs +especially, this week. Verbs, like all else, are yours to command. +Command them. + + Yours for Education, + + THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. + + + PROGRESSIVE VERB PHRASES + ++132.+ We have learned how to form the three principal time forms, +_present_, _past_ and _future_ and the perfect or completed form of each +of the three, _present perfect_, _past perfect_ and _future perfect_. +And still we have such a wonderful language that we can express other +shades of meaning in _time_. + ++133.+ There is still another phase of action which we must have a verb +phrase to express. Suppose you want to describe something you are now +doing and are continuing to do, something not yet completed. To say, _I +do it now_, is not satisfactory. Instead we say, _I am doing it now_. + +You have by the verb phrase, _am doing_, described a progressive action, +an action _going on_ in the present. You may also want to describe what +you were doing yesterday, an action that continued or _progressed_ in +the past. You would not say, _I built the house yesterday_ but, _I was +building the house yesterday_. Again you may want to describe an action +which will be _progressing_ or going on in the future. You do not say, +_I shall build the house next week_ but, _I shall be building the house +next week_. + +So we have progressive verb phrases. + ++134.+ +The present progressive describes an action as continuing or +progressing in the present.+ + ++It is formed by using the present time form of the verb _be_ and the +present participle.+ + +You remember that the present participle is formed by adding _ing_ +to the simple form of the verb. + + Present Progressive + + _Singular_ _Plural_ + + 1st. I am seeing. We are seeing. + 2d. You are seeing. You are seeing. + 3d. He is seeing. They are seeing. + ++135.+ +The past progressive time form describes an action which was +continuing or progressing in the past. It is formed by using the past +time form of the verb _be_ and the present participle.+ + + Past Progressive + + _Singular_ _Plural_ + + 1st. I was seeing. We were seeing. + 2d. You were seeing. You were seeing. + 3d. He was seeing. They were seeing. + ++136.+ +The future progressive describes an action which will be +progressing or going on in the future. It is formed by using the future +time form of the verb _be_ and the present participle.+ + + Future Progressive + + _Singular_ _Plural_ + + 1st. I shall be seeing. We shall be seeing. + 2d. You will be seeing. You will be seeing. + 3d. He will be seeing. They will be seeing. + ++137.+ The perfect time forms also have a progressive form. There is a +difference of meaning in the _present perfect_ and its progressive form. +You say for instance, _I have tried all my life to be free_. You mean +you have tried until the present time and the inference is that now you +have ceased to try. But, if you say, _I have been trying all my life to +be free_, we understand that you have tried and are _still_ trying. + ++138.+ +So we have the present perfect progressive which describes an +action which progressed in the past and continued up to the present +time. It is formed by using the present perfect form of the verb _be_ +and the present participle.+ + + Present Perfect Progressive + + _Singular_ _Plural_ + + 1st. I have been seeing. We have been seeing. + 2d. You have been seeing. You have been seeing. + 3d. He has been seeing. They have been seeing. + ++139.+ +The past perfect progressive describes an action which was +continuing or progressing at some past time. It is formed by using the +past perfect time form of the verb _be_ and the present participle.+ + + Past Perfect Progressive + + _Singular_ _Plural_ + + 1st. I had been seeing. We had been seeing. + 2d. You had been seeing. You had been seeing. + 3d. He had been seeing. They had been seeing. + ++140.+ +The future perfect progressive describes an action which will be +progressing at some future time. It is formed by using the future +perfect time form of the verb _be_ and the present participle.+ + + Future Perfect Progressive + + _Singular_ _Plural_ + + 1st. I shall have been seeing. We shall have been seeing. + 2d. You will have been seeing. You will have been seeing. + 3d. He will have been seeing. They will have been seeing. + + + Exercise 1 + +In the following sentences mark all the progressive forms, and note +whether they are present, past, future, present perfect, past perfect or +future perfect. + + 1. The old order is passing. + 2. Men will be struggling for freedom so long as slavery exists. + 3. The class struggle has been growing more intense as wealth has + accumulated. + 4. The workers are realizing their power. + 5. He had been talking for an hour when we arrived. + 6. Next Monday I shall have been working for one year. + 7. The workers will be paying interest on war debts for generations + to come unless they repudiate. + 8. While Marx was writing his books, he lived in abject poverty. + 9. The Industrial Relations Commission has been investigating + industrial conditions. + 10. Ferrer was martyred because the Modern Schools were educating the + people. + 11. The nations of Europe had been preparing for war for many years. + + + ACTIVE AND PASSIVE + ++141.+ Notice carefully the following sentences; select the subjects in +these sentences which show _who_ or _what_ performed the action; select +the subjects that show _who_ or _what_ receives the action. Do you +notice any difference in the meaning of these sentences? Do you notice +any difference in their form? + + The engine struck the man. + The man was struck by the engine. + + The system enslaves men. + Men are enslaved by the system. + + Leaders often betray the people. + The people are often betrayed by leaders. + +Let us look carefully at the first two sentences. You remember when we +studied transitive verbs we found that every transitive verb had an +_object_ which was the receiver of the action expressed in the verb. Now +you notice in this first sentence, _The engine struck the man_, we have +the transitive verb _struck_. _Engine_ is the subject of the verb and +_man_ is the object of the verb, the receiver of the action expressed by +the verb _struck_. + +Now in the sentence, _The man was struck by the engine_, we have the +same thought expressed but in a different manner. The word _man_, which +was the object of the verb _struck_ in the first sentence, has now +become the subject of the sentence, and we have changed our verb form +from _struck_ to _was struck_. In the first sentence of the subject, +_engine_ was the _actor_. In the second sentence, _The man was struck by +the engine_, the subject of the sentence, _man_, is the _receiver_ of +the action expressed in the verb. + ++142.+ So we have thus changed the verb form from _struck_ to _was +struck_ to indicate that the subject of the verb is the receiver of the +action. _Struck_ is called the active form of the verb because the +subject of the verb is the actor. _Was struck_ is called the passive +form of the verb because the subject receives the action. Passive means +_receiving_. In the passive form the subject is the receiver of the +action expressed in the verb. + ++143.+ You remember that complete verbs have no object or complement, +therefore it would follow that they cannot be put in the passive form +for there is no object to become the receiver of the action. Take the +complete verb, _sleep_, for example. We do not _sleep_ anything, hence +_sleep_ has no passive form for there is no object which can be used as +the subject, the receiver of the action. + ++Only transitive verbs can be put into the passive form.+ Remember that +a transitive verb in the passive form is one that represents its subject +as receiving the action. + +The present, past, future and all the perfect time forms of transitive +verbs can be changed from active to passive. The progressive time forms +can be changed into the passive, but it makes an awkward construction +and should be avoided as much as possible. Occasionally, however, we +find it worth our while to use these forms, as for example: + + The book is being written by the man. + +This is the passive form of the present progressive, _The man is writing +a book_. + + The book was being written by the man. + +This is the passive form of the past progressive, _The man was writing +the book_. + ++144.+ The future progressive passive is awkward, and the present and +past progressive forms are the only forms we find used in the passive. +The best writers use them sparingly for we can usually say the same +thing by using the active form of the verb and have a sentence which +sounds much better. + + + Exercise 2 + +All the verbs in the following sentences are _transitive_ verbs in the +_active_ form. Rewrite each sentence, putting the verb into the +_passive_ form and making the _object_ of the _active_ verb the +_subject_ of the _passive_ verb; as, for example, the first sentence +should be rewritten as follows: + + _War on Russia was declared by Germany on August 1, 1914._ + + 1. Germany declared war on Russia, August 1, 1914. + 2. Who will sign the Emancipation Proclamation of the Proletariat? + 3. Marx and Engels wrote the Communist Manifesto. + 4. Spain murdered Francisco Ferrer, October 13, 1909. + 5. We celebrate the first of May as International Labor Day. + 6. The people of Paris stormed the Bastille, July 14, 1789. + 7. Wat Tyler was leading the English workers in rebellion against + the King when the Mayor of London stabbed him in 1381. + 8. The Inquisition burned Bruno at the stake for heresy in 1600. + 9. The Paris Commune followed the German siege of Paris in 1871. + + + SUMMARY + ++145.+ Now let us take the verb _see_ and name all the time forms which +we can describe with the changes in the verb forms which we have learned +to make and also with the verb phrases which we can construct with the +help of the verbs, _be_, _have_, _shall_ and _will_. + +First, we want to express the present, what is happening now, and we +want to put it in both the active and passive forms, so we say: + + +PRESENT TIME+ + + +Active+ +Passive+ + + _Singular_ _Singular_ + + I see. I am seen. + You see. You are seen. + He sees. He is seen. + + _Plural_ _Plural_ + + We see. We are seen. + You see. You are seen. + They see. They are seen. + +Note that the only change in the verb form in the present ACTIVE is the +_s-form_ for the third person singular. In the present passive the only +change is the special form of the verb _be_ for the first and third +persons, singular. + +When we want to tell what occurred yesterday or some time in the past, +stated in the active and passive form, we say: + + +PAST TIME+ + + +Active+ +Passive+ + + _Singular_ _Singular_ + + I saw. I was seen. + You saw. You were seen. + He saw. He was seen. + + _Plural_ _Plural_ + + We saw. We were seen. + You saw. You were seen. + They saw. They were seen. + +We have one other division of time which we must express--the future. +Primitive man doubtless lived principally in the present, but with the +development of memory and the means of recording events by a written +language, he was able to make the deeds and achievements of the past a +vital part of his life. But not until the faculty of thinking developed +was the mind able to project itself into the future and make tomorrow +the hope of today. Future time expresses hope, desire, growth. + + +FUTURE TIME+ + + +Active+ +Passive+ + + _Singular_ _Singular_ + + I shall see. I shall be seen. + You will see. You will be seen. + He will see. He will be seen. + + _Plural_ _Plural_ + + We shall see. We shall be seen. + You will see. You will be seen. + They will see. They will be seen. + +Then you remember we had to devise a way of describing an action +perfected or completed at the present or at some time in the past or at +some time in the future--so we have present perfect, past perfect and +future perfect. + + +PRESENT PERFECT+ + + +Active+ +Passive+ + + _Singular_ _Singular_ + + I have seen. I have been seen. + You have seen. You have been seen. + He has seen. He has been seen. + + _Plural_ _Plural_ + + We have seen. We have been seen. + You have seen. You have been seen. + They have seen. They have been seen. + + +PAST PERFECT+ + + +Active+ +Passive+ + + _Singular_ _Singular_ + + I had seen. I had been seen. + You had seen. You had been seen. + He had seen. He had been seen. + + _Plural_ _Plural_ + + We had seen. We had been seen. + You had seen. You had been seen. + They had seen. They had been seen. + + +FUTURE PERFECT+ + + +Active+ +Passive+ + + _Singular_ _Singular_ + + I shall have seen. I shall have been seen. + You will have seen. You will have been seen. + He will have seen. He will have been seen. + + _Plural_ _Plural_ + + We shall have seen. We shall have been seen. + You will have seen. You will have been seen. + They will have seen. They will have been seen. + ++146.+ But these are not all the phases of time which we can express. We +have progressive, continuous action. So each of these six time forms has +a progressive form. + + +PRESENT PROGRESSIVE+ + + +Active+ +Passive+ + + _Singular_ _Singular_ + + I am seeing. I am being seen. + You are seeing. You are being seen. + He is seeing. He is being seen. + + _Plural_ _Plural_ + + We are seeing. We are being seen. + You are seeing. You are being seen. + They are seeing. They are being seen. + + +PAST PROGRESSIVE+ + + +Active+ +Passive+ + + _Singular_ _Singular_ + + I was seeing. I was being seen. + You were seeing. You were being seen. + He was seeing. He was being seen. + + _Plural_ _Plural_ + + We were seeing. We were being seen. + You were seeing. You were being seen. + They were seeing. They were being seen. + +Only the Present and Past Progressive forms have a passive form. The +rest of the Progressive forms are expressed in the active forms only. + + +FUTURE PROGRESSIVE+ + + _Singular_ _Plural_ + + I shall be seeing. We shall be seeing. + You will be seeing. You will be seeing. + He will be seeing. They will be seeing. + + +PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE+ + + _Singular_ _Plural_ + + I have been seeing. We have been seeing. + You have been seeing. You have been seeing. + He has been seeing. They have been seeing. + + +PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE+ + + _Singular_ _Plural_ + + I had been seeing. We had been seeing. + You had been seeing. You had been seeing. + He had been seeing. They had been seeing. + + + +FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE+ + + _Singular_ _Plural_ + + I shall have been seeing. We shall have been seeing. + You will have been seeing. You will have been seeing. + He will have been seeing. They will have been seeing. + + + Exercise 3 + +Write the four following sentences in their active and passive forms, as +the sentence, _War sweeps the earth_, is written. + + 1. Education gives power. + 2. Knowledge frees men. + 3. Labor unions help the workers. + 4. The people seek justice. + + +Present+ _Active_ War sweeps the earth. + _Passive_ The earth is swept by war. + + +Past+ _Active_ War swept the earth. + _Passive_ The earth was swept by war. + + +Future+ _Active_ War shall sweep the earth. + _Passive_ The earth shall be swept by war. + + +Pres. Per.+ _Active_ War has swept the earth. + _Passive_ The earth has been swept by war. + + +Past Per.+ _Active_ War had swept the earth. + _Passive_ The earth had been swept by war. + + +Fut. Per.+ _Active_ War shall have swept the earth. + _Passive_ The earth shall have been swept by war. + + + Exercise 4 + +Underscore all the verbs and verb phrases in the following quotation. +Write all the time forms of the transitive verb, _lose_, as the time +forms of the verb _see_ are written in the foregoing table. + + When we study the animal world and try to explain to ourselves that + struggle for existence which is maintained by each living being + against adverse circumstances and against its enemies, we realize that + the more the principles of solidarity and equality are developed in an + animal society, and have become habitual to it, the more chance it has + of surviving and coming triumphantly out of the struggle against + hardships and foes. The more thoroughly each member of the society + feels his solidarity with each other member of the society, the more + completely are developed in all of them those two qualities which are + the main factors of all progress; courage, on the one hand, and, on + the other, free individual initiative. And, on the contrary, the more + any animal society, or little group of animals, loses this feeling of + solidarity--which may chance as the result of exceptional scarcity or + else of exceptional plenty--the more the two other factors of + progress, courage and individual initiative, diminish; in the end they + disappear, and the society falls into decay and sinks before its foes. + Without mutual confidence no struggle is possible; there is no + courage, no initiative, no solidarity--and no victory!--_Kropotkin_. + + + + + SPELLING + + LESSON 8 + + +In pronouncing words of more than one syllable we always lay a little +greater stress upon one syllable of the word; that is, that syllable +receives the emphasis of the voice so as to make it more prominent than +the other syllables. This is called accent, and the syllable which +receives the special stress is called the accented syllable. + ++Accent is the stress of the voice upon one syllable of the word.+ + +You will notice when you look up the pronunciation of words in your +dictionary that a little mark called the accent mark is placed after the +accented syllable, as for example: di-vide'. + +Many words differ in meaning according to which syllable receives the +accent. Our spelling lesson for this week contains a number of these +words. + +These words, when accented on the first syllable, are nouns; when +accented on the second syllable, they are verbs. + + +Monday+ + + Con' tract Con tract' + Pro' test Pro test' + Rec' ord Re cord' + Im' port Im port' + De' tail De tail' + + +Tuesday+ + + Con' vert Con vert' + Con' flict Con flict' + Prog' ress Pro gress' + Im' press Im press' + Ref' use Re fuse' + + +Wednesday+ + + Con' test Con test' + Con' duct Con duct' + Proj' ect Pro ject' + Des' ert De sert' + Ex' tract Ex tract' + + +Thursday+ + + Con' trast Con trast' + Con' sort Con sort' + Reb' el Re bel' + Con' script Con script' + Pres' ent Pre sent' + + +Friday+ + + Com' pound Com pound' + Re' tail Re tail' + Com' press Com press' + Im' print Im print' + Com' bine Com bine' + + +Saturday+ + + Con' fine Con fine' + Sus' pect Sus pect' + Com' mune Com mune' + Ex' port Ex port' + In' crease In crease' + + + + + PLAIN ENGLISH + + LESSON 9 + + +Dear Comrade: + +You have been studying several weeks now in this Plain English Course +and we trust you are enjoying the unfolding of the powers of expression. +We have been necessarily studying rules to some extent but you have seen +how these grew out of the need for expression. We have been breaking the +sentence up into its different parts. First we had the names of things +and now we are studying the words used to tell what these things _do_ +and _are_--namely verbs. And as our life has grown complex and our +powers of thinking diversified covering the whole range of time, past, +present and future, we have had to invent many forms of the verb to +express it all. + +Now do not try to commit these facts concerning the verb to memory. You +are not studying English in order to know rules. You are studying +English that you may be able to say and write the things you _think_. So +first of all, _think_, _think_! That is your inalienable right! Do not +accept anything just by blind belief. Think it out for yourself. Study +until you see the '_why_' of it all. "Independent thinking has given us +the present, and we will forever continue to make tomorrow better than +today. The right to think is inalienable, or a man is a machine. Thought +is life or a human soul is a thing." + +And do not lack the courage of your own thoughts. _You_ do not need to +cringe or apologize to any man. "Our life is not an apology but a life." +Dare to think and dare to express and live your thought. + +Did you ever read Emerson's definition of genius? "To believe your own +thought, to believe that what is true for you in your private heart is +true for all men,--that is genius." Then he says, "We dismiss without +notice our own thoughts, because they are ours. Tomorrow a stranger will +say with masterly good sense, precisely what we have thought and felt +all along and we shall be forced to take with shame our own opinion from +another." + +Have you not experienced this? How often we hear some one express a +truth and we say to ourselves, "That is just what I have long believed +but I have never dared say so." We have been so taught all our lives to +depend on some outside power and discredit the power within ourselves, +that we pay no attention to the thoughts that are ours for who are we +that we should dare to think and perchance disagree with those who have +assumed authority over us! But that is precisely what we should dare to +do--to think and to do our own thinking always. Who dares place anything +before a man! + +So _think_ as you study these lessons and use these rules and formulas +simply as means to an end, as tools to aid you in expressing these +thoughts. + + Yours for Education, + + THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. + + + PARTICIPLES + ++147.+ We have found that the verb has five forms, made by internal +changes in the verb itself,--the present time form, the s-form, the past +time form, the present participle and the past participle. + +We have also found that we can express various time forms by verb +phrases formed by using the helping verbs, _shall_, _will_, _have_ and +_be_ with one of the verb forms. All of these forms are used as the +asserting word in the sentence. So long as the verb or verb phrase forms +the predicate--the word or words that assert something of the +subject--it still remains a verb. But we have found that the participle +forms of the verb may be used as other parts of speech while still +retaining some of the qualities of the verb. + ++148.+ You remember a sentence which we used when we studied +participles, _Making shoes is his work_. Here we have the present +participle _making_, with its object _shoes_, used as the subject of the +verb _is_. Now a noun never takes an object, so _making_ in this +sentence is partly a verb, partly a noun, and is called a participle, +which means _partaker_. + +We have studied and used two forms of participles, the present and the +past participle. The present participle always ends in _ing_ and +expresses action or existence in the present, or at the time mentioned +in the sentence. For example, _being_, _bringing_, _working_, _seeing_, +_loving_, _hating_, etc. + +The past participle we found to be one of the principal parts of the +verb. It expresses action or existence which is past or completed, at +the time mentioned in the sentence. It is formed by adding _d_ or _ed_ +to the regular verbs and by a change in the form in irregular verbs. For +example, regular verbs: _learned_ from _learn_, _defeated_ from +_defeat_, _watched_ from _watch_. Irregular verbs: _taught_ from +_teach_, _seen_ from _see_, _won_ from _win_. + ++We have found that these participles may be used either as nouns or as +adjectives.+ As for example: + + The _crying_ of the child annoyed the people. + The _crying_ child ran to its mother. + The _coming_ of the new day will bring peace. + We await the _coming_ day of peace. + + + PARTICIPLE PHRASES + ++149.+ The present and the past participles are each single words; but +we may also have participle phrases; that is, two or more words used as +a participle, as for example: + + His _having joined_ the strikers caused him to lose his job. + The man, _having been discharged_, left the mill. + +In these sentences we have the participle phrases, _having joined_ and +_having been discharged_. _Having joined_ is a participle phrase used as +a noun, the subject of the verb _caused_. _Having been discharged_ is a +participle phrase used as an adjective to modify the noun _man_. Notice +that _having joined_ is an active participle describing the action +performed by the man who is referred to by the pronoun _his_. _Having +been discharged_ is a passive participle expressing an action of which +the subject of the sentence, _man_, is the receiver. + +These are both perfect participles, expressing actions which are +complete at the present time. + ++150.+ We have also progressive participles expressing action which is +continuing or progressing. These progressive participles are also used +in both the active and the passive forms. The progressive active +participle is formed by using _having been_ with the present participle, +as _having been working_. The progressive passive participle is formed +by using _being_ with the past participle, as for example, _being +watched_, _being driven_, _being gone_, etc. So we have six participles, +three active and three passive. + +Note the following table: + + +Active+ + + _Present._ Sending. + + _Perfect._ Having sent. + + _Progressive._ Having been sending. + + + +Passive+ + + _Past._ Sent. + + _Perfect._ Having been sent. + + _Progressive._ Being sent. + ++These participle phrases may be used either as nouns or as +adjectives.+ + + + Exercise 1 + +In the following sentences mark the participles and the participle +phrases. Underscore those used as _nouns_ with a single line; those used +as _adjectives_ with two lines. + + 1. He denies having been hired by the employer. + 2. Our friends, having arrived, joined us at dinner. + 3. The rain, falling incessantly, kept us from going. + 4. Having often seen him passing, I judged he lived near. + 5. The man, being discouraged and ill, was unable to do his work well. + 6. Happiness shared is happiness doubled. + 7. Having finished his work, he rests at last. + 8. The army, beaten but not vanquished, waited for the morrow. + 9. The men, having been unemployed for months, were desperate. + 10. Being prepared will not save us from war. + 11. "Rest is not quitting this busy career; + Rest is the fitting of self to its sphere. + It's loving and serving the highest and best; + It's onward, not swerving; and that is true rest." + + + Exercise 2 + +Write the six participle forms of the verbs _see_ and _teach_, and use +in sentences of your own construction. + + + INFINITIVES + ++151.+ We have found that the various forms of the participles may be +used as other parts of speech. They partake of the nature of a verb and +either of a noun or an adjective. Notice the following sentences: + + Traveling is pleasant. + Eating is necessary. + +Can you think of any other way in which you could express the same +thought? Do you not sometimes say, + + To travel is pleasant. + To eat is necessary. + +We have expressed practically the same thought in these two sentences, +which is expressed in the sentences above, where we used the participle. +_To travel_ and _to eat_ are used as nouns, subjects of the verb _is_ +just as _traveling_ and _eating_ are used as nouns, the subjects of the +verb _is_. + +Here we have another form of the verb used as a noun. When we use the +verb in this way, we are not speaking of the _traveling_ or _eating_ as +belonging to or being done by any particular person, nor do we indicate +whether one person or more than one is concerned in the action. It might +be anyone doing the traveling or eating, and it might be one person or a +thousand. We are making a general statement of everybody in the world, +so we call this form the _infinitive_. + ++152.+ Infinite means _unlimited_, without limit as to persons or +number. Almost every verb in the language may be used in this way, and +since _to_ is generally used before the infinitive, _to_ is often called +the sign of the infinitive. For example: + + _To be_, or not _to be_, that is the question. + _To have_ and _to hold_ is the problem. + He likes _to travel_. + +You note in all of these infinitives _to_ is used with the simple form +of the verb. + ++153.+ _To_ is generally omitted after verbs like _help_, _hear_, _bid_, +_feel_, _let_, _make_, _see_ and _have_, or words of similar meaning. +For example: + + Help me (to) find it. + He bade me (to) stay. + Feel it (to) shake. + Make him (to) come. + Hear me (to) sing. + Let us (to) go. + See him (to) run. + Have him (to) copy this. + ++154.+ _To_ is also omitted after _need_ and _dare_ when _not_ is used. + + They need to work. + They need not work. + + They dared to come. + They dared not come. + ++155.+ _To_ is sometimes omitted after prepositions: + + He will do anything for his class, except (to) fight for it. + He would do nothing but (to) go away. + ++156.+ We have a number of different forms of the infinitive, both +active and passive. Note the following table: + + +Active+ + + _Present._ To love. + _Perfect._ To have loved. + _Present Prog._ To be loving. + _Perfect Prog._ To have been loving. + + +Passive+ + + _Present._ To be loved. + _Perfect._ To have been loved. + ++157.+ Notice that only the _present_ and _perfect_ infinitives have the +_passive_ form. The progressive infinitives cannot be used in the +passive. Remember also that only _incomplete_ verbs, those which require +an object to receive the action, can have a passive form. + +The verb _loved_, which we have used in the above table, has a passive +form because it is an incomplete verb, for there must be that which is +the object of our love. + ++158.+ The complete verbs,--verbs which require no object,--cannot have +a passive form for there is no object to become the receiver of the +action. Take for example the verb _dwell_. This is a complete verb which +can have no passive form. You cannot dwell anything, therefore you +cannot say _to be dwelt_ or _to have been dwelt_. + ++So complete verbs have only the four active forms+, as follows: + + +Active+ + + _Present._ To dwell. + _Perfect._ To have dwelt. + _Present Prog._ To be dwelling. + _Perfect Prog._ To have been dwelling. + ++159.+ Infinitives, like participles, may be used either as nouns or +adjectives. When used as nouns, they are used in the various ways in +which nouns are used. The infinitive may be the _subject_ of a sentence, +thus: + + _To hesitate_ now will be fatal. + _To be defeated_ is no crime. + ++160.+ The infinitive may be the _object_ or _complement_ of the verb. +For example: + + He wanted _to see_ you. + His desire is _to learn_. + ++161.+ The infinitive may be used as the object of a _preposition_; as, + + He is about _to go_. + They will do anything for the cause except _to live_ for it. + ++162.+ The infinitive may be used as an adjective to modify a noun. For +example: + + He showed me the way _to go_. + We must have food _to eat_ and clothes _to wear_. + The question _to be decided_ is before us. + Claim your right _to live_. + ++163.+ The infinitive may also be used as an adverb to modify the +meaning of a verb, adjective or adverb, thus: + + He was forced _to go_. + They are slow _to learn_. + The fruit was not ripe enough _to eat_. + +Note that the infinitives in these sentences may all be changed into +adverb phrases. As for example in the first sentence, He was forced _to +go_, the infinitive _to go_, which modifies the verb _forced_, may be +changed to the adverb phrase, _into going_, thus, _He was forced into +going_. In the second sentence, _They are slow to learn_, the infinitive +_to learn_ may be changed into the adverb phrase _in learning_, thus, +_They are slow in learning_. In the last sentence, _The fruit is not +ripe enough to eat_, the infinitive _to eat_, which modifies the adverb +_enough_, may be changed into the adverb phrase, _for eating_, as for +example, _The fruit was not ripe enough for eating_. + ++164.+ The infinitive is quite a useful form of the verb, and we will +find that we use it very frequently in expressing our ideas. While it is +not the asserting word in the sentence, it retains the nature of a verb +and may have both an object and an adverb modifier. As for example, in +the sentence: + + I wish _to learn_ my lesson quickly. + +_To learn_ is the infinitive, used as a noun, the object of the verb +_wish_. The infinitive also has an object, to learn--_what?_ _My lesson_ +is the object of the infinitive _to learn_. We also have an adverb +modifier in the adverb _quickly_, which tells _how_ I wish to learn my +lesson. So the infinitive retains its verb nature, in that it may have +an object and it may be modified by an adverb. + + + Exercise 3 + +Notice carefully the use of the infinitives in the following sentences. +Underscore all infinitives. + + 1. To remain ignorant is to remain a slave. + 2. Teach us to think and give us courage to act. + 3. Children love to be praised, but hate to be censured. + 4. To obey is the creed taught the working class by the masters. + 5. To be exploited has always been the fate of the workers. + 6. Ferrer wrote on his prison wall, "To love a woman passionately, to + have an ideal which I can serve, to have the desire to fight + until I win--what more can I wish or ask?" + 7. The people wish the man to be punished for the crime. + 8. Primitive man found plenty of wood to burn. + 9. We have learned to use coal and oil. + 10. The lecture to have been given this evening has been postponed. + 11. They are eager to hear the news. + 12. He has failed to come. + 13. We felt the house shake on its foundation. + 14. Have him find the book for me. + 15. To be defeated is no crime; never to have dared is the real crime. + 16. The rich will do anything for the poor except to get off their + backs. + 17. To have slept while others fought is your shame. + 18. Claim your right to do, to dream and to dare. + + + Exercise 4 + +Write sentences containing the six infinitive forms of the verb _obey_. + + + DON'TS FOR INFINITIVES + ++165.+ +Don't split your infinitives.+ Keep the _to_ and the infinitive +together as much as possible. Don't say, _They intended to never come +back_. Say rather, _They intended never to come back_. Sometimes, +however, the meaning can be more aptly expressed by placing the adverb +modifier between the _to_ and the infinitive, as for example: + + To almost succeed is not enough. + It will be found to far exceed our expectations. + +In these sentences the adverbs _almost_ and _far_ express our meaning +more closely if they are placed between the _to_ and the infinitive. +Ordinarily, however, do not split your infinitives, but place the adverb +modifier either before or after the infinitive. + ++166.+ +Don't use _to_ by itself without the rest of the infinitive.+ +Don't say, _Do as I tell you to_. Say instead, _Do as I tell you to do_; +or, _Do as I tell you_. Don't say, _He deceived us once and he is likely +to again_. Say rather, _He deceived us once and he is likely to deceive +us again_, or _to do so again_. + ++167.+ +Don't use _and_ for _to_. Don't say, _Try and go if you can_. +Say instead, _Try to go if you can_. + +Correct the following sentences: + + We ought to bravely fight for our rights. + I will do all my employer tells me to. + We shall try and get our lessons. + I ought to at least help my comrades but I am afraid to. + + + Exercise 5 + +Study carefully the infinitives in the following quotation. Notice which +are active and which are passive infinitives. + + The twenty thousand men prematurely slain on a field of battle, mean, + to the women of their race, twenty thousand human creatures _to be + borne_ within them for months, _to be given_ birth to in anguish, _to + be fed_ from their breasts and _to be reared_ with toil, if the + members of the tribe and the strength of the nation are _to be + maintained_. In nations continually at war, incessant and unbroken + child-bearing is by war imposed on all women if the state is _to + survive_; and whenever war occurs, if numbers are _to be maintained_, + there must be an increased child-bearing and rearing. This throws upon + woman, as woman, a war tax, compared with which all that the male + expends in military preparations is comparatively light. + + It is especially in the domain of war that we, the bearers of men's + bodies, who supply its most valuable munition, who, not amid the + clamor and ardor of battle, but singly, and alone, with a + three-in-the-morning courage, shed our blood and face death that the + battle-field might have its food, a food more precious to us than our + heart's blood; it is we, especially, who, in the domain of war, have + our word _to say_, a word no man can say for us. It is our intention + _to enter_ into the domain of war and _to labor_ there till in the + course of generations we have extinguished it.--_Olive Schreiner_. + + + Exercise 6 + +Mark the participles and infinitives. + + Gold! Gold! Gold! Gold! + Bright and yellow, hard and cold, + Molten, graven, hammer'd and roll'd; + Heavy to get, and light to hold; + Hoarded, barter'd, bought, and sold, + Stolen, borrow'd, squander'd, doled: + Spurn'd by the young, but hugg'd by the old + To the very verge of the churchyard mould; + Price of many a crime untold: + Gold! Gold! Gold! Gold! + Good or bad a thousand-fold! + How widely its agencies vary-- + To save--to ruin--to curse--to bless-- + As even its minted coins express, + Now stamp'd with the image of Good Queen Bess, + And now of a bloody Mary.--_Thos. Hood_. + + + + + SPELLING + + LESSON 9 + + +In our English lessons, we have been studying the division of words into +parts of speech. We have been studying them as we use them in expressing +our thoughts but we may study them in other ways also. We may study them +as words alone. + +Studied in this way we find that we have simple, compound and derivative +words. For example, _man_, _man-slaughter_, _manly_. _Man_ is a simple +word. _Man-slaughter_ is a compound word formed of two simple words. +_Manly_ is a derivative word derived from _man_. + +When a compound word is first formed, it is usually written with a +hyphen; but after the word has been used awhile the hyphen is often +dropped and the two parts are written together as a simple word. + ++A simple word is a single word which cannot be divided into other words +without changing its meaning.+ + ++A compound word is composed of two or more simple words into which it +may be divided, each retaining its own meaning.+ + ++A derivative word is one which is derived from a simple word by the +addition of another syllable.+ + +In next week's lesson we will take up the study of these derivatives. + +Divide the compound words in this week's lesson into the simple words of +which they are composed. + + +Monday+ + + Birthday + Coal-tar + Craftsman + Foreman + Gunpowder + + +Tuesday+ + + Handkerchief + Headquarters + Lawsuit + Lockout + Bookkeeper + + +Wednesday+ + + Motorman + Newspaper + Pasteboard + Postage-stamp + Postmaster + + +Thursday+ + + Salesman + Second-hand + Shirtwaist + Sidewalk + Staircase + + +Friday+ + + Trademark + Time-table + Typewriter + Tableware + Sewing-machine + + +Saturday+ + + Undergarment + Underhand + Water-mark + Woodwork + Workshop + + + + + PLAIN ENGLISH + + LESSON 10 + + +Dear Comrade: + +We have been studying this course in Plain English for some weeks now +and I trust that you have been enjoying as well as benefiting by the +study of our wonderful and expressive language. Did you ever stop to +think what a wonderful step it was in evolution when man first began to +use the spoken word? And yet it was a still more wonderful step in +advance when he began to use the written word for our highest evolution, +and development would have been impossible without the help of written +speech. An illiterate man may be a good workman and prosperous so far as +the material things of life and his immediate contact with his fellow +men are concerned, but we have only to think for a moment of what this +world would be if we had no written language, to understand what a +mighty power it has been in evolution. + +Suppose we had no way by which we could communicate with our friends at +a distance. Suppose there were no written words by which we could set +down the countless dealings between man and man. What a hopeless tangle +this social life of ours would soon become! Suppose also that we had no +knowledge of the past, no knowledge of the discoveries and inventions of +past generations except that which could be handed down to us through +oral speech. All our knowledge of history, of the deeds and development +of the past, all the observations by which science has uncovered to us +the mysteries of nature would be largely lost to us. It was the +invention of writing alone which made possible man's growth from +barbarism to civilization, and it is more true than we oftentimes +realize, that it is "only a wall of books that separates the civilized +man of to-day from the savage of yesterday." And yet I wonder if we have +ever stopped to think how this art of writing developed. Knowledge of +the alphabet and of the letters by which we form our words and hence are +able to express our ideas, has become such a common-place thing to us +that we have forgotten what a wonder it is and how it has slowly grown +and developed through the centuries. Yet there are races to-day that +have no written language such as we know and to whom our written +language seems truly a miracle. + +The story is told of an Indian who was sent from one colony to another +with four loaves of bread accompanied by a letter stating their number. +The Indian ate one of the loaves and of course, was found out. The next +time when he was sent upon a similar errand he repeated the theft but he +took the precaution to hide the letter under a stone while he was eating +the bread so that it might not see him! + +But it is only the things that we do not understand which we invest with +mystery and as we study the story of the alphabet in this series of +letters we find that it has been a natural development accomplished by +the growing powers of man. In succeeding letters we will trace this most +interesting story of the alphabet. + + Yours for Education, + + THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. + + + HELPING VERBS + ++168.+ We have found that whenever a verb is used by itself in making an +assertion it denotes either present or past time. When we use a verb +phrase, it expresses some other time than the past or present. These +verb phrases are formed by using _shall_, _will_, _have_, _had_, and the +various forms of the verb _be_ with some form of the principal verb. +These verbs which help to form verb phrases are called _helping_, or +_auxiliary verbs_. Auxiliary means helping. + +We have used _have_ and _had_ with the past participle to form the +present perfect and past perfect time forms. We have used _shall_ and +_will_ with different forms of the verb to denote future time, and we +have used different forms of the verb _be_ in making the various other +time forms. So _shall_, _will_, _have_, _had_ and the various forms of +the verb _be_ are _helping verbs_, which we use to help us in making +verb phrases. + ++169.+ But these are not all of the helping verbs. There are other +helping verbs which we use in forming verb phrases to express different +ideas. These are such verbs as _should_ and _would_, _may_ and _might_, +_can_ and _could_, _must_ and _ought_, _do_ and _did_. + + + Exercise 1 + +Fill the blank spaces in the following sentences with the appropriate +forms of the helping verbs, _shall_, _will_, _have_, _had_ and _be_. + + 1. When......the workers organize? + 2. Education......help us win. + 3. The world......had enough of war. + 4. We......deceived by the masters. + 5. The workers......organized into craft unions. + 6. They......never ceased the struggle. + 7. The state......founded on exploitation. + 8. Mutual aid......been an important factor in evolution. + 9. The truth......taught to the people. + 10. The victory......gained by the proletariat. + 11. The nations of Europe......preparing for war for years. + 12. The International......recognized war for defense. + 13. We......not made the class distinctions, but we......recognize + them as long as they exist. + 14. The evolution of animals and the evolution of + plants......proceeded according to the same general laws. + 15. We......never win while the majority remains ignorant. + 16. The strikers......betrayed by their leaders. + + + SHOULD AND WOULD + ++170.+ _Should_ and _would_ are the past-time forms of _shall_ and +_will_. We use them to express action or existence dependent upon some +condition, thus: + + I should go if I were well enough. + He should join us if you asked him. + +In these sentences _should_ and _would_ express action which is possible +now or will be in the future, provided some other action takes place. + +The same distinction which we found made in the use _shall_ and _will_ +has been made with _should_ and _would_; that is, that _should_ used +with the first person, expresses action dependent upon condition; but +_would_, used with the first person, implies exercise of the will. This +rule is not closely followed, though it expresses a nice distinction in +the use of _should_ and _would_. In ordinary usage we use either +_should_ or _would_ with the first person without any distinction of +meaning, as for example: + + I should struggle on even if it meant death. + I would stand for my principles though I stood entirely alone. + +We do not use _should_ however, with the second and third persons to +express an action or existence dependent upon some condition. _Should_ +used with the second and third person implies obligation. _Would_ is +used with the second or third person to express an action dependent upon +some condition, as for example: + + He would not go, even if you insisted. + They would come if you invited them. + You would believe him if you could hear him. + You would be surprised if I should tell you the reason. + ++171.+ _Should_ and _would_ in all of the sentences which we have quoted +are used to express action or existence dependent upon some condition +which is expressed in that part of the sentence introduced by such +conjunctions as _if_ and _though_. + +The parts of the sentence introduced by these conjunctions express the +condition upon which the other action is dependent. When we use _should_ +in sentences without this condition, it means practically the same as +_ought_, and implies an obligation. We use _should_ with the first and +second and third persons when we use it with this meaning, as for +example: + + I should have gone yesterday. + You should be with us in this fight. + They should never fear defeat. + ++172.+ _Ought_ could be used in all these sentences and express +practically the same meaning. _Should_ used in this way implies +obligation. + + + Exercise 2 + +Study carefully the following sentences. Write in the blank space +preceding each sentence the number of the paragraph in the lesson which +governs the use of the helping verb in that sentence. + + 1. ...... The workers should organize if they desire to control + production. + 2. ...... The proletariat would destroy this system if they + understood their power. + 3. ...... Every worker would join his fellows if he could but realize + the class struggle. + 4. ...... We would all enjoy plenty if we produced for use instead of + for profit. + 5. ...... The ruling class would not give up their privileges even + though they knew that their cupidity endangers society. + 6. ...... The injury of one should be the injury of all. + 7. ...... The workers' International should stand for the + international solidarity of the workers. + 8. ...... You should never fear the ridicule of little minds. + 9. ...... You would never fear ridicule if you were conscious of your + own power. + 10. ...... No man should fear to think for himself. + 11. ...... No man would fear to think for himself if the world were + truly free. + 12. ...... Compromise now would mean defeat. + + + MAY AND MIGHT + ++173.+ _May_ used as a helping verb means present permission in regard +to an action or possession, as: + + You may come with us. + He may have the money. + ++174.+ It may also mean a possible action or possession. _You may come +with us_, for example, might mean that some time in the future it is +possible that you will come with us. _He may have the money_, might mean +either _He is given permission to have the money_, or _It is possible +that he has it_. + +_May_, used with many verb forms, means _it is possible_. For example: +_He may be hungry_, _He may have starved_. _He may have been starving_; +that is, it is possible that _he is hungry_; that _he has starved_; that +_he was starving_. + ++175.+ _Might_ is the past form of _may_ and expresses past permission +to do or to be and also possibility in the past. For example: _The +officer said he might go_. That is, he gave him permission to go. _You +might have helped your comrades_; that is, _you had the power to have +helped_. + +_Might_ is also used to express permission or the power to do in the +present and future, on condition. For example: + + He might find work if he were trained. + The workers might destroy this insane system if they would. + + + Exercise 3 + +Study carefully the following sentences. Write in the blank space +preceding each sentence the number of the paragraph in the lesson which +governs the use of the helping verbs _may_ or _might_ in that sentence. + + 1. ...... The solidarity of the workers might have averted this war. + 2. ...... "Of all sad words of tongue or pen, + The saddest are these--'it might have been.'" + 3. ...... You might join us. + 4. ...... The people struggle that they may live. + 5. ...... Try; you might succeed. + 6. ...... The day may come when this day's deeds shall be remembered. + 7. ...... Victory might be ours if we dared to face the issue. + 8. ...... "Men may come and men may go; + But I go on forever." + 9. ...... It seemed possible that we might win. + 10. ...... May we ever be loyal and true! + 11. ...... It appeared for a time that we might be involved in war. + 12. ...... Let come what may, we will not yield. + + + CAN AND COULD + ++176.+ _Can_ is the present-time form and _could_ the past-time form, +and both imply ability or power to do or to be. _You can go_ means _You +are able to go_,--_You have the power to go_. _You may go_ means _You +have permission to go_. _Can_ is often used when we should use _may_, +when we mean to give permission. Habit plays a great part in our life +and knowledge of the right way does not always suffice. It is only +continued effort that will establish correct habits of speech. Good +English would be easy of accomplishment if "to do were as easy as to +know what it were good to do." + +We are too often like the mother in the story. "Can I have a piece of +pie?" asked the child. "May I?" the mother corrected. Then the child +asked, "May I have a piece of pie?" and the mother answered, "Yes, you +can." Knowledge said, _may_; habit said _can_, and the ready tongue +obeyed the force of habit. + +Say the correct word over and over aloud until it sounds right to your +ear and flows readily to your tongue. + ++177.+ _Could_ is sometimes used in the present sense to denote power to +do, conditioned upon willingness, as: + + He could if he would. + + + Exercise 4 + +Study carefully the following sentences. Write in the blank space +preceding each sentence the number of the paragraph in the lesson which +governs the use of the helping verbs _can_ or _could_ in that sentence. + + 1. ...... I can say love when others say hate; + I can say every man when others say one man; + What can I do? I can give myself to life, + When other men refuse themselves to life. + 2. ...... No one can be free till all are free. + 3. ...... They could win their freedom if they would prepare + themselves to be free. + 4. ...... What can I do, being alone? + 5. ...... If all men could catch the vision of freedom, wars would + cease. + 6. ...... Could you find a better way to spend your time than in + study? + 7. ...... Men would rise in revolt if they could know the facts. + + + MUST AND OUGHT + ++178.+ _Must_ and _ought_ imply obligation. _Must_ conveys the idea of +being obliged to do an action from necessity or compulsion, as, + + You must have known it. + He must go. + +_Ought_ was originally the past time form of _owe_, hence means _to be +indebted to_, _to owe_. It conveys the idea of a moral obligation, as, + + You ought to help the cause. + You ought to understand. + ++179+. _Ought_ is always used with the infinitive, and the same form is +used to express both the present and the past time. The difference in +time is expressed by a change in the infinitive instead of a change in +the form of the helping verb. With _may_ and _might_ and _can_ and +_could_, present and past time are expressed by a change in the form of +the helping verb. With the helping verb _ought_, the difference in time +is expressed in the infinitive. For example: + + He ought to pay us our wages. + +This means, _He owes it to us to pay us our wages now_. + + He ought to have paid us our wages. + +This means, _He owed it to us to pay us our wages some time in the +past_. + ++180.+ The present infinitive is used with the helping verb _ought_ to +express present time and the perfect infinitive is used with _ought_ to +express past time. + + + Exercise 5 + +Study carefully the following sentences. Write in the blank space +preceding each sentence the number of the paragraph in the lesson which +governs the use of the helping verb _must_ or _ought_ in that sentence. + + 1. ...... Service must be the key note of the future. + 2. ...... Competition must give place to co-operation. + 3. ...... Ought we to fear, who know the truth? + 4. ...... Government ought to be the administration of things. + 5. ...... No man ought to have the power of life and death over any + other human being. + 6. ...... It may cost much but humanity must be set free at any cost. + 7. ...... What ought to be the attitude of the workers toward war? + 8. ...... "For man must work and woman must weep, + For there is little to do and many to keep." + 9. ...... The day must come when we can live the dream. + + + DO AND DID + ++181.+ _Do_ and _did_ are used as helping verbs to give emphasis--to +form emphatic verb phrases. _Do_ is the present time form and _did_ the +past time form, as for example: + + I do wish you would come. + I did hope he would win. + ++182.+ When we use the negative _not_ we use the helping verbs _do_ and +_did_ to form our verb phrases. For example, we do not say: + + I obey not. + I walked not. + He comes not. + They arrived not. + +But in expressing the present and past time forms with the negative +_not_, we say instead: + + I do not obey. + I did not walk. + He does not come. + They did not arrive. + ++183.+ We also use _do_ and _did_ with the present and past time forms +of the verb in writing interrogative sentences. For example, we do not +say: + + Comes he with them? + Studied you yesterday? + Found they the book? + Think you it is true? + +But we say instead: + + Does he come with them? + Did you study yesterday? + Did they find the book? + Do you think it is true? + + + Exercise 6 + +Write in the blank space before each sentence the number of the +paragraph which governs the use of the helping verb _do_ or _did_ in +that sentence. + + 1. ...... Slaves do not think; they obey. + 2. ...... Men do not obey; they think. + 3. ...... Do you know that two per cent of the people own sixty per + cent of the wealth? + 4. ...... The children of the masses do not have the opportunity to + attend school. + 5. ...... Did not every nation claim a war for defense? + 6. ...... "We did not dare to breathe a prayer, + Or give our anguish scope." + 7. ...... We do desire the freedom of the people. + 8. ...... We did hope that war might be averted. + ++Let us sum up the auxiliary or helping verbs.+ + ++184.+ Helping verbs are used to express: + + +The different time forms+--_shall_, _will_, _have_, _had_, _be_. + +Power to do or to be+--_can_, _could_, _might_. + +Permission+--_may_ and _might_. + +Possibility+--_may_ and _might_. + +Obligation+--_must_, _ought_ and _should_. + +Necessity+--_must_. + +Condition+--_would_. + +Mark the helping verbs in the following exercise: + + + Exercise 7 + + The earth shall rise on new foundations. + We have been naught, we shall be all. + No more tradition's chains shall bind us. + Oh! Liberty! Can man resign thee? + Can dungeon's bolts and bars confine thee? + Capital could never have existed if labor had not first existed. + What can I do? I can talk out when others are silent. I can say man + when others say money. + Do you hear the children weeping, O my brothers? + Political freedom can exist only where there is industrial freedom. + Political democracy can exist only where there is industrial + democracy. + Who would be free, themselves must strike the blow. + If there is anything that cannot bear free thought, let it crack. + No doctrine, however established, should be protected from discussion. + Society can overlook murder, adultery or swindling; it never forgives + the preaching of a new gospel. + The tree of liberty must be refreshed from time to time with the + blood of patriots and tyrants. + Every man is a consumer and ought to be a producer. + No picture of life can have any variety which does not admit the + odious facts. + I know not what course others may take, but as for me, give me liberty + or give me death. + + + Exercise 8 + +Note the use of the helping verbs in the following quotation. Could you +use _might_ or _must_ or _ought_ anywhere and strengthen the emphasis? + + "I have looked at this claim by the light of history and my own + confidence, and it seems to me, so looked at, to be a most just claim, + and that resistance to it means nothing short of a denial of the whole + of civilization. + + This then is the claim: + + It is right and necessary that all men should have work to do which + shall be worth doing and be of itself pleasant to do; and which should + be done under such conditions as would make it neither over-wearisome + nor over-anxious. + + Turn that claim about as I may, think of it as long as I can, I cannot + find that it is an exorbitant claim; yet if society would or could + admit it, the face of the earth would be changed; discontent and + strife and dishonesty would be ended. To feel that we were doing work + useful to others and pleasant to ourselves, and that such work and its + due reward could not fail us! What serious harm could happen to us + then? And the price to be paid for so making the world happy, must be + revolution."--_William Morris_. + + + + + SPELLING + + LESSON 10 + + +Simple words are sometimes spoken of as root words. _Root_ means that +from which something grows. We know our language is a living, growing +thing and these root words are the roots where the growth begins. One +way in which this growth is accomplished and new words added to our +language is by placing syllables before or after the root word--the +simple word--as, for example: _unmanly_. + +In this we have a syllable placed before and a syllable placed after the +root word _man_. The syllable placed before the root word is called the +prefix from the Latin _pre_ meaning _before_ and the Latin word to +place. Therefore, prefix means literally _to place before_. + ++A prefix consists of one or more syllables placed before a word +to qualify its meaning.+ + +The syllable placed after the root word, or simple word, is called the +suffix, from the Latin _sub_ meaning after and the Latin word to place. +_Subfix_ the word should be literally, but for the sake of the +sound--the euphony, the good sound--we say _suffix_. + ++A suffix consists of one or more syllables placed after a word to +qualify its meaning.+ + ++The words made by adding prefixes and suffixes are called derivative +words.+ + +You remember we used a suffix in forming participles. The present +participle is formed by adding the suffix _ing_ to the simple form of +the verb. The past participle is formed by adding the suffix _ed_ to the +simple form of the verb. + +The words in the spelling lesson for this week are derivative words +formed by adding a prefix or suffix, or both, to the simple word. Draw a +line through the prefix and the suffix and leave the simple or root +word. + + +Monday+ + + Wonderful + Prosperous + Disloyalty + Uncovered + Government + + +Tuesday+ + + Memorize + Unreality + Co-operation + Dependent + Truly + + +Wednesday+ + + Beautify + Countless + Uncomfortable + Dishonesty + Producer + + +Thursday+ + + Existence + Untruthfulness + Discontentment + Victory + Removable + + +Friday+ + + Impurity + Unwillingness + Indebted + Overwearisome + Enjoyable + + +Saturday+ + + Obligation + Hopeless + Endanger + Precaution + Denial + + + + + PLAIN ENGLISH + + LESSON 11 + + +Dear Comrade: + +As we begin the study of the story of the alphabet and the evolution of +written speech, we discover that primitive man imagined the art of +writing to have had divine origin, to have been handed down from the +powers above. + +It is natural for us to personify and envelop in mystery the things that +we do not understand. So these primitive people have attributed the +discovery of the art of writing to the gods and have looked upon the +parchment containing the written word which they cannot understand, as +possessing magical power; but as we come to learn the origin and causes +of things, they are divested of their mystery and become no longer gods +and enslavers of men. We understand the laws that govern their action +and they become our servants. Take lightning for example. Primitive +people personified the lightning or called it the thunder bolts of Jove +or attributed it to an act of divine providence. We have learned the +laws that govern the action of electricity and so this mighty giant is +no longer a god to whom we bow in submission, and who slays us at his +whim. He has become our most faithful servant who travels along the +wires at our behest and obeys our every bidding. So in the early stages, +the art of writing belonged only to the favored few and was made the +means of enslavement of the common people instead of the means of +liberation. + +Knowledge has always been power and the ruling classes of the world, +desiring power over the people, have striven to keep knowledge within +their own circle; so the art of writing was known only to the few. The +few books in circulation were laboriously written by hand and +circulated, largely among the clergy, who used it as priests have ever +used their power--from medicine man to Pope,--for the enslavement of the +people and the protection of the privileges of a few. This is aptly +illustrated in the law which was known as "the benefit of clergy" which +was not entirely repealed until the year 1827. Under this statute, +exemption from trial for criminal offenses was given to the clergy and +also to any man who could read. If a person were sentenced to death for +some criminal offense, the bishop of that community might claim him as a +clerk and if, when given a Latin book, he could read a verse or two, the +court would declare "he reads like a clerk" and the offender was only +burned in the hand and then set free. + +The invention of the printing press in the fifteenth century which made +possible the diffusion of knowledge among the people, was the beginning +of the emancipation of the workers of the world. But while we realize, +perhaps, what this art of writing means to us and by the knowledge of +its growth and development no longer ascribe it to divine origin or +consider it a blessing designed by a supreme being for a favored few, +still most of us know very little of the interesting evolution which +made possible the alphabet which is the basis of our written and spoken +language of to-day. When we realize how through all these long centuries +man has been struggling, striving, evolving, developing, reaching out +toward fuller, freer and richer life, it gives us courage in our +struggle and makes us see ourselves, not as individuals alone, but as +links in a mighty chain clasping hands with that primitive man of the +past, from whom we have inherited the power we now possess, and reaching +forth also to clasp the hands of those who shall come and handing on to +them the things for which we have struggled and added to the inheritance +of the past. + +Next week we will have the story of man's first beginning in the art of +writing. + + Yours for Education, + + THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. + + + THE VERB "BE" + ++185.+ The verb is perhaps the most difficult part of speech to master +because it has more form changes than any other part of speech. + +In this lesson we are going to emphasize the most important things to +remember in the study of the verb and also call attention to the most +common mistakes. + ++186.+ First, master that little verb be in all its forms. The only way +to do this is to commit to memory these forms. Say them over and over +until any other form does not sound right. + + +Present+ +Past+ +Future+ + + _Singular_ _Singular_ _Singular_ + + 1. I am. I was. I shall be. + 2. You are. You were. You will be. + 3. He is. He was. He will be. + + _Plural_ _Plural_ _Plural_ + + 1. We are. We were. We shall be. + 2. You are. You were. You will be. + 3. They are. They were. They will be. + + _Pres. Perf._ _Past Perf._ _Fut. Perf._ + + Have been. Had been. Shall have been. + ++187.+ Do not use _aint_ for _is not_ or _am not_. Do not say, _He aint +here_, or _I aint going_. Say, _He isn't here_; _I am not going_. + + + A FREQUENT MISTAKE + ++188.+ Perhaps one of the most frequent mistakes is the confusion in the +use of the past time form and the past participle. Remember that the +past time form is never used except in expressing past time; never use +it in forming a verb phrase. Take the verb _do_, for example--say, _He +did the work_, never, _He done the work_; but we should say, _He has +done the work_, never, _He has did the work_. _Say_ and _seen_ are +confused in the same manner. Watch this carefully. + + + Exercise 1 + +Underline the correct word in the following: + + 1. Who did--done it? + 2. He sung--sang well. + 3. He sunk--sank before we could reach him. + 4. She written--wrote him a letter. + 5. He taken--took the book. + 6. They swum--swam the river. + 7. I saw--seen him do it. + 8. They drank--drunk too much. + 9. He soon began--begun to fail. + 10. The lad ran--run home. + 11. They come--came yesterday. + + + WITH HELPING VERBS + ++189.+ Never use the past time form with the helping verbs _has_, _had_, +_was_ and _were_. Always use the past participle. Watch this carefully. +For example, never say, _He has went_. _Went_ is the past time form. +Say, _He has gone_. + + + Exercise 2 + +Underscore the correct word in the following sentences: + + 1. He had tore--torn the book. + 2. Have you ever sang--sung this tune? + 3. They have showed--shown us how to win. + 4. She has went--gone away. + 5. The trees were shook--shaken by the wind. + 6. He was chose--chosen for leader. + 7. He has rose--risen from the ranks. + 8. It was wrote--written by him. + 9. He has took--taken the prize. + 10. He was gave--given the money. + 11. I have forgot--forgotten the rule. + 12. The river was froze--frozen over. + 13. The machine was broke--broken. + 14. It was wore--worn out. + 15. The meal was ate--eaten in silence. + + + PAST TIME FORMS + ++190.+ Watch your speech to see if you use an incorrect verb form for +the past time form. Study the table of irregular verbs and refer to it +frequently. We often make the mistake of forming the past time form by +adding _ed_ when properly it is formed irregularly. For example: we +often say _drawed_ for _drew_, _throwed_ for _threw_, etc. + + + Exercise 3 + +Draw a line under the correct form in the following: + + 1. He grew--growed rapidly. + 2. He knew--knowed better. + 3. He catched--caught the ball. + 4. He drew--drawed the water. + 5. They threw--throwed him over. + 6. I drinked--drank the water. + 7. I climbed--clumb the tree. + 8. I seed--saw him do it. + 9. She teached--taught school. + + + VERBS OF SIMILAR FORM + ++191.+ Do not use one verb for another of similar form but different +meaning. The following are the most common of these: + ++Lay+ (incomplete verb, requires an object) meaning to place or to put; +as, _to lay the book down_. Principal parts: _Present_, lay; _Past_, +laid; _Past participle_, laid. + ++Lie+ (complete verb, takes no object) meaning to recline, to rest; as, +_to lie in bed_. Principal parts: _Present_, lie; _Past_, lay; _Past +participle_, lain. + ++Set+ (incomplete verb, requires an object) meaning to place or to put; +as, _to set the table_. Principal parts: _Present_, set; _Past_, set; +_Past participle_, set. + ++Sit+ (complete verb, takes no object) meaning to rest, as, _to sit in a +chair_. Principal parts: _Present_, sit; _Past_, sat; _Past participle_, +sat. + ++Raise+ (incomplete verb, requires an object) meaning to cause to rise, +to lift up. Principal parts: _Present_, raise; _Past_, raised; _Past +participle_, raised. + ++Rise+ (complete verb, takes no object) meaning to get up, to ascend. +Principal parts: _Present_, rise; _Past_, rose; _Past participle_, +risen. + ++192.+ +NOTE--These three verbs need an object to complete their +meaning:+ + + _Present_ _Past_ _Past Participle_ + + set set set + lay laid laid + raise raised raised + ++193.+ +NOTE--These three verbs need no object:+ + + _Present_ _Past_ _Past Participle_ + + sit sat sat + lie lay lain + rise rose risen + + + Exercise 4 + +Fill in the following blanks with the correct form of the verbs _sit_, +_set_, _lay_, _lie_, _raise_ and _rise_: + + 1. I......it on the table and there it....... + 2. They......the battle ship, Maine. + 3. Where did you......it? + 4. A mile of pipe has been....... + 5. The miners......a large strike fund. + 6. She......down to sleep. + 7. The body......in state three days. + 8. The farmers of the U. S.......an enormous wheat crop. + 9. The city......on the right bank. + 10. We have......the corner stone. + 11. When wages are......, prices are......too. + 12. He......in bed all morning. + 13. ......down Fido. + 14. The sun......at six this morning. + 15. She has been......there all day. + 16. The ship......to during the storm. + 17. They have been......new tracks. + 18. The hen is......on the eggs. + 19. Somebody said, "Early to bed and early to......, + Makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise." + 20. He......motionless for an hour. + 21. He......out the trees in rows. + 22. He will......in his position. + 23. The court will......in May. + 24. Where did he......? + 25. She......the table while he......there. + 26. He......the clock for six o'clock. + 27. The water has......two feet since the rain. + 28. He......the book down and......on it. + 29. The hen has been......a week. + 30. ......it on the table. + 31. He......in the shade and watched her......the plants. + + + COMMON ERRORS + ++194.+ Remember that in the present time form the third person singular +takes the s-form, but the s-form is never used _except_ with the _third +person singular_. We often make the mistake of using the _s-form_ with a +_plural_ subject. Notice carefully the following sentences, and correct +the errors. All of the sentences are wrong. + + 1. The days is getting shorter. + 2. The men has struck. + 3. The trains was late. + 4. These papers is written for you. + 5. You was disappointed, wasn't you? + 6. There is several coming. + 7. The nights was dark and cloudy. + 8. The clouds has gathered. + 9. They was anxious to come. + ++195.+ +When two subjects are connected by _and_, the s-form of the +verb must not be used+, unless both subjects refer to one person; as: + + The president and the secretary (two persons) were late. + The president and secretary (one person) was elected. + ++196.+ +But when the two subjects are connected by _or_ or _nor_ +then use the s-form of the verb+; as: + + Neither Germany nor Russia admits a war of offense. + Either the House or the Senate rejects the bill. + ++197.+ +Never use the infinitive sign _to_ by itself+; as: + + I have not written and do not expect _to_. + He has not gone nor does he intend _to_. + ++198.+ +Never use don't for doesn't.+ The use of _don't_ for _doesn't_ +is a very common mistake. _Don't_ is a contraction of _do not_ and +_doesn't_ of _does not_. When you are in doubt as to which to use, think +or speak the two words in full and see if the verb agrees with the +subject. _Do not_ is used with a plural subject, and _does not_ with a +singular subject. For example: _He don't believe me_. This sentence in +full would be, _He do not believe me_, which is incorrect. _He does not_ +(_doesn't_) _believe me_ is correct. Or, _They doesn't believe me_. This +sentence in full would read, _They does not believe me_, which is +incorrect. _They do not_ (_don't_) _believe me_ is correct. + ++199.+ +Do not use _has got_, or _have got_ for _must_.+ For +example, do not say, _We have got to go_. Say, _We must go_. Not, _He +has got to do what I say_; but, _He must do as I say_. + ++200.+ +Do not say _had ought_.+ For example: _You had ought to know +better_. Omit the _had_; it is unnecessary and incorrect. Say, _You +ought to know better_. + ++201.+ +Do not say _says I_ or _thinks I_.+ + + Says I, "Will you go?" + Says he, "That's what will happen." + Thinks I to myself, "I'll show you." + +These are incorrect. Say instead: + + I said, "Will you go?" + He said, "That's what will happen." + I thought, "I'll show you." + + + Exercise 5 + +Mark all the verbs in the following quotations and note carefully their +use. + + 1. Speak properly and in as few words as you can but always plainly; + for the end of speech is not ostentation but to be + understood.--_Penn_. + + 2. "Freedom's battle, once begun, + Bequeathed from bleeding sire to son, + Though baffled oft, is ever won." + +Note the use of _may_ and _can_ in this quotation: + + 3. Knowledge cannot be stolen from us. It cannot be bought or sold. We + may be poor, and the sheriff may come and sell our furniture, or + drive away our cow, or take our pet lamb and leave us homeless and + penniless; but he cannot lay the law's hand upon the jewelry of our + minds.--_E. Burritt_. + +Note the use of _shall_ and _will_ and _would_ and _should_ in the +following. Richard Grant White says: "I do not know in English +literature another passage in which the distinction between _shall_ and +_will_ and _would_ and _should_ is at once so elegantly, so variously, +so precisely, and so compactly illustrated." + + 4. "How long I shall love him I can no more tell, + Than, had I a fever, when I should be well. + My passion shall kill me before I will show it, + And yet I would give all the world he did know it; + But oh how I sigh, when I think, should he woo me, + I cannot refuse what I know would undo me." + + 5. I want it said of me by those who know me best that I always + plucked a thistle and planted a flower where I thought a flower + would grow.--_Abraham Lincoln_. + + + Exercise 6 + +Note the nouns as well as the verbs in the following quotation. Note +also the use of infinitives and participles. Mark every verb and use it +in a sentence of your own. + + + +Faith and Truth+ + + You say "Believe;" I say "Trust." + + Between those two words is a great gulf fixed. + + The idea that there can be a moral obligation to believe external + facts is unworthy of a freeman, but to trust is as much the true + nature of man as it is that of a babe to draw in its mother's + milk. + + You say "Creed;" I say "Faith." + + A creed at best is but a sorry caricature of a faith. + + Faith is the proper atmosphere of man, trust is his native buoyancy, + and his only obligation is to follow the highest law of his being. + + You have one supreme duty above all creeds and conventions--namely, + to think honestly, and say what you think. + + Have you doubts about your creed? say so; only thus has the true faith + ever advanced. + + It is not God, but the devil, who whispers: "Think at your peril!" + + Do you see flaws in the ancient structure of respectability and law + and order? Say so; only thus has the condition of man ever + improved. + + Have courage to be the heretic and traitor that you are by nature, and + do not worry about the consequences. + + Be a creator, as you were born to be, and spurn beyond all infamies + the wretched role of a repeater and apologist. + + The world lives and grows by heresy and treason. + + It dies by conformity to error and loyalty to wrong. + + _Ernest Crosby_. + + + Exercise 7 + +In the following paragraph, the predicates are printed in italics, and +the participles and infinitives in italic capitals. Study carefully. + + If it _were taught_ to every child, and in every school and college, + that it _is_ morally wrong for anyone _TO LIVE_ upon the _COMBINED_ + labor of his fellowmen without _CONTRIBUTING_ an approximately equal + amount of useful labor, whether physical or mental, in return, all + kinds of _GAMBLING_, as well as many other kinds of useless + occupations, _would be seen_ _TO BE_ of the same nature as direct + dishonesty or fraud, and, therefore _would_ soon _come_ _TO BE + CONSIDERED_ disgraceful as well as immoral. + + _Alfred Russel Wallace_. + + + Exercise 8 + +Underscore all the verbs in the following and note the participles, the +infinitives and the various time forms; also the helping verbs: + + What, speaking in quite unofficial language, is the net purport of + war? To my knowledge, for example, there dwell and toil, in the + British village of Dumrudge, usually some five hundred souls. From + these, by certain 'natural enemies' of the French, there are selected, + say thirty able-bodied men; Dumrudge, at her own expense, has suckled + and nursed them; she has, not without difficulty and sorrow, fed them + up to manhood and trained them in the crafts, so that one can weave, + another build and another hammer. Nevertheless, amidst much weeping + and swearing, they are selected; all dressed in red and shipped away, + at the public charges, some two thousand miles, or, say only to the + south of Spain, and fed there till wanted. And now to that same spot + in the south of Spain are thirty similar French artisans, in like + manner, wending their ways; till at length the thirty stand facing the + thirty, each with his gun in his hand. Straightway, the word 'Fire' is + given, and they blow the souls out of one another; and in the place of + the sixty brisk, useful craftsmen, the world has sixty dead carcasses, + which it must bury and anew shed tears for. + + Had these men any quarrel? Busy as the devil is, not the smallest! + They lived far enough apart; were the entirest strangers; nay, in so + wide a universe, there was even, unconsciously, by commerce, some + mutual helpfulness between them. + + How then? + + Simpleton! Their governors had fallen out; and instead of shooting one + another, had these poor blockheads shoot.--_Carlyle_. + + + + + SPELLING + + LESSON 11 + + +There are but few rules which can be learned to aid in the spelling of +English words. The spelling of words must be largely mastered by +concentration and effort of the memory. It will help you to memorize the +correct spelling if you will write each word a number of times. This +gives you a visual image of the word. Then spell it aloud a number of +times. This will give you an auditory image. + +Words which you find difficult to master, write in a list by themselves +and review frequently. There are a few rules, however, which are helpful +to know. There is one rule of spelling we want to learn this week +concerning words formed by adding a suffix. + ++A word of one syllable which ends in a single consonant before which +stands a single vowel, doubles the final consonant when a suffix +beginning with a vowel is added.+ + +For example: _mat_, _matted_, _matting_; _sun_, _sunned_, _sunning_. + +_Mat_ ends in _t_, a single consonant which is preceded by the single +vowel _a_,--so you double the _t_ when you add the suffix _ed_ or _ing_, +which begin with a vowel. + +Notice these: _Blend_, _blended_, _blending_; _Help_, _helped_, +_helping_. + +These words do not end in a single consonant, so you do not double the +consonant. + +Notice also: _Lean_, _leaned_, _leaning_; _Rain_, _rained_, _raining_. + +These words end in a single consonant, but before the consonant is a +double vowel, _ea_ in _lean_ and _ai_ in _rain_. So we do not double the +final consonant. + +This same rule holds true of any suffix, beginning with a vowel, as _er_ +and _est_, for example: _sad_, _sadder_, _saddest_. _Slim_, _slimmer_, +_slimmest_. + +Learn to spell the following words. Add the suffixes _ed_ and _ing_ to +the words for Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday. Add _er_ and _est_ to the +words for Thursday, Friday and Saturday. + + +Monday+ + + Chat + Cheat + Grin + Groan + Suit + + +Tuesday+ + + Sap + Soap + Bet + Beat + Rot + + +Wednesday+ + + Talk + Teach + Gain + Stir + Plan + + +Thursday+ + + Thin + Dear + Flat + Cheap + Straight + + +Friday+ + + Clean + Brief + Fair + Shrill + Wet + + +Saturday+ + + Strong + Great + Mad + Fleet + Fat + + + + + PLAIN ENGLISH + + LESSON 12 + + +Dear Comrade: + +In this lesson we are beginning the study of still another part of +speech. You will notice that in words, at least, we give credit and +place in society only because of _work performed_. In the society of +men, people are given place and position too often because of outward +dress and form or because of some special privilege. They are not given +their place in society because of the work which they do or because they +perform any useful function. In fact, in our topsy-turvy world, those +who perform no work at all, but are simply parasites upon society, have +claimed for themselves the best of everything and the highest positions. + +Surely some time we shall see a society as successfully organized as our +society of words, when men will be received, not because of that which +they possess, but because of that which they do and are. Man has really +laid the foundation for an ideal commonwealth in his organization of +words into a spoken and written language. + +When we think back across the centuries and think of the primitive man +as he dwelt in trees to protect himself from the wild animals, we wonder +what sort of speech he used then. Possibly it was only a little more +articulate than the speech of some animals. + +But man had within him the instinct to question, and this has been the +root of all his progress. We can imagine these primitive men witnessing +the wonder of fire, as the terrible unknown god of the lightning set +fire to the forest in which they lived; but after the fear had subsided, +some adventurous, inquiring forefather of ours ventured near the ashes, +and began to investigate concerning this fearful and wonderful thing. + +So gradually they discovered the use of fire, and with it a wonderful +new future opened before the primitive man. With these great +discoveries, he needed a better form of communication with his comrades, +so articulate speech developed. But when we go back into the beginning +of written speech, it is difficult for us to trace it to its beginning. + +The first evidence we find was of man as a sign maker. On the walls of +caves in France and Belgium and here in America, we have found rude +sketches which the scientists tell us date back to the Ice Age and the +Old Stone Age. Here the primitive man has drawn for us crude pictures +describing different phases of his life, the animals about him, the hunt +and the chase, and in these pictures we find the very beginning of our +alphabet of to-day. + +How much more wonderful it makes our spoken and written language to know +that man has developed it himself. It has not been handed down by some +god or powers above; but the spirit of rebellion against the things that +be; the great desire to know more and to find out the reason _why_ of +all the things around us,--these have been the forces that have led the +race from the animal-like beings that lived in trees to the race of +today that understands in a large measure the laws that govern life. + +It is only as we, through this spirit of rebellion, this same divine +discontent with the things that are, seek to do our own thinking that we +can add our share to the heritage of the race. Let us have the same +courage that must have inspired the heart of that primitive man who +dared to venture and inquire concerning the fearful things of nature +round about him. Let us think for ourselves. Ask always the question +"why" and demand the reason for all things. Thus we shall free ourselves +and help to free the race. + + Yours for Education, + + THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. + + + IN PLACE OF A NOUN + ++202.+ You remember in our study of the parts of speech we found that we +have one part of speech that can be used in place of a noun. This is a +very helpful part of speech for it saves us a great deal of tiresome +repetition. Notice the following sentences: + + John Smith is a machinist. + John Smith works at the machine. + The machine is John Smith's master. + +This is awkward and the repetition is tiresome. So we say instead: + + John Smith is a machinist. + He works at the machine. + It is his master. + +You readily understand who and what we mean by _he_ and _it_ and _his_, +and we will all agree that the latter is a much better way of making the +statements. These words like _he_ and _his_ and _it_, which we use in +place of the noun, we call _pronouns_. _Pro_ means literally in the +Latin, _for_ or _in place of_; so when we say pronoun we are practically +saying, in place of a noun. + ++A pronoun is a word that is used in place of a noun.+ + ++203.+ The word for which a pronoun stands or the noun in whose place it +is used is called its antecedent. _Ante_ means _before_ and _cedent_ +comes from the Latin word meaning _go_, hence antecedent means +literally, _going before_. + +Notice this sentence: _The manager spoke to the men before he left and +told them to stop at the office_. _Manager_ is the antecedent of the +pronoun _he_, and _men_ is the antecedent of the pronoun _them_. + ++The word for which a pronoun stands is called its antecedent.+ + + + KINDS OF PRONOUNS + ++204.+ The Latin language has had a great deal of influence upon +English. Many of our words are taken from the Latin. You remember that +all of the names of our parts of speech are derived from Latin words. We +also feel the influence of the Latin language in the way in which we +number our personal pronouns. The Romans naturally thought that one +would think of one's self first, and so the pronouns referring to one's +self, or the person speaking, are called the _first_ person pronouns. +They are, _I_, _my_, _mine_, _me_ and _we_, _our_, _ours_, and _us_. + +Then they naturally thought that one would think second of the person +spoken to, so the pronouns referring to the person spoken to are called +the _second_ person pronouns. Formerly _thou_ was used in speaking to +one person. In German and many other languages this form is still used, +but in English we do not today use the singular form _thou_ with its +variations, _thy_, _thine_, and _thee_, except in poetry or poetic +prose. In every-day speech we use _you_ and its forms, _your_ and +_yours_, for both the singular and the plural. + +Then the Romans considered last the person or thing of whom they were +speaking; so pronouns referring to the person or thing spoken of are +called the _third_ person pronouns. These are _he_, _she_, and _it_, +with their other forms, _his_, _him_, _her_, _hers_, _its_, in the +singular, and _they_, _their_, _theirs_ and _them_ in the plural. + ++A personal pronoun is one that denotes the speaker, the person spoken +to, or the person or thing spoken of.+ + + + COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS + ++205.+ All of these forms of pronouns which we have named are simple +forms; but we have several personal pronouns which have a compound form; +that is, a form made by the addition of _self_ or _selves_ to the simple +forms. + +These are called compound personal pronouns. They are, in the singular, +_myself_, _thyself_, _yourself_, _himself_, _herself_, _itself_, and in +the plural, _ourselves_, _yourselves_ and _themselves_. + +The compound personal pronouns have two uses, reflexive and emphatic. + + + Reflexive + ++206.+ A compound personal pronoun has a reflexive use when the actor +becomes the object of its own action or in other words when the subject +and the object refer to the same thing; as in this sentence, _He has +hurt himself_, _himself_ is the object of the incomplete verb _has +hurt_, but it refers to the subject _he_. Reflexive is from the Latin +_re_ meaning _back_ and from the Latin verb meaning _throw_, so +reflexive means literally _thrown_ back. These pronouns throw their +meaning back to the subject. + + + Emphatic + ++207.+ A compound personal pronoun has also an emphatic use when it +directs especial attention to the noun or pronoun to which it refers. +For example in the sentence, _He did the work himself_, or, _He, +himself, did the work_, _himself_ gives emphasis or intensifies the +meaning of the pronoun _he_. + +Remember a compound personal pronoun is correctly used only in these two +ways, reflexive and emphatic. For example, the following sentences are +incorrect: + + This is for yourself and your comrade. + Ourselves will find out the reason. + +The correct form would be: + + This is for you and your comrade. + We, ourselves, will find out the reason. + ++208.+ You can readily distinguish between the reflexive and the +emphatic use. In the reflexive, the compound personal pronoun is always +the _object_ of a verb or preposition, and the subject of the sentence +is its antecedent. The subject and the object always refer to the same +thing. + +In the emphatic use, the compound personal pronoun is neither the +subject nor the object, but is thrown into the sentence simply to render +it emphatic, and to call special attention to its antecedent. + + + Exercise 1 + +Supply the compound personal pronoun in the following blanks and tell +whether the use is reflexive or emphatic. + + 1. He discovered the truth....... + 2. The workers have robbed......by their ignorance. + 3. You must educate....... + 4. You must do the work....... + 5. He must defend....... + 6. Capitalism overreaches....... + 7. The people will rule....... + 8. We will settle the question....... + + +Write six sentences in which the compound personal pronouns are +correctly used. + + + SINGULAR AND PLURAL + ++209.+ Personal pronouns, like nouns, have number form. Nouns simply add +_s_ to the singular form to denote the plural, but in personal pronouns +we have different words which we use to express one or more than one +person or thing. In the first, second, and third person forms, personal +pronouns also have different forms for the object form, the possessive +and the subject form. The following table gives the singular and plural +of the subject form,--that is the form which is used as the subject of +the sentence. + + +Subject Form+ + + _Singular_ _Plural_ + + _First person._ I We + _Second person._ You You + _Third person._ He, she, it. They + + +Compound Personal Pronouns+ + + _Singular_ _Plural_ + + _First._ Myself Ourselves + _Second._ Yourself Yourselves + _Third._ Himself, herself, itself. Themselves + ++210.+ Remember that the first person refers to the person speaking, the +second to the person spoken to, and the third person to the person or +things spoken of. When we speak of things, we never use the first or +second person, unless we are speaking of them in a personified form. So +in the third person singular, we have the pronoun _it_ which refers to +one thing. In the plural, we have no special pronoun referring to +things, but the pronoun _they_ is used to refer both to persons and +things. + + + Exercise 2 + +Which of the following pronouns refer to the person speaking, which to +the person spoken to, and which to the person or thing spoken of? Which +are singular, which plural? + + I will defend my principles. + Give them to me for they are mine. + Do you believe him to be your friend? + We saw their mistake at once. + They acknowledged it was their fault. + Success will be your portion if you persevere. + He struggles for his rights; she does not understand her rights. + It forces us to struggle for our education. + Woman craves her freedom. + Workers of the world, unite; you have a world to gain and nothing to + lose but your chains. + +Form sentences of your own containing all these pronouns. + + + POSSESSIVE FORM + ++211.+ You will note in these sentences above that we have used the +pronoun _my_ and _your_ and _his_ and _her_ as _my principles_, _your +friend_, _his rights_, _her freedom_. This is the possessive form of +these personal pronouns, the form that denotes ownership or possession. +You remember that nouns had a possessive form, a form to denote +possession or ownership, as, _The man's book._ _The boy's school._ _The +worker's college._ So pronouns also have a possessive form which we use +to show that an object belongs to such and such a person or thing. If I +want to tell you that I own or possess a home, I say, _I own my home_. +Each personal pronoun has its possessive form, thus: + + +Singular+ + + _Subject Form_ _Possessive_ + + _First person._ I My, mine + _Second person._ You Your, yours + _Third person._ He, she, it His, her, hers, its + + +Plural+ + + _Subject Form_ _Possessive_ + + _First person._ We Our, ours + _Second person._ You Your, yours + _Third person._ They Their, theirs + + + POSSESSIVE FORM + ++212.+ You will notice that the possessive forms, _my_, _our_, _her_, +_your_, _its_, _his_ and _their_, are always used with the name of the +object possessed. As for example; _my work_, _our library_, _her +delight_, _your task_, _its purpose_, _his home_, _their mistake_. + ++213.+ The possessive forms, _mine_, _thine_, _hers_, _ours_, _yours_ +and _theirs_, are always used by themselves and are used either as +subject, object or complement. As for example: + + That letter is mine. + The work is hers. + Thine is the glory. + Is that yours? + Theirs not to reason why; theirs but to do and die. + +The possessive form _his_ may be used either in connection with the name +of the object possessed or by itself. For example: + + This is _his_ home. + This home is _his_. + + + OBJECT FORM + ++214.+ Pronouns have one form which nouns do not have. We use the same +form for the noun no matter whether it is the subject or the object. For +example: + + The man saw me. + I saw the man. + +In the first sentence _man_ is the subject of the verb _saw_, and in the +second sentence _man_ is the object of the verb _saw_. The same word is +used; but you will notice that in the first sentence _me_ is the object +of the verb _saw_, and in the second _I_ is the subject; yet both refer +to the same person, the first person, the person speaking. + +So we have a different form of the pronoun for the object, for example: +_I saw him._ _He saw me._ _She watched us._ _We watched her._ _You found +them._ _Him_, _me_, _us_, _her_, and _them_ in these sentences are used +as the objects of the verbs, _see_, _watch_ and _found_, and are called +the object forms of the pronouns. _You_ and _it_ have the same form for +both the subject and object; as, _You did it._ _It frightens you._ _Her_ +is used as both the possessive form and the object form, as, _Her work +tires her._ + ++215.+ The following table gives the subject and the object forms of the +personal pronouns, and these should never be confused in their usage. We +must not use the object form as the subject of the verb, nor the subject +form as the object of the verb. + + +Singular+ + + _Subject_ _Object_ + + _First._ I Me + _Second._ You You + _Third._ He, she, it Him, her, it + + + +Plural+ + + _Subject_ _Object_ + + _First._ We Us + _Second._ You You + _Third._ They Them + + + GENDER + ++216.+ You notice in all of these tables that there are three forms +given for the third person singular, _he_, _she_, and _it_. These are +the only forms in which pronouns express gender. In all other forms the +gender can be determined only by the gender of the antecedent. + ++He, representing a male, is masculine.+ + ++She, representing a female, is the feminine.+ + ++It represents a sexless thing, and hence is said to be of the neuter +gender.+ + + + THE LITTLE VERB _BE_ + ++217.+ You remember when we studied verbs, we had the incomplete verb +that took an object; the complete verb that needed no object, since it +was complete in itself; and one other kind of a verb. Do you remember +this third kind of verb? This third kind is the copulative verb, and the +copulative verb which we use most frequently is the one in the use of +which we make the most mistakes. + +It is that troublesome, bothersome, little verb _be_, which is so +difficult to master. You remember it is an incomplete verb, but instead +of taking an object, it takes a complement or completing word. So when +you see a pronoun with any form of this verb _be_, you must use the +_subject_ form and not the _object_ form. This copulative verb _be_ is +simply a connecting word, not a verb that asserts action or takes an +object. + ++218.+ Here is where we make so many mistakes. We say, _It was me_, _It +was them_, _It was him_, _It wasn't her_; instead of, _It was I_, _It +was they_, _It was he_, _It wasn't she_. We have used the incorrect form +in this particular so often that the correct form has a strange sound to +our ears. + +The only way to remedy this is to repeat over and over aloud the correct +form until it has a familiar sound. Don't think this is putting words, +as you should do in everything. We of the working class have built the +world in its beauty. Why should we live in shacks, dress in shoddy, talk +in slang? There is no reason except that we endure it. When the united +working class demands its own, it will receive it. Demand yours and +arouse the stupid from their sleep as rapidly as you can. + +Repeat the following sentences aloud ten times every day this week and +see if the correct form does not come to your lips more readily. We can +learn the rule, but only continued practice and watchfulness can break +us of our old habits. + + It is I who seek my own. + It shall be they who are defeated. + It was I who was ignorant. + It is they who cause all wars. + It is he who must be aroused. + It is we who strive for freedom. + It shall be I who shall win. + It was she who was enslaved. + It shall be we who shall demand equality. + It shall be they who shall conquer. + + + Agreement + ++219.+ Pronouns are very agreeable members of the co-operative +commonwealth of words. They strive to agree with their antecedents. +Sometimes we do not allow the pronoun to agree, and then our sentence is +incorrect. + ++A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number, gender and person.+ + +For example, if you are referring to one man, you must use a masculine +pronoun, singular, third person form, as _I saw the man but he did not +see me_. _Man_ is the antecedent. It is singular, masculine, third +person and so we use the pronoun _he_. + +_The girl came, but she could not stay._ In this sentence _girl_ is the +antecedent; it is singular, feminine, third person, and so we use the +pronoun _she_. + +_The boys did not come when the teacher called them._ In this sentence +_boys_ is the antecedent; it is plural, masculine, third person, and so +we use the pronoun _them_. + ++220.+ +Sometimes there are two words used as the antecedent, joined by +_and_.+ We use a singular pronoun in referring to them if they denote the +same person or thing; as: + + The secretary and treasurer (one person) resigned _his_ position. + My comrade and friend (one person) gave me _his_ help. + ++221.+ +But two nouns joined by _and_, that mean different persons or +things, must be represented by a plural pronoun, thus+: + + Marx and Engels (two persons) wrote _their_ call to liberty, the + Communist-Manifesto. + Men and women will struggle for _their_ freedom. + Childhood and youth should have _their_ rightful joys. + ++222.+ +Use the singular pronoun when the nouns are kept separate by the +use of _each_, _every_, _many a_, or _no_.+ + + Each man and boy must do _his_ part. (Not _their_ part.) + Every soldier and every officer must do _his_ duty. + Many a city and many a village gave _its_ best to the army. + No comrade and no Socialist will give _his_ consent to war. + ++223.+ +If you have two singular nouns as antecedents, joined by _or_, +or _nor_, use the singular pronoun+, thus: + + Either Germany or France must abandon _its_ position. + Neither Wilson nor Bryan kept _his_ promise to the people. + ++224.+ +When you use a collective noun and are speaking of the +collection as a whole, use a singular pronoun+, as: + + The committee will make _its_ report. + The audience was hearty in _its_ appreciation. + The jury has returned _its_ verdict. + ++225.+ +But if you are referring to the individuals of the collection +separately, use a plural pronoun+; as: + + The committee adjourned for _their_ dinner. + The audience kept _their_ seats until the close. + The jury argued until _their_ nerves were on edge. + + + PERSONIFICATION + ++226.+ We sometimes speak of things as if they were persons, and so use +either masculine or feminine pronouns in referring to them. Such objects +are said to be personified. Thus, we say: + + The sun his ceaseless course doth run. + The moon sheds her silvery ray. + Nature dons her robes of green. + +Here we speak of the sun as though it were a man or possessing the +qualities of a man and use the pronoun _his_. Then we speak of the moon +and nature as though they were women and use the pronoun in the feminine +form. + + + REMEMBER + ++227.+ +A pronoun must agree with its antecedent.+ + ++Use the subject form of the pronoun if the pronoun is the subject of +the sentence.+ + ++Use the object form when the pronoun is the object of a verb or a +preposition.+ + ++Use the compound personal pronouns only in their reflexive or emphatic +use.+ + ++With all forms of the verb _be_, use the subject form of the +pronouns.+ + + + SUMMARY + + SUBJECT POSSESSIVE OBJECT + First person (_Singular_ I my (mine) me + (_Plural_ we our (ours) us + + Second person (_Singular_ + (_Plural_ you your (yours) you + + Third person (_Sing. Masc._ he his him + (_Sing. Fem._ she her (hers) her + (_Sing. Neut._ it its it + (_Plural_ they their (theirs) them + + + Exercise 3 + +Read carefully the following beautiful dream of Olive Schreiner's. Mark +all of the personal pronouns and note carefully their use and by +referring to the table above decide just what form each pronoun is. +Watch carefully too for the antecedents of the pronouns and note the +agreement of the pronoun with its antecedent. + + + "I THOUGHT I STOOD" + + I. + + I thought I stood in Heaven before God's throne, and God asked me what + I had come for. I said I had come to arraign my brother, Man. + + God said, "What has he done?" + + I said, "He has taken my sister, Woman, and has stricken her and + wounded her and thrust her out into the streets; she lies there + prostrate. His hands are red with blood. I am here to arraign him; + that the kingdom be taken from him, because he is not worthy, and + given unto me. My hands are pure." + + I showed them. + + God said, "Thy hands are pure. Lift up thy robe." + + I raised it; my feet were red, blood-red, as if I had trodden in wine. + + God said, "How is this?" + + I said, "Dear Lord, the streets on earth are full of mire. If I should + walk straight on in them my outer robe might be bespotted, you see how + white it is! Therefore I pick my way." + + God said, "_On what?_" + + I was silent, and let my robe fall. I wrapped my mantle about my + head. I went out softly. I was afraid that the angels would see me. + + + II. + + Once more I stood at the gate of Heaven, I and another. We held fast + by one another; We were very tired. We looked up at the great gates; + angels opened them, and we went in. The mud was on our garments. We + walked across the marble floor, and up to the great throne. Then the + angels divided us. Her, they set upon the top step, but me, upon the + bottom; for, they said, "Last time this woman came here she left red + foot-marks on the floor; we had to wash them out with our tears. Let + her not go up." + + Then she with whom I came, looked back and stretched out her hands to + me; and I went and stood beside her. And the angels, they, the shining + ones who never sinned and never suffered, walked by us, to and fro, up + and down; I think we should have felt a little lonely there if it had + not been for one another, the angels were so bright. + + God asked me what I had come for; and I drew my sister forward a + little that He might see her. + + God said, "How is it you are here together today?" + + I said, "She was upon the ground in the street, and they passed over + her; I lay down by her, and she put her arms around my neck, and so I + lifted her, and we two rose together." + + God said, "Whom are you now come to accuse before Me?" + + I said, "We are come to accuse no man." + + And God bent and said, "My children--what is it that you seek?" + + And she beside me drew my hand that I should speak for both. + + I said, "We have come to ask that Thou shouldst speak to Man, our + brother, and give us a message for him that he might understand, and + that he might----" + + God said, "Go, take the message down to him!" + + I said, "But what _is_ the message?" + + God said, "Upon your hearts it is written; take it down to him." + + And we turned to go; the angels went with us to the door. They looked + at us. + + And one said, "Ah! but their dresses are beautiful!" + + And the other said, "I thought it was mire when they came in, but see, + it is all golden!" + + But another said, "Hush, it is the light from their faces!" + + And we went down to him. + + --_Olive Schreiner_. + + + The Cry of the People + + Tremble before your chattels, + Lords of the scheme of things! + Fighters of all earth's battles, + Ours is the might of kings! + Guided by seers and sages, + The world's heart-beat for a drum, + Snapping the chains of ages, + Out of the night we come! + + Lend us no ear that pities! + Offer no almoner's hand! + Alms for the builders of cities! + When will you understand? + Down with your pride of birth + And your golden gods of trade! + A man is worth to his mother, Earth, + All that a man has made! + + We are the workers and makers! + We are no longer dumb! + Tremble, O Shirkers and Takers! + Sweeping the earth--we come! + Ranked in the world-wide dawn, + Marching into the day! + The night is gone and the sword is drawn + And the scabbard is thrown away! + + --_Neihardt_. + + + SPELLING + + LESSON 12 + + +Last week we learned the rule governing the spelling of derivatives of +_one_ syllable ending in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel +when we add a suffix beginning with a vowel. + +The same rule applies to words of two or more syllables, accented on the +last syllable. + +For example: + + _Compel_, compelled, compelling. + _Prefer_, preferred, preferring. + ++Words accented on the last syllable, when they end in a single +consonant preceded by a single vowel, double the final consonant when +you add a suffix beginning with a vowel.+ + +When these words take a suffix that begins with a _consonant_, they do +_not_ double the final consonant; as, _preferment_. + +Words accented on any syllable but the last, do _not_ double the final +consonant; as, _offer_, _offered_, _offering_. + +Words that have two vowels before a single final consonant do not double +the final consonant; as, _reveal_, _revealed_, _revealing_. + +Words that end in a double consonant or any two consonants, keep the two +consonants, no matter what suffix they take; as, _indent_, _indented_; +_skill_, _skilled_, _skillful_. + +The only exception to this rule is when the addition of the suffix +throws the accent back to a preceding syllable. When this is the case, +the final consonant is not doubled. For example: _refer_, _referred_, +_ref'erence_; _confer_, _conferring_, _con'ference_. + +Look up the following words in the dictionary, watch for the accent, +mark and add the suffixes, _ed_, _ing_, _ence_ or _ance_, if possible. + + +Monday+ + + Repel + Alter + Prefer + Debar + Answer + + +Tuesday+ + + Inter + Offer + Demur + Wonder + Succeed + + +Wednesday+ + + Detain + Combat + Compel + Occur + Cancel + + +Thursday+ + + Permit + Travel + Repeal + Control + Profit + + +Friday+ + + Forbid + Neglect + Expel + Render + Infer + + +Saturday+ + + Benefit + Retain + Submit + Reveal + Limit + + + + + PLAIN ENGLISH + + LESSON 13 + + +Dear Comrade: + +Did you ever tie a knot in your handkerchief to help you remember to get +something you felt almost sure you would forget? Well, tying a knot in a +cord was one of the first ways devised by our ancestors of long ago to +aid them to remember. They also used this plan to send word to those at +a distance or to keep track of things for succeeding generations. A +relic of this old device of our forefathers is also found in the rosary +on which the Roman Catholic counts his beads as an aid to memory. + +There are some primitive tribes to-day who still use knotted strings as +an aid to memory. These consist of a main cord, and fastened at given +distances are finer cords of different colors. Each cord is knotted in +different ways to mean different things and each color, too, has its own +meaning. A red string stands for soldiers, a yellow for gold, and a +green for corn, and so on, while a single knot may mean ten, two single +knots twenty, a double knot 100, two double knots 200. In this way, they +keep a record of things, transmit orders and use them for various +purposes. + +Only a generation ago the tax gatherers in the Island of Hawaii kept +account of the assessable property on lines of cordage knotted in this +manner, and these cords in some cases were three thousand feet long. The +method of keeping track of things by means of a notched stick is easily +within the memory of many people living today. For in England in the +early part of the last century, accounts of debts to the government were +kept by means of tally sticks, which were merely notched sticks. + +Such methods as these were the only ways primitive man had of keeping +track of things before he had discovered the art of written speech. And +even after written speech was known and used, these old methods +persisted. + +Gradually, step by step, man has come along the path of progress. +Adventurous spirits, not satisfied with the old way of doing things, +sought new ways. The conservatives of their day thought them dangerous +people, no doubt, and feared that they would destroy the very +foundations of society. And this they oft-times did, but only that there +might rise a more perfect form of society. It is the seeking, +questioning mind that demands the reason for all things, that seeks ever +better ways of doing things. They have always throughout the ages +refused to bow to the authority of the past but have dared to live their +own lives. To them we owe the progress of the world and we are the +inheritors of their spirit. + +Let us prove our kinship by daring to live our own lives and think our +own thoughts. + + Yours for Freedom, + + THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. + + + INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS + ++228+. You recall that in our first lesson we studied concerning the +four different kinds of sentences which we use in expressing our +thoughts, the _assertive_, the _interrogative_, the _imperative_ and the +_exclamatory_. The interrogative sentence is the form which we use in +asking a question, _interrogative_ being derived from the Latin _inter_, +meaning _between_, and _rogare_, _to ask_, meaning literally _to ask +between_. The interrogative sentence differs from the assertive sentence +in the arrangement of the words; for in order to ask questions, we +usually place the predicate, or part of it at least, before the subject, +thus: + + _Can_ you _use_ good English? + _Did_ you _spell_ the word correctly? + _Has_ he _studied_ grammar? + +In these sentences, you note that the helping verbs, _can_, _did_ and +_has_, are placed first instead of the subject. It is by this +arrangement that we put the sentence in the interrogative form. + ++229.+ Frequently, however, in asking questions we wish to ask +concerning a person or thing whose name we do not know. So we need a +word to refer to the unknown object. See how these uses of words grow +out of our need! We have three interrogative pronouns, _who_ and _which_ +and _what_, that we use to meet this need. Notice the use of these three +pronouns in the following sentences: + + _Who_ wrote the Communist Manifesto? + _Which_ of the two men is the better known? + _What_ are the closing words of this famous document? + +In these sentences, _who_ and _which_ and _what_ are the interrogative +pronouns, used to ask questions concerning the unknown persons or +objects. + ++230.+ +Who refers only to human beings or to personified objects.+ + ++Which refers either to human beings, animals or things.+ + ++What refers only to things.+ + +_Which_ and _what_ have the same form for both the subject and the +object. _Who_ has a different form for all three forms, the subject +form, the possessive form, and the object form. It uses the same form, +however, both in singular and plural. + + _Subject form_ _Possessive form_ _Object form_ + + Who Whose Whom + ++231.+ We often make mistakes in the use of the different forms of the +pronoun _who_. We often use the subject form for the object form, using +_who_ where we should have used _whom_. For example: + + Who did you see? + +The correct form is: + + Whom did you see? + +The pronoun _whom_ is the object of the verb _see_, hence the object +form should be used. However, the use of the subject form _who_ instead +of _whom_ is coming into such general use today that some grammarians +accept it as a permissible usage. The will of the people influences +language, as it does all other human institutions, and gradually creates +new rules. + +Write three sentences, using _who_, _which_ and _what_ as interrogative +pronouns. + ++An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun used to ask a question.+ + + + RELATIVE PRONOUNS + ++232.+ There is one other class of pronouns which plays a great part in +our speech and is a wonderful help to us. For example, suppose I want to +tell you several things about this book. I say: _I am reading this book. +It interests me greatly._ Now it would be a great advantage to me if I +could put these two sentences together, and we have for this use a +pronoun which makes it possible for us to combine these sentences, and +so I say: + + The book which I am reading interests me greatly. + +Thus I am able to unite two short sentences into a long sentence, which +conveys my meaning better than the two short sentences and gives a +smoother bit of reading. We have four pronouns which we use in this way, +_who_, _which_, _that_ and _what_ and they are called relative pronouns +because they refer or relate to some noun in the sentence and they also +serve to connect two statements. + ++233.+ +A relative pronoun is a pronoun that relates to an antecedent +and at the same time connects two statements.+ + +A relative pronoun always relates to its antecedent and at the same time +connects the statement that it introduces with the one that contains the +antecedent to which it relates, as in the sentence above, _The book +which I am reading, interests me greatly._ _Which_ is the relative +pronoun; first, because it relates to the antecedent, _book_; and +second, because it connects the statement, _I am reading_, with the rest +of the sentence. Notice these sentences also: + + The man who thinks will not enlist in the army. + We will destroy the system that enslaves us. + +_Who_ and _that_ are the relative pronouns in these two sentences and +their antecedents are _man_ and _system_, and they connect the +statements, _who thinks_ and _that enslaves us_, with the rest of the +sentence. + ++234.+ +Who is used to relate to persons.+ + ++Which is used to relate only to animals and things.+ + ++That may relate to either persons, animals or things.+ + ++What relates to things.+ + +Note that _which_, as an interrogative, may refer to persons as well as +to animals and things; but as a relative, _which_ never refers to +persons. + ++235+. Note that we use the same pronouns _who_, _which_ and _what_ as +both relative and interrogative pronouns. You will not be confused in +this matter if you will remember that they are called interrogative +pronouns only when they are used to ask questions. When they are used as +interrogative pronouns they never have an antecedent. _Who_ and _which_ +and _what_ are always relative pronouns when used in an assertive +sentence and referring to an antecedent. + +_That_ and _what_ have the same form for both the subject and object +forms. They have no possessive form. _Who_ has a different form for the +subject form and the possessive form and the object form. _Which_ has +the same form for subject and object forms, and a different form for the +possessive form. Note the following: + + _Subject form_ _Possessive form_ _Object form_ + + who whose whom + which whose which + + I know the man _who_ called him. + I know the man _whose_ voice I hear. + I know the man _whom_ they called. + +In these three sentences we have the pronoun _who_ used in its three +forms, subject, possessive and object form. We should be very careful +not to confuse the subject and the object forms of the pronoun _who_. + + This is the book _which_ tells the truth. + This is the book _whose_ author is in prison. + This is the book _which_ I wanted. + +In these three sentences we have the pronoun _which_ used in its three +forms, _subject_ form, _possessive_ form and _object_ form. In the first +sentence the pronoun is the subject of the verb _tells_; in the second +sentence, it is used in the possessive form with the noun _author_; in +the third sentence, it is used as the object of the verb _wanted_. + ++236.+ _What_ differs from the other relative pronouns in that its +antecedent is never expressed, for it is implied in the word itself. +_What_ is always equivalent to _that which_, or _the thing which_. For +example, the sentence, _Do not tell what I have told you_, is equivalent +to saying, _Do not tell that which I have told you_, or _the thing which +I have told you_. + ++237+. Never use _what_ in a sentence as a _relative_ pronoun unless you +can replace it and make good sense by using _that which_, or _the thing +which_ in place of _what_. + +For example, do not say, _I know that what he would say_. This is +incorrect. You should say, _I know that which he would say_, or _I know +what he would say_, using _what_ in place of _that which_. Here is a +sentence that occurred in an English examination recently, which +illustrates most aptly this point. _A subject is that what something is +said about._ Here _what_ is used incorrectly. _A subject is that about +which something is said_, would have been the correct form. + +Watch for this in your speech for it is a most common error and to the +educated ear is harsh and marks the speaker as uneducated. All of these +mistakes which we make so commonly will require a considerable amount of +effort to overcome, but the result is worth the effort, for even those +about us who will not take the pains or give the required time and +effort to acquiring an education for themselves, will give greater heed +to the speech of those who do speak correctly, and will readily +acknowledge the leadership of those who have given the time and effort +to self-development. + ++238.+ The antecedent of _who_ is sometimes omitted and understood; for +example, _Who follows the cause must endure hardship_, _He_, is +understood and omitted. _He who follows the cause must endure hardship._ + ++239.+ The relative pronoun itself is often omitted. For example: + + These are the men (whom) you must help. + The words (that) you use and the deeds (that) you do, are your judges. + ++240.+ The relative pronouns have compound forms also, such as +_whoever_, _whosoever_, _whichever_, _whichsoever_, _whatever_ and +_whatsoever_, which are used in the same manner as the simple forms. + + + COMMON ERRORS + ++241.+ Here are a number of common errors which only constant practice +and watchfulness can overcome. Study these over and watch your +conversation closely. Force yourself to speak correctly for a time, and +soon correct speech will become a habit. + ++1.+ +Do not use both a noun and a pronoun as the subject of a +sentence+; as, _John, he waited for me._ _Mary, she refused to go._ +Leave out the pronouns _he_ and _she_ in these sentences. They are +unnecessary and incorrect. + ++2.+ +Never use+ _hern_, _ourn_, _hisn_ or _yourn_ for _hers_, _ours_, +_his_ and _yours_; as, _The book is hisn._ _Ourn stopped on the first._ +_Did you get yourn?_ Say: _This book is his._ _Ours stopped on the +first._ _Did you get yours?_ + ++3.+ +Never say+ _hisself_ for _himself_. There is no such word as +_hisself_. Do not say, _He hurt hisself_. Say, _He hurt himself_. + ++4.+ +Do not say+ _them_ for _those_; as, _Did you bring them songs?_ +_Them things are not right._ Say, _Did you bring those songs?_ _Those +things are not right._ + ++5.+ +Do not use an apostrophe in writing the possessive forms of +pronouns+, as _her's_, _our's_, _it's_. Leave out the apostrophe and +write _hers_, _ours_, _its_. + ++6.+ +Do not use _who_ to relate to animals or things+; as, _The dog +who bit me was killed_. Say, _The dog that bit me was killed_. + ++7.+ +Do not use _myself_ as the subject+. It can be used only as an +emphatic or reflexive pronoun. It is correct to say, _I found the book +myself_, and _I hurt myself_. But do not say, _They asked my friend and +myself_, or _Myself and my wife will go_. Say, _They asked my friend and +me_. _My wife and I will go._ + ++8.+ +Avoid the use of pronouns when the reference to the antecedent is +not clear.+ Better repeat the nouns or re-write the sentence. For +example: + + He said to his friend that if he did not feel better soon he thought + he had better go home. + +Now you can interpret this in at least four different ways. No one but +the speaker can ever know to whom the pronouns _he_ refer, whether to +the speaker or to his friend. Or in the sentence, + + A tried to see B in the crowd, but could not because he was so short. + +Who was short, _A_ or _B_? _John's father died before he was born._ Did +John's father die before John was born or did John's father die before +John's father, himself, was born? Be careful in the use of pronouns in +this way. + ++9.+ +Remember that _I_, _we_, _he_, _she_, _they_ and _who_ are +always used as subject forms and also as the complement of all forms of +the verb _be_.+ + ++10.+ +Remember that _me_, _him_, _her_, _them_, _us_ and _whom_ are +always object forms+. Never say, _They charged he and I too much_. Say, +_They charged him and me too much_. In an attempt to speak correctly and +follow the niceties of English, this mistake is so often made. Always +use the object form as the object of a verb or preposition. + ++11.+ +When a participle is used as a _noun_, and a pronoun is used +with it, the pronoun should always be in the _possessive_ form+. We +make this mistake so frequently. For example, we say: _Us going there +was a mistake_. We should have used the possessive form, _Our going +there was a mistake_. _I have never known of him being absent from +work._ We should say: _I have never known of his being absent from +work_. _Did he tell you about me joining with them?_ This should be, +_Did he tell you about my joining with them?_ _You talking to him set +him to thinking._ This should be, _Your talking to him set him to +thinking_. Watch this and wherever you have used a participle as a +_noun_, use the pronoun in the _possessive_ form, as you would with any +other noun. + ++12.+ +Watch carefully that the number of the pronoun always agrees with +the number of its antecedent.+ If you are speaking of one person or +thing use a singular pronoun. If you are speaking of more than one +person or thing in your antecedent, use the plural pronoun. For example: +_Each man must do his own work._ _The soldiers fully understood their +danger._ + ++13.+ +When a singular noun, in the common gender (this means that it +may name either a male or female being), is the antecedent of the +pronoun, it is customary for us to use the masculine pronoun.+ For +example: + + Every student should send in _his_ examination paper promptly. + + Every member of the class may select _his_ own subject. + +Do not use the pronoun _their_ when the antecedent is a singular noun. + + + SUMMARY + + Pronoun--In Place of a Noun + + CLASSES + + _Personal_ {Simple-- {1st Person, _speaking_. + {Compound-- {2nd Person, _spoken to_. + {3rd Person, _spoken of_. + + _Interrogative_ {To ask questions. + {_Who_, _which_ and _what_. + + _Relative_ {To refer to another word and connect two statements. + {_Who_, _which_, _that_ and _what_. + + + Exercise 1 + +Complete the following sentences by using the correct form of _I_, _me_, +or _myself_, in the blank spaces: + + 1. My partner and......joined the union. + 2. They asked Henry and......to go. + 3. May my friend and......call? + 4. I will attend to that....... + 5. Let my comrade and......go with you. + 6. Are you sure it was......? + 7. I blame......for joining with them. + 8. They accused......of bothering them. + 9. I am nearly beside......with grief. + 10. The manager dismissed the men......among the rest. + + + Exercise 2 + +Complete the following sentences by using the correct form of _we_, _us_ +or _ourselves_ in the blank spaces: + + 1. They are better off than....... + 2. The French as well as......claim a war of defense. + 3. Can you blame......who have always stood by you? + 4. We will do that for....... + 5. Between......comrades there should be no differences. + 6. They gave......men work. + 7. Do not trouble;......will attend to this....... + 8. They sent a special notice to our friends and....... + + + Exercise 3 + +Complete the following sentences by using the correct form of _thou_, +_thee_, _thy_ or _thyself_ in the blank spaces: + + 1. To......be true, and it follows as the night the day...... + canst not then be false to any man. + 2. Paul,......art beside......; much learning hath made ......mad. + 3. ......shalt love......neighbor as....... + 4. Trust....... Every heart vibrates to that iron string. + + + Exercise 4 + +Complete the following sentences by using the correct form of _he_, +_him_, or _himself_ in the blank spaces: + + 1. ......and John are to blame. + 2. I think it was....... + 3. My friend and......called on you. + 4. He blamed......for the accident. + 5. You are no better than....... + 6. I shall call for you and....... + 7. You and......must come on time. + 8. He found the place....... + 9. There should be no quarrel between you and......who loves you. + 10. If you were......would you go? + + + Exercise 5 + +Complete the following sentences by using the correct form of _she_, +_her_, or _herself_ in the blank spaces: + + 1. They asked Mary and......to go. + 2. Mary and......went. + 3. May......and I go with you? + 4. Let......and Harry go. + 5. Is that Mary? Yes, it is....... + 6. There are many points of difference between......and me. + 7. You are more beautiful than....... + 8. She brought it to me....... + 9. If......and I join you, will you go? + 10. They must not quarrel over......and me. + + + Exercise 6 + +Complete the following sentences using the correct form of _they_, +_them_, or _themselves_ in the blank spaces: + + 1. They gave......up. + 2. ......and I will finish the work. + 3. I found......where......hath thrown......down to rest. + 4. I am sure it was......for I saw......plainly. + 5. The workers enslave......by their lack of solidarity. + 6. ......must learn the lesson....... + + + Exercise 7 + +Cross out the wrong word in the following sentences: + + 1. Everybody do--does as he pleases--they please. + 2. No one should waste his--their opportunities. + 3. The jury rendered its--their verdict. + 4. If anyone wishes war, let him--them do the fighting. + 5. The audience displayed its--their approval by its--their applause. + 6. The audience remained quietly in its--their seats. + 7. The jury adjourned for its--their dinner. + 8. Nobody willingly gives up his--their rights. + 9. Each one may express his--their opinion. + 10. Every man received his--their wages. + + + Exercise 8 + +Complete the following sentences by using the correct form of the +pronouns _who_, _whose_, or _whom_: + + 1. ......do you think I am? + 2. I am the man......you taught yesterday. + 3. With......are you going? + 4. The contract was let to a man......we are sure cannot fulfill it. + 5. The contractor......wishes to bid will come tomorrow. + 6. On......are you depending? + 7. The friends......counsel I took, stood by me. + 8. He is a man......I am sure will succeed. + 9. We tried to talk to those......we thought would understand us. + 10. For......did you work? + + + Exercise 9 + +Insert _who_, _whose_, _whom_, _which_, _that_ or _what_ in the blanks +in the following sentences: + + 1. Man is the only animal......uses a written speech. + 2. Can you save......you earn? + 3. Ricardo's law was that the workers always receive a + wage......permits them to produce and reproduce. + 4. Have you read the book "War, What For"......Kirkpatrick wrote. + 5. Newspapers......distort the news......they print to serve the + ruling class are dangerous foes to the workers. + 6. The massacre at Ludlow was an event......aroused the working + class. + 7. They......live by the labor of others are drones in society and + should be given the fate......they deserve. + 8. The big machine gun......will destroy slavery is the printing + press. + 9. The man......leadership we should follow is he......preaches + social equality. + 10. We know......we need and we will demand......is our right. + + + Exercise 10 + +In the following quotations note the use of the pronouns and mark +whether they are _personal_, _relative_ or _interrogative_, whether they +are used in the _subject_ form, _possessive_ form or _object_ form: + + 1. "Camerado, I give you my hand, + I give you my love more precious than money, + I give you myself before preaching or law; + Will you give me yourself, will you come travel with me, + Shall we stick by each other as long as we live?" + + 2. "I think I could turn and live with animals they are so placid and + self-contained, + I stand and look at them long and long, they do not sweat and whine + about their condition, + They do not lie awake in the dark and weep for their sins, + They do not make me sick discussing their duty to God; + Not one is dis-satisfied, not one is demented with the mania of + owning things. + Not one kneels to another nor to his kind, that lived thousands of + years ago, + Not one is respectable or unhappy over the whole earth." + --_Whitman_. + + + Exercise 11 + +Note the omission of the antecedent in the first sentence, also the use +of the relative _what_ in the last sentence of the first paragraph: + + "Whoso would be a man, must be nonconformist. He who would gather + immortal palms must not be hindered by the name of goodness, but must + explore if it be goodness. Nothing is at last sacred but the integrity + of our own mind. Absolve you to yourself, and you shall have the + suffrage of the world. I remember an answer which, when quite young, I + was prompted to make to a valued adviser who was wont to importune me + with the dear old doctrines of the church. On my saying, "What have I + to do with the sacredness of traditions, if I live wholly from + within?" my friend suggested--"But these impulses may be from below, + not from above." I replied, "They do not seem to me to be such; but if + I am the devil's child, I will live then from the devil." No law can + be sacred to me but that of my nature. Good and bad are but names very + readily transferable to that or this; the only right is what is after + my constitution; the only wrong what is against it. + + A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds, adored by + little statesmen and philosophers and divines. With consistency a + great soul has simply nothing to do. He may as well concern himself + with his shadow on the wall. Out upon your guarded lips! Sew them up + with pack threads, do. Else, if you would be a man, speak what you + think today in words as hard as cannon balls, and tomorrow speak what + tomorrow thinks in hard words again, though you contradict everything + you said today. Ah, then, exclaim the aged ladies, you shall be sure + to be misunderstood. Misunderstood! It is a right fool's word. Is it + so bad then to be misunderstood? Pythagoras was misunderstood, and + Socrates, and Jesus, and Luther, and Copernicus, and Galileo, and + Newton, and every pure and wise spirit that ever took flesh. To be + great is to be misunderstood."--_Emerson_. + + + + + SPELLING + + LESSON 13 + + +There are a few more rules governing the spelling of derivative words. +Words ending in silent _e_ keep the _e_ before the suffix beginning with +a consonant. Notice the following words: + + excite excitement + like likeness + force forceful + shame shameless + lone lonesome + live lively + +Words ending in silent _e_ drop the _e_ before the suffix beginning with +a vowel, as: + + excite excitable + live living + grieve grievous + force forcible + +Some words ending in silent _e_ retain the _e_ before the suffix +beginning with a vowel, to prevent a change in the pronunciation or to +preserve the identity of the word. Notice the following words: + + peace peaceable + courage courageous + singe singeing + change changeable + shoe shoeing + notice noticeable + +These are words ending in the soft sound of _c_ and _g_, where the _e_ +is retained to preserve the correct pronunciation of the _c_ and _g_, +and with some few words like _toe_, _dye_, etc., where the dropping of +the _e_ would lose the identity of the word. + +The _e_ is dropped in a few words before the suffix beginning with a +consonant, as in _wholly_, _nursling_, _judgment_, _wisdom_, _lodgment_. + +Add the suffixes _ment_ and _ing_ to the words in Monday's lesson; the +suffix _able_ to the words for Tuesday and Wednesday; the suffixes +_some_ and _ous_ to the words for Thursday; the suffixes _ly_ or _ness_ +to the words for Friday and Saturday. + + +Monday+ + + Excite + Advise + Chastise + Disfranchise + Enslave + + +Tuesday+ + + Manage + Receive + Blame + Exchange + Imagine + + +Wednesday+ + + Admire + Service + Desire + Peace + Pronounce + + +Thursday+ + + Whole + Meddle + Courage + Advantage + Outrage + + +Friday+ + + Accurate + Positive + False + Definite + Distinct + + +Saturday+ + + Agreeable + Careful + Awful + Sure + Secure + + + + + PLAIN ENGLISH + + LESSON 14 + + +Dear Comrade: + +You remember our definition of a word; a word is the sign of an idea. In +our lessons we have been studying the different kinds of words which we +use in the expression of our complete thoughts. Probably the first step +in the development of language was to name the objects about us. Then +the next logical step would be to invent words which would tell what +these objects did. So we have our nouns, which are the names of things; +our verbs, which tell what these things do; and in these we have the +foundation for spoken and written speech. We soon found, however, that +the constant repetition of a name was tiresome and annoying, so we +invented words which we could use in place of these nouns; and we have +pronouns. + +All of the things about us possess certain qualities and our next great +need was for words to describe these qualities; so we have adjectives. +Each adjective is a sign of an idea. It adds its part to the expression +of our complete thought. So we find that each part of speech comes +logically in its place to fill a certain need. Without any one of them, +we would be crippled in our power of expression. Each different word is +the sign of an idea and the combination of these ideas as represented by +the various signs gives us the complete expression of our thought. + +So primitive man in the development of written speech had signs to +express the various things about him. Naturally his first sign was a +picture, as nearly as he could draw it, of the object itself. If he +wanted to tell you about a tree he drew a picture of the tree; the +picture of a man represented a man, and so on. You will notice among +children that this is the first development in their endeavor to express +their thoughts in writing. They draw pictures. The average small child +cannot understand why you read those strange marks on the page. They +want you to read the pictures. To their mind that is the only way to +communicate ideas. + +These early forefathers of ours grew to be very adept at this picture +writing. We have examples of this among the Indians of our own country. +There is a picture on the face of a big rock on the shores of Lake +Superior which records an expedition across the lake led by a noted +Indian chief. Canoes are shown in the picture with the crew denoted by a +series of upright strokes and there is a picture of the chief on +horseback. You or I would have great difficulty in reading this picture +writing, but an Indian could read it right off just as we would read a +written page. Aids to memory such as knotted strings and tally sticks +were the first step toward written speech. This picture writing was the +second step toward the development of written speech. + +We owe a great deal to the work which these primitive ancestors of ours +accomplished. It took them years and years to develop through these +different stages and our rapid development of the last few centuries has +only been made possible because of this slow and patient building of the +foundation. An understanding of this helps us to appreciate the place we +occupy in this great struggle of the ages. The power of written speech +opens up to us such tremendous possibilities. Let us make the most of +them, that we too may hand on worth while things to those who follow us. + + Yours for Education, + + THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. + + + CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES + ++242.+ Adjectives, like nouns and pronouns, are divided into classes. +Adjectives are divided into two main classes, _qualifying_ and +_limiting_. + ++243.+ An adjective which qualifies a noun is one which names some +quality which is possessed by the word which it modifies. When we say, +_Trees grow_, we are making a general statement; that is, we are saying +something that is true of any kind of trees. We have not described any +particular tree. But when we say, _The tall trees grow_, _The old trees +grow_, _The young trees grow_, the words _tall_, _old_ and _young_ +describe certain qualities of the trees, which separate them into +classes. So these adjectives are _qualifying adjectives_. + +An adjective qualifies a noun when it attributes some quality to the +noun, as, _The brave man_, _The sweet apple_, _The pretty girl_, _The +large house_, etc. + ++244.+ But if we say, _this tree_, _that tree_, _some trees_, _many +trees_, _three trees_, or _four trees_, we are not giving any quality of +the tree, but are pointing out a particular tree or trees and limiting +the word to the ones pointed out. So such adjectives as _the_, _this_, +_that_, _some_, _many_, _three_ and _four_ are limiting adjectives. An +adjective limits a noun when it restricts or limits its meaning as to +quantity or number. + ++245.+ So adjectives are divided into two classes, _qualifying_ +adjectives and _limiting_ adjectives. + ++Words that limit or qualify other words are called _modifiers_ +because they modify or affect the meaning of the words to which they +are added.+ So adjectives are modifiers of the nouns and pronouns to +which they are added because they modify or qualify or limit the meaning +of the noun or pronoun. + +The limiting adjectives answer the questions _which_ and _how many_. The +qualifying adjectives answer the questions _which_ and _what kind_. + ++246.+ +A qualifying adjective is an adjective which describes the noun +it modifies by attributing to it some quality.+ + ++A limiting adjective is an adjective which merely shows which one or +how many, without describing the noun it modifies.+ + + + HOW TO DISCOVER AN ADJECTIVE + ++247.+ Sometimes the noun may have several adjectives qualifying or +modifying it; as, + + The beautiful, old elm tree shades the lawn. + +_The_, _beautiful_, _old_ and _elm_, all modify _tree_, telling +something of the qualities or pointing out which tree we are speaking +of. You can discover an adjective in a sentence by asking the questions, +_which_, _what kind_, or _how many_; and the words that answer these +questions will be the adjectives in the sentence. For example in this +sentence: + + Those three immense factories employ thousands of men. + +_Factories_ is the noun, subject of the sentence. _Which_ factory is +indicated by the adjective _those_. _How many_ factories is indicated by +the adjective _three_. _What kind_ of factories is indicated by the +adjective _immense_. So we have three adjectives answering the three +questions, _which_, _what kind_ and _how many_. + + + Exercise 1 + +In the following sentences the adjectives are printed in _italics_. +Study them carefully and determine which are qualifying and which are +limiting adjectives. Note that the possessive nouns and possessive +pronouns are _not_ adjectives. _Its_ in the phrases _its cruel fangs_ +and _its savage claws_, is a possessive pronoun, third person singular. +In the last sentence _beggar's_, _miser's_, and _Ingersoll's_, are nouns +in the possessive form. + + _This terrible_ war in Europe is slaughtering _the_ working-class. + _Gaunt_ famine follows war. + A _docile_, _meek_, _humble_, working-class makes war _possible_. + _The shrieking_ shell snarls like a _living_ thing; like _some wild_ + beast in _ferocious_ glee it thrusts its _cruel_ fangs in earth and + rock and rends _living_ flesh with its _savage_ claws. + Its _fetid_ breath of _poison_ powder scorches in _the autumn_ winds. + _Shattered_ bones, _torn_ flesh and _flowing_ blood were mingled on + _the_ battlefield with _broken_ swords and _split_ rifles. + _The best modern_ rifles will force _a_ bullet through _five human_ + bodies at _a_ range of _twelve hundred_ feet. + _The pitiful_ dead, _slain_ in war, sleep under _the solemn_ pines, + _the sad_ hemlock, _the tearful_ willow and _the embracing_ vines. + A world without _the_ beggar's _outstretched_ palm, _the_ miser's + _heartless_ _stony_ stare, _the piteous_ wail of want, _the livid_ + lips of lies, _the cruel_ eyes of scorn, was Ingersoll's vision of + _the_ future. + + + QUALIFYING ADJECTIVES + ++248.+ Qualifying adjectives are also called _descriptive_ adjectives +because they describe the noun. They answer the questions _which_ and +_what kind_. + +You remember we found in the beginning of our study of English, that +words were grouped into classes according to the work which they do in +the sentence, not according to the form of the word itself. For +instance, we have already found that some words, without changing their +form, may be used either as a noun or as a verb. Take the word _oil_, +for instance. I may say, _I oil the engine_. Here I have used the word +_oil_ as a verb telling what I do. But I may say, _The oil is gone_. +Here I have used the word _oil_ as a noun, subject of the sentence. The +part of speech to which a word belongs in the English language, always +depends upon the work which it does in the sentence. + ++1.+ So we have nouns which are used as descriptive adjectives, for +example the word _oil_, which we have found we can use either as a noun +or a verb, may also be used as an adjective. For example; I may say, +_the oil tank_. Here I have used the word _oil_ as a descriptive +adjective modifying the word _tank_. So also we may say, _the oak tree_, +_the stone curb_, _the earth wall_. In these expressions _oak_, _stone_ +and _earth_ are nouns used as descriptive adjectives. + ++2.+ We have descriptive adjectives derived from proper nouns, as +French, English, American. These are called proper adjectives; and since +all proper nouns must begin with a capital letter, these proper +adjectives, also, should always begin with a capital letter. + ++3.+ We have also descriptive adjectives derived from verbs as _active_, +_talkative_, _movable_, _desirable_, derived by the addition of suffixes +to the verbs _act_, _talk_, _move_ and _desire_. + + + LIMITING ADJECTIVES + ++249.+ Limiting adjectives are also divided into classes, the +_numerals_, the _demonstratives_ and the _articles_. + + + Numeral Adjectives + ++250.+ Numeral adjectives are those which limit nouns as to number or +order. They are such adjectives as _one_, _two_, _three_, _four_, etc., +and _first_, _second_ and _third_, etc., as for example: + + _Three_ men applied for work. + The train ran at the rate of _forty_ miles an hour. + There have always been _two_ classes in the world. + The _first_ martyr to anti-militarism was Jaures. + The _eighteenth_ day of March is the anniversary of the Paris Commune. + +In these sentences the adjectives _three_, _forty_, _two_, _first_ and +_eighteenth_ are all numeral adjectives. They limit the nouns which they +modify as to number or order. + ++Adjectives that limit nouns as to number or order are called numeral +adjectives. Numeral adjectives answer the question how many or in what +order.+ + + + Demonstratives + ++251.+ We have also a class of adjectives which are used to point out +some particular person or thing. These are called _demonstrative_ +adjectives. Demonstrate means literally _to point out_. So these +adjectives point out from a number of things, one particular thing to +our attention. These demonstrative adjectives are _this_, _that_, +_those_, _these_, _yonder_, _former_, _latter_ and _same_. + +_These_ and _those_ are the plural forms of _this_ and _that_. _This_ +and _these_ are used to point out things near at hand. _That_ and +_those_ are used to point out things more distant, as _This is my book_. +_These are my papers_, meaning _this book_ or _these papers_, close to +me. By, _That is my pencil_ and _Those are my letters_, I mean _that +pencil_, and _those letters_, which are farther away from me. + +_Former_ and _latter_ are used to show which of two things already +mentioned is referred to, and to point out things in point of time, not +of place. For example, we may say: + + We no longer observe the _former_ customs, but rather prefer the + _latter_. + He did not like his _former_ job but this _latter_ job pleases him. + +You understand from this that we have been discussing and describing two +kinds of work, and that the first in point of time was unpleasant and +the second pleasant. + +The demonstrative adjective _same_ refers to something of which we have +just spoken, as for example, _He has gone to work, I must do the same +thing_. These demonstrative adjectives answer the question which, so +when you wish to discover a demonstrative in a sentence, ask the +question _which_, and the answer will be the demonstrative adjective. + + + Exercise 2 + + 1. _This_ study is very interesting. + 2. _These_ comrades will stand by us. + 3. _That_ solution will never deceive the people. + 4. _Those_ books have opened our eyes. + 5. _Yonder_ battle appals the world. + 6. _Former_ investigations have had no results. + 7. _This latter_ decision has reversed the _former_. + 8. The class struggle has persisted through the centuries; we are + engaged in the _same_ struggle. + +Make sentences of your own containing these demonstrative adjectives. + + + ARTICLES + ++252.+ We have three adjectives which are used so commonly that we have +put them in a class by themselves. These three little words are _a_, +_an_ and _the_, and we call them articles. The word _article_ literally +means a little joint or limb, and these three little words are so +closely connected with the nouns with which they are used that they seem +to be a part or joint or limb of the noun itself, and so we have called +them articles. + +_A_ and _an_ are called the _indefinite_ articles because they point out +an object in a very indefinite manner. _The_ is called the _definite_ +article for it points out in a more definite way. + +We use _a_ before words beginning with a consonant sound, as _a man_, _a +tree_, _a book_; and we use _an_ before words beginning with a vowel +sound, as _an apple_, _an editor_, _an orange_, _an heir_. In _heir_ the +_h_ is silent, and we say _an_ because the word begins with a vowel +sound. _A_ is used before words beginning with _u_ because long _u_ is +equivalent in sound to a consonant, for the blending of the sounds of +which long _u_ is composed produces the initial sound of _y_, which is a +consonant sound. For example, we say, _a university_, _a useful work_, +etc., and not _an university_. Before words beginning with short _u_, +use _an_, as, _an upstart_, etc. + +In deciding whether to use _a_ or _an_, watch the initial _sound_ of the +word, not the initial _letter_. If it is a vowel sound use _an_, if a +consonant sound, use _a_. + + + Exercise 3 + +Underscore the correct article in the following sentences: + + 1. Bring me an--a apple. + 2. He is a--an able orator. + 3. A--an heir was born to the German King. + 4. He built a--an house for his family. + 5. He is an--a honest man. + 6. He is a--an undertaker. + 7. I had to take a--an upper berth. + 8. He joined a--an union. + 9. It is a--an unique book. + 10. He is a--an unruly member of society. + 11. He told a--an untruth. + 12. He wears a--an uniform. + 13. It is a--an honor to be chosen. + ++253.+ When a singular noun is modified by several adjectives, only one +of the articles _an_ or _a_ must be used if the noun denotes but _one_ +object; but if the noun denotes more than one object the article must be +repeated before each noun. For example, I say, _A red, white and blue +flag_. You know I mean but one flag, containing the three colors, red, +white and blue. But if I say, _A red, a white and a blue flag_, you know +I mean three flags, one red, one white, and one blue. + +Note the use of the article in the following sentences: + + He wears a black and white suit. + He wears a black and a white suit. + He sold a red and white cow. + He sold a red and a white cow. + He bought a gas and coal stove. + He bought a gas and a coal stove. + +The first sentences in each of the above series refers to only one +object. The second sentences all refer to two objects. + ++254.+ There are some rules concerning the article _the_ that it is well +to know because we do not always say what we wish to say, if we do not +observe these rules or customs of speech. For example, I say, _The +editor and publisher of this book is unknown_. I have used the article +_the_ but once, and I mean that the editor and publisher is one person. +But I may say, _The editor and the publisher of this book are well +known_. In this sentence I have used the article _the_ twice, _the_ +editor and _the_ publisher, and I mean that the editor and the publisher +are two different persons. + +So when two or more nouns following each other denote the same person or +thing, the article is not repeated, but when the nouns denote different +persons or things, the article must be repeated before each noun. Be +sure to use the proper form of the verb. + +Note the following sentences and underscore the proper verb to complete +the meaning: + + The secretary and treasurer were--was here. + The secretary and the treasurer were--was elected. + The singer and artist were--was with me. + The singer and the artist were--was on the program. + +Sometimes we have two things so closely associated in use that they may +be considered as forming a single idea, so that we may use the article +before the first one only. For example: + + The pen and ink is gone. + He bought a horse and buggy. + The bread and butter is on the plate. + + + INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVES + ++255.+ You remember we found in the study of pronouns that we have +interrogative pronouns which we use in asking questions when we do not +know the name of the object concerning which we are asking. We also have +adjectives which we use in asking questions when we do not know the +number or quality of the object concerning which we are asking. For +example: + + _Which_ book did you enjoy most? + _What_ work are you doing now? + _What_ machine did you order? + +_Which_ and _what_ are the interrogative adjectives in these sentences. + ++Interrogative adjectives are adjectives used in asking questions.+ + + + INDEFINITES + ++256.+ We have one more class of adjectives called indefinites. + ++An indefinite adjective is one that does not denote any particular +person or thing.+ + +All such adjectives as _each_, _every_, _either_, _neither_, _some_, +_any_, _many_, _much_, _few_, _all_, _both_, _no_, _none_, _several_ and +_certain_ are indefinite adjectives. We use them when we are not +speaking of any particular person or thing, but are speaking in a broad, +general sense and in an indefinite manner. + ++257.+ The interrogative adjectives are sometimes used in this +indefinite way. They are sometimes used to modify nouns when a direct +question is not asked, and they are then used, not as interrogative +adjectives, but as indefinite adjectives. For example: + + He did not know which party to join. + I have not learned what time he will go. + +In these sentences _which_ and _what_ are not used to ask questions, but +are used to describe an unknown object. + + + Exercise 4 + +All the words in italics are adjectives. Decide to which class each +adjective belongs. + +Note in this exercise the compound words used as adjectives, as: +_earth-born_, _self-made_, _new-lit_, _blood-rusted_. Look up the +meaning of these adjectives and see if you can use other adjectives in +their places and keep the same meaning. Note the use of _fellest_. + + Slavery, _the earth-born_ Cyclops, _fellest_ of _the giant_ brood, + Sons of _brutish_ Force and Darkness, who have drenched _the_ earth + with blood, + _Famished_ in his _self-made_ desert, _blinded_ by our _purer_ day, + Gropes in yet _unblasted_ regions for his _miserable_ prey;-- + Shall we guide his _gory_ fingers where our _helpless_ children play? + They have rights who dare maintain them; we are traitors to our sires, + _Smothering_ in their _holy_ ashes Freedom's _new-lit_ altar-fires; + Shall we make their creed our jailer? Shall we, in our haste to slay, + From the tombs of _the old_ prophets steal _the funeral_ lamps away + To light up _the_ martyr-fagots round _the_ prophets of to-day? + + _New_ occasions teach _new_ duties; Time makes _ancient_ good, + _uncouth_; + They must upward still, and onward, who would keep _abreast_ of + Truth; + Lo, before us gleam her camp-fires! We ourselves must Pilgrims be, + Launch our Mayflower, and steer boldly through _the desperate winter_ + sea, + Nor attempt _the_ Future's portal with _the_ Past's _blood-rusted_ + key. + --_Lowell_. + + + Exercise 5 + +The following is from Oscar Wilde's story of _The Young King_. Oscar +Wilde was a master of English, and if you have the opportunity, read all +of this beautiful story and watch his use of adjectives. Mark the +adjectives in this excerpt and use them in sentences of your own. + + And as the young King slept he dreamed a dream, and this was his + dream. He thought that he was standing in a long, low attic, amidst + the whirr and clatter of many looms. The meager daylight peered in + through the grated windows and showed him the gaunt figures of the + weavers, bending over their cases. Pale, sickly-looking children were + crouched on the huge crossbeams. As the shuttles dashed through the + warp they lifted up the heavy battens, and when the shuttles stopped + they let the battens fall and pressed the threads together. Their + faces were pinched with famine, and their thin hands shook and + trembled. Some haggard women were seated at a table, sewing. A + horrible odor filled the place. The air was foul and heavy, and the + walls dripped and streamed with damp. + + The young King went over to one of the weavers and stood by him and + watched him. + + And the weaver looked at him angrily and said, "Why art thou watching + me? Art thou a spy set on us by our master?" + + "Who is thy master?" asked the young King. + + "Our master!" cried the weaver, bitterly. "He is a man like myself. + Indeed, there is but this difference between us--that he wears fine + clothes while I go in rags, and that while I am weak from hunger he + suffers not a little from overfeeding." + + "The land is free," said the young King, "and thou art no man's + slave." + + "In war," answered the weaver, "the strong make slaves of the weak, + and in peace the rich make slaves of the poor. We must work to live, + and they give us such mean wages that we die. We toil for them all day + long, and they heap up gold in their coffers, and our children fade + away before their time, and the faces of those we love become hard and + evil. We tread out the grapes, another drinks the wine. We sow the + corn, and our own board is empty. We have chains, though no eye + beholds them; and are slaves, though men call us free." + + "Is it so with all?" he asked. + + "It is so with all," answered the weaver, "with the young as well as + with the old, with the women as well as with the men, with the little + children as well as with those who are stricken in years. The + merchants grind us down, and we must needs do their bidding. The + priest rides by and tells his beads, and no man has care of us. + Through our sunless lanes creeps Poverty with her hungry eyes, and Sin + with his sodden face follows close behind her. Misery wakes us in the + morning, and Shame sits with us at night. But what are these things to + thee? Thou art not one of us. Thy face is too happy." And he turned + away scowling, and threw the shuttle across the loom, and the + young King saw that it was threaded with a thread of gold. + + And a great terror seized upon him, and he said to the weaver, "What + robe is this that thou art weaving?" + + "It is the robe for the coronation of the young King," he answered; + "What is that to thee?" + + And the young King gave a loud cry and woke and lo! he was in his own + chamber, and through the window he saw the great honey-colored moon + hanging in the dusky air. + + + + + SPELLING + + LESSON 14 + + +You remember in the formation of plurals, we learned that words ending +in _y_ change _y_ to _i_ when _es_ is added; as, _lady, ladies_; _baby, +babies_; _dry, dries_, etc. + +There are several rules concerning words ending in _y_, knowledge of +which will aid us greatly in spelling. + ++1.+ +Words ending in _ie_ change the _ie_ to _y_ before _ing_ +to prevent a confusing number of vowels.+ For example, _die, dying_; +_lie, lying_; _tie, tying_. + ++2.+ +Words of more than one syllable ending in _y_ preceded by a +consonant, change _y_ into _i_ before all suffixes except those +beginning with _i_.+ For example: + + happy, happily, happiness; + witty, wittier, wittiest; + satisfy, satisfied, satisfying; + envy, enviable, envying. + +This exception is made for suffixes beginning with _i_, the most common +of which is _ing_, to avoid having a confusing number of _i's_. + ++3.+ +Most words ending in _y_ preceded by a vowel retain the _y_ +before a suffix.+ For example: + + destroy, destroyer, destroying; + buy, buyer, buying; + essay, essayed, essayist. + +The following words are exception to this rule: + + laid, + paid, + said, + daily, + staid. + +Make as many words as you can out of the words given in this week's +spelling lesson by adding one or more of the following suffixes: _er_, +_est_, _ed_, _es_, _ing_, _ly_, _ness_, _ful_, _ment_, _al_. + + +Monday+ + + Beauty + Portray + Deny + Rare + Multiply + + +Tuesday+ + + Mercy + Bury + Obey + Lovely + Envy + + +Wednesday+ + + Tie + Defy + Study + Decry + Crazy + + +Thursday+ + + Merry + Silly + Lusty + Imply + Day + + +Friday+ + + Dismay + Duty + Employ + Satisfy + Pretty + + +Saturday+ + + Pay + Joy + Journey + Qualify + Sorry + + + + + PLAIN ENGLISH + + LESSON 15 + + +Dear Comrade: + +In this week's lesson we are finishing the study of adjectives, which +adds another part of speech to those which we have studied. We can see +in the study of each additional part of speech how each part has its +place in the expression of our ideas. We could not express ourselves +fully if we lacked any of these parts of speech. Each one is not an +arbitrary addition to our language but has come to us out of the need +for it. We see that there are no arbitrary rules but in language, as in +all things else, growing needs have developed more efficient tools. With +these have grown up certain rules of action so we can have a common +usage and system in our use of these tools. It has taken years of effort +to accomplish this. The changes have been slow and gradual, and this +language which we are studying is the finished product. + +This slow development in the use of language, even in our own lives, +makes us realize how many thousands of years it must have taken our +primitive ancestors to reach a point where they could use the phonetic +alphabet. We have found that at first they used simple aids to memory, +as knotted strings and tally sticks. Then they began to draw pictures of +things about them and so were able to communicate with one another by +means of these pictures. When a man was going away from his cave and +wanted to leave word for those who might come, telling them where he had +gone and how soon he would return, he drew a picture of a man over the +entrance with the arm extended in the direction in which he had gone. +Then he drew another picture of a man in a sleeping position and also +one of a man with both hands extended in the gesture which indicated +many. These two pictures showed that he would be away over many nights. +In some such rude manner as this, they were able to communicate with one +another. + +But man soon began to _think_, and he needed to express ideas concerning +things of which he could not draw pictures. He could draw a picture of +the sun, but how could he indicate light? How could he indicate the +different professions in which men engaged, such as the farmer and +priest, etc.? + +He was forced to invent symbols or signs to express these ideas, so his +writing was no longer a picture of some object, but he added to it +symbols of abstract ideas. A circle which stood for the sun written with +the crescent which stood for the moon, indicated light. The bee became a +symbol of industry. An ostrich feather was a symbol of justice, because +these feathers were supposed to be of equal length. A picture of a woman +stood simply for a woman, but a picture of two women stood for strife, +and three women stood for intrigue. These old ancestors of ours became +wise quite early concerning some things. The symbol for a priest in the +early Egyptian picture writing was a jackal. Perhaps not because he +"devoured widows' houses," but because the jackal was a very watchful +animal. The symbol for mother was a vulture because that bird was +believed to nourish its young with its own blood. + +It naturally required a good memory and a clear grasp of association to +be able to read this sort of writing. It required many centuries for +this slow development of written speech. + +The development of language has been a marvelous growth and a wonderful +heritage has come to us. Let us never be satisfied until we have a +mastery of our language and find a way to express the ideas that surge +within us. A mastery of these lessons will help us. + + Yours for Education, + + THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. + + + ADJECTIVES AND PRONOUNS + ++258.+ From our study of the adjective, we know that it is a word used +with a noun to qualify or limit its meaning. But a great many times we +find these adjectives used without the noun which they modify. As, for +example, I may say, _This is mine_, and the adjective _this_ is used +alone without the noun which it modifies, and you are able to tell only +by what I have been saying or by some action of mine to what I am +referring when I say _this_. + +When adjectives are used in this manner, they are used like pronouns--in +place of a noun. So sometimes we find an adjective used with a noun, and +sometimes used as a pronoun, in place of a noun; and since we name our +parts of speech by the work which they do in the sentence, an adjective +used in this way is not an adjective, but a pronoun or word used in +place of a noun. + +So these words are pronouns when they stand alone to represent +things--when they are used in place of a noun. They are adjectives when +they are used _with_ a noun to limit or qualify the noun. For example, I +may say, _This tree is an elm, but that tree is an oak_. _This_ and +_that_ in this sentence are adjectives used to modify the noun _tree_. +But I may say, _This is an oak and that is an elm_, and in this sentence +_this_ and _that_ are used without a noun, they are used as pronouns. + ++259.+ Our being able to name every part of speech is not nearly so +important as our being able to understand the functions of the different +parts of speech and being able to use them correctly. But still it is +well for us to be able to take a sentence and point out its different +parts and tell what each part is and the function which it serves in the +sentence. So sometimes in doing this we may find it difficult to tell +whether certain words are adjectives or pronouns. We can distinguish +between adjectives and pronouns by this rule: + +When you cannot supply the noun which the adjective modifies, from the +_same_ sentence, then the word which takes the place of the noun is a +pronoun, but if you can supply the omitted noun from the same sentence, +then the word is used as an adjective. Thus, we do not say that the noun +is understood unless it has already been used in the same sentence and +is omitted to avoid repetition. We make each sentence a law unto itself +and classify each word in the sentence according to what it does in its +own sentence. + +So if a noun does not occur in the same sentence with the word about +which we are in doubt as to whether it is a pronoun or adjective, it is +a pronoun or word used in place of a noun. For example, in the sentence, +_This book is good but that is better_; _book_ is understood after the +word _that_ and left out to avoid tiresome repetition of the word +_book_. Therefore _that_ is an adjective in this sentence. But if I say, +_This is good, but that is better_; there is no noun understood, for +there is no noun in the sentence which we can supply with _this_ and +_that_. Therefore in this sentence _this_ and _that_ are pronouns, used +in place of the noun. And since _this_ and _that_, when used as +adjectives, are called demonstrative adjectives; therefore when _this_ +and _that_, _these_ and _those_, and similar words, are used as pronouns +they are called demonstrative pronouns. + ++260.+ Be careful not to confuse the possessive pronouns with +adjectives. Possessive pronouns modify the nouns with which they are +used, but they are not adjectives, they are possessive pronouns. _My_, +_his_, _her_, _its_, _our_, _your_ and _their_ are all possessive +pronouns, not adjectives. Also be careful not to confuse nouns in the +possessive form with adjectives. + + + ADJECTIVES AS NOUNS + ++261.+ Sometimes you will find words, which we are accustomed to look +upon as adjectives, used alone in the sentence without a noun which they +modify. For example, we say, _The strong enslave the weak_. Here we have +used the adjectives _strong_ and _weak_ without any accompanying noun. +In sentences like this, these adjectives, being used as nouns, are +classed as nouns. Remember, in your analysis of a sentence, that you +name every word according to the work which it does in that sentence, so +while these adjectives are doing the work of nouns, we will consider +them as nouns. + +These words are not used in the same manner in which demonstrative +adjectives are used as pronouns. There is no noun omitted which might be +inserted, but these adjectives are used rather to name a class. As, for +example; when we say, _The strong_, _The weak_, we mean all those who +are strong and all those who are weak, considered as a class. You will +find adjectives used in this way quite often in your reading, and you +will find that you use this construction very often in your ordinary +speech. As, for example: + + The rich look down upon the poor. + The wise instruct the ignorant. + +Many examples will occur to you. Remember these adjectives are nouns +when they do the work of nouns. + + + ADJECTIVES WITH PRONOUNS + ++262.+ Since pronouns are used in place of nouns, they may have +modifiers, also, just as nouns do. So you will often find adjectives +used to modify pronouns. As, for example; _He, tired, weak and ill, was +unable to hold his position_. Here, _tired_, _weak_ and _ill_ are +adjectives modifying the pronoun _he_. + ++263.+ We often find a participle used as an adjective with a pronoun. +As, for example: + + She, having finished her work, went home. + They, having completed the organization, left the city. + He, having been defeated, became discouraged. + +In these sentences, the participles, _having finished_, _having +completed_, and _having been defeated_, are used as adjectives to modify +the pronouns _she_, _they_ and _he_. + + + COMPARISON + ++264.+ We have found that adjectives are a very important part of our +speech for without them we could not describe the various objects about +us and make known to others our ideas concerning their various +qualities. But with the addition of these helpful words we can describe +very fully the qualities of the things with which we come into contact. +We soon find, however, that there are varying degrees of these +qualities. Some objects possess them in slight degree, some more fully +and some in the highest degree. So we must have some way of expressing +these varying degrees in the use of our adjectives. + +This brings us to the study of comparison of adjectives. Suppose I say: + + That orange is sweet, the one yonder is sweeter, but this one is + sweetest. + +I have used the adjective _sweet_ expressing a quality possessed by +oranges in three different forms, _sweet_, _sweeter_ and _sweetest_. +This is the change in the form of adjectives to show different degrees +of quality. This change is called comparison, because we use it when we +compare one thing with another in respect to some quality which they +possess, but possess in different degrees. + +The form of the adjective which expresses a simple quality, as _sweet_, +is called the positive degree. That which expresses a quality in a +greater degree, as _sweeter_, is called the comparative degree. That +which expresses a quality in the greatest degree, as _sweetest_, is +called the superlative degree. + ++265.+ +Comparison is the change of form of an adjective to denote +different degrees of quality.+ + ++There are three degrees of comparison, positive, comparative and +superlative.+ + ++The positive degree of an adjective denotes simple quality.+ + ++The comparative degree denotes a higher degree of a quality.+ + ++The superlative degree denotes the highest degree of a quality.+ + ++266.+ Most adjectives of one syllable and many adjectives of two +syllables regularly add _er_ to the positive to form the comparative +degree, and _est_ to the positive to form the superlative degree, as: + + _Positive_ _Comparative_ _Superlative_ + + sweet sweeter sweetest + cold colder coldest + soft softer softest + brave braver bravest + clear clearer clearest + ++267.+ Adjectives ending in _y_ change _y_ to _i_ and add _er_ and _est_ +to form the comparative and superlative degree, as: + + _Positive_ _Comparative_ _Superlative_ + + busy busier busiest + lazy lazier laziest + sly slier sliest + witty wittier wittiest + ++268.+ Many adjectives cannot be compared by this change in the word +itself, since the addition of _er_ and _est_ would make awkward or +ill-sounding words. Hence we must employ another method to form the +comparison of this sort of words. To say, _beautiful_, _beautifuller_, +_beautifullest_, is awkward and does not sound well. So we say +_beautiful_, _more beautiful_, _most beautiful_. + +Many adjectives form the comparative and superlative degree by using +_more_ and _most_ with the simple form of the adjective, as: + + _Positive_ _Comparative_ _Superlative_ + + beautiful more beautiful most beautiful + thankful more thankful most thankful + sensitive more sensitive most sensitive + wonderful more wonderful most wonderful + ++269.+ Adjectives of two syllables, to which _er_ and _est_ are added to +form the comparison, are chiefly those ending in _y_ or _le_, such as: + + _Positive_ _Comparative_ _Superlative_ + + happy happier happiest + noble nobler noblest + steady steadier steadiest + feeble feebler feeblest + able abler ablest + witty wittier wittiest + ++270.+ Some adjectives, few in number, but which we use very often, are +irregular in their comparison. The most important of these are as +follows: (It would be well to memorize these.) + + _Positive_ _Comparative_ _Superlative_ + + good better best + well " " + bad worse worst + ill " " + much more most + many " " + little less least + late later latest + latter last + far farther farthest + (up) adv. upper uppermost + (in) adv. inner innermost + + + DESCENDING COMPARISON + ++271.+ The change in form of adjectives in the positive, comparative and +superlative shows that one object has more of a quality than others with +which it is compared. But we also wish at times to express the fact that +one object has less of the quality than is possessed by others with +which it is compared; so we have what we may call the descending +comparison, by means of phrases formed by using _less_ and _least_ +instead of _more_ and _most_. Using _less_ with the positive degree +means a degree less than the positive, while using _least_ expresses the +lowest degree. For example: + + Descending Comparison + + _Positive_ _Comparative_ _Superlative_ + + beautiful less beautiful least beautiful + intelligent less intelligent least intelligent + sensitive less sensitive least sensitive + thankful less thankful least thankful + + + PARTICIPLES AS ADJECTIVES + ++272.+ You remember, when we studied the participle, that we found it +was called a participle because it partook of the nature of two or more +parts of speech. For example; in the sentence, _The singing of the birds +greeted us_; _singing_ is a participle derived from the verb _sing_, and +is used as a noun, the subject of the verb _greeted_. + +But participles are used not only as nouns; they may also be used as +adjectives. For example; we may say, _The singing birds greeted us_. +Here the participle _singing_ describes the birds, telling what kind of +birds greeted us, and is used as an adjective modifying the noun +_birds_. + +You will recall that we found there were two forms of the participle, +the present participle and the past participle. The present participle +is formed by adding _ing_ to the root form of the verb; and the past +participle in regular verbs is formed by adding _d_ or _ed_ to the root +form, and in irregular verbs by a change in the verb form itself. These +two simple forms of participles are often used as adjectives. + ++273.+ The present participle is almost always active; that is, it +refers to the actor. As, for example; _Vessels, carrying soldiers, are +constantly arriving_. Here the present participle _carrying_ describes +the noun _vessels_, and yet retains its function as a verb and has an +object, _soldiers_. So it partakes of two parts of speech, the verb and +the adjective. + ++274.+ The past participle, when used alone, is almost always passive, +for it refers not to the actor, but to what is acted upon, thus: + + The army, beaten but not conquered, prepared for a siege. + +In this sentence _beaten_ is the past participle of the irregular verb +_beat_, and _conquered_ is the past participle of the regular verb +_conquer_, and both modify the noun _army_, but refer to it, not as the +actor, but as the receiver of the action. Hence, the past participle is +also the _passive_ participle. + +Note in the following sentences the use of the present and past +participle as adjectives: + + A _refreshing_ breeze came from the hills. + They escaped from the _burning_ building. + _Toiling_, _rejoicing_, _sorrowing_, onward through life he goes. + The man, _defeated_ in his purpose, gave up in despair. + The child, _driven_ in its youth to work, is robbed of the joy of + childhood. + The army, _forced_ to retreat, destroyed all in its path. + The children, _neglected_ by society, grow up without their rightful + opportunities. + + + Exercise 1 + +The adjectives and participles used as adjectives in the following +sentences are printed in _italics_. Determine which adjectives are +capable of comparison, and whether they are compared by adding _er_ or +_est_, or by the use of _more_ and _most_. + + In _a_ community _regulated_ by laws of demand and supply, but + _protected_ from _open_ violence, _the_ persons who become _rich_ are, + generally _speaking_, _industrious_, _resolute_, _proud_, _covetous_, + _prompt_, _methodical_, _sensible_, _unimaginative_, _insensitive_ and + _ignorant_. _The_ persons who remain _poor_ are _the_ entirely + _foolish_, _the_ entirely _wise_, _the idle_, _the reckless_, _the + humble_, _the thoughtful_, _the dull_, _the imaginative_, _the + sensitive_, _the well-informed_, _the improvident_, _the_ irregularly + and impulsively _wicked_, _the clumsy_ knave, _the open_ thief, and + _the_ entirely _merciful_, _just_ and _godly_ persons.--_Ruskin_. + + + PARTICIPLE PHRASES + ++275.+ If you will refer now to Lesson 9 you will find that we studied +in that lesson concerning participle phrases; that is, several words +used as a participle. We found that these participle phrases may also be +used as nouns; as, for example: + + His having joined the union caused him to lose his position. + +_Having joined_ is here a participle phrase used as a noun, subject of +the verb _caused_. Participle phrases may also be used as adjectives. + +You remember that we had four participle phrases, as follows: + + +Present perfect+, _active_, having called. + +Present perfect+, _passive_, having been called. + +Progressive+, _active_, having been calling. + +Progressive+, _passive_, being called. + +These participle phrases are used as adjectives to describe and modify +nouns, thus: + + The soldier, _having joined_ his comrades, fought in the trenches. + The nurse, _having been watching_ for days, was nearly exhausted. + +The passive phrases also are used as adjectives, thus: + + The woman, _having been hired_ by the manager, went to work. + The man, _being attacked_, fought bravely. + +Here the participle phrases _having been hired_ and _being attacked_ are +used as adjectives to modify the nouns _woman_ and _man_. + +Use the participles and participle phrases of the verbs _see_ and _obey_ +in sentences of your own. + + + USES OF ADJECTIVES + ++276.+ In our use of adjectives, we find it convenient to use them in +several different ways. The most common use is closely connected with +the noun as a modifying word, seeming in a sense almost a part of the +noun; as in the sentence, _These brave men have bequeathed to us +splendid victories_. In this sentence _these_ and _brave_ are easily +discovered to be adjectives, being used in such close connection with +the noun. + +But sometimes we find the adjectives a little farther away from the noun +which it describes, and then it becomes a little more difficult to find. +You will recall, in our study of the copulative verb _be_, that we found +it was simply a connecting word, connecting that which followed the verb +with its subject. So we often find an adjective used in the predicate +with a copulative verb showing what is asserted of the subject. When an +adjective is used in this way, it modifies the subject just as much as +if it were directly connected by being placed immediately before the +noun. For example: + + The lesson was long and difficult. + +_Long_ and _difficult_ are used in the predicate after the copulative +verb _was_, but are used to modify the subject _lesson_ just as much as +though we said instead, _It was a long and difficult lesson_. So watch +carefully for adjectives used with the copulative verb _be_ in all its +forms, _am_, _is_, _are_, _was_, _were_; and the phrases, _has been_, +_will be_, _must be_, etc. + ++277.+ You may find adjectives also used following the noun. As, for +example: _The man, cool and resolute, awaited the attack_. _Cool_ and +_resolute_ are adjectives modifying the noun _man_, but they follow the +noun, instead of being placed before it. + + + COMMON ERRORS + ++278.+ There are a number of common errors which we make in comparison, +which we should be careful to avoid. + +1. A number of adjectives cannot be compared for they in themselves +express the highest degree of quality, so they have no shades of meaning +and will not admit of comparison. For example: _full_, _empty_, _level_, +_round_, _square_. If a thing is full or empty or level or round or +square, it cannot be more full, or more empty, or more level, or more +round, or more square. So do not compare adjectives that already express +the highest degree of a quality. Also such words as _supreme_, +_eternal_, and _infallible_, cannot be compared for they also express +the highest degree of quality. + +2. Do not use _more_ with the comparative form made by using _er_, or +_most_ with the superlative form, made by using _est_. For example: do +not say, _They cannot be more happier than they are_. Say, _They cannot +be happier_; or _They cannot be more happy_. Use either form but never +both. Do not say, _That is the most wisest plan_. Say either, _That is +the wisest plan_; or _That is the most wise plan_, but never use both +forms. Never use _most_ with a superlative form. + +3. Do not use the superlative form in comparing _two_ objects. The +superlative form is used only when more than two are compared. For +example; do not say, _He is the smallest of the two_. Say, _He is the +smaller of the two_. _Which is the largest end?_ is incorrect. _Which is +the larger end?_ is correct. _Which is the oldest, John or Henry?_ is +also incorrect. This should be, _Which is the older, John or Henry?_ Use +the _comparative_ form always when comparing _two_ objects. + +4. In stating a comparison, avoid comparing a thing with itself. For +example; _New York is larger than any city in the United States_. In +this sentence, when you say _any_ city in the United States, you are +including New York; so you are really comparing New York with itself, +and you are saying that New York is larger than itself. You should have +said, _New York is larger than any other city in the United States_; or, +_New York is the largest city in the United States_. When you compare an +object with all others of its kind be sure that the word _other_ follows +the comparative word _than_. + +5. When an adjective denoting _one_ or _more than one_ modifies a noun, +the adjective and the noun must agree in number. For example; _The house +is 30 foot square_. _Thirty_ denotes more than one, so a plural noun +should be used, and this sentence should be, _The house is 30 feet +square_. _We are traveling at the rate of 40 mile an hour._ This should +be, _We are traveling at the rate of 40 miles an hour_. + +6. Only two adjectives, _this_ and _that_ change their form when +modifying a plural noun. _These_ and _those_ are the plural forms of +_this_ and _that_. So remember always to use _this_ and _that_ with +singular nouns and _these_ and _those_ with plural nouns. For example; +do not say, _These kind of people will never join us_. You should say, +_This kind of people will never join us_. Or, _Those sort of flowers +grows easily_. You should say, _That sort of flowers grows easily_. + +7. Place your adjectives where there can be no doubt as to what you +intend them to modify. Put the adjective _with_ the noun which it +modifies. For example; do not say, _a fresh bunch of flowers_, _a new +pair of shoes_, _a salt barrel of pork_, _an old box of clothes_, _a +cold cup of water_, _a new load of hay_. Put the adjective with the noun +which it modifies, and say, _a bunch of fresh flowers_, _a pair of new +shoes_, _a barrel of salt pork_, _a box of old clothes_, _a cup of cold +water_, _a load of new hay_. + +8. Adjectives are usually placed before the nouns they qualify, but +sometimes, especially in poetry or in the use of participles, they +follow the nouns. They should not, however, be placed too far away from +the noun which they modify or be unnecessarily separated from the noun. +Where there are two or more adjectives used to qualify the same noun, +place nearest the noun the adjective most closely connected with the +object described and place farthest from the noun the adjective least +closely connected with the noun. If they are all of the same rank, place +them where they will sound best, usually according to their length, +naming the shortest adjective first. + +Correct the following sentences by arranging the adjectives in the +proper order: + + The summer sky was a blue, soft, beautiful sky. + He bought a brown, fine, big horse. + A gold, beautiful, expensive watch was given her. + The new, beautiful apartment building is on the corner. + He advertised for a young, intelligent, wide awake man. + +9. Never use _them_ as an adjective. _Them_ is a pronoun. One of the +worst mistakes which we can make is to use such phrases as _them +things_, _them men_, _them books_. Say, _those things_, _those men_, +_those books_. + +10. Do not use _less_ for the comparative form of _few_. The comparative +form of _few_ is _fewer_. _Less_ refers only to quantity, _fewer_ to +number. For example: + + He raised _less_ grain this year than last, because he has _fewer_ + horses now than he had then. + He uses _fewer_ words because he has _less_ to say. + There are but _few_ people here today; there were still _fewer_ (not + less) yesterday. + + + Exercise 2 + +Correct the adjectives in this exercise: + + 1. Hand me the little knife. + 2. He claims to be more infallible than anyone else. + 3. Mary is the oldest of the two. + 4. He was the bestest boy in school. + 5. The barn is forty foot long. + 6. Yonder is a happy crowd of children. + 7. Which is the largest end? + 8. I found the bestest book. + 9. This is the most principal rule. + 10. Give me a cold cup of water. + 11. These kind of books will not do. + 12. Give me them books. + 13. Who is the tallest, you or John? + + + Exercise 3 + +Mark all the adjectives in this poem. Note especially the participles +used as adjectives. + + THE COLLECTION + + I passed the plate in church. + There was a little silver, but the crisp bank-notes heaped + themselves up high before me; + And ever as the pile grew, the plate became warmer and warmer, until + it fairly burned my fingers, and a smell of scorching flesh rose + from it, and I perceived that some of the notes were beginning + to smolder and curl, half-browned, at the edges. + And then I saw through the smoke into the very substance of the + money, and I beheld what it really was: + I saw the stolen earnings of the poor, the wide margin of wages + pared down to starvation; + I saw the underpaid factory girl eking out her living on the street, + and the over-worked child, and the suicide of the discharged + miner; + I saw the poisonous gases from great manufactories, spreading + disease and death; + I saw despair and drudgery filling the dram-shop; + I saw rents screwed out of brother men for permission to live on + God's land; + I saw men shut out from the bosom of the earth and begging for the + poor privilege to work, in vain, and becoming tramps and paupers + and drunkards and lunatics, and crowding into almshouses, insane + asylums and prisons; + I saw ignorance and vice and crime growing rank in stifling, filthy + slums; + I saw shoddy cloth and adulterated food and lying goods of all + kinds, cheapening men and women, and vulgarizing the world; + I saw hideousness extending itself from coal-mine and foundry over + forest and river and field; + I saw money grabbed from fellow grabbers and swindled from fellow + swindlers, and underneath the workman forever spinning it out of + his vitals; + I saw the laboring world, thin and pale and bent and care-worn and + driven, pouring out this tribute from its toil and sweat into + the laps of the richly dressed men and women in the pews, who + only glanced at them to shrink from them with disgust; + I saw all this, and the plate burned my fingers so that I had to + hold it first in one hand and then in the other; and I was glad + when the parson in his white robes took the smoking pile from me + on the chancel steps and, turning about, lifted it up and laid + it on the altar. + It was an old-time altar, indeed, for it bore a burnt offering of + flesh and blood--a sweet savor unto the Moloch whom these people + worship with their daily round of human sacrifices. + The shambles are in the temple as of yore, and the tables of the + money-changers waiting to be overturned. + + --_Ernest Crosby_. + + + + + SPELLING + + LESSON 15 + + +There is a class of words having the sound of long _e_, represented by +the diphthong _ie_, and another class having the same sound represented +by _ei_. It is a matter of perplexity at times to determine whether one +of these words should be spelled with _ie_ or _ei_. Here is a little +rhyme which you will find a valuable aid to the memory in spelling these +words: + + When the letter _c_ you spy, + Put the _e_ before the _i_. + +For example, in such words as _deceit_, _receive_ and _ceiling_, the +spelling is _ei_. On the other hand, when the diphthong is not preceded +by the letter _c_, the spelling is _ie_, as in _grief_, _field_, +_siege_, etc. + +There are a few exceptions to this rule, such as _either_, _neither_, +_leisure_, _seize_ and _weird_. Most words, however, conform to the +rule--when preceded by _c_, _ei_ should be used; when preceded by any +other letter, _ie_. + +Observe that this rule applies only when there is a diphthong having the +sound of long _e_. When the two letters do not have the sound of long +_e_, as in _ancient_, the rule does not apply. + + +Monday+ + + Deceive + Belief + Conceive + Brief + Ceiling + + +Tuesday+ + + Field + Receive + Piece + Chief + Leisure + + +Wednesday+ + + Receipt + Wield + Weird + Thief + Perceive + + +Thursday+ + + Deceit + Yield + Grief + Seize + Conceit + + +Friday+ + + Relieve + Neither + Liege + Shield + Niece + + +Saturday+ + + Relief + Achievement + Reprieve + Lien + Siege + + + + + PLAIN ENGLISH + + LESSON 16 + + +Dear Comrade: + +We have been tracing the development of written speech in order that we +might have a clearer understanding of our own language. We have found +how our earliest ancestors communicated with each other by signs and an +articulate speech that was probably a little better than that of some +animals of today. They gradually developed this articulate speech and +then began to have need for some form of written speech. That which +distinguishes man from the animals primarily is his power to remember +and to associate one idea with another. From this comes his ability to +reason concerning the connection of these ideas. Without this power of +associative memory we would not be able to reason. If you could not +recall the things that happened yesterday and had not the power of +imagination concerning the things that may happen tomorrow, your +reasoning concerning today would not be above that of the animals. + +So man soon found it necessary to have some way of recalling accurately, +in a manner that he could depend upon, the things that happened +yesterday and the day before and still farther back in time. So that his +first step was the invention of simple aids to memory such as the +knotted strings and tally sticks. Then he began to draw pictures of the +objects about him which he could perceive by the five senses, the things +which he could see and hear and touch and taste and smell. + +But man, the Thinker, began to develop and he began to have ideas about +things which he could not see and hear and touch and taste and smell. He +began to think of abstract ideas such as light and darkness, love and +hate, and if he was to have written speech he must have symbols which +would express these ideas. So we have found that he used pictures of the +things he perceived with his five senses to symbolize some of his +abstract ideas, as for example; a picture of the sun and moon to +represent light; the bee to symbolize industry; the ostrich feather to +represent justice. But as his ideas began to develop you can readily see +that in the course of time there were not enough symbols to go around +and this sort of written speech became very confusing and very difficult +to read. + +Necessity is truly the mother of invention, and so this need of man +forced him to invent something entirely new--something which had been +undreamed of before. He began now to use pictures which were different +in sense but the names of which had the same sound. You can find an +example of this same thing on the Children's Puzzle Page in the rebus +which is given for the children to solve. As for example: A picture of +an eye, a saw, a boy, a swallow, a goose and a berry, and this would +stand for the sentence, I saw a boy swallow a gooseberry. + +Perhaps you have used the same idea in some guessing game where a mill, +a walk and a key stands for Milwaukee. And so we have a new form of +picture writing. Notice in this that an entirely new idea has entered +in, for the picture may not stand for the whole word but may stand for +one syllable of the word as in the example given above. The mill stands +for one syllable, walk for another and key for another. This was a great +step for it meant the division of the word into various sounds +represented by the syllables. + +What a new insight it gives us into life when we realize that not only +our bodies but the environment in which we live, the machines with which +we work and even the language which we use has been a product of man's +own effort. Man has developed these things for himself through a +constant and steady evolution. It makes us feel that we are part of one +stupendous whole; we belong to the class which has done the work of the +world and accomplished these mighty things. The same blood flows in us; +the same power belongs to us. Truly, with this idea, we can stand erect +and look the whole world in the face and demand the opportunity to live +our own lives to the full. + + Yours for Freedom, + + THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. + + + WORDS ADDED TO VERBS + ++279.+ We have just finished the study of adjectives and we have found +that adjectives are words added to nouns to qualify or to limit their +meaning. Without this class of words it would be impossible for us to +express all of our ideas, for we would be at a loss to describe the +objects about us. Adjectives enable us to name the qualities or tell the +number of the objects with which we come in contact. + +The verb, we have found, expresses the action of these objects; in other +words, the verb tells what things do. So with adjectives and verbs we +can describe the objects named by the nouns and tell what they do. For +example, I may say, _Men work_. Here I have used simply a noun and a +verb; then I may add various adjectives to this and say, _Strong, +industrious, ambitious men work_. By the use of these adjectives, I have +told you about the kind of men who work; but I have said nothing about +the action expressed in the verb _work_. I may want to tell you _how_ +they work and _when_ they work; _where_ they work and _how much_; in +other words, describe fully the action expressed in the verb _work_, so +I say: + + The men work busily. + The men work late. + The men work well. + The men work inside. + The men work hard. + The men work here. + The men work now. + The men work more. + +Words like _busily_, _hard_, _late_, _here_, _well_, _now_, _inside_, +and _more_, show _how_, _when_, _where_ and _how much_ the men work. + +We could leave off these words and still have a sentence, since the +other words make sense without them, but these words describe the action +expressed in the verb. + +Words used in this way are called adverbs because they are added to +verbs to make our meaning more definite, very much as adjectives are +added to nouns. + ++280.+ The word adverb means, literally, _to the verb_, and one would +suppose from this name that the adverb was strictly a verb modifier, but +an adverb is used to modify other words as well. An adverb may be used +to modify an adjective; for example, we might say: _The man was very +busy_. _This lesson is too long._ Here _very_ and _too_ are added to the +adjectives _busy_ and _long_ to qualify their meaning. + ++281.+ You remember in the comparison of adjectives, we used the words +_more_ and _most_ to make the comparative and superlative degrees. Here +_more_ and _most_ are adverbs used with the adjectives to qualify their +meaning. Adverbs used in this way will always answer the question, _how +much_, _how long_, etc. In the sentence, _The man is very busy_, _very_ +is used to answer the question _how_ busy. And in the sentence, _The +lesson is too long_, the adverb _too_ answers the question _how_ long. + +An adverb is also added to another adverb sometimes to answer the +question _how_. For example; we say, _The man works very hard_. Here the +adverb _hard_ tells _how_ the man works and _very_ modifies the adverb +_hard_, and answers the question _how hard_. So we have our definition +of an adverb: + ++282.+ +An adverb is a word that modifies the meaning of a verb, an +adjective or another adverb.+ + +Remember that adjectives are used only with nouns or pronouns, but the +adverb may be used with a verb or an adjective or another adverb. You +remember that we had in our first lesson, as the definition of a word, +that, _a word is a sign of an idea_. The idea is a part of a complete +thought. See how all of these various words represent ideas, and each +does its part to help us express our thoughts. + + + HOW TO TELL ADVERBS + ++283.+ We need not have much difficulty in always being able to tell +which words in a sentence are adverbs, for they will always answer one +of the following questions: _How?_ _When?_ _Where?_ _Why?_ _How long?_ +_How often?_ _How much?_ _How far?_ or _How little?_ etc. Just ask one +of these questions and the word that answers it is the adverb in your +sentence. Take the following sentence: + + He _always_ came _down too rapidly_. + +The word _always_ answers the question _when_. So _always_ is an adverb, +describing the time of the action expressed in the verb _came_--He +_always_ came. _Down_ answers the question _where_. So _down_ is the +adverb describing the _place_ of the action. _Rapidly_ answers the +question _how_, and is the adverb describing the _manner_ of the action. +_Too_ also answers the question _how_, and modifies the adverb +_rapidly_. + + + Exercise 1 + +Underscore the adverbs in the following sentences and tell which +word they modify: + + 1. He writes correctly. + 2. She answered quickly. + 3. A very wonderful future awaits us. + 4. You should not speak so hastily. + 5. You can speak freely here. + 6. He could never wait patiently. + 7. We very often make mistakes. + 8. She very seldom goes there. + 9. He usually walks very rapidly. + 10. I have read the lesson quite carefully. + 11. We would willingly and cheerfully give our all for the cause. + 12. He frequently comes here but I do not expect him today. + 13. If we work diligently and faithfully we will soon learn to speak + correctly and fluently. + 14. I am almost sure I can go there tomorrow. + 15. It was more beautifully painted than the other. + 16. We eagerly await the news from the front. + 17. He always gladly obeyed his father. + 18. She spoke quite simply and met with a very enthusiastic reception. + 19. The difficulty can be easily and readily adjusted. + + + Exercise 2 + +Use the following adverbs in sentences to modify verbs: + + slowly + here + now + gently + loudly + never + soon + carefully + nobly + down + seldom + easily + +Use the following adverbs in sentences to modify adjectives: + + quite + very + more + too + most + less + nearly + so + +Use the following adverbs in sentences to modify adverbs: + + too + very + quite + less + more + most + least + so + + + CLASSES OF ADVERBS + ++284.+ There are a good many adverbs in our language, yet they may be +divided, according to their meaning, into six principal classes: + ++1. Adverbs of time.+ These answer the question _when_, and are such +adverbs as _now_, _then_, _soon_, _never_, _always_, etc. + ++2. Adverbs of place.+ These answer the question _where_, and are such +adverbs as _here_, _there_, _yonder_, _down_, _above_, _below_, etc. + ++3. Adverbs of manner.+ These answer the question _how_, and are such +adverbs as _well_, _ill_, _thus_, _so_, _slowly_, _hastily_, etc. + ++4. Adverbs of degree.+ These answer the questions _how much_, _how +little_, _how far_, etc., and are such adverbs as _much_, _very_, +_almost_, _scarcely_, _hardly_, _more_, _quite_, _little_, etc. + ++5. Adverbs of cause.+ These answer the question _why_, and are such +adverbs as _therefore_, _accordingly_, _hence_, etc. + ++6. Adverbs of number.+ These are such adverbs as _first_, _second_, +_third_, etc. + + + Exercise 3 + +In the following sentences there are adverbs of each class used. Find +the adverbs of the different classes. + + 1. We shall always be found in the forefront of the struggle. + 2. It is much more effective to train the young. + 3. He came first and remained through the entire program. + 4. It is pleasant to know that we have done well. + 5. Our comrades are fighting yonder in the trenches. + 6. Therefore we shall never acknowledge defeat. + 7. Come down and discuss the matter with us. + 8. We would soon be able to agree if we understood the facts. + 9. Study your lessons slowly and carefully. + 10. He was scarcely able to tell his story. + 11. Accordingly I am sending you full particulars of the plan. + 12. He came third in the ranks. + + + INTERROGATIVE ADVERBS + ++285.+ The adverbs _how_, _when_, _where_, _why_, _whither_, _whence_, +etc., are used in asking questions, and when they are used in this way +they are called interrogative adverbs. For example: + + _How_ did it happen? + _Where_ are you going? + _Whence_ came he? + _When_ did he come? + _Why_ did you do it? + _Whither_ are you going? + +These adverbs, _how_, _when_, _where_, _why_, _whence_ and _whither_, +are used in these sentences to modify the verbs and ask the questions +concerning the _time_ or _place_ or _manner_ of action expressed in the +verb. + +_How_ may also be used as an interrogative adverb modifying an adjective +or another adverb. For example: + + How late did he stay? + How large is the house? + +In the first sentence, the adverb _how_ modifies the adverb _late_, and +introduces the question. In the second sentence _how_ modifies the +adjective _large_ and introduces the question. + + + Exercise 4 + +Write sentences containing the interrogative adverbs _how_, _when_, +_where_ and _why_, to modify verbs and ask simple questions. + +Write sentences using the interrogative adverb _how_ to modify an +adjective and an adverb and to introduce a question. + + + ADVERBS OF MODE + ++286.+ There are some adverbs which scarcely fall into any of the above +classes and cannot be said to answer any of these questions. They are +such adverbs as _indeed_, _certainly_, _fairly_, _truly_, _surely_, +_perhaps_ and _possibly_. These adverbs really modify the entire +sentence, in a way, and are used to show how the statement is +made,--whether in a positive or negative way or in a doubtful way. For +example: + + _Surely_ you will not leave me. + _Truly_ I cannot understand the matter as you do. + _Perhaps_ he knows no better. + _Indeed_, I cannot go with you. + +Here, these adverbs, _truly_, _surely_, _perhaps_ and _indeed_, show the +manner in which the entire statement is made; so they have been put in a +class by themselves and called +adverbs of mode+. _Mode_ means literally +_manner_, but these are not adverbs that express manner of action, like +_slowly_ or _wisely_ or _well_ or _ill_. They express rather the manner +in which the entire statement is made, and so really modify the whole +sentence. + + + PHRASE ADVERBS + ++287.+ We have certain little phrases which we have used so often that +they have come to be used and regarded as single adverbs. They are such +phrases as _of course_, _of late_, _for good_, _of old_, _at all_, _at +length_, _by and by_, _over and over_, _again and again_, _through and +through_, _hand in hand_, _ere long_, _in vain_, _to and fro_, _up and +down_, _as usual_, _by far_, _at last_, _at least_, _in general_, _in +short_, etc. These words which we find used so often in these phrases we +may count as single adverbs. + + + ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS + ++288.+ Sometimes the same word may be used either as an adjective or as +an adverb, and you may have some difficulty in telling whether it is an +adjective or an adverb. Some of these words are: _better_, _little_, +_late_, _far_, _hard_, _further_, _first_, _last_, _long_, _short_, +_much_, _more_ and _high_. For example: + + The _late_ news verifies our statement. + The man came _late_ to his work. + +In the first sentence, the word _late_ is used as an adjective modifying +the noun _news_. In the second sentence, the word _late_ is used as an +adverb to modify the verb _came_. + ++289.+ You can always distinguish between adjectives and adverbs by +this rule: Adjectives modify _only nouns_ and _pronouns_, and the one +essential characteristic of the adverb, as a limiting word, is that it +is _always_ joined to some other part of speech than a noun. An adverb +may modify a verb, adjective or other adverb, but never a noun or +pronoun. + +You recall the rule which we have made the very foundation of our study: +namely, that every word is classified in the sentence according to the +_work_ which it does in that sentence. So a word is an adjective when it +limits or modifies or qualifies a noun or pronoun; a word is an adverb +when it qualifies any part of speech other than a noun or pronoun, +either a verb or an adjective or an adverb, or even an entire sentence, +as is the case with adverbs of mode. + ++290.+ Many adverbs are regularly made from nouns and adjectives by +prefixes and suffixes. Adverbs are made from adjectives chiefly by +adding the suffix _ly_, or by changing _ble_ to _bly_. For example: +_honestly_, _rarely_, _dearly_, _ably_, _nobly_, _feebly_. But all words +that end in _ly_ are not adverbs. Some adjectives end in _ly_ also, as, +_kingly_, _courtly_, etc. The only way we can determine to which class a +word belongs is by its use in the sentence. + + + Exercise 5 + +In the following sentences, tell whether the words printed in italics +are used as adjectives or as adverbs: also note the words ending in +_ly_. Some are adverbs and some adjectives. + + 1. The boy was very _little_. + 2. It was a _little_ early to arrive. + 3. It was a _hard_ lesson. + 4. She works _hard_ every day. + 5. I read the _first_ book. + 6. I read the book _first_ then gave it to him. + 7. He went to a _high_ mountain. + 8. The eagle flew _high_ in the air. + 9. We saw clearly the lovely picture. + 10. He is a wonderfully jolly man. + 11. His courtly manner failed when he saw his homely bride. + 12. He speaks slowly and clearly. + 13. They are very cleanly in their habits. + + + NOUNS AS ADVERBS + ++291.+ Words that are ordinarily used as nouns, are sometimes used as +adverbs. These are the nouns that denote time, distance, measure of +value or direction. They are added to verbs and adjectives to denote the +definite time at which a thing took place, or to denote the extent of +time or distance and the measure of value, of weight, number or age. +They are sometimes used to indicate direction. For example: + + They were gone a _year_. + He talked an _hour_. + They will return next _week_. + They went _south_ for the winter. + They traveled 100 _miles_. + The wheat is a _foot_ high. + The man weighed 200 _pounds_. + +In these sentences, the nouns, _year_, _miles_, _hour_, _foot_, _week_, +_pounds_ and _south_ are used as adverbs. Remember every word is +classified according to the work which it does in the sentence. + + + Exercise 6 + +Mark the adverbs in the following poem and determine what words they +modify: + + THE BRIDGE OF SIGHS + + One more Unfortunate + Weary of breath, + Rashly importunate, + Gone to her death! + + Take her up tenderly, + Lift her with care; + Fashion'd so slenderly, + Young, and so fair! + + Look at her garments + Clinging like cerements; + Whilst the wave constantly + Drips from her clothing; + Take her up instantly, + Loving, not loathing. + + Touch her not scornfully; + Think of her mournfully, + Gently and humanly; + Not of the stains of her-- + All that remains of her + Now is pure womanly. + + Make no deep scrutiny + Into her mutiny + Rash and undutiful; + Past all dishonor, + Death has left on her + Only the beautiful. + + * * * * * * * + + Alas! for the rarity + Of Christian charity + Under the sun! + O! it was pitiful! + Near a whole city full, + Home, she had none. + + * * * * * * * + + + The bleak wind of March + Made her tremble and shiver; + But not the dark arch, + Or the black flowing river: + Mad from life's history + Glad to death's mystery + Swift to be hurled-- + Anywhere, anywhere + Out of the world! + + In she plunged boldly, + No matter how coldly + The rough river ran; + Over the brink of it,-- + Picture it, think of it, + Dissolute Man! + Lave in it, drink of it, + Then, if you can! + + Take her up tenderly, + Lift her with care; + Fashion'd so slenderly, + Young and so fair! + + Ere her limbs frigidly + Stiffen too rigidly, + Decently, kindly, + Smooth and compose them; + And her eyes, close them, + Staring so blindly! + + Dreadfully staring + Thro' muddy impurity, + As when with the daring + Last look of despairing + Fix'd on futurity. + + Perishing gloomily, + Spurr'd by contumely, + Cold inhumanity, + Burning insanity, + Into her rest. + Cross her hands humbly + As if praying dumbly, + Over her breast! + + Owning her weakness, + Her evil behavior, + And leaving, with meekness, + Her sins to her Saviour! + + --_Thomas Hood_. + + + + + SPELLING + + LESSON 16 + + +The English language is truly a melting pot, into which have been thrown +words from almost every language under the sun. This makes our spelling +very confusing many times. Because of this also, we have in our +language, words which have the same sound but different meaning, having +come into the language from different sources. These words are called +_homonyms_. + ++Homonyms are words having the same sound but different meaning.+ For +example: + + Plane, plain; + write, right. + +Synonyms are words which have the same meaning. For example: + + Allow, permit; + lazy, idle. + +Our spelling lesson for this week contains a list of most of the +commonly used homonyms. Look up the meaning in the dictionary and use +them correctly in sentences. You will note that in some instances there +are three different words which have the same sound, but different +meanings. + +Notice especially _principal_ and _principle_. Perhaps there are no two +words which we use frequently which are so confused in their spelling. +_Principle_ is a noun. _Principal_ is an adjective. You can remember the +correct spelling by remembering that _adjective_ begins with _a_. +_Principal_, the adjective, is spelled with an _a_, _pal_. + +Notice also the distinction between _two_, _to_ and _too_. Look these up +carefully, for mistakes are very often made in the use of these three +words. Also notice the words _no_ and _know_ and _here_ and _hear_. + + +Monday+ + + Buy--by + Fair--fare + Meat--meet + Our--hour + Pain--pane + + +Tuesday+ + + Deer--dear + Hear--here + New--knew + No--know + Peace--piece + + +Wednesday+ + + Two--to--too + Pair--pare--pear + Birth--berth + Ore--oar + Ought--aught + + +Thursday+ + + Seen--scene + Miner--minor + Aloud--allowed + Stare--stair + Would--wood + + +Friday+ + + Bear--bare + Ascent--assent + Sight--site--cite + Rain--reign--rein + Rote--wrote + + +Saturday+ + + Great--grate + Foul--fowl + Least--leased + Principle--principal + Sale--sail + + + + + PLAIN ENGLISH + + LESSON 17 + + +Dear Comrade: + +We are finishing in this lesson the study of a very important part of +speech. Adverbs are a necessary part of our vocabulary, and most of us +need a greater supply than we at present possess. We usually have a few +adverbs and adjectives in our vocabulary which are continually +overworked. Add a few new ones to your vocabulary this week. + +Do not slight the exercises in these lessons. The study of the lesson is +only the beginning of the theoretical knowledge. You do not really know +a thing until you put it into practice. You may take a correspondence +course on how to run an automobile but you can not really know how to +run a machine until you have had the practical experience. There is only +one way to become expert in the use of words and that is to use them. +Every day try to talk to some one who thinks and reads. While talking +watch their language and your own. When a word is used that you do not +fully understand, look it up at your very first opportunity and if you +like the word use it a number of times until it has become your word. + +We have been following in these letters, which are our weekly talks +together, the development of the alphabet. It is really a wonderful +story. It brings to us most vividly the struggle of the men of the past. +Last week we found how they began to use symbols to express syllables, +parts of a word. We found that this was a great step in advance. Do you +not see that this was not an eye picture but an ear picture? The symbol +did not stand for the picture of the object it named but each symbol +stood for the sound which composed part of the word. + +After a while it dawned upon some one that all the words which man used +were expressed by just a few sounds. We do not know just when this +happened but we do know that it was a wonderful step in advance. +Cumbersome pictures and symbols could be done away with now. The same +idea could be expressed by a few signs which represented the few sounds +which were used over and over again in all words. Let us not fail to +realize what a great step in advance this was. These symbols represented +sounds. The appeal was through the _ear gate_ of man, not through the +_eye gate_. + +Thus came about the birth of the alphabet, one of the greatest and most +momentous triumphs of the human mind. Because of this discovery, we can +now form thousands of combinations expressing all our ideas with only +twenty-three or twenty-four symbols,--letters that represent sounds. +Since we have at our command all of this rich fund of words, let us not +be content to possess only a few for ourselves. Add a word daily to your +vocabulary and you will soon be surprised at the ease and fluency of +your spoken and written speech; and with this fluency in speech will +come added power in every part of your life. + + Yours for Education, + + THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. + + + COMPARISON OF ADVERBS + ++292.+ You will recall that we found that adjectives change in form to +show different degrees of quality. A few adverbs are compared the same +as adjectives. Some form the comparative and superlative degree in the +regular way, just as adjectives, by adding _er_ and _est_; for example: + + _Positive_ _Comparative_ _Superlative_ + + soon sooner soonest + late later latest + often oftener oftenest + early earlier earliest + fast faster fastest + ++293.+ Most adverbs form their comparative and superlative by the use of +_more_ and _most_ or _less_ and _least_, just as adjectives do; for +example: + + _Positive_ _Comparative_ _Superlative_ + + clearly more clearly most clearly + nobly more nobly most nobly + ably more ably most ably + truly more truly most truly + +Or, in the descending comparison: + + clearly less clearly least clearly + nobly less nobly least nobly + ably less ably least ably + truly less truly least truly + ++294.+ The following adverbs are compared irregularly. It would be well +to memorize this list: + + _Positive_ _Comparative_ _Superlative_ + + ill worse worst + well better best + badly worse worst + far further (farther) furthest (farthest) + little less least + much more most + +Some adverbs are incapable of comparison, as _here_, _there_, _now_, +_today_, _hence_, _therefore_, etc. + + + Exercise 1 + +In the following sentences mark which adverbs are used in the positive, +which in the comparative and which in the superlative degree: + + 1. He came too late to get his letter. + 2. I can understand clearly since you have explained the matter to me. + 3. He speaks most truly concerning a matter of which he is well + informed. + 4. If he comes quickly he will arrive in time. + 5. I will be able to speak more effectively when I have studied the + subject. + 6. Those who argue most ably are those who are in complete possession + of the facts. + 7. He needs to take a course such as this very badly. + 8. I am too weary to go farther today. + 9. This is the least expensive of them all. + 10. If he arrives later in the day I will not be able to see him. + 11. I can understand him more clearly than I can his friend. + 12. You must work more rapidly under the Taylor system of efficiency. + 13. Those who are least trained lose their positions first. + 14. Those who are best fitted for the positions do not always receive + them. + + + POSITION OF ADVERBS + ++295.+ When we use an adverb with an adjective or other adverb, we +usually place the adverb before the adjective or adverb which it +modifies. For example: + + She is _very_ studious. + Results come _rather_ slowly. + It is _quite_ evident. + He speaks _too_ rapidly. + +When we use an adverb with the simple form of the verb, (that is, either +the present or past time form or any time form in which we do not need +to use a phrase), if the verb is a complete verb, we place the adverb +after the verb. For example: + + The boat arrived _safely_. + The man came _quickly_. + The boy ran _fast_. + The teacher spoke _hastily_. + +But when the verb is an incomplete verb used in the simple form, the +adverb usually precedes it in order not to come between the verb and its +object. As, for example: + + He _willingly_ gave his consent to the proposition. + She _gladly_ wrote the letter which we requested. + A soldier _always_ obeys the command of a superior officer. + +When the object of the incomplete verb is short, then the adverb is +sometimes placed after the object. As, for example: + + I study my lessons _carefully_. + He wrote a letter _hastily_. + +The object is more closely connected with the verb and so is placed +nearer the verb. However, when the object is modified by a phrase the +adverb is sometimes placed immediately after the verb, as: + + I studied _carefully_ the lessons given for this month. + He wrote _hastily_ a short letter to his son. + +When we use an adverb with a verb phrase, we usually place the adverb +after the first word in the verb phrase. For example: + + The boy has _always_ worked. + The workers will _then_ understand. + He will _surely_ have arrived by that time. + +When the verb is in the passive form the adverb immediately precedes the +principal verb, as for example: + + The work can be _quickly_ finished. + The obstacles can be _readily_ overcome. + The lesson must be _carefully_ prepared. + The workers must be _thoroughly_ organized. + +When an adverb of time and an adverb of manner or place are used to +modify the same verb, the adverb of time is placed first and the adverb +of manner or place second, as for example: + + I _often_ stop _there_. + He _usually_ walks _very rapidly_. + They _soon_ learn to work _rapidly_. + +If the sentence contains adverbs of time, of place, and of manner; the +adverb of time should come first; of place, second; and of manner, +third; as: + + He _usually_ comes _here quickly_. + + + Exercise 2 + +Improve the location of the adverbs in the following sentences and +observe how the change of place of the adverb may alter the meaning of +the sentence: + + 1. I _only_ saw the President once. + 2. Such prices are _only_ paid in times of great scarcity. + 3. No man has _ever_ so much wealth that he does not want more. + 4. It seems that the workers can be _never_ aroused. + 5. I want to _briefly_ state the reason for my action. + 6. I shall be glad to help you _always_. + 7. I _only_ mention a few of the facts. + 8. He _nearly_ walked to town. + 9. We are told that the Japanese _chiefly_ live upon rice. + 10. They expected them to sign a treaty _daily_. + 11. Having _nearly_ lost all his money he feared _again_ to venture. + + + ADVERBS AND INFINITIVES + ++296.+ You remember when we studied the infinitive in Lesson 9, we found +that it was not good usage to split the infinitive; that is, to put the +modifying word between _to_ and the verb. For example: _We ought to +bravely stand for our rights_. The correct form of this is: _We ought to +stand bravely for our rights_. + +But we have found, also, that common usage breaks down the old rules and +makes new rules and laws for itself, and so we frequently find the +adverb placed between the infinitive and its sign. + +Sometimes it seems difficult to express our meaning accurately in any +other way; for example, when we say: _To almost succeed is not enough_, +we do not make the statement as forceful or as nearly expressive of our +real idea, if we try to put the adverb _almost_ in any other position. +This is also true in such phrases as _to far exceed_, _to more than +counterbalance_, _to fully appreciate_, and various other examples which +you will readily find in your reading. The purpose of written and spoken +language is to express our ideas adequately and accurately. + +So we place our words in sentences to fulfill this purpose and not +according to any stereotyped rule of grammarians. Ordinarily, though, it +would be best not to place the adverb between the infinitive verb and +its sign _to_. Do not split the infinitive unless by so doing you +express your idea more accurately. + + + COMMON ERRORS + ++297.+ The position in the sentence of such adverbs as, _only_, _also_ +and _merely_, depends upon the meaning to be conveyed. The place where +these adverbs occur in the sentences, may completely alter the meaning +of the sentence. For example: + +_Only the address can be written on this side._ We mean that nothing but +the address can be written on this side. + +_The address can only be written on this side._ We mean that the address +cannot be printed, but must be written. + +_The address can be written only on this side._ We mean that it cannot +be written on any other side, but on this side only. + +So you see that the place in which the adverb appears in the sentence +depends upon the meaning to be conveyed and the adverb should be placed +in the sentence so as to convey the meaning intended. + ++Never use an adjective for an adverb.+ One common error is using an +adjective for an adverb. Remember that adjectives modify nouns only. +Whenever you use a word to modify a verb, adjective or another adverb, +use an adverb. For example, _He speaks slow and plain_. This is +incorrect. The sentence should be, _He speaks slowly and plainly_. Watch +this carefully. It is a very common error. + ++Another very common error is that of using an adverb instead of an +adjective with the copulative verb.+ Never use an adverb in place of an +adjective to complete a copulative verb. When a verb asserts an action +on the part of the subject, the qualifying word that follows the verb is +an adverb. For example, you would say: + + The sea was calm. + +Here we use an _adjective_ in the predicate, for we are describing the +appearance of the sea, no action is expressed. But if we say: _He spoke +calmly_, we use the adverb _calmly_, for the verb _spoke_ expresses an +action on the part of the subject, and the adverb _calmly_ describes +that action, it tells how he spoke. So we say: _The water looks clear_, +but, _We see clearly_. _She appears truthful._ _They answered +truthfully._ _She looked sweet._ _She smiled sweetly._ + +With all forms of the verb _be_, as _am_, _is_, _are_, _was_, _were_, +_have been_, _has been_, _will be_, etc., use an adjective in the +predicate; as, _He is glad_. _I am happy._ _They were eager._ _They will +be sad._ Use an adjective in the predicate with verbs like _look_, +_smell_, _taste_, _feel_, _appear_ and _seem_. For example: _He looks +bad._ _It smells good._ _The candy tastes sweet_. _The man feels fine +today._ _She appears anxious._ _He seems weary._ + ++Never use two negative words in the same sentence.+ The second negative +destroys the first and we really make an affirmative statement. The two +negatives neutralize each other and spoil the meaning of the sentence. +For example, never say: + + I don't want no education. + He didn't have no money. + Don't say nothing to nobody. + She never goes nowhere. + He won't say nothing to you. + He does not know nothing about it. + He never stops for nothing. + The stingy man gives nothing to nobody. + +In all of these sentences we have used more than one negative; _not_ and +_no_, or _not_ and _nothing_, or _never_ and _no_, or _never_ and +_nothing_. Never use these double negatives. The correct forms of these +sentences are: + + I don't want any education. + He didn't have any money. + Don't say anything to any one. + She never goes anywhere. + He won't say anything to you. + He knows nothing about it. + He never stops for anything. + The stingy man gives nothing to any one. + ++Where to place the negative adverb, not.+ In English we do not use the +negative adverb _not_ with the common verb form, but when we use _not_ +in a sentence, we use the auxiliary _do_. For example, we do not say: + + I like it not. + They think not so. + He loves me not. + We strive not to succeed. + +Only in poetry do we use such expressions as these. In ordinary English, +we say: + + I do not like it. + They do not think so. + He does not love me. + We do not strive to succeed. + ++We often use _here_ and _there_ incorrectly after the words _this_ +and _that_.+ For example, we say: + + This here lesson is shorter than that there one was. + +This should be: _This lesson is shorter than that one_. + + Bring me that there book. + This here man will not listen. + +These sentences should read: + + Bring me that book. + This man will not listen. + +Never use _here_ and _there_ in this manner. + ++Another common mistake is using _most_ for _almost_.+ + +For example, we say: + + We are most there. + I see her most every day. + +These sentences should read: + + We are almost there. + I see her almost every day. + +_Most_ is the superlative degree of _much_, and should be used only in +that meaning. + ++We often use the adjective _real_ in place of _very_ or _quite_, +to modify an adverb or an adjective.+ + +For example, we say: + + I was real glad to know it. + She looked real nice. + You must come real soon. + +Say instead: + + I am very glad to know it. + She looked very nice. + You must come quite soon. + +_Really_ is the adverb form of the adjective _real_. You might have +said: + + I am really glad to know it. + +But never use _real_ when you mean _very_ or _quite_ or _really_. + ++We use the adjective _some_ many times when we should use the adverb +_somewhat_.+ For example, we say: + + I am some anxious to hear from him. + I was some tired after my trip. + +What we intended to say was: + + I am somewhat anxious to hear from him. + I was somewhat tired after my trip. + ++Do not use _what for_ when you mean _why_.+ Do not say: + + What did you do that for? + +Or worse still, + + What for did you do that? + +Say: + + Why did you do that? + ++Do not use _worse_ in place of _more_.+ Do not say: + + I want to go worse than I ever did. + +Say: + + I want to go _more_ than I ever did. + ++Observe the distinction between the words _further_ and _farther_.+ +Farther always refers to distance, or extent. For example: + + He could go no farther that day. + We will go farther into the matter some other time. + +Further means more. For example: + + He would say nothing further in regard to the subject. + ++Never use _good_ as an adverb+. _Good_ is always an adjective. _Well_ +is the adverb form. _Good_ and _well_ are compared in the same way, +_good_, _better_, _best_, and _well_, _better_, _best_. So _better_ and +_best_ can be used either as adjectives or adverbs; but _good_ is always +an adjective. Do not say, _He talks good_. Say, _He talks well_. Note +that _ill_ is both an adjective and an adverb and that _illy_ is always +incorrect. + + + Exercise 3 + +Correct the adverbs in the following sentences. All but two of these +sentences are wrong. + + 1. Come quick, I need you. + 2. The boy feels badly. + 3. Give me that there pencil. + 4. I am some hungry. + 5. The people learn slow. + 6. He never stopped for nothing. + 7. What did you say that for? + 8. This here machine won't run. + 9. I make a mistake most every time. + 10. Watch careful every word. + 11. The man works good. + 12. The tone sounds harsh. + 13. I don't want no dinner. + 14. I hope it comes real soon. + 15. I want to learn worse than ever. + 16. She looked lovely. + 17. She smiled sweet. + 18. He sees good for one so old. + 19. She answered correct. + 20. He won't say nothing about it. + 21. I will be real glad to see you. + 22. That tastes sweetly. + 23. The man acted too hasty. + 24. We had most reached home. + 25. They ride too rapid. + + + DO NOT USE TOO MANY ADVERBS + ++298.+ Like adjectives it is better to use adverbs sparingly. This is +especially true of the adverbs used to intensify our meaning. Do not use +the adverbs, _very_, _awfully_, etc., with every other word. It makes +our speech sound like that of a gushing school girl, to whom everything +is _very, awfully sweet_. More than that, it does not leave us any words +to use when we really want to be intense in speech. Save these words +until the right occasion comes to use them. + + + Exercise 4 + +Adverbs should always be placed where there can be no doubt as to what +they are intended to modify. A mistake in placing the adverb in the +sentence often alters the meaning of the sentence. Choose the right word +in each of the following sentences: + + 1. He looked glad--gladly when I told him the news. + 2. Slaves have always been treated harsh--harshly. + 3. I prefer my eggs boiled soft--softly. + 4. The lecturer was tolerable--tolerably well informed. + 5. Speak slower--more slowly so I can understand you. + 6. The evening bells sound sweet--sweetly. + 7. The house appears comfortable--comfortably and + pleasant--pleasantly. + 8. If you will come quick--quickly you can hear the music. + 9. I was exceeding--exceedingly glad to hear from you. + 10. The bashful young man appeared very awkward--awkwardly. + 11. The young lady looked beautiful--beautifully and she sang + beautiful--beautifully. + 12. I looked quick--quickly in the direction of the sound. + 13. The sun is shining bright--brightly today and the grass looks + green--greenly. + + + + + SPELLING + + LESSON 17 + + +In our study of adjectives we have found that we use them to express +some quality possessed by a noun or pronoun which they modify. You will +recall when we studied nouns, we had one class of nouns, called abstract +nouns, which were the names of qualities. So we find that from these +adjectives expressing quality we form nouns which we use as the name of +that quality. + +For example from the adjective _happy_, we form the noun _happiness_, +which is the name of the quality described by the adjective _happy_, by +the addition of the suffix _ness_. We use this suffix _ness_ quite often +in forming these derivative nouns from adjectives but there are other +suffixes also which we use; as for example, the suffix _ty_ as in +_security_, formed from the adjective _secure_, changing the _e_ to _i_ +and adding the suffix _ty_. When the word ends in _t_ we sometimes add +only _y_ as in _honesty_, derived from the adjective _honest_. + +You remember that an abstract noun may express not only quality but also +action, considered apart from the actor; so abstract nouns may be made +from verbs. For example: + +_Running_, from the verb _run_; _settlement_, from the verb _settle_. + +In our lesson for this week the list for Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday +contains adjectives of quality from which abstract nouns expressing +quality can be made, by the addition of the proper suffix, either +_ness_, _y_, _ty_ or _tion_. The list for Thursday, Friday and Saturday +consists of verbs from which abstract nouns can be made by the addition +of the suffixes _ment_ and _ing_. + +Make from each adjective and verb in this week's lesson an abstract noun +by the addition of the proper suffix. Be able to distinguish between the +use of the qualifying adjective and the noun expressing quality. + + +Monday+ + + Stately + Forgetful + Real + Concise + Noble + + +Tuesday+ + + Slender + Empty + Equal + Righteous + Deliberate + + +Wednesday+ + + Submissive + Dreadful + Eager + Sincere + Resolute + + +Thursday+ + Enlist + Defile + Adorn + Nourish + Commence + + +Friday+ + + Content + Adjust + Induce + Indict + Adjourn + + +Saturday+ + + Discourage + Refine + Acquire + Enrich + Infringe + + + + + PLAIN ENGLISH + + LESSON 18 + + +Dear Comrade: + +Last week we finished the study of adverbs and we found that they were a +very important part of our vocabulary, and that most of us needed a +greater supply than we at present possess. This is true of both adverbs +and adjectives. While we do not use as many adverbs as adjectives in our +ordinary speech, nevertheless, adverbs are a very important factor in +expression. A great many adjectives can be readily turned into adverbs. +They are adjectives when they are used to describe a noun, but by the +addition of a suffix, they become adverbs used to describe the action +expressed by the verb. So in adding to our stock of adjectives we also +add adverbs to our vocabulary as well. + +Watch your speech this week and make a list of the adverbs which you use +most commonly, then go to your dictionary and see if you cannot find +synonyms for these adverbs. Try using these synonyms for awhile and give +the adverbs which you have been using for so long, a well earned rest. +Remember that our vocabulary, and the power to use it, is like our +muscles, it can only grow and develop by exercise. + +The best exercise which you can possibly find for this purpose is +conversation. We spend much more time in talking than in reading or in +writing. Conversation is an inexpensive pleasure and it does not even +require leisure always, for we can talk as we work; yet our conversation +can become a great source of inspiration and of influence as well as a +pleasant pastime. But do not spend your time in vapid and unprofitable +conversation. Surely there is some one in the list of your acquaintances +who would like to talk of things worth while. Hunt up this some one and +spend some portion of your day in profitable conversation. + +Remember also that a limited vocabulary means also a limited mental +development. Did you ever stop to think that when we think clearly we +think in words? Our thinking capacity is limited, unless we have the +words to follow our ideas out to their logical conclusions. + +This matter of vocabulary is a matter, too, that is exceedingly +practical. It means success or failure to us in the work which we would +like to do in the world. A command of words means added power and +efficiency; it means the power to control, or at least affect, our +environment; it means the power over men and things; it means the +difference between being people of ability and influence and being +obscure, inefficient members of society. + +So feel when you are spending your time in increasing your vocabulary +that you are not only adding to your enjoyment of life but that you are +doing yourself the best practical turn; you are increasing your +efficiency in putting yourself in a position where you can make your +influence felt upon the people and circumstances about you. This effort +upon your part will bear practical fruit in your every day life. + + Yours for Education, + + THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. + + + A GROUP OF WORDS + ++299.+ We have studied about the independent parts of speech, that is, +the nouns and pronouns and verbs. These are independent because with +them we can form sentences without the help of other words. And these +are the only three parts of speech which are so independent--with which +we can form complete sentences. Then we have studied also the words that +modify,--that is, the words that are used with nouns and pronouns and +verbs to describe and explain more fully the ideas which they express. +So we have studied adjectives, which modify nouns and pronouns; and +adverbs, which modify verbs or adjectives or other adverbs. + ++300.+ The adjectives and adverbs which we have studied thus far are +single words; but we find that we may use little groups of words in +about the same way, to express the same idea which we have expressed in +the single adjective or adverb. For example, we may say: + + Strong men, _or_, men of strength. + City men, _or_, men from the city. + Jobless men, _or_, men without jobs. + Moneyed men, _or_, men with money. + +These groups of words like, _of strength_, _from the city_, _without +jobs_, and _with money_, express the same ideas that are expressed in +the single adjectives, _strong_, _city_, _jobless_ and _moneyed_. + +You recall that we defined any group of words used as a single word as a +_phrase_; so these groups of words are phrases which are used as +adjectives. The phrase, _of strength_, modifies the noun _men_, just as +the adjective _strong_ modifies the noun _men_. So we may call these +phrases which modify nouns, or which may be used to modify pronouns +also, _adjective phrases_, for they are groups of words used as +adjectives. + + + Exercise 1 + +Change the adjectives which are printed in italics in the following +sentences into phrases: + + 1. _Strong_ men know no fear. + 2. She bought a _Turkish_ rug. + 3. He followed the _river_ bed. + 4. _Fashionable_ women are parasites. + 5. He left on his _homeward_ journey. + 6. _Sensible_ men readily understand their economic slavery. + 7. _Intelligent_ people will not always submit to robbery. + 8. _Senseless_ arguments cannot convince us of the truth. + + + USED AS ADVERBS + ++301.+ These phrases may be used in the place of single adverbs also. +You remember an adverb is a word that modifies a verb or an adjective or +another adverb. Let us see if we can not use a phrase or a group of +words in the place of a single adverb. For example: + + The man works rapidly, or, The man works with rapidity. + The man works now, or, The man works at this time. + The man works here, or, The man works at this place. + +In these sentences _rapidly_, _now_ and _here_ are single adverbs +modifying the verb _work_. The phrases, _with rapidity_, _at this time_, +and _at this place_, express practically the same ideas, conveyed by the +single adverbs, _rapidly_, _now_ and _here_. These phrases modify the +verb in exactly the same manner as the single adverbs. Therefore we call +these groups of words used as single adverbs, _adverb phrases_. + +We also use adverbs to modify adjectives. Let us see if we can use +adverb phrases in the same way: + + Rockefeller is _excessively_ rich; or, Rockefeller is rich _to + excess_. + He is _bodily_ perfect, but _mentally_ weak; or, He is perfect _in + body_ but weak _in mind_. + +In the sentences above, the adverb _excessively_ modifies the adjective +_rich_; the same meaning is expressed in the adverb phrase, _to excess_. +In the sentence, _He is bodily perfect, but mentally weak_, the adverb +_bodily_ modifies the adjective _perfect_ and the adverb _mentally_ +modifies the adjective _weak_. In the last sentence, the same meaning is +expressed by the adverb phrases, _in body_ and _in mind_. These phrases +modify the adjectives _perfect_ and _weak_, just as do the single +adverbs _bodily_ and _mentally_. + ++302.+ We can use a phrase in the place of almost any adverb or +adjective. It very often happens, however, that there is no adjective or +adverb which we can use to exactly express our meaning and we are forced +to use a phrase. For example: + + He bought the large house _by the river_. + The man _on the train_ is going _to the city_. + He came _from the country_. + +It is impossible to find single words that express the meaning of these +phrases, _by the river_, _on the train_, _to the city_, and _from the +country_. You could not say the _river house_; that is not what you +mean. You mean the large house _by the river_, yet the phrase _by the +river_ modifies and describes the house quite as much as the adjective +_large_. It is an adjective phrase used to modify the noun _house_, yet +it would be impossible to express its meaning in a single word. + + + Exercise 2 + +Which phrases in the following sentences are used as adjectives and +which phrases are used as adverbs? + +Change these phrases to adjectives or adverbs, if you can think of any +that express the same meaning. + + 1. Men lived _in caves_ long ago. + 2. Man's discovery _of fire_ was the beginning _of industry_. + 3. _After this discovery_, men lived _in groups_. + 4. The work _of the world_ is done _by machinery_. + 5. The workers _of Europe_ were betrayed. + 6. They are fighting _for their country_. + 7. The struggle _for markets_ is the cause _of war_. + 8. The history _of the world_ records the struggle _of the workers_. + 9. The idea _of democracy_ is equal opportunity _for all_. + 10. The invention _of the printing press_ placed knowledge _within the + reach_ _of the masses_. + 11. If you will study _with diligence_ you can learn _with ease_. + 12. This knowledge will be _of great value_ _to you_. + 13. Diplomacy means that the plans _of nations_ are made _in secret_. + 14. The men _in the factory_ are all paid _by the month_. + 15. They are afraid to take a trip _through Europe_ _at this time_. + + + Exercise 3 + +Use a phrase instead of the adjective or adverb in the following +sentences: + + 1. The men in the trenches are fighting _bravely_. + 2. An _uneducated_ man is _easily_ exploited. + 3. Our _educational_ system is inadequate. + 4. The _skilled_ workers must be organized. + 5. _Careless_ men endanger the lives of others. + 6. The plans have been _carefully_ laid. + 7. _Ambitious_ men often trample on the rights of others. + 8. Shall our education be controlled by _wealthy_ men? + 9. We want to live _courageously_. + 10. We want to face the future _fearlessly_. + 11. We want to possess _peacefully_ the fruits of our labor. + 12. By constant practice we can learn to speak _effectively_. + 13. This book will be a _valuable_ addition to your library. + 14. The number of _unemployed_ men _constantly_ increases. + 15. The men mastered each step _thoroughly_ as they proceeded. + 16. In order to express one's self _eloquently_ it is necessary to + think _clearly_. + 17. We must consecrate ourselves _completely_ to the cause of + humanity. + 18. A _kind_ act is its own reward. + 19. _Experienced_ workers can _more easily_ secure positions. + 20. He spoke _thoughtlessly_ but the people listened _eagerly_. + 21. The soldier was rewarded for his _heroic_ deed. + 22. He is an _honorable_ man and I am not surprised at this _brave_ + act. + 23. A _prudent_ man should be chosen to fill that _important_ office. + + + PREPOSITIONS + ++303.+ Have you noticed that all of these phrases, which we have been +studying and using as adjectives and adverbs, begin with a little word +like _of_, _with_, _from_, _in_, _at_ or _by_, which connects the phrase +with the word it modifies? We could scarcely express our meaning without +these little words. They are connecting words and fill an important +function. These words usually come first in the phrase. For this reason, +they are called _prepositions_, which means _to place before_. + +Let us see what a useful place these little words fill in our language. +Suppose we were watching the play of some boys outside our windows and +were reporting their hiding place. We might say: + + The boys are hiding _in_ the bushes. + The boys are hiding _among_ the bushes. + The boys are hiding _under_ the bushes. + The boys are hiding _behind_ the bushes. + The boys are hiding _beyond_ the bushes. + +These sentences are all alike except the prepositions _in_, _among_, +_under_, _behind_ and _beyond_. If you read the sentences and leave out +these prepositions entirely, you will see that nobody could possibly +tell what connection the _bushes_ had with the rest of the sentence. The +prepositions are necessary to express the relation of the word _bushes_ +to the rest of the sentence. + +But this is not all. You can readily see that the use of a different +preposition changes the meaning of the sentence. It means quite a +different thing to say, _The boys are hiding in the bushes_, and to say, +_The boys are hiding beyond the bushes_. So the preposition has a great +deal to do with the true expression of our ideas. + +The noun _bushes_ is used as the object of the preposition, and the +preposition shows the relation of its object to the word which it +modifies. You remember that nouns have the same form whether they are +used as subject or as object, but if you are using a pronoun after a +preposition, always use the object form of the pronoun. For example: + + I bought the book from _him_. + I took the message to _them_. + I found the place for _her_. + +In these sentences the pronouns, _him_, _them_, and _her_ are used as +objects of the prepositions _from_, _to_ and _for_. So we have used the +object forms of these pronouns. + ++304+. The noun or pronoun that follows the preposition, and is used +with it to make a phrase, is the object of the preposition. The +preposition is used to show the relation that exists between its object +and the word the object modifies. In the sentence above, _The boys are +hiding in the bushes_, the preposition _in_ shows the relationship +between the verb phrase, _are hiding_ and the object of the preposition, +_bushes_. + +The noun or pronoun which is the object of a preposition may also have +its modifiers. In the sentences used about the noun _bush_, which is the +object of the prepositions used, is modified by the adjective _the_. +Other modifiers might also be added, as for example: + + The boys are hiding in the tall, thick bushes. + +The entire phrase, _in the tall, thick bushes_, is made up of the +preposition _in_, its object _bushes_ and the modifiers of bushes, +_the_, _tall_ and _thick_. + ++305+. The preposition, with its object and the modifiers of the object, +forms a phrase which we call a _prepositional phrase_. These +prepositional phrases may be used either as adjectives or as adverbs, so +we have our definitions: + ++A preposition is a word that shows the relation of its object to some +other word.+ + ++A phrase is a group of words used as a single word.+ + ++A prepositional phrase is a phrase composed of a preposition and its +object and modifiers.+ + ++An adjective phrase is a prepositional phrase used as an adjective.+ + ++An adverb phrase is a prepositional phrase used as an adverb.+ + ++306.+ Here is a list of the most common and most important +prepositions. Use each one in a sentence: + + above + about + across + after + against + along + around + among + at + before + behind + below + beneath + beside + between + beyond + by + down + for + from + in + into + of + off + on + over + to + toward + through + up + upon + under + with + within + without + + + ADVERBS AND PREPOSITIONS + ++307.+ Many of the words that are used as prepositions are used also as +adverbs. It may be a little confusing to tell whether the word is an +adverb or a preposition, but if you will remember this simple rule you +will have no trouble: + ++A preposition is always followed by either a noun or a pronoun as its +object, while an adverb never has an object.+ + +So when you find a word, that can be used either as a preposition or an +adverb, used alone in a sentence without an object, it is an adverb; but +if it is followed by an object, then it is a preposition. This brings +again to our minds the fundamental rule which we have laid down, that +every word is classified according to the work which it does in a +sentence. The work of a preposition is to show the relation between its +object and the word which that object modifies. So whenever a word is +used in this way it is a preposition. For example: _He went about his +business_. + +Here, _about_ is a preposition and _business_ is its object. But in the +sentence, _He is able to be about_, _about_ is used as an adverb. It has +no object. + +_He sailed before the mast._ Here, _before_ is a preposition introducing +the phrase _before the mast_, which modifies the verb _sailed_. But in +the sentence, _I told you that before_, _before_ is an adverb modifying +the verb _told_. + +By applying this rule you can always readily determine whether the word +in question is an adverb or a preposition. + + + Exercise 4 + +Tell whether the words printed in italics in the following sentences, +are prepositions or adverbs and the reason why: + + 1. He came _across_ the street. + 2. He is _without_ work. + 3. Come _in_. + 4. He lives _near_. + 5. He brought it _for_ me. + 6. I cannot get _across_. + 7. We will go _outside_. + 8. This is _between_ you and me. + 9. He can go _without_. + 10. Stay _in_ the house. + 11. Do not come _near_ me. + 12. They all went _aboard_ at six o'clock. + 13. He enlisted _in_ the navy and sailed _before_ the mast. + 14. I do not know what lies _beyond_. + 15. I will soon be _through_. + 16. The aeroplane flew _above_ the city for hours. + + + PHRASE PREPOSITIONS + ++308.+ Sometimes we have a preposition made up of several words which we +have used so commonly together that they are used as a single word and +we call the entire phrase a preposition. As, for example: _According +to_--_on account of_--_by means of_, etc. + + 1. He answered _according to_ the rule. + 2. I could not go _on account of_ illness. + 3. He won the election _by means of_ fraud. + 4. The strike was won _by help of_ all the comrades. + 5. You can learn to spell only _by dint of_ memory. + 6. We speak incorrectly _by force of_ habit. + 7. He went to New York _by way of_ Chicago. + 8. Ferrer died _for the sake of_ his ideals. + 9. _In consideration of_ this payment, we will send you the set of + books. + 10. Germany issued her ultimatum _in defiance of_ the world. + 11. _In view of_ all the facts, we are convinced of his innocence. + 12. He will gladly suffer _in place of_ his comrade. + 13. _In conformity with_ the information contained in your letter, + I will join you on the 10th. + + + Exercise 5 + +Mark the prepositions in the following quotation. In the first three +paragraphs the prepositional phrases are printed in italics. Determine +whether they are used as adjective phrases or as adverb phrases. +Underscore the prepositional phrases in the remainder of the quotation +and determine which word is used as the object of the preposition. + + + THE SUNLIGHT LAY ACROSS MY BED + +_In the dark_ one night I lay _upon my bed_. And _in the dark_ I dreamed +a dream. I dreamed God took my soul _to Hell_. + +And we came where hell opened _into a plain_, and a great house stood +there. Marble pillars upheld the roof, and white marble steps led up _to +it_. The wind _of heaven_ blew _through it_. Only _at the back_ hung a +thick curtain. Fair men and women there feasted _at long tables_. They +danced, and I saw the robes _of women_ flutter _in the air_ and heard +the laugh _of strong men_. They feasted _with wine_; they drew it _from +large jars_ which stood somewhat _in the background_, and I saw the wine +sparkle as they drew it. + +And I said _to God_, "I should like to go up and drink." And God said, +"Wait." And I saw men coming _into the banquet house_; they came in +_from the back_ and lifted the corner _of the curtain_ _at the sides_ +and crept in quickly; and they let the curtain fall _behind them_; they +bore great jars they could hardly carry. And the men and women crowded +_round them_, and the newcomers opened their jars and gave them _of the +wine_ to drink; and I saw that the women drank even more greedily than +the men. And when others had well drunken they set the jars _among the +old ones_ _beside the wall_, and took their places _at the table_. And I +saw that some _of the jars_ were very old and mildewed and dusty, but +others had still drops _of new must_ _on them_ and shone _from the +furnace_. + +And I said to God, "What is that?" For amid the sounds of the singing, +and over the dancing of feet, and over the laughing across the winecups, +I heard a cry. + +And God said, "Stand away off." + +And He took me where I saw both sides of the curtain. Behind the house +was a wine-press where the wine was made. I saw the grapes crushed, and +I heard them cry. I said, "Do not they on the other side hear it?" + +God said, "The curtain is thick; they are feasting." + +And I said, "But the men who came in last. They saw?" + +God said, "They let the curtain fall behind them--and they forgot!" + +I said, "How came they by their jars of wine?" + +God said, "In the treading of the press these are they who came to the +top; they have climbed out over the edge and filled their jars from +below; and have gone into the house." + +And I said, "And if they had fallen as they climbed--?" + +God said, "They had been wine." + +I stood away off watching in the sunshine, and I shivered. + +And after a while I looked, and I saw the curtain that hung behind the +house moving. + +I said to God, "Is it a wind?" + +God said, "A wind." + +And it seemed to me that against the curtain I saw pressed the forms of +men and women. And after a while, the feasters saw it move, and they +whispered one to another. Then some rose and gathered the most worn-out +cups, and into them they put what was left at the bottom of other +vessels. Mothers whispered to their children, "Do not drink all, save a +little drop when you have drunk." And when they had collected all the +dregs they slipped the cups out under the bottom of the curtain without +lifting it. After a while the curtain left off moving. + +I said to God, "How is it so quiet?" + +He said, "They have gone away to drink it." + +I said, "They drink it--their own!" + +God said, "It comes from this side of the curtain, and they are very +thirsty." + +And still the feast went on. + +Men and women sat at the tables quaffing great bowls. Some rose, and +threw their arms about each other and danced and sang. They pledged each +other in the wine, and kissed each other's blood-red lips. + +Men drank till they could drink no longer, and laid their heads upon the +table, sleeping heavily. Women who could dance no more leaned back on +the benches with their heads against their lovers' shoulders. Little +children, sick with wine, lay down upon the edge of their mothers' +robes. + +I said, "I cannot see more, I am afraid of Hell. When I see men dancing +I hear the time beaten in with sobs; and their wine is living! Oh, I +cannot bear Hell!" + +God said, "Where will you go?" + +I said, "To the earth from which I came; it was better there." + +And God laughed at me; and I wondered why He laughed. + + --_Olive Schreiner_. + + + + + SPELLING + + LESSON 18 + + +There are a number of words that are ordinarily followed by a +preposition with its phrase. We make a great many mistakes in the use of +the proper preposition with these words. Our spelling lesson this week +covers a number of these words with examples illustrating the +appropriate preposition to be used with each word. Learn to spell these +words, look up their meaning in the dictionary and use each word with +its proper preposition in sentences of your own construction. + + +MONDAY+ + + +Abhorrence+, of; We have an abhorrence _of_ war. + +Abhorrent+, to; War is abhorrent _to_ us. + +Acquaint+, with; I will acquaint you _with_ the facts in the case. + You will then be acquainted _with_ the facts. + +Acquit+, of; The man was acquitted _of_ the charge. + +Adequate+, to; Our resources are not adequate _to_ the demand. + + +TUESDAY+ + + +Angry+, with, at; We are angry _with_ persons and angry _at_ things. + +Astonished+, at or by; (Never with) I am astonished _at_ you, or + _by_ you, not _with_ you. + +Confer+; We confer _with_ people, _upon_ or _about_ matters. + +Contrary+; A thing is contrary _to_ our ideas, (not _from_ or + _than_). + +Controversy+; with, between, or about, (not over). I had a + controversy _with_ you. There is a controversy _between_ the two + _about_ the result. + + +WEDNESDAY+ + + +Convicted+, of (not for). He was convicted _of_ the crime. + +Copy+; We copy _after_ people, _from_ things, and _out_ of books. + +Deprive+, of, (not from). We are deprived _of_ an education. + +Desire+, of and for; We may speak of the desire _of_ a man, meaning + man's desire; but we should always say "He has a desire _for_ + position, _for_ wealth," etc. + +Die+, of, for and from; A person dies _of_, not _from_, a disease. He + dies _from_ the effects of an injury. One person may die _with_ + another, but never _with_ a disease, for the disease does not die. + + +THURSDAY+ + + +Differ+, from, among, about, concerning, with; Persons or things + differ _from_ each other; that is, they are dissimilar in + appearance. Two persons may differ _with_ each other; that is, + contend or disagree. Several persons differ _among_ themselves + _about_ or _concerning_ some matter. + +Dissent+, from (not to). There was a general dissent _from_ that + idea. + +Guilty+, of (not for). He is guilty _of_ the crime. + +Incentive+, to (not for). It is a great incentive _to_ action. + +Receive+, from, (not of). Received _from_ John Smith, thirty dollars, + etc. + + +FRIDAY+ + + +Infer+, from, (not by). I infer this _from_ your remarks, not _by_ + your remarks. + +Introduce+; A man is introduced _to_ a woman, a speaker _to_ an + audience; _into_ society or _into_ new surroundings. We introduce + a bill _in_ Congress or a resolution _in_ a committee. + +Involved+, in (not with). We are involved _in_ difficulties. + +Listen+; We listen +for+ the expected news; we listen +to+ our + friends, not _at_. + +Married+; One person is married +to+ another, not +with+ another. + + +SATURDAY+ + + +Matter+, with, (not of). What is the matter _with_ this? + +Opposition+, to (not against). There is opposition _to_ the motion. + +Part+, to part _from_, means to leave. I will part _from_ my friends. + To part _with_ means to give up. A fool soon parts _with_ his + money. + +Remedy+, for; We have a remedy _for_ the disease. + +Preventive+, against; We have a preventive _against_ disease. + + * * * * * + + It is easy to sit in the sunshine + And talk to the man in the shade; + It is easy to float in a well-trimmed boat, + And point out the places to wade. + + But once we pass into the shadows + We murmur and fret and frown; + At our length from the bank, we shout for a plank, + Or throw up our hands and go down. + + It is easy to sit in a carriage + And counsel the man on foot; + But get down and walk and you'll change your talk, + _As_ you feel the peg in your boot. + + It is easy to tell the toiler + _How_ best he can carry his pack; + But not one can rate a burden's weight + _Until_ it has been on his back. + + The up-curled mouth of pleasure + Can preach of sorrow's worth; + But give it a sip, and a wryer lip, + Was never made on earth. + + --_Ella Wheeler Wilcox_. + + + + + PLAIN ENGLISH + + LESSON 19 + + +Dear Comrade: + +In this lesson we are completing our study of the preposition. The +preposition is one of the last parts of speech which we take up for +study and it is also one of the last parts of speech to be added to our +vocabulary. The child does not use the preposition when it first begins +to talk. It uses the names of things; words of action; words that +describe objects and actions. It does not begin to use prepositions +until it begins to relate ideas. + +The relation of ideas means that we are thinking; combining ideas into +thoughts. Then we begin to need prepositions, which are words of +relation, connecting words, expressing the relationship between ideas. +The measure of the fullness and richness of our lives is the measure of +our understanding of the world about us, of the relationship existing +between the different phases of that world and of our relationship to it +all. + +So words do not mean much to us until we can relate them to our own +lives and our own experiences. When you look up a word in the +dictionary, do not study the word alone; study also the thing for which +it stands. A person with a good memory might acquire a vocabulary by +sheer feat of memory; but what good would it do unless each word could +be related to practical experience? It is only in this way that words +become _alive_ to us. We must have an idea, a concept and knowledge of +the thing for which the word stands. + +So let us use our dictionary in this way. Do not be satisfied when you +have looked up a word simply to know how to spell and pronounce the word +and understand somewhat of its meaning. Do not be satisfied until it has +become a live word to you. Have a clear image and understanding of just +what each word stands for. Use the words in sentences of your own. Use +them in your conversation. Make them a part of your every-day life. + +Do not pass over any of the words in the lesson without understanding +their meaning. Study the poem _Abou Ben Adhem_ in this week's lesson. +After you have read it over a number of times, close the book and +rewrite the poem in prose in your own language. Then compare your +version with the poem. Note where you have used different expressions +and decide which is the better, the words used in the poem or your own +words. Rewrite it several times until you have a well-written version of +this poem. + +Exercises such as this will increase your vocabulary and quickly develop +the power of expression. No power can come in any department of life +without effort having been expended in its acquisition. Our great +writers have been careful students. Robert Louis Stevenson says that he +has often spent a half a day searching for the particular word which he +needed to express precisely the idea in mind. Stevenson is a master of +the English and this power came to him by this sort of studious and +earnest work. + + Yours for Education, + + THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. + + + AN IMPORTANT WORD + ++309.+ Things are not always to be judged by their size. Sometimes the +most important things are very small and unimportant in appearance. A +great machine is before you. You see its giant wheels, its huge levers. +These may seem to be the most important parts of the machine, but here +and there throughout this great machine are little screws and bolts. +These bind the giant parts together. Without these connecting links, the +great wheels and levers and revolving belts could not work together. Let +a little bolt slip out of its place in the mechanism, and the great +wheels stop, the throbbing machinery comes to a standstill. No work is +possible until this little bolt has been replaced. + +So in our sentence building, the _preposition_ is the bolt that joins +words together. The importance of the preposition in a language +increases just in proportion as the nation learns to think more exactly +and express itself more accurately. + +We found in our last lesson that by changing a preposition we can change +the entire meaning of the sentence. A man's life may depend upon the use +of a certain preposition. You may swear his life away by bearing +testimony to the fact whether you saw him _within_ the house, or +_without_ the house; or _before_ dark, or _after_ dark. + ++310.+ The preposition is an important word in the sentence. We can use +it to serve our purpose in various ways. We have found, for instance, +that we can use it: + +_First_, to change an adjective into an adjective phrase. As, for +example: + + The _fearless_ man demands his rights. + The man _without fear_ demands his rights. + +_Second_, to change an adverb into an adverb phrase. As, for example: + + We want to possess _peacefully_ the fruits of our labor. + We want to possess _in peace_ the fruits of our labor. + +_Third_, to express a meaning which we can express in no other way; as, +for example, _They are fighting for their country_. There is no single +word which we can use to express the meaning which we express in the +phrase, _for their country_. + ++311.+ So the preposition has given us a new means of expression, _the +prepositional phrase_. We can, by its help, use a phrase in place of an +adjective to modify a noun or a pronoun, and in place of an adverb to +modify a verb or an adjective. And we can also use the prepositional +phrase to express relationship which we cannot express by a single +adjective or adverb. + +If I want to tell you that I see a bird in yonder tree, such an +expression would be impossible without that little preposition _in_. By +the use of various prepositions, I can express to you the relationship +between the bird and the tree. I can tell you whether it is _under_ the +tree, or _in_ the tree, or _over_ the tree, or flying _around_ the tree, +or _near_ the tree. By the use of the various prepositions, I can +express accurately the relationship that exists between the _bird_ and +the _tree_. + + + Exercise 1 + +Look up the list of prepositions in Section 306, on page 184. Use the +following pairs of words in sentences and use as many different +prepositions as you can to express the different relationships which may +be expressed between these words. For example, take the two words, _man_ +and _house_. You may say: + + The man went _around_ the house. + The man went _about_ the house. + The man went _over_ the house. + The man went _under_ the house. + The man went _without_ the house. + The man went _into_ the house. + The man went _by_ the house. + The man went _beyond_ the house. + The man went _to_ the house. + + enemy city + soldiers cannon + man machine + woman factory + children school + government people + + + A GOVERNING WORD + ++312.+ The preposition shows the relation between two words. In this way +it enables us to use a noun or a pronoun as a modifying word. For +example, in the sentence given above, _I see the bird in the tree_, the +preposition _in_ shows the relationship between _bird_ and _tree_, and +makes of _tree_ a modifying word. It expresses a different meaning than +if we used the word _tree_ as an adjective. For we do not mean that we +see a tree bird, but a bird in a tree. So with the help of the +preposition _in_, we have used _tree_ as a modifying word. + +But the preposition _in_ also governs the form of the word that follows +it. Since nouns have the same form whether they are used as subject or +object, this does not mean any change in the form of the nouns. But +pronouns have different forms for the subject and object, so when we use +a pronoun with a preposition, we must use the object form. There are +seven object forms of the personal pronouns, and after a preposition, +always use one of these object forms. + + He gave it to _me_. + Give it to _him_. + Give it to _her_. + Add this to _it_. + Bring it to _us_. + I will give it to _you_. + He gave it to _them_. + ++313.+ Be careful to always use the object form of the pronoun following +a preposition. Observe this also in the use of the relative and +interrogative pronoun "who." The object form is "whom." For example: + + To whom will you go? + This is the man to whom I wrote. + For whom are you looking? + Where is the woman for whom you would make such a sacrifice? + + + Where to Put the Preposition + ++314.+ The preposition generally precedes its object. This is the reason +it was given its name, _preposition_, meaning _to place before_. +Sometimes, however, the preposition is separated from its object. This +is often true when it is used with an interrogative or relative pronoun. +With these pronouns, the preposition is often thrown to the end of the +sentence. For example: + + This is the book about which I was speaking; _or_, This is the book + which I was speaking about. + To whom shall I give this letter; _or_, Who shall I give this + letter to? + +The sentence, _To whom shall I give this letter_, is grammatically +correct; but in ordinary usage we use the form, _Who shall I give this +letter to?_ + +While the rule calls for the object form of the relative pronoun after a +preposition--so that the use of _to whom_ is grammatically correct--in +common usage we use the subject form of the pronoun when it is used so +far away from the preposition which governs it. So we find this use +common. For example, instead of saying, _For whom is this letter?_ we +say, _Who is this letter for?_ + ++315.+ In poetry also, we often find the object coming before the +preposition. For example: + + "The interlacing boughs between + Shadows dark and sunlight sheen, + Alternate, come and go." + +_Boughs_ is here the object of the preposition _between_, but in this +poetic expression the object is placed before the preposition. Note also +in the following: + + "The unseen mermaid's pearly song, + Comes bubbling up the weeds _among_." + + "Forever panting and forever young, + All breathing human passion far _beyond_." + ++316.+ After an interrogative adjective, the preposition is also often +thrown to the end of the sentence. As, for example: + + What men are the people talking _about_? + Which person did you write _to_? + +With these few exceptions, however, the preposition usually precedes its +object, as: + + We were astonished _at_ the news. + He arose _from_ his sleep. + + + POSSESSIVE PHRASES + ++317.+ Review Lesson 4, in which we studied the possessive use of nouns. +You will recall that we make the possessive form of the nouns by the use +of the apostrophe and _s_. But instead of using the possessive forms of +the name of inanimate things; that is, things without life, we generally +denote possession by the use of a phrase. Thus we would say, _The arm of +the chair_, instead of, _The chair's arm_; or, _The roof of the house_, +instead of, _The house's roof_. + ++318.+ We also use a possessive phrase when the use of a possessive form +would give an awkward construction. As, for example: _Jesus' sayings_. +So many hissing sounds are not pleasant to the ear and so, we say +instead, _The sayings of Jesus_. + ++319.+ We use a phrase also where both nouns are in the plural form. In +many words, there is no difference in the sound between a single noun in +the possessive form and a plural noun in the possessive form. We can +readily tell the meaning when it is written, because the place of the +apostrophe indicates the meaning, but when it is spoken the sound is +exactly the same. As, for example: + + The lady's hats. + The ladies' hats. + +Written out in this way, you know that in the first instance I am +speaking of the hats belonging to one lady, but in the second instance +of the hats belonging to two or more ladies. But when it is spoken, you +can not tell whether I mean one lady or a number of ladies. So we use a +phrase and say, _The hats of the lady_; or, _The hats of the ladies_. +Then the meaning is entirely clear. + ++320.+ Sometimes we want to use two possessives together, and in this +case it is better to change one of them into a phrase; for example, +_This is my comrade's father's book_. This is an awkward construction. +Say instead, _This is the book belonging to my comrade's father_. + ++321.+ Do not overlook the fact, however, that the phrase beginning with +_of_ does not always mean possession. Consider the following examples +and see if there is not a difference in meaning: + + The history of Wilson is interesting. + Wilson's history is interesting. + +In the first instance, I mean the history of Wilson's life is +interesting; in the second instance I mean the history belongs to or +written by Wilson is interesting. So there is quite a difference in the +meaning. The phrase _of Wilson_ used in the first example does not +indicate possession. + +Note the difference in meaning between the following sentences: + + The picture of Millet is good. + Millet's picture is good. + + The statue of Rodin stands in the park. + Rodin's statue stands in the park. + +Would you say: + + The invention of gunpowder, or gunpowder's invention? + The destruction of Louvain, or Louvain's destruction? + The siege of Antwerp, or Antwerp's siege? + The boat's keel, or the keel of the boat? + + + COMMON ERRORS + ++322.+ Prepositions are usually very small and seemingly unimportant +words, yet we make a great many mistakes in their use. It is these +little mistakes that are most difficult to avoid. + +Notice carefully in your own speech this week, and in the conversation +which you overhear, the use of the prepositions. Notice especially the +following cautions: + ++1. Do not use prepositions needlessly.+ We often throw a preposition in +at the close of a sentence which we have already used in the sentence, +and which we should not use again. The little preposition _at_ is most +frequently used in this way. See how many times this week you hear +people use such phrases as: + + At which store do you trade at? + At what corner did you stop at? + +The last _at_ is entirely unnecessary. It has already been used once and +that is enough. We also use _at_ and _to_ at the close of sentences +beginning with an interrogative adverb, where they are not necessary. +For example, we say: + + Where did you go to? + Where did you stop at? + Where am I at? + +The correct form of these sentences is: + + Where did you go? + Where did you stop? + Where am I? + +Do not use _at_ and _to_ in this way, they are entirely superfluous and +give a most disagreeable sound to the sentence. Do not close a sentence +with a preposition in this way. + ++2. Do not omit the preposition where it properly belongs.+ For example, +we often say: + + The idea is no use to me. + +We should say, _The idea is of no use to me_. + + I was home yesterday. + +We should say, _I was at home_ yesterday. + ++3. Do not use the preposition _of_ with a verb that requires an +object.+ The noun cannot be the object of both the verb and the +preposition. As, for example: + + He does not remember _of_ seeing you. + Do you approve _of_ his action? + +_Remember_ and _approve_ are both incomplete verbs requiring an object, +and the nouns _seeing_ and _action_ are the objects of the incomplete +verbs _remember_ and _approve_. The preposition _of_ is entirely +superfluous. The sentences should read: + + He does not remember seeing you. + Do you approve his action? + +Other verbs with which we commonly use the preposition _of_ in this way +are the verbs _accept_ and _recollect_. As, for example: + + Will you accept _of_ this kindness? + Will you try to recollect _of_ it? + +These sentences should read: + + Will you accept this kindness? + Will you try to recollect it? + + + The Correct Preposition + ++323.+ We make a great many mistakes also in the choice of +prepositions. For example, the preposition _between_ refers to two +objects and should never be used when you are speaking of more than two, +thus: + + We settled the quarrel _between_ the two men. + +This is correct, but it is incorrect to say: + + We settled the quarrel _between_ the members of the Union. + +We cannot settle a quarrel between a _dozen_ people. When there are more +than two, use the word _among_. We can perhaps attempt to settle a +quarrel _among_ a dozen people. _Between_ refers to two objects, _among_ +refers to more than two. For example: + + Divide the work _between_ the two men. + Divide the work _among_ twenty men. + ++324.+ Do not confuse the use of _in_ and _into_. When entrance is +denoted use _into_. As, for example: + + He came into the room. + He got into the auto. + +Often the use of _in_ will give an entirely different meaning to the +sentence. For example: + + He ran _in_ the water. + He ran _into_ the water. + The man acted as our guide _in_ the city. + The man acted as our guide _into_ the city. + The horse ran _in_ the pasture. + The horse ran _into_ the pasture. + ++325.+ Do not use _below_ and _under_ to mean _less_ or _fewer_ in +regard to an amount or number. _Below_ and _under_ have reference to +place only. It is correct to say: + + He went _under_ the bridge. + He came out _below_ the falls. + +But it is incorrect to say: + + The price is _below_ cost. + There were _under_ fifty present. + +Say instead: + + The price is _less_ than cost. + There were _fewer_ than fifty present. + ++326.+ Do not misuse _over_ and _above_. These prepositions have +reference only to _place_. They are incorrectly used to mean _more than_ +or _greater than_. + +It is correct to say: + + The boat anchored above the landing. + He flew over the city. + +It is incorrect to say: + + He bought above a hundred acres. + He lives over a mile from here. + +These sentences should be: + + He bought more than a hundred acres. + He lives more than a mile from here. + + + THE PREPOSITION WITH VERBS + ++327.+ In our first lesson on prepositions, we had a list of verbs and +the correct preposition to use with these verbs. There are a few words +which we use very commonly in which the meaning is slightly different +according to the preposition which we use in connection with the verb. +Foreigners especially who are learning the English language have great +difficulty with the prepositions. Here are a few of these common words: + ++Adapt.+ With _adapt_ we can use either the preposition _to_ or _for_. +For example; we adapt ourselves _to_ circumstances, that is, we +accommodate or conform ourselves; but a thing can be adapted _for_ a +certain purpose. + ++Agree.+ We can use the prepositions _with_ and _to_ with the verb +_agree_, but with different meanings. For example, we say, We agree +_with_ you about a certain matter; and, We agree _to_ the proposal which +you make. + ++Ask.+ We ask a favor _of_ a person. We ask a friend _for_ a favor. We +ask _about_ some one or thing that we wish to hear about. + ++Charge.+ There are several prepositions we can use with the verb +_charge_. Your grocer charges you _for_ the things that you buy. If you +run an account you are charged _with_ a certain amount. These things are +charged _to_ you; but in war the enemy charges _upon_ you. + ++Compare.+ One thing is compared _with_ another in quality, but it is +compared _to_ another when we are using the comparison for an +illustration. + ++Complain.+ We make complaint _to_ the manager _of_ the things we do not +like. + ++Comply.+ We comply _with_ the request of another, but he does a thing +_in_ compliance _with_ that request. Do not use the preposition _to_ +with compliance. + ++Correspond.+ With correspond, we use either the preposition _with_ or +_to_. For example, I may correspond _with_ you, meaning that I +communicate with you by letter, but one thing corresponds _to_ another, +meaning that it is like the other. + ++Disgust.+ We are disgusted _with_ our friends sometimes _at_ the things +which they do. We are disgusted _with_ people and _at_ things. + ++Reconcile.+ With reconcile, we use either the preposition _with_ or +_to_. For example, I may become reconciled _with_ you; that is, I am +restored to friendship or favor after an estrangement. But we reconcile +one thing _to_ another; that is, we harmonize one thing with another. + ++Taste.+ We have a taste _for_ music, art or literature, but we enjoy +the taste _of_ good things to eat. When taste refers to one of the five +senses, use the preposition _of_, but when you use it to mean +intellectual relish or enjoyment, use the preposition _for_. + + + Exercise 2 + +Mark all of the prepositional phrases in the following poem: + + THE ANGEL OF DISCONTENT + + When the world was formed and the morning stars + Upon their paths were sent, + The loftiest-browed of the angels was made + The Angel of Discontent. + + And he dwelt with man in the caves of the hills, + Where the crested serpents sting, + And the tiger tears and the she-wolf howls, + And he told of better things. + + And he led them forth to the towered town, + And forth to the fields of corn, + And told of the ampler work ahead, + For which his race was born. + + And he whispers to men of those hills he sees + In the blush of the misty west; + And they look to the heights of his lifted eye-- + And they hate the name of rest. + + In the light of that eye does the slave behold + A hope that is high and brave; + And the madness of war comes into his blood-- + For he knows himself a slave. + + The serfs of wrong by the light of that eye + March with victorious songs; + For the strength of the right comes into their hearts + When they behold their wrongs. + + 'Tis by the light of that lifted eye + That error's mists are rent; + A guide to the table-lands of Truth + Is the Angel of Discontent. + + And still he looks with his lifted eye, + And his glance is far away, + On a light that shines on the glimmering hills + Of a diviner day. + + --_Sam Walter Foss_. + + + Exercise 3 + +Mark all of the prepositions in the following poem. Write out the entire +phrases and mark the word which is the object of the preposition. For +example, in the phrase in the second line; _from a rich dream_, _dream_ +is the object of the preposition _from_; and _a_ and _rich_ modify the +noun _dream_. + + Abou Ben Adhem (may his tribe increase) + Awoke one night from a rich dream of peace, + And saw, within the moonlight of his room, + Making it rich, and like a lily in bloom, + An angel, writing in a book of gold. + Exceeding peace had made Ben Adhem bold, + And to the Presence in the room he said, + "What writest thou?" The Vision raised its head, + And, with a look made of all sweet accord, + Answered, "The names of those who love the Lord." + "And is mine one?" said Abou. "Nay, not so," + Replied the Angel. Abou spoke, more low, + But cheerily still; and said, "I pray thee, then, + Write me as one that loves his fellow-men." + The angel wrote and vanished. The next night + It came again, with a great wakening light, + And showed the names whom love of God had blessed, + And lo! Ben Adhem's name led all the rest. + + --_Leigh Hunt_. + + + + + SPELLING + + LESSON 19 + + +There are a few prepositions which might really be called derivative +prepositions. + +1. A few prepositions are formed from verbs. These are really participle +prepositions, for they are the present participles of the verbs but have +come to be used like prepositions. These are such as _concerning_, +_excepting_, _regarding_, _respecting_, _during_, _according_, etc. +Nearly all of these participle prepositions can be expressed by a +preposition phrase, as for example, we can either say; I wrote +_regarding_ these facts, or I wrote you _in regard to_ these facts. I +mentioned them all _excepting_ the last, or, I mentioned them all _with +the exception of_ the last. I have gone _according_ to the directions, +or, I have gone _in accord with_ the directions. + +2. Derivative prepositions are also formed by prefixing _a_ to other +parts of speech, as _along_, _around_, _abroad_, etc. Strictly speaking +these might be called compound prepositions for the prefix _a_ is really +from the preposition _on_. + +3. We have also compound prepositions formed: + +By uniting two prepositions, as _into_, _within_, _throughout_, etc. + +By uniting a preposition and some other part of speech, usually a noun +or an adjective, as _beside_, _below_ and _beyond_. + +We also have a number of compound verbs which are made by prefixing a +preposition to a verb. Some of these compound words have quite a +different meaning from the meaning conveyed by the two words used +separately; as for example, the compound verb _withstand_, derived from +the preposition _with_ and the verb _stand_, has almost the opposite +meaning from _stand with_. + +Our spelling lesson this week includes a number of these compound verbs +formed by the use of the verb and a preposition. Look up the meaning in +the dictionary. Use them in sentences in the compound form; then the two +words separately as a verb and a preposition and note the difference in +the meaning. + + +Monday+ + + Upset + Withdraw + Outrun + Overlook + Understand + + +Tuesday+ + + Oversee + Undergo + Outnumber + Withhold + Overcome + + +Wednesday+ + + Overflow + Undertake + Overreach + Overthrow + Outshine + + +Thursday+ + + Overhear + Withstand + Overgrow + Overhaul + Overrun + + +Friday+ + + Concerning + Regarding + Respecting + According + Excepting + + +Saturday+ + + Against + Throughout + Around + Between + Beneath + + + + + PLAIN ENGLISH + + LESSON 20 + + +Dear Comrade: + +We are taking up in this lesson the study of the last important part of +speech. We have spent some little time on the study of these parts of +speech, but it has been time well spent. We cannot use good English and +construct sentences that express our thoughts without an adequate +knowledge of the words we use in sentence building. As soon as we finish +the study of the parts of speech, we will spend several weeks in +sentence building. This will give us a review of these lessons in which +we have studied separate words. + +The English language is one of the most interesting of all to study. It +is the most truly international of all languages, for the English +language contains words from almost every language in the world. Did you +ever stop to think that we could have internationalism in language as +well as in other things? We can be as narrowly patriotic concerning +words as concerning anything else. + +Nations have been prone to consider all those who do not speak their +language as barbarians. Germany, perhaps, possesses as strong a +nationalistic spirit as any country, and in Germany this spirit has +found expression in a society formed for the purpose of keeping all +foreign words out of the German language. They have published handbooks +of native words for almost every department of modern life. They insist +that the people use these words, instead of foreign importations. The +German State takes great pride in the German language and considers it +the most perfect of any spoken today. The rulers of Germany believe that +it is a part of their duty to the world to see that all other nations +speak the German language. In conquered Poland, only German is permitted +to be taught in the schools or to be spoken as the language of commerce. +The patriots in language seem to believe that there is some connection +between purity of language and purity of race. + +In English, however, we have the beginnings of an international speech. +Our civilization is derived from various sources. Here in America we are +truly the melting-pot of the nations, and this is mirrored forth in our +language which is, in a way, a melting-pot also, in which have been +thrown words from every tongue. Those for whom nationalism is an +important thing will probably cling to the idea of a pure unmixed +language, but to those of us to whom Internationalism is not an empty +word, but a living ideal, an international language becomes also part of +the ideal. + +There is a wealth of wonderful literature open to us once we have gained +a command of the English language. Pay especial attention to the +quotations given in each lesson. These are quotations from the very best +literature. If there are any of them that arouse your interest and you +would like to read more from the same author, write us and we shall be +glad to furnish you full information concerning further reading. + + Yours for Education, + + THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. + + + CONJUNCTIONS + ++328.+ You remember that in Lesson 3, where we studied the parts of +speech, we found that we had another connective word besides the +preposition,--the conjunction. + +A preposition connects two words and shows what one of them has to do +with the other. The conjunction plays a different part as a connective, +for it connects not only words but also phrases and clauses. Note the +following sentences: + + Shall we be men _or_ machines? + We must struggle for ourselves _and_ for our children. + We pray for peace _but_ furnish ammunition for war. + +The use of the conjunction saves a great deal of tiresome repetition, +for, by its use, where two subjects have the same predicate or two +predicates have the same subject, we can combine it all into one +sentence. + +You will readily realize how important this part of speech is to us. If +we did not have conjunctions our speech would be cumbersome and we would +have to use a great many short sentences and a great deal of repetition. +If we wanted to make the same statement concerning a number of things, +without conjunctions, we would have each time to repeat the entire +statement. Try to write a description of a scene and avoid the use of +conjunctions and you will see what an important part these connective +words play in our power of expression. + +Without the use of the conjunction, you would necessarily use a great +many short expressions and repeat the same words again and again, and +your description would be a jerky, tiresome, unsatisfactory piece of +writing. + + + Exercise 1 + +Rewrite the following sentences, writing in separate sentences the +clauses that are united by the conjunctions: + + + 1. The birds are singing _and_ spring is here. + 2. We talk of peace, _but_ war still rages. + 3. The unemployed cannot find work _and_ they are dying of hunger. + 4. We believed in war for defense _and_ every nation is now fighting + for defense. + 5. We believe in education _and_ we are struggling for universal + education. + 6. The old order is fast passing _and_ the new order is rapidly + appearing. + 7. Profit is the keynote of the present, _but_ service shall be the + keynote of the future. + 8. All children should be in school, _but_ thousands must earn their + bread. + +Note that these sentences are made up of two or more simple sentences +combined; and each of these simple sentences is called a clause, and +each clause must contain a subject and a predicate. + + + Exercise 2 + +Rewrite the following simple sentences, using conjunctions to avoid a +repetition of the same subject and predicate. Rewrite these into a +paragraph, making as well written a paragraph as you possibly can: + + One hundred years ago the workers fought for universal education. + As a result we have our public schools of today. + Our public schools have been our chief bulwark against oppression. + Our public schools are our chief bulwark against oppression. + Our public schools are our greatest safeguard for the protection of + such liberty as we enjoy. + Our public school system embodies a socialistic ideal. + Our public school system is the most democratic of our institutions. + There has been a subtle subversion of the ideal. + The public school system has been made to serve the master class. + We have spent millions to make the ideal a reality. + Have we realized the ideal? + Is there universal education? + Is there education for every child beneath the flag? + The grounds of our public schools have cost millions. + The buildings have cost millions. + The courses of study are many. + They are varied. + They are elaborate. + But the workers of the world do not enjoy this feast. + The children of the workers do not enjoy this feast. + + + CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS + ++329.+ Conjunctions are divided into classes, as are other parts of +speech, according to the work which they do. Notice the following +sentences and notice how the use of a different conjunction changes the +meaning of the sentence. + + We are united _and_ we shall win. + _When_ we are united, we shall win. + +In the first sentence the conjunction _and_ connects the two clauses, +_we are united_ and _we shall win_. They are both independent clauses, +neither is dependent upon the other, and both are of equal importance. +But by the use of the conjunction _when_, instead of the conjunction +_and_, we have changed the meaning of the sentence. There is quite a +difference in saying, _We are united and we shall win_, and _When we are +united we shall win_. + +By connecting these two statements with the conjunction _when_, we have +made of the clause, _we are united_, a dependent clause, it modifies the +verb phrase _shall win_. It tells _when_ we shall win, just as much as +if we had used an _adverb_ to modify the verb phrase, and had said, _We +shall win tomorrow_, instead of, _We shall win when we are united_. + +So in these two sentences we have two different kinds of conjunctions, +the conjunction _and_, which connects clauses of equal rank or order, +and the conjunction _when_, which connects a dependent clause to the +principal clause. + ++330.+ So the conjunctions like _and_ are called co-ordinate +conjunctions. _Co-ordinate_ means literally of equal rank or order. +Conjunctions like _when_ are called sub-ordinate conjunctions. +_Sub-ordinate_ means of inferior rank or order. + +So we have our definitions: + ++331.+ +A conjunction is a word that connects words or phrases or +clauses.+ + ++A co-ordinate conjunction is one that joins words, phrases or clauses +having the same rank.+ + ++A subordinate conjunction is one that connects a dependent clause to +the principal clause.+ + + + CO-ORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS + ++332.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions connect words, phrases or clauses of +equal rank.+ The most commonly used co-ordinate conjunctions are; _and_, +_but_, _or_, _nor_. + ++333.+ But there are a number of words which we often use as adverbs, +which may also be used as co-ordinate conjunctions. These words are not +always conjunctions, for they are sometimes used as adverbs. When they +are used as conjunctions they retain something of their adverbial +meaning; but still they are conjunctions, for they are used to show the +connection between two clauses of equal rank. Thus: + + I am not in favor of the motion, _nevertheless_ I shall vote for it. + The deputies voted for the war appropriation, _notwithstanding_ they + had carried on an extensive anti-war propaganda. + I did not believe in the change, _however_ I did not oppose it. + ++334.+ The co-ordinate conjunctions which we use with this adverbial +meaning also, are; _therefore_, _hence_, _still_, _besides_, +_consequently_, _yet_, _likewise_, _moreover_, _else_, _than_, _also_, +_accordingly_, _nevertheless_, _notwithstanding_, _otherwise_, +_however_, _so_ and _furthermore_. + +These conjunctions always refer to what has been said before and serve +to introduce and connect new statements. + ++335.+ We often use these conjunctions, and also, _and_, _but_, _or_, +and _nor_, at the beginning of a separate sentence or paragraph to +connect it in meaning with that which has gone before. You will often +see the use of these conjunctions as the first word of a new paragraph, +thus relating this paragraph to that which has preceded it. + ++336.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions connect words of equal rank.+ + + + NOUNS + +Co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two or more _nouns_ used as the +subject of a verb. As: + + _Death_ and _disaster_ follow in the wake of war. + +In this sentence, _death_ is just as much the subject of the verb +_follow_ as is the word _disaster_, but no more so. You can omit either +of these words and the other will make a subject for the sentence. They +are both of equal importance, both of the same rank in the sentence, and +neither depends upon the other. These two words taken together form the +subject of the sentence. This is called the _compound subject_, for it +consists of two simple subjects. + +Co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two or more nouns used as the +_object_ of a verb. + + He studies history and science. + +In this sentence the words _history_ and _science_ are both used as +objects of the verb _studies_. + +Co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two or more nouns used as the +object of a _preposition_. + + He called for the letters and the papers. + +In this sentence _letters_ and _papers_ are both objects of the +preposition _for_, connected by the co-ordinate conjunction _and_. + + + Exercise 3 + +Note in the following sentences the nouns which are connected by +conjunctions and decide whether they are used as the subject of the +sentences or the object of verbs or of prepositions. Draw a line under +compound subjects. + + 1. John and Henry are going home. + 2. Music and painting are fine arts. + 3. The grounds and buildings of our public schools have cost millions. + 4. The time calls for brave men and women. + 5. We struggle for truth and freedom. + 6. Will you study English or arithmetic? + 7. Education and organization are necessary for success. + 8. We must learn the truth about production and distribution. + 9. We demand justice and liberty. + 10. The great struggle is between the working class and the ruling + class. + + + PRONOUNS + ++337.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions may also connect pronouns.+ + +These are used in the same way as nouns,--either as subject or object. +Nouns have the same form whether used as subject or object. Pronouns, +however, have different forms when used as the object. Here is where we +often make mistakes in the use of pronouns. When the pronouns are +connected by co-ordinate conjunctions they are of the same rank and are +used in the same construction;--if they are used as subjects both must +be used in the subject form;--if they are used as objects, both must be +used in the object form. For example, it is incorrect to say, _He told +the story to her and I_. Here _her_ is properly used in the object form, +for it is the object of the preposition _to_; the pronoun _I_ connected +with _her_ by the use of the conjunction _and_ is also the object of the +preposition _to_, and the object form should be used. You would not say, +_He told the story to I_. The sentence should read, _He told the story +to her and me_. + +Co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two pronouns used as the _subject_ +of a sentence, as for example: + + _She_ and _I_ arrived today. + +Co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two pronouns used as the _object_ +of the verb, as for example: + + Did you call _her_ or _me_? + +Co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two pronouns used as the object of +the _preposition_, as: + + He gave that to _you_ and _me_. + + + Exercise 4 + +Study closely the following sentences and correct those in which the +wrong form of the pronoun is used. + + 1. He and I are old friends. + 2. Did you ask him or me? + 3. They promised him and I that they would come. + 4. Find the place for she and me. + 5. Me and him will get it for you and she. + 6. She and I will go with you. + 7. You and I must decide matters for ourselves. + 8. You will find him and her to be loyal comrades. + + + VERBS + ++338.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions are also used to connect verbs.+ Verbs +connected in this way have the same subject; and with the use of the +conjunction to connect the verbs, we save repeating the subject. + + He _reads_ and _studies_ constantly. + +In this sentence _reads_ and _studies_ are words of the same kind and of +the same rank; either could be omitted and the other would make a +predicate for the sentence. They are of equal importance in the sentence +and are connected by the conjunction _and_. They have a single subject, +the pronoun _he_. + +This is called a compound predicate. + +In the sentence, _He reads constantly_, we have a simple predicate, the +single verb _reads_; but in the sentence, _He reads and studies +constantly_, we have a compound predicate, compound of the two verbs +_reads_ and _studies_. A sentence may have both a compound subject and a +compound predicate. As, for example: + + John and James read and study constantly. + +In this sentence _John_ and _James_ is the compound subject of both the +verbs, _read_ and _study_. So we have a compound subject and a compound +predicate. + + + Exercise 5 + +Notice the verbs in the following sentences connected by co-ordinate +conjunctions. Draw lines under each compound predicate. + + 1. The days come _and_ go in a ceaseless round. + 2. The brave man dreams _and_ dares to live the dream. + 3. The coward dreams _but_ dares not live the dream. + 4. We produce splendidly _but_ distribute miserably. + 5. The bought press twists _and_ distorts the facts. + 6. Only a traitor aids _or_ supports the enemy. + 7. We agitate _and_ educate for the cause of liberty. + + + ADJECTIVES + ++339.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions are used to connect adjectives.+ + +In this way we use a number of adjectives to modify the same word +without tiresome repetition. When several adjectives are used to modify +the same word, the conjunction is used only between the last two +adjectives. As, for example: + +A _simple_, _clear_ and _concise_ course has been prepared. + + + Exercise 6 + +In the following sentences, underscore the adjectives which are +connected by co-ordinate conjunctions. + + 1. The plains of France are covered with the dead and dying soldiers. + 2. Education should be both universal and free. + 3. They are faithful and loyal comrades. + 4. This was only our just and legal right. + 5. Old and hoary was the man who sat on the stool by the fireless and + godless altar. + 6. The service of humanity is a sweet and noble task. + 7. We must be brave and true. + 8. He lived a noble and courageous life. + 9. All was old and cold and mournful. + 10. Most powerful and eloquent is the voice of the disinherited. + + + ADVERBS + ++340.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions are also used to connect adverbs.+ This +gives us the power to describe the action expressed in verbs without the +tiresome repetition of the verb. For example: + + He spoke _fluently_ and _eloquently_. + + + Exercise 7 + +In the following sentences underscore the adverbs which are connected +by co-ordinate conjunctions: + + 1. Man selfishly and greedily prevents his fellow men from the + enjoyment of nature's bounties. + 2. She is wonderfully and gloriously brave. + 3. He speaks eloquently and impressively, but very slowly. + 4. Nature has provided lavishly and bountifully for her children. + 5. Advice spoken truly and wisely is always in season. + 6. We must resist injustice bravely and courageously. + 7. He feels keenly and deeply the wrongs of his class. + 8. He writes easily and rapidly. + 9. The words, calmly and coolly spoken, were instantly opposed. + 10. He reached that conclusion naturally and inevitably. + 11. He was gently but unwaveringly firm. + 12. The revolution comes slowly but surely. + + + PHRASES + ++341.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions are used, not only to connect words, +but also to connect phrases.+ + + + Verb Phrases + ++342.+ Verb phrases may be connected by conjunctions. For example: + + The People's College _is owned_ and _controlled_ by the working class. + We _have made_ and _are making_ a fierce struggle for a free press. + + +In this last sentence the two verb phrases, _have made_ and _are making_ +are connected by the co-ordinate conjunction _and_. Often in using verb +phrases, we use phrases in which the same helping verb occurs in both +phrases. When this is the case the helping verb is quite often omitted +in the second phrase and only the participle is connected by the +conjunction. As, for example: + + The People's College is owned and controlled by the working class. + +In this sentence the helping verb _is_ belongs in both the phrases but +is omitted in the second phrase in order to make a smoother sounding +sentence. In the second phrase, only the past participle _controlled_ is +used. It is understood that we mean, + + The People's College _is owned_ and _is controlled_ by the working + class. + + + Exercise 8 + +Note the use of the conjunction in the following sentences to connect +the verb phrases. Supply the helping verb where it is omitted. + + 1. Our system of education is rooted and grounded in outgrown dogmas. + 2. We have written but have received no answer. + 3. Will you come or stay? + 4. Man must struggle or remain in slavery. + 5. The workers are organizing and demanding their rights. + 6. We must arouse and educate our comrades. + 7. We have sought but have not found. + + + Prepositional Phrases + ++343.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions are used to connect prepositional +phrases.+ + +These phrases may be used as adjective phrases. For example: + + The books _in the book case_ and _on the table_ belong to me. + +These phrases may be used as adverb phrases. For example: + + He works _with speed_ and _with ease_. + + + Exercise 9 + +Note in the following sentences, the prepositional phrases which +are connected by co-ordinate conjunctions. Mark which are used as +adjective and which as adverb phrases. + + 1. Education is the road out of ignorance and into the light. + 2. The army charged over the plain and up the hill. + 3. The first men lived in groups and in clans. + 4. Democracy means government of the people and by the people. + 5. Shall we take the path toward progress or toward barbarism. + 6. They are not fighting for their country but for their king. + 7. Human rights are not protected by the law nor by the courts. + 8. The problem of the working class and of society is the problem of + equitable distribution. + 9. They are deceived by their leaders and by their press. + 10. You can pay either by the week or by the month. + 11. Our government is not the rule of the majority but of the + minority. + + + Infinitives and Participles + ++344.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions are also used to connect infinitives +and participles.+ + + + Exercise 10 + +In the following sentences mark the infinitives and participles +connected by co-ordinate conjunctions. + + 1. Those words will inspire us to dream and to dare. + 2. We shall learn to produce and to distribute. + 3. To be or not to be, that is the question. + 4. Puffing and panting, the great engine pulled up to the station. + 5. A cringing and trembling coward fears to demand his own. + 6. The warped and twisted facts in the daily press deceive the masses. + 7. Singing and dancing should be enjoyed by all children. + 8. The exploiting and robbing of the people is made a virtue in ruling + class ethics. + + + CLAUSES + ++345.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions are also used to connect clauses of +equal rank.+ For example: + + _The floods came and the winds blew._ + +Each of these clauses is a complete sentence in itself, but they are +combined into one compound sentence by the use of the co-ordinate +conjunction, _and_. Clauses united in this way may have a compound +subject and a compound predicate, but two complete clauses must be +united by a co-ordinate conjunction in order to form a compound +sentence. For example: + +The rain and snow fell, _and_ the wind blew a mighty gale. + +Here the first clause in the compound sentence, _the rain and snow +fell_, contains a compound subject, _rain and snow_. + +The boys are running and shouting, _and_ the girls are gathering +flowers. + +Here the first clause has a compound predicate, _are running_ and +_shouting_. The second _and_ connects the two clauses forming the +compound sentence. + + + CORRELATIVES + ++346.+ Certain co-ordinate conjunctions are used in pairs, such as +_both, and_; _either, or_; _neither, nor_; _whether, or_. These pairs +are called correlatives. The first word in the pair, as, _both_, +_either_, _neither_, or _whether_, is used as an assistant conjunction +helping the other to do the connecting. These are used in such sentences +as: + + I have _both_ seen _and_ heard him. + They will join us _either_ in April _or_ in May. + Labor has received _neither_ liberty _nor_ justice. + _Whether_ to go forward _or_ to retreat was the problem. + +Note that _nor_ is always the proper correlative to use with _neither_ +and also with the negatives _not_ and _never_ when they apply to what +follows as well as to what precedes. For example: + + There are thousands in this country who can _neither_ read _nor_ + write. + _Neither_ you _nor_ I can foretell the future. + He will _not_ write _nor_ should you. + Capital punishment is _nothing_ more _nor_ less than legalized murder. + We shall _never_ lower our colors _nor_ retreat. + +_Or_ is always used with the correlative _either_. For example: + + We will _either_ come _or_ write you. + _Either_ he was mistaken _or_ he deliberately lied. + + + Exercise 11 + +Note the use of the co-ordinate conjunctions _and_, _but_, _or_ and +_nor_, in the following quotation. Mark especially the use of _and_ as +an introductory conjunction, introducing a new sentence, but connecting +it with that which has gone before. + + In my judgment slavery is the child of ignorance. Liberty is born of + intelligence. Only a few years ago there was a great awakening in the + human mind. Men began to inquire, "By what right does a crowned robber + make me work for him?" The man who asked this question was called a + traitor. + + They said then, and they say now, that it is dangerous for the mind of + man to be free. I deny it. Out on the intellectual sea there is room + for every sail. In the intellectual air, there is space enough for + every wing. And the man who does not do his own thinking is a slave, + and does not do his duty to his fellow men. For one, I expect to do my + own thinking. And I will take my oath this minute that I will express + what thoughts I have, honestly and sincerely. I am the slave of no man + and of no organization. I stand under the blue sky and the stars, + under the infinite flag of nature, the peer of every human being. + + All I claim, all I plead is simple liberty of thought. That is all. I + do not pretend to tell what is true nor all the truth. I do not claim + that I have floated level with the heights of thought, nor that I have + descended to the depths of things; I simply claim that what ideas I + have, I have a right to express, and any man that denies it to me is + an intellectual thief and robber. + + Every creed that we have today has upon it the mark of the whip or the + chain or the fagot. I do not want it. Free labor will give us wealth, + and has given us wealth, and why? Because a free brain goes into + partnership with a free hand. That is why. And when a man works for + his wife and children, the problem of liberty is, how to do the most + work in the shortest space of time; but the problem of slavery is, how + to do the least work in the longest space of time. Slavery is poverty; + liberty is wealth. + + It is the same in thought. Free thought will give us truth; and the + man who is not in favor of free thought occupies the same relation to + those he can govern that the slaveholder occupied to his slaves, + exactly. Free thought will give us wealth. There has not been a + generation of free thought yet. It will be time to write a creed when + there have been a few generations of free-brained men and splendid + women in this world. I don't know what the future may bring forth; I + don't know what inventions are in the brain of the future; I don't + know what garments may be woven, with the years to come; but I do + know, coming from the infinite sea of the future, there will never + touch this "bank and shoal of time" a greater blessing nor a grander + glory, than liberty for man, woman and child. + + Oh, liberty! Float not forever in the far horizon! Remain not forever + in the dream of the enthusiast and the poet and the philanthropist. + But come and take up thine abode with the children of men + forever.--_Ingersoll_. + + + + + SPELLING + + LESSON 20 + + +We found that we often formed adjectives by adding suffixes to other +words. We also form many adverbs by the addition of suffixes to other +words. Derivative adverbs are formed in the following ways: + +1. By adding suffixes to adjectives, chiefly the suffix _ly_, as for +example; _chiefly_, _truly_, _really_, _lately_, etc. + +2. By changing _ble_ to _bly_, as in _ably_, _nobly_, etc. + +3. By adding the suffix _ward_, as in _forward_, _upward_, _skyward_, +_downward_, _homeward_, etc. + +4. We have some adverbs formed by adding the prefix _a_ to adjectives +and nouns, as _ahead_, _afoot_, _afresh_, also by adding the prefix +_be_, as in _besides_, _beyond_. + +We often misspell a number of adverbs by adding _s_ where it does not +rightfully belong; as, _anywheres_, _everywheres_, _backwards_, +_forwards_, _towards_, _upwards_, _downwards_, _afterwards_, +_homewards_, etc. All of these words should be written without the _s_. + +We also have a number of compound adverbs which are made by the union of +two other parts of speech, such as _sometime_, _henceforth_, _forever_, +_overheard_, _outside_, etc. + +In the lesson for Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday, adjectives are given +having opposite meanings. Make the proper adverbs from these adjectives +by the addition of the suffix _ly_. + +Thursday's and Friday's lessons are made up of both adjectives and +adverbs that end in _ly_. Look up in your dictionary and be sure you +know which are adjectives and which are adverbs. + +Saturday's lesson is made up of compound adverbs. + + +Monday+ + + Haughty--Humble + Wise--Ignorant + Careful--Careless + Firm--Wavering + + +Tuesday+ + + Honest--Deceitful + Fearful--Fearless + Punctual--Tardy + Identical--Different + + +Wednesday+ + + Thoughtful--Thoughtless + Rich--Poor + Attentive--Inattentive + Industrious--Lazy + + +Thursday+ + + Quickly + Lovely + Clearly + Cleanly + + +Friday+ + + Homely + Truly + Courtly + Nearly + + +Saturday+ + + Otherwise + Herewith + Sometime + Always + + + + + PLAIN ENGLISH + + LESSON 21 + + +Dear Comrade: + +In this lesson we are completing the study of conjunctions. We have +studied the conjunction last among the parts of speech and in the order +of the development of language, the conjunction naturally comes last. +The need of connective words does not come in any language until the +language is quite well developed. You will notice that the connective +words, such as prepositions and conjunctions are the last words the +child begins to use. The child first begins to use the names of the +things with which it comes in contact, then it learns the words that +express what these things do. But it is not until the child begins to +reason that it begins to use connective words. These become necessary +when we have reached a stage of development where we can consider the +relationship existing between things. + +The use of conjunctions, however, can be greatly overdone. The long and +involved sentences are more difficult to understand. If you will note +the authors which you enjoy the most, it will probably be those who use +short and crisp sentences. We have some authors who by the use of +conjunctions can string one sentence out over several pages. You wonder +how they manage to exist so long without stopping for breath. It is very +easy for us to fall into this error when we are thinking rapidly and our +thoughts all seem to be closely connected. But no mind can grasp many +ideas at one time. Break your sentences up and express your ideas +concisely and clearly. Use conjunctions rather sparingly, especially +these subordinate conjunctions. Do not have too many subordinate clauses +in one sentence. + +Notice in your reading for this week those who use the short, crisp +sentences and those who use the longer and more involved sentences. +Notice which are understood more readily and which are more enjoyable to +read. Take some of the paragraphs from those who write long and involved +sentences and break them up into short sentences and see if these +shorter sentences do not make the meaning simpler and clearer. This will +be excellent practice also in gaining the power of expression. + +Especially in the class struggle do we need those who can write clearly +and simply of the great problems of the day. As the work of the world is +conducted today, the workers have too little time for reading. They are +apt, after a hard day's work, to be too tired to follow an author +through long, winding, involved passages. + +In the spoken word, this is also true. You will find your hearers much +more in sympathy with you if you will use short sentences. Break your +thought up so they can readily grasp your meaning and follow you to your +conclusion. + +Conjunctions are very important to save us from tiresome repetitions and +short, jerky sentences, but we must avoid using them too frequently. + + Yours for Education, + + THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. + + + SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS + ++347.+ We have found that co-ordinate conjunctions connect words, +phrases and also clauses that are entirely independent; that is, they do +not depend in the slightest degree upon any other word, phrase or +clause. Subordinate conjunctions connect inferior clauses to the main +clauses of the sentence. These inferior clauses are dependent clauses. +Subordinate conjunctions never connect words or phrases; but only +dependent clauses, to the rest of the sentence. Note the following +sentences: + + He came _quickly_. + He came _on time_. + He came _when he was called_. + +In the first sentence the word _quickly_ is an adverb modifying the verb +_came_ and answers the question _when_. It tells _when_ he came. In the +second sentence, the phrase _on time_ is an adverb phrase modifying the +verb _came_, and answers the question _when_. It tells _when_ he came. +In the third sentence, the clause _when he was called_, also answers the +question _when_, and tells _when_ he came. Therefore, it is a clause +used as an adverb. It is different from the phrase _on time_, for the +phrase _on time_ does not contain a subject and a predicate. + ++348.+ The difference between the phrase and the clause is that the +phrase does not contain either a subject or a predicate, while the +clause _always_ contains both a subject and a predicate. So in the +clause, _when he was called_, _he_ is the subject and _was called_ is +the predicate, and _when_ is the subordinate conjunction, which connects +this adverb clause to the verb _came_, which it modifies. The clause _he +came_, and the clause _when he was called_, are not of equal rank and +importance, because the clause, _when he was called_, simply modifies +the verb contained in the clause _he came_, by describing the _time_ of +the action expressed in the verb _came_. So the clause, _when he was +called_, is a subordinate or dependent clause, and the conjunctions +which connect this class of clauses to the main clause are called +subordinate conjunctions. + ++349.+ +A subordinate conjunction is one that connects a dependent +clause to the principal clause.+ + + + CLASSES OF SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS + ++350.+ Most subordinate conjunctions are used to make adverb clauses. +These clauses will answer some one of the questions answered by adverbs. +They will tell _how_, _when_, _where_ or _why_ the action expressed in +the verb in the principal clause occurred. There are six classes of +these subordinate conjunctions which are used to introduce adverb +clauses. They introduce: + ++351.+ +Adverb clause of time.+ These clauses will answer the question +_when_ and are introduced by such subordinate conjunctions as, _before_, +_since_, _as_, _while_, _until_, _when_, _after_ and _as soon as_. +Notice in the following sentences the difference made in the meaning of +the sentences by the use of the different conjunctions: + + We waited _until_ you came. + We waited _after_ you came. + We waited _as_ you came. + We waited _before_ you came. + We waited _since_ you came. + We left _while_ you were gone. + We left _when_ you were gone. + We left _as soon as_ you were gone. + ++352.+ +Adverb clause of place.+ These answer the question _where_, and +are introduced by the conjunctions, _where_, _whence_, _whither_. + + I will go _where_ you go. + The wind blows _whither_ it listeth. + He went _whence_ he came. + ++353.+ +Adverb clauses expressing cause or reason.+ These will answer +the question _why_. They are introduced by such subordinate conjunctions +as, _because_, _for_, _since_, _as_, _whereas_, _inasmuch as_, etc. + +Note the difference in the meaning of the following sentences expressed +by the use of different conjunctions: + + I will come _because_ you expect me. + I will come _since_ you expect me. + I will come _as_ you expect me. + I will come _for_ you expect me. + I will come _inasmuch as_ you expect me. + ++354.+ +Adverb clauses of manner.+ These clauses will answer the +question _how_, and are introduced by such subordinate conjunctions as, +_as_, _as if_, _as though_, etc. + + Study _as though_ you were in earnest. + Come _as if_ you had been called. + Do _as_ I say, not _as_ I do. + +In these clauses of _manner_, introduced by _as if_, and _as though_, +_were_ is used in the present form with either singular or plural +subjects. For example: + + He writes as if he _were_ informed of the facts. + They talk as though they _were_ confident of success. + You act as though I _were_ your slave. + ++355.+ +Adverb clauses of comparison.+ These clauses are introduced by +the subordinate conjunctions _than_ and _as_. The verbs are often +omitted in these dependent clauses introduced by _than_ and _as_. For +example: _He is taller than I_. The complete sentence would be: _He is +taller than I am_. _He is not so tall as I._ Here the sentence would be: +_He is not so tall as I am_. + +When the pronoun occurs in these dependent clauses, be sure to use the +proper form of the pronoun. It may be the subject or the object of the +verb which is not expressed. For example; it is incorrect to say: _I am +not so tall as him_. The correct form is: _I am not so tall as he_. The +complete sentence would be: _I am not so tall as he is_, and the pronoun +should be in the subject form, for it is the subject of the verb _is_, +which is understood and omitted. + +The use of the _subject_ or of the _object_ form may make a difference +in the meaning of your sentence. For example, you say: _I admire them as +much as he_. You mean that you admire them as much as he admires them. +But if you say, _I admire them as much as him_, you mean that you admire +them as much as you admire him. Quite a different meaning! + +Be careful in the use of your pronouns in this way, for you can express +quite a different meaning. For example, if you say, _I care more for you +than he_, you mean, I care more for you than he cares for you. But if +you say, _I care more for you than him_, you mean, I care more for you +than I care for him. A mistake like this might mean a great deal to you +some time, if the one to whom you had been speaking had been studying a +course in Plain English! + ++356.+ +Adverb clauses of condition.+ These clauses are introduced by +such conjunctions as, _if_, _provided_, _supposing_, _unless_, _except_, +_otherwise_, _though_, _notwithstanding_, _albeit_, and _whether_. For +example: + + I will come _if_ you need me. + I will come _provided_ you need me. + I will go _notwithstanding_ you need me. + I will not go _unless_ I am called. + He will not go _except_ he is called. + He will not go _though_ he is called. + He came, _otherwise_ I would go. + He will go _whether_ you go or stay. + +When subordinate clauses beginning with _if_, _though_ or _unless_ are +joined to clauses containing _might_, _could_, _would_ or _should_, the +verb _were_ is sometimes used with a singular subject, in such sentences +as: + + If this _were_ true, I should know it. + Unless I _were_ positive, I would not say so. + Though our leader _were_ lost, yet we would not despair. + If he _were_ here, he would explain it himself. + If I _were_ with you, I might make you understand. + +Sometimes in sentences like these, _if_ is omitted in the clause, and +the verb placed first. For example: + + _Were_ he here, he would deny these slanders. + _Were_ he truly class-conscious, he would oppose this war. + _Were_ this fact known, the people would never submit. + +These clauses express something which is uncertain, or which is to be +decided in the future; a supposition contrary to a fact or a wish. +Occasionally you will find the verb _be_ used instead of _is_, in +clauses of this kind introduced by _if_, _though_, _unless_, _except_, +_lest_, etc. For example: + + If it _be_ true, I will hear it. + Though he _be_ guilty, we will not desert him. + +In subordinate clauses connected by _if_, _unless_, etc., with a +principal clause which expresses future time, the present form of the +verb is used in the subordinate clause. For example: + + If they are willing, we will join them. + Unless he comes, I shall not leave. + If it rains, we will not go. + ++357.+ +Adverb clauses expressing purpose.+ These are introduced by such +subordinate conjunctions as, _that_, _in order that_ and _lest_. For +example: + + Take good care _that_ you understand this lesson. + I will go today _in order that_ I may meet him. + Watch these carefully _lest_ they be stolen. + Read the labor press _that_ you may know the truth. + +Notice that _that_, when used in this way, as a pure conjunction, means +_in order that_. For example, the sentence above might read: + + Read the labor press _in order that_ you may know the truth. + ++358.+ +Adverb clauses expressing result.+ These are introduced by the +subordinate conjunction _that_, as for example: + + They were so late _that_ I could not go. + + + SUMMARY + ++359.+ We have then adverb clauses introduced by subordinate +conjunctions expressing: + + 1. +Time.+ Answer the question _when_. + 2. +Place.+ Answer the question _where_. + 3. +Cause or reason.+ Answer the question _why_. + 4. +Manner.+ Answer the question _how_. + 5. +Comparison.+ Used to compare. + 6. +Condition.+ Answer the question _on what condition_. + 7. +Purpose.+ Answer the question _for what purpose_. + 8. +Result.+ Answer the question _to what result_. + + + Exercise 1 + +In the following sentences, mark the conjunctions and tell to what class +they belong; ask the question _when_, _where_, _why_, _how_, _on what +condition_, _for what purpose_, _to what result_. Underscore the +subordinate clauses. The subjects of the subordinate clauses are printed +in italics. + + 1. Speech was developed that _we_ might be able to communicate with + one another. + 2. The International failed in the crisis because _it_ had no + definite war program. + 3. We will fail if _we_ have no definite program. + 4. If _labor_ were united, we could destroy wage slavery. + 5. When the _people_ understand, they will no longer submit. + 6. Labor cannot win until _it_ learns solidarity. + 7. After the terrible _war_ is over, the workers in all countries may + come closer together. + 8. We are convinced of the folly of nationalism since the _war_ has + been declared. + 9. If _we_ knew the facts we could not be misled. + 10. Inform yourself before _you_ seek to teach others. + 11. We must unite in order that _we_ may possess power. + 12. It is more than the _heart_ can bear. + 13. May you have courage to dare ere _you_ have ceased to dream. + 14. If _we_ remain ignorant, we shall remain enslaved. + 15. We sometimes fear to trust our own thought because _it_ is our + own. + 16. Though _we_ should lose the strike we will not despair. + 17. The battle waged so fiercely that _thousands_ were slain. + + + PHRASE CONJUNCTIONS + ++360.+ There are certain phrases which have come to be used together as +conjunctions so commonly that we may consider them as conjunctions. They +are: + +_As if_, _as though_, _but also_, _but likewise_, _so that_, _except +that_, _inasmuch as_, _notwithstanding that_, _in order that_, _as well +as_, _as far as_, _so far as_, _as little as_, _provided that_, _seeing +that_, etc. + + + Exercise 2 + +Write sentences using these phrase conjunctions to introduce clauses. + + + NOUN CLAUSES + ++361.+ We have found that there are two kinds of clauses, principal +clauses and subordinate clauses. + ++A principal clause is one that does not depend on any word.+ + ++A subordinate clause is one that depends upon some word or words in the +principal clause.+ + +We have found, also, that these principal clauses are always connected +by co-ordinate conjunctions, for they are of equal rank and importance; +neither is dependent upon the other. + +Subordinate clauses are always connected with the principal clause by a +subordinate conjunction. The subordinate clauses which we have been +studying have all been adverb clauses which are used to describe the +action expressed in the verb contained in the principal clauses. + +The subordinate clause in a sentence may also be used as a noun. When +the subordinate clause is used as a noun it is called a noun clause. + ++362.+ +A noun clause is a clause used as a noun.+ + +A noun clause may be used in any way in which a noun is used, except as +a possessive. It may be used as a subject, an object, a predicate +complement, or in apposition with a noun. These noun clauses may be +introduced by either relative pronouns, interrogative pronouns or by +conjunctions. For example: + + I know _who_ he is. + He asked, "_what_ do you want?" + I know _where_ it is. + +In the first sentence, _who he is_, is a noun clause used as the object +of the verb _know_. It tells _what_ I know, and is the object of the +verb _know_,--just as if I had said; _I know the facts_. In this +sentence the noun, _facts_, is the object of the verb _know_. + +In the second sentence, _He asked, "what do you want?_" the noun clause +_what do you want_ is the object of the verb _asked_, and is introduced +by the interrogative pronoun _what_. + +We will study in a subsequent lesson the use of noun clauses introduced +by relative pronouns. In this lesson we are studying the conjunctions. + +In the last sentence, _I know where it is_, the noun clause _where it +is_, is the object of the verb _know_, and is introduced by the +conjunction _where_. + ++363.+ Noun clauses are introduced by the subordinate conjunctions, +_where_, _when_, _whence_, _whither_, _whether_, _how_, _why_, and also +by the subordinate conjunction _that_. For example: + + I know _where_ I can find it. + I inquired _when_ he would arrive. + We do not know _whence_ it cometh nor whither it goeth. + Ask _whether_ the train has gone. + I don't know _how_ I can find you. + I cannot understand _why_ he does so. + I believe _that_ he is honest. + +In all of these examples the noun clauses are used as the objects of the +verb. Noun clauses may also be used as objects of prepositions. As, for +example: + + You do not listen to _what is said_. + He talked to me about _what had happened_. + He told me to come to _where he was_. + ++364.+ Noun clauses may also be used as the subject of a sentence. As +for example: + + _That he is innocent_ is admitted by all. + _That he was guilty_ has been proven. + _Why he should do this_ is very strange. + _How we are to live_ is the great problem. + +In all of these sentences, the noun clause is used as the subject of the +verb. You will note that most frequently the noun clause used as subject +of the verb is introduced by the subordinate conjunction _that_. But +quite often we write these sentences in a somewhat different way. For +example: + + It is admitted by all _that he is innocent_. + It has been proven _that he was guilty_. + +You will notice in these sentences we have expressed practically the +same thought as in the sentences where the noun clause was used as the +subject of the verb. + +But now we have this little pronoun _it_ used as the subject, instead of +the clause, which is the real subject of the sentence. _It_ is simply +used as the introductory word in the sentence. The noun clause is in +reality the subject of the sentence. + ++365.+ Noun clauses may also be used as the predicate complement with a +copulative verb. For example: + + The general opinion is _that he is innocent_. + The problem is _how we may accomplish this quickly_. + The question was _why any one should believe such statements_. + +In all of these sentences the noun clause is used as the complement of +the incomplete verbs _is_ and _was_, to complete the meaning, just as we +use a noun as the predicate complement of a copulative verb in such +sentences as, _Socialism is a science._ _War is murder._ + ++366.+ A noun clause may also be used in apposition to a noun to explain +its meaning. Apposition means to place alongside of. Note in the +following sentences: + + The fact, _that such a law had been passed_, alters the situation. + His motion, _that the matter should be laid on the table_, was + adopted. + +In the first sentence, the clause, _that such a law had been passed_, is +placed beside the noun _fact_ and explains _what_ that fact is. The +clause, _that the matter should be laid on the table_, is in apposition +to and explains the noun _motion_. + +These noun clauses are used in apposition. + + + Exercise 3 + +Complete the following sentences by inserting the appropriate +conjunctions and pronouns in the blank spaces: + + 1. Can you tell......Germany has a million fighting men? + 2. Would you be pleased......the United States should intervene in + Mexico? + 3. The Mexican revolution will continue......the people possess the + land. + 4. No one may vote in the convention......he has credentials. + 5. ......Debs was in Woodstock jail, he became in Socialist. + 6. ......the treaty was signed, hostilities ceased. + 7. We shall win......we have the courage. + 8. ......we have lost this battle we shall not cease to struggle. + 9. All are enslaved......one is enslaved. + 10. Humanity will be free......labor is free. + 11. Let us do our duty......we understand it. + 12. Man will never reach his best......he walks side by side with + woman. + 13. We must struggle......we would be free. + 14. ......we shout for peace, we support war. + 15. All our sympathies should be with the man......toils,......we + know......labor is the foundation of all. + 16. ......all have the right to think and to express their thoughts + every brain will give to all the best......it has. + 17. ......man develops he places greater value upon his own rights. + 18. ......man values his own rights he begins to value the rights of + others. + 19. ......all men give to all others the rights......they claim for + themselves this world will be civilized. + + + Exercise 4 + +Note all the co-ordinate and subordinate conjunctions in the following +verses from "The Ballad of Reading Gaol." Underscore the subordinate +clauses. Are they adverb or noun clauses? Do the co-ordinate +conjunctions connect words, phrases or clauses? + + I know not _whether_ Laws be right, + Or _whether_ Laws be wrong; + All that we know who lie in gaol + Is _that_ the wall is strong; + _And that_ each day is like a year, + A year whose days are long. + + _But_ this I know, _that_ every Law + That men have made for Man, + _Since_ first Man took his brother's life, + _And_ the sad world began, + But straws the wheat _and_ saves the chaff + With a most evil fan. + + This too I know--_and_ wise it were + _If_ each could know the same-- + _That_ every prison that men build + Is built with bricks of shame, + _And_ bound with bars _lest_ Christ should see + _How_ men their brothers maim. + + With bars they blur the gracious moon, + _And_ blind the goodly sun: + _And_ they do well to hide their Hell, + _For_ in it things are done + That son of God _nor_ son of Man + Ever should look upon! + + In Reading gaol by Reading town + There is a pit of shame, + _And_ in it lies a wretched man + Eaten by teeth of flame, + In a burning winding sheet he lies, + _And_ his grave has got no name. + + _And_ there, _till_ Christ call forth the dead, + In silence let him lie: + No need to waste the foolish tear, + _Or_ heave the windy sigh: + The man had killed the thing he loved, + _And so_ he had to die. + + _And_ all men kill the thing they love, + By all let this be heard, + Some do it with a bitter look, + Some with a flattering word, + The coward does it with a kiss, + The brave man with a sword. + + --_Oscar Wilde_. + + + + + SPELLING + + LESSON 21 + + +In Lesson No. 17 we studied concerning abstract nouns derived from +qualifying adjectives. We found that we formed these nouns expressing +quality from adjectives that describe quality by the addition of +suffixes. + +Adjectives may likewise be formed from nouns and also from verbs by the +addition of suffixes. There are a number of suffixes which may be used +to form adjectives in this way; as, _al_, _ous_, _ic_, _ful_, _less_, +_able_, _ible_, _ary_ and _ory_. Notice the following words: nation, +_national_; peril, _perilous_; reason, _reasonable_; sense, _sensible_; +custom, _customary_; advise, _advisory_; hero, _heroic_; care, +_careful_, _careless_. + +To some words, more than one suffix may be added and an adjective of +different meaning formed; for example, use, _useless_, _useful_; care, +_careless_, _careful_. + +Make as many adjectives as you can from the nouns and verbs given in the +spelling lesson for this week by the addition of one or more of the +following suffixes: + +_Al_, _less_, _ous_, _ic_, _ful_, _able_, _ible_, _ary_, _ory_, and +_ly_. + + +Monday+ + + Accident + Danger + Origin + Commend + Element + + +Tuesday+ + + Critic + Libel + Attain + Revolution + Contradict + + +Wednesday+ + + Cynic + Injury + Respect + Station + Migrate + + +Thursday+ + + Event + Parent + Order + Virtue + Marvel + + +Friday+ + + Second + Fashion + Consider + Murder + Incident + + +Saturday+ + + Constitution + Industry + Vibrate + Tribute + Compliment + + + + + PLAIN ENGLISH + + LESSON 22 + + +Dear Comrade: + +We have practically finished the study of the different parts of speech. +We are now in possession of a knowledge of the tools which we need to +use in expressing ourselves. We are ready to make practical application +of this knowledge in writing and speaking. We will find that with our +increasing ability to express ourselves there comes also the power to +think clearly. The analysis of language has meant a growing power to +_think_ on the part of the people. + +We sometimes imagine that simplicity of language was a part of primitive +life, but this is not true. Simplicity of language is the product of +high civilization. Primitive life was marked, not by simplicity of +language, but by the scarcity of language. They made one word stand for +an entire sentence, and if they wished to express a little different +meaning, an entirely different word had to be used, as for example, in +the primitive language: _I said to her_, would be one word, and _I said +to him_, would be another, entirely different, word. + +But as the power of thought began to develop, we began to analyze our +meaning and we found that this thought was identical except the _him_ +and the _her_. So as we analyzed our thought our expression of it became +more simple. In most languages, the different meaning of the verb, for +example, is expressed by an arbitrary change in the verb form. This is +called the inflection of the verb. In English we would use several words +to express the same thing. For example, the Latin word _Fuissem_ +requires four English words to express the same meaning; _I should have +been_, we say in English. So instead of having to learn a great number +of different changes in the verb form, we, by the use of auxiliary +verbs, _have_, _shall_, _do_, _be_, etc., are able to express all these +shades of thought much more simply and clearly. + +Most other languages also have changes for gender. Every noun has a +gender of its own and sometimes this form gives the wrong gender to +living beings and attributes sex to sexless objects and the only way to +know the gender of the noun is simply by memory. Then the adjectives, +possessive pronouns and the articles _a_ and _the_ have gender also and +have to be changed to suit the gender of the noun; this involves a great +effort of memory. So while the English may seem somewhat involved to +you, it is, after all, much simpler than other languages. It has been +freed from many superfluous endings and unnecessary complications. + +Take a little time each day to read something out of the best +literature. The quotations given in each of these lessons are from our +very best writers. A study of these will be a wonderful help and +inspiration to you and bring you in touch with some of the great +thinkers of the revolution. They are our comrades and are putting into +words the thoughts and hopes and dreams of our lives. + + Yours for the Revolution, + + THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. + + + ADJECTIVE CLAUSES + ++367.+ In our study of subordinate clauses, we have studied subordinate +clauses used as adverbs and as nouns. We have found that adverb clauses +can be used in the same way as adverbs, to describe the time, place, +manner, cause, condition or purpose of the action expressed in the verb. +We have found, also, that a noun clause may be used in any way in which +a noun can be used, as the subject of the sentence, the object of a verb +or preposition or as the predicate complement. But these are not the +only uses to which the subordinate clause may be put. Note the following +sentences: + + _Wealthy_ men desire to control the education of the people. + Men _of wealth_ desire to control the education of the people. + Men _who are wealthy_ desire to control the education of the people. + +Do you see any difference in the words which are used to modify the noun +_men_? In the first sentence, _wealthy_ is an adjective, modifying the +noun _men_. In the second sentence, _of wealth_ is a prepositional +phrase, used as an adjective modifying the noun _men_. In the last +sentence, _who are wealthy_ is a clause used in exactly the same way +that the adjective _wealthy_ and the adjective phrase _of wealth_ are +used, to modify the noun _men_. + +We have expressed practically the same meaning in these three ways: by a +word; by a phrase; by a clause. + ++368.+ +A word used to describe and modify a noun is an adjective.+ + ++A phrase used to describe and modify a noun is an adjective phrase.+ + ++A clause used to describe and modify a noun is an adjective clause.+ + +Note the difference between a phrase and a clause. + ++369.+ A prepositional phrase, used as an adjective, consists of the +preposition and the noun which is its object, together with its +modifiers. A phrase never has either a subject or a predicate. _Who are +wealthy_, is a clause because it does contain a subject and a predicate. +The pronoun _who_ is the subject in the clause, and the predicate is the +copulative verb _are_ with the predicate complement, the adjective +_wealthy_. + + + Exercise 1 + +In the following sentences change the adjective into a phrase and also +into a clause, if possible. For example: + + A _fearless_ man always defends his rights. + A man _without fear_ always defends his rights. + A man _who is fearless_ always defends his rights. + + 1. The _unemployed_ men are becoming desperate. + 2. The _uneducated_ masses are demanding equal opportunity. + 3. The discovery of gold was an _important_ discovery. + 4. _Unorganized_ labor is helpless. + 5. The revolution needs _intelligent_ rebels. + 6. A few _wealthy_ men are striving to control education. + 7. This will be a _progressive_ movement. + 8. _Labor-saving_ inventions throw men out of employment. + 9. _Scientific_ men prophesy a great advance for the mass. + + + THE INTRODUCING WORD + ++370.+ You will notice that these adjective clauses are introduced by +the relative pronouns _who_, _which_ and _that_. These relative pronouns +fulfil something of the office of a conjunction, because they are +serving as connecting elements; they join these subordinate clauses to +the words which they modify. But you will note, also, that these +relative pronouns not only serve as connecting elements, but they also +play a part in the subordinate clause, as either the subject or object. +For example: + + The man who has no education is handicapped in the struggle. + Are these the books that you ordered? + +In the first sentence, _who has an education_ is an adjective clause +modifying the noun _man_, introduced by the relative pronoun _who_, +which is also the subject of the verb _has_. + +In the second sentence, _that you ordered_ is an adjective clause, +modifying the noun _books_, introduced by the relative pronoun _that_, +which is also the object of the verb _ordered_. + ++371.+ There is no need to be confused in this matter of clauses. If the +clause is used as a noun, either as the subject or the object or in any +other way in which a noun can be used, it is a noun clause. If it is +used as an adverb and will answer any of the questions _why_, _when_, +_where_, or _how_, etc., it is an adverb clause. If it is used as an +adjective,--if it modifies a noun or pronoun,--it is an adjective +clause. + +You will note that the only way in which a noun is used that does not +have its corresponding clause is as a possessive. We do not have +possessive clauses. The clause used as an adjective always modifies a +noun or pronoun. + ++372.+ +An adjective clause is a clause used as an adjective and hence +always modifies a noun or pronoun.+ + +An adjective clause may be introduced by the relative pronouns, _who_, +_which_ or _that_. The use of this clause is a great help to us in the +expression of our ideas, for it enables us to combine several sentences +containing related thoughts into one sentence so we have it all +presented to the mind at once. + + + Exercise 2 + +In the following sentences, note which are the noun clauses and which +are the adjective clauses and which are the adverb clauses. The verb in +the subordinate clause is in italics. + + 1. Life is what we _make_ it. + 2. We acquire the strength that we _overcome_. + 3. While he _slept_ the enemy came. + 4. All that he _does_ is to distribute what others _produce_. + 5. When faith _is lost_, when honor _dies_, the man is dead. + 6. Thrice is he armed who _hath_ his quarrel just; he is naked though + he _be locked_ up in steel whose conscience with injustice is + _corrupted_. + 7. When strength and justice _are_ true yoke fellows, where can we + find a mightier pair than they? + 8. You will gain a good reputation if you _endeavor_ to be what you + _desire_ to appear. + 9. Live as though life _were_ earnest and life will be so. + 10. He that _loveth_ makes his own the grandeur that he _loves_. + 11. Who _does_ the best his circumstance _allows_ does well; angels + could do no more. + 12. He is not worthy of the honeycomb that _shuns_ the hive because + the bees _have_ stings. + 13. We always may be what we _might have been_. + 14. Rich gifts wax poor when givers _prove_ unkind. + 15. Let me make the songs of the people and I care not who _makes_ the + laws. + 16. Attention is the stuff that memory _is made_ of. + 17. A great writer has said that grace _is_ beauty in action; I say + that justice _is_ truth in action. + 18. If we do not _plant_ knowledge when young it will give us no shade + when we _are_ old. + 19. You can no more exercise your reason if you _live_ in constant + dread of laughter than you _can enjoy_ your life if you _live_ in + constant dread and terror of death. + + + WHICH RELATIVE PRONOUN TO USE + ++373.+ We are sometimes confused as to which relative pronoun to use in +introducing an adjective clause. We hesitate as to whether we should use +_that_ or _who_ or _which_. Remember that _who_ always refers to +_persons_, _which_ refers to _animals_ or _things_, and _that_ may refer +to either _persons_, _animals_ or _things_. + +So when referring to a _person_, we may use either _who_ or _that_, and +when referring to _animals_ or _things_, we may use either _which_ or +_that_. As, for example, we may say, either, _The man who was here +yesterday came back today_, or _The man that was here yesterday came +back today_. Either is correct, for _who_ and _that_ both refer to +persons. + ++374.+ We may make a little distinction in the use of _who_ and _that_ +when referring to _persons_, however. A clause introduced by _that_ is +usually a restrictive clause. It limits or restricts the meaning of the +noun which it modifies. When you say, _The man that was here yesterday_, +you mean _that_ man and no other, limiting your meaning to that +particular man. On the other hand, when you say, _The man who was here +yesterday_, there is no restriction or limitation expressed in the use +of the clause, but it is merely a descriptive clause, adding a new fact +to our knowledge concerning that particular man. + +The same is true when we are speaking of _things_ using either _that_ or +_which_. The clause introduced by _which_ is presumably a descriptive +clause. We do, however, often use _who_ or _which_ when the sense of the +clause is restrictive, but we should never use _that_ to introduce an +adjective clause, unless the sense is restrictive. When in your +sentences you can use, instead of the relative pronoun _who_ or _which_, +the conjunction _and_, you can know that the use of the pronoun _who_ or +_which_ is correct. As, for example: + + I have read the book, _which_ I found very interesting. + +You could say instead: + + I have read the book _and_ I found it very interesting. + +This would express the same meaning. But if you say: _I have read the +book that I found very interesting_, you mean that you limit your idea +to this particular book. + ++375.+ We do not always observe these niceties in our spoken and written +speech, but it is interesting to know the shades of thought and meaning +which you can express by the proper use of the language. The man who +runs an engine and learns to know and love his machine almost as though +it were a human being, can easily recognize the slightest change in the +action of his machine. His ear catches the least difference in the sound +of the running of the machine, a difference which we, who do not know +and love the machine, would never notice. + +So it is in language. Once we have sensed its beauty and its wondrous +power of expression, we notice all these slight differences and shades +of meaning which may be expressed by the use of words. In just the same +manner the musician catches the undertones and overtones of the music, +which we, who possess an uneducated ear, cannot know; and the artist +also has a wondrous range of color, while we, who are not sensitive to +color, know only a few of the primal colors. + + + ADJECTIVE CLAUSES WITH CONJUNCTIONS + ++376.+ The adjective clauses which we have been studying so far have +been introduced by relative pronouns. Adjective clauses may also be +introduced by conjunctions, such as, _where_, _when_, _whence_, or +_why_. As, for example: + + Antwerp is the place where a terrible battle was fought. + No man knows the hour when opportunity will be his. + Each group has a different reason why this world-war was precipitated. + +Note in these sentences the clauses, _where a terrible battle was +fought_, _when opportunity will be his_, _why this world-war was +precipitated_, are all adjective clauses modifying the nouns _place_, +_hour_ and _reason_, and are introduced by the conjunctions _where_, +_when_, and _why_. These are adjective clauses because they modify, by +either limiting or describing, the nouns with which they are used. You +will note that we could omit the nouns in the first two of these +sentences and these clauses would become noun clauses, for they would be +used in the place of a noun. As, for example: + + Antwerp is where a terrible battle was fought. + No man knows when opportunity will be his. + ++377.+ We determine whether a clause is an adjective or an adverb or a +noun clause just as we determine whether a word is an adjective, adverb +or noun, by the work which it does in a sentence. Noun clauses are used +in the place of a noun; adverb clauses modify verbs, adjectives, and +adverbs; adjective clauses modify nouns and pronouns. + + + THE LITTLE WORD "AS" + ++378.+ Adjective clauses may also be introduced by _as_. _As_ is a very +convenient word and may be used in several different ways; sometimes as +an adverb, sometimes as a conjunction; and it may also be used as a +relative pronoun after _such_, _same_ and _many_. For example: + + Such books _as_ you should read are listed here. + No such person _as_ he ever came here. + We are facing the same crisis _as_ our comrades faced. + This is the same _as_ you gave before. + He has made as many mistakes _as_ you have. + +In these sentences _as_ is really used as a relative pronoun, connecting +these adjective clauses to the words which they modify. _As_ may also be +used as an adverb. _I am as tall as you are._ + +Here the first _as_ modifies _tall_ and is used as an adverb; the second +_as_ is a conjunction connecting the subordinate clause _you are_, with +the principal clause. Note that in making comparisons, _as_ is always +used when the comparison is equal, _so_ when it is unequal, thus: + + I am _as_ tall as you are. + She is not _so_ tall as you are. + +We have found that _as_ is also used as a conjunction to introduce an +adverb clause. For example: + + She is as beautiful _as_ she is good. + +The clause, _as she is good_, is an adverb clause, modifying the +adjective _beautiful_. In the sentence, _Do as I say_, _as I say_ is an +adverb clause of manner, modifying the verb _do_. + + + CONNECTIVE WORDS + ++379.+ Let us not be confused in this matter of connectives. There are +just four classes of connective words: + + 1. +Copulative verbs.+ + 2. +Relative pronouns.+ + 3. +Prepositions.+ + 4. +Conjunctions.+ + ++380.+ The copulative verb is not a pure connective, for it serves +another purpose in the sentence. For example, in the sentence, _The book +is interesting_, the copulative verb _is_ connects the adjective +_interesting_ with the noun _book_, which it modifies; but it also is +the asserting word in the sentence. So it fulfils a double function. It +is an asserting word and also a connective word. + ++381.+ The relative pronoun also is not a pure connective, for it serves +two purposes in the sentence. It not only connects the clause which it +introduces, with the word which it modifies, but it also serves as +either the subject or object in the clause. For example: _The man who +was here has gone_. The clause, _who was here_, is introduced by the +relative pronoun _who_, which connects that clause with the noun _man_, +which the clause modifies. _Who_ also serves as the subject of the verb +_was_. + +In the sentence, _The men whom we seek have gone_, the clause, _whom we +seek_, is introduced by the relative pronoun _whom_, which connects the +clause with the word _men_, which it modifies. _Whom_ also serves as the +object of the verb in the clause, the verb _seek_. + ++382.+ A preposition is not a pure connective, since it serves a double +function. It shows the relation of its object to the rest of the +sentence and also governs the form of its object. As, for example, in +the sentence: _The man before me is not the culprit_, the preposition +_before_ connects its object _me_ with the noun _man_, which the +prepositional phrase modifies, showing the relation between them; and it +governs the form of its object, for the pronoun following a preposition +must be used in the _object_ form. + ++383.+ Even co-ordinate conjunctions can scarcely be considered pure +connectives unless it be the co-ordinate conjunction _and_. Co-ordinate +conjunctions such as _but_, _yet_, _still_, _however_, etc., not only +connect words, phrases and clauses of equal rank, but in addition to +connecting the words and expressions they also indicate that they are +opposite in thought. + ++384.+ Co-ordinate conjunctions like _therefore_, _hence_, _then_, etc., +connect words, phrases and clauses of equal rank, and also introduce a +_reason_ or _cause_. Co-ordinate conjunctions like _or_, _either_, +_nor_, _neither_, _whether_, etc., connect words, phrases and clauses of +equal rank, and also express the choice of an alternative. Thus these +co-ordinate conjunctions can scarcely be considered as pure connectives. + ++385.+ Subordinate conjunctions are most frequently used to introduce +adverb clauses and have an adverbial meaning. They express, as do +adverbs, _place_, _time_, _manner_, _cause_, _reason_, _purpose_, +_condition_ or _result_. Some authorities indicate this double function +by calling such words as these conjunctive adverbs, because, even when +they are used as conjunctions, they retain some of their adverbial +force. + +But according to our rule that every word in the sentence is classified +according to the function which it performs in that sentence, all words +that perform the function of a conjunction are called conjunctions, +although we understand that these conjunctions which introduce dependent +clauses do still retain some of their adverbial meaning. + + + Exercise 3 + +In the following sentences the connectives are in italics. Determine +whether they are copulative verbs, relative pronouns, prepositions, +co-ordinate conjunctions or subordinate conjunctions. + + 1. They _are_ slaves _who_ dare not be _in_ the right _with_ two + _or_ three. + 2. _In_ the twentieth century war _will be_ dead, dogmas _will be_ + dead, _but_ man will live. + 3. The abuse _of_ free speech dies _in_ a day, _but_ its denial slays + the life _of_ the people _and_ entombs the race. + 4. Liberty _for_ the few _is_ not liberty. + 5. Liberty _for_ me _and_ slavery _for_ you means slavery _for_ both. + 6. The greatest thing _in_ the world _is for_ a man to know _that_ he + _is_ his own. + 7. Nothing can work me damage _except_ myself. + 8. He _that_ loveth maketh his own the grandeur _which_ he loves. + 9. My life _is_ not an apology, _but_ a life. + 10. I cannot consent to pay _for_ a privilege _where_ I have intrinsic + right. + 11. It _is_ difficult to free fools _from_ the chains _which_ they + revere. + 12. Desire nothing _for_ yourself _which_ you do not desire _for + others_. + 13. All our liberties _are_ due _to_ men _who_, _when_ their + conscience compelled them, have broken the laws _of_ the land. + 14. "It takes great strength to live _where_ you belong, + _When_ other people think _that_ you _are_ wrong." + 15. _If_ the truth shall make you free, ye _shall be_ free indeed. + 16. He _is_ true _to_ God _who is_ true _to_ man. + + + Exercise 4 + +In the following sentences underscore all the connectives--copulative +verbs, prepositions, relative pronouns, co-ordinate and subordinate +conjunctions. + +"There was a bird's egg once, picked up by chance upon the ground, and +those who found it bore it home and placed it under a barn-yard fowl. +And in time the chick bred out, and those who had found it chained it by +the leg to a log lest it should stray and be lost. And by and by they +gathered round it, and speculated as to what the bird might be. + +One said, "It is surely a waterfowl, a duck, or it may be a goose; if we +took it to the water it would swim and gabble." But another said, "It +has no webs to its feet; it is a barn-yard fowl; if you should let it +loose it will scratch and cackle with the others on the dungheap." But a +third speculated, "Look now at its curved beak; no doubt it is a parrot, +and can crack nuts." + +But a fourth said, "No, but look at its wings; perhaps it is a bird of +great flight." But several cried, "Nonsense! No one has ever seen it +fly! Why should it fly? Can you suppose that a thing can do a thing +which no one has ever seen it do?" And the bird, with its leg chained +close to the log, preened its wings. + +So they say about it, speculating and discussing it: and one said this, +and another that. + +And all the while, as they talked, the bird sat motionless, "Suppose we +let the creature loose to see what it will do?"--and the bird shivered. +But the others cried, "It is too valuable; it might get lost. If it were +to try to fly it might fall down and break its neck." And the bird, with +its foot chained to the log, sat looking upward into the clear sky; the +sky, in which it had never been--for the bird--the bird, knew what it +would do--because it was an eaglet!" + + --_Olive Schreiner_. + + + Exercise 5 + +These stirring lines are taken from Arturo Giovannitti's "Arrows in the +Gale" and are a part of the poem "The Sermon on the Common." Note the +use of the conjunctions. Mark all of the clauses. + + Ye are the power of the earth, the foundations of society, the + thinkers and the doers of all things good and all things fair and + useful, the makers and dispensers of all the bounties and the joys and + the happiness of the world, and if ye fold your mighty arms, all the + life of the world stands still and death hovers on the darkened abodes + of man. + + Ye are the light of the world. There was darkness in all the ages when + the torch of your will did not blaze forth, and the past and the + future are full of the radiance that cometh from your eyes. + + Ye are eternal, even as your father, labor, is eternal, and no power + of time and dissolution can prevail against you. + + Ages have come and gone, kingdoms and powers and dynasties have risen + and fallen, old glories and ancient wisdoms have been turned into + dust, heroes and sages have been forgotten and many a mighty and + fearsome god has been hurled into the lightless chasms of oblivion. + + But ye, Plebs, Populace, People, Rabble, Mob, Proletariat, live and + abide forever. + + Therefore I say unto you, banish fear from your hearts, dispel the + mists of ignorance from your minds, arm your yearning with your + strength, your vision with your will, and open your eyes and behold. + + Do not moan, do not submit, do not kneel, do not pray, do not wait. + + Think, dare, do, rebel, fight--ARISE! + + It is not true that ye are condemned to serve and to suffer in shame + forever. + + It is not true that injustice, iniquity, hunger, misery, abjection, + depravity, hatred, theft, murder and fratricide are eternal. + + There is no destiny that the will of man cannot break. + + There are no chains of iron that other iron cannot destroy. + + There is nothing that the power of your arms, lighted by the power of + your mind, cannot transform and reconstruct and remake. + + Arise, then, ye men of the plow and the hammer, the helm and the + lever, and send forth to the four winds of the earth your new + proclamation of freedom which shall be the last and shall abide + forevermore. + + Through you, through your united, almighty strength, order shall + become equity, law shall become liberty, duty shall become love and + religion shall become truth. + + Through you, the man-beast shall die and the man be born. + + Through you, the dark and bloody chronicles of the brute shall cease + and the story of man shall begin. + + Through you, by the power of your brain and hand, + + All the predictions of the prophets, + + All the wisdom of the sages, + + All the dreams of the poets, + + All the hopes of the heroes, + + All the visions of the martyrs, + + All the prayers of the saints, + + All the crushed, tortured, strangled, maimed and murdered ideals of + the ages, and all the glorious destinies of mankind shall become a + triumphant and everlasting reality in the name of labor and bread and + love, the great threefold truth forever. + + And lo and behold, my brothers, this shall be called the revolution. + + + + + SPELLING + + LESSON 22 + + +In our study of the spelling of English words we have found that there +are not many rules that apply. In fact, the only way to learn to spell +correctly is by sheer dint of memory. + +In last week's lesson we found that a number of adjectives can be formed +from nouns or verbs by the addition of _able_ or _ible_, but we find it +difficult to determine whether to add _able_ or _ible_. The sound is +practically the same and we are confused as to whether we should use _a_ +or _i_. There is no rule which applies in this case and there is nothing +to do but to master the spelling of these words by memory. These are +words which we use a great deal and which are very helpful members of +our working vocabulary. + +Our list of words in this week's lesson contain some of the most common +words which we use ending in _ible_ or _able_. The words for Monday, +Tuesday, and Wednesday all end in _able_; the words for Thursday, +Friday, and Saturday will end in _ible_. Notice them carefully and get +fixed firmly in mind the correct spelling. Notice also that most of +these adjectives can be changed into adverbs by changing _ble_ to _bly_. +So when you have added these adjectives to your vocabulary, you have +also added the adverbs as well. + + +Monday+ + + Probable + Capable + Usable + Considerable + Respectable + + +Tuesday+ + + Durable + Salable + Advisable + Available + Equitable + + +Wednesday+ + + Tolerable + Profitable + Remarkable + Valuable + Comfortable + + +Thursday+ + + Possible + Horrible + Plausible + Intelligible + Terrible + + +Friday+ + + Credible + Visible + Infallible + Responsible + Sensible + + +Saturday+ + + Forcible + Permissible + Feasible + Corruptible + Eligible + + + + + PLAIN ENGLISH + + LESSON 23 + + +Dear Comrade: + +In this lesson we are taking up the study of interjections. +Interjections are the language of emotion. This was probably the +earliest form of speech. You notice that children use these exclamations +often, and the sounds which are imitations of the noises about them. +This language belongs also to the savage, whose peculiar and expressive +grunts contain whole areas of condensed thought. As we progress from +feeling to thinking, the use of the interjection diminishes. + +You will not find interjections used in a book on mathematics or +physical science or history. To attempt to read one of these books may +make you use interjections and express your emotion in violent language, +but you will not find interjections in these books. These books of +science are books that express thought and not feeling. But if you turn +to fiction and to oratory you will find the interjection used freely, +for these are the books which treat of the human emotions and feelings. +Especially in poetry will you find the interjection used, for poetry is +the language of feeling and the interjection is an important part of the +poet's stock in trade. + +In conversation, these exclamatory words are very useful. They fill the +gaps in our conversation and they help to put the listener and the +speaker in touch with one another. They are usually accompanied by a +gesture, which adds force to the word. The tone of the voice in which +they are expressed also means a great deal. You can say, Oh! in half a +dozen different ways; you may express surprise, wonder, joy, sorrow, +pain, or disgust. A great many different and widely separated feelings +can be expressed simply by the tone in which you use the exclamatory +words. Some one has said that these words grease the wheels of talk. +They serve to help the timid, to give time to the unready and to keep up +a pleasant semblance of familiarity. + +When we use them in the stress of emotion to express deep feeling, their +use is perfectly justified. But one author has called these words "the +miserable refuge of the speechless." We use them many times because we +have no words with which to express ourselves. This use is unjustified. +Be careful that you do not use them in this way. It has been said that +the degree of a man's civilization can be pretty fairly judged by the +expletives which he uses. Do not sprinkle your conversation with +interjections and even stronger words because you are at a loss for +other words. + +There is a rich mine of words at your disposal. Do not be satisfied with +bits of glass that have no value, when the rich diamonds of real +expression can be yours for just a little digging. Save your emotional +language for the time when you really need it to express deep emotion. + + Yours for Education, + + THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. + + + INTERJECTIONS + ++386.+ We have been studying the parts of speech,--the elements of which +sentences are composed. But we have another class of words which we call +parts of speech because they are spoken and written as words, but which +are really not parts of speech in the same sense as the words which we +have been discussing. These are words which we call interjections. + +Interjection means, literally, thrown between, from _jecto_, to throw, +and _inter_, between. So interjections do not enter into the +construction of sentences but are only thrown in between. Every word +that is really a part of the sentence is either a noun, a pronoun, a +verb, an adjective, an adverb, a preposition or a conjunction. + +There are words, however, that we use with sentences which do not enter +into the construction. For example, you say: + + Oh! I am wounded. + Aha! I have conquered. + Alas! He came too late. + ++387.+ Words which we use in these sentences, like, _oh_, _aha_, _alas_, +are used to express the emotion which you feel in making the statement. +Your _Oh!_ in a sentence like: _Oh! I am wounded_, would probably sound +very much like a groan. But your _Aha!_ in the, _Aha! I have conquered_, +will sound like a shout of victory, and your _Alas!_ in the sentence, +_Alas! He came too late_, will express grief or regret over the fact +that he came too late. + +These words do not assert anything and very much of the meaning which we +give them must come from the tone in which they are uttered. Every one, +upon hearing them, knows at once whether they express grief or delight. + ++388.+ +An interjection is an exclamatory word or phrase used to express +feeling or to imitate some sound.+ + ++389.+ Interjections may be divided into four classes: + +1. +Words which we use instead of an assertion to express feeling of +various kinds+, as: + + (a) Surprise or wonder; as, _Oh_, _Aha_, _What_. + (b) Pleasure, joy, or exaltation; as, _Hurrah_, _Ha, Ha_. + (c) Pain, sadness or sorrow; as, _Alas_, _Alack_. + (d) Contempt or disgust; as _Fie_, _Fudge_, _Ugh_, _Pshaw_. + +2. +Words used instead of a question+; as, _Eh?_ _Hey?_ + +3. +Words used instead of a command+; as: + + (a) To call attention; as, _Hello_, _Ahoy_, _Whoa_. + (b) To express silence; as, _Shh_, _Hush_, _Hist_. + (c) To direct or drive out, etc., as, _Whoa_, _Gee_, _Haw_, _Scat_. + +4. +Words used to imitate sounds made by animals, machines, etc.+, as, +_Bow-wow_, _Ding-dong_, _Bang_, _Rub-a-dub_. + +When we wish to imitate noises or sounds made by animals, machines, +etc., in writing, we spell out the words as nearly as we can, just as we +write _ding-dong_ to represent the sound of the bell or _tick-tock_ to +indicate the ticking of a clock. + +Note that a number of our verbs and nouns have been formed from +imitating the sound which these nouns or verbs describe or express, as +for instance, _crash_, _roar_, _buzz_, _hush_, _groan_, _bang_, _puff_, +etc. + + + Exercise 1 + +Mark the interjections in the following sentences. Which express +surprise? Which joy? Which sorrow? Which disgust? + + 1. Alas! We shall never meet again. + 2. Bravo! You have done well. + 3. Pshaw! Is that the best you can do? + 4. Ship ahoy! All hands on deck. + 5. Hello! When did you come? + 6. Hurrah! We have won the victory. + 7. Alas, alack! Those days will never come again. + 8. Hist! You must be as still as mice. + + + Exercise 2 + +Write sentences using an interjection to express: 1. Joy. 2. Surprise. +3. Pain. 4. Sorrow. 5. Disgust. 6. To ask a question. 7. To call +attention. 8. To silence. 9. To direct. 10. To imitate the sound made by +an animal. 11. By a machine. + + + EXCLAMATORY WORDS + ++390.+ Interjections express only emotion or feeling. They do not +express ideas. However, we have a number of words which are used +somewhat as interjections are used, which we may class as exclamatory +words, but they express more than interjections, for they express ideas +as well as emotions; but, like interjections, they are used +independently and have no part in the construction of the sentence. + ++391.+ Many ordinary words and phrases are used in this way as +exclamations. When they are so used they have no place in the +construction of the sentence; that is, they do not depend upon the +sentence in which they are used, in any way. A noun used in this way is +not used as the subject or the object, but simply as an exclamation. + +For example; the noun _nonsense_ may be used as an interjection, as in +the sentence; _Nonsense! I do not believe a word of it_. In this +sentence, _nonsense_ is a noun used as an interjection and plays no part +in the sentence, either as subject or object, but is an independent +construction. There are a number of words used in this way: + +1. Nouns and pronouns, as _fire_, _mercy_, _shame_, _nonsense_, _the +idea_, _what_. + +2. Verbs like, _help_, _look_, _see_, _listen_, _hark_, _behold_, +_begone_. + +3. Adjectives like, _good_, _well_, _brave_, _welcome_, _strange_. + +4. Adverbs like, _out_, _indeed_, _how_, _why_, _back_, _forward_. + +5. Prepositions like, _on_, _up_, _down_. + +6. Phrases like, _Oh dear_, _dear me_, _good bye_. + +Words and phrases such as these, used as exclamations, are not true +interjections, for they express a little more than feeling. They express +an idea which, in our haste, we do not completely express. The other +words necessary to the expression of the idea are omitted because of the +stress of emotion. For example: + + Silence! I will hear no more. + +In this sentence it is understood that we mean, _Let us have silence, I +will hear no more_. But in the stress of our emotion, we have omitted +the words, _Let us have_. + +If we say, _Good! that will do splendidly_, you know that we mean, _That +is good_, we have simply omitted _That is_, which is necessary to +complete the sentence. Sometimes when we are greatly excited we abandon +our sentence construction altogether and use only the most important +words. For example: + + A sail! a sail! + +This is not a sentence, for it does not contain a verb, yet we know that +what was meant was, _I see a sail, I see a sail_. + + + Exercise 3 + +Write sentences using the words given in the foregoing list as +exclamatory words, and add as many more to the list as you can think of. + + + YES AND NO + ++392.+ The words _yes_ and _no_, which we use in reply to questions were +originally adverbs, but we no longer use them as adverbs. We no longer +combine them with other words as modifying or limiting words, but use +them independently. They are in themselves complete answers. Thus, if +you ask me the question, _Will you come?_ I may say _Yes_, meaning, _I +will come_; or, _No_, meaning, _I will not come_. + +The responsives _yes_ and _no_ thus stand for whole sentences, so they +are really independent words. We may use them in connection with other +sentences. For example; I may say, _Yes, I will come_, or _No, I will +not come_. Used in this way, they still retain an independent +construction in the sentence. We call them responsives because they are +used in response to questions. + + + OTHER INDEPENDENT EXPRESSIONS + ++393.+ Other words may be used in an independent construction in +sentences, without depending upon the sentence in which they are used or +without having the sentences depend upon them, such as: + +1. +A word used in address.+ For example: + + Mr. President, I move that a committee be now appointed. + Fellow Workers, I rise to address you. + +In these sentences, _Mr. President_ and _Fellow Workers_ are nouns used +independently; that is, they are neither the subject of the sentence nor +used as object or predicate complement. They are independent of all +other words in the sentence. + +The most common use of words used independently in direct address occurs +with imperative sentences. For example: + + _Comrades_, rouse yourselves. + _Men_, strike for freedom. + +2. +Exclamatory expressions.+ These are nouns used in the manner in +which we have already discussed, as in the sentence: + + _Nonsense!_ I do not believe a word of it. + Alas! poor _Yorick_! I knew him well. + +3. +Words and phrases used parenthetically+, as for example: + + _By the way_, I met a friend of yours today. + We cannot, _however_, join you at once. + He called, _it seems_, while we were gone. + +In these sentences such words as, _however_, and such phrases as, _by +the way_, and, _it seems_, are used independently,--in parenthesis, as +it were; that is, they are just thrown into the sentences in such a way +that they do not modify or depend upon any other word in the sentence. +When we analyze our sentences, these independent words are not +considered as elements of the sentences in which they are used. It is +sufficient to say that they are independent words. + +4. +Conjunctions used as introductory words.+ We have noted the use of +conjunctions like the co-ordinates _and_, _but_, etc., and the +subordinates _because_, _in order that_, _so_, _for_, _wherefore_, +_how_, _whether_, etc., which are used to introduce sentences and +connect them in thought with sentences and paragraphs which have gone +before. + + + INTRODUCTORY WORDS + ++394.+ +We have a number of words which we use to introduce our +sentences.+ They are such words as, _so_, _well_ and _why_. These are +ordinarily adverbs, but when they are used merely to introduce a +sentence they retain little of their adverbial force. For example: + + _So_, that is your only excuse. + _Well_, I cannot understand why you should accept it. + _Why_, that is no reason at all. + +In these sentences, _so_, _well_ and _why_ do not modify any of the +words in the sentences, but are used merely to introduce the sentences. +They serve in a measure to connect them with something which has gone +before. + ++395.+ +The adverb _there_ is also used as an introductory word.+ When +it is used in this manner, it loses its adverbial force. _There_, as +ordinarily used, is an adverb of place, but it is often used to +introduce a sentence. For example: _There is some mistake about it_. In +this sentence _there_ is not used as an adverb, but it is used simply as +an introductory word. It is used to introduce a sentence in which the +verb comes before the real subject. _Mistake_ is the real subject of the +verb is, and _there_ is used simply as the introductory word. + ++396.+ +The indefinite pronoun _it_ is also used as an introductory +word+, to introduce a sentence in much the same manner as _there_. The +real subject of the verb occurs later in the sentence. For example: + + It is best to know the truth. + +This could be written, _To know the truth is best_, and the entire +meaning of the sentence would be conveyed. + ++397.+ +Adverbs of mode.+ You remember in our study of adverbs, we had +certain adverbs which were called adverbs of mode. These are used to +modify the entire sentence. They express the feeling in which the entire +sentence is uttered. Adverbs of mode may be regarded also as independent +words. They are such words as, _indeed_, _surely_, _certainly_, +_perhaps_, etc. For example: + + _Indeed_, I cannot tell you now. + _Surely_, I will comply with your request. + _Perhaps_ it may be true. + I _certainly_ hope to do so before long. + + + Exercise 4 + +Note in the following sentences the words which are pure interjections, +and those which are other parts of speech used as exclamatory words. +Mark those which are used in direct address, those which are used +parenthetically, and those which are used as mere introductory words. + + 1. Oh, it seems impossible to believe it. + 2. Surely, you will accept my word. + 3. Nonsense, there is not the least truth in the story. + 4. It will be impossible for us to join. + 5. Therefore we urge you to join in this campaign. + 6. There is only one solution to the problem. + 7. It is difficult to discover the true facts. + 8. Well, I have done my best to persuade you. + 9. Mr. Chairman, I rise to a point of order. + 10. Comrades, come and stand for your rights. + 11. Yes, I have studied that philosophy. + 12. Enough! we have been enslaved too long. + 13. Hark! we hear the tramp of the army of labor. + 14. Alas! that any should refuse to join in this battle. + 15. You have not, it seems, understood the issue. + 16. Indeed, solidarity is our only hope. + 17. Br-r-r-r-r-r-r, thus whirl the machines that grind our children's + lives. + 18. Hush! Over the crash of the cannon sounds the wail of Europe's + women and children. + + + EXPLANATORY WORDS + ++398.+ We sometimes use words which do not belong in the construction of +a sentence to explain other words in the sentence. For example: + + We, _the undersigned_, subscribe as follows: + Helen Keller, _the most wonderful woman of this age_, champions the + cause of the working class. + +In the first sentence, the words, _the undersigned_, are added to the +pronoun _we_ to explain who _we_ means. In the second sentence, the +words, _the most wonderful woman of this age_, are added to explain who +Helen Keller is. Words added to other words in this way are called +explanatory words. They are placed in apposition to the noun which they +explain. Apposition means _by the side of_, or _in position near_. You +remember that in clauses we found that a clause may be placed in +apposition with a noun to explain the meaning of that noun. For example: + + There is an old saying, _in union there is strength_. + +These words in apposition may themselves be modified or limited by other +words or phrases or clauses. For example: + + Helen Keller, the most wonderful woman of this age, champions the + cause of the working class. + +In this sentence, _woman_ is the noun placed in apposition to the +particular name, Helen Keller, and the noun _woman_ is modified by the +adjectives _the_, and _wonderful_, and by the phrase _of this age_. + +Sometimes a second explanatory word is placed in apposition to the first +one. This is quite often the case in legal documents or resolutions, +where the language is quite formal. For example: + + We, the undersigned, _members of Local No. 38_, do hereby move, etc. + I, John Smith, _Notary Public_, in and for the county of Clay, etc. + +These words, _undersigned_ and _members_, are both placed in apposition +to the pronoun _We_, explaining to whom that pronoun refers. + + + Exercise 5 + +In the following sentences note the explanatory words and their +modifiers: + + 1. Wendell Phillips, the great abolitionist, was a man of genius. + 2. Buckle, the historian, writes from the view point of the + materialistic conception of history. + 3. Giovannitti, the poet, wrote "Arrows in the Gale." + 4. Helen Keller, champion of the working class, wrote the introduction + to this book. + 5. We, the workers of the world, will some day claim our own. + 6. He was found guilty of treason, a crime punishable by death. + 7. Ferrer, the martyr of the twentieth century, was put to death by + the Spanish government. + 8. Jaures, the great French socialist, was the first martyr to peace. + 9. But ye, Plebs, Populace, People, Rabble, Mob, Proletariat, live and + abide forever. + 10. Ye are eternal, even as your father, labor, is eternal. + 11. This document, the Constitution of the United States, hinders the + progress of the people. + 12. The memory of Guttenberg, the inventor of the printing press, + should be reverenced by every class-conscious worker. + 13. Wallace, the scientist and author, was co-discoverer with Darwin + of the theory of evolution. + 14. Karl Marx, the thinker, applied this theory to social forces. + 15. Do you understand the three basic principles of Socialism--the + class struggle, economic determinism and surplus value? + + + Exercise 6 + +Read the following list of words and note the ideas which they suggest +to you, then make sentences containing these words, _modified by a word +or group of words in apposition_, which explain more fully these words. + + Law, martyr, society, education, inventor, commander, freedom, Eugene + V. Debs, Karl Marx, Kaiser Wilhelm, The Balkan, Lawrence, Colorado, + Calumet. + + + ABSOLUTE CONSTRUCTION + ++399.+ We have found that every word in a sentence bears some relation +to every other word, except these words which we have been studying, +which we use independently. These explanatory words which we have just +been studying are not used independently, but do in a sense modify the +noun with which they are placed in apposition. Sometimes we place a noun +or a pronoun and its modifiers alongside the whole sentence and it does +not really modify any part of the sentence, but modifies the whole +sentence in a way, for it expresses an attendant thought or an +accompanying circumstance. For example: + + The workers being unorganized, the strike was easily defeated. + The strikers having won, work was resumed on their terms. + +_The workers being unorganised_ and _the strikers having won_ are not +clauses for they do not contain a verb. _Being unorganized_ and _having +won_ are participles. Neither do they modify any word in the sentence. +They are not placed in apposition with any other word. While they do +express a thought in connection with the sentence, in construction they +seem to be cut loose from the rest of the sentence; that is, they are +not closely connected with the sentence, hence they are called absolute +constructions. _Ab_ means from, and _solute_, loose; so this means, +literally, loose from the rest of the sentence. + +We speak of these as absolute constructions, instead of independent, +because the thought expressed is connected with the main thought of the +sentence and is really a part of it. Notice that the noun used in the +absolute construction is not the _subject_ of the sentence. + +Take the sentence, _The workers being unorganized, the strike was_ +_easily defeated_, the noun _strike_ is the subject of the sentence, and +the noun _workers_ is used in the absolute construction with the +participle, _being unorganized_. + +These absolute constructions can ordinarily be rewritten into adverb +clauses. For example, this sentence might read: _The strike was easily +defeated because the workers were unorganized_. Do not make the mistake +of rewriting your sentences and using the noun in the absolute +construction as the subject of the sentence. For example: + + The workers, being unorganized, were easily defeated. + +This is not the meaning of this sentence. The meaning of the sentence is +that the _strike_ was easily defeated _because_ the workers were +unorganized. But the adverb clause, _because the workers were +unorganized_, instead of being written as an adverb clause, has been +written in the absolute construction, _the workers being unorganized_. + +While it is nearly always possible to change these absolute +constructions into adverb clauses the sentences are sometimes weakened +by the change. These absolute constructions often enable us to make a +statement in a stronger manner than we could make it with a clause or in +any other way. + + + Exercise 7 + +In the following sentences, note the groups of words which are used in +absolute construction. Rewrite these sentences and if possible change +these words used in absolute construction into equivalent adverb phrases +or clauses. Note how some of the sentences are weakened when you make +this change. + + 1. _Nationalism having been taught to generation after generation_, + the workers obeyed the call of the master class to slaughter their + fellow workers. + 2. _The hour having arrived_, Ferrer was blindfolded and led forth to + die. + 3. _The mass being without education_, capitalism gains an easy + victory. + 4. _The class struggle being a fact_, why should we hesitate to join + our class? + 5. _These facts being true_, such a conclusion is inevitable. + 6. _Darwin having stated the theory of evolution_, Marx applied its + principles to social science. + 7. _Chattel slavery having been destroyed_, wage-slavery became the + corner stone of capitalism. + 8. _The price having been paid_, we claim our own. + 9. _The battle ended_, the army left the trenches. + + + Exercise 8 + +Mark the interjections in the following quotations. Note the independent +constructions. Mark the words used as explanatory words in apposition. + + In the mind's eye, I see a wonderful building, something like the + Coliseum of ancient Rome. The galleries are black with people; tier + upon tier rise like waves the multitude of spectators who have come to + see a great contest. A great contest, indeed! A contest in which all + the world and all the centuries are interested. It is the contest--the + fight to death--between Truth and Error. + + The door opens, and a slight, small, shy and insignificant looking + thing steps into the arena. It is Truth. The vast audience bursts into + hilarious and derisive laughter. What! Is this Truth? This shuddering + thing in tattered clothes, and almost naked? And the house shakes + again with mocking and hisses. + + The door opens again, and Error enters--clad in cloth of gold, + imposing in appearance, tall of stature, glittering with gems, sleek + and huge and ponderous, causing the building to tremble with the thud + of its steps. The audience is for a moment dazzled into silence, then + it breaks into applause, long and deafening. "Welcome!" "Welcome!" is + the greeting from the multitude. "Welcome!" shout ten thousand + throats. + + The two contestants face each other. Error, in full armor--backed by + the sympathies of the audience, greeted by the clamorous cheering of + the spectators; and Truth, scorned, scoffed at, and hated. "The issue + is a foregone conclusion," murmurs the vast audience. "Error will + trample Truth under its feet." + + The battle begins. The two clinch, separate, and clinch again. Truth + holds its own. The spectators are alarmed. Anxiety appears in their + faces. Their voices grow faint. Is it possible? Look! See! There! + Error recedes! It fears the gaze of Truth! It shuns its beauteous + eyes! Hear it shriek and scream as it feels Truth's squeeze upon its + wrists. Error is trying to break away from Truth's grip. It is making + for the door. It is gone! + + The spectators are mute. Every tongue is smitten with the palsy. The + people bite their lips until they bleed. They cannot explain what they + have seen. "Oh! who would have believed it?" "Is it possible?"--they + exclaim. But they cannot doubt what their eyes have seen--that puny + and insignificant looking thing called Truth has put ancient and + entrenched Error, backed by the throne, the altar, the army, the + press, the people and the gods--to rout. + + The pursuit of truth! Is it not worth living for? To seek the truth, + to love the truth, to live the truth? Can any religion offer + more?--_Mangasarian_. + + + + + SPELLING + + LESSON 23 + + +Many words contain letters for which there are no corresponding sounds +in the spoken words. Thus, in the spoken word _though_ there are only +two sounds, the _th_ and the _o_; _u_ and _g_ and _h_ are silent. There +are a great many words in the English language which contain these +silent letters. There has been a movement inaugurated for the purpose of +simplifying the spelling of these words, omitting these silent letters. +Some writers have adopted this method of simplified spelling, and so in +some magazines and books which you read you will find these silent +letters dropped; for example, you will find _though_ spelled _tho_, +_through_ spelled _thru_. + +This method of simplified spelling has not been universally adopted and +we have not followed it in these lessons because we feared that it would +be confusing. Probably in most of your reading you will find the old +method of spelling followed and all of these silent letters included. No +doubt, as time goes on, we shall adopt this simplified method of +spelling and drop all of these silent and useless letters. + +In our spelling lesson for this week we have a number of words +containing silent letters. + + + +MONDAY+ + +In a number of words you will find _ea_ pronounced as short _e_. The +board of simplified spelling has suggested that we drop the _a_, which +is a silent letter, from these words. If we adopted their suggestion, +words like _head_ would be spelled _hed_. Note the spelling of the +following words in which _ea_ is pronounced as short _e_ and the _a_ is +silent. + +Spread, stead, threat, meant, pleasant, stealth. + + + +TUESDAY+ + +We have a number of words ending in _ough_ in which the _gh_ is silent. + +1. In some of these words the _ou_ is pronounced like _ow_. We have +already changed the spelling of a few of these words, for example, we no +longer use _plough_, but write it _plow_. + +2. In other words ending with _ough_ the _ugh_ is silent and the words +end with a long _o_ sound, as in _though_. Many writers have dropped the +silent letters ugh and spell this simply _tho_. + +3. A few other words ending with _ough_ end with a _u_ sound and those +who adopt the simplified spelling have dropped the _ough_ and used +simply _u_, as in _through_; many writers spell it simply _thru_. +Observe the spelling of the following words and mark the silent letters: + +Bough, through, thorough, furlough, borough, though. + + + +WEDNESDAY+ + +We have a number of words ending in _mn_ in which the _n_ is silent. +Note the spelling of the following words: + +Autumn, solemn, column, kiln, hymn, condemn. + + + +THURSDAY+ + +We have a number of words containing a silent _b_. Notice the spelling +of the following words: + +Doubt, debt, dumb, limb, thumb, lamb. + + + +FRIDAY+ + +A number of words end with silent _ue_ after _g_. Some writers omit the +ue and probably after a while we will drop this silent _ue_, but you +will find it used now in most of your reading. These are such words as: + +Catalogue, demagogue, decalogue, tongue, league, harangue. + + + +SATURDAY+ + +We have a number of words ending with _gh_ in which the _gh_ has the +sound of _f_, as in the following words: + +Trough, rough, enough, laugh, tough, cough. + + + + + PLAIN ENGLISH + + LESSON 24 + + +Dear Comrade: + +We have finished our study of the different parts of speech and are +going to enter upon the work of sentence building. In the next few +lessons we will gather up all that we have been studying in these +lessons so far. This is a good time to give this work a thorough review. +Perhaps there have been a number of things in the lessons which you have +not thoroughly understood, or perhaps there have been some rules for +which you have not seen the reason. Now as we begin to construct our +sentences, all of this will fit into its place. We shall find the reason +for many of the things which may not have seemed thoroughly clear to us. + +There _is_ a science in language as in everything else, and language, +after all, is governed by the will of the people. This has seemed so +self-evident to those who make a special study of the language and its +development that they have given this power a special name. They speak +of the "Genius of the Language" as though there was some spirit guiding +and directing the developing power of language. + +There is a spirit guiding and directing the developing power of +language. That spirit is the creative genius of the people. It is the +same spirit that would guide and direct all phases of life into full and +free expression, if it were permitted to act. There being no private +profit connected with the control of the language, the creative genius +of the people has had fuller sway. + +The educator sitting in his study cannot make arbitrary rules to change +or conserve the use of words. The people themselves are the final +arbiter in language. It is the current usage among the masses which puts +the final stamp upon any word. Think what this same creative genius +might do if it were set free in social life, in industrial life. It +would work out those principles which were best fitted to the advance of +the people themselves. But those who would profit by the enslavement of +the people have put stumbling blocks,--laws, conventions, morals, +customs,--in the way of the people. + +Their creative genius does not have full sway or free sweep, but let us +rejoice that in language, at least, we are free. And let us, as we +realize the power of the people manifest in this phase of life, +determine that the same power shall be set free to work out its will in +all life. Some day the revolution will come. The people will be free to +rule themselves, to express their will, not in the realms of words +alone, but in their social and economic life; and as we become free +within, dare to think for ourselves and to demand our own, we each +become a torch of the revolution, a center of rebellion--one of those +who make straight the path for the future. + + Yours for the Revolution, + + THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. + + + SENTENCE BUILDING + ++400.+ Every expression of a complete thought is a sentence. A sentence +is the unit in language. Words are the material out of which we build +our sentences, so we have been studying the various parts of speech that +are used in sentence building. Now we are ready to use these parts of +speech in the building of sentences. We have found that there are eight +parts of speech, though the interjection, which is termed the eighth +part of speech, is not in reality a part of the sentence; but is a +complete, independent construction. So in your sentences all of the many +hundreds of words which we use can be grouped into seven divisions; +_nouns_, _pronouns_, _adjectives_, _verbs_, _adverbs_, _prepositions_ +and _conjunctions_. + ++401.+ You remember in our first lesson we found that there were just +three kinds of sentences. The _assertive_, the _interrogative_ and the +_imperative_; or in other words, sentences which state a _fact_, ask a +_question_ or give a _command_. We also found that these three kinds of +sentences could all be expressed in _exclamatory_ form. + + + THREE KINDS OF SENTENCES + + +Assertive.+ Makes a statement. + +Interrogative.+ Asks a question. + +Imperative.+ Gives a command. + + +Assertive sentence;+ _I remember the day._ + +Interrogative sentence;+ _Do you not remember the day?_ + +Imperative sentence;+ _Remember the day._ + + + In Exclamatory Form + + +Assertive;+ _Nonsense! I remember the day._ + +Interrogative;+ _What! Do you not remember the day?_ + +Imperative;+ _Oh come! Remember the day._ + + + ANALYSIS--SIMPLE SENTENCES + ++402.+ Now that we have finished the study of the various parts of +speech, we are ready for sentence building and for sentence analysis. +Sentence analysis is the breaking up of the sentence into its different +parts in order to find out how and why it is thus put together. To +analyze anything is to break it up or separate it into its different +parts. We speak of analyzing a sentence when we pick out the subject and +the predicate and their modifiers, because we thus unloosen them or +separate them from one another. + +These parts of the sentence are called the elements of the sentence. The +elements of a sentence consist of the words, phrases and clauses used in +forming the sentence. + ++403.+ Let us begin from the simplest beginning and build up our +sentences, using the various parts of speech as we have studied them. +Let us take the simplest form of sentence which we can consider. For +example: + + Men work. + +There are only three parts of speech which can be used to make a simple +sentence in this manner, and these are, either the noun and the verb, or +the pronoun and the verb. We might say instead of _Men work_, _They +work_, and have a complete sentence. + +In the sentence _Men work_, _men_ is the subject and _work_ is the +predicate. The subject and the predicate are the two principal elements +in a sentence. No sentence can be formed without these two parts and +these two parts can express a thought without the help of other +elements. Now we may begin to enlarge the subject by adding modifiers. + +You remember we have found that a noun may be modified by an adjective. +So we add the adjective _busy_, and we have: + + Busy men work. + +Our simple subject is still the noun _men_, but the complete subject is +the noun with its modifier, _busy men_. We may add other adjectives and +say: + + The busy, industrious men with families work. + +Here we have our simple subject _men_ modified by the adjectives, _the_, +_busy_ and _industrious_, and also by the adjective phrase, _with +families_. So the complete subject of the sentence now is, _the busy, +industrious men with families_. + +Our predicate is still the single verb _work_. Let us now enlarge the +predicate. We have found that adverbs are used to modify verbs, and so +we may say: + + The busy, industrious men with families work hard. + The busy, industrious men with families work hard in the factory. + +Our simple predicate, _work_ is now enlarged. It is modified by the +adverb, _hard_ and the adverb phrase, _in the factory_. So our complete +predicate is now, _work hard in the factory_. + ++404.+ These sentences with the simple subject and the simple predicate +and their modifying words and phrases form simple sentences. + ++A simple sentence is one which expresses a single statement, question +or command.+ + ++405.+ A simple sentence, therefore, will contain but one subject and +one predicate. The subject may be a compound subject and the predicate +may be a compound predicate, but still the sentence expresses a single +thought. For example: _The boys sing_. This is a simple statement with a +simple subject and a simple predicate. Then we may say: _The boys sing +and play_. We still have a single statement, but a compound predicate, +_sing and play_. + +Now we may make a compound subject, and say, _The boys and girls sing +and play_, but we have still a single statement, for both predicates are +asserted of both subjects. So, _The boys and girls sing and play_, is a +simple sentence. + +If we say, _The boys sing and the girls play_, we have a compound +sentence, composed of two simple sentences, _The boys sing_, _The girls +play_. + +If we say, _The boys sing while the girls play_, we have a complex +sentence formed of the simple sentence, _The boys sing_, and the +dependent clause, _while the girls play_. + ++406.+ Now let us sum up our definitions: + ++Every sentence must contain two parts, a subject and a predicate.+ + ++The subject of a sentence is that part about which something is said.+ + ++The predicate is that part which asserts something of the subject.+ + ++The simple subject of a sentence is a noun, or the word used in place +of a noun, without modifiers.+ + ++The simple predicate is the verb or verb phrase without its modifiers.+ + ++The complete subject of a sentence is the simple subject with all of +its modifiers.+ + ++The complete predicate of a sentence is the simple predicate with all +of its modifiers.+ + ++A simple sentence is one which expresses a single statement, question +or command.+ + ++A complex sentence is one containing an independent clause and one or +more dependent clauses.+ + ++A compound sentence is one containing two or more independent clauses.+ + ++A clause is a part of a sentence containing a subject and a predicate.+ + + + Exercise 1 + +In the following sentences the simple subject and the simple predicate +are printed in _italics_. Find all of the modifiers of the subject and +all of the modifiers of the predicate, and draw a single line under the +complete subject and two lines under the complete predicate. + + 1. Beautiful _pictures hang_ on the wall. + 2. Those elm _trees grow_ rapidly every year. + 3. A terrible _storm broke_ unexpectedly at sea. + 4. The clear, crystal _water runs_ swiftly to the sea. + 5. The beautiful _flowers fade_ quickly in the heat. + 6. The happy, boisterous _children play_ at school every day. + 7. The sturdy _oak_ in the forest _stands_ bravely through every + storm. + 8. Their arching _tops_ almost _speak_ to us. + 9. A _cry_ of joy _rings_ through the land. + 10. The _leaves_ of the trees _flutter_ in the wind. + 11. Great _clouds_ of smoke _float_ in the air. + + + Exercise 2 + +Note carefully the following simple sentences. Each of these groups of +two words will suggest ideas and pictures to you. Lengthen each sentence +by adding modifiers to the simple subject and to the simple predicate so +as to make a fuller and more definite statement. For example: _Ships +sail_. This is a simple subject and simple predicate. We add adjectives +and an adjective phrase and adverbs and an adverb phrase as modifiers +and we have, as follows: + + The stately _ships_ in the bay _sail_ proudly away to foreign shores. + + Snow melts. + Winds blow. + House stands. + Boys run. + Soldiers fight. + Tides flow. + Children play. + Ships sail. + Guns boom. + Women endure. + + + ANOTHER ELEMENT + ++407.+ You will note that all of these verbs which we have used in these +sentences have been complete verbs as _hang_, _grow_, _runs_, _fade_, +etc. A complete verb, you will remember, is a verb that does not need an +object or a complement. It is complete within itself. It may be modified +by an adverb or an adverb phrase, but when you leave off these modifiers +you still have complete sense. + +In any of the sentences above you may cross out the adverb or the adverb +phrase which modifies the verb and you will still have complete +sentences. For example: + + Great clouds of smoke float in the air. + +Here, the adverb phrase, _in the air_, may be omitted and still we have +complete sense, thus: + + Great clouds of smoke float. + ++408.+ The incomplete verbs, however, require either an object or +complement to complete their meaning. + +Incomplete verbs are of two kinds; those that express _action_ and those +that express _state_ or _condition_. + +An incomplete verb that expresses action requires an object which is the +receiver of the action expressed in the verb, so we have another element +which enters into the simple sentence, when we use an incomplete verb. +For example: + + The busy man makes shoes. + +In order to complete the sentence, we must use an object with the +incomplete verb _makes_. To say, _The busy man makes_, is not enough. We +must have an object which is the receiver of the action expressed in the +verb, _makes_. Verbs of action often have two objects. One object names +the _thing_ that _receives_ the action and the other names the _thing_ +indirectly _affected_ by the action. For example: + + The tailor made him a coat. + ++409.+ _Coat_ is the _direct_ object of the verb _made_. But we have +another object in the pronoun _him_. We do not mean that the tailor made +_him_, but that the tailor made him a _coat_. _Coat_ is the direct +object and _him_ is the indirect object. The indirect object is always +placed before the direct object. The indirect object may be used as the +object of the preposition _to_ or _for_. As for example, this sentence +might be rewritten to read, _The tailor made a coat for him_. In this +sentence, _him_ is not the indirect object of the verb, but is the +object of the preposition _for_. + ++410.+ The direct object of the verb always answers the question _what?_ +As for example, the tailor made _what?_--_a coat_. The indirect object +of the verb names the person or thing _to_ or _for_ which the act is +done,--_the tailor made a coat for whom?_--for _him_. + +The direct and indirect object become a part of the complete predicate +of the sentence. There may be other modifiers also, as adverbs or adverb +phrases, and all of these taken together form the complete predicate in +the sentences where you have used an incomplete verb. As for example: + + The tailor gladly made him a coat for the occasion. + +The complete predicate is, _gladly made him a coat for the occasion_, +formed of the verb _made_, the direct object, _coat_, the indirect +object _him_, the adverb modifier, _gladly_, and the phrase modifier, +_for the occasion_. + + + Exercise 3 + +In the following sentences, underscore the direct object with one line +and the indirect object with two lines. The verb is in italics. + + 1. He _gave_ her a book. + 2. He _wrote_ me a long letter. + 3. Her father _bought_ her a watch. + 4. The nurse _gave_ the patient his medicine. + 5. The mother _gave_ her daughter a present. + 6. _Give_ me time to think. + 7. The clerk _sold_ her a dress. + 8. The teacher _read_ the children a story. + 9. The company _furnishes_ the men food and shelter. + 10. The man _showed_ us his wounds. + + + Exercise 4 + +In the following sentences underscore the complete subject and the +complete predicate. Notice especially the direct and the indirect +objects of the incomplete verbs. The simple subjects and the direct +objects are in italics. + + 1. A great many _miles_ separate _us_ from our friends. + 2. The merry _shouts_ of the children fill the _air_ with music. + 3. A gentle _breeze_ brings us the _perfume_ of the flowers. + 4. A careless _druggist_ gave the unfortunate man the wrong + _medicine_. + 5. His admiring _friends_ gave him a beautiful _ring_. + 6. _Soldiers_ obey _orders_ from their superiors. + 7. This terrible _war_ claims _thousands_ of victims. + 8. The _power_ of hunger drives the _unemployed_ to rebellion. + 9. The _workers_ of the world produce _enough_ for all. + 10. The retiring _secretary_ showed us a _letter_ from the president. + 11. The old sea _captain_ told them an interesting _story_ of life at + sea. + 12. _Labor_ produces all _wealth_. + + + COPULATIVE VERBS + ++411.+ We have another class of incomplete verbs which require a +complement to complete their meaning. These are the copulative verbs. +The number of copulative verbs is small. They are: all forms of the verb +_be_; also, _like_, _appear_, _look_, _feel_, _sound_, _smell_, +_become_, _seem_, etc. These verbs require a noun or an adjective or a +phrase as a complement, to complete their meaning. They are really +connective words serving to connect the noun or adjective or phrase used +in the predicate with the noun which they modify. The noun or adjective +or phrase used to complete the meaning of the copulative verb is called +a predicate complement. For example: + + The man is a hero. + +Here we have a noun, _hero_, used as a predicate complement after the +copulative verb, _is_, to describe the noun _man_. + + The man is class-conscious. + +In this sentence, we have an adjective, _class-conscious_, in the +predicate to modify the subject, _man_. It is connected with the subject +by the copulative verb _is_. + + The man is in earnest. + +Here we have a phrase, _in earnest_, used in the predicate to modify the +noun _man_, and connected with the subject by the copulative verb _is_. + ++412.+ So in the predicate with the copulative verbs--incomplete verbs +which express state or condition--we may use a noun or an adjective or a +phrase. A noun used as the predicate complement may have modifiers. It +may be modified by one or more adjectives or adjective phrases. These +adjectives in turn may be modified by adverbs. The complete predicate, +then, is the copulative verb with its predicate complement and all its +modifiers. For example: + + Grant was the most famous general of the Civil war. + +In this sentence, _Grant_ is the complete subject, _was the most famous +general of the Civil war_ is the complete predicate. _Was_ is the +copulative verb; _general_ is the noun used as the predicate complement; +_the_ and _famous_ are adjectives modifying _general_; _most_ is an +adverb modifying the adjective _famous_, and, _of the Civil war_ is an +adjective phrase modifying _general_, so our complete predicate is, _was +the most famous general of the Civil war_. + +When an adjective is used in the predicate complement it, too, may have +modifiers and more than one adjective may be used. For example: + + The man is very brave and loyal to his class. + +Here we have two adjectives used in the predicate complement, _brave_ +and _loyal_. _Brave_ is modified by the adverb _very_, and _loyal_ is +modified by the adverb phrase, _to his class_. The complete predicate +is, _is very brave and loyal to his class_. + +When we use a phrase as a predicate complement, it, too, may have +modifiers and more than one phrase may be used. For example: + + The man is in the fight and deeply in earnest. + +In this sentence, two phrases are used in the predicate complement, _in +the fight_ and _in earnest_. The second phrase, _in earnest_ is modified +by the adverb _deeply_. The complete predicate is, _is in the fight and +deeply in earnest_. + + + Exercise 5 + +Fill the blanks in the following sentences with a noun and its modifiers +used as predicate complement. Name all of the parts of speech which you +have used in the predicate complement as we have done in the sentences +analyzed above: + + The men are _loyal members of the Union_. + Slavery is....... + Liberty will be....... + War is....... + The machine is....... + The children were....... + +Fill the blanks in the following sentences with one or more adjectives +and their modifiers used in the predicate complement. + + The work is _hard and destructive to the children_. + The history will be....... + Labor has been....... + Peace will be....... + Poverty is....... + +Fill the blanks in the following sentences with a phrase used in the +predicate complement. + + His service was _for his class_. + Socialism is....... + The workers are....... + The message shall be....... + The government is....... + The opportunity is....... + + + VERB PHRASES + ++413.+ Note that in most of the sentences which we have used, we have +used the simple form of the verb, the form that is used to express +_past_ and _present_ time. In expressing other time forms we use verb +phrases. Note the summary given in section 145, which gives the +different time forms of the verb. + ++414.+ Sometimes in using the verb phrase you will find that other words +may separate the words forming the phrase. When you analyze your +sentence this will not confuse you. You will easily be able to pick out +the verb phrase. For example: + + I shall very soon find out the trouble. + +Here the adverbs, _very_ and _soon_, separate _find_ from its auxiliary +_shall_. The verb phrase is, _shall find_. The negative _not_ very often +separates the words forming a verb phrase. For example: + + I will not go. + +In this sentence, _will go_ is the verb phrase. + +When we use the auxiliary verb _do_ to express emphasis, and also the +negative _not_, _not_ comes between the auxiliary verb _do_, and the +principal verb. For example: + + I do not obey, I think. + +In this sentence, _do obey_ is the verb phrase. + +In interrogative sentences, the verb phrase is inverted and a part of +the verb phrase is placed first and the subject after. For example: + + Will you go with us? + +_You_ is the subject of this interrogative sentence and _will go_ is the +verb phrase; but in order to ask the question, the order is inverted and +part of the verb phrase placed first. In using interrogative adverbs in +asking a question, the same inverted order is used. For example: + + When will this work be commenced? + +In this sentence, _work_ is the subject of the sentence and _will be +commenced_ is the verb phrase. If you should write this in assertive +form, it would be: + + This work will be commenced when? + +By paying close attention we can easily distinguish the verb phrases +even when they are used in the inverted form or when they are separated +by other parts of speech. + + + LET US SUM UP + ++415.+ The elements of a sentence are the words, phrases or clauses of +which it is composed. + ++A simple sentence is one which contains a single statement, question or +command.+ + ++A simple sentence contains only words and phrases.+ It does not contain +dependent clauses. The elements of a simple sentence are: + + {The simple subject--the noun, or the + The complete subject { word used in place of the noun--and + { all its modifiers. + + The complete predicate {The simple predicate--the verb, and + { all its modifiers. + + + Exercise 6 + +In the following sentences, the simple subjects and the simple +predicates of the principal clauses are printed in italics. Locate all +the modifiers of the subjects and predicates, and determine the part of +speech of each word in the sentence. + +Sentences Nos. 1, 5, 6, 14, 15, 16, 18, 30, 31, 32 and 37 are simple +sentences. + +Sentences Nos. 2, 4, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 22, 26, 28, 33, 34 and 36 are +complex. + +Sentences Nos. 3, 10, 12, 21, 23, 24, 25, 29 and 35 are compound. + +No. 8 is incomplete, having neither subject nor predicate. + +No. 9 is incomplete, there being no predicate in the principal clause. + +No. 20 is a simple sentence, with a complex sentence in parenthesis. + +No. 27 consists of two dependent clauses. + +In the complex sentences, draw a line under the dependent clauses. + + "Br--r--r--r--r--r--r--r--r--." + + 1. What _are_ the _machines saying_, a hundred of them in one long + room? + 2. _They must be talking_ to themselves, for I see no one else for + them to talk to. + 3. But yes, there _is_ a boy's red _head_ bending over one of them, + and beyond _I see_ a pale face fringed with brown curly locks. + 4. There _are_ only five _boys_ in all, on the floor, half-hidden by + the clattering machines, for one bright lad can manage twenty-five + of them. + 5. Each _machine makes_ one cheap, stout sock in five minutes, + without seam, complete from toe to ankle, cutting the thread at the + end and beginning another of its own accord. + 6. The _boys have_ nothing to do but to clean and burnish and oil the + steel rods and replace the spools of yarn. + 7. But how rapidly and nervously _they do_ it--the slower hands + straining to accomplish as much as the fastest! + 8. Working at high tension for ten hours a day in the close, greasy + air and endless whirr---- + 9. _Boys_ who ought to be out playing ball in the fields or taking a + swim in the river this fine summer afternoon. + 10. And in these good times, the _machines go_ all night, and other + _shifts_ of boys _are kept_ from their beds to watch them. + 11. The young _girls_ in the mending and finishing rooms downstairs + _are_ not so strong as the boys. + 12. _They have_ an unaccountable way of fainting and collapsing in + the noise and smell, and then _they are_ of no use for the rest of + the day. + 13. The kind _stockholders have had_ to provide a room for collapsed + girls and to employ a doctor, who finds it expedient not to + understand this strange new disease. + 14. Perhaps their _children will be_ more stalwart in the next + generation. + 15. Yet this _factory is_ one of the triumphs of our civilization. + 16. With only twenty boys at a time at the machines in all the rooms, + _it produces_ five thousand dozen pairs of socks in twenty-four + hours for the toilers of the land. + 17. _It would take_ an army of fifty thousand hand-knitters to do what + these small boys perform. + + "Br--r--r--r--r--r--r--r--r--." + + 18. What _are_ the _machines saying_? + 19. _They are saying_, "We are hungry." + 20. "_We have eaten_ up the men and women. (There is no longer a + market for men and women, they come too high)-- + 21. _We have eaten_ up the men and women, and now _we are devouring_ + the boys and girls. + 22. How good _they taste_ as we suck the blood from their rounded + cheeks and forms, and cast them aside sallow and thin and + careworn, and then call for more. + 23. Br--r--r--r--r--r--r--r! how good _they taste_; but _they give_ + us so few boys and girls to eat nowadays, although there are so + many outside begging to come in--. + 24. Only one _boy_ to twenty of us, and _we are_ nearly _famished_! + 25. _We eat_ those they give us and _those_ outside _will starve_, and + soon _we shall be left_ almost alone in the world with the + stockholders. + 26. Br--r--r--r--r--r--r--r! What shall we do then for our food?" the + _machines chatter_ on. + 27. "When we are piling up millions of socks a day for the toilers + and then there are no toilers left to buy them and wear them. + 28. Then perhaps we shall have to turn upon the kind stockholders and + feast on them (how fat and tender and toothsome they will be!) + until at last we alone remain, clattering and chattering in a + desolate land," _growled the machines_. + 29. While the _boys went_ on anxiously, hurriedly rubbing and + polishing, and the _girls_ downstairs _went_ on collapsing. + 30. "Br--r--r--r--r--r--r--r!" _growled_ the _machines_. + 31. The _devil has_ somehow _got_ into the machines. + 32. _They came_ like the good gnomes and fairies of old, to be our + willing slaves and make our lives easy. + 33. Now that, by their help, one man can do the work of a score, why + _have we_ not plenty for all, with only enough work to keep us + happy? + 34. _Who could have foreseen_ all the ills of our factory workers and + of those who are displaced and cast aside by factory work? + 35. The good wood and iron _elves came_ to bless us all, but _some_ of + us _have succeeded_ in bewitching them to our own ends and turning + them against the rest of mankind. + 36. _We must break_ the sinister charm and _win_ over the docile, + tireless machines until they refuse to shut out a single human + being from their benefits. + 37. _We must cast_ the devil out of the machines. + + --_Ernest Crosby_. + + + + + SPELLING + + LESSON 24 + + +Among the common suffixes in English are the suffixes _or_ and _er_. +These suffixes mean _one who_ or _that which_. For example, _builder_, +one who builds; _actor_, one who acts; _heater_, that which heats. But +we are confused many times to know whether to add the suffix _or_ or +_er_ to form these derivative words. There is no exact rule which can be +given, but the following rule usually applies with but few exceptions: + +To the shorter and commoner words in the language add the suffix _er_. +For example, _writer_, _boxer_, _singer_, etc. To the longer and less +common words, usually those derived from the Latin or the Greek, add the +suffix _or_. For example, _legislator_, _conqueror_, etc. + +There are a number of words in the English like _honor_, in which the +last syllable used to be spelled _our_ instead of _or_. You will +probably run across such words as these in your reading. This mode of +spelling these words, however, is being rapidly dropped and the ending +_or_ is being used instead of _our_. There are also a number of words in +our language like _center_, which used to be spelled with _re_ instead +of _er_. The _re_ ending is not used any more, although you may run +across it occasionally in your reading. The proper ending for all such +words as these is _er_. There are a few words, however, like _timbre_ (a +musical term) and _acre_, which are still properly spelled with the _re_ +ending. + +The spelling lessons for Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday and Thursday, +contain words from which derivatives can be formed by adding _er_ or +_or_. Look these words up in the dictionary and be sure that you have +added the proper suffix. The list for Friday consists of words which you +may find in your reading spelled with the _our_ ending. The list for +Saturday contains words which you may find spelled with the _re_ ending +instead of the _er_. + + +Monday+ + + Create + Produce + Profess + Debate + Govern + + +Tuesday+ + + Edit + Consume + Consign + Legislate + Design + + +Wednesday+ + + Solicit + Pay + Success + Observe + Invent + + +Thursday+ + + Vote + Debt + Organize + Sail + Strike + + +Friday+ + + Labor + Neighbor + Rumor + Valor + Candor + + +Saturday+ + + Theater + Scepter + Fiber + Somber + Meager + + + + + PLAIN ENGLISH + + LESSON 25 + + +Dear Comrade: + +In logic, we have two ways of reasoning, from the general to the +particular and from the particular to the general. In other words, we +may take a certain number of facts and reason to a conclusion; or we may +go the other way about and start with our conclusion and reason back to +the facts which produce the conclusion. Scientists use the former +method. They gather together all the facts which they possibly can and +from these facts they reach their conclusions. + +This was what Karl Marx did for the social problems of his day. He +analyzed these problems. He gathered together all of the facts which he +could obtain concerning conditions of his day and from these facts he +reached certain conclusions. He foretold the rise of capitalism and +outlined present day conditions so perfectly that had he lived long ago +among superstitious people, they would probably have called him a +prophet. + +This mastery of analysis, of marshaling our facts and from them reaching +conclusions, is a wonderful power to possess, and this is exactly what +we are doing in our English work. We are analyzing our sentences, +finding the elements of which they are composed, and then building the +sentence; and since neither the thought nor the sentence can be really +studied except in connection with each other, this analysis of sentences +gives us an understanding of the thought. The effort to analyze a +difficult sentence leads to a fuller appreciation of the meaning of the +sentence. This, in turn, cultivates accuracy in our own thought and in +its expression. + +So do not slight the analysis of the sentence or this work in sentence +building. You will find it will help you to a quicker understanding of +that which you are reading and it will also give you a logical habit of +mind. You will be able to think more accurately and express yourself +more clearly. After a little practice in analysis you will find that in +your reading you will be able to grasp the author's meaning quickly. You +will see at a glance, without thinking about it consciously, the subject +and the predicate and the modifiers in the sentence. Then you will not +confuse the meaning. You will not have to go back and reread the passage +to find out just what the author was talking about; and when you come to +write and speak yourself, you will have formed the habit of logical +expression. In this way you will be able to put your thought in such a +manner that your listener can make no mistake as to just what you mean. + +Now, no habit comes without practice. You cannot do a thing +unconsciously until you have done it consciously a great many times. So +practice this analysis of sentences over and over. It really is an +interesting game in itself, and the results which it will bring to you +are tremendously worth while. + +Nothing is too much trouble which will give us the power to think for +ourselves and to put that thought into words. + + Yours for Freedom, + + THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. + + + THE SUBJECT OF A SIMPLE SENTENCE + ++416.+ We have found that the two parts of a simple sentence are the +complete subject and the complete predicate. The noun is most often used +as the subject of a sentence. It may have a number of modifiers, but +when we strip away these modifiers we can usually find a noun which is +the subject of the sentence. Occasionally the subject is a pronoun or a +participle or adjective used as a noun but most frequently the subject +is a noun. As for example: + + A wild piercing _cry_ rang out. + Hopeless, helpless _children_ work in the cotton mills. + The golden _age_ of peace will come. + Little child _lives_ are coined into money. + Defenseless, helpless _children_ suffer most under capitalism. + Every neglected _child_ smites my conscience in the name of humanity. + The thrilling, far-sounding _battle-cry_ shall resound. + +Note that in all of these sentences the word in italics is a noun, which +is the simple subject of the sentence. All of the other words which +comprise the complete subject are the modifiers of this noun, or +modifiers of its modifiers. + +But in our study of words, we have found that there are a number of +other words which can be used in place of a noun and these may all be +used as the subject of a sentence. + ++417.+ +A pronoun may be used as the subject of a sentence+, for the +pronoun is a word used in place of the noun; and a pronoun used as the +subject of a sentence may have modifiers just as a noun. It may be +modified by adjectives or adjective phrases, as for example: + + _We_ are confident of success. + _He_, worried and out of employment, committed suicide. + _She_, heartsick and weary, waited for an answer. + _She_, with her happy, watchful ways, blessed the household. + _They_, victorious and triumphant, entered the city. + How can _I_, without money or friends, succeed? + + "Out of the night that covers me, + Black as the pit from pole to pole, + _I_ thank whatever Gods there be + For my unconquerable soul." + +In all of these sentences the pronoun is the simple subject of the +sentence, and the pronoun with all of its modifiers is the complete +subject of the sentence. + ++418.+ +The participle may be used as a noun, the subject of the +sentence.+ For example: + + _Traveling_ is pleasant. + +Here the present participle _traveling_ is used as a noun, subject of +the sentence. + +Participle phrases may also be used as nouns, as for example: + + _Being prepared_ will not save us from war. + His _having signed_ the note was the cause of the trouble. + +In these sentences, _being prepared_ and _having signed_ are participle +phrases used as nouns, the subjects of the verbs _will save_ and _was_. +Note the use of the participle used as the subject in the following +sentences: + + _Painting_ is an art. + _Making_ shoes is his work. + _Being discovered_ seems to be the real crime. + His _having joined_ his comrades was a brave act. + Your _remaining_ here will be dangerous. + +Note that when the participle is used as a noun, the possessive form +of the pronoun is always used with it, as in the sentence above: + + _Your_ remaining here will be dangerous. + +Notice that in some of these sentences the participle has an object; as, +making _shoes_, his having joined his _comrades_. The participle still +retains some of its verb nature in that it may take an object. The +entire phrases, _His having joined his comrades_, and, _Making shoes_, +are the subjects of the sentences. + ++419.+ +The infinitive may also be used as a noun, the subject of the +sentence.+ Note in the following sentences the use of the infinitive as +the subject of the sentence: + + _To err_ is human; _to forgive_ is divine. + _To be_ or not _to be_ is the question. + _To toil_ all day is wearisome. + _To aim_ is one thing; _to hit_ the mark is another. + _To remain_ ignorant is to remain a slave. + ++420.+ +An adjective can also be used as the subject.+ You remember in +our study of adjectives we found that an adjective may be used as a +noun, as for example: + + The _strong_ enslave the weak. + +Here the adjective _strong_ is used as a noun, subject of the sentence. +Note in the following sentences, the use of the adjectives as subjects: + + The _wise_ instruct the ignorant. + The _dead_ were left upon the battlefields. + The _rich_ look down upon the poor. + The _mighty_ of the earth have forced this war upon us. + The _poor_ are enslaved by their ignorance. + The _wounded_ were carried to the hospitals. + + + PLACE OF THE SUBJECT IN A SENTENCE + +The subject usually comes first in the sentence. If it has any +modifiers, they alone precede the subject, as for example: + + A wonderful, inspiring _lecture_ was given. + The weary _army_ slept in the trenches. + +But occasionally we find the subject after the verb. + ++421.+ +By simple inversion.+ + +We will often find this use in poetry or in poetic prose, as for +example: + + Never have _I_ heard one word to the contrary. + +In this sentence _I_ is the subject of the sentence, _have heard_ is the +verb, and _never_ is an adverb modifying the verb phrase, _have heard_. +But in order to place emphasis upon the word _never_, which is the +emphatic word in the sentence, _never_ is placed first, and the verb +phrase inverted so that the subject _I_ comes in between the two words +which form the verb phrase. The sentence expressed in its usual order +would be: + + I have never heard one word to the contrary. + +You will note that this statement does not carry the same emphasis upon +the word _never_ as the inverted statement. + ++422.+ +In interrogative sentences, the subject comes after the helping +verb or after the interrogative used to introduce the sentence.+ As for +example: + + Have _you_ heard the news? + When will _we_ hear from you? + How have the _people_ been managing? + What will the _children_ do then? + Will the _students_ come later? + Can the _work_ be accomplished quickly? + Must our _youth_ end so quickly? + ++423.+ +The real subject comes after the verb when we use the +introductory word it.+ As for example: + + It will not be safe _to go_. + +_To go_ is really the subject of the sentence. _To go will not be safe._ + +_It_ is sometimes the real subject of a sentence, as in the sentence; +_It is a wonderful story_. + +Here _it_ is the subject of the sentence and _a wonderful story_ is the +predicate complement. But in the sentence: + + It is wonderful to hear him tell the story. + +_To hear him tell the story_ is the real subject of the sentence. The +first sentence, _It is a wonderful story_, could not be rewritten, but +the second sentence could be rewritten, as follows: + + To hear him tell the story is wonderful. + ++424.+ +The introductory word there reverses the order of the sentence+, +just as the introductory word _it_. The real subject is used later in +the sentence. As for example: + + There were a great many people present. + +This could be rewritten, omitting the introductory word _there_. We +could say: + + A great many people were present. + +The noun _people_ is the subject of the sentence. + + + Exercise 1 + +In the following sentences, underscore the complete subject with one +line, and the simple subject with two lines, and decide whether the +simple subject is a noun, pronoun, participle, infinitive or an +adjective used as a noun: + + + 1. A great man is universal and elemental. + 2. To love justice was his creed. + 3. A more inspiring and noble declaration of faith was never born of + human heart. + 4. The reading of good books should begin in childhood. + 5. Dreaming of great things will not bring us to the goal. + 6. The weary seek for rest. + 7. To believe in yourself is the first essential. + 8. He, speaking and writing constantly for the cause, has given his + life to the movement. + 9. To remain ignorant is to remain a slave. + 10. A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds. + 11. A great soul has simply nothing to do with consistency. + 12. To be great is to be misunderstood. + 13. Traveling is a fool's paradise. + 14. It is not enough to be sincere. + 15. We, seeking the truth, have found our own. + 16. There are thousands of comrades with us. + + + THE COMPLETE PREDICATE + ++425.+ Look first in the predicate for your verb. It will always be the +principal part of your predicate. It may be a verb or a verb phrase, but +the first thing in analyzing the complete predicate of the sentence is +to find the verb. The verb or verb phrase without any of its modifiers +constitutes the simple predicate. If the verb is a complete verb, its +only modifiers will be adverbs or adverb phrases. For example: + + A splendid statue of Lincoln stands yonder in the park. + +In this sentence, _stands yonder in the park_ is the complete predicate. +_Stands_ is a complete verb. It requires no object, but it is modified +by the adverb _yonder_ and by the adverb phrase _in the park_. + + + INCOMPLETE VERBS + ++426.+ If the verb in the predicate is an incomplete verb of action, +then the object of the verb is also part of the predicate. The complete +predicate containing an incomplete verb of action may contain five +parts; a verb, a direct object, an indirect object, an adverb and an +adverb phrase. As for example: + + The tailor gladly made him a coat at that time. + +In this sentence, the complete predicate is _gladly made him a coat at +that time_. _Made_ is the verb. It is an incomplete verb of action, and +_coat_ is its direct object. _Him_ is the indirect object. _Made_ is +also modified by the adverb _gladly_, and the adverb phrase, _at that +time_. + +All of these are not always used, of course, in every predicate; but +these are the elements which may occur in the predicate with an +incomplete verb. + + + THE OBJECT OF THE VERB + ++427.+ Words used as objects of a verb are practically the same as those +which may be used for its subject. + ++We may have a noun used as the object of the verb.+ For example: + + Hail destroyed the _crops_. + The banks rob the _farmers_. + We must educate the _children_. + Labor produces all _wealth_. + +In these sentences, _crops_, _farmers_, _children_ and _wealth_ are +nouns used as the object of the verb. + ++A pronoun may also be used as the object of a verb.+ For example: + + Will you not teach _me_? + Send _them_ to her. + They have invited _us_. + The comrades will remember _him_. + +In the above sentences, _me_, _them_, _us_ and _him_ are the objects of +the verbs, _will teach_, _send_, _have invited_ and _will remember_. + +Remember that in pronouns we have a different form for the object form, +as, _me_, _her_, _him_, _us_ and _them_. + ++428.+ +An infinitive may also be used as the object of a verb+, thus: + + I like _to study_. + He asked _to go_. + I want _to learn_ all that I can. + +In this last sentence, the infinitive, _to learn_, is the direct object +of the verb _want_. The object of the infinitive, _to learn_, is _all +that I can_. All of this taken together with the verb _want_, forms the +complete predicate, _want to learn all that I can_. + ++429.+ +The participle may also be used as the object of a verb+, thus: + + We heard the _thundering_ of the cannon. + We enjoyed the _dancing_. + Do you hear the _singing_ of the birds? + +In these sentences, the participles _thundering_, _dancing_, and +_singing_ are the objects of the verbs _heard_, _enjoyed_ and _do hear_. + ++430.+ +An adjective used as a noun may also be used as the object of a +verb+, thus: + + I saw the _rich_ and the _poor_ struggling together. + The struggle for existence crushes the _weak_. + Seek the _good_ and the _true_. + +In these sentences the adjectives _rich_, _poor_, _weak_, _good_ and +_true_, are used as nouns and are the objects of the verbs _saw_, +_crushes_ and _seek_. + + + VERBS OF STATE OR CONDITION + +We have found that with the incomplete verbs of state or condition, or +copulative verbs, the predicate complement may be either a noun, as, +_The man is a hero_; or an adjective, as, _The man is class-conscious_; +or a phrase, as, _The man is in earnest_. + +The predicate complement may also be: + ++431.+ +A pronoun+; as, + + Who is she? + That was he. + This is I. + +In these sentences the subjects of the verbs are _she_, _that_ and +_this_, and the pronouns _who_, _he_ and _I_ are used as predicate +complements. + ++432.+ +Infinitives may also be used as the predicate complement+, thus: + + To remain ignorant is _to remain_ a slave. + +_To remain ignorant_, is the subject of the copulative verb _is_, and +the infinitive, _to remain_, with its complement, _a slave_, is the +predicate complement. + ++433.+ +A participle used as a noun may also be used as the predicate +complement+, thus: + + Society is the mingling of many elements. + +_Mingling_, in this sentence is a participle of the verb _mingle_, but +is used as a noun, the predicate complement of the verb _is_. _Society_ +is the subject of the verb. + +Where the present participle is used to form a verb phrase, the +participle is part of the verb phrase, thus: + + We are mingling in society. + +Here, _are mingling_, is the present progressive verb phrase, and the +participle _mingling_ is not used as a noun or adjective, but is part of +the verb phrase _are mingling_. + +If you will observe the different parts of speech carefully, you will +not be easily confused as to whether the participle is a noun or a part +of the verb phrase. + + + Exercise 2 + +In the following sentences the incomplete verbs, including infinitives +and participles, are in italics. Mark the words, phrases or clauses +which are used as objects or complements, to complete the meaning of +these verbs. + + There _is_ no such thing in America as an independent press, unless it + _is_ in the country towns. + + You _have_ and I _know_ it. There _is_ not one of you who _dares to + write_ his honest opinions. If you did, you _know_ beforehand that it + would never appear in print. + + I _am paid_ $150.00 a week for _keeping_ my honest opinions out of the + paper with which I am connected. Others of you _are paid_ similar + salaries for similar things. Any one of you who _would be_ so foolish + as _to write_ his honest opinions _would be_ out on the streets + looking for another job. + + The business of the New York journalist _is to destroy_ the truth, to + lie outright, to pervert, to villify, to fawn at the feet of Mammon, + and _to sell_ his race and his country for his daily bread. + + You _know_ this and I _know_ it. So what folly _is_ this _to be + toasting_ an "Independent Press." + + We _are_ the tools and vassals of rich men behind the scenes. We _are_ + the jumping-jacks; they _pull_ the strings and we dance. Our talents, + our possibilities and our lives _are_ all the property of other men. + We _are_ intellectual prostitutes.--_John Swinton_. + + + MODIFIERS OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE + ++434.+ Remember that a simple sentence is one that contains a single +statement, question or command. It is a clause, for it contains a +subject and a predicate; but it contains only the one subject and the +one predicate. A sentence containing two principal clauses, or a +principal clause and a subordinate clause, would contain two complete +statements, questions or commands, therefore it would not be a simple +sentence, but compound or complex. + +Remember, however, that the simple sentences may contain two or more +subjects with the same predicate, or two or more predicates with the +same subject, or both a compound subject and a compound predicate. + ++435.+ The modifiers in a simple sentence are always words or phrases. +The modifiers of the subject are either adjectives or adjective phrases. +The modifiers of the predicate are either adverbs or adverb phrases. If +an adjective or an adverb clause is used as a modifier, then the +sentence is no longer a simple sentence, but becomes a _complex_ +sentence, for it now contains a dependent clause. + + + ORDER OF ELEMENTS + ++436.+ The usual order of the principal elements in the sentence is the +subject, the predicate and the object or complement, thus: + + _Subject_ _Predicate_ + _Men_ _work_ + + _Subject_ _Predicate_ _Object_ + _Men_ _build_ _houses_ + + _Subject_ _Predicate_ _Complement_ + _Books_ _are_ _helpful_ + +This is called the natural or logical order. Logical means according to +sense or reason. + +Adjectives usually stand before the nouns they modify, thus: + + _Good_ books are helpful. + +Adverbs may be placed either before or after the verbs they modify, +thus: + + The men _then_ came _quickly_ to the rescue. + +The adverb _then_ precedes the verb _came_, which it modifies; and the +adverb _quickly_ is placed after the verb. + +Adverbs which modify adjectives or other adverbs are placed before the +words which they modify, thus: + + The _more_ industrious students learn _quite_ rapidly. + +In this sentence, the adverb _more_ is placed before the adjective +_industrious_, which it modifies; and the adverb _quite_ is placed +before the adverb _rapidly_, which it modifies. + +Adjective and adverb phrases usually follow the words which they modify, +thus: + + The men _in the car_ came quickly _to the rescue_. + The manager _of the mine_ remained _with the men_. + +In this last sentence, the adjective phrase, _of the mine_, is placed +after the noun _manager_, which it modifies, and the adverb phrase, +_with the men_, is placed after the verb _remained_, which it modifies. + ++437.+ These sentences illustrate the logical order in which the +elements of the sentence usually come. But this logical order is not +strictly adhered to. Many times, in order to place the emphasis upon +certain words, we reverse this order and place the emphasized words +first, as: + + _Without your help_, we cannot win. + +The logical order of this sentence is: + + We cannot win without your help. + +But we want to place the emphasis upon _your help_, so we change the +order of the words and place the phrase, _without your help_, first. + ++438.+ This inversion of the order helps us to express our thought with +more emphasis. Our language is so flexible that we can express the same +thought in different ways by simply changing the order of the elements +in the sentence. Notice in the following sentences, the inversion of the +usual order, and see what difference this makes in the expression of the +thought. + + Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown. + A more terrible scene you cannot imagine. + With the shrieking of shot and shell the battle raged. + Louder and louder thundered the tempest. + Silently and sadly the men returned to their homes. + +To transpose these inverted sentences--that is to place the elements in +their logical order, gives us an insight into the thought expressed in +the sentence. It is worth a great deal to us to be able in our reading +to see the live elements in the sentence at a glance, and in this way we +can grasp at once the thought of the sentence. So you will find that +this analyzing of the sentences is very helpful to us in our reading. + ++439.+ When we have learned to analyze a sentence quickly we will not be +lost in the maze of words. A paragraph is often like a string of pearls. +The author has a single thread of thought running through the different +sentences which compose the paragraph and if we have trained ourselves +well in sentence analysis, we will never lose this thread. It will be +like a life line to which we cling while the breakers of thought and +emotion roar about us. + + + Exercise 3 + +In the following poem, study carefully the inverted order of the +sentences. Rewrite them, placing the elements in their logical order. As +for example: + + To the poor man you've been true from of old. + +The elements of the sentence are inverted in this quotation. Rewritten +in their logical order this would read: + + You've been true to the poor man from of old. + +You will note that this inversion is quite common in poetry. + + + HUNGER AND COLD + + Sisters, two, all praise to you, + With your faces pinched and blue; + To the poor man you've been true, + From of old; + You can speak the keenest word, + You are sure of being heard, + From the point you're never stirred, + Hunger and Cold! + + Let sleek statesmen temporize; + Palsied are their shifts and lies + When they meet your bloodshot eyes, + Grim and bold; + Policy you set at naught, + In their traps you'll not be caught, + You're too honest to be bought, + Hunger and Cold! + + Let them guard both hall and bower; + Through the window you will glower, + Patient till your reckoning hour + Shall be tolled; + Cheeks are pale, but hands are red, + Guiltless blood may chance be shed, + But ye must and will be fed, + Hunger and Cold! + + God has plans man must not spoil, + Some were made to starve and toil, + Some to share the wine and oil, + We are told; + Devil's theories are these, + Stifling hope and love and peace, + Framed your hideous lusts to please, + Hunger and Cold! + + Scatter ashes on thy head, + Tears of burning sorrow shed, + Earth! and be by Pity led + To love's fold; + Ere they block the very door + With lean corpses of the poor, + And will hush for naught but gore, + Hunger and Cold! + + --_Lowell_. + + + + + SPELLING + + LESSON 25 + + +You remember in our lesson in the study of consonants we found there +were a number of consonants in English which had more than one sound; +for example, _c_, _s_, _g_, _x_, etc. + +A number of other consonants have sounds which are similar; that is, +they are made with the organs of articulation in the same position, only +one is a soft, and the other a hard sound; for example, _p_ and _b_, _t_ +and _d_, _f_ and _v_, etc. These sounds are called cognate sounds. +Cognate means literally _of the same nature_, and so these sounds are of +the same nature, only in one the obstruction of the vocal organs is more +complete than in the other. + +Our language contains a number of words in which there is a difference +in the pronunciation of the final consonant when the word is used as a +noun and as a verb. The final consonants in these words are the cognate +sounds, _f_, _v_; _t_, _d_; _th_ soft or _th_ hard, _s_ soft, or _s_ +hard. When the consonant sound is a soft sound, the word is a noun; and +when the consonant sound is a hard sound the word is a verb. For +example; _use_ and _use_; _breath_ and _breathe_; _life_ and _live_, +etc. + +The spelling lessons for Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday contain words +ending in cognate sounds, in which the words ending with a soft sound +are nouns and the words ending in the hard sounds are verbs. Add others +to this list as they occur to you. + +We have a number of words in the English beginning with _ex_. In some of +these words, the _ex_ has the sound of _eks_, and in some of the words +the _ex_ has the sound of _egs_. It is not easy at times to know which +sound to use. + +In regard to the use of _ex_, follow this rule: When a word beginning +with _ex_ is followed by an accented syllable beginning with a vowel, +the _ex_ is pronounced _egs_; in all other words _ex_ is pronounced +_eks_; for example, in _executor_, the _ex_ is followed by an accented +syllable beginning with a vowel, therefore, _ex_ is pronounced _egs_. In +_execute_, the _ex_ is followed by an unaccented syllable beginning with +a vowel, and therefore _ex_ is pronounced _eks_. In _explain_, _ex_ is +followed by a syllable beginning with a consonant, and it is therefore +pronounced _eks_. + +Note that in words like _exhibit_, _exhort_, etc., the _ex_ is followed +by a vowel sound, the _h_ being silent, and it is therefore, pronounced +_egs_, for it is followed by an accented syllable beginning with a vowel +sound. + +The spelling list for Thursday, Friday and Saturday contains words +beginning with _ex_. Watch carefully the pronunciation. + + +Monday+ + + Excuse Excuse + Abuse Abuse + Grease Grease + Sacrifice Sacrifice + Device Devise + + +Tuesday+ + + Intent Intend + Advice Advise + Relief Relieve + Cloth Clothe + Reproof Reprove + + +Wednesday+ + + Ascent Ascend + Strife Strive + Mouth Mouth + Grief Grieve + Bath Bathe + + +Thursday+ + + Exile + Except + Exhibit + Expert + Exempt + + +Friday+ + + Example + Excellent + Exhaust + Exit + Expropriate + + +Saturday+ + + Exercise + Exist + Experiment + Exaggerate + Explanation + + + + + PLAIN ENGLISH + + LESSON 26 + + +Dear Comrade: + +There are really two things which will come to us out of the study of +grammar. One of these, which we discussed in our letter last week, is +the power of logical thinking. The second is the ability to express our +thoughts correctly; that is, according to accepted usage. So you can +consider your spoken and written speech from two viewpoints. First, you +can look to see if you have used the words correctly. We have noted +these common errors especially in our study of the various parts of +speech. There are certain errors we often make, as for example, using a +plural noun with a singular verb, or using the past time form of the +verb for the past participle. + +We have noted a great many of these errors in our speech. We might make +ourselves understood and express ourselves fairly accurately and still +make these mistakes, but it is wise for us to try to eliminate them from +our speech for several reasons. To those who understand the use of +correct English, these mistakes mark us as ignorant and uneducated. No +matter how important and absolutely accurate the thought we are +expressing, if we make these grammatical errors, they very naturally +discount our thought also. They feel that if we cannot speak correctly, +in all probability we cannot think accurately, either. + +Then, too, these words in our speech distract the attention of our +hearers from the things which we are saying. It is like the mannerism of +an actor. If he has any peculiar manner of walking or of talking and +persists in carrying that into whatever character he is interpreting, we +always see the actor himself, instead of the character which he is +portraying. His mannerisms get in the way and interfere with our grasp +of the idea. + +So in music. You may be absorbed in a wonderful selection which some one +is playing and if suddenly he strikes a wrong note, the discord +distracts your attention and perhaps you never get back into the spirit +of the music again. + +So we must watch these common errors in our speech, but we must not let +our study of English be simply that alone. The greatest benefit which we +are deriving from this study is the analytic method of thought and the +logical habit of mind, which the effort to express ourselves clearly and +accurately and in well-chosen words will give us. Put as much time as +you can possibly spare into this analysis of sentences. Take your +favorite writer and analyze his sentences and find out what is his +particular charm for you. If there is any sentence which gives you a +little trouble and you cannot analyze it properly, copy it in your next +examination paper and state where the difficulty lies. Rewrite the +passages which please you most and then compare your version with the +author's and see if you really grasped his meaning. In this way you will +add quickly to your enjoyment of the writing of others and to your power +of expressing yourself. + + Yours for Freedom, + + THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. + + + THE SIMPLE SENTENCE + ++440.+ We have been analyzing the simple sentence, which contains only +words and phrases. We have found that there may enter into the simple +sentence, the following elements: + + 1. The simple subject. + 2. The simple predicate. + 3. The modifiers of the subject. + 4. The object of the verb. + 5. The predicate complement. + 6. The modifiers of the predicate. + +This is not the order in which the elements will appear in the sentence, +but this is the order of their importance. We first look for the simple +subject and the simple predicate; then we can determine which words are +the modifiers of the subject; then we find the object or predicate +complement of the verb and the modifiers of the verb; and thus we have +all of the elements which go into the construction of the simple +sentence. + +We may also have two nouns used as the subject or two verbs used in the +predicate, connected by a co-ordinate conjunction, thus: + + Marx and Engels lived and worked together. + +Here we have two proper nouns used as the subject, _Marx_ and _Engels_. +We have also two verbs used as the predicate, _lived_ and _worked_. We +call this a compound subject and compound predicate. + +So in one simple sentence, that is a sentence which makes a single +assertion, we may have every part of speech. For example: + + The most intelligent men and women think for themselves. + +In this sentence, we have a _noun_, _verb_, _pronoun_, _adjective_, +_adverb_, _conjunction_ and _preposition_--every part of speech except +the _interjection_, which is an independent element and does not enter +into the construction of the sentence. + + + Exercise 1 + +Write simple sentences of your own containing: + + 1. A compound subject. + 2. A compound predicate. + 3. A noun as subject modified by one or more adjectives. + 4. A noun as subject modified by a phrase. + 5. An incomplete verb with a direct and an indirect object. + 6. An incomplete verb with a predicate complement. + 7. A predicate modified by one or more adverbs. + 8. A predicate modified by an adverb phrase. + + + COMPLEX SENTENCES + ++441.+ The simple sentence is the unit of speech. It is a combination of +words which makes a single statement, question or command. But many +times a constant repetition of these short sentences would become +tiresome, and our written and spoken speech would not flow as smoothly +and rapidly as we desire. So we have evolved a way in which we may +combine these sentences into longer statements. Let us take the two +_simple_ sentences: + + + We are united. + We shall succeed. + +We may combine these into a single sentence by using the co-ordinate +conjunction _and_. Then our sentence reads: + + We are united and we shall succeed. + +This is a _compound_ sentence, formed by uniting two simple sentences. +Both of the clauses are independent and are of equal rank. Neither +depends upon the other. They are united by the co-ordinate conjunction +_and_. We can combine these sentences in a different way. For example, +we may say: + + If we are united, we shall succeed. + +Now we have a subordinate clause, _if we are united_, which is used to +modify the verb of the main clause, _succeed_. We have used the +subordinate conjunction _if_, and so we have a _complex_ sentence formed +by uniting the principal clause and a dependent clause. + ++442.+ The next step in sentence building, after the simple sentence, is +the complex sentence. A complex sentence is a combination of two or more +simple sentences, which are so united that one sentence remains the main +sentence--the backbone, as it were--and the other sentence becomes +subordinate or dependent upon it. + ++443.+ +A complex sentence is one containing a principal clause and one +or more subordinate clauses.+ + ++A principal clause is one which makes a complete statement without the +help of any other clause or clauses.+ + ++A subordinate or dependent clause is one which makes a statement +dependent upon or modifying some word or words in the principal clause.+ + + + KINDS OF DEPENDENT CLAUSES + ++444.+ Dependent clauses are of three kinds. They may be used either as +_nouns_, _adjectives_ or _adverbs_, and so are called _noun clauses_, +_adjective clauses_ or _adverb clauses_. + + + NOUN CLAUSES + ++445.+ +Noun clauses are those which are used in place of a noun.+ They +may be used in any way in which a noun may be used, except as a +possessive. + +1. +The noun clause may be used as the subject of the sentence.+ For +example: + + _That he is innocent_ is admitted by all. + +The clause, _that he is innocent_ is used as a _noun_, the subject of +the sentence. + +2. +The noun clause may be used as the object of a verb+, thus: + + I admit _that I cannot understand your argument_. + +The clause, _that I cannot understand your argument_, is in this +sentence the object of the verb _admit_. + +3. +The noun clause may be used as the predicate complement+, thus: + + The fact is _that this policy will never win_. + +The clause, _that this policy will never win_, is here used in the +predicate with the copulative verb _is_. + +4. +The noun clause may also be used in apposition, explaining the noun +with which it is used+, thus: + + The motion, _that the question should be reconsidered_, was carried. + +_That the question should be reconsidered_, is here a noun clause, used +in apposition with the noun _motion_, and explains the meaning of the +noun. + +5. +The noun clause may also be used as the object of a preposition+, +thus: + + I now refer to _what he claims_. + +The noun clause, _what he claims_, is here the object of the +preposition, _to_. + + + Exercise 2 + +In the following sentences the noun clauses are printed in italics. +Determine whether they are used as the subject, or object of the verb, +as predicate complement, in apposition, or as the object of a +preposition. + + 1. The fact is _that I was not listening_. + 2. _Whatever King Midas looked upon_ turned to gold. + 3. He acknowledged _what we had suspected_. + 4. We will never know _what the real situation was_. + 5. The fact _that the wage is insufficient_ can be easily proved. + 6. He replied to _what had been asked_. + 7. The claim was _that he had made a speech inciting to riot_. + 8. The law _that labor unions are in restraint of trade_ was upheld. + 9. _That we cannot win by compromise_ is readily apparent. + 10. Labor demands _that it shall have its full product_. + 11. _Whoever controls education_ controls the future. + 12. He came to _where the militia was in camp_. + + + Exercise 3 + +Write sentences containing noun clauses used: + + 1. As the subject of a verb. + 2. As the object of a verb. + 3. As a predicate complement. + 4. In apposition. + 5. As the object of a preposition. + + + ADJECTIVE CLAUSES + ++446.+ A dependent clause in a complex sentence may also be an adjective +clause. + ++An adjective clause is a clause used as an adjective+, and, hence, +always modifies a noun or some word used as a noun, such as a pronoun or +a participle. In Lesson 22, we studied adjective clauses and found that +they could be introduced by the relative pronouns, _who_, _which_, +_that_ and _as_, and also by conjunctions such as, _when_, _where_, +_whither_, _whence_, etc. An adjective clause may modify any noun or any +word used as a noun in the sentence. + +1. +An adjective clause may modify the subject+, thus: + + Men _who have become class-conscious_ do not make good soldiers. + +In this sentence the clause, _who have become class-conscious_, modifies +the noun _men_, and is introduced by the relative pronoun _who_. + +2. +An adjective clause may modify the noun which is the object of the +verb+, as: + + The men supported the party _which fought for their rights_. + +Here the clause, _which fought for their rights_, is an adjective clause +introduced by the pronoun _which_, and it modifies the noun _party_, +which is the object of the verb _supported_. + +3. +An adjective clause may also be used to modify the noun which is +used in the predicate complement+, as: + + That was the book _which I enjoyed_. + +In this sentence the clause, _which I enjoyed_, is an adjective clause +modifying the noun _book_, which is used as the predicate complement +with the copulative verb _was_. + +4. +An adjective clause may also be used to modify the noun which is +used as the object of a preposition+, as: + + He arrived on the train _which was late_. + +Here the adjective clause, _which was late_, modifies the noun _train_, +which is the object of the preposition _on_. + +Sometimes it is a little difficult to discover these adjective clauses, +for frequently the connecting word is omitted, as for example: + + I could not find the man _I wanted_. + +In this sentence, the pronoun _whom_ is omitted; the complete sentence +would read: + + I could not find the man _whom I wanted_. + +_Whom I wanted_ is an adjective clause modifying the noun _man_. + + + Exercise 4 + +In the following sentences the relative pronouns and the conjunctions +introducing adjective clauses are omitted. Rewrite the sentences using +the proper relative pronouns and conjunctions. The adjective clauses are +in italics. + + 1. The people _you are seeking_ are not here. + 2. I have read the book _you brought_. + 3. The articles _you mentioned_ are not listed. + 4. I will go to the place _you say_. + 5. This is a book _you should read_. + 6. Those are ideals _the people will readily grasp_. + 7. We make Gods of the things _we fear_. + 8. I listened to every word _he said_. + 9. I should love the cause _you love_. + 10. The things _the people demand_ are just and right. + + + Exercise 5 + +In the following sentences the adjective clauses are all printed in +italics. Determine whether they modify the subject or the object, the +predicate complement or the object of the preposition. + + 1. In that moment _when he saw the light_ he joined our cause. + 2. Other men are lenses _through which we read our own minds_. + 3. This is perhaps the reason _why we are unable to agree_. + 4. He _that loveth_ maketh his own the grandeur _that he loves_. + 5. The other terror _that scares us from self-trust_ is our + consistency. + 6. There is a popular fable of a sot _who was picked up dead drunk in + the street, carried to the Duke's house, washed and dressed and + laid in the Duke's bed, and, on his waking, treated with all + ceremony like a duke and assured that he had been insane_. + 7. He _who would gather immortal palms_ must not be hindered by the + name of goodness, but must explore if it be goodness. + 8. Superstition, _who is the mother of fear and faith_, still rules + many people. + 9. We are looking for the time _when the useful shall be the + honorable_. + 10. He _who enslaves another_ cannot be free. + 11. He _who attacks the right_ assaults himself. + 12. The force _that is in every atom and every star, in everything + that grows and thinks, that hopes and suffers_, is the only + possible God. + 13. He _who adds to the sum of human misery_ is a blasphemer. + 14. The grandest ambition _that can enter the soul_ is the desire to + know the truth. + + + ADVERB CLAUSES + ++447.+ The third kind of clause which we may use in a complex sentence +is the adverb clause. + ++An adverb clause is a clause which takes the place of an adverb.+ It +may modify a _verb_, an _adjective_, or an _adverb_. We studied adverb +clauses in lesson 21 and we found eight classes of adverb clauses, +expressing _time_, _place_, _cause_ or _reason_, _manner_, _comparison_, +_condition_, _purpose_ and _result_. For example: + + 1. +Adverb clause of time:+ + No man is truly free _until all are free_. + + 2. +Adverb clause of place:+ + We must live _where we can find work_. + + 3. +Adverb clause expressing cause or reason:+ + We lost the strike _because the men were not class-conscious_. + + 4. +Adverb clause of manner:+ + We must work _as if the result depended entirely upon us_. + + 5. +Adverb clause of comparison:+ + The working class must become more class-conscious _than it is + today_. + + 6. +Adverb clause of condition:+ + We will continue to be exploited _if we do not demand our rights_. + + 7. +Adverb clause expressing purpose:+ + We must read the labor press _in order that we may know the truth + concerning conditions_. + + 8. +Adverb clause expressing result:+ + The battle raged so furiously _that thousands were slain_. + + + ANALYZING COMPLEX SENTENCES + ++448.+ To analyze a complex sentence; that is, to break it up into its +different parts--treat the sentence first as a whole, then find the +simple subject and the simple predicate. If a noun clause is the +subject, treat it first as a noun. Treat adjective clauses as adjectives +modifying certain words and the adverb clauses as adverbs modifying +certain words. + +In other words, analyze the sentence first as a simple sentence with +dependent clauses considered as modifying words; then analyze each +dependent clause as though it were a simple sentence. Make an outline +like the following and use it in your analysis of the sentence. Let us +take this sentence and analyze it: + + Conscious solidarity in the ranks would give the working class of the + world, now, in our day, the freedom which they seek. + + +Simple subject+, _solidarity_. + + +Simple predicate+, _would give_. + + Modifiers of the subject: + + Adjective, _conscious_. + Adjective phrase, _in the ranks_. + Adjective clause, (_none_). + + +Complete subject+, _Conscious solidarity in the ranks_. + + Modifiers of the predicate: + + Adverb, _now_. + Adverb phrase, _in our day_. + Adverb clause, (_none_). + + +Direct object+, _freedom_. + + Modifiers of direct object: + + Adjective, _the_. + Adjective phrase, (_none_). + Adjective clause, _which they seek_, + + +Indirect object+, _class_. + + Modifiers of indirect object: + + Adjectives, _the_, _working_. + Adjective phrase, _of the world_. + Adjective clause, (_none_). + + +Complete predicate+, _would give the working class of the world, + now, in our day, the freedom which they seek_. + +Analyze the dependent clause, _which they seek_, just as a principal +clause is analyzed. _They_ is the simple subject, _seek_ is the simple +predicate, _which_ is the direct object. The complete predicate is _seek +which_. + ++449.+ Notice that the first two sentences given in the exercise below +are imperative sentences,--the subject, the pronoun _you_, being omitted +so that the entire sentence is the complete predicate. As for example: +_Take the place which belongs to you_. The omitted subject is the +pronoun _you_. _Take the place which belongs to you_ is the complete +predicate, made up of the simple predicate _take_; its object, the noun +_place_; the adjective _the_, and the adjective clause, _which belongs +to you_, both of which modify the noun _place_. + + + Exercise 6 + +Using the outline given above, analyze the following complex sentences. + + 1. Take the place which belongs to you. + 2. Let us believe that brave deeds will never die. + 3. The orator knows that the greatest ideas should be expressed in + the simplest words. + 4. Gratitude is the fairest flower that sheds its perfume in the + human heart. + 5. Children should be taught that it is their duty to think for + themselves. + 6. We will be slaves as long as we are ignorant. + 7. We must teach our fellow men that honor comes from within. + 8. Cause and effect cannot be severed for the effect already blooms + in the cause. + 9. Men measure their esteem of each other by what each has. + 10. Our esteem should be measured by what each is. + 11. What I must do is all that concerns me. + 12. The great man is he who, in the midst of the crowd, keeps the + independence of solitude. + 13. The only right is what is after my constitution. + 14. Whoso would be a man must be a non-conformist. + 15. They who build on ideas build for eternity. + + + Exercise 7 + +We have studied all the parts of speech, and now our work is to combine +these parts for the expression of thought. It will be good practice and +very helpful to us to mark these different parts of speech in our +reading. This helps us to grow familiar with their use. It also helps us +to add words to our vocabulary and to learn how to use them correctly. +In the following quotation, mark underneath each word, the name of every +part of speech. Use _n._ for noun, _v._ for verb, _pro._ for pronoun, +_adv._ for adverb, _adj._ for adjective, _p._ for preposition and _c._ +for conjunction. Write _v. p._ under the verb phrases. For example: + + +The workers of the world do not have, + _adj._ _n._ _p._ _adj._ _n._ _v.p._ _adv._ _v.p._ + + under this system, very many opportunities + _p._ _adj._ _n._ _adv._ _adj._ _n._ + + for rest and pleasure for themselves.+ + _p._ _n._ _c._ _n._ _p._ _pro._ + + +Mark in this manner every part of speech in the following quotation: + + The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class + struggles. + + Freeman and slave, patrician and plebeian, lord and serf, guildmaster + and journeyman,--in a word, oppressor and oppressed,--stood in + constant opposition to one another, carried on an uninterrupted, now + hidden, now open fight, a fight that each time ended, either in a + revolutionary re-constitution of society at large, or in the common + ruin of the contending classes. + + In the earlier epochs of history, we find almost everywhere a + complicated arrangement of society into various orders, a manifold + gradation of social rank. In ancient Rome we have patricians, knights, + plebeians, slaves; in the middle ages, feudal lords, vassals, + guild-masters, journeymen, apprentices, serfs; in almost all of these + classes, again, subordinate gradations. + + The modern bourgeois society, that has sprouted from the ruins of + feudal society, has not done away with class antagonisms. It has but + established new classes, new conditions of oppression, new forms of + struggle in place of the old ones. + + --_Communist Manifesto_. + + + Exercise 8 + +In the following quotation, mark all of the clauses and determine +whether they are dependent or independent clauses. If they are dependent +clauses, determine whether they are noun, adjective or adverb clauses. +Mark all the sentences and tell whether they are simple or complex. + +I see in the near future a crisis approaching that unnerves me, and +causes me to tremble for the safety of my country. As a result of war, +corporations have been enthroned, and an era of corruption in high +places will follow. The money power of the country will endeavor to +prolong its reign by working upon the prejudices of the people, until +all the wealth is aggregated in a few hands, and the republic is +destroyed. I feel at this moment more anxiety for the safety of our +country than ever before, even in the midst of war. God grant that my +forebodings may be groundless. Monarchy itself is sometimes hinted at as +a refuge from the power of the people. In my present position I could +scarcely be justified were I to omit to raise a warning voice against +the approach of a returning despotism.... It is assumed that labor is +available only in connection with capital; that nobody labors unless +somebody else, owning capital, somehow, by the use of it, induces him to +labor. Labor is prior to and independent of capital. Capital is only the +fruit of labor, and could not have existed if labor had not first +existed. Labor is the superior of capital, and deserves much the higher +consideration. I bid the laboring people beware of surrendering the +power which they possess, and which, if surrendered, will surely be used +to shut the door of advancement for such as they, and fix new +disabilities and burdens upon them until all of liberty shall be lost. + + * * * * * + +In the early days of our race the Almighty said to the first of mankind, +"In the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread," and since then, if we +except the light and air of Heaven, no good thing has been or can be +enjoyed by us without first having cost labor. And inasmuch as most good +things have been produced by labor, it follows that all such things +belong of right to those whose labor has produced them. But it has so +happened, in all ages of the world, that some have labored and others +have without labor enjoyed a large portion of the fruits. This is wrong, +and should not continue. To secure to each laborer the whole product of +his labor, as nearly as possible, is a worthy object of any government. + + * * * * * + +It seems strange that any man should dare to ask a just God's assistance +in wringing bread from the sweat of other men's faces. + + * * * * * + +This country, with its institutions, belongs to the people who inhabit +it. + + --_Lincoln_. + + + Exercise 9 + +In the following poem find all of the assertive, interrogative and +imperative sentences. Mark all of the simple sentences and all of the +complex sentences. Mark all of the dependent clauses and determine +whether each is used as a noun, adjective or adverb clause. The verbs +and the verb phrases are in italics. + + _Shall_ you _complain_ who _feed_ the world, + Who _clothe_ the world, + Who _house_ the world? + _Shall_ you _complain_ who _are_ the world, + Of what the world _may do_? + As from this hour you _are_ the power, + The world _must follow_ you. + + The world's life _hangs_ on your right hand, + Your strong right hand, + Your skilled right hand; + You _hold_ the whole world in your hand; + _See_ to it what you _do_! + For dark or light or wrong or right, + The world _is made_ by you. + + Then _rise_ as you never _rose_ before, + Nor _hoped_ before, + Nor _dared_ before; + And _show_ as never _was shown_ before + The power that _lies_ in you. + _Stand_ all as one; _see_ justice done; + _Believe_ and _dare_ and _do_. + + --_Charlotte Perkins Gilman_. + + + + + SPELLING + + LESSON 26 + + +In our last lesson we had examples of words in which the _s_ had the +soft sound, and also of words in which the _s_ had the sound of _z_. In +some English words, it is difficult to determine which sound to use. +There are a number of words in English beginning with _dis_. In a few of +the words, the _s_ has the sound of _z_, and in other words it has the +sound of _s_. There are only a few words which are pronounced with the +_diz_ sound. _Discern_, _dismal_ and _dissolve_ are always pronounced +with the _diz_ sound. _Disease_ and _disaster_ are pronounced both ways. +Some dictionaries give the _diz_ sound and some give the _dis_ sound. + +The spelling lesson for Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday contains a number +of words beginning with _dis_. Be sure of the pronunciation. Run through +the words in the dictionary beginning with the _dis_ sound and mark +those in which the _dis_ has the sound of _diz_. + +We have also a number of words in the English language which end in +_ise_ or _ize_, and we are often confused to know which ending to use. +There is a rule, which has very few exceptions, which covers the use of +_ise_ and _ize_. Words should be spelled with the _ize_ ending when the +_ize_ can be cut off, and the word that is left can be used alone. For +example; _author_, _authorize_. In this word you can cut off the _ize_ +and the word _author_ can be used alone. But in the word _exercise_, if +you cut off the _ise_, the remaining portion cannot be used alone. + +_Recognize_ and _criticise_ are exceptions to this rule. When used as a +suffix added to a noun or adjective to form a verb, _ize_ is the proper +ending; as _theory_, _theorize_, _civil_, _civilize_, etc. Final _e_ or +_y_ is dropped before _ize_, as in the words _memorize_, _sterilize_, +etc. + +The spelling lesson for Thursday, Friday and Saturday contains a number +of common words ending with _ize_ or _ise_. Study carefully this list +and add as many words to it as you can. + + +Monday+ + + Disappear + Distress + Discern + Disburse + Discipline + + +Tuesday+ + + Discount + Discredit + Distribute + Dismal + Disseminate + + +Wednesday+ + + Disguise + Distance + Dissolve + Discontent + Disposition + + +Thursday+ + + Franchise + Civilize + Surprise + Organize + Compromise + + +Friday+ + + Monopolize + Revise + Legalize + Enterprise + Capitalize + + +Saturday+ + + Memorize + Advertise + Theorize + Comprise + Systematize + + + + + PLAIN ENGLISH + + LESSON 27 + + +Dear Comrade: + +Ingersoll said: "Words are the garments of thought and the robes of +ideas." This is a beautiful and poetic way of expressing the +relationship between words and thoughts. Words are really the body which +we give to our thoughts. Until they are clothed in words, our thoughts +are only ghosts of ideas. Other people cannot see or come into contact +with them, and they can have but little influence upon the world. + +Without thought, no language is possible. It is equally true that +without language, no growth of thought is possible. It is futile to try +to determine which is first, language or thought. The two are entirely +necessary to each other and make possible social and individual +development. + +Every time that you add a word to your vocabulary, you have added to +your mental equipment. You have also added greatly to your power of +enjoyment. Through these words you will come into a new relationship to +your fellow men. Each new word enlarges the circle of your acquaintance. +A knowledge of language brings us into a circle of wonderful friends. +When we have learned to read we need never more be lonely. Some one has +written in a book somewhere just the thing we are hungry for at this +moment. + +In the pages of a book we can meet and talk with the great souls who +have written in these pages their life's experience. No matter what mood +you are in, you can find a book to suit that mood. No matter what your +need, there is a book which meets that need. Form the habit of reading +and you will find it a wonderful source of pleasure and of profit. + +Nor do we need to be barred because of our lack of educational +advantages in our youth. Buckle, the author of the greatest history that +has ever been written, left school at the age of fourteen, and it is +said that at that age, except a smattering of mathematics, he knew only +how to read; but when he died at the age of forty, this man, who did not +know his letters when he was eight years old, could read and write seven +languages and was familiar with ten or twelve more. He had written a +wonderful book and had become a teacher of teachers. Engraven upon his +marble altar tomb is the following couplet: + + "The written word remains long after the writer. + The writer is resting under the earth, but his words endure." + +Good books are so cheap nowadays that they are within the reach of every +one of us. Let us not be content to live in the narrow world of work and +worry. Let us forget the struggle occasionally in the reading of books, +and let us prepare ourselves, by reading and studying, for the battle +for the emancipation of the workers of the world. + + Yours for Education, + + THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. + + + KINDS OF SENTENCES + ++450.+ +A simple sentence is a sentence which makes a single assertion, +question or command.+ + +The simple sentence contains only words and phrases. + ++451.+ +A complex sentence is one which contains a principal statement +and one or more modifying statements.+ + +The statements made in addition to the principal statement are made in +dependent clauses. The complex sentence has only one main clause and one +or more dependent clauses. + ++452.+ +A compound sentence is one which contains two or more +independent clauses.+ + +These compound sentences may contain any number of dependent clauses but +they must always have at least two independent or principal clauses. +These principal clauses are always connected by co-ordinate +conjunctions, for the principal clauses in a compound sentence are +always of equal rank or order. + + + Exercise 1 + +Review the lesson on co-ordinate conjunctions and notice which +conjunctions are used to unite principal clauses into single sentences. +Use these co-ordinate conjunctions to unite the following pairs of +simple sentences into compound sentences. For example: + + The sun rises _and_ the day dawns. + The men work _but_ the boys play. + +The sun rises. The day dawns. + +He studies diligently. He learns rapidly. + +He came early. He could not stay. + +The weather is cold. The plants are not growing. + +The men work. The boys play. + +The day is cold. The wind is blowing. + +Take the above sentences and use subordinate instead of co-ordinate +conjunctions, and make complex sentences instead of compound out of each +pair of simple sentences. For example: + + _When_ the sun rises, the day dawns. + The men work _while_ the boys play. + + + KINDS OF COMPOUND SENTENCES + ++453.+ +Compound sentences may be made up of two simple sentences.+ + +Rewrite the following compound sentences, making of each sentence two +simple sentences: + + The birds are singing and spring is here. + He believes in war but his brother is against it. + We must arouse ourselves or we shall be involved. + He will not study nor will he allow any one else to study. + ++454.+ +A compound sentence may be made up of a simple sentence and a +complex sentence, joined by a co-ordinate conjunction.+ For example: + + John goes to school, but Mary stays at home in order that she may help + her mother. + +This compound sentence is made up of the simple sentence, _John goes to +school_, and the complex sentence, _Mary stays at home in order that she +may help her mother_. + ++455.+ +Both parts of the compound sentence may be complex; that is, +both principal clauses in a compound sentence may contain dependent +clauses.+ For example: + + John goes to school where his brother goes, but Mary stays at home in + order that she may help her mother. + +This compound sentence is made up of two complex sentences. The +sentence, _John goes to school where his brother goes_, is complex +because it contains the dependent clause, _where his brother goes_; the +sentence, _Mary stays at home in order that she may help her mother_, is +complex because it contains the dependent clause, _in order that she may +help her mother_. + + + Exercise 2 + +Read carefully the following sentences, determine which are simple +sentences, which are complex and which are compound. + + 1. When the state is corrupt, then the laws are most multiplied. + 2. To teach the alphabet is to inaugurate revolution. + 3. Freedom degenerates unless it has to struggle in its own defense. + 4. The destroyers have always been honored. + 5. Liberty of thought is a mockery if liberty of speech is denied. + 6. Where slavery is, there liberty cannot be; and where liberty is, + there slavery cannot be. + 7. All our greatness was born of liberty and we cannot strangle the + mother without destroying her children. + 8. In the twentieth century, war will be dead, but man will live. + 9. The abuse of free speech dies in a day, but the denial entombs the + hope of the race. + + + SENTENCE ANALYSIS + ++456.+ There is no more important part of the study of English than the +analysis of sentences. The very best result that can come to one from +the study of grammar is the logical habit of mind. The effort to analyze +a difficult passage gives us a fuller appreciation of its meaning. This +cultivates in us accuracy, both of thought and of expression. So, spend +as much time as you can on the analysis of sentences. + +The subject and the predicate are the very body of the sentence, upon +which all the rest of the sentence is hung. The other parts of the +sentence are but the drapery and the garments which clothe the body of +the sentence. Hence, the most important thing in sentence analysis is to +be able to discover the _subject_ and _predicate_. + +In the expression of a thought, there are always two important +essentials, that about which something is said,--which constitutes the +subject,--and that which is said about the subject, which constitutes +the predicate. + +There may be a number of modifying words, phrases or subordinate +clauses, but there is always a main clause which contains a simple +subject and a simple predicate. Find these first, and you can then fit +the modifying words and phrases and clauses into their proper places. + ++457.+ Let us take for study and analysis the following paragraph from +Jack London: + + Man's efficiency for food-getting and shelter-getting has not + diminished since the day of the cave-man. It has increased a + thousand-fold. Wonderful artifices and marvelous inventions have been + made. Why then do millions of modern men live more miserably than the + cave-man lived? + +Let us take the first sentence out of this paragraph and analyze it. +_Man's efficiency for food-getting and shelter-getting has not +diminished since the day of the cave-man._ What is the main word in this +sentence--the word about which the entire statement is made? Clearly it +is the word _efficiency_. _Efficiency_ is the noun which is the subject +of the sentence. + +Then you might ask _what sort of_ efficiency and _whose_ efficiency? +What sort of efficiency is explained by the adjective phrase, _for +food-getting and shelter-getting_. Whose efficiency is explained by the +possessive noun, _man's_. Therefore, the complete subject is, _Man's +efficiency for food-getting and shelter-getting_. + +Now we are ready to consider the predicate. What has efficiency done? It +_has not diminished_. _Has diminished_ is the verb phrase, which is the +simple predicate of this sentence. It is modified by the adverb _not_, +so we have _Man's efficiency has not diminished_. Then we might ask, +_when_ has it not diminished? And this is answered by the phrase, _since +the day of the cave-man_. So we have our complete predicate, _Has not +diminished since the day of the cave-man_. + +In this way we can analyze or break up into its different parts, every +sentence. First find the subject, then ask what that subject does, and +the answer will be the predicate or verb. Do not confuse the verb with +the words which state _how_ or _why_ the action is performed, and do not +confuse the verb with the _object_ of the action. The verb simply +asserts the action. The other words will add the additional information +as to how or why or when or upon whom the action was performed. + +Let us finish the analysis of the sentences in the paragraph quoted from +Jack London. In the second sentence, _It has increased a thousand-fold_, +the personal pronoun _it_, which refers to the noun _efficiency_, is the +subject of the sentence; and when you ask what _it_ has _done_, you find +that the question is answered by the verb, _has increased_. Therefore, +_has increased_ is the verb in the sentence. The noun, _thousand-fold_ +is used as an adverb telling how much it has increased. It is an +adverb-noun, which you will find explained in Section 291. + +In the next sentence, _Wonderful artifices and marvelous inventions have +been made_, we find two _nouns_ about which a statement is made. +_Artifices_ have been made and _inventions_ have been made; so +_artifices_ and _inventions_ are both the _subjects_ of the sentence. +Therefore, we have a compound subject with a single verb, _have been +made_. _Artifices_ is modified by the adjective _wonderful_, and +_inventions_ is modified by the adjective _marvelous_, so we have +_wonderful artifices and marvelous inventions_, as the complete subject, +and _have been made_, as the complete predicate. + +In the last sentence, _Why then do millions of modern men live more +miserably than the cave-man lived?_, we find a sentence which is a +trifle more difficult of analysis. It is written in the interrogative +form. If you find it difficult to determine the subject and the verb or +verb phrase in an interrogative sentence, rewrite the sentence in the +assertive form, and you will find it easier to analyze. + +When we rewrite this sentence we have, _Millions of modern men do live +more miserably than the cave-man lived_. Now it is evident that the noun +_millions_ is the subject of the sentence. We see quickly that _men_ +cannot be the subject because it is the object of the preposition _of_, +in the phrase, _of modern men_. So we decide that the noun _millions_ is +the simple subject. + +When we ask the question what millions _do_, our question is answered by +the verb phrase, _do live_. So _do live_ is the simple predicate, and +the skeleton of our sentence, the simple subject and the simple +predicate, is _millions do live_. The subject _millions_ is modified by +the adjective phrase _of modern men_. + +Then we ask, _how_ do men live? And we find our question answered by +_they live miserably_. But we are told _how_ miserably they live by the +adverb _more_ and the adverb clause, _than the cave-man lived_, both +modifying the adverb _miserably_. So we have our complete predicate, _do +live more miserably than the cave-man lived_. + +This interrogative sentence is introduced by the interrogative adverb +_why_. + +Do not drop this subject until you are able to determine readily the +_subject_ and _predicate_ in every sentence and properly place all +modifying words. There is nothing that will so increase your power of +understanding what you read, and your ability to write clearly, as this +facility in analyzing sentences. + + + Exercise 3 + +The following is Elbert Hubbard's description of the child-laborers of +the Southern cotton-mills. Read it carefully. Notice that the sentences +are all short sentences, and the cumulative effect of these short +sentences is a picture of the condition of these child-workers which one +can never forget. The subjects and predicates are in italics. When you +have finished your study of this question, rewrite it from memory and +then compare your version with the original version. + + _I thought_ that _I would lift_ one of the little toilers. _I wanted_ + to ascertain his weight. Straightway through his thirty-five pounds of + skin and bone there _ran_ a _tremor_ of fear. _He struggled_ forward + to tie a broken thread. _I attracted_ his attention by a touch. _I + offered_ him a silver dime. _He looked_ at me dumbly from a face _that + might have belonged_ to a man of sixty. _It was_ so furrowed, tightly + drawn and full of pain. _He did_ not _reach_ for the money. _He did_ + not _know_ what _it was_. There _were dozens_ of such children in this + particular mill. A _physician who was_ with me _said_ that _they + would_ probably all _be_ dead in two years. Their _places would be_ + easily _filled_, however, for there _were_ plenty _more_. _Pneumonia + carries_ off most of them. Their _systems are_ ripe for disease and + when _it comes_ there _is_ no _rebound_. _Medicine_ simply _does_ not + _act_. _Nature is whipped, beaten, discouraged._ _The child sinks_ + into a stupor and _dies_. + + + Exercise 4 + +In the following sentences, mark the simple sentences, the complex +sentences and the compound sentences, and analyze these sentences +according to the rules given for analyzing simple sentences, complex +sentences and compound sentences: + + 1. Force is no remedy. + 2. Law grinds the poor, and the rich men rule the law. + 3. Force and fraud are in war the two cardinal virtues. + 4. Freedom is a new religion, a religion of our time. + 5. Desire nothing for yourself which you do not desire for others. + 6. An ambassador is a man who goes abroad to lie for the good of his + country. + 7. A journalist is a man who stays at home to pursue the same + vocation. + 8. Without free speech no search for truth is possible. + 9. Liberty for the few is not liberty. + 10. Liberty for me and slavery for you mean slavery for both. + 11. No revolution ever rises above the intellectual level of those who + make it. + 12. Men submit everywhere to oppression when they have only to lift + their heads to throw off the yoke. + 13. Many politicians of our time are in the habit of saying that no + people ought to be free till they are fit to use freedom. The + maxim is worthy of the fool in the old story who resolved not to + go into the water till he had learned to swim. If men are to wait + for liberty till they become wise and good in slavery they may + indeed wait forever. + + + SUMMARY + ++458.+ The following is a summary of that which we have learned in +sentence building: + + { { Assertive + { Use { Interrogative + Sentences are { { Imperative + classified { { Exclamatory + according to { + { { Simple + { Form { Complex + { { Compound + + Elements { +Words+, the eight parts of speech. + of { +Phrases+, adjective, adverb and verb phrases. + The Sentence. { +Clauses+, adjective, adverb and noun clauses. + + ++459.+ + ESSENTIALS OF A SIMPLE SENTENCE + + +Subject+ +Predicate+ + + Subject Complete Verb + Subject Copulative Verb Predicate Complement + Subject Transitive Verb Direct Object + Subject Transitive Verb Direct Object Indirect Object + ++460.+ + THE SUBJECT + + { _Noun_--The _man_ came. + { _Pronoun_--_He_ came. + +The simple subject+ { _Adjective_--The _poor_ came. + may be { _Infinitive_--_To find_ work is difficult. + { _Participle_--_Walking_ is good exercise. + { _Clause_--_What I learn_ cannot be lost. + + +Complete subject+--Simple subject and modifiers. + + Modifiers of the Subject + + { Word--_Wealthy_ men rule. + +Adjective+ { Phrase--Men _of wealth_ rule. + { Clause--Men _who are wealthy_ rule. + + +Possessive+--The _man's_ energy was great. + + { Word--The poet, _Lowell_, was the author. + +Appositive+ { Clause--The fact, _that you came_, pleases me. + + { The soldiers, _wounded and dying_, were + +Participle+ { left on the field + + +Infinitive+--A plan _to end the war_ was discussed. + ++461.+ + THE PREDICATE + + +The simple+ { _Verb_--The man _came_. + +predicate+ { _Verb phrase_--The man _has been coming_ daily. + + { +Predicate Complement+--The man was a _hero_. + A COMPLETE { +Direct Object+--The man brought the _book_. + PREDICATE { +The Indirect Object+--The man brought _me_ the book. + _equals a verb { + or verb phrase { {_Word_--The man works _rapidly_. + and_ { +Adverb+ { _Phrase_--The man works _in the factory_. + { +Modifiers+ { _Clause_--The man works _whenever he + { can_. + + { _Words_--The man works hard. + SIMPLE SENTENCES { _Phrases_--The man _on your right_ works _in the + CONTAIN ONLY { factory._ + + { _Words_, The man works steadily + +Complex sentences+ { _Phrases_ in the factory _whenever + +contain+ { and there is work_. + { _Dependent clauses._ + ++Compound sentences contain+ two or more principal clauses, as: + + _The sun rises_ and _the day dawns_. + ++462.+ Take the simple subjects and simple predicates in Exercise 5, and +build up sentences; first, by adding a word, then a phrase and then a +clause to modify the subject; then add a word and a phrase and a clause +to modify the predicate. + +So long as you have only words and phrases you have simple sentences. +When you add a dependent clause you have a complex sentence. When you +unite two independent clauses in one sentence, then you have a compound +sentence, and the connecting word will always be a co-ordinate +conjunction. These will be readily distinguished for there are only a +few co-ordinate conjunctions. + +Go back to the lesson on co-ordinate conjunctions and find out what +these are, and whenever you find two clauses connected by these +co-ordinate conjunctions you know that you have a compound sentence. +Remember that each clause must contain a subject and predicate of its +own. When you have two words connected by these co-ordinate conjunctions +you do not have a clause. Each clause must contain a subject and a +predicate of its own. + ++463.+ Here is an example of a sentence built up from a simple subject +and a simple predicate: + + + SIMPLE SUBJECT ENLARGED + ++Simple Subject and Predicate+--_Soldiers obey._ + +_Adjectives_ added--_The enlisted_ soldiers obey. + +_Phrase_ added--The enlisted soldiers _in the trenches_ obey. + +_Clause_ added--The enlisted soldiers in the trenches, _who are +doomed to die_, obey. + + + SIMPLE PREDICATE ENLARGED + ++Simple Subject and Predicate+--_Soldiers obey._ + +_Object_ added--Soldiers obey _orders_. + +_Adverb_ added--Soldiers obey orders _quickly_. + +_Phrase_ added--Soldiers obey orders quickly and _without +question_. + +_Clause_ added--Soldiers obey orders quickly and without question +_because they are taught to do so_. + +Combining our enlarged subject and predicate we have the sentence: + + The enlisted soldiers in the trenches, who are doomed to die, obey + orders quickly and without question because they are taught to do so. + +This is a complex sentence because it contains dependent clauses. We +might add another independent clause and make of this a compound +sentence. For example: + + The enlisted soldiers in the trenches, who are doomed to die, obey + orders quickly and without question because they are taught to do so, + and _this is patriotism_. + + + Exercise 5 + +Enlarge the following simple subjects and simple predicates: + + + Men write. + Boys play. + People study. + The law rules. + + + Exercise 6 + + In the following poem underscore all of the dependent clauses. + Determine whether they are noun, adjective or adverb clauses. Do you + find any simple or compound sentences in this poem? + + MEN! whose + boast it is that ye + Come of fathers brave and free, + If there breathe on earth a slave, + Are you truly free and brave? + If ye do not feel the chain, + When it works a brother's pain, + Are ye not base slaves indeed, + Slaves unworthy to be freed? + + Women! who shall one day bear + Sons to breathe New England air, + If ye hear without a blush, + Deeds to make the roused blood rush + Like red lava through your veins, + For your sisters now in chains,-- + Answer! are you fit to be + Mothers of the brave and free? + + Is true Freedom but to break + Fetters for our own dear sake, + And, with leathern hearts, forget + That we owe mankind a debt? + No! true freedom is to share + All the chains our brothers wear, + And, with heart and hand, to be + Earnest to make others free! + + They are slaves who fear to speak + For the fallen and the weak; + They are slaves who will not choose + Hatred, scoffing, and abuse, + Rather than in silence shrink + From the truth they needs must think; + They are slaves who dare not be + In the right with two or three. + + --_Lowell_. + + + + + SPELLING + + LESSON 27 + + +We have studied concerning the formation of derivatives by the addition +of suffixes. Derivatives are also formed by the addition of prefixes. +You remember that a prefix is a syllable which is placed before a simple +word to form the derivative. Among the most common of these prefixes are +_in_, _un_ and _mis_. The prefix _in_ used with an adjective or adverb +means _not_; for example, _insane_ means _not_ sane; _incorrect_ means +_not_ correct, etc. + +The prefix _in_ used with a noun means _lack of_; for example, +_inexperience_ means _lack of_ experience; _inability_ means _lack of_ +ability, etc. + +In words beginning with _m_ or _p_, _in_, meaning _not_ or _lack of_, is +changed to _im_. This is done for the sake of euphony. The _n_ does not +unite readily with the sound of _m_ or _p_. So we do not say _inmodest_ +and _inpartial_, but _immodest_ and _impartial_. + +The prefix _un_, used with participles, means _not_; for example, +_unprepared_ means _not_ prepared; _unguarded_ means _not_ guarded, etc. + +The prefix _un_ used with verbs, means to take off or to reverse; for +example, _uncover_ means to take off the cover; _untwist_ means to +reverse the process of the twisting. + +The prefix _un_ used with adjectives means _not_; for example, +_uncertain_ means _not_ certain; _uncommon_ means _not_ common. + +The prefix _mis_ used with nouns or verbs, means _wrong_. For example, +_mistreatment_ means _wrong_ treatment; _to misspell_ means to spell +_wrong_. + +Add the prefix _in_ to the nouns given in Monday's list; add the prefix +_in_ to the adjectives given in Tuesday's list; add the prefix _im_ to +the adjectives and nouns in Wednesday's lesson; add the prefix _un_ to +the participles and adjectives in Thursday's lesson; add the prefix _un_ +to the verbs in Friday's lesson, and add the prefix _mis_ to the nouns +and verbs in Saturday's lesson. + + +Monday+ + + Tolerance + Frequency + Competence + Efficiency + Coherence + + +Tuesday+ + + Convenient + Expedient + Famous + Adequate + Solvent + + +Wednesday+ + + Pertinent + Morality + Patience + Moderate + Pious + + +Thursday+ + + Balanced + Biased + Gracious + Stable + Solicited + + +Friday+ + + Burden + Veil + Fasten + Screw + Furl + + +Saturday+ + + Construe + Apprehension + Inform + Guide + Judge + + + + + PLAIN ENGLISH + + LESSON 28 + + +Dear Comrade: + +We are beginning with this lesson the study of the use of capitals and +of punctuation. The use of capitals as well as punctuation has nothing +to do with our spoken words, but both are very important in our written +language. + +There is nothing that will mark us as uneducated more quickly than bad +spelling, faulty punctuation and the incorrect use of capitals. + +The rules for the use of capitals may seem somewhat arbitrary. After an +understanding of them, however, you will discover that they are not +arbitrary, but are based upon a single principle. The word which is of +the most importance, or which should receive the most emphasis is the +word which is capitalized, as for example, the principal words in a +title, the first words in a sentence, proper names, etc. + +Study these rules carefully, note the use of the capitals in your +reading and watch your written language carefully for a time. Soon the +proper use of capitals will seem easy and most natural. In the meantime +do not fail to keep up your study of words. Add at least one word to +your vocabulary every day. + +Did you ever consider how we think in pictures? Nearly every word that +we use calls up a certain image or picture in our minds. The content of +words has grown and developed as our ability to think has developed. + +Take, for example, words like head or hand. Head originally referred to +a portion of the body of a living thing; then it was used to refer to +some part of an inanimate object which might resemble or call up a +picture of an animal's head, for example, the head of a pin. Again, it +was used to refer to some part of an inanimate thing which was +associated with the head of a human being, as the head of the bed. Then, +by the power of association, since the head was considered the most +conspicuous and important part of the body, that which was most +conspicuous and important was called the head, as the head of the army, +the head of the nation. + +Then, since the head was the seat of the brain and of the mental +faculties, the head was often used instead of the brain or mental +faculties. We speak of a clear head or a cool head. Thus we have a +number of idiomatic expressions. We may speak of the head of the river; +or the subject matter was divided under four heads; or again, the matter +came to a head; he is head and ears in debt; we cannot make head against +the opposition, etc. + +This transfer of our ideas from the physical to the mental and spiritual +marks vividly the growth of the language and the development of thought. +Trace the words like hands, arm, foot, eye, tongue, in their use, first +as physical then as mental or spiritual. + +This will be the most interesting pastime and will enlarge the content +of the words which you use. + + Yours for Education, + + THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. + + + CAPITAL LETTERS + ++464.+ In our written speech we often display our lack of education by +our use of capital letters and punctuation. We may understand the use of +words and be able to speak fairly well, but if we do not understand the +proper use of capitals and of punctuation marks, our written language +readily betrays our ignorance. + ++465.+ There are a number of rules for the use of capitals which we must +observe. Some of the writers in our magazines defy these rules of +capitalization, in an effort to seem different from other people, +perhaps. These rules for the use of capital letters, like all other +rules, are not arbitrary rules laid down by any body of men, but are +simply a statement of accepted usage among people. We should not feel +that we should say this or that or we are violating a rule of grammar. +We should feel rather that the majority of the people who speak and +write good English do thus, and so, for this reason, I shall do it also. + +This is simply obeying the standard of majority rule. If there is any +good and sufficient reason why we feel this should not be a rule, we may +be justified in breaking it and making a new rule. Many people feel that +our spelling should be simplified and so they insist upon spelling +certain words in a more simple way. They feel that they have good and +sufficient reason for insisting upon this change and gradually if these +reasons appeal to the majority as being good and sufficient reasons, +then this simplified mode of spelling will become the accepted usage. + +But there seems no good reason why any writer should scatter capital +letters with a lavish hand throughout his writing. One feels as though a +writer in so doing is expressing his desire to be different, in a very +superficial manner. Let us be unique and individual in our thought. If +this forces us to a different mode of living or of expression from the +rest of the world, then we are justified in being different from the +rest. We have thought and reason behind our action. This is far +different from the attitude of one who poses as a radical and whose only +protest is in the superficial external things. So let us learn and +observe these rules for the use of capital letters. + + + RULES FOR THE USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS + ++466.+ +Use a capital for the first word of every sentence.+ + +When you begin a new sentence always begin that sentence with a capital +letter. Each sentence is a statement of a complete thought and is +independent of every other sentence. The use of the capital letter +indicates this independence and calls attention to the fact that you are +beginning a new thought. + ++467.+ +Begin every line of poetry with a capital letter.+ Sometimes in +poetry, the line is too long to be printed on a single line and must be +carried over into another line; in this case, the first word of the +second line does _not_ begin with a capital letter. + ++468.+ +Use a capital for every proper noun.+ This includes names of +persons, countries, states, towns, cities, streets and geographical +names, as the names of seas, lakes, mountains, rivers, etc. + ++469.+ +The words North, South, East and West are capitalized when they +are used to refer to geographical divisions.+ When these words simply +refer to the points of the compass, they should not begin with a +capital. + ++470.+ +The pronoun _I_ and the interjection _O_ should always be +capitals.+ Never write the pronoun _I_ with a small _i_. + ++471.+ +Every proper adjective should begin with a capital letter.+ +Proper adjectives are adjectives derived from proper nouns. For example: +the _Marxian_ philosophy, the _Darwinian_ theory, _Indian_ money, +_Japanese_ labor, etc. + ++472.+ +Always begin the names of the months and the days of the week +with capital letters.+ For example: _January_, _February_, _August_, +_Monday_, _Tuesday_, _Friday_, etc. + ++473.+ +Use a capital letter for every name or title of the Deity.+ For +example: _God_, _Jehovah_, _Christ_, _Jesus_, etc. It is also customary +to capitalize all personal pronouns referring to God or Christ. + ++474.+ +Begin with a capital letter names of all religious sects and +political parties, also all adjectives derived from them.+ As for +example: _Christian Church_, _Methodism_, _Republican Party_, +_Mohammedan_, _Socialist_, etc. + ++475.+ +Begin the names of all things spoken of as persons with a +capital.+ In poetry or poetic prose we often speak of _war_, _fame_, +_death_, _hope_, _fancy_, _liberty_, etc., as persons. Whenever these +words are used in this way they should begin with a capital letter. + ++476.+ +Use capital letters to begin important words in the title of a +book or the subject of a composition.+ In titles the nouns, pronouns, +adjectives, verbs and adverbs should begin with a capital, while the +prepositions and conjunctions should begin with small letters. The +articles, _the_, _a_ and _an_ are not capitalized unless they are the +initial word in the title. + ++477.+ +Use a capital to begin every direct quotation.+ The first word +of an indirect quotation should begin with a small letter. A direct +quotation is one which uses the exact words of the speaker. For example: +_He said_, "_I will come_." This is a direct quotation, but _He said +that he would come_, is an indirect quotation. + ++478.+ +Use a capital to begin an important statement or to ask a +question.+ For example: _Resolved; That the United States should +democratize war. The question is, Shall the people determine the +question of war?_ + ++479.+ +Use capitals for the chief items of any enumeration of +particulars.+ For example; + + The bill is as follows: + For Composition $20.00 + For Press Work 10.00 + Paper 25.00 + ++480.+ +Begin the words indicating titles of offices and honor with a +capital.+ For example, _President Wilson_, _Doctor Smith_, _Professor +Locke_. When you use a title of this kind as a general term, that is, +not indicating any particular person, do not use a capital. As for +example: _The society has had several presidents._ But if you use the +title to take the place of the person's name, for example: _The +President read the message to Congress_, always use a capital. + ++481.+ +Use capitals for the titles at the beginning of a letter or in +written composition and in direct address.+ For example: _My dear +Father_, _My dear Mother_, _My dear Comrade_, _Dear Aunt Emma_, _Dear +Friend_, _Dear Fellow Workers_, etc. Also in conversation. + + Are you coming with me, Mother? + What did the Doctor say, Comrade Smith? + +When these words are not used in direct address, however, they should +not be capitalized. For example, at the close of a letter you would +write: + + Your sincere friend. + Your loving brother. + +Or in conversation: + + I asked my mother to go with me. + My brother wrote me concerning the matter. + ++482.+ +Begin the names of important buildings and localities with a +capital.+ For example: + + Public Library, High School, The East Side, The Union Square, Central + Market, etc. + +These words used in a general sense, however, should not begin with a +capital letter. For example: + +Our public libraries, our high schools, jails, prisons, post offices, +etc. + ++483.+ +The words state and territory, when they refer to particular +divisions of the country, should be capitalized.+ For example: + +The State of New York, The Territory of Alaska, The French Government, +etc. + +_State_ and _government_ are also capitalized when they are used in +place of proper names. For example: + + The State is based on exploitation. + The Government has issued an edict of war. + +We do not use a capital in such expressions as: + + Church and state, state affairs; they occupy a large territory, etc. + ++484.+ +In directing letters or other matter for the mail, capitalize +all words except prepositions, conjunctions or articles.+ These should +be capitalized only when they begin a line. + + + Exercise 1 + +Draw a line under each word in the following that should be begun with a +capital: + + john joffre, lake michigan, day, thursday, friday, spring, august, + december, germany, country, france, man, jones, smith, doctor, doctor + george, professor moore, girl, mary, susan, methodist, mohammedan, + church, party, republican party, socialist, company, national electric + light company, river, mississippi river, the red river, essex county, + state of illinois, iowa, railway, new york, new york central railway, + the french revolution, novel, the sea wolf, poem, arrows in the gale, + american. + + + Exercise 2 + +Notice carefully the following quotations and sentences and capitalize +every word that should begin with a capital letter. + + 1. iron, the twin brother of fire, the first born out of the matrix + of the earth, a witness everlasting to the glory of thy labor, am + i, o man. + 2. therefore i say unto you, banish fear from your hearts. + 3. but ye, plebs, populists, people, rebels, mob, proletariat, live + and abide forever. + 4. and they came here from all parts of the earth, the syrians and + the armenians, the thracians and the tartars, the jews, the greeks + and the romans, the gauls and the angles and the huns and the + hibernians, even from the deserts of the sands to the deserts of + ice they came to listen unto his words. + 5. marx and engels wrote the communist manifesto. + 6. its closing words are; working men of all countries unite. + 7. italy was the last of the great powers of europe to become + involved in the war. + 8. john randolph submitted an amendment to the constitution providing + that the judges of the supreme court of the united states shall be + removed by the president on the joint address of both houses of + congress. + 9. eugene v. debs spent six months in woodstock jail for exercising + his right of free speech. + 10. col. the abbreviation for colorado, is easily confused with cal. + the abbreviation for california. + 11. the people's college is a college maintained by the working + class. + 12. william jennings bryan won his first nomination for president of + the united states by a very dramatic speech delivered in the + national democratic convention. + 13. marion craig wentworth, a socialist playwright, has written a play + called "war brides." + 14. the play closes with these words; a message to the emperor: i + refuse to bear my child until you promise there shall be no more + war. + 15. olive schreiner's "woman and labor" is full of fascinating + thought. + + + Exercise 3 + +Notice carefully the use of capitals in the following quotations, and +determine the reason for the use of every capital: + + As the nobles of England wrung their independence from King John, and + as the tradesmen of France broke through the ring of privilege + enclosing the Three Estates; so today the millions who serve society + in arduous labor on the highways, and aloft on the scaffoldings, and + by the sides of the whirring machines, are demanding that they, too, + and their children, shall enjoy all of the blessings that justify and + make beautiful this life.--_Frank Walsh_. + + "The toad beneath the harrow knows + Exactly where the tooth-point goes. + The butterfly beside the road + Doth preach contentment to that toad." + + "When I came here, it was said that the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company + voted every man and woman in their employ without any regard to their + being naturalized or not; and even their mules, it used to be + remarked, were registered if they were fortunate enough to possess + names." _From a letter written by Mr. L. M. Bowers, Chairman of The + Board of Directors of the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company, to the + Secretary of Mr. John D. Rockefeller, Jr., under date of May 13, + 1913._ + + Master, I've done Thy bidding, wrought in Thy many lands. + Not by my sins wilt Thou judge me, but by the work of my hands. + Master, I've done Thy bidding, and the light is low in the west, + And the long, long shift is over ... Master, I've earned it--Rest. + + --_Robert Service_. + + It's O! to be a slave + Along with the barbarous Turk, + Where woman has never a soul to save, + If this is Christian work! + + --_Thos. Hood_. + + While there is a lower class, I am in it. + While there is a criminal element, I am of it. + While there is a soul in jail, I am not free. + + --_Eugene V. Debs_. + + When Adam delved and Eve span, + Who was then the gentleman? + + The vilest deeds, like poison weeds, + Bloom well in prison-air; + It is only what is good in man + That wastes and withers there: + Pale Anguish keeps the heavy gate, + And the Warder is Despair. + + --_Oscar Wilde_. + + + ABBREVIATIONS AND CONTRACTIONS + ++485.+ There are a number of words which we abbreviate or contract, in +our every-day use. A contraction is a shortened form of the word used to +save time or space and is made by omitting a letter or letters. The +apostrophe is used to indicate the omission in a contracted word. As, +for example: + + B'ld'g, B'l'v'd, M'f'g. + +When the word is contracted in this way and the apostrophe is used, +these contractions are not followed by the period but are used just as +the completely written word would be used. There is no accepted list of +these contractions. We devise them according to our need at the moment. + +An abbreviation, however, is an authorized contraction of the word. It +is the shortening of a term which is habitually used to save time and +space. The apostrophe is not used and the abbreviation should be +followed by a period. As for example: + + Bldg. Blvd. Mfg. + +These abbreviations and contractions are very helpful to us in saving +time and space but should not be used too frequently. Too many +contractions or abbreviations make writing ridiculous. Take time to +write out the majority of words. Only use abbreviations or contractions +for certain accepted words. Avoid an excessive use of abbreviations. + + + COMMONLY USED ABBREVIATIONS + ++486.+ We quite often abbreviate the names of the months, especially +those which have long names. Short names like _March_, _April_, _May_, +_June_ and _July_, should never be abbreviated. For the other months we +use in correspondence the abbreviations, _Jan._, _Feb._, _Aug._, +_Sept._, _Oct._, _Nov._, _Dec._ Days of the week are also sometimes +abbreviated as follows: _Sun._, _Mon._, _Tues._, _Wed._, _Thur._, +_Fri._, _Sat._ Do not use these abbreviations too often. Spell out the +names of the months and of the days of the week except in lists of dates +or something that calls for abbreviations to save time or space. + +_Mr._, _Mrs._, _Messrs._, _Jr._, _Sr._, are never spelled out, but are +always written in the abbreviated form. You will often find _Doctor_ and +_Professor_ abbreviated to _Dr._, _Prof._ This is permissible but it is +always good form to write them out in full. + ++487.+ We have abbreviated forms for a number of names; as for example: +_Geo._, _Chas._, _Thos._, _Wm._, etc. But it is always much better to +write these names out in full: _George_, _Charles_, _Thomas_, _William_, +etc. + +Remember that nicknames are not abbreviations and do not require a +period after them. _Jim_, _Charley_, _Tom_, and _Bill_ are not +abbreviations but nicknames. + +In correspondence or in any circumstance that demands the saving of time +or space, we abbreviate the names of states and territories, as follows: + + Alabama, Ala. + Arizona, Ariz. + Arkansas, Ark. + California, Cal. + Colorado, Colo. + Connecticut, Conn. + Delaware, Del. + District of Columbia, D. C. + Florida, Fla. + Georgia, Ga. + Idaho, Ida. + Illinois, Ill. + Indiana, Ind. + Iowa, Ia. + Kansas, Kan. + Kentucky, Ky. + Louisiana, La. + Maine, Me. + Maryland, Md. + Massachusetts, Mass. + Michigan, Mich. + Minnesota, Minn. + Mississippi, Miss. + Missouri, Mo. + Montana, Mont. + Nebraska, Neb. + Nevada, Nev. + New Hampshire, N. H. + New Jersey, N. J. + New Mexico, N. M. + New York, N. Y. + North Carolina, N. C. + North Dakota, N. D. + Ohio, O. + Oklahoma, Okla. + Oregon, Ore. + Pennsylvania, Pa. or Penna. + Rhode Island, R. I. + South Carolina, S. C. + South Dakota, S. D. + Tennessee, Tenn. + Texas, Tex. + Vermont, Vt. + Virginia, Va. + Washington, Wash. + West Virginia, W. Va. + Wisconsin, Wis. + Wyoming, Wyo. + ++488.+ Use _a. m._ and _p. m._ after dates in lists of dates or +schedules of trains or for any similar purpose, but in the text of a +letter or manuscript it is better to write them out in full. As for +example, do not say: + + I will arrive tomorrow a. m., or, You may call about eight p. m. + +Say rather: + + I will arrive tomorrow morning. You may call at eight o'clock this + evening. + +The letters _a. m._ are the abbreviation for ante meridiem, Latin for +before noon; and _p. m._ for post meridiem, meaning afternoon. + ++489.+ Two consecutive years may be written 1914-15, but use 1915 rather +than '15. In the heading of letters it is better to write the date out +in full, as, _May 28, 1915_, instead of 5-28-15. + +In the back of your dictionary you will find a complete list of accepted +abbreviations used in writing and printing. The list that follows +contains abbreviations most commonly used, especially in business +correspondence: + + @ for at + acct. for account + agt. for agent + amt. for amount + ans. for answer + asst. for assistant + atty. for attorney + av. for average + bal. for balance + bbl. for barrel + bdl. for bundle + bro. for brother + bros. for brothers + blk. for black + bls. for bales + bu. or bush. for bushels + Co. for company + chgd. for charged + C. O. D. for "cash on delivery" + cr. creditor + cts. cents + cwt. for hundred weight + cu. for cubic + do. for the same + dr. for debtor + doz. for dozen + ea. for "each" + et al. for "and others" + e. g. for example + etc. for "and so forth" + ft. for foot or feet + frt. freight + f. o. b. "free on board" + gal. gallon + guar. for guaranty + hdkfs. for handkerchiefs + h. p. horse power + in. for inches + ins. for insurance + inst. for this month + i. e. for "that is" + Jr. for junior + lb. for pound + memo. for memorandum + Mon. for Monday + mo. for month + mos. for months + mdse. for merchandise + mfg. for manufacturing + Mss. for manuscript + no. for number + N. B. for take notice + O. K. for "all correct" + oz. for ounce + % for per cent + pp. pages + pr. for pair + pt. for pint + pk. for peck + prox. for next month + qt. for quart + recd. for received + sec. for second + Sec. for secretary + Sr. for senior + Supt. for superintendent + ult. for last month + via by way of + viz. namely + vol. for volume + wt. for weight + yd. for yard + yds. for yards + yr. for year + + + Exercise 4 + +Write the proper abbreviations for the following words: + + Building + Charles + Boulevard + Tuesday + Arkansas + Mississippi + Foot + Virginia + Georgia + Senior + By way of + Per cent + Charged + Avenue + October + Delaware + Professor + Thursday + Colorado + Kansas + Handkerchiefs + January + Secretary + Superintendent + Received + That is + Free on board + Monday + Oklahoma + July + Thomas + California + Company + Account + Friday + Merchandise + Number + All correct + Cash on delivery + And so forth + Colonel + Maine + August + William + Missouri + Brothers + Amount + Wyoming + + + + + SPELLING + + LESSON 28 + + +There is no way to learn to spell except by constant application. Watch +in your reading the spelling of all words. Whenever you wish to add a +certain word to your vocabulary, master immediately the spelling as well +as the meaning of that word. Keep your dictionary handy; use it +constantly in the study of your lessons. Do not guess at the spelling of +the word. You are not likely to forget quickly the spelling of any word +which you have taken the trouble to look up. + +Read your examinations over carefully before sending them in, watching +closely for any error in spelling and in punctuation. When your papers +are graded and returned you, make a list of all the words which are +misspelled and master then and there the spelling of these words. Do not +be guilty of the same error twice. Remember that correct spelling is a +mark of intelligence and scholarship and that nothing will so detract +from the influence of your written work as incorrect spelling. + +While there is always a certain word which more aptly expresses our +meaning than any other, we can usually find two or more words which +express practically the same meaning. + ++Words which have nearly the same meaning are called synonyms.+ + +It is always an interesting exercise and will add greatly to your +vocabulary to select a certain paragraph and go through it replacing +certain words with other words which have practically the same meaning. +It is this mastery of synonyms which gives the great writers and orators +their power. They do not use the same word over and over again until our +ears have grown weary of it. With their wonderful mastery of language +they are never at a loss for words in which to re-clothe their meaning. + +For the first three days of this week's work in spelling we have words +and their synonyms. For the words given in the lessons for the last +three days, look up in your dictionary a suitable synonym. + + +Monday+ + + Abundant + Plenty + + Precarious + Uncertain + + Behavior + Conduct + + +Tuesday+ + + Abuse + Invective + + Hateful + Odious + + Praise + Applause + + +Wednesday+ + + Sufficient + Enough + + Refuge + Asylum + + Achieve + Attain + + +Thursday+ + + Insolent + Revenge + Curb + Repudiate + Censure + Regret + + +Friday+ + + Prosperity + Subterfuge + Event + Observe + Portion + Destroy + + +Saturday+ + + Talkative + Indolent + Profit + Volunteer + Cordial + Enormous + +There are a number of nouns very similar in form, yet different in +meaning, which we very often use incorrectly. + +Cross out in these sentences the incorrect word. Look them up in the +dictionary and be sure of the exact meaning: + + Roger's _essay_--_assay_ won him praise. + The _assay_--_essay_ indicated the quantity of gold in the metal. + The _completion_--_completeness_ of the course entitled me to a + Diploma. + The _completion_--_completeness_ of the arrangements fills us with + hope of success. + _Confidants_--_confidence_ often betray us. + The business world is built upon _confidants_--_confidence_. + The _conscience_--_consciousness_ of a religious person is very + sensitive. + The class struggle develops class _conscience_--_consciousness_. + The strikers listened to unwise _counsel_--_council_. + The _council_--_counsel_ refused the franchise. + You knew he was a _cultured_--_cultivated_ man, the moment you met + him. + It is a highly _cultured_--_cultivated_ plant. + I asked her for the _recipe_--_receipt_ for making cake. + He gave her a _receipt_--_recipe_ for the money. + _Emigration_---_immigration_ has reduced the population of Servia. + _Emigration_--_immigration_ is flooding the United States with cheap + labor. + Edison's _discovery_--_invention_ of the storage battery was a + momentous event. + The _discovery_--_invention_ of gold in Alaska attracted the attention + of the world. + The state placed a _limitation_--_limit_ upon the sale of liquor + within certain _limits_--_limitations_. + + + + + PLAIN ENGLISH + + LESSON 29 + + +Dear Comrade: + +The spirit of self-help is the root of all genuine growth in any man or +woman. It is the things which we do for ourselves in any line of work +that count the most for us. The things which come to us without any +effort on our part do not stay with us very long nor do us much good +while we have them. + +Sometimes we feel discouraged because we have not had the opportunity to +attend school as much as we would like. There is no gainsaying but that +this is a tremendous handicap and yet, after all, it is not an +insurmountable obstacle. It is much better to have the appetite without +the food than to have the food without the appetite. There is always a +chance of securing the food if we want it bad enough and will struggle +hard enough. So in the matter of an education. Many a man who has never +seen the inside of a college is better educated than those who have been +through college. + +These men have really wanted knowledge, have sought it early and late, +and have found knowledge; and because they were in the work-a-day world, +in constant contact with their fellow-men, they were able to relate the +knowledge which they gained out of books to the world in which they +lived and this is true education. This is, also, what many college-bred +people lack. A student is half made as soon as he seeks knowledge for +its own sake. If you are striving to learn, not to make grades or to +pass examinations or to secure a degree, but simply for the sake of +knowing things, then indeed you are on the way to become really +educated. + +Stimulate within yourself a desire for knowledge, observe the things +about you, add to your store of information daily; read a good book each +day, even if you have time to read only a page or two, and you will be +surprised at the result in your life. + +Take, for example, our spelling. Why should we continually misspell the +words which we use every day and which we see every day on a printed +page. If we are wide-awake and have our eyes open, we can soon learn to +spell correctly all these common words, at least. Make a list this week +of fifty things with which you come in contact in your daily work, then +look these words up in your dictionary and see how many of them you have +misspelled. There is no reason why we should not be learning constantly +and the more we observe, the more acute becomes our power of +observation. + +Let us determine more than ever to feel that we are part of the great +world movement, that we belong in the ranks of those who have caught the +vision of what the world might be, and that we belong to that glorious +army of those who are fighting for the dream; so we may take courage; so +we may find joy in the struggle, bitter as it may be, and so we may do +our part in the fight. + + Yours for Education, + + THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. + + + PUNCTUATION + ++490.+ Marks of punctuation are very important in our written language. +They take the place of the gesture and pause and inflection and +intonation of the voice, by which we make our meaning clear in vocal +speech. So the marks of punctuation do not become mere mechanical +devices. They are marks full of meaning and necessary to express our +thought. + +Punctuation is a word derived from the Latin word _punctum_ which means +_a point_. We have other words from the same derivation, as puncture, +etc. + ++Punctuation is the art of pointing off our written language so as to +make its meaning clear.+ + +Some very amusing errors have occurred because of the misplacing or the +omission of punctuation marks. It is said, that a toast was one time +given at a public dinner; "Woman! without her, man would be a savage." +The next day it appeared in print; "Woman, without her man, would be a +savage." You can readily see that the punctuation in this instance made +a very great difference in the meaning of the sentence. + ++491.+ In conversation, the tone of the voice which we use, has a great +effect upon our meaning, for example I might say, _The International +failed_, in such a tone of voice, that it would express despair and +chagrin, and indicate that the International was a thing of the past; or +I might say, _The International failed_, with such an inflection, that +you would understand that even the suggestion was to be treated with +contempt, that the International was still powerful and its triumph +inevitable. And in writing, the only way we have of expressing these +shades of meaning is by means of punctuation marks. + +So these marks of punctuation are not thrown upon a page haphazardly, or +put there simply for decoration; they have a meaning and a very great +meaning. Those who use short, crisp sentences have less need for +punctuation marks than those who use longer and more involved sentences. +When we have learned to express ourselves directly and simply, we will +naturally use fewer marks of punctuation. + ++492.+ You will find that, in writing in connection with business, there +is much less need of punctuation than in literary and philosophical +writings. Business writing is usually direct and simple in style. Its +purpose is to state facts. The literary and philosophical writing, +however, expresses more involved ideas and emotions, and in these, the +punctuation is exceedingly important. + ++493.+ One of the great purposes served by punctuation is to indicate a +pause or break in the thought. A very good rule to go by in punctuating +is to repeat the sentence aloud, and whenever you pause for breath or +because of a break in the thought, it is a pretty safe indication that +in that place, you should have a punctuation mark. + ++494.+ The following are the chief marks of punctuation: + + 1. The Comma , + 2. The Semi-colon ; + 3. The Colon : + 4. The Period . + 5. The Interrogation Point ? + 6. The Exclamation Point ! + 7. The Dash -- + 8. The Parenthesis () + 9. The Bracket [] + 10. The Quotation Marks "" + 11. The Apostrophe ' + 12. The Hyphen - + + + THE COMMA + ++495.+ The comma is the mark used to indicate a slight break in the +thought. + +There are a number of rules given for the use of commas. These rules, +like the rules for the use of capitals, you cannot commit to memory; +but, after repeated practice in your own writing and paying attention to +your reading, you will gradually develop an instinctive sense of the use +of the comma. Select some book which you are reading and go through it, +noticing especially the use of the commas. See if you can determine the +reason which prompted the author to place his commas where he did. +Notice, also, what effect the placing or the omission of the comma would +have upon the meaning of the sentence. + ++496.+ +The Comma indicates the slightest degree of separation between +the parts of a sentence.+ + ++RULE 1.+ + ++497.+ +Words, phrases and clauses, forming a series and used in the +same construction, should be separated from each other by commas when +the conjunctions are omitted.+ + + + WORDS WHICH FORM A SERIES + ++498.+ The words which form a series, separated by a comma may +be either nouns, adjectives, adverbs or verbs. The comma is only used +where the conjunction is omitted. Note carefully the following +sentences: + + Love, laughter and happiness are the right of every child. + He visited every city, town and village. + The working class has been meek, humble, docile and gullible. + All the crushed, tortured, strangled, maimed and murdered ideals of + the ages shall become an everlasting reality. + He struggled patiently, faithfully and fearlessly for the cause. + If labor thinks, dares, rebels, fights, it will be victorious. + + + PHRASES WHICH FORM SERIES + ++499.+ Phrases which are used in the same construction and form a series +are separated by commas where the conjunction is omitted. For example: + + Day after day, year after year, century after century, the class + struggle has proceeded. + The struggle in the mines, in the fields, in the factories and in the + shops, will go on until labor receives the product of its toil. + + + CLAUSES USED IN A SERIES + ++500.+ Sometimes clauses are used without the co-ordinate conjunction +and a comma is used to indicate the omission. For example: + + Do not moan, do not submit, do not kneel, do not pray, do not wait. + Speak as you mean, do as you profess, perform what you promise. + + ++RULE 2.+ + ++501.+ +Explanatory and introductory expressions, words in direct +address, parenthetical words and phrases, are separated from the rest of +the sentence by commas.+ + +Note carefully the following examples: + + Jaures, the great French Socialist, was the first martyr to peace. + War having been declared, the troops were mobilized. + No, I cannot believe you. + Mr. Chairman, I desire to speak to the convention. + We can, of course, give you the information you desire. + + ++RULE 3.+ + ++502.+ +Words, phrases or clauses written in the sentence out of their +natural order should be separated from the rest of the sentence by +commas.+ + +These words, phrases and clauses are often written at the beginning of +the sentences or at the end of the sentences, or in some place out of +their natural order, for the sake of emphasis, instead of with the words +they modify. + +Notice in the following sentences how these words, phrases and clauses +are separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. Rewrite these +sentences, placing these words, phrases and clauses in their natural +order and omit the commas. + + Longingly and anxiously, he waited. + With this exception, the figures are correct. + The music, sweet and dreamy, floated upon the air. + The waves came rolling in, white with foam. + To deceive the men, he resorted to shameful tricks. + Before anyone else could speak, he was on his feet. + + ++RULE 4.+ + ++503.+ +Co-ordinate clauses, when closely related in meaning are +separated by commas. The comma should precede the co-ordinate +conjunction.+ For example: + + I have not intended to detain you, but the matter required + explanation. + + ++RULE 5.+ + ++504.+ +The omission of the verb in a sentence or a clause should be +indicated by a comma.+ Sometimes in writing for effect or to give +emphasis we omit the verb in the sentence; at other times we omit the +verb when the same verb occurs in a series of brief sentences, and its +continued use would mean a tiresome repetition. For example: + + Reading maketh a full man; conference, a ready man; writing, an + exact man. + +Here the verb is omitted in the last two clauses and the omission is +indicated by the use of the comma. + + ++RULE 6.+ + ++505.+ +Short, direct quotations should be preceded by a comma.+ For +example: + + Their slogan is, "An injury to one is the concern of all." + Ferrer's last words were, "Long live the modern school." + + ++RULE 7.+ + ++506.+ +Separate the figures in large numbers into groups of three +figures each by the use of commas.+ For example: + + The population of the United States has now reached 100,000,000. + According to the census of 1900, there are 29,073,233 people engaged + in gainful occupations in the United States. + + + Exercise 1 + +Supply commas in the following sentences in the proper places: + + 1. Food clothes and shelter are the fundamental needs of life. + 2. We believe in education free from theocracy aristocracy or + plutocracy. + 3. Man is the master of nature of law of life. + 4. We shall struggle rebel arise and claim all being for our own. + 5. Sickness and suffering sorrow and despair crime and war are the + fruits of poverty. + 6. You should seek after knowledge steadily faithfully and + perseveringly. + 7. The most inspiring powerful and impressive oratory is the voice of + the disinherited. + 8. Through your united almighty strength order shall become equity law + shall become liberty duty shall become love and religion shall + become truth. + 9. First let us consider the main question. + 10. Mr. President I rise to a point of order. + 11. We the workers of the world must unite. + 12. The class struggle being a fact why should we hesitate to join our + class? + 13. You have not it seems understood the issue. + 14. Of all our needs education is the greatest. + 15. Regularly and monotonously the machine whirs to and fro. + 16. Before any one can take special training he must have a good + knowledge of English. + 17. We plead for education universal and free. + 18. The first ingredient in conversation is truth the next good sense + the third good humor and the fourth wit. + 19. The slogan of the People's College is The education of the workers + by the workers. + 20. According to the last census the enrollment of the schools of the + United States is 18521002. + 21. There are 4611000 in the first grade and 155000 in the last year + of high school. + + + THE SEMI-COLON + ++507.+ The semi-colon indicates a break more complete than that of the +comma. The period indicates a complete break in the thought. So the +comma indicates a slight break, the semi-colon a greater break in the +thought, and the period, the completion of the thought. + + + RULES FOR THE USE OF THE SEMI-COLON + ++508.+ The semi-colon is often used instead of the comma where a longer +pause is desired or we wish to indicate a greater break in the thought. +For example: + + "The wind is chill; + But let it whistle as it will, + We'll keep our Christmas merry still." + ++509.+ As a rule we separate by semi-colons those parts of the sentences +that are already punctuated by commas. For example: + + After considerable delay, he came back to look for his friends; but, + though he looked diligently, he could not find them. + ++510.+ The semi-colon is used to separate closely connected simple +sentences when the conjunction is omitted. The continual repetition of +the conjunction would become very tiresome and detract from the +forcefulness of our sentences. So instead of continually repeating the +conjunction we separate these simple sentences by semi-colons. For +example: + + Through the industrial revolution, the face of the earth is making + over even as to its physical forms; political boundaries are wiped out + and moved about as if they were indeed only lines on a paper map; + population is hurriedly gathered into cities from the ends of the + earth; habits of living are altered with startling abruptness; the + search for the truths of nature is infinitely stimulated; and the + application of these truths to life is made not only practicable, but + commercially necessary. + ++511.+ The semi-colon should be used after each item in a series of +specific statements. For example: + + We quote you the following prices: Grade No. 1, $1.00; Grade No. 2, + $2.90; poorer grades not in demand. + + + RULES FOR THE USE OF THE COLON + ++512.+ The colon is not used as much as it formerly was. The comma and +the semi-colon and the period are now used in most of the places where +older writers used the colon. + +One authority in English says that, "in strict logic the colon is to the +sentence in which it is used what the mark of equality is in +mathematics." + ++513.+ The colon is used before a formal list of items. For example: + + Economics has three important divisions: production, distribution, + consumption. + ++514.+ The colon is used after a salutation at the beginning of a +letter. For example: _Dear Sir:_ _Gentlemen:_ _Comrades:_ + +In such cases the dash is also frequently used with the colon. For +example: _My dear Sir:--_ _Gentlemen:--_ _Comrades:--_ + ++515.+ The colon is more often used instead of the semi-colon after such +expressions as, _thus:_ _as follows:_ _the following:_ _for example:_ +etc. + +The colon is also used to separate a series of sentences which are +explanatory of the main clause. For example: + + The People's College has two great aims: the first is to bring + education within the reach of every worker; the second is to teach + from the viewpoint of the working class. + We were advised to proceed thus: first, to be systematic in our work; + second, to concentrate; third, to go slowly and surely; and last of + all, to think for ourselves. + + + RULES FOR THE USE OF THE PERIOD + ++516.+ +The period is a mark of punctuation that denotes the completion +of a sentence.+ + ++517.+ The period is used at the close of all assertive and imperative +sentences. For example: + + There is talk of peace but preparation for war. + Claim your own at any hazard. + ++518.+ The period is used after all initials and all abbreviations, as +for example: E. V. Debs; T. P. O'Connor; Mr., Dr., Co., Mass., N. Y., C. +O. D., F. O. B., U. S. A., etc. + ++519.+ The period is used to separate whole numbers and decimal numbers. +For example: 3.1416 9.342. + +A period is used for the decimal point between dollars and cents; +as: $4.50, $2.25, $16.54, $35926.72. + +It is also used to separate the various denominations of sterling money, +as: £14. 15s. 6d. + ++520.+ The period is used after letters used as numerals or after +figures used to number paragraphs, notes, remarks, questions or any list +of particulars. For example: + +The letters which are used to denote sub-heads in the enumeration of +rules as _a. b. c._, etc., also the numerals and letters marking +sections or sub-sections in chapters, as _Chapter 8._ _Paragraph 1._ +_Rule 1._ _Page 4._ _Volume 2._ _Paragraph 3._ _P. 16._ + ++521.+ The period is also used after headings and titles, after dates +and signatures to letters and other documents; also at the close of the +address at the beginning of a letter, and of the name at the close of +the letter; also after the last item in the direction of an envelope or +package. + + + Exercise 2 + +In the following quotations place the commas, semi-colons, colons and +periods in their proper places, and be able to give a reason for what +you do: + + The man who stabs his brother to death is a criminal and is hanged the + general who under a flag slays a regiment is a hero and is decorated + with a cross + + The most thrilling oratory the most powerful and impressive eloquence + is the voice of the disinherited the oppressed the suffering and the + submerged it is the voice of poverty and misery of wretchedness and + despair it is the voice of humanity crying to the infinite it is the + voice that resounds throughout the earth and reaches heaven it is the + voice that wakens the conscience of the race and proclaims the truths + that fill the world with life liberty and love + + The number of lives lost in the great wars of the world have been as + follows Napoleonic wars 1900000 our Civil War 656000 Franco-German War + 290000 Boer War 90898 Russo-Japanese 555900 and in the present + world-war untold millions + + Walt Whitman who represents individualism at its best writes "I sing + the song of myself" To this the Socialist replies "Inasmuch as my + redemption is bound up in that of my class I sing the song of my + class" + + We believe with John Ruskin "whether there be one God or three no God + or ten thousand children should be fed and their bodies should be kept + clean" + + My dear Mr Smith Your letter of the 15th has been received + + Through the dreams of all the ages rings the voice of labor beginning + as a murmur growing in volume and grandeur as it rolls round the world + And this is the burden of its message By the sweat of no other's brow + shalt thou eat bread + + The sun of the new world is rising it is rising out of the solidarity + of the working class Its rays of light are bursting through the dark + horizon which ignorance and deceit have so long riveted upon us It is + lighting up the faces of a new order of men and women supermen and + women men and women not discouraged by defeat god-like men and women + who have found the secret springs of life and are already drinking + deep and glorious draughts men and women who are standing erect and + whose joined hands encircle the world men and women who see the + world's wretchedness and the world's poverty and are ready to throw + away their lives with a song on their lips that such things shall not + be + + + Exercise 3 + +Note the punctuation in the following poem and determine for yourself, +in accordance with the rules we have studied, why the commas, +semi-colons, colons and periods are used as they are: + + JOHN BROWN + + States are not great + Except as man may make them; + Men are not great except they do and dare. + But States, like men, + Have destinies that take them-- + That bear them on, not knowing why or where. + + The _why_ repels + The philosophic searcher-- + The _why_ and _where_ all questionings defy, + Until we find, + Far back in youthful nurture, + Prophetic facts that constitute the _why_. + + All merit comes + From braving the unequal; + All glory comes from daring to begin. + Fame loves the State + That, reckless of the sequel, + Fights long and well, whether it lose or win. + + * * * * * + + And there is one + Whose faith, whose fight, whose failing, + Fame shall placard upon the walls of time. + He dared begin-- + Despite the unavailing, + He dared begin, when failure was a crime. + + When over Africa + Some future cycle + Shall sweep the lake-gemmed uplands with its surge; + When, as with trumpet + Of Archangel Michael, + Culture shall bid a colored race emerge; + + * * * * * + + From boulevards + O'erlooking both Nyanzas, + The statured bronze shall glitter in the sun, + With rugged lettering: + "JOHN BROWN OF KANSAS: + HE DARED BEGIN; + HE LOST, + BUT, LOSING, WON." + + --_Eugene Ware_. + + + + + SPELLING + + LESSON 29 + + +Last week we studied words which had the same, or nearly the same, +meaning. There is always a slight distinction in the meaning of words, +but some of them are so nearly the same that it makes very little +difference which word we use. Some writers, however, are very careful +and spend a great deal of time in the selection of just the right word +to express their meaning. + +Robert Louis Stevenson once said a good writer would wait half a day in +order to secure the best word to convey a certain idea. + +A very amusing story is told of Thomas Carlyle, who was very careful to +use words expressing just the shade of meaning which he desired to +express. He had a habit of writing in a note book these words as they +occurred to him, so he would have them for ready reference and use. One +day he had searched all day for a certain word which eluded him. +Suddenly in the middle of the night he wakened with the word flashing in +his mind. He wanted to write it down immediately lest he should forget +it in the morning, but it was cold and he dreaded getting up in the cold +to secure his note book so he nudged Jeanie, his wife, and said: +"Jeanie, Jeanie, get up! I have thought of a good word, and I want you +to write it down." Now it was equally cold for Jeanie, so Jeanie nudged +Thomas and said: "Thomas, Thomas, get up yourself. I have thought of a +bad one!" + +Nevertheless, it is a good idea when these good words occur to you to +write them down. Possibly to save trouble, you had better write them for +yourself! + +But in addition to words which have the same meaning, or almost the same +meaning, there are also words which express just the opposite meaning, +and it is well for us to be master of these words also. + ++These words which express opposite meaning are called antonyms.+ Words +and their antonyms are given in this week's spelling lesson in the words +for the first three days' study. For the last three days, words only are +given. Look these words up in your dictionary and determine upon the +most suitable antonyms. + + +Monday+ + + Legal + Illegal + + Artificial + Natural + + Assert + Deny + + +Tuesday+ + + Civilized + Barbarous + + Courage + Cowardice + + Active + Passive + + +Wednesday+ + + Initial + Final + + Temporary + Permanent + + History + Legend + + +Thursday+ + + Addition + Cleverness + Assured + Genuine + Acquit + Increase + + +Friday+ + + Affection + Composure + Enlarge + Anxious + Prompt + Discord + + +Saturday+ + + Succeed + Describe + Winning + Wasteful + Superficial + Grieve + +Write the proper word in the following blanks: + + PATIENTS or PATIENCE + + The Doctor has many....... + We have no......with stupidity. + + NEGLIGENCE or NEGLECT + + The accident was due to the......of the employer. + He has been guilty of......of his family for he was injured by the + criminal......of the Railroad Company. + + OBSERVANCE or OBSERVATION + + The troops were concealed from....... + Trade Unions never fail in the......of Labor Day. + A man's own......will guide him in the......of all good customs. + + RELATIVES or RELATIONS + + Taft and Roosevelt did not always have pleasant......with each other. + He has gone to visit his....... + We do not always have pleasant......with our....... + + SECTS or SEX + + There are many religious....... + Woman is refused the ballot because of her....... + + STATUE or STATUTE + + The law was placed upon the......books. + The world will sometime erect a......to the man of the people. + +Do not fear to be thought a "high-brow" if you use these words in your +every day speech. The very people who may laugh are in their hearts +admiring you, and are, in all probability, envious. The man who has +accused another of being a "high-brow" has by that very act, admitted +his own inferiority. + +Demand the best for yourself in words, as in everything else. + + + + + PLAIN ENGLISH + + LESSON 30 + + +Dear Comrade: + +With this lesson we are finishing this course in Plain English. We have +covered a great deal of ground and have studied the essentials of +grammar. We have tried, as far as possible, to avoid the stupid conning +of rules or learning by rote. We have attempted at least to make the +reason and necessity for every rule apparent before the rule was stated. + +We have also tried to weave into the lessons something of the romance of +language, for language is a romance; in its growth is written the epic +of the race. Our words portray the struggle of man from savage to sage. +So, feeble as our efforts in this regard may have been, we trust that +you have enjoyed and profited by this course and have caught a new +vision of life. Most of us are forced so inexorably into the bitter +struggle for existence that we have little time or opportunity to catch +much of the beauty of life. That is the curse of a society that dooms +its citizens to weary, toil-burdened lives, robbed of the joy and beauty +of living. + +Yet, if we know how to read we can always have access to books and +through them we can escape the sordidness and ugliness of the life in +which we are compelled to live and spend at least a little time each day +in the company of great souls who speak to us from the printed page. The +quotations in these lessons have been taken from these great writers. + +Will you not pursue the acquaintanceship and become real friends with +these men and women? Above all things they will bring you into the +atmosphere of liberty and of freedom. For throughout all the pain of the +struggle of the past and of the present, there has been the fight of man +for freedom. We have gained the mastery over nature. Wild animals, which +were a constant menace to savage man, have been destroyed. We have been +freed from fear and superstition by the discovery of the laws of nature. +With the invention of the machine, man has increased his ability to +provide the essentials of life,--food, clothing and shelter--a +thousandfold. The past has seen revolution after revolution in the +struggle for mastery. + +We now stand on the threshold of another great revolution when man shall +master the machines which he has invented and shall cease serving them +and make them serve him. His increased facilities for food-getting and +shelter-getting shall be made to serve all mankind. We have a part to +play in that great revolution. + +Whatever you may have gained from the study of this course; what +increased facility of understanding or of expression may have come to +you; may it be not only for the service of yourself but also for the +service of the revolution that shall bring the worker into his own. + + Yours for Education, + + THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. + + + THE ETERNAL WHY + ++522.+ There is no more important mark of punctuation than the +Interrogation Point. Asking questions is the foundation and beginning of +all wisdom. Progress is based upon the eternal _Why_. If men had always +been satisfied with the knowledge of their age and had not continually +asked questions which they set themselves to answer, we would still be +living in caves or dwelling in trees. + +The natural child, that is, the child whose will has not been broken, is +an animated Interrogation Point. He is full of questions. He wants to +know _why_ this and _why_ that. This is a most natural trait and one +that should not be destroyed. It may sadly interfere sometimes with the +things that we wish to do, to stop and answer the child's questions as +to why cats have tails or who made the world and what did he stand on +while he was doing it; but it is decidedly important that some one +should answer these questions which the child asks, in a manner to +satisfy its present craving for knowledge. The fact that this trait has +been quenched in so many children by the impatient grown-ups explains +their stupidity in later years. Encourage every child to ask questions. +Encourage it also to be persistent until it finds somewhere the answer +to its questions. + +Cultivate also this trait yourself. Do not accept a thing simply because +some one says it is so. Insist upon knowing for yourself. This is the +secret of progress, that we should think for ourselves, investigate for +ourselves and not fear to face the facts of life or to express our own +ideas. The wise man does not accept a thing because it is old nor does +he reject it because it is new. He inquires, demands, reasons and +satisfies himself as to the merit of the question. So the Interrogation +Point in the written language of man has a tremendous meaning. It stands +for the open and inquiring mind; for the courage that dares question all +things and seek the truth. + + + THE INTERROGATION POINT + ++523.+ An Interrogation Point should be placed after every direct +question. + +A direct question is one that can be answered. An indirect question is +one that cannot be answered. If I say, _Why do you not study?_, I am +asking a direct question to which you can give an answer; but if I say, +_I wonder why you do not study_, I have asked an indirect question which +does not require a direct answer. + + Why do you not go? (_Direct_) + He asked why you did not go. (_Indirect_) + ++524.+ When an interrogative clause is repeated in the body of another +sentence, use the interrogation point after the clause, and begin the +clause with a capital letter. For example: + + The question, _Shall we be involved in war?_, should be settled by + the people. + + + THE EXCLAMATION POINT + ++525.+ The exclamation point should be placed after words, phrases or +sentences that express strong emotion. For example: + + Oh! When shall peace reign again? + Alas! I am undone! + To the firing line! the battle rages! + ++526.+ Ordinarily the exclamation point is placed immediately after the +interjection or word used as an interjection, but frequently when the +strong emotion continues throughout the expression, the exclamation +point is placed at the close of the sentence instead of after the +interjection, even though the interjection comes first in the sentence. +For example: + + On, Comrades, on! + Charge, Chester, charge! + + + THE DASH + ++527.+ The dash is a much abused punctuation mark. A great many writers +who are not familiar with the rules of punctuation use a dash whenever +they feel the need of some sort of a punctuation mark. Their rule seems +to be, "whenever you pause make a dash." Punctuation marks indicate +pauses but a dash should not be used upon every occasion. The dash +should not be used as a substitute for the comma, semi-colon, colon, +etc. In reality, the dash should be used only when these marks cannot be +correctly used. + ++528.+ The chief use of the dash is to indicate a sudden break in the +thought or a sudden change in the construction of the sentence. For +example: + + In the next place--but I cannot discuss the matter further under the + circumstances. + ++529.+ The dash is frequently used to set a parenthetical expression off +from the rest of the sentence when it has not as close connection with +the sentence as would be indicated by commas. As for example: + + + The contention may be true--although I do not believe it--that this + sort of training is necessary. + ++530.+ The dash is also used in place of commas to denote a longer or +more expressive pause. For example: + + The man sank--then rose--then sank again. + ++531.+ The dash is often used after an enumeration of several items as a +summing up. For example: + + Production, distribution, consumption--all are a part of economics. + ++532.+ A dash is often used when a word or phrase is repeated for +emphasis. For example: + + Is there universal education--education for every child beneath the + flag? It is not for the masses of the children--not for the children + of the masses. + ++533.+ If the parenthetical statements within dashes require punctuation +marks, this mark should be placed before the second dash. For example: + + War for defense--and was there ever a war that was not for + defense?--was permitted by the International. + This sight--what a wonderful sight it was!--greeted our eyes with the + dawn. + ++534.+ The dash is also used to indicate the omission of a word, +especially such words as _as_, _namely_, _viz._, etc. For example: + + Society is divided into two classes--the exploited and the exploiting + classes. + ++535.+ After a quotation, use the dash before the name of the author. +For example: + + Life only avails, not the having lived.--_Emerson_. + ++536.+ The dash is used to mark the omission of letters or figures. For +example: + + It happened in the city of M--. + It was in the year 18--. + + + PARENTHESIS + ++537.+ In our study of the comma and the dash we have found that +parenthetical statements are set off from the rest of the sentence +sometimes by a comma and sometimes by a dash. When the connection with +the rest of the sentence is close, and yet the words are thrown in in a +parenthetical way, commas are used to separate the parenthetical +statement from the rest of the sentence. + ++538.+ When the connection is not quite so close, the dash is used +instead of the comma to indicate the fact that this statement is thrown +in by way of explanation or additional statement. But when we use +explanatory words or parenthetical statements that have little or no +connection with the rest of the sentence, these phrases or clauses are +separated from the rest of the sentences by the parenthesis. + ++539.+ +GENERAL RULE:--Marks of parenthesis are used to set off +expressions that have no vital connection with the rest of the +sentence.+ For example: + + Ignorance (and why should we hesitate to acknowledge it?) keeps us + enslaved. + Education (and this is a point that needs continual emphasis) is the + foundation of all progress. + + + THE PUNCTUATION OF THE PARENTHESIS + ++540.+ If the parenthetical statement asks a question or voices an +exclamation, it should be followed by the interrogation point or the +exclamation point, within the parenthesis. For example: + + We are all of us (who can deny it?) partial to our own failings. + The lecturer (and what a marvelous orator he is!) held the audience + spellbound for hours. + + + OTHER USES OF THE PARENTHESIS + ++541.+ An Interrogation Point is oftentimes placed within a parenthesis +in the body of a sentence to express doubt or uncertainty as to the +accuracy of our statement. For example: + + In 1858 (?) this great movement was started. + John (?) Smith was the next witness. + ++542.+ The parenthesis is used to include numerals or letters in the +enumeration of particulars. For example: + + Economics deals with (1) production, (2) distribution, + (3) consumption. + There are three sub-heads; (a) grammar, (b) rhetoric, (c) composition. + ++543.+ Marks of parenthesis are used to inclose an amount or number +written in figures when it is also written in words, as: + + We will need forty (40) machines in addition to those we now have. + Enclosed find Forty Dollars ($40.00) to apply on account. + + + THE BRACKET + ++544.+ The bracket [] indicates that the word or words included in the +bracket are not in the original discourse. + ++545.+ The bracket is generally used by editors in supplying missing +words, dates and the like, and for corrections, additions and +explanations. For example: + + This rule usually applies though there are some exceptions. [See Note + 3, Rule 1, Page 67]. + ++546.+ All interpretations, notes, corrections and explanations, which +introduce words or phrases not used by the author himself, should be +enclosed in brackets. + ++547.+ Brackets are also used for a parenthesis within a parenthesis. If +we wish to introduce a parenthetical statement within a parenthetical +statement this should be enclosed in a bracket. For example: + + He admits that this fact (the same fact which the previous witness + [Mr. James E. Smith] had denied) was only partially true. + + + QUOTATION MARKS + ++548.+ Quotation marks are used to show that the words enclosed by them +are the exact words of the writer or speaker. + ++549.+ A direct quotation is always enclosed in quotation marks. For +example: + + He remarked, "I believe it to be true." + +But an indirect quotation is not enclosed in quotation marks. For +example: + + He remarked that he believed it was true. + ++550.+ When the name of an author is given at the close of a quotation +it is not necessary to use the quotation marks. For example: + + All courage comes from braving the unequal.--_Eugene F. Ware_. + +When the name of the author precedes the quotation, the marks are used, +as in the following: + + It was Eugene F. Ware who said, "Men are not great except they do and + dare." + ++551.+ When we are referring to titles of books, magazines or +newspapers, or words and phrases used in illustration, we enclose them +in quotation marks, unless they are written in italics. For example: + + "Whitman's Leaves of Grass" or _Whitman's Leaves of Grass_. "The New + York Call" or _The New York Call_. The word "book" is a noun, or, The + word _book_ is a noun. + + + THE QUOTATION WITHIN A QUOTATION + ++552.+ When a quotation is contained within another, the included +quotation should be enclosed by single quotation marks and the entire +quotation enclosed by the usual marks. For example: + + He began by saying, "The last words of Ferrer, 'Long live the modern + school' might serve as the text for this lecture." + The speaker replied, "It was Karl Marx who said, 'Government always + belongs to those who control the wealth of the country.'" + +You will note in this sentence that the quotation within the quotation +occurs at the end of the sentence so there are three apostrophes used +after it, the single apostrophe to indicate the included quotation and +the double apostrophe which follows the entire quotation. + + + PUNCTUATION WITH QUOTATION MARKS + ++553.+ Marks of punctuation are (except the interrogation point and the +exclamation point which are explained later) placed inside the quotation +marks. For example: + + A wise man said, "Know thyself." + +Notice that the period is placed after the word _thyself_ and is +followed by the quotation marks. + + "We can easily rout the enemy," declared the speaker. + +Notice that the comma is placed after _enemy_, and before the quotation +marks. + ++554.+ The Interrogation Point and the Exclamation Point are placed +within the quotation marks if they refer _only_ to the words quoted, but +if they belong to the entire sentence they should be placed outside the +quotation marks. For example: + + He said, "Will you come now?" + Did he say, "Will you come now"? + He said, "What a beautiful night!" + How wonderfully inspiring is Walt Whitman's poem, "The Song of the + Open Road"! + ++555.+ Sometimes parenthetical or explanatory words are inserted within +a quotation. These words should be set off by commas, and both parts of +the quotation enclosed in quotation marks. For example: + + "I am aware," he said, "that you do not agree with me." + "But why," the speaker was asked, "should you make such a statement?" + "I do not believe," he replied, "that you have understood me." + + + THE APOSTROPHE + ++556.+ The apostrophe is used to indicate the omission of letters or +syllables, as: _He doesn't_, instead of _does not_; _We're_, instead of +_we are_; _I'm_, instead of _I am_; _ it's_, instead of _it is_; +_ne'er_, instead of _never_; _they'll_, instead of _they will_, etc. + ++557.+ The apostrophe is also used to denote possession. In the single +form of the nouns it precedes the _s_. In the plural form of nouns +ending in _s_ it follows the _s_. For example: + + Boy's, man's, girl's, king's, friend's, etc. + Boys', men's, girls', kings', friends', etc. + +Note that the apostrophe is not used with the possessive pronouns +_ours_, _yours_, _its_, _theirs_, _hers_. + ++558.+ The apostrophe is used to indicate the plural of letters, figures +or signs. For example: + + Dot your _i's_ and cross your _t's_. + He seems unable to learn the table of 8's and 9's. + Do not make your _n's_ and _u's_ so much alike. + ++559.+ The apostrophe is used to mark the omission of the century in +dates, as: '87 instead of 1887, '15 instead of 1915. + + + THE HYPHEN + ++560.+ The hyphen is used between the parts of a compound word or at the +end of a line to indicate that a word is divided. We have so many +compound words in our language which we have used so often that we have +almost forgotten that they were compound words so it is not always easy +to decide whether the hyphen belongs in a word or not. As, for example; +we find such words as _schoolhouse_, _bookkeeper_, _railway_ and many +others which are, in reality, compound words and in the beginning were +written with the hyphen. We have used them so frequently and their use +as compound words has become so commonplace, that we no longer use the +hyphen in writing them. Yet frequently you will find them written with +the hyphen by some careful writer. + ++561.+ As a general rule the parts of all words which are made by +uniting two or more words into one should be joined by hyphens, as: + + Men-of-war, knee-deep, half-hearted, full-grown, mother-in-law, etc. + ++562.+ The numerals expressing a compound number should be united by a +hyphen, as; _forty-two_, _twenty-seven_, _thirty-nine_, etc. + ++563.+ When the word _self_ is used with an adverb, a noun or an +adjective, it is always connected by the hyphen, as; _self-confidence_, +_self-confident_, _self-confidently_, _self-command_, _self-assertive_, +_self-asserting_, etc. + ++564.+ When the word _fold_ is added to a number of more than one +syllable, the hyphen is always used, as; _thirty-fold_, _forty-fold_, +_fifty-fold_, etc. If the numeral has but one syllable, do not use the +hyphen, as; _twofold_, _threefold_, _fourfold_, etc. + ++565.+ When fractions are written in words instead of figures always use +the hyphen, as; _one-half_, _one-fourth_, _three-sevenths_, +_nine-twelfths_, etc. + ++566.+ The words _half_ and _quarter_, when used with any word, should +be connected by a hyphen, as; _half-dollar_, _quarter-pound_, +_half-skilled_, _half-barbaric_, _half-civilized_, _half-dead_, +_half-spent_, etc. + ++567.+ Sometimes we coin a phrase for temporary use in which the words +are connected by the hyphen. For example: + + It was a never-to-be-forgotten day. + He wore a sort of I-told-you-so air. + They were fresh-from-the-pen copies. + + + ADDITIONAL MARKS OF PUNCTUATION + +There are a few other marks of punctuation which we do not often use in +writing but which we find on the printed page. It is well for us to know +the meaning of these marks. + ++568.+ The caret (^) is used to mark the omission of a letter or word or +a number of words. The omitted part is generally written above, and the +caret shows where it should be inserted. For example: + + s + I cannot give you this permis ion. + ^ + received + I have just a letter from him. + ^ + + Please write your matriculation number on all examination + and all letters + papers sent in to the College. + ^ + +The above examples illustrate the use of the caret with the omission of +a letter, a word or phrase. + ++569.+ If a letter or manuscript is not too long, it should always be +rewritten and the omissions properly inserted. Occasionally, however, we +are in a hurry and our time is too limited to rewrite an entire letter +because of the omission of a single letter or word so we can insert it +by the use of the caret. If, however, there are many mistakes, the +letter or paper should be rewritten, for the too frequent use of the +caret indicates carelessness in writing and does not produce a favorable +impression upon the recipient of your letter or manuscript. + + + MARKS OF ELLIPSIS + ++570.+ Sometimes a long dash (--------) or succession of asterisks (* * +* * * *) or of points (. . . . . .) is used to indicate the omission of +a portion of a sentence or a discourse. In printed matter usually the +asterisks are used to indicate an omission. In typewritten matter +usually a succession of points is used to indicate an omission. In +writing, these are difficult to make and the omission of the portion of +material is usually indicated by a succession of short dashes (-- -- -- +--). + + + MARKS OF REFERENCE + ++571.+ On the printed page you will often find the asterisk (*), or the +dagger, ([Symbol: dagger]), the section (§), or parallel lines (||), +used to call your attention to some note or remark written at the close +of the paragraph or on the margin, at the bottom of the page or the end +of the chapter. It is advisable to hunt these up as soon as you come to +the mark which indicates their presence, for they usually contain some +matter which explains or adds to the meaning of the sentence which you +have just finished reading. + + + Exercise 1 + +In the following exercise, note the various marks of punctuation and +determine why each one is used: + + + THE MARSEILLAISE + + Ye sons of toil, awake to glory! + Hark, hark, what myriads bid you rise; + Your children, wives and grandsires hoary-- + Behold their tears and hear their cries! + Shall hateful tyrants, mischief breeding, + With hireling hosts, a ruffian band,-- + Affright and desolate the land, + While peace and liberty lie bleeding? + + CHORUS + + To arms! to arms! ye brave! + Th' avenging sword unsheathe! + March on, march on, all hearts resolved + On Victory or Death. + + With luxury and pride surrounded, + The vile, insatiate despots dare, + Their thirst for gold and power unbounded, + To mete and vend the light and air; + Like beasts of burden would they load us, + Like gods would bid their slaves adore, + But Man is Man, and who is more? + Then shall they longer lash and goad us? (CHORUS) + + O Liberty! can man resign thee, + Once having felt thy generous flame? + Can dungeons' bolts and bars confine thee, + Or whip thy noble spirit tame? + Too long the world has wept bewailing, + That Falsehood's dagger tyrants wield; + But Freedom is our sword and shield, + And all their arts are unavailing! (CHORUS) + + --_Rouget de Lisle_. + + + THUS SPAKE ZARATHUSTRA + + I teach ye the Over-man. The man is something who shall be overcome. + What have ye done to overcome him? + + All being before this made something beyond itself: and you will be + the ebb of this great flood, and rather go back to the beast than + overcome the man? + + What is the ape to the man? A mockery or a painful shame. And even so + shall man be to the Over-man: a mockery or a painful shame. + + Man is a cord, tied between Beast and Over-man--a cord above an abyss. + + A perilous arriving, a perilous traveling, a perilous looking + backward, a perilous trembling and standing still. + + What is great in man is that he is a bridge, and no goal; what can be + loved in man is that he is a going-over and a going-under. + + I love them that know how to live, be it even as those going under, + for such are those going across. + + I love them that are great in scorn, because these are they that are + great in reverence, and arrows of longing toward the other + shore!--_Nietzsche_. + + + + + SPELLING + + LESSON 30 + +There are a great many words in English which are frequently +mispronounced; the accent is placed upon the wrong syllable; for +example, _thea'ter_ instead of _the'ater_; the wrong sound is given to +the vowel, for example, _hearth_ is pronounced _hurth_. Sometimes, too, +an extra letter is added in the pronunciation; for example, _once_ is +often pronounced as though it were spelled _wunst_. + +The following is a list of common words that are frequently +mispronounced, and there are many others which you may add to this list +as they occur to you. Look up the correct pronunciation in the +dictionary and pronounce them many times aloud. + +In the second column in this list is given the incorrect pronunciation, +which we often hear. + + Acoustics a-cow-stics + Aeroplane air-e-o-plane + Apron a-pron + Athlete ath-a-lete + Autopsy au-top'-sy + Awkward awk-ard + Column col-yum + Coupon coo-pon + Deficit de-fic'it + Diphtheria dip-ther-y + Economic ee'co-nom-ic + Errand ur-rant + Faucet fos-set + Figure fig-ger + Film fill-um + Finance fi'nance + Guardian guar-deen' + Height heighth + Hostile hos-tile' + Hundred hund'erd + Idea i-dee' + Inaugurate in-aug-er-ate + Inquiry in'qui-ry + Inventory in-ven'-to-ry + Length lenth + Magazine mag'-a'zinn + Mischievous mis-chie'-vi-ous + Municipal mu-ni-cip'-al + Opponent op'-ponent + Overalls over-hauls + Rheumatism rheumatiz + Stomach stum-ick + Twice twict + Vaudeville vaw'de-ville + +There are a number of words in English which sound very much alike and +which we are apt to confuse. For example, I heard a man recently say in +a speech that the party to which he belonged had taken slow poison and +now needed an anecdote. It is presumed that he meant that it needed an +antidote. Some one else remarked that a certain individual had not been +expelled but simply expended. He undoubtedly meant that the individual +had been suspended. + +This confusion in the use of words detracts from the influence which our +statements would otherwise have. There are a number of words which are +so nearly alike that it is very easy to be confused in the use of them. +In our spelling lesson for this week we have a number of the most common +of these easily confounded words. Add to the list as many others as you +can. + + +Monday+ + + Lightening, _to make light_ + Lightning, _an electric flash_ + Prophesy, _to foretell_ + Prophecy, _a prediction_ + Accept, _to take_ + Except, _to leave out_ + + +Tuesday+ + + Advice, _counsel_ + Advise, _to give counsel_ + Attendants, _servants_ + Attendance, _those present_ + Stationary, _fixed_ + Stationery, _pens_, _paper_, _etc._ + + +Wednesday+ + + Formerly, _in the past_ + Formally, _in a formal way_ + Addition, _process of adding_ + Edition, _publication_ + Celery, _a vegetable_ + Salary, _wages_ + + +Thursday+ + + Series, _a succession_ + Serious, _solemn_ + Precedent, _an example_ + President, _chief or head_ + Partition, _a division_ + Petition, _a request_ + + +Friday+ + + Ingenious, _skillful_ + Ingenuous, _honest_ + Jester, _one who jests_ + Gesture, _action_ + Lose, _to suffer loss_ + Loose, _to untie_ + + +Saturday+ + + Presence, _nearness_ + Presents, _gifts_ + Veracity, _truthfulness_ + Voracity, _greediness_ + Disease, _illness_ + Decease, _death_ + + + THE END AND THE BEGINNING + +As we look back over the study of these thirty lessons we find that we +have covered quite a little ground. We have covered the entire field of +English grammar including punctuation. But our study of English must not +conclude with the study of this course. This is simply the foundation +which we have laid for future work. You know when students graduate from +high school or college the graduation is called the Commencement. That +is a peculiarly fitting term, for the gaining of knowledge ought truly +to be the commencement of life for us. + +Some one has said that the pursuit of knowledge might be compared to a +man's marriage to a charming, wealthy woman. He pursued and married her +because of her wealth but after marriage found her so charming that he +grew to love her for herself. So we ofttimes pursue wisdom for practical +reasons because we expect it to serve us in the matter of making a +living; because we expect it to make us more efficient workers; to +increase our efficiency to such an extent that we may command a higher +salary, enter a better profession and be more certain of a job. + +All this is well; but we often find that after we have pursued wisdom +for these reasons, practical as they are, we have fallen in love with +her for her own sake. We begin to take pleasure in her society; we begin +to want to know things for the sake of knowing them, for the pleasure +that it brings us, quite divorced from any idea of monetary gain. + +So while we have urged upon you the study of English because of the +great practical benefit that it will be to you, we trust that you have +also grown to love the study for its own sake. + +Make this but the beginning of your work in the study of English. + + + + + INDEX + (by Section No.) + + Abbreviations, 486-489 + + Absolute Construction, 399 + + Adjectives + Defined, 36 + Classification of, 242-245 + Qualifying, 246 + Limiting, 246 + Descriptive, 248 + Numeral, 249-250 + Demonstrative, 251 + How to discover, 247 + Interrogative, 255 + Indefinite, 256-257 + Used as pronouns, 258-259 + Used as nouns, 261 + Comparison of, 264-271 + Participles used as, 272-274 + Participle phrases used as, 275 + + Adverbs + Defined, 41, 282 + Use of, 279-281 + How to tell, 283 + Classes of, 284 + Interrogative, 285 + Of mode, 286, 397 + Phrase Adverbs, 287 + To Distinguish from Adj, 288-289 + Derivation of, 290 + Nouns used as, 291 + Comparison of, 292-294 + Position of, 295 + With Infinitive, 296 + Common errors in use of, 297-298 + + Articles + A and An, use of, 252-253 + The, use of, 254 + + Capital Letters + Need of, 464 + Uses of, 22, 60, 465 + Rules for, 466-484 + + Clauses + Defined, 406 + Noun, 361-366, 371, 445 + Adjective, 367-372, 446 + With Conjunctions, 376 + Introduced by as, 378 + Adverb, 447 + Dependent, kinds of, 444-447 + + Conjunctions + Defined, 52, 331 + Uses of, 328 + Classes of, 329-330 + Co-ordinate, 332-334 + Uses of, 336-345 + Correlatives, 346 + Subordinate, defined, 349 + Use of, 347 + Classes of, 350-359 + Phrase Conjunctions, 360 + + Connective Words + Classes of, 379 + Uses of, 380-385 + + Contractions, 485 + + Dictionary, Use of, 4 + + Exclamatory Words, 390-391 + + Explanatory Words, 398 + + Good English, defined, 2 + + Grammar, English, defined, 10 + + Independent Expressions, 393 + + Infinitives + Use of, 151-167 + To, omitted, 153-155 + Forms of, 156 + Passive, 156-157 + + Interjections + Defined, 57, 388 + Classes of, 389 + + Introductory Words, 394-396 + + Language + Defined, 8 + Natural, 5 + Spoken, 6 + Written, 7 + + Nouns + Defined, 26 + Classification of, 59 + Proper, defined, 60 + Common, defined, 60 + Collective, defined, 61 + Abstract, 62-66 + Concrete, 63 + Number, defined, 68 + Number, Singular, 68 + Number, Plural, 68 + Formation of Plural, 69-84 + Formation of Possessive, 89-90, 92 + Compound, 91 + Gender, defined, 85 + Formation of Feminine, 86 + Neuter, 87 + Common, 88 + + Object + Direct, 100, 408-410, 427-430 + Indirect, 408-410 + + Participle + Defined, 116 + Active form, 114 + Present form, 114, 148 + Passive form, 115, 148 + Past form, 115 + Past irregular forms, 124 + Used as nouns, 148 + Used as adjective, 272-274 + Phrase, 149-150 + Phrase used as adjective, 275 + + Parts of Speech, 24 + + Phrases + Verb, 29, 413 + Adverbs, 287 + Prepositional, 300-305, 317-321 + Prepositions, 308 + Conjunctions, 360 + + Predicate + Defined, 17 + Complete, 406, 425 + Simple, 406 + Simple Enlarged, 463 + Complement, 411-412 + Modifiers of, 461 + + Prepositions + Defined, 47, 305 + Use of, 309-312 + Object of, 304, 313 + List of, 306 + How to Distinguish from Adverbs, 307 + Phrase prepositions, 308 + Place of, 314-316 + Common errors in use of, 322 + With verbs, 327 + Choice of, 323-326 + + Prepositional Phrases, 300-305 + Use of, 317-321 + + Pronouns + Defined, 43, 202 + Antecedent of, 203 + Personal, 204 + Compound personal, 205-208 + Number forms of, 209 + Object forms of, 214-215 + Possessive forms of, 211-213 + Gender forms of, 216 + With verb "be", 217-218 + Agreement of, 219-225 + Personification, 226 + Interrogative, 228-231 + Relative, 232-236 + What, 234, 236-240 + Who, 234, 235, 240 + Which, 234-236, 240 + That, 234-236 + Omitted, 239 + + Punctuation + Need of, 490-493 + Marks of, 494 + The Comma, 495-496 + Rules for use of, 497-506 + The Semi-colon, 407-511 + The Colon, 512-515 + The Period, 22, 516-521 + The Interrogation Point, 22, 523-524 + The Exclamation Point, 22, 525-526 + The Dash, 527-536 + The Parenthesis, 537-543 + The Bracket, 544-547 + The Quotation Marks, 548-555 + The Apostrophe, 556-559 + The Hyphen, 560-567 + The Caret, 568 + Marks of Ellipsis, 570 + Marks of Reference, 571 + + Responsives, 392 + + Sentence + Defined, 15 + Essentials of, 18 + Use of, 19 + Assertive, 20 + Interrogative, 20 + Imperative, 20 + Exclamatory, 21 + Elements, order of, 436-438 + Analysis of, 456-457 + Simple, defined, 404-406 + Modifiers of, 434-435 + Essentials of, 459 + Analysis of, 402-405 + Complex, 406, 443, 451 + Analysis of, 448 + Compound, defined, 406, 452 + Kinds of, 453-455 + Building of, 400 + Classification of, 401 + Summary of, 458 + Subject of, 416-420 + + Subject + Defined, 16 + Complete, 406 + Simple, 406 + Simple, enlarged, 462 + Place of, 421-424 + + Thought, Complete, 12-14 + + Verb + Defined, 29 + Complete, 95, 103, 131, 158 + Incomplete, 95, 103, 131, 426 + Classified, 99, 103 + Complement of, 95, 102 + Transitive, defined, 100, 103 + Object of, 100, 141 + Copulative, 102-103, 431-433 + Time forms + Present, 104, 108, 111 + Past, 104, 109, 111 + Future, 118-120 + Pres. Perf., 121-123, 145 + Past Perf., 126 + Future Perf., 128 + Regular, 110 + Irregular, 110 + Progressive Form, 133 + Present, 134, 146 + Past, 135, 146 + Future, 136, 146 + Pres. Perf., 138, 146 + Past Perf., 139, 146 + Fut. Perf., 140, 146 + Active, 142 + Passive, 141-146 + Helping, 168-184 + Be, 186 + Lay, lie, set, sit, raise, rise, 191-193 + S-form, 106, 194-196 + Phrase, 29, 413-414 + + Words + Defined, 8 + Mastery of, 10 + Use of, 23 + + + + + * * * * * + + + + +Transcriber's note: + + 1. Punctuation errors such as incorrect or missing end-of-sentence + punctuation, period for comma in mid-sentence, and missing end + quotation marks have been corrected without comment. Inconsistency + in the author's spelling of certain words, such as today/to-day have + been retained. + + 2. The list of foreign words broken across pp. 44-45 (section 80.) and + the list of abbreviations broken across pp. 295-296 (section 489.) + were rearranged to preserve alphabetical order. + + 3. The numbering in Exercise 4 on p. 110 (section 193.) was corrected. + + 4. Added ditto marks (") to the table on p. 153 (section 270). + + 5. Commas were added to the separate the abbreviations on p. 305 + (section 518). + + 6. The following typographical errors were corrected: + + Page + 10 "your vocabularly" changed to "your vocabulary" + 23 "verb-phrase" changed to "verb phrase" + 38 "as limited a vocabularly" changed to "as limited a vocabulary" + 41 "the name of person" changed to "the name of the person" + 44 "Mr. Hays" changed to "Mr. Hayes" + 82 "the Bastile" changed to "the Bastille" + 143 "publiher" changed to "publisher" + 157 "than he had them" changed to "than he had then" + 180 "the noun _man_" changed to "the noun _men_" (two instances) + 182 "a little work" changed to "a little word" + 187 "_of_ the desire of" changed to "of the desire _of_" + 191 "expresed" changed to "expressed" + 207 "He feels keenly and deeply and wrongs of his class." changed + to "He feels keenly and deeply the wrongs of his class." + 222 "our expression of it become more simple." changed to "our + expression of it became more simple." + 238 "in apposition to the pronoun I" changed to "in apposition to the + pronoun We". + 252 "_I_ see a pale face" changed to "_I see_ a pale face" + 265 "With your faces pinches and blue" changed to "with your faces + pinched and blue" + 271 "the _party which fought for their rights_" changed to "the + party _which fought for their rights_" + 277 "Find _e_ or _y_" changed to "Final _e_ or _y_" + 287 "The prefix _in_ used with adjectives" changed to "The prefix + _un_ used with adjectives" + 312 "The dash if often used" changed to "The dash is often used" + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 40550 *** |