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diff --git a/old/40549-h/40549-h.htm b/old/40549-h/40549-h.htm deleted file mode 100644 index 09f77a0..0000000 --- a/old/40549-h/40549-h.htm +++ /dev/null @@ -1,16171 +0,0 @@ -<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN"> -<html> -<head> -<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content= -"text/html; charset=UTF-8"> -<title>The Project Gutenberg e-Book of The Private Life of the -Romans, by Harold Whetstone Johnston</title> - -<style type="text/css"> - <!-- - body {margin:12%; text-align:justify} - h1 {text-align:center} - h2 {text-align:center} - h3 {text-align:center} - h4 {text-align:center} - .sectnum {position:absolute; left:6%} --> -</style> -</head> -<body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Private Life of the Romans, by -Harold Whetstone Johnston - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: The Private Life of the Romans - -Author: Harold Whetstone Johnston - -Release Date: August 20, 2012 [EBook #40549] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PRIVATE LIFE OF THE ROMANS *** - - - - -Produced by Ron Swanson - - - - - -</pre> - - -<h4>THE</h4> -<h1>PRIVATE LIFE OF THE ROMANS</h1> -<br> -<br> -<center>BY</center> -<h2>HAROLD WHETSTONE JOHNSTON</h2> - -<center>PROFESSOR OF LATIN IN THE INDIANA UNIVERSITY</center> -<br> -<br> -<br> -<br> -<center><small>CHICAGO<br> -SCOTT, FORESMAN AND COMPANY</small><br> -1909</center> -<br> -<br> -<br> -<br> -<center>BY THE SAME AUTHOR<br> -(<i>Scott, Foresman and Company</i>)<br> -S<small>ELECTED</small> O<small>RATIONS AND</small> -L<small>ETTERS OF</small> C<small>ICERO</small><br> -L<small>ATIN</small> M<small>ANUSCRIPTS</small><br> -T<small>HE</small> M<small>ETRICAL</small> -L<small>ICENSES OF</small> V<small>ERGIL</small></center> -<br> -<br> -<br> -<br> -<center><small>COPYRIGHT, 1903, BY<br> -SCOTT, FORESMAN AND COMPANY</small></center> -<br> -<br> -<br> -<br> -<center><small><small>ROBT. O. LAW CO., PRINTERS AND BINDERS, CHICAGO.<br> -TYPOGRAPHY BY<br> -MARSH, AITKEN & CURTIS COMPANY, CHICAGO.</small></small></center> -<br> -<br> -<br> -<br> -<center><i><big>CHARLES S. RANNELLS</big><br> -<br> - - MEMOR<br> -ACTAE NON ALIO REGE PUERTIAE<br> -<br> -<big>AMORIS CAUSA</big><br> -<br> -D D D</i></center> -<br> -<br> -<br> -<br> -<h3>PREFACE</h3> -<br> - -<p>In preparing this book I have had in mind the needs of three classes -of students.</p> - -<p>It is intended in the first place for seniors in high schools and -freshmen in colleges, and is meant to give such an account of the -Private Life of the Romans in the later Republic and earlier Empire as -will enable them to understand the countless references to it in the -Latin texts which they read in the class-room. It is hoped that the -book contains all that they will need for this purpose and nothing -that is beyond their comprehension.</p> - -<p>It is intended in the second place for more advanced college students -who may be taking lectures on the subjects of which it treats. The -work of both teacher and student will be made less irksome and more -effective if the student is aided in the taking of notes by even so -general a knowledge of the subject (previously announced to the class) -as is here given. This I know from actual experience with my own -classes.</p> - -<p>In the third place it is intended for readers and students of Roman -history, who are engaged chiefly with important political and -constitutional questions, and often feel the need of a simple and -compact description of domestic life, to give more reality to the -shadowy forms whose public careers they are following. Such students -will find the Index especially useful.</p> - -<p>The book is written as far as possible in English: that is, no great -knowledge of Latin is presumed on the part of the reader. I have tried -not to crowd the text with Latin words, even when they are immediately -explained, and those given will usually be found worth remembering. -Quotations from Latin authors are very few, and the references to -their works, fewer still, are made to well-known passages only.</p> - -<p>To every chapter are prefixed references to the standard secondary -authorities in English and German. Primary sources are not indicated: -they would be above the heads of the less advanced students, and to -the more advanced the lecturer will prefer to indicate the sources on -which his views are based. It is certain, however, that all these -sources are indicated in the authorities named, and the teacher -himself may occasionally find the references helpful.</p> - -<p>The illustrations are numerous and are intended to illustrate. Many -others are referred to in the text, which limited space kept me from -using, and I hope that Schreiber's Atlas, at least, if not -Baumeister's Denkmaeler, may be within the reach of students in -class-room or library.</p> - -<p>It goes without saying that there must be many errors in a book like -this, although I have done my best to make it accurate. When these -errors are due to relaxed attention or to ignorance, I shall be -grateful to the person who will point them out. When they are due to -mistaken judgment, the teacher will find in the references, I hope, -sufficient authorities to convince his pupils that he is right and I -am wrong.</p> - -<div align="right">H. W. J<small>OHNSTON</small>. </div> - -<p> T<small>HE</small> I<small>NDIANA</small> U<small>NIVERSITY</small>,<br> - February, 1903.</p> -<br> -<br><a name="contents"></a> -<br> -<br> -<h3>TABLE OF CONTENTS</h3> -<br> -<p><a href="#introduction">I<small>NTRODUCTION</small></a>.<br> - Scope of the Book <a href="#sect1">§1</a><br> - Public and Private Antiquities <a href="#sect2">§2</a><br> - Antiquities and History <a href="#sect4">§4</a><br> - Antiquities and Philology <a href="#sect6">§6</a><br> - Sources <a href="#sect9">§9</a><br> - Reference Books <a href="#sect13">§13</a><br> - Systematic Treatises <a href="#sect14">§14</a><br> - Encyclopedic Works <a href="#sect15">§15</a><br> - Other Books <a href="#sect16">§16</a></p> - -<p><a href="#chap1">I.</a> T<small>HE</small> F<small>AMILY</small>.<br> - The Household <a href="#sect17">§17</a><br> - The Splitting Up of a House <a href="#sect19">§19</a><br> - Other Meanings of <i>Familia</i> <a href="#sect21">§21</a><br> - <i>Agnātī</i> and <i>Cognātī</i> <a href="#sect23">§23</a><br> - <i>Adfīnēs</i> <a href="#sect26">§26</a><br> - The Family Cult <a href="#sect27">§27</a><br> - Adoption <a href="#sect30">§30</a><br> - The <i>Patria Potestās</i> <a href="#sect31">§31</a><br> - Limitations <a href="#sect32">§32</a><br> - Extinction of the <i>Potestās</i> <a href="#sect34">§34</a><br> - <i>Manus</i> <a href="#sect35">§35</a><br> - <i>Dominica Potestās</i> <a href="#sect37">§37</a></p> - -<p><a href="#chap2">II.</a> T<small>HE</small> N<small>AME</small>.<br> - The Triple Name <a href="#sect38">§38</a><br> - The <i>Praenōmen</i> <a href="#sect41">§41</a><br> - The <i>Nōmen</i> <a href="#sect46">§46</a><br> - The <i>Cognōmen</i> <a href="#sect48">§48</a><br> - Additional Names <a href="#sect51">§51</a><br> - Confusion of Names <a href="#sect55">§55</a><br> - Names of Women <a href="#sect57">§57</a><br> - Names of Slaves <a href="#sect58">§58</a><br> - Names of Freedmen <a href="#sect59">§59</a><br> - Naturalized Citizens <a href="#sect60">§60</a></p> - -<p><a href="#chap3">III.</a> M<small>ARRIAGE AND THE</small> P<small>OSITION -OF</small> W<small>OMEN</small>.<br> - Early Forms of Marriage <a href="#sect61">§61</a><br> - <i>Iūs Cōnūbiī</i> <a href="#sect64">§64</a><br> - <i>Nūptiae Iūstae</i> <a href="#sect67">§67</a><br> - Betrothals <a href="#sect70">§70</a><br> - The Dowry <a href="#sect72">§72</a><br> - Essential Forms <a href="#sect73">§73</a><br> - The Wedding Day <a href="#sect75">§75</a><br> - The Wedding Garments <a href="#sect76">§76</a><br> - The Ceremony <a href="#sect79">§79</a><br> - The Wedding Feast <a href="#sect85">§85</a><br> - The Bridal Procession <a href="#sect86">§86</a><br> - The Position of Women <a href="#sect90">§90</a></p> - -<p><a href="#chap4">IV.</a> C<small>HILDREN AND</small> E<small>DUCATION</small>.<br> - Legal Status <a href="#sect94">§94</a><br> - <i>Susceptiō</i> <a href="#sect95">§95</a><br> - <i>Diēs Lūstricus</i> <a href="#sect97">§97</a><br> - The <i>Bulla</i> <a href="#sect99">§99</a><br> - Nurses <a href="#sect100">§100</a><br> - Playthings <a href="#sect102">§102</a><br> - Pets and Games <a href="#sect103">§103</a><br> - Home Training <a href="#sect104">§104</a><br> - Schools <a href="#sect108">§108</a><br> - Subjects Taught in Elementary Schools <a href="#sect110">§110</a><br> - Grammar Schools <a href="#sect112">§112</a><br> - Schools of Rhetoric <a href="#sect115">§115</a><br> - Travel <a href="#sect116">§116</a><br> - Apprenticeship <a href="#sect117">§117</a><br> - Remarks on the Schools <a href="#sect119">§119</a><br> - The Teacher <a href="#sect121">§121</a><br> - Schooldays and Holidays <a href="#sect122">§122</a><br> - The <i>Paedagōgus</i> <a href="#sect123">§123</a><br> - Discipline <a href="#sect124">§124</a><br> - End of Childhood <a href="#sect125">§125</a><br> - The <i>Līberalia</i> <a href="#sect127">§127</a></p> - -<p><a href="#chap5">V.</a> D<small>EPENDENTS</small>: S<small>LAVES AND</small> C<small>LIENTS</small>. H<small>OSPITES</small>.<br> - Growth of Slavery <a href="#sect129">§129</a><br> - Numbers of Slaves <a href="#sect131">§131</a><br> - Sources of Supply <a href="#sect134">§134</a><br> - Sales of Slaves <a href="#sect139">§139</a><br> - Prices of Slaves <a href="#sect140">§140</a><br> - Public and Private Slaves <a href="#sect141">§141</a><br> - Private Slaves <a href="#sect142">§142</a><br> - Industrial Employment <a href="#sect143">§143</a><br> - The <i>Familia Rūstica</i> <a href="#sect145">§145</a><br> - Farm Slaves <a href="#sect146">§146</a><br> - The <i>Vīlīcus</i> <a href="#sect148">§148</a><br> - The <i>Familia Urbāna</i> <a href="#sect149">§149</a><br> - Legal Status of Slaves <a href="#sect156">§156</a><br> - The Treatment of Slaves <a href="#sect158">§158</a><br> - Food and Dress <a href="#sect160">§160</a><br> - The <i>Pecūlium</i> <a href="#sect162">§162</a><br> - Punishments <a href="#sect166">§166</a><br> - Manumission <a href="#sect175">§175</a><br> - The Clients <a href="#sect176">§176</a><br> - The Old Clients <a href="#sect177">§177</a><br> - Mutual Obligations <a href="#sect179">§179</a><br> - The New Clients <a href="#sect181">§181</a><br> - Duties and Rewards <a href="#sect182">§182</a><br> - The <i>Hospitēs</i> <a href="#sect183">§183</a><br> - <i>Hospitium</i> <a href="#sect184">§184</a><br> - Obligations of <i>Hospitium</i> <a href="#sect185">§185</a></p> - -<p><a href="#chap6">VI.</a> T<small>HE</small> H<small>OUSE AND</small> -I<small>TS</small> F<small>URNITURE</small>.<br> - <i>Domus</i> <a href="#sect186">§186</a><br> - The Development of the House <a href="#sect188">§188</a><br> - The <i>Vestibulum</i> <a href="#sect194">§194</a><br> - The <i>Ōstium</i> <a href="#sect195">§195</a><br> - The <i>Ātrium</i> <a href="#sect196">§196</a><br> - The Change in the <i>Ātrium</i> <a href="#sect197">§197</a><br> - The <i>Ālae</i> <a href="#sect200">§200</a><br> - The <i>Tablīnum</i> <a href="#sect201">§201</a><br> - The Peristyle <a href="#sect202">§202</a><br> - Private Rooms <a href="#sect203">§203</a><br> - The House of Pansa <a href="#sect208">§208</a><br> - The Walls <a href="#sect210">§210</a><br> - <i>Pariēs Caementīcius</i> <a href="#sect211">§211</a><br> - Wall Facings <a href="#sect212">§212</a><br> - Floors and Ceilings <a href="#sect213">§213</a><br> - Roofs <a href="#sect214">§214</a><br> - The Doors <a href="#sect215">§215</a><br> - The Windows <a href="#sect217">§217</a><br> - Heating <a href="#sect218">§218</a><br> - Water Supply <a href="#sect219">§219</a><br> - Decoration <a href="#sect220">§220</a><br> - Furniture <a href="#sect222">§222</a><br> - Principal Articles <a href="#sect223">§223</a><br> - The Couches <a href="#sect224">§224</a><br> - The Chairs <a href="#sect225">§225</a><br> - Tables <a href="#sect227">§227</a><br> - The Lamps <a href="#sect228">§228</a><br> - Chests and Cabinets <a href="#sect230">§230</a><br> - Other Articles <a href="#sect232">§232</a><br> - The Street <a href="#sect233">§233</a></p> - -<p><a href="#chap7">VII.</a> D<small>RESS AND</small> P<small>ERSONAL</small> O<small>RNAMENTS</small>.<br> - <i>Indūtus:</i> The <i>Subligaculum</i> <a href="#sect235">§235</a><br> - The Tunic <a href="#sect236">§236</a><br> - <i>Amictus:</i> The <i>Toga</i> <a href="#sect240">§240</a><br> - Form and Arrangement <a href="#sect241">§241</a><br> - Kinds of Togas <a href="#sect246">§246</a><br> - The <i>Lacerna</i> <a href="#sect247">§247</a><br> - The <i>Paenula</i> <a href="#sect248">§248</a><br> - Other Wraps <a href="#sect249">§249</a><br> - Footgear: The <i>Soleae</i> <a href="#sect250">§250</a><br> - The <i>Calceī</i> <a href="#sect251">§251</a><br> - Coverings for the Head <a href="#sect252">§252</a><br> - The Hair and Beard <a href="#sect253">§253</a><br> - Jewelry <a href="#sect255">§255</a><br> - Dress of Women <a href="#sect257">§257</a><br> - The <i>Tunica Interior</i> <a href="#sect258">§258</a><br> - The <i>Stola</i> <a href="#sect259">§259</a><br> - The <i>Palla</i> <a href="#sect261">§261</a><br> - Shoes and Slippers <a href="#sect262">§262</a><br> - Dressing of the Hair <a href="#sect263">§263</a><br> - Accessories <a href="#sect266">§266</a><br> - Jewelry <a href="#sect267">§267</a><br> - Dress of the Children and Slaves <a href="#sect268">§268</a><br> - Materials <a href="#sect269">§269</a><br> - Colors <a href="#sect270">§270</a><br> - Manufacture <a href="#sect271">§271</a></p> - -<p><a href="#chap8">VIII.</a> F<small>OOD AND</small> M<small>EALS</small>.<br> - Natural Conditions <a href="#sect272">§272</a><br> - Fruits <a href="#sect274">§274</a><br> - Garden Produce <a href="#sect275">§275</a><br> - Meats <a href="#sect277">§277</a><br> - Fowl and Game <a href="#sect279">§279</a><br> - Fish <a href="#sect280">§280</a><br> - Cereals <a href="#sect282">§282</a><br> - Preparation of the Grain <a href="#sect283">§283</a><br> - Breadmaking <a href="#sect287">§287</a><br> - The Olive <a href="#sect289">§289</a><br> - Olive Oil <a href="#sect291">§291</a><br> - Grapes <a href="#sect293">§293</a><br> - Viticulture <a href="#sect294">§294</a><br> - Vineyards <a href="#sect295">§295</a><br> - Wine Making <a href="#sect296">§296</a><br> - Beverages <a href="#sect298">§298</a><br> - Style of Living <a href="#sect299">§299</a><br> - Hours for Meals <a href="#sect301">§301</a><br> - Breakfast and Luncheon <a href="#sect302">§302</a><br> - The Formal Meal <a href="#sect303">§303</a><br> - The Dining Couch <a href="#sect304">§304</a><br> - Places of Honor <a href="#sect305">§305</a><br> - Other Furniture <a href="#sect307">§307</a><br> - Courses <a href="#sect308">§308</a><br> - Bills of Fare <a href="#sect309">§309</a><br> - Serving the Dinner <a href="#sect310">§310</a><br> - The <i>Comissātiō</i> <a href="#sect312">§312</a><br> - The Banquets of the Rich <a href="#sect315">§315</a></p> - -<p><a href="#chap9">IX.</a> A<small>MUSEMENTS</small>; B<small>ATHS</small>.<br> - General <a href="#sect316">§316</a><br> - Sports of the Campus <a href="#sect317">§317</a><br> - Games of Ball <a href="#sect318">§318</a><br> - Games of Chance <a href="#sect319">§319</a><br> - Knuckle-bones <a href="#sect320">§320</a><br> - Dice <a href="#sect321">§321</a><br> - Public and Private Games <a href="#sect322">§322</a><br> - Dramatic Performances <a href="#sect323">§323</a><br> - Staging the Play <a href="#sect324">§324</a><br> - The Early Theater <a href="#sect325">§325</a><br> - The Later Theater <a href="#sect326">§326</a><br> - Roman Circuses <a href="#sect328">§328</a><br> - Plan of the Circus <a href="#sect330">§330</a><br> - The Arena <a href="#sect332">§332</a><br> - The Barriers <a href="#sect333">§333</a><br> - The <i>Spīna</i> and <i>Mētae</i> <a href="#sect335">§335</a><br> - The Seats <a href="#sect337">§337</a><br> - Furnishing the Races <a href="#sect339">§339</a><br> - The Teams <a href="#sect340">§340</a><br> - The Drivers <a href="#sect341">§341</a><br> - Famous <i>Aurīgae</i> <a href="#sect342">§342</a><br> - Other Shows of the Circus <a href="#sect343">§343</a><br> - Gladiatorial Combats <a href="#sect344">§344</a><br> - Popularity of the Combats <a href="#sect346">§346</a><br> - Sources of Supply <a href="#sect347">§347</a><br> - Schools for Gladiators <a href="#sect349">§349</a><br> - Places of Exhibition <a href="#sect351">§351</a><br> - Amphitheaters at Rome <a href="#sect352">§352</a><br> - The Amphitheater at Pompeii <a href="#sect353">§353</a><br> - The Coliseum <a href="#sect356">§356</a><br> - Styles of Fighting <a href="#sect359">§359</a><br> - Weapons and Armor <a href="#sect360">§360</a><br> - Announcement of the Shows <a href="#sect361">§361</a><br> - The Fight Itself <a href="#sect362">§362</a><br> - The Rewards <a href="#sect363">§363</a><br> - Other Shows in the Amphitheater <a href="#sect364">§364</a><br> - The Daily Bath <a href="#sect365">§365</a><br> - Essentials for the Bath <a href="#sect366">§366</a><br> - Heating the Bath <a href="#sect368">§368</a><br> - The <i>Caldārium</i> <a href="#sect369">§369</a><br> - The <i>Frīgidārium</i> and <i>Ūnctōrium</i> <a href="#sect370">§370</a><br> - A Private Bathhouse <a href="#sect371">§371</a><br> - The Public Baths <a href="#sect372">§372</a><br> - Management <a href="#sect373">§373</a><br> - Hours Opened <a href="#sect374">§374</a><br> - Accommodations for Women <a href="#sect375">§375</a><br> - <i>Thermae</i> <a href="#sect376">§376</a><br> - Baths of Diocletian <a href="#sect378">§378</a></p> - -<p><a href="#chap10">X.</a> T<small>RAVEL AND</small> C<small>ORRESPONDENCE</small>. B<small>OOKS</small>.<br> - In General <a href="#sect379">§379</a><br> - By Water <a href="#sect380">§380</a><br> - By Land <a href="#sect381">§381</a><br> - The Vehicles <a href="#sect382">§382</a><br> - Carriages <a href="#sect383">§383</a><br> - The <i>Rēda</i> and <i>Cisium</i> <a href="#sect384">§384</a><br> - The Roads <a href="#sect385">§385</a><br> - Construction <a href="#sect387">§387</a><br> - The Inns <a href="#sect388">§388</a><br> - Speed <a href="#sect389">§389</a><br> - Sending Letters <a href="#sect390">§390</a><br> - Writing the Letters <a href="#sect391">§391</a><br> - Sealing and Opening the Letters <a href="#sect392">§392</a><br> - Books <a href="#sect393">§393</a><br> - Manufacture of Paper <a href="#sect394">§394</a><br> - Pens and Ink <a href="#sect395">§395</a><br> - Making the Roll <a href="#sect396">§396</a><br> - Size of the Rolls <a href="#sect398">§398</a><br> - Multiplication of Books <a href="#sect399">§399</a><br> - Commercial Publication <a href="#sect400">§400</a><br> - Rapidity and Cost of Publication <a href="#sect401">§401</a><br> - Libraries <a href="#sect402">§402</a></p> - -<p><a href="#chap11">XI.</a> S<small>OURCES OF</small> I<small>NCOME AND</small> -M<small>EANS OF</small> L<small>IVING</small>. T<small>HE</small> -R<small>OMAN'S</small> D<small>AY</small>.<br> - In General <a href="#sect403">§403</a><br> - Careers of the Nobles <a href="#sect404">§404</a><br> - Agriculture <a href="#sect405">§405</a><br> - Political Office <a href="#sect406">§406</a><br> - The Law <a href="#sect407">§407</a><br> - The Army <a href="#sect408">§408</a><br> - Careers of the Equites <a href="#sect409">§409</a><br> - The Soldiers <a href="#sect410">§410</a><br> - The Proletariate <a href="#sect411">§411</a><br> - Professions and Trades <a href="#sect412">§412</a><br> - Business and Commerce <a href="#sect413">§413</a><br> - The Civil Service <a href="#sect414">§414</a><br> - The Roman's Day <a href="#sect415">§415</a><br> - Hours of the Day <a href="#sect417">§417</a></p> - -<p><a href="#chap12">XII.</a> BURIAL-PLACES AND FUNERAL CEREMONIES.<br> - Importance of Burial <a href="#sect419">§419</a><br> - Interment and Cremation <a href="#sect420">§420</a><br> - Places of Burial <a href="#sect421">§421</a><br> - The Tombs <a href="#sect422">§422</a><br> - The Potter's Field <a href="#sect423">§423</a><br> - Plan of Tombs and Grounds <a href="#sect425">§425</a><br> - Exterior of the Tombs <a href="#sect427">§427</a><br> - The <i>Columbāria</i> <a href="#sect428">§428</a><br> - Burial Societies <a href="#sect430">§430</a><br> - Funeral Ceremonies <a href="#sect432">§432</a><br> - At the House <a href="#sect433">§433</a><br> - The Funeral Procession <a href="#sect434">§434</a><br> - The Funeral Oration <a href="#sect435">§435</a><br> - At the Tomb <a href="#sect436">§436</a><br> - After Ceremonies <a href="#sect437">§437</a><br> - Memorial Festivals <a href="#sect438">§438</a></p> -<br> -<br> -<br> -<br> -<h2>THE PRIVATE LIFE OF THE ROMANS</h2> -<br><hr align="center" width="100"><a name="introduction"></a> -<br> -<h3>INTRODUCTION</h3> -<br> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect1"><b>1</b></a></span> -The topics that are discussed in this book have to do with the -everyday life of the Roman people. Such things will be considered as -the family, the Roman name, marriage and the position of women, -children and education, slaves, clients, the house and its furniture, -clothing, food and meals, amusements, travel and correspondence, -funeral ceremonies and burial customs, etc. These things are of -interest to us in the case of any ancient or foreign people; in the -case of the Romans they are of especial importance, because they help -to explain the powerful influence which that nation exerted over the -old world, and make it easier to understand why that influence is -still felt in some degree to-day.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect2"><b>2</b></a></span> -<b>Public and Private Antiquities.</b>—The subjects that have been named -above belong to what is called Classical Antiquities, taking their -place in the subdivision of Roman Antiquities as opposed to Greek -Antiquities. They are grouped loosely together as Private Antiquities -in opposition to what we call Public Antiquities. Under the latter -head we consider the Roman as a citizen, and we examine the several -classes of citizens, their obligations and their privileges; we study -the form of their government, its officers and machinery, its -legislative, judicial, and executive procedure, its revenues and -expenditures, etc. It is evident that no hard and fast line can be -drawn between the two branches of the subject: they cross each other -at every turn. One scarcely knows, for example, under which head to -put the religion of the Romans or their games in the circus.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect3"><b>3</b></a></span> -In the same way, the daily employment of a slave, his keep, his -punishments, his rewards, are properly considered under the head of -Private Antiquities. But the state undertook sometimes to regulate by -law the number of slaves that a master might have, the state regulated -the manumission of the slave and gave him certain rights as a -freedman, and these matters belong to Public Antiquities. So, too, a -man might or might not be eligible to certain state offices according -to the particular ceremony used at the marriage of his parents. It -will be found, therefore, that the study of Private Antiquities can -not be completely separated from its complement, though in this book -the dividing line will be crossed as seldom as possible.<small><small><sup>1</sup></small></small></p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>1</sup></small> Students in secondary schools will find useful for -preliminary reading the outline of the Roman Constitution in the -Introduction to the author's "Selected Orations and Letters of -Cicero." For more advanced students three books have lately appeared -on this subject: Abbott's "Roman Political Institutions," Granrud's -"Roman Constitutional History," and Greenidge's "Roman Public Life."</small></blockquote> - -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect4"><b>4</b></a></span> -<b>Antiquities and History.</b>—It is just as impossible to draw the -boundary line between the subjects of Antiquities and History. The -older history, it is true, concerned itself little with the private -life of the people, almost solely with the rise and fall of dynasties. -It told us of kings and generals, of the wars they waged, the -victories they won, and the conquests they made. Then, in course of -time, institutions took the place of dynasties and parties the place -of heroes, and history traced the growth of great political ideas: -such masterpieces as Thirlwall's and Grote's histories of Greece are -largely constitutional histories. But changes in international -relations affect the private life of a people as surely, if not as -speedily, as they affect the machinery of government. You can not -bring into contact, friendly or unfriendly, two different -civilizations without a change in the peoples concerned, without -altering their occupations, their ways of living, their very ideas of -life and its purposes. These changes react in turn upon the temper and -character of a people, they affect its capacity for self-government -and the government of others, and in the course of time they bring -about the movements of which even the older history took notice. Hence -our recent histories give more and more space to the life of the -common people, to the very matters, that is, that were mentioned in -the first paragraph as belonging to Private Antiquities. This may be -seen in such titles as these: Green's "History of the English People," -McMaster's "History of the People of the United States."</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect5"><b>5</b></a></span> -On the other hand it is equally true that a knowledge of political -history is necessary for the study of Private Antiquities. We shall -find the Romans giving up certain ways of living and habits of -thinking that seemed to have become fixed and characteristic. These -changes we could not explain at all, if political history did not -inform us that just before they took place the Romans had come into -contact with the widely different ideas and opposing civilizations of -other nations. The most important event of this sort was the -introduction of Greek culture after the Punic wars, and to this we -shall have to refer again and again. It follows from all this that -students who have had even the most elementary course in Roman history -have already some knowledge of Private Antiquities, and that those who -have not studied the history of Rome at all will find very helpful the -reading of even the briefest of our school histories.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect6"><b>6</b></a></span> -<b>Antiquities and Philology.</b>—The subject of Classical Antiquities -has always been regarded as a branch—"discipline" is the technical -word—of Classical Philology since Friedrich August Wolf (1759-1824) -made Philology a science. It is quite true that in the common -acceptation of the word Philology is merely the science of language, -but even here Antiquities has an important part to play. It is -impossible to read understandingly an ode of Horace or an oration of -Cicero, if one is ignorant of the social life and the political -institutions of Rome. But Classical Philology is much more than the -science of understanding and interpreting the classical languages. It -claims for itself the investigation of Greek and Roman life in all its -aspects, social, intellectual, and political, so far as it has become -known to us from the surviving literary, epigraphic, and monumental -records. Whitney puts it thus: Philology deals with human speech and -with all that speech discloses as to the nature and history of man. If -it is hard to remember these definitions one can hardly forget the -epigram of Benoist: Philology is the geology of the intellectual -world. Under this, the only scientific conception of Philology, the -study of Antiquities takes at once a higher place. It becomes the end -with linguistics the means, and this is the true relation between -them.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect7"><b>7</b></a></span> -But it happens that the study of the languages in which the -records of classical antiquity are preserved must first occupy the -investigator, and that the study of language as mere language, its -origin, its growth, its decay, is in itself very interesting and -profitable. It happens, moreover, that the languages of Greece and -Rome can not be studied apart from literatures of singular richness, -beauty, and power, and the study of literature has always been one of -the most attractive and absorbing to cultivated men. It is not hard to -understand, therefore, why the study of Antiquities has not been more -prominent in connection with philological training. It was the end to -which only the few pressed on. It was reserved, at least in systematic -form, for the trained scholar in the university. In the congested -condition of the old curricula in our colleges it was crowded out by -the more obvious, but not more essential or interesting, subjects of -linguistics and literary criticism, or it was presented at best in the -form of scrappy notes on the authors read in the classroom or in the -dismembered alphabetical arrangement of a dictionary.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect8"><b>8</b></a></span> -Within the last few years, however, a change has been taking -place, a change due to several causes. In the first place, the -literary criticism which was once taught exclusively in connection -with classical authors and which claimed so large a part of the time -allotted to classical study has found a more appropriate place in the -departments of English that were hardly known a generation ago. In the -second place, the superior preparation in the classics now demanded -for admission to our colleges has relieved their courses of much -elementary linguistic drill that was formerly necessary. In the third -place, the last half century has seen a greater advance in the -knowledge of Antiquities than all the years before, and it is now -possible to present in positive dogmatic form much that was recently -mere guesswork and speculation. Finally, modern theories of education, -which have narrowed the stream of classical instruction only to deepen -its channel and quicken its current, have caused more stress to be -laid upon the points of contact between the ancient and the modern -world. The teacher of the classics has come to realize that the -obligations of the present to the past are not to be so clearly -presented and so vividly appreciated in connection with the formal -study of art and literature as in the investigation of the great -social, political, and religious problems which throughout all the -ages have engaged the thought of cultivated men.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect9"><b>9</b></a></span> -<b>Sources.</b>—It has been already remarked (<a href="#sect6">§6</a>) that Classical -Philology draws its knowledge from three sources, the literary, -epigraphic, and monumental remains of Greece and Rome. It is necessary -that we should understand at the outset precisely what is meant by -each of these. By literary sources we mean the writings of the Greeks -and Romans, that is, the books which they published, that have come -down to us. The form of these books, the way they were published and -have been preserved, will be considered later. For the present it is -sufficient to say that a mere fraction only of these writings has come -down to our day, and that of these poor remnants we possess no -originals but merely more or less imperfect copies. It is true, -nevertheless, that these form as a whole the most important of our -sources of information, largely because they have been most carefully -studied and are best understood.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect10"><b>10</b></a></span> -By epigraphic sources we mean the words that were written, -scratched, cut, or stamped on hard materials, such as metal, stone, or -wood, without thought of literary finish. These vary from single words -to records of very considerable extent, and are briefly called -inscriptions. The student may get a good idea of the most ancient and -curious by merely turning over a few pages of Ritschl's "Priscae -Latinitatis Monumenta Epigraphica" or of Egbert's "Latin -Inscriptions." Of one sort of great importance, the legends on coins -and medals, many have found their way into American museums. With -modern inscriptions on similar materials and for similar purposes -every student is, of course, familiar.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect11"><b>11</b></a></span> -By monumental evidence we mean all the things actually made by -the Greeks and Romans that have come down to us. These things are -collectively very numerous and of very many kinds: coins, medals, -pieces of jewelry, armor, pottery, statues, paintings, bridges, -aqueducts, fortifications, ruins of cities, etc. It is impossible to -enumerate them all. It is upon such remains as these that most of the -inscriptions mentioned above are preserved. Of the most importance for -the study of the private life of the Romans are the ruins of the city -of Pompeii preserved to us by the protection of the ashes that buried -it at the time of the eruption of Vesuvius in the year 79 <small>A.D.</small></p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect12"><b>12</b></a></span> -It will be seen at once that the importance of these sources will -vary with the nature of the subject we are studying and the fullness -of their preservation. For example, we may read in a Roman poet a -description of an ornament worn by a bride. A painting of a bride -wearing such an ornament would make the description clearer, but any -doubt that might remain would be removed if there should be found in -the ruins of Pompeii a similar ornament with its character proved by -an inscription upon it. In this case the three sources would have -contributed to our knowledge. For other matters, especially intangible -things, we may have to rely solely upon descriptions, that is, upon -literary sources. But it may well happen that no Roman wrote a set -description of the particular thing that we are studying, or if he did -that his writings have been lost, so that we may be forced to build up -our knowledge bit by bit, by putting together laboriously the scraps -of information, mere hints perhaps, that we find scattered here and -there in the works of different authors, and these perhaps of very -different times. It is not hard to understand, therefore, that our -knowledge of some things pertaining to Roman antiquities may be fairly -complete, while of others we may have no knowledge at all. It may be -worth remarking of literary sources that the more common and familiar -a thing was to the ancients, the less likely is it that we shall find -a description of it in ancient literature.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect13"><b>13</b></a></span> -<b>Reference Books.</b>—The collecting and arranging of the information -gleaned from these sources has been the task of philologists from very -early times, but so much has been added to our knowledge by recent -discoveries that all but the latest books may be neglected by the -student. A very full list of books treating of Roman Antiquities may -be found in Hübner's "Bibliographie der klassischen -Altertumswissenschaft," and a convenient list in Professor Kelsey's -"Fifty Topics in Roman Antiquities with References," but the student -should not fail to notice at the head of each chapter the lists of -authorities to be consulted in the books specifically mentioned below. -These have been arranged in two classes, systematic treatises and -encyclopedic works, and the student who lacks time to consult all the -references should select one at least of the better and larger works -in each class for regular and methodical study.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect14"><b>14</b></a></span> -Systematic Treatises:</p> - -<p>Marquardt, Joachim, "Das Privatleben der Römer," 2d edition by A. Mau. -This is the seventh volume of the <i>Handbuch der römischen Alterthümer</i> -by Marquardt and Mommsen. It is the fullest and most authoritative of -all the treatises on the subject and has a few illustrations.</p> - -<p>Voigt, Moritz, "Die Römischen Privataltertümer," 2d edition. This is a -part of the fourth volume of the <i>Handbuch der klassischen -Altertumswissenschaft</i> by Iwan von Müller. It is the latest work on -the subject, especially rich in the citation of authorities.</p> - -<p>Guhl and Koner, "Leben der Griechen und Römer," 6th edition by -Engelmann. A standard and authoritative work enriched by copious -illustrations. There is an English translation of an earlier edition -which may be used by those who read no German.</p> - -<p>Becker, W. A., "Gallus oder römische Scenen aus der Zeit Augusts," new -edition by Hermann Göll. This is a standard authority in the form of a -novel. The story is of no particular interest, but the notes and -excursuses are of the first importance. There is an English -translation of the first edition which may be used with caution by -those who read no German.</p> - -<p>Friedländer, L., "Darstellungen aus der Sittengeschichte Roms in der -Zeit von August bis zum Ausgang der Antonine," 6th edition. This is -the great authority for the time it covers and will be found to -include practically the history from the earliest times of all the -matters of which it treats.</p> - -<p>Blümner, Hugo, "Technologie und Terminologie der Gewerbe und Künste -bei Griechen und Römern." The very best description of the arts and -industries of ancient Greece and Rome.</p> - -<p>Ramsay, William, "A Manual of Roman Antiquities," 15th edition, -revised and partly rewritten by Rodolfo Lanciani. This includes public -as well as private antiquities, but the revision seems to have been -but partial and the larger part of the book is hopelessly out of date.</p> - -<p>Wilkins, A. S., "Roman Antiquities," and Preston and Dodge, "The -Private Life of the Romans." Two little books, of which the former is -by a good scholar and is worth reading.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect15"><b>15</b></a></span> -Encyclopedic Works:</p> - -<p>Pauly-Wissowa, "Real-Encyclopädie der classischen -Altertumswissenschaft." A monumental work, destined to be for many -years the great authority upon the subject. Unfortunately it is -appearing very slowly and has reached only the word <i>Demodoros</i>. There -are a few illustrations.</p> - -<p>Smith, William, "A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities," revised -edition by Wayte and Marindin. This is the very best work of the sort -in English, the best possibly of similar size in any language.</p> - -<p>Baumeister, "Denkmäler des klassischen Altertums." The most richly -illustrated work on the subject, absolutely indispensable.</p> - -<p>"Harper's Dictionary of Classical Literature and Antiquities." Largely -from Smith, but with valuable additions.</p> - -<p>Rich, "Dictionary of Roman and Greek Antiquities." A convenient manual -with many illustrations. Very good for ready reference.</p> - -<p>Schreiber, "Atlas of Classical Antiquities." A very copious collection -of illustrations bearing on Greek and Roman life. The illustrations -are accompanied by explanatory text.</p> - -<p>Seyffert-Nettleship, "Dictionary of Classical Antiquities." The -illustrations are numerous and the book is of some value on the side -of ancient art.</p> - -<p>Lübker, "Real-Lexicon des klassischen Altertums," 7th edition by Max -Erler. The best brief handbook for those who read German. It is -compact and accurate.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect16"><b>16</b></a></span> -<b>Other Books.</b>—Besides these, three books may be mentioned -treating of the discoveries at Pompeii, the importance of which has -been mentioned (<a href="#sect11">§11</a>):</p> - -<p>Overbeck, J., "Pompeii," 4th edition by August Mau, the standard -popular work upon the subject, richly supplied with illustrations.</p> - -<p>Mau, August, "Pompeii, its Life and Art," translated by Kelsey. This -is the best account of the treasures of the buried city that has -appeared in English, at once interesting and scholarly.</p> - -<p>Gusman, Pierre, "Pompeii, the City, its Life and Art," translated by -Simmonds and Jourdain. The very best collection of illustrations, but -not so trustworthy in letterpress.</p> - -<p>Finally the student should be warned not to neglect a book merely -because it happens to be written in a language that he does not read -fluently: the very part that he wants may happen to be easy to read, -and many of these books contain illustrations that tell their own -story independently of the letterpress that accompanies them.</p> -<br> -<br><a name="chap1"></a> -<br> -<br> -<h3>CHAPTER I</h3> - -<h4>THE FAMILY</h4> - -<blockquote><small>R<small>EFERENCES</small>: Marquardt, pp. 1-6; Voigt, 307-311, 386-388; Göll, II. -1-4, 61-65, 187; Pauly-Wissowa, under <i>adfīnitās</i>, <i>agnātiō</i>, -<i>cognātiō;</i> Smith, under <i>cognātī</i>, <i>familia</i>, <i>patria potestās;</i> -Seyffert, under <i>agnātiō</i>, <i>cognātiō</i>, <i>familia</i>, <i>manus;</i> Lübker, -under <i>agnātiō</i>, <i>cognātiō</i>, <i>familia</i>, <i>manus</i>, <i>patria potestās</i>.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>Look up the word <i>familia</i> in Harper's lexicon and notice carefully -its range of meanings.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>See also Muirhead, "Roman Law," pp. 24-33, and the paragraph on the -Quiritian Family in the article on Roman Law by the same writer in the -"Encyclopaedia Britannica," Vol. XX.</small></blockquote> -<br> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect17"><b>17</b></a></span> -<b>The Household.</b>—If by our word family we usually understand a -group of husband, wife, and children, we may acknowledge at once that -it does not correspond exactly to any of the meanings of the Latin -<i>familia</i>, varied as the dictionaries show these to be. Husband, wife, -and children did not necessarily constitute an independent family -among the Romans, and were not necessarily members even of the same -family. Those persons made up the Roman <i>familia</i>, in the sense -nearest to its English derivative, who were subject to the authority -of the same Head of the House (<i>pater familiās</i>). These persons might -make a host in themselves: wife, unmarried daughters, sons real or -adopted, married or unmarried, with their wives, sons, unmarried -daughters, and even remoter descendants (always through males), yet -they made but one <i>familia</i> in the eyes of the Romans. The Head of -such a family—"household" or "house" is the nearest English word—was -always <i>suī iūris</i> ("independent," "one's own master"), while the -others were <i>aliēnō iūrī subiectī</i> ("dependent").</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect18"><b>18</b></a></span> -The authority of the <i>pater familiās</i> over his wife was called -<i>manus</i>, over his descendants <i>patria potestās</i>, over his chattels -<i>dominica potestās</i>. So long as he lived and retained his citizenship, -these powers could be terminated only by his own deliberate act. He -could dispose of his property by gift or sale as freely as we do now. -He might "emancipate" his sons, a very formal proceeding -(<i>ēmancipātiō</i>) by which they became each the Head of a new family, -though they were childless themselves or unmarried or even mere -children. He might also emancipate an unmarried daughter, who thus in -her own self became an independent family. Or he might give her in -marriage to another Roman citizen, an act by which she passed by early -usage (<a href="#sect61">§61</a>) into the family of which her husband was Head, if he was -<i>suī iūris</i>, or of which he was a member, if he was still <i>aliēnō iūrī -subiectus</i>. It must be carefully noticed, on the other hand, that the -marriage of a son did not make him a <i>pater familiās</i> or relieve him -in any degree from the <i>patria potestās:</i> he and his wife and their -children were subject to the same Head of the House as he had been -before his marriage. On the other hand, the Head of the House could -not number in his <i>familia</i> his daughter's children: legitimate -children always followed the father, while an illegitimate child was -from the moment of birth in himself or herself an independent family.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect19"><b>19</b></a></span> -<b>The Splitting Up of a House.</b>—Emancipation was not very common -and it usually happened that the household was dissolved only by the -death of the Head. When this occurred, as many new households were -formed as there were persons directly subject to his <i>potestās</i> at the -moment of his death: wife, sons, unmarried daughters, widowed -daughters-in-law, and children of a deceased son. The children of a -surviving son, it must be noticed, merely passed from the <i>potestās</i> -of their grandfather to that of their father. A son under age or an -unmarried daughter was put under the care of a guardian (<i>tūtor</i>), -selected from the same <i>gēns</i>, very often an older brother, if there -was one. The following diagram will make this clearer:</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" summary="image1"> - <tr> - <td width="654"> - <img src="images/image1.jpg" alt="Family diagram 1"> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect20"><b>20</b></a></span> -It is assumed that Gaius is a widower who has had five children, -three sons and two daughters. Of the sons, Faustus and Balbus married -and had each two children; Balbus then died. Of the daughters, -Terentia Minor married Marcus and became the mother of two children. -Publius and Terentia were unmarried at the death of Gaius, who had -emancipated none of his children. It will be noticed:</p> - -<p>1. The living descendants of Gaius were ten (3, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, -14, 15, 16), his son Balbus being dead.</p> - -<p>2. Subject to his <i>potestās</i> were nine (3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 11, 12, 13, -14).</p> - -<p>3. His daughter Terentia Minor (10) had passed out of his <i>potestās</i> -by her marriage with Marcus (9), and her children (15, 16) alone out -of all the descendants of Gaius had not been subject to him.</p> - -<p>4. At his death are formed six independent families, one consisting of -four persons (3, 4, 11, 12), the others of one person each (6, 7, 8, -13, 14).</p> - -<p>5. Titus and Tiberius (11, 12) have merely passed out of the -<i>potestās</i> of their grandfather Gaius to come under that of their -father Faustus.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect21"><b>21</b></a></span> -<b>Other Meanings of Familia.</b>—The word <i>familia</i> was also very -commonly used in a slightly wider sense to include in addition to the -persons named above (<a href="#sect17">§17</a>) all the slaves and clients and all the -property real and personal belonging to the <i>pater familiās</i>, or -acquired and used by the persons under his <i>potestās</i>. The word was -also used of the slaves alone, and rarely of the property alone. In a -still wider and more important sense the word was applied to a larger -group of related persons, the <i>gēns</i>, consisting of all the -"households" (<i>familiae</i> in the sense of <a href="#sect17">§17</a>) who derived their -descent through males from a common ancestor. This remote ancestor, -could his life have lasted through all the intervening centuries, -would have been the <i>pater familiās</i> of all the persons included in -the <i>gēns</i>, and all would have been subject to his <i>potestās</i>. -Membership in the <i>gēns</i> was proved by the possession of the <i>nōmen</i>, -the second of the three names that every citizen of the Republic -regularly had (<a href="#sect38">§38</a>).</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect22"><b>22</b></a></span> -Theoretically this <i>gēns</i> had been in prehistoric times one of -the <i>familiae</i>, "households," whose union for political purposes had -formed the state. Theoretically its <i>pater familiās</i> had been one of -the Heads of Houses who in the days of the Kings had formed the -<i>patrēs</i>, or assembly of old men (<i>senātus</i>). The splitting up of this -prehistoric household in the manner explained in <a href="#sect19">§19</a>, a process -repeated generation after generation, was believed to account for the -numerous <i>familiae</i> who claimed connection with the great <i>gentēs</i> in -later times. The <i>gēns</i> had an organization of which little is known. -It passed resolutions binding upon its members; it furnished guardians -for minor children, and curators for the insane and for spendthrifts. -When a member died without leaving natural heirs, it succeeded to such -property as he did not dispose of by will and administered it for the -common good of all its members. These members were called <i>gentīlēs</i>, -were bound to take part in the religious services of the <i>gēns</i> -(<i>sacra gentīlīcia</i>), had a claim to the common property, and might if -they chose be laid to rest in the common burial ground.</p> - -<p>Finally, the word <i>familia</i> was often applied to certain branches of a -<i>gēns</i> whose members had the same <i>cognōmen</i> (<a href="#sect48">§48</a>), the last of the -three names mentioned in <a href="#sect21">§21</a>. For this use of <i>familia</i> a more -accurate word is <i>stirps</i>.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect23"><b>23</b></a></span> -<b>Agnati.</b>—It has been remarked (<a href="#sect18">§18</a>) that the children of a -daughter could not be included in the <i>familia</i> of her father, and -(<a href="#sect21">§21</a>) that membership in the larger organization called the <i>gēns</i> was -limited to those who could trace their descent through males. All -persons who could in this way trace their descent through males to a -common ancestor, in whose <i>potestās</i> they would be were he alive, were -called <i>agnātī</i>, and this <i>agnātiō</i> was the closest tie of -relationship known to the Romans. In the list of <i>agnātī</i> were -included two classes of persons who would seem by the definition to be -excluded. These were the wife, who passed by <i>manus</i> into the family -of her husband (<a href="#sect18">§18</a>), becoming by law his agnate and the agnate of all -his agnates, and the adopted son. On the other hand a son who had been -emancipated (<a href="#sect18">§18</a>) was excluded from <i>agnātiō</i> with his father and his -father's agnates, and could have no agnates of his own until he -married or was adopted into another <i>familia</i>. The following diagram -will make this clearer:</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" summary="image2"> - <tr> - <td width="654"> - <img src="images/image2.jpg" alt="Family diagram 2"> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect24"><b>24</b></a></span> -It is supposed that Gaius and Gaia have five children (Faustus, -Balbus, Publius, Terentia, and Terentia Minor), and six grandsons -(Titus and Tiberius the sons of Faustus, Quintus and Sextius the sons -of Balbus, and Servius and Decimus the sons of Terentia Minor). Gaius -has emancipated two of his sons, Balbus and Publius, and has adopted -his grandson Servius, who had previously been emancipated by his -father Marcus. There are four sets of <i>agnātī:</i></p> - -<p>1. Gaius, his wife, and those whose <i>pater familiās</i> he is, viz.: -Faustus, Tullia the wife of Faustus, Terentia, Titus, Tiberius, and -Servius, a son by adoption (1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 11, 12, 15).</p> - -<p>2. Balbus, his wife, and their two sons (5, 6, 13, and 14).</p> - -<p>3. Publius, who is himself a <i>pater familiās</i>, but has no <i>agnātī</i> at -all.</p> - -<p>4. Marcus, his wife Terentia Minor, and their child Decimus (9, 10, -16). Notice that the other child, Servius (15), having been -emancipated by Marcus is no longer agnate to his father, mother, or -brother.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect25"><b>25</b></a></span> -<b>Cognati,</b> on the other hand, were what we call blood relations, no -matter whether they traced their relationship through males or -females, and regardless of what <i>potestās</i> had been over them. The -only barrier in the eyes of the law was loss of citizenship (<a href="#sect18">§18</a>), and -even this was not always regarded. Thus, in the table last given, -Gaius, Faustus, Balbus, Publius, Terentia, Terentia Minor, Titus, -Tiberius, Quintus, Sextius, Servius, and Decimus are all cognates with -one another. So, too, is Gaia with all her descendants mentioned. So -also are Tullia, Titus, and Tiberius; Licinia, Quintus, and Sextius; -Marcus, Servius, and Decimus. But husband and wife (Gaius and Gaia, -Faustus and Tullia, Balbus and Licinia, Marcus and Terentia Minor) -were not cognates by virtue of their marriage, though that made them -agnates. In fact public opinion discountenanced the marriage of -cognates within the sixth (later the fourth) degree, and persons -within this degree were said to have the <i>iūs ōsculī</i>. The degree was -calculated by counting from one of the interested parties through the -common ancestor to the other and may be easily understood from the -table given in Smith's "Dictionary of Antiquities" under <i>cognātī</i>, or -the one given here (Fig. 1). Cognates did not form an organic body in -the state as did the agnates (<a href="#sect22">§22</a>), but the 22d of February was set -aside to commemorate the tie of blood (<i>cāra cognātiō</i>), and on this -day presents were exchanged and family reunions probably held. It must -be understood, however, that <i>cognātiō</i> gave no legal rights or claims -under the Republic.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure1"> - <tr> - <td width="772"> - <img src="images/figure001.jpg" alt="FIGURE 1. TABLE OF RELATIONSHIP"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="772" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 1. - T<small>ABLE OF</small> R<small>ELATIONSHIP</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect26"><b>26</b></a></span> -<b>Adfines.</b>—Persons connected by marriage only were called -<i>adfīnēs</i>, as a wife with her husband's cognates and he with hers. -There were no formal degrees of <i>adfīnitās</i>, as there were of -<i>cognātiō</i>. Those adfīnēs for whom distinctive names were in common -use were: <i>gener</i>, son-in-law; <i>nurus</i>, daughter-in-law; <i>socer</i>, -father-in-law; <i>socrus</i>, mother-in-law; <i>prīvignus</i>, <i>prīvigna</i>, -step-son, step-daughter; <i>ritricus</i>, step-father; <i>noverca</i>, -step-mother. If we compare these names with the awkward compounds that -do duty for them in English, we shall have additional proof of the -stress laid by the Romans on family ties: two women who married -brothers were called <i>iānītrīcēs</i>, a relationship for which we do not -have even a compound. The names of blood relations tell the same -story: a glance at the table of cognates will show how strong the -Latin is here, how weak the English. We have "uncle," "aunt," and -"cousin," but between <i>avunculus</i> and <i>patruus</i>, <i>mātertera</i> and -<i>amita</i>, <i>patruēlis</i> and <i>cōnsōbrīnus</i>, we can distinguish only by -descriptive phrases. For <i>atavus</i> and <i>tritavus</i> we have merely the -indefinite "forefathers." In the same way the language testifies to -the headship of the father. We speak of the "mother country" and -"mother tongue," but to the Roman these were <i>patria</i> and <i>sermō -patrius</i>. As the <i>pater</i> stood to the <i>fīlius</i>, so stood the -<i>patrōnus</i> to the <i>cliēns</i>, the <i>patriciī</i> to the <i>plēbēiī</i>, the -<i>patrēs</i> (=senators) to the rest of the citizens, and <i>Iūpiter</i> (Jove -the Father) to the other gods of Olympus.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect27"><b>27</b></a></span> -<b>The Family Cult.</b>—It has been said (<a href="#sect23">§23</a>) that <i>agnātiō</i> was the -closest tie known to the Romans. The importance they attached to the -agnatic family is largely explained by their ideas of the future life. -They believed that the souls of men had an existence apart from the -body, but not in a separate spirit-land. They conceived of the soul as -hovering around the place of burial and requiring for its peace and -happiness that offerings of food and drink should be made to it -regularly. Should these offerings be discontinued, the soul would -cease to be happy itself, and might become perhaps a spirit of evil. -The maintenance of these rites and ceremonies devolved naturally upon -the descendants from generation to generation, whom the spirits in -turn would guide and guard.</p> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure2"> - <tr> - <td width="262"> - <img src="images/figure002.jpg" alt="FIGURE 2. LUCIUS JUNIUS BRUTUS"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="262" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 2. - L<small>UCIUS</small> - J<small>UNIUS</small> B<small>RUTUS</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect28"><b>28</b></a></span> -The Roman was bound, therefore, to perform these acts of -affection and piety so long as he lived himself, and bound no less to -provide for their performance after his death by perpetuating his race -and the family cult. A curse was believed to rest upon the childless -man. Marriage was, therefore, a solemn religious duty, entered into -only with the approval of the gods ascertained by the auspices. In -taking a wife to himself the Roman made her a partaker of his family -mysteries, a service that brooked no divided allegiance. He therefore -separated her entirely from her father's family, and was ready in turn -to surrender his daughter without reserve to the husband with whom she -was to minister at another altar. The <i>pater familiās</i> was the priest -of the household, and those subject to his <i>potestās</i> assisted in the -prayers and offerings, the <i>sacra familiāria</i>.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect29"><b>29</b></a></span> -But it might be that a marriage was fruitless, or that the Head -of the House saw his sons die before him. In this case he had to face -the prospect of the extinction of his family, and his own descent to -the grave with no posterity to make him blessed. One of two -alternatives was open to him to avert such a calamity. He might give -himself in adoption and pass into another family in which the -perpetuation of the family cult seemed certain, or he might adopt a -son and thus perpetuate his own. He usually followed the latter -course, because it secured peace for the souls of his ancestors no -less than for his own.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect30"><b>30</b></a></span> -<b>Adoption.</b>—The person adopted might be either a <i>pater familiās</i> -himself or, more usually, a <i>fīlius familiās</i>. In the case of the -latter the process was called <i>adoptiō</i> and was a somewhat complicated -proceeding by which the natural parent conveyed his son to the other, -the effect being to transfer the adopted person from one family to the -other. The adoption of a <i>pater familiās</i> was a much more serious -matter, for it involved the extinction of one family (<a href="#sect29">§29</a>) in order to -prevent the extinction of another. It was called <i>adrogātiō</i> and was -an affair of state. It had to be sanctioned by the <i>pontificēs</i>, the -highest officers of religion, who had probably to make sure that the -<i>adrogātus</i> had brothers enough to attend to the interests of the -ancestors whose cult he was renouncing. If the <i>pontificēs</i> gave their -consent, it had still to be sanctioned by the <i>comitia curiata</i>, as -the adrogation might deprive the <i>gēns</i> of its succession to the -property of the childless man (<a href="#sect22">§22</a>). If the <i>comitia</i> gave consent, -the <i>adrogātus</i> sank from the position of Head of a House to that of a -<i>fīlius familiās</i> in the household of his adoptive father. If he had -wife and children, they passed with him into the new family, and so -did all his property. Over him the adoptive father had <i>potestās</i> as -over a son of his own, and looked upon him as flesh of his flesh and -bone of his bone. We can have at best only a feeble and inadequate -notion of what adoption meant to the Romans.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect31"><b>31</b></a></span> -<b>The Patria Potestas.</b>—The authority of the <i>pater familiās</i> over -his descendants was called usually the <i>patria potestās</i>, but also the -<i>patria maiestās</i>, the <i>patrium iūs</i>, and the <i>imperium paternum</i>. It -was carried to a greater length by the Romans than by any other -people, a length that seems to us excessive and cruel. As they -understood it, the <i>pater familiās</i> had absolute power over his -children and other agnatic descendants. He decided whether or not the -newborn child should be reared; he punished what he regarded as -misconduct with penalties as severe as banishment, slavery, and death; -he alone could own and exchange property—all that his descendants -earned or acquired in any way was his: according to the letter of the -law they were little better than his chattels. If his right to one of -them was disputed, he vindicated it by the same form of action that he -used to maintain his right to a house or a horse; if one was stolen, -he proceeded against the abductor by the ordinary action for theft; if -for any reason he wished to transfer one of them to a third person, it -was done by the same form of conveyance that he employed to transfer -inanimate things. The jurists boasted that these powers were enjoyed -by Roman citizens only.</p> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure3"> - <tr> - <td width="229"> - <img src="images/figure003.jpg" alt="FIGURE 3. PUBLIUS CORNELIUS SCIPIO AFRICANUS"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="229" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 3. - P<small>UBLIUS</small> C<small>ORNELIUS</small> - S<small>CIPIO</small> A<small>FRICANUS</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect32"><b>32</b></a></span> -<b>Limitations.</b>—But however stern this authority was theoretically, -it was greatly modified in practice, under the Republic by custom, -under the Empire by law. King Romulus was said to have ordained that -all sons should be reared and also all firstborn daughters; -furthermore that no child should be put to death until its third year, -unless it was grievously deformed. This at least secured life for the -child, though the <i>pater familiās</i> still decided whether it should be -admitted to his household, with the implied social and religious -privileges, or be disowned and become an outcast. King Numa was said -to have forbidden the sale into slavery of a son who had married with -the consent of his father. But of much greater importance was the -check put upon arbitrary and cruel punishments by custom. Custom, not -law, obliged the <i>pater familiās</i> to call a council of relatives and -friends (<i>iūdicium domesticum</i>) when he contemplated inflicting severe -punishment upon his children, and public opinion obliged him to abide -by their verdict. Even in the comparatively few cases where tradition -tells us that the death penalty was actually inflicted, we usually -find that the father acted in the capacity of a magistrate happening -to be in office when the offense was committed, or that the penalties -of the ordinary law were merely anticipated, perhaps to avoid the -disgrace of a public trial and execution.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect33"><b>33</b></a></span> -So, too, in regard to the ownership of property the conditions -were not really so hard as the strict letter of the law makes them -appear to us. It was customary for the Head of the House to assign to -his children property, <i>pecūlia</i> ("cattle of their own"), for them to -manage for their own benefit. And more than this, although the <i>pater -familiās</i> held legal title to all their acquisitions, yet practically -all property was acquired for and belonged to the household as a -whole, and he was in effect little more than a trustee to hold and -administer it for the common benefit. This is shown by the fact that -there was no graver offense against public morals, no fouler blot on -private character, than to prove untrue to this trust, <i>patrimōnium -prōfundere</i>. Besides this, the long continuance of the <i>potestās</i> is -in itself a proof that its rigor was more apparent than real.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect34"><b>34</b></a></span> -<b>Extinction of the Potestas.</b>—The <i>patria potestās</i> was -extinguished in various ways:</p> - -<p>1. By the death of the <i>pater familiās</i>, as has been explained in <a href="#sect19">§19</a>.</p> - -<p>2. By the emancipation of the son or daughter.</p> - -<p>3. By the loss of citizenship by either father or son.</p> - -<p>4. If the son became a <i>flāmen diālis</i> or the daughter a <i>virgō -vestālis</i>.</p> - -<p>5. If either father or child was adopted by a third party.</p> - -<p>6. If the daughter passed by formal marriage into the power (<i>in -manum</i>) of a husband, though this did not essentially change her -dependent condition (<a href="#sect35">§35</a>).</p> - -<p>7. If the son became a public magistrate. In this case the <i>potestās</i> -was suspended during the period of office, but after it expired the -father might hold the son accountable for his acts, public and -private, while holding the magistracy.</p> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure4"> - <tr> - <td width="282"> - <img src="images/figure004.jpg" alt="FIGURE 4. LUCIUS CORNELIUS SULLA"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="282" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 4. - L<small>UCIUS</small> C<small>ORNELIUS</small> - S<small>ULLA</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect35"><b>35</b></a></span> -<b>Manus.</b>—The subject of marriage will be considered later; at this -point it is only necessary to define the power over the wife possessed -by the husband in its most extreme form, called by the Romans <i>manus</i>. -By the oldest and most solemn form of marriage the wife was separated -entirely from her father's family (<a href="#sect28">§28</a>) and passed into her husband's -power or "hand" (<i>conventiō in manum</i>). This assumes, of course, that -he was <i>suī iūris;</i> if he was not, then though nominally in his "hand" -she was really subject as he was to his <i>pater familiās</i>. Any property -she had of her own, and to have had any she must have been independent -before her marriage, passed to him as a matter of course. If she had -none, her <i>pater familiās</i> furnished a dowry (<i>dōs</i>), which shared the -same fate. Whatever she acquired by her industry or otherwise while -the marriage lasted also became her husband's. So far, therefore, as -property rights were concerned the <i>manus</i> differed in no respect from -the <i>patria potestās:</i> the wife was <i>in locō fīliae</i>, and on the -husband's death took a daughter's share in his estate.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect36"><b>36</b></a></span> -In other respects <i>manus</i> conferred more limited powers. The -husband was required by law, not merely obliged by custom, to refer -alleged misconduct of his wife to the <i>iūdicium domesticum</i>, and this -was composed in part of her cognates (<a href="#sect25">§25</a>). He could put her away for -certain grave offenses only; if he divorced her without good cause he -was punished with the loss of all his property. He could not sell her -at all. In short, public opinion and custom operated even more -strongly for her protection than for that of her children. It must be -noticed, therefore, that the chief distinction between <i>manus</i> and -<i>patria potestās</i> lay in the fact that the former was a legal -relationship based upon the consent of the weaker party, while the -latter was a natural relationship antecedent to all law and choice.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect37"><b>37</b></a></span> -<b>Dominica Potestas.</b>—The right of ownership in his property -(<i>dominica potestās</i>) was absolute in the case of a <i>pater familiās</i> -and has been sufficiently explained in preceding paragraphs. This -ownership included slaves as well as inanimate things, and slaves as -well as inanimate things were mere chattels in the eyes of the law. -The influence of custom and public opinion, so far as these tended to -mitigating the horrors of their condition, will be discussed later. It -will be sufficient to say here that there was nothing to which the -slave could appeal from the judgment of his master. It was final and -absolute.</p> -<br> -<br><a name="chap2"></a> -<br> -<br> -<h3>CHAPTER II</h3> - -<h4>THE NAME</h4> - -<blockquote><small>R<small>EFERENCES</small>: Marquardt, 7-27; Voigt, 311, 316 f., 454; Pauly-Wissowa, -under <i>cognōmen;</i> Smith, Harper, and Lübker, under <i>nōmen</i>.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>See also: Egbert, "Latin Inscriptions," Chapter IV; Cagnat, "Cours -d'Epigraphie Latine," Chapter I; Hübner, "Römische Epigraphik," pp. -653-680 of Müller's <i>Handbuch</i>, Vol. I.</small></blockquote> -<br> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect38"><b>38</b></a></span> -<b>The Triple Name.</b>—Nothing is more familiar to the student of -Latin than the fact that the Romans whose works he reads first have -each a threefold name, Caius Julius Caesar, Marcus Tullius Cicero, -Publius Vergilius Maro. This was the system that prevailed in the best -days of the Republic, but it was itself a development, starting with a -more simple form in earlier times and ending in utter confusion under -the Empire. The earliest legends of Rome show us single names, -Romulus, Remus, Faustulus; but side by side with these we find also -double names, Numa Pompilius, Ancus Marcius, Tullus Hostilius. It is -possible that single names were the earliest fashion, but when we pass -from legends to real history the oldest names that we find are double, -the second being always in the genitive case, representing the father -or the Head of the House: Marcus Marci, Caecilia Metelli. A little -later these genitives were followed by the letter <i>f</i> (for <i>fīlius</i> or -<i>fīlia</i>) or <i>uxor</i>, to denote the relationship. Later still, but very -anciently nevertheless, we find the freeborn man in possession of the -three names with which we are familiar, the <i>nōmen</i> to mark the clan -(<i>gēns</i>), the <i>cognōmen</i> to mark the family, and the <i>praenōmen</i> to -mark the individual. The regular order of the three names is -<i>praenōmen</i>, <i>nōmen</i>, <i>cognōmen</i>, although in poetry the order is -often changed to adapt the name to the meter.</p> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure5"> - <tr> - <td width="369"> - <img src="images/figure005.jpg" alt="FIGURE 5. MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="369" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 5. - M<small>ARCUS</small> T<small>ULLIUS</small> - C<small>ICERO</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect39"><b>39</b></a></span> -Great formality required even more than the three names. In -official documents and in the state records it was usual to insert -between a man's <i>nōmen</i> and <i>cognōmen</i> the <i>praenōmina</i> of his father, -grandfather, and great-grandfather, and sometimes even the name of the -tribe to which he belonged. So Cicero might write his name: M. Tullius -M. f. M. n. M. pr. Cor. Cicero; that is, Marcus Tullius Cicero, son -(<i>fīlius</i>) of Marcus, grandson (<i>nepōs</i>) of Marcus, great-grandson -(<i>pronepōs</i>) of Marcus, of the tribe Cornelia. See another example in -<a href="#sect427">§427</a>.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect40"><b>40</b></a></span> -On the other hand even the triple name was too long for ordinary -use. Children, slaves, and intimate friends addressed the citizen, -master, and friend by his <i>praenōmen</i> only. Ordinary acquaintances -used the <i>cognōmen</i> with the <i>praenōmen</i> prefixed for emphatic -address. In earnest appeals we find the <i>nōmen</i> also used, with -sometimes the <i>praenōmen</i> or the possessive <i>mī</i> prefixed. When two -only of the three names are thus used in familiar intercourse the -order varies. If the <i>praenōmen</i> is one of the two, it always stands -first, except in the poets for metrical reasons and in a few places in -prose where the text is uncertain. If the <i>praenōmen</i> is omitted, the -arrangement varies: the older writers and Cicero put the <i>cognōmen</i> -first, <i>Ahāla Servilius</i> (Cic. Milo, 3, 8: cf. <i>C. Servilius Ahāla</i>, -Cat. I., 1, 3). Caesar puts the nōmen first; Horace, Livy, and Tacitus -have both arrangements, while Pliny adheres to Caesar's usage. It will -be convenient to consider the three names separately, and to discuss -the names of men before considering those of the other members of the -<i>familia</i>.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect41"><b>41</b></a></span> -<b>The Praenomen.</b>—The number of names used as <i>praenōmina</i> seems to -us preposterously small as compared with our Christian names, to which -they in some measure correspond. It was never much in excess of -thirty, and in Sulla's time had dwindled to eighteen. The full list is -given by the authorities named above, but the following are all that -are often found in our school and college authors: <i>Aulus</i> (<i>A</i>), -<i>Decimus</i> (<i>D</i>), <i>Gāius</i> (<i>C</i>), <i>Gnaeus</i> (<i>CN</i>), <i>Kaesō</i> (<i>K</i>), -<i>Lūcius</i> (<i>L</i>), <i>Mānius</i> (<i>M'</i>), <i>Mārcus</i> (<i>M</i>), <i>Pūblius</i> (<i>P</i>), -<i>Quīntus</i> (<i>Q</i>), <i>Servius</i> (<i>SER</i>), <i>Sextus</i> (<i>SEX</i>), <i>Spurius</i> (<i>SP</i>), -<i>Tiberius</i> (<i>TI</i>), and <i>Titus</i> (<i>T</i>). The forms of these names were -not absolutely fixed, and we find for <i>Gnaeus</i> the forms <i>Gnaivos</i> -(early), <i>Naevos</i>, <i>Naeus</i>, and <i>Gnēus</i> (rare); so also for <i>Servius</i> -we find <i>Sergius</i>, the two forms going back to an ancient <i>Serguius</i>. -The abbreviations also vary: for <i>Aulus</i> we find regularly <i>A</i>, but -also <i>AV</i> and <i>AVL;</i> for <i>Sextus</i> we find <i>SEXT</i> and <i>S</i> as well as -<i>SEX</i>, and similar variations are found in the case of other names.</p> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure6"> - <tr> - <td width="150" align="center"> - <img src="images/figure006.jpg" alt="FIGURE 6. CAESAR"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="150" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 6. - C<small>AESAR</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect42"><b>42</b></a></span> -But small as this list seems to us the natural conservatism of -the Romans found in it a chance to display itself, and the great -families repeated the names of their children from generation to -generation in such a way as to make the identification of the -individual very difficult in modern times. Thus the Aemilii contented -themselves with seven of these <i>praenōmina</i>, <i>Gāius</i>, <i>Gnaeus</i>, -<i>Lūcius</i>, <i>Mānius</i>, <i>Mārcus</i>, <i>Quīntus</i>, and <i>Tiberius</i>, but used in -addition one that is not found in any other gens, <i>Māmercus</i> (<i>MAM</i>). -The Claudii used six, <i>Gāius</i>, <i>Decimus</i>, <i>Lūcius</i>, <i>Pūblius</i>, -<i>Tiberius</i>, and <i>Quīntus</i>, with the additional name <i>Appius</i> (<i>APP</i>), -of Sabine origin, which they brought to Rome. The Cornelii used seven, -<i>Aulus</i>, <i>Gnaeus</i>, <i>Lūcius</i>, <i>Mārcus</i>, <i>Pūblius</i>, <i>Servius</i>, and -<i>Tiberius</i>. A still smaller number sufficed for the Julian gens, -<i>Gāius</i>, <i>Lūcius</i>, and <i>Sextus</i>, with the name <i>Vopiscus</i>, which went -out of use in very early times. And even these selections were subject -to further limitations. Thus, of the <i>gēns Claudia</i> only one branch -(<i>stirps</i>), known as the <i>Claudiī Nerōnēs</i>, used the names <i>Decimus</i> -and <i>Tiberius</i>, and out of the seven names used in the <i>gēns Cornēlia</i> -the branch of the Scipios (<i>Cornēliī Scīpiōnēs</i>) used only <i>Gnaeus</i>, -<i>Lūcius</i>, and <i>Pūblius</i>. Even after a <i>praenōmen</i> had found a place in -a given family, it might be deliberately discarded: thus, the Claudii -gave up the name <i>Lūcius</i> and the Manlii the name <i>Mārcus</i> on account -of the disgrace brought upon their families by men who bore these -names; and the Antonii never used the name <i>Mārcus</i> after the downfall -of the famous triumvir, Marcus Antonius.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect43"><b>43</b></a></span> -From the list of names usual in his family the father gave one to -his son on the ninth day after his birth, the <i>diēs lūstricus</i>. It was -a custom then, one that seems natural enough in our own times, for the -father to give his own <i>praenōmen</i> to his firstborn son; Cicero's name -(<a href="#sect39">§39</a>) shows the name <i>Mārcus</i> four times repeated, and it is probable -that he came from a long line of eldest sons. When these names were -first given they must have been chosen with due regard to their -etymological meanings and have had some relation to the circumstances -attending the birth of the child: Livy in speaking of the mythical -Silvius Aeneas gives us to understand that he received his first name -because he was born in a forest (<i>silva</i>).</p> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure7"> - <tr> - <td width="150" align="center"> - <img src="images/figure007.jpg" alt="FIGURE 7. AUGUSTUS"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="150" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 7. - A<small>UGUSTUS</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect44"><b>44</b></a></span> -So, <i>Lūcius</i> meant originally "born by day," <i>Mānius</i>, "born in -the morning"; <i>Quīntus</i>, <i>Sextus</i>, <i>Decimus</i>, <i>Postumus</i>, etc., -indicated the succession in the family; <i>Tullus</i> was connected with -the verb <i>tollere</i> in the sense of "acknowledge" (<a href="#sect95">§95</a>), <i>Servius</i> with -<i>servāre</i>, <i>Gāius</i> with <i>gaudēre</i>. Others are associated with the name -of some divinity, as <i>Mārcus</i> and <i>Māmercus</i> with Mars, and <i>Tiberius</i> -with the river god Tiberis. But these meanings in the course of time -were forgotten as completely as we have forgotten the meanings of our -Christian names, and even the numerals were employed with no reference -to their proper force: Cicero's only brother was called <i>Quīntus</i>.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect45"><b>45</b></a></span> -The abbreviation of the <i>praenōmen</i> was not a matter of mere -caprice, as is the writing of initials with us, but was an established -custom, indicating perhaps Roman citizenship. The <i>praenōmen</i> was -written out in full only when it was used by itself or when it -belonged to a person in one of the lower classes of society. When -Roman names are carried over into English, they should always be -written out in full and pronounced accordingly. In the same way, when -we read a Latin author and find a name abbreviated, the full name -should always be pronounced if we read aloud or translate.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect46"><b>46</b></a></span> -<b>The Nomen.</b>—This, the all-important name, is called for greater -precision the <i>nōmen gentīle</i> and the <i>nōmen gentīlicium</i>. The child -inherited it, as one inherits his surname now, and there was, -therefore, no choice or selection about it. The <i>nōmen</i> ended -originally in <i>-ius</i>, and this ending was sacredly preserved by the -patrician families: the endings <i>-eius</i>, <i>-aius</i>, <i>-aeus</i>, and <i>-eus</i> -are merely variations from it. Other endings point to a non-Latin -origin of the gens. Those in <i>-ācus</i> (<i>Avidiācus</i>) are Gallic, those -in <i>-na</i> (<i>Caecīna</i>) are Etruscan, those in <i>-ēnus</i> or <i>-iēnus</i> -(<i>Salvidiēnus</i>) are Umbrian or Picene. Some others are formed from the -name of the town from which the family sprang, either with the regular -terminations <i>-ānus</i> and <i>-ēnsis</i> (<i>Albānus</i>, <i>Norbānus</i>, -<i>Aquiliēnsis</i>), or with the suffix <i>-ius</i> (<i>Perusius</i>, <i>Parmēnsius</i>) -in imitation of the older and more aristocratic use. Standing entirely -apart is the <i>nōmen</i> of the notorious <i>Gāius Verrēs</i>, which looks like -a <i>cognōmen</i> out of place (<a href="#sect55">§55</a>).</p> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure8"> - <tr> - <td width="258"> - <img src="images/figure008.jpg" alt="FIGURE 8. NERO"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="258" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 8. - N<small>ERO</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect47"><b>47</b></a></span> -The <i>nōmen</i> belonged by custom to all connected with the gens, to -the plebeian as well as the patrician branches, to men, women, -clients, and freedmen without distinction. It was perhaps the natural -desire to separate themselves from the more humble bearers of their -<i>nōmen</i> that led patrician families to use a limited number of -<i>praenōmina</i>, avoiding those used by their clansmen of inferior social -standing. At any rate it is noticeable that the plebeian families, as -soon as political nobility and the busts in their halls gave them a -standing above their fellows, showed the same exclusiveness in the -selection of names for their children that the patricians had -displayed before them (<a href="#sect42">§42</a>).</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect48"><b>48</b></a></span> -<b>The Cognomen.</b>—Besides the individual name and the name that -marked his <i>gēns</i>, the Roman had often a third name, called the -<i>cognōmen</i>, that served to indicate the family or branch of the <i>gēns</i> -to which he belonged. Almost all the great <i>gentēs</i> were thus divided, -some of them into numerous branches. The Cornelian gens, for example, -included the plebeian Dolabellae, Lentuli, Cethegi, and Cinnae, in -addition to the patrician Scipiones, Maluginenses, Rufini, etc. The -recognition of a group of clansmen as such a branch, or <i>stirps</i>, and -as entitled to transmit a common <i>cognōmen</i> required the formal -consent of the whole <i>gēns</i>, and carried with it the loss of certain -privileges as <i>gentīlēs</i> to the members of the <i>stirps</i>.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect49"><b>49</b></a></span> -From the fact that in the official name (<a href="#sect39">§39</a>) the <i>cognōmen</i> -followed the name of the tribe, it is generally believed that the -oldest of these <i>cognōmina</i> did not go back beyond the time of the -division of the people into tribes. It is also generally believed that -the <i>cognōmen</i> was originally a nickname, bestowed on account of some -personal peculiarity or characteristic, sometimes as a compliment, -sometimes in derision. So, we find many pointing at physical traits, -such as <i>Albus</i>, <i>Barbātus</i>, <i>Cincinnātus</i>, <i>Claudus</i>, <i>Longus</i> (all -originally adjectives), and the nouns <i>Nāsō</i> and <i>Capitō</i> ("the man -with a nose," "with a head"); others refer to the temperament, such as -<i>Benignus</i>, <i>Blandus</i>, <i>Catō</i>, <i>Serēnus</i>, <i>Sevērus;</i> others still -denote origin, such as <i>Gallus</i>, <i>Ligus</i>, <i>Sabīnus</i>, <i>Siculus</i>, -<i>Tuscus</i>. These names, it must be remembered, descended from father to -son, and would naturally lose their appropriateness as they passed -along, until in the course of time their meanings were entirely lost -sight of, as were those of the <i>praenōmina</i> (<a href="#sect44">§44</a>).</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect50"><b>50</b></a></span> -Under the Republic the patricians had almost without exception -this third or family name; we are told of but one man, Caius Marcius, -who lacked the distinction. With the plebeians the <i>cognōmen</i> was not -so common, perhaps its possession was the exception. The great -families of the Marii, Mummii, and Sertorii had none, although the -plebeian branches of the Cornelian gens (<a href="#sect48">§48</a>), the Tullian gens, and -others, did. The <i>cognōmen</i> came, therefore, to be prized as an -indication of ancient lineage, and individuals whose nobility was new -were anxious to acquire it to transmit to their children. Hence many -assumed <i>cognōmina</i> of their own selection. Some of these were -conceded by public opinion as their due, as in the case of Cnaeus -Pompeius, who took <i>Magnus</i> as his <i>cognōmen</i>. Others were derided by -their contemporaries, as we deride the made-to-order coat of arms of -some nineteenth century upstart. It is probable, however, that only -nobles ventured to assume <i>cognōmina</i> under the Republic, though under -the Empire their possession was hardly more than the badge of freedom.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect51"><b>51</b></a></span> -<b>Additional Names.</b>—Besides the three names already described, we -find not infrequently, even in Republican times, a fourth or fifth. -These were also called <i>cognōmina</i> by a loose extension of the word, -until in the fourth century of our era the name <i>agnōmina</i> was given -them by the grammarians. They may be conveniently considered under -four heads:</p> - -<p>In the first place, the process that divided the gens into branches -might be continued even further. That is, as the <i>gēns</i> became -numerous enough to throw off a <i>stirps</i>, so the <i>stirps</i> in process of -time might throw off a branch of itself, for which there is no better -name than the vague <i>familia</i>. This actually happened very frequently: -the <i>gēns Cornēlia</i>, for example, threw off the <i>stirps</i> of the -<i>Scīpiōnēs</i>, and these in turn the family or "house" of the <i>Nāsīcae</i>. -So we find the quadruple name <i>Pūblius Cornēlius Scīpiō Nāsīca</i>, in -which the last name was probably given very much in the same way as -the third had been given before the division took place.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect52"><b>52</b></a></span> -In the second place, when a man passed from one family to another -by adoption (<a href="#sect30">§30</a>) he regularly took the three names of his adoptive -father and added his own <i>nōmen gentīle</i> with the suffix <i>-ānus</i>. -Thus, Lucius Aemilius Paulus, the son of Lucius Aemilius Paulus -Macedonicus (see <a href="#sect53">§53</a> for the last name), was adopted by Publius -Cornelius Scipio, and took as his new name <i>Pūblius Cornēlius Scīpiō -Aemiliānus</i>. In the same way, when Caius Octavius Caepias was adopted -by Caius Julius Caesar, he became <i>Gāius Iūlius Caesar Octāviānus</i>, -and is hence variously styled Octavius and Octavianus in the -histories.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect53"><b>53</b></a></span>In the third place, an additional name, sometimes called -<i>cognōmen ex virtūte</i>, was often given by acclamation to a great -statesman or victorious general, and was put after his <i>cognōmen</i>. A -well known example is the name of Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus, -the last name having been given him after his defeat of Hannibal. In -the same way, his grandson by adoption, the Publius Cornelius Scipio -Aemilianus mentioned above, received the same honorable name after he -had destroyed Carthage, and was called <i>Pūblius Cornēlius Scīpiō -Africānus Aemiliānus</i>. Such a name is Macedonicus given to Lucius -Aemilius Paulus for his defeat of Persens, and the title Augustus -given by the senate to Octavianus. It is not certainly known whether -or not these names passed by inheritance to the descendants of those -who originally earned them, but it is probable that the eldest son -only was strictly entitled to take his father's title of honor.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect54"><b>54</b></a></span>In the fourth place, the fact that a man had inherited a nickname -from his ancestors in the form of a <i>cognōmen</i> (<a href="#sect49">§49</a>) did not prevent -his receiving another from some personal characteristic, especially as -the inherited name had often no application, as we have seen, to its -later possessor. To some ancient Publius Cornelius was given the -nickname <i>Scīpiō</i> (<a href="#sect49">§49</a>), and in the course of time this was taken by -all his descendants without thought of its appropriateness and became -a <i>cognōmen;</i> then to one of these descendants was given another -nickname for personal reasons, <i>Nāsīca</i>, and in course of time it lost -its individuality and became the name of a whole family (<a href="#sect51">§51</a>); then in -precisely the same way a member of this family became prominent enough -to need a separate name and was called <i>Corculum</i>, his full name being -<i>Pūblius Cornēlius Scīpiō Nāsīca Corculum</i>. It is evident that there -is no reason why the expansion should not have continued indefinitely. -Such names are Publius Cornelius Lentulus Spinther, Quintus Caecilius -Metellus Celer, and Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica Serapio. It is -also evident that we can not always distinguish between a mere -nickname, one belonging strictly to this paragraph, and the additional -<i>cognōmen</i> that marked the family off from the rest of the <i>stirps</i> to -which it belonged. It is perfectly possible that the name Spinther -mentioned above has as good a right as Nasica to a place in the first -division (<a href="#sect51">§51</a>).</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect55"><b>55</b></a></span> -<b>Confusion of Names.</b>—A system so elaborate as that we have -described was almost sure to be misunderstood or misapplied, and in -the later days of the Republic and under the Empire we find all law -and order disregarded. The giving of the <i>praenōmen</i> to the child -seems to have been delayed too long sometimes, and burial inscriptions -are numerous which have in place of a first name the word <i>pūpus</i> -(<i>PVP</i>) "child," showing that the little one had died unnamed. One -such inscription gives the age of the unnamed child as sixteen years. -Then confusion was caused by the misuse of the <i>praenōmen</i>. Sometimes -two are found in one name, e.g., <i>Pūblius Aelius Aliēnus Archelāus -Mārcus</i>. Sometimes words ending like the <i>nōmen</i> in <i>-ius</i> were used -as <i>praenōmina:</i> Cicero tells us that one <i>Numerius Quīntius Rūfus</i> -owed his escape from death in a riot to his ambiguous first name. The -familiar Gāius must have been a <i>nōmen</i> in very ancient times. Like -irregularities occur in the use of the <i>nōmen</i>. Two in a name were not -uncommon, one being derived from the family of the mother perhaps; -occasionally three or four are used, and fourteen are found in the -name of one of the consuls of the year 169 <small>A.D.</small> Then by a change, the -converse of that mentioned above, a word might go out of use as a -<i>praenōmen</i> and become a <i>nōmen:</i> Cicero's enemy <i>Lūcius Sergius -Catilīna</i> had for his gentile name <i>Sergius</i>, which had once been a -first name (<a href="#sect41">§41</a>). The <i>cognōmen</i> was similarly abused. It ceased to -denote the family and came to distinguish members of the same family, -as the <i>praenōmina</i> originally had done: thus the three sons of Marcus -Annaeus Seneca, for example, were called <i>Mārcus Annaeus Novātus</i>, -<i>Lūcius Annaeus Seneca</i>, and <i>Lūcius Annaeus Mela</i>. So, too, a word -used as a <i>cognōmen</i> in one name might be used as a fourth element in -another: for example in the names <i>Lūcius Cornēlius Sulla</i> and <i>Lūcius -Cornēlius Lentulus Sura</i> the third and fourth elements respectively -are really the same, being merely shortened forms of <i>Surula</i>. Finally -it may be remarked that the same name might be arranged differently at -different times: in the consular lists we find the same man called -<i>Lūcius Lūcrētius Tricipitīnus Flāvus</i> and <i>Lūcius Lūcrētius Flāvus -Tricipitīnus</i>.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect56"><b>56</b></a></span> -There is even greater variation in the names of persons who had -passed from one family into another by adoption. Some took the -additional name (<a href="#sect52">§52</a>) from the <i>stirps</i> instead of from the <i>gēns</i>, -that is, from the <i>cognōmen</i> instead of from the <i>nōmen</i>. A son of -Marcus Claudius Marcellus was adopted by a certain Publius Cornelius -Lentulus and ought to have been called <i>Pūblius Cornēlius Lentulus -Claudiānus;</i> he took instead the name <i>Pūblius Cornēlius Lentulus -Marcellīnus</i>, and this name descended to his children. The confusion -in this direction is well illustrated by the name of the famous Marcus -Junius Brutus. A few years before Caesar fell by his hand, Brutus, as -we usually call him, was adopted by his mother's brother, Quintus -Servilius Caepio, and ought to have been called <i>Quīntus Servīlius -Caepiō Iūniānus</i>. For some reason unknown to us he retained his own -<i>cognōmen</i>, and even his close friend Cicero seems scarcely to know -what to call him. Sometimes he writes of him as <i>Quīntus Caepiō -Brūtus</i>, sometimes as <i>Mārcus Brūtus</i>, sometimes simply as <i>Brūtus</i>. -The great scholar of the first century, Asconius, calls him <i>Mārcus -Caepiō</i>. Finally it may be noticed that late in the Empire we find a -man struggling under the load of forty names.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect57"><b>57</b></a></span> -<b>Names of Women.</b>—No very satisfactory account of the names of -women can be given, because it is impossible to discover any system in -the choice and arrangement of those that have come down to us. It may -be said in general that the threefold name was unknown in the best -days of the Republic, and that <i>praenōmina</i> were rare and when used -were not abbreviated. We find such <i>praenōmina</i> as <i>Paulla</i> and -<i>Vibia</i> (the masculine forms of which early disappeared), <i>Gāia</i>, -<i>Lūcia</i>, and <i>Pūblia</i>, and it is probable that the daughter took these -from her father. More common were the adjectives <i>Maxuma</i> and <i>Minor</i>, -and the numerals <i>Secunda</i> and <i>Tertia</i>, but these unlike the -corresponding names of men seem always to have denoted the place of -the bearer among a group of sisters. It was more usual for the -unmarried woman to be called by her father's <i>nōmen</i> in its feminine -form, <i>Tullia</i>, <i>Cornēlia</i>, with the addition of her father's -<i>cognōmen</i> in the genitive case, <i>Caecilia Metellī</i>, followed later by -the letter <i>f</i> (=<i>filia</i>) to mark the relationship. Sometimes she used -her mother's <i>nōmen</i> after her father's. The married woman, if she -passed into her husband's hand (<i>manus</i>, <a href="#sect35">§35</a>) by the ancient patrician -ceremony, originally took his <i>nōmen</i>, just as an adopted son took the -name of the family into which he passed, but it can not be shown that -the rule was universally or even usually observed. Under the later -forms of marriage she retained her maiden name. In the time of the -Empire we find the threefold name for women in general use, with the -same riotous confusion in selection and arrangement as prevailed in -the case of the names of men at the same time.</p> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure9"> - <tr> - <td width="150" align="center"> - <img src="images/figure009.jpg" alt="FIGURE 9. TRAJAN"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="150" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 9. - T<small>RAJAN</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect58"><b>58</b></a></span> -<b>Names of Slaves.</b>—Slaves had no more right to names of their own -than they had to other property, but took such as their masters were -pleased to give them, and even these did not descend to their -children. In the simpler life of early times the slave was called -<i>puer</i>, just as the word "boy" was once used in this country for -slaves of any age. Until late in the Republic the slave was known only -by this name corrupted to <i>por</i> and affixed to the genitive of his -master's first name: <i>Mārcipor</i> (=<i>Mārcī puer</i>), "Marcus's slave." -When slaves became numerous this simple form no longer sufficed to -distinguish them, and they received individual names. These were -usually foreign names, often denoting the nationality of the slave, -sometimes, in mockery perhaps, the high-sounding appellations of -eastern potentates, such names as Afer, Eleutheros, Pharnaces. By this -time, too, the word <i>servus</i> had supplanted <i>puer</i>. We find, -therefore, that toward the end of the Republic the full name of a -slave consisted of his individual name followed by the <i>nōmen</i> and -<i>praenōmen</i> (the order is important) of his master and the word -<i>servus:</i> <i>Pharnacēs Egnātiī Pūbliī servus</i>. When a slave passed from -one master to another he took the <i>nōmen</i> of the new master and added -to it the <i>cognōmen</i> of the old with the suffix <i>-ānus:</i> when Anna the -slave of Maecenas became the property of Livia, she was called <i>Anna -Līviae serva Maecēnātiāna</i>.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect59"><b>59</b></a></span> -<b>Names of Freedmen.</b>—The freedman regularly kept the individual -name which he had had as a slave, and was given the <i>nōmen</i> of his -master with any <i>praenōmen</i> the latter assigned him. Thus, Andronicus, -the slave of Marcus Livius Salinator, became when freed <i>Lūcius Līvius -Andronīcus</i>, the individual name coming last as a sort of <i>cognōmen</i>. -It happened naturally that the master's <i>praenōmen</i> was often given, -especially to a favorite slave. The freedman of a woman took the name -of her father, e.g., <i>Mārcus Līvius Augustae l Ismarus;</i> the letter -<i>l</i> stands for <i>lībertus</i>, and was inserted in all formal documents. -Of course the master might disregard the regular form and give the -freedman any name he pleased. Thus, when Cicero manumitted his slaves -Tiro and Dionysius he called the former in strict accord with custom -<i>Mārcus Tullius Tīrō</i>, but to the latter he gave his own <i>praenōmen</i> -and the <i>nōmen</i> of his friend Titus Pomponius Atticus, the new name -being <i>Mārcus Pomponius Dionysius</i>. The individual names (Pharnaces, -Dionysius, etc.) were dropped by the descendants of freedmen, who were -anxious with good reason to hide all traces of their mean descent.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect60"><b>60</b></a></span> -<b>Naturalized Citizens.</b>—When a foreigner was given the right of -citizenship, he took a new name, which was arranged on much the same -principles as have been explained in the cases of freedmen. His -original name was retained as a sort of <i>cognōmen</i>, and before it were -written the <i>praenōmen</i> that suited his fancy and the <i>nōmen</i> of the -person, always a Roman citizen, to whom he owed his citizenship. The -most familiar example is that of the Greek poet Archias, whom Cicero -defended under the name of <i>Aulus Licinius Archiās</i> in the well-known -oration. He had long been attached to the family of the Luculli and -when he was made a citizen took as his <i>nōmen</i> that of his -distinguished patron Lucius Licinius Lucullus; we do not know why he -selected the first name Aulus. Another example is that of the Gaul -mentioned by Caesar (B. G., I, 47), <i>Gāius Valerius Cabūrus</i>. He took -his name from Caius Valerius Flaccus, the governor of Gaul at the time -that he was given his citizenship. It is to this custom of taking the -names of governors and generals that is due the frequent occurrence of -the name Julius in Gaul, Pompeius in Spain, and Cornelius in Sicily.</p> -<br> -<br><a name="chap3"></a> -<br> -<br> -<h3>CHAPTER III</h3> - -<h4>MARRIAGE AND THE POSITION OF WOMEN</h4> - -<blockquote><small>R<small>EFERENCES</small>: Marquardt, 28-80; Voigt, 318, 449; Göll, II, 5 f.; -Friedländer, I, 451 f.; Ramsay, 293 f., 477; Preston, 8 f.; Smith, -<i>mātrimōnium;</i> Baumeister, 696 f.; Harper, <i>cōnūbium</i>, <i>mātrimōnium;</i> -Lübker, 364; Pauly-Wissowa, <i>coēmptiō</i>, <i>cōnfarreātiō</i>, <i>cōnūbium</i>.</small></blockquote> -<br> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect61"><b>61</b></a></span> -<b>Early Forms of Marriage.</b>—Polygamy was never practiced at Rome, -and we are told that for five centuries after the founding of the city -divorce was entirely unknown. Up to the time of the Servian -constitution (date uncertain) the patricians were the only citizens -and intermarried only with patricians and with members of surrounding -communities having like social standing. The only form of marriage -known to them was the stately religious ceremonial called, as will be -explained hereafter, <i>cōnfarreātiō</i>. With the direct consent of the -gods, with the <i>pontificēs</i> celebrating the solemn rites, in the -presence of the accredited representatives of his <i>gēns</i>, the -patrician took his wife from her father's family into his own (<a href="#sect28">§28</a>), -to be a <i>māter familiās</i>, to rear him children who should conserve the -family mysteries, perpetuate his ancient race, and extend the power of -Rome. By this, the one legal marriage of the time, the wife passed <i>in -manum virī</i>, and the husband acquired over her practically the same -rights as he had over his own children (<a href="#sect35">§§35</a>, <a href="#sect36">36</a>) and other dependent -members of his family. Such a marriage was said to be <i>cum conventiōne -uxōris in manum virī</i> (<a href="#sect35">§35</a>).</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect62"><b>62</b></a></span> -During this period, too, the free non-citizens (<a href="#sect177">§§177</a>, <a href="#sect178">178</a>), the -plebeians, had been busy in marrying and giving in marriage. There is -little doubt that their unions had been as sacred in their eyes, their -family ties as strictly regarded and as pure, as those of the -patricians, but these unions were unhallowed by the national gods and -unrecognized by the civil law, simply because the plebeians were not -yet citizens. Their form of marriage was called <i>ūsus</i>, and consisted -essentially in the living together of the man and woman as husband and -wife for a year, though there were, of course, conventional forms and -observances, about which we know absolutely nothing. The plebeian -husband might acquire the same rights over the person and property of -his wife as the patrician, but the form of marriage did not in itself -involve <i>manus</i>. The wife might remain a member of her father's family -and retain such property as he allowed her (<a href="#sect33">§33</a>) by merely absenting -herself from her husband for the space of a <i>trinoctium</i> each year. If -she did this the marriage was <i>sine conventiōne in manum</i>, and the -husband had no control over her property; if she did not, the marriage -like that of the patricians was <i>cum conventiōne in manum</i>.</p> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure10"> - <tr> - <td width="243"> - <img src="images/figure010.jpg" alt="FIGURE 10. HADRIAN"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="243" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 10. - H<small>ADRIAN</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect63"><b>63</b></a></span> -At least as far back as the time of Servius goes another Roman -form of marriage, also plebeian, though not so ancient as <i>ūsus</i>. It -was called <i>coēmptiō</i> and was a fictitious sale, by which the <i>pater -familiās</i> of the woman, or her guardian (<i>tūtor</i>) if she was <i>suī -iūris</i>, transferred her to the man <i>mātrimōniī causā</i>. This form must -have been a survival of the old custom of purchase and sale of wives, -but we do not know when it was introduced among the Romans. It carried -<i>manus</i> with it as a matter of course and seems to have been regarded -socially as better form than <i>ūsus</i>. The two existed for centuries -side by side, but <i>coēmptiō</i> survived <i>ūsus</i> as a form of marriage -<i>cum conventiōne in manum</i>.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect64"><b>64</b></a></span> -<b>Ius Conubii.</b>—While the Servian constitution made the plebeians -citizens and thereby legalized their forms of marriage, it did not -give them the right of intermarriage with the patricians. Many of the -plebeian families were hardly less ancient than the patricians, many -were rich and powerful, but it was not until 445 <small>B.C.</small> that marriages -between the two orders were formally sanctioned by the civil law. The -objection on the part of the patricians was largely a religious one: -The gods of the state were patrician gods, the auspices could be taken -by patricians only, the marriages of patricians only were sanctioned -by heaven. Their orators protested that the unions of the plebeians -were no better than promiscuous intercourse, they were not <i>iūstae -nūptiae</i> (<a href="#sect67">§67</a>); the plebeian wife was taken <i>in mātrimōnium</i>, she was -at best an <i>uxor</i>, not a <i>māter familiās;</i> her offspring were -"mother's children," not <i>patriciī</i>.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect65"><b>65</b></a></span> -Much of this was class exaggeration, but it is true that at this -early date the <i>gēns</i> was not so highly valued by the plebeians as by -the patricians, and that the plebeians assigned to cognates certain -duties and privileges that devolved upon the patrician <i>gentīlēs</i>. -With, the <i>iūs cōnūbiī</i> many of these points of difference -disappeared. New conditions were fixed for <i>iūstae nūptiae;</i> -<i>coēmptiō</i> by a sort of compromise became the usual form of marriage -when one of the parties was a plebeian; and the stigma disappeared -from the word <i>mātrimōnium</i>. On the other hand patrician women learned -to understand the advantages of a marriage <i>sine conventiōne</i> and -marriage with <i>manus</i> gradually became less frequent, the taking of -the auspices before the ceremony came to be considered a mere form, -and marriage began to lose its sacramental character, and with these -changes came later the laxness in the marital relation and the freedom -of divorce that seemed in the time of Augustus to threaten the very -life of the commonwealth.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect66"><b>66</b></a></span> -It is probable that by the time of Cicero marriage with <i>manus</i> -was uncommon, and consequently that <i>cōnfarreātiō</i> and <i>coēmptiō</i> had -gone out of general use. To a limited extent, however, the former was -retained until Christian times, because certain priestly offices -(<i>flāminēs maiōrēs</i> and <i>rēgēs sacrōrum</i>) could be filled only by -persons whose parents had been married by the confarreate ceremony, -the one sacramental form, and who had themselves been married by the -same form. But so great became the reluctance of women to submit to -<i>manus</i>, that in order to fill even these few priestly offices it was -found necessary under Tiberius to eliminate <i>manus</i> from the -confarreate ceremony.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect67"><b>67</b></a></span> -<b>Nuptiae Iustae.</b>—There were certain conditions that had to be -satisfied before a legal marriage could be contracted even by -citizens. It was required:</p> - -<p>1. That the consent of both parties should be given, or of the <i>pater -familiās</i> if one or both were <i>in potestāte</i>. Under Augustus it was -provided that the <i>pater familiās</i> should not withhold his consent -unless he could show valid reasons for doing so.</p> - -<p>2. That both parties should be <i>pūberēs;</i> there could be no marriage -between children. Although no precise age was fixed by law, it is -probable that fourteen and twelve were the lowest limit for the man -and woman respectively.</p> - -<p>3. That both man and woman should be unmarried. Polygamy was never -practiced at Rome.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect68"><b>68</b></a></span> -4. That the parties should not be nearly related. The -restrictions in this direction were fixed rather by public opinion -than by law and varied greatly at different times, becoming gradually -less severe. In general it may be said that marriage was absolutely -forbidden between ascendants and descendants, between other cognates -within the fourth degree (<a href="#sect25">§25</a>), and the nearer <i>adfīnēs</i> (<a href="#sect26">§26</a>). If the -parties could satisfy these conditions they might be legally married, -but distinctions were still made that affected the civil status of the -children, although no doubt was cast upon their legitimacy or upon the -moral character of their parents.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect69"><b>69</b></a></span> -If the husband and wife were both Roman citizens, their marriage -was called <i>iūstae nūptiae</i>, which we may translate "regular -marriage," their children were <i>iūstī līberī</i> and were by birth <i>cīvēs -optimō iūre</i>, "possessed of all civil rights."</p> - -<p>If but one of the parties was a Roman citizen and the other a member -of a community having the <i>iūs cōnūbiī</i> but not the full <i>cīvitās</i>, -the marriage was still called <i>iūstae nūptiae</i>, but the children took -the civil standing of the father. This means that if the father was a -citizen and the mother a foreigner, the children were citizens; but if -the father was a foreigner and the mother a citizen, the children were -foreigners (<i>peregrīnī</i>) with the father.</p> - -<p>But if either of the parties was without the <i>iūs cōnūbiī</i>, the -marriage, though still legal, was called <i>nūptiae iniūstae</i> or -<i>mātrimōnium iniūstum</i>, "an irregular marriage," and the children, -though legitimate, took the civil position of the parent of lower -degree. We seem to have something analogous to this in the loss of -social standing which usually follows the marriage of a person with -one of distinctly inferior position.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect70"><b>70</b></a></span> -<b>Betrothals.</b>—Betrothal (<i>spōnsālia</i>) as a preliminary to marriage -was considered good form but was not legally necessary and carried -with it no obligations that could be enforced by law. In the -<i>spōnsālia</i> the maiden was promised to the man as his bride with -"words of style," that is, in solemn form. The promise was made, not -by the maiden herself, but by her <i>pater familiās</i>, or by her <i>tūtor</i> -if she was not <i>in potestāte</i>. In the same way, the promise was made -to the man directly only in case he was <i>suī iūris</i>, otherwise to the -Head of his House, who had asked for him the maiden in marriage. The -"words of style" were probably something like this:</p> - -<p>"<i>Spondēsne Gāiam, tuam fīliam</i> (or if she was a ward: <i>Gāiam, Lūciī -fīliam</i>), <i>mihi</i> (or <i>fīliō meō</i>) <i>uxōrem darī?</i>"</p> - -<p>"<i>Dī bene vortant! Spondeō.</i>"</p> - -<p>"<i>Dī bene vortant!</i>"</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect71"><b>71</b></a></span> -At any rate the word <i>spondeō</i> was technically used of the -promise, and the maiden was henceforth <i>spōnsa</i>. The person who made -the promise had always the right to cancel it. This was usually done -through an intermediary (<i>nūntius</i>), and hence the formal expression -for breaking an engagement was <i>repudium renūntiāre</i>, or simply -<i>renūntiāre</i>. While the contract was entirely one-sided, it should be -noticed that a man was liable to <i>īnfāmia</i> if he formed two -engagements at the same time, and that he could not recover any -presents made with a view to a future marriage if he himself broke the -engagement. Such presents were almost always made, and while we find -that articles for personal use, the toilet, etc., were common, a ring -was usually given. The ring was worn on the third finger of the left -hand, because it was believed that a nerve ran directly from this -finger to the heart. It was also usual for the <i>spōnsa</i> to make a -present to her betrothed.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect72"><b>72</b></a></span> -<b>The Dowry.</b>—It was a point of honor with the Romans, as it is now -with some European nations, for the bride to bring to her husband a -dowry (<i>dōs</i>). In the case of a girl <i>in potestāte</i> this would -naturally be furnished by the Head of her House; in the case of one -<i>suī iūris</i> it was furnished from her own property, or if she had none -was contributed by her relatives. It seems that if they were reluctant -she might by process of law compel her ascendants at least to furnish -it. In early times, when marriage <i>cum conventiōne</i> prevailed, all the -property brought by the bride became the property of her husband, or -of his <i>pater familiās</i> (<a href="#sect35">§35</a>), but in later times, when <i>manus</i> was -less common, and especially after divorce had become of frequent -occurrence, a distinction was made. A part of the bride's possessions -was reserved for her own exclusive use, and a part was made over to -the groom under the technical name of <i>dōs</i>. The relative proportions -varied, of course, with circumstances.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect73"><b>73</b></a></span> -<b>Essential Forms.</b>—There were really no legal forms necessary for -the solemnization of a marriage; there was no license to be procured -from the civil authorities, the ceremonies simple or elaborate did not -have to be performed by persons authorized by the state. The one thing -necessary was the consent of both parties, if they were <i>suī iūris</i>, -or of their <i>patrēs familiās</i>, if they were <i>in potestāte</i>. It has -been already remarked (<a href="#sect67">§67, 1</a>) that the <i>pater familiās</i> could refuse -his consent for valid reasons only; on the other hand, he could -command the consent of persons subject to him. It is probable that -parental and filial affection (<i>pietās</i>) made this hardship less -rigorous than it now seems to us (<a href="#sect32">§§32</a>, <a href="#sect33">33</a>).</p> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure11"> - <tr> - <td width="229"> - <img src="images/figure011.jpg" alt="FIGURE 11. ANTONINUS PIUS"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="229" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 11. - A<small>NTONINUS</small> P<small>IUS</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect74"><b>74</b></a></span> -But while this consent was the only condition for a legal -marriage, it had to be shown by some act of personal union between the -parties; that is, the marriage could not be entered into by letter or -by the intervention of a third party. Such an overt act was the -joining of hands (<i>dextrārum iūnctiō</i>) in the presence of witnesses, -or the escorting of the bride to her husband's house, never omitted -when the parties had any social standing, or in later times the -signing of the marriage contract. It was never necessary to a valid -marriage that the parties should live together as man and wife, -though, as we have seen (<a href="#sect62">§62</a>), this living together of itself -constituted a legal marriage.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect75"><b>75</b></a></span> -<b>The Wedding Day.</b>—It will be noticed that superstition played an -important part in the arrangements for a wedding two thousand years -ago, as it does now. Especial pains had to be taken to secure a lucky -day. The Kalends, Nones, and Ides of each month, and the day following -each of them, were unlucky. So was all of May and the first half of -June, on account of certain religious ceremonies observed in these -months, the Argean offerings and the <i>Lemūria</i> in May and the <i>diēs -religiōsī</i> connected with Vesta in June. Besides these the <i>diēs -parentālēs</i>, February 13-21, and the days when the entrance to the -lower world was supposed to be open, August 24, October 5, and -November 8, were carefully avoided. One-third of the year, therefore, -was absolutely barred. The great holidays, too, and these were legion, -were avoided, not because they were unlucky, but because on these days -friends and relatives were sure to have other engagements. Women -marrying for the second time chose these very holidays to make their -weddings less conspicuous.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect76"><b>76</b></a></span> -<b>The Wedding Garments.</b>—On the eve of her wedding day the bride -dedicated to the <i>Larēs</i> of her father's house her <i>bulla</i> (<a href="#sect99">§99</a>) and -the <i>toga praetexta</i>, which married women did not wear, and also if -she was not much over twelve years of age her childish playthings. For -the sake of the omen she put on before going to sleep the <i>tunica -rēcta</i>, or <i>rēgilla</i>, woven in one piece and falling to the feet. A -very doubtful picture is shown in Rich under the word <i>rëcta</i>. It -seems to have derived its name from having been woven in the -old-fashioned way at an upright loom. This same tunic was worn at the -wedding.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure12"> - <tr> - <td width="646"> - <img src="images/figure012.jpg" alt="FIGURE 12. DRESSING THE BRIDE"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="646" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 12. - D<small>RESSING THE</small> B<small>RIDE</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table><br> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure13"> - <tr> - <td width="150" align="center"> - <img src="images/figure013.jpg" alt="FIGURE 13. THE FLAMMEUM"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="150" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 13. - T<small>HE</small> F<small>LAMMEUM</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect77"><b>77</b></a></span> -On the morning of the wedding day the bride was dressed for the -ceremony by her mother, and Roman poets show unusual tenderness as -they describe her solicitude. There is a wall painting of such a -scene, found at Pompeii and reproduced in Fig. 12. The chief article -of dress was the <i>tunica rēgilla</i> already mentioned, which was -fastened around the waist with a band of wool tied in the knot of -Hercules (<i>nodus Herculāneus</i>), probably because Hercules was the -guardian of wedded life. This knot the husband only was privileged to -untie. Over the tunic was worn the bridal veil, the flame-colored veil -(<i>flammeum</i>), shown in Fig. 13. So important was the veil of the bride -that <i>nūbere</i>, "to veil one's self," is the regular word for "marry" -when used of a woman.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect78"><b>78</b></a></span> -Especial attention was given to the arrangement of the hair, but -unfortunately we have no picture preserved to us to make its -arrangement clear. We only know that it was divided into six locks by -the point of a spear, probably a reminiscence of the ancient marriage -by capture, and that these locks perhaps braided were kept in position -by ribbons (<i>vittae</i>). The bride had also a wreath of flowers and -sacred plants gathered by herself. The groom wore of course the toga -and had a similar wreath of flowers on his head. He was accompanied to -the home of the bride at the proper time by relatives, friends, and -clients, who were bound to do him every honor on his wedding day.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect79"><b>79</b></a></span> -<b>The Ceremony.</b>—The house of the bride's father, where the -ceremony was performed, was decked with flowers, boughs of trees, -bands of wool, and tapestries. The guests arrived before the hour of -sunrise, and even then the omens had been already taken. In the -ancient confarreate ceremony these were taken by the public augur, but -in later times, no matter what the ceremony, the haruspices merely -consulted the entrails of a sheep which had been killed in sacrifice. -When the marriage ceremonies are described it must be remembered that -only the consent was necessary (<a href="#sect73">§73</a>) with the act expressing the -consent, and that all other forms and ceremonies were unessential and -variable. Something depended upon the particular form used, but more -upon the wealth and social position of the families interested. It is -probable that most weddings were a good deal simpler than those -described by our chief authorities.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect80"><b>80</b></a></span> -After the omens had been pronounced favorable the bride and groom -appeared in the atrium, the chief room, and the wedding began. This -consisted of two parts:</p> - -<p>1. The ceremony proper, varying according to the form used -(<i>cōnfarreātiō</i>, <i>coēmptiō</i>, or <i>ūsus</i>), the essential part being the -consent before witnesses.</p> - -<p>2. The festivities, including the feast at the bride's home, the -taking of the bride with a show of force from her mother's arms, the -escort to her new home (the essential part), and her reception there.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure14"> - <tr> - <td width="796"> - <img src="images/figure014.jpg" alt="FIGURE 14. A MARRIAGE SCENE"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="796" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 14. - A M<small>ARRIAGE</small> S<small>CENE</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect81"><b>81</b></a></span> -The confarreate ceremony began with the <i>dextrārum iūnctiō</i>. The -bride and groom were brought together by the <i>prōnuba</i>, a matron -married to her first husband, and joined hands in the presence of ten -witnesses representing the ten <i>gentēs</i> of the <i>cūria</i>. These are -shown on an ancient sarcophagus found at Naples (Fig. 14). Then -followed the words of consent spoken by the bride: <i>Quandō tū Gāius, -ego Gāia</i>. The formula was unchanged, no matter what the names of the -bride and groom, and goes back to a time when <i>Gāius</i> was a <i>nōmen</i>, -not a <i>praenōmen</i> (<a href="#sect55">§55</a>). It implied that the bride was actually -entering the <i>gēns</i> of the groom (<a href="#sect23">§§23</a>, <a href="#sect28">28</a>, <a href="#sect35">35</a>), and was probably -chosen for its lucky meaning (<a href="#sect44">§44</a>). Even in marriages <i>sine -conventiōne</i> the old formula came to be used, its import having been -lost in lapse of time. The bride and groom then took their places side -by side at the left of the altar and facing it, sitting on stools -covered with the pelt of the sheep slain for the sacrifice.</p> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure15"> - <tr> - <td width="150" align="center"> - <img src="images/figure015.jpg" alt="FIGURE 15. A CAMILLUS"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="150" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 15. - A C<small>AMILLUS</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect82"><b>82</b></a></span> -A bloodless offering was then made to Jupiter by the <i>Pontifex -Maximus</i> and the <i>Flāmen Diālis</i>, consisting of the cake of spelt -(<i>farreum lībum</i>) from which the <i>cōnfarreātiō</i> got its name. With the -offering to Jupiter a prayer was recited by the Flamen to Juno as the -goddess of marriage, and to Tellus, Picumnus, and Pilumnus, deities of -the country and its fruits. The utensils necessary for the offering -were carried in a covered basket (<i>cumerus</i>) by a boy called -<i>camillus</i> (Fig. 15), whose parents must have both been living at the -time (<i>patrīmus et mātrīmus</i>). Then followed the congratulations, the -guests using the word <i>fēlīciter</i>.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect83"><b>83</b></a></span> -The <i>coēmptiō</i> began with the fictitious sale, carried out in the -presence of no less than five witnesses. The purchase money -represented by a single coin was laid in the scales held by a -<i>lībripēns</i>. The scales, scaleholder, coin, and witnesses were all -necessary for this kind of marriage. Then followed the <i>dextrārum -iūnctiō</i> and the words of consent, borrowed, as has been said, from -the confarreate ceremony. Originally the groom had asked the bride: -<i>An sibi māter familiās esse vellet.</i> She assented, and put to him a -similar question: <i>An sibi pater familiās esse vellet.</i> To this he too -gave the answer "Yes." A prayer was then recited and sometimes perhaps -a sacrifice offered, after which came the congratulations as in the -other and more elaborate ceremony.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect84"><b>84</b></a></span> -The third form, that is, the ceremonies preliminary to <i>ūsus</i>, -probably admitted of more variation than either of the others, but no -description has come down to us. We may be sure that the hands were -clasped, the words of consent spoken, and congratulations offered, but -we know of no special customs or usages. It was almost necessary for -the three forms to get more or less alike in the course of time, -though the cake of spelt could not be borrowed from the confarreate -ceremony by either of the others, or the scales and their holder from -the ceremony of <i>coēmptiō</i>.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect85"><b>85</b></a></span> -<b>The Wedding Feast.</b>—After the conclusion of the ceremony came the -wedding feast (<i>cēna nūptiālis</i>) lasting until evening. There can be -no doubt that this was regularly given at the house of the bride's -father and that the few cases when we know that it was given at the -groom's house were exceptional and due to special circumstances which -might cause a similar change to-day. The feast seems to have concluded -with the distribution among the guests of pieces of the wedding cake -(<i>mustāceum</i>), which was made of meal steeped in must (<a href="#sect296">§296</a>) and -served on bay leaves. There came to be so much extravagance at these -feasts and at the <i>repōtia</i> mentioned below (<a href="#sect89">§89</a>) that under Augustus -it was proposed to limit their cost by law to one thousand sesterces -($50), a piece of sumptuary legislation as vain as such restrictions -have usually proved to be.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect86"><b>86</b></a></span> -<b>The Bridal Procession.</b>—After the wedding feast the bride was -formally taken to her husband's house. This ceremony was called -<i>dēductiō</i>, and as it was essential to the validity of the marriage -(<a href="#sect74">§74</a>) it was never omitted. It was a public function, that is, any one -might join the procession and take part in the merriment that -distinguished it, and we are told that persons of rank did not scruple -to wait in the street to see the bride. As evening approached the -procession was formed before the house with torch bearers and flute -players at its head. When all was ready the marriage hymn -(<i>hymenaeus</i>) was sung and the groom took the bride with a show of -force from the arms of her mother. The Romans saw in this custom a -reminiscence of the rape of the Sabines, but it probably goes far back -beyond the founding of Rome to the custom of marriage by capture that -prevailed among many peoples. The bride then took her place in the -procession attended by three boys, <i>patrīmī et mātrīmī</i> (<a href="#sect82">§82</a>); two of -these walked by her side, holding each a hand, while the other carried -before her the wedding torch of white thorn (<i>spīna alba</i>). Behind the -bride were carried the distaff and spindle, emblems of domestic life. -The <i>camillus</i> with his <i>cumerus</i> also walked in the procession.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect87"><b>87</b></a></span> -During the march were sung the <i>versūs Fescennīnī</i>, abounding in -coarse jests and personalities. The crowd also shouted the ancient -marriage cry, the significance of which the Romans themselves did not -understand. We find it in at least five forms, all variations of the -name Talassius or Talassio, who was probably a Sabine divinity, though -his functions are unknown. Livy derives it from the supposed name of a -senator in the time of Romulus. The bride dropped on the way one of -three coins which she carried as an offering to the <i>Larēs -compitālēs;</i> of the other two she gave one to the groom as an emblem -of the dowry she brought him, and one to the <i>Larēs</i> of his house. The -groom meanwhile scattered nuts through the crowd. This is explained by -Catullus as a token of his having become a man and having put away -childish things (<a href="#sect103">§103</a>), but the nuts were rather a symbol of -fruitfulness. The custom survives in the throwing of rice in modern -times.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect88"><b>88</b></a></span> -When the procession reached the house, the bride wound the door -posts with bands of wool, probably a symbol of her own work as -mistress of the household, and anointed the door with oil and fat, -emblems of plenty. She was then lifted carefully over the threshold, -in order to avoid the chance of so bad an omen as a slip of the foot -on entering the house for the first time. Others, however, see in the -custom another survival of marriage by capture. She then pronounced -again the words of consent: <i>Ubi tū Gāius, ego Gāia</i>, and the doors -were closed against the general crowd; only the invited guests entered -with the pair.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure16"> - <tr> - <td width="652"> - <img src="images/figure016.jpg" alt="FIGURE 16. THE MARRIAGE COUCH"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="652" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 16. - T<small>HE</small> M<small>ARRIAGE</small> - C<small>OUCH</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect89"><b>89</b></a></span> -The husband met the wife in the atrium and offered her fire and -water in token of the life they were to live together and her part in -the home. Upon the hearth was ready the wood for a fire, and this the -bride kindled with the marriage torch which had been carried before -her. The torch was afterwards thrown among the guests to be scrambled -for as a lucky possession. A prayer was then recited by the bride and -she was placed by the <i>prōnuba</i> on the <i>lectus geniālis</i> (Fig. 16), -which always stood on the wedding night in the atrium. Here it -afterwards remained as a piece of ornamental furniture only. On the -next day was given in the new home the second wedding feast -(<i>repōtia</i>) to the friends and relatives, and at this feast the bride -made her first offering to the gods as a <i>mātrōna</i>. A series of feasts -followed, given in honor of the newly wedded pair by those in whose -social circles they moved.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect90"><b>90</b></a></span> -<b>The Position of Women.</b>—With her marriage the Roman woman reached -a position unattained by the women of any other nation in the ancient -world. No other people held its women in so high respect; nowhere else -did they exert so strong and beneficent an influence. In her own house -the Roman matron was absolute mistress. She directed its economy and -supervised the tasks of the household slaves but did no menial work -herself. She was her children's nurse, and conducted their early -training and education. Her daughters were fitted under their mother's -eye to be mistresses of similar homes, and remained her closest -companions until she herself had dressed them for the bridal and their -husbands had torn them from her arms. She was her husband's helpmeet -in business as well as in household affairs, and he often consulted -her on affairs of state. She was not confined at home to a set of -so-called women's apartments, as were her sisters in Greece; the whole -house was hers. She received her husband's guests and sat at table -with them. Even when subject to the <i>manus</i> of her husband the -restraint was so tempered by law and custom (<a href="#sect36">§36</a>) that she could -hardly have been chafed by the fetters which had been forged with her -own consent (<a href="#sect73">§73</a>).</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect91"><b>91</b></a></span> -Out of the house the matron's dress (<i>stola mātrōnālis</i>, <a href="#sect259">§259</a>) -secured for her the most profound respect. Men made way for her in the -street; she had a place at the public games, at the theaters, and at -the great religious ceremonies of state. She could give testimony in -the courts, and until late in the Republic might even appear as an -advocate. Her birthday was sacredly observed and made a joyous -occasion by the members of her household, and the people as a whole -celebrated the <i>Mātrōnālia</i>, the great festival on the first of March, -and gave presents to their wives and mothers. Finally, if she came of -a noble family, she might be honored, after she had passed away, with -a public eulogy, delivered from the <i>rostra</i> in the forum.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect92"><b>92</b></a></span> -It must be admitted that the education of women was not carried -far at Rome, and that their accomplishments were few, and rather -useful and homely than elegant. But the Roman women spoke the purest -and best Latin known in the highest and most cultivated circles, and -so far as accomplishments were concerned their husbands fared no -better. Respectable women in Greece were allowed no education at all.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect93"><b>93</b></a></span> -It must be admitted, too, that a great change took place in the -last years of the Republic. With the laxness of the family life, the -freedom of divorce, and the inflow of wealth and extravagance, the -purity and dignity of the Roman matron declined, as had before -declined the manhood and the strength of her father and her husband. -It must be remembered, however, that ancient writers did not dwell -upon certain subjects that are favorites with our own. The simple joys -of childhood and domestic life, home, the praises of sister, wife, and -mother may not have been too sacred for the poet and the essayist of -Rome, but the essayist and the poet did not make them their themes. -The mother of Horace must have been a singularly gifted woman, but she -is never mentioned by her son. The descriptions of domestic life, -therefore, that have come down to us are either from Greek sources, or -are selected from precisely those circles where fashion, profligacy, -and impurity made easy the work of the satirist. It is, therefore, -safe to say that the pictures painted for us in the verse of Catullus -and Juvenal, for example, are not true of Roman women as a class in -the times of which they write. The strong, pure woman of the early day -must have had many to imitate her virtues in the darkest times of the -Empire. There were mothers then, as well as in the times of the -Gracchi; there were wives as noble as the wife of Marcus Brutus.</p> -<br> -<br><a name="chap4"></a> -<br> -<br> -<h3>CHAPTER IV</h3> - -<h4>CHILDREN AND EDUCATION</h4> - -<blockquote><small>R<small>EFERENCES</small>: Marquardt, 80-134; Voigt, 322 f., 397 f., 455 f.; Göll, -"Gallus," II, 65-113; Friedländer, I, 456 f., III, 376 f.; Ramsay, 475 -f.; Smith, <i>lūdus litterārius;</i> Harper, <i>education;</i> Baumeister, 237, -1588 f.; Schreiber, Pl. 79, 82, 89, 90; Lübker, <i>Erziehung</i>.</small></blockquote> -<br> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect94"><b>94</b></a></span> -<b>Legal Status.</b>—The position of the children in the <i>familia</i> has -been already explained (<a href="#sect31">§§31</a>, <a href="#sect32">32</a>). It has been shown that in the eyes -of the law they were little better than the chattels of the Head of -the House. It rested with him to grant them the right to live; all -that they earned was his; they married at his bidding, and either -remained under his <i>potestās</i> or passed under another no less severe. -It has also been suggested that custom (<a href="#sect32">§32</a>) and <i>pietās</i> (<a href="#sect73">§73</a>) had -made this condition less rigorous than it seems to us.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect95"><b>95</b></a></span> -<b>Susceptio.</b>—The power of the <i>pater familiās</i> was displayed -immediately after the birth of the child. By invariable custom it was -laid upon the ground at his feet. If he raised (<i>tollere</i>, -<i>suscipere</i>) it in his arms, he acknowledged it as his own by the act -(<i>susceptiō</i>) and admitted it to all the rights and privileges that -membership in a Roman family implied. If he refused to do so, the -child became an outcast, without family, without the protection of the -spirits of the dead (<a href="#sect27">§27</a>), utterly friendless and forsaken. The -disposal of the child did not ordinarily call for any act of downright -murder, such as was contemplated in the case of Romulus and Remus and -was afterwards forbidden by Romulus the King (<a href="#sect32">§32</a>). The child was -simply "exposed" (<i>expōnere</i>), that is, taken by a slave from the -house and left on the highway to live or to die. When we consider the -slender chance for life that the newborn child has with even the -tenderest care, the result of this exposure will not seem doubtful.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect96"><b>96</b></a></span> -But there was a chance for life, and the mother, powerless to -interpose in her infant's behalf, often sent with it some trinkets or -trifling articles of jewelry that would serve perhaps to identify it, -if it should live. Even if the child was found in time by persons -disposed to save its life, its fate might be worse than death. Slavery -was the least of the evils to which it was exposed. Such foundlings -often fell into the hands of those whose trade was beggary and who -trained children for the same profession. In the time of the Empire, -at least, they cruelly maimed and deformed their victims, in order to -excite more readily the compassion of those to whom they appealed for -alms. Such things are still done in southern Europe.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect97"><b>97</b></a></span> -<b>Dies Lustricus.</b>—The first eight days of the life of the -acknowledged child were called <i>prīmordia</i>, and were the occasion of -various religious ceremonies. During this time the child was called -<i>pūpus</i> (<a href="#sect55">§55</a>), although to weak and puny children the individual name -might be given soon after birth. On the ninth day in the case of a -boy, on the eighth in the case of a girl, the <i>praenōmen</i> (<a href="#sect43">§43</a>) was -given with due solemnity. A sacrifice was offered and the ceremony of -purification was performed, which gave the day its name, <i>diēs -lūstricus</i>, although it was also called the <i>diēs nōminum</i> and -<i>nōminālia</i>. These ceremonies seem to have been private; that is, it -can not be shown that there was any taking of the child to a -<i>templum</i>, as there was among the Jews, or any enrollment of the name -upon an official list. In the case of the boy the registering of the -name on the list of citizens may have occurred at the time of putting -on the <i>toga virīlis</i> (<a href="#sect127">§127</a>).</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure17"> - <tr> - <td width="616"> - <img src="images/figure017.jpg" alt="FIGURE 17. CREPUNDIA"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="616" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 17. - C<small>REPUNDIA</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect98"><b>98</b></a></span> -The <i>diēs lūstricus</i> was, however, a time of rejoicing and -congratulation among the relatives and friends, and these together -with the household slaves presented the child with little metal toys -or ornaments in the form of flowers, miniature axes and swords, and -especially figures shaped like a half-moon (<i>lūnulae</i>), etc. These, -called collectively <i>crepundia</i>, were strung together and worn around -the neck and over the breast (Fig. 17). They served in the first place -as playthings to keep the child amused, hence the name "rattles," from -<i>crepō</i>. Besides, they were a protection against witchcraft or the -evil eye (<i>fascinātiō</i>), especially the <i>lūnulae</i>. More than this, -they were a means of identification in the case of lost or stolen -children, and for this reason Terence calls them <i>monumenta</i>. Such -were the trinkets sometimes left with an abandoned child (<a href="#sect96">§96</a>), their -value depending, of course, upon the material of which they were made.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figures18and19"> - <tr> - <td width="181"> - <img src="images/figure018.jpg" alt="FIGURE 18. THE BULLA"> - </td> - <td width="398"> - <img src="images/figure019.jpg" alt="FIGURE 19. GIRL'S NECKLACE"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="181" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 18. - T<small>HE</small> B<small>ULLA</small></small> - </td> - <td width="398" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 19. - G<small>IRL'S</small> N<small>ECKLACE</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect99"><b>99</b></a></span> -<b>The Bulla.</b>—But of more significance than these was the <i>bulla -aurea</i>, which the father hung around the child's neck on this day, if -he had not done so at the time of the <i>susceptiō</i>. It consisted of two -concave pieces of gold, like a watch case (Fig. 18), fastened together -by a wide spring of the same metal and containing an amulet as a -protection against <i>fascinātiō</i>. It was hung around the neck by a -chain or cord and worn upon the breast. The <i>bulla</i> came originally -from Etruria,<small><small><sup>1</sup></small></small> and for a long time the children of patricians only -were allowed to wear those of gold, the plebeians contenting -themselves with an imitation made of leather, hung on a leathern -thong. In the course of time the distinction ceased to be observed, as -we have seen such distinctions die out in the use of names and in the -marriage ceremonies, and by Cicero's time the <i>bulla aurea</i> might be -worn by the child of any freeborn citizen. The choice of material -depended rather upon the wealth and generosity of the father than upon -his social position. The girl wore her <i>bulla</i> (Fig. 19) until the eve -of her wedding day, laying it aside with other childish things, as we -have seen (<a href="#sect76">§76</a>); the boy wore his until he assumed the <i>toga virīlis</i>, -when it was dedicated to the <i>Larēs</i> of the house and carefully -preserved. If the boy became a successful general and won the coveted -honor of a triumph, he always wore his <i>bulla</i> in the triumphal -procession as a protection against envy.</p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>1</sup></small> The influence of Etruria upon Rome faded before that of -Greece (<a href="#sect5">§5</a>), but from Etruria the Romans got the art of divination, -certain forms of architecture, the insignia of royalty, and the games -of the circus and the amphitheater.</small></blockquote> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure20"> - <tr> - <td width="259"> - <img src="images/figure020.jpg" alt="FIGURE 20. CHILD IN LITTER"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="259" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 20. - C<small>HILD IN</small> L<small>ITTER</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect100"><b>100</b></a></span> -<b>Nurses.</b>—The mother was the child's nurse (<a href="#sect90">§90</a>) not only in the -days of the Republic but even into the Empire, the Romans having -heeded the teachings of nature in this respect longer than any other -civilized nation of the old world. Of course it was not always -possible then, as it is not always possible now, for the mother to -nurse her children, and then her place was taken by a slave -(<i>nūtrīx</i>), to whom the name <i>māter</i> seems to have been given out of -affection. In the ordinary care of the children, too, the mother was -assisted, but only assisted, by slaves. Under the eye of the mother, -slaves washed and dressed the child, told it stories, sang it -lullabies, and rocked it to sleep on the arm or in a cradle. None of -these nursery stories have come down to us, but Quintilian tells us -that Aesop's fables resembled them. For a picture of a cradle see -Smith under the words <i>cūnae</i> and <i>cūnābula;</i> in Rich under <i>cūnāria</i> -is a picture of a nurse giving a baby its bath. The place of the -modern baby carriage was taken by a litter (<i>lectīca</i>), and a terra -cotta figure has come down to us (Fig. 20) representing a child -carried in such a litter by two men.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect101"><b>101</b></a></span> -After the Punic wars (<a href="#sect5">§5</a>) it became customary for the well-to-do -to select for the child's nurse a Greek slave, that the child might -acquire the Greek language as naturally as its own. In Latin -literature are many passages that testify to the affection felt for -each other by nurse and child, an affection that lasted on into -manhood and womanhood. It was a common thing for the young wife to -take with her into her new home, as her adviser and confidant, the -nurse who had watched over her in infancy. Faithfulness on the part of -such slaves was also frequently repaid by manumission.</p> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure21"> - <tr> - <td width="150" align="center"> - <img src="images/figure021.jpg" alt="FIGURE 21. JOINTED DOLL"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="150" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 21. - J<small>OINTED</small> D<small>OLL</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect102"><b>102</b></a></span> -<b>Playthings.</b>—But little is known of the playthings, pets, and -games of Roman children, because as has been said (<a href="#sect93">§93</a>) domestic life -was not a favorite theme of Roman writers and no books were then -written especially for the young. Still there are scattered references -in literature from which we can learn something, and more is known -from monumental sources (<a href="#sect10">§10</a>). This evidence shows that playthings -were numerous and of very many kinds. The <i>crepundia</i> have been -mentioned already (<a href="#sect98">§98</a>), and these miniature tools and implements seem -to have been very common. Dolls there were, too, and some of these -have come down to us, though we can not always distinguish between -statuettes and genuine playthings. Some were made of clay, others of -wax, and even jointed arms and legs were not unknown (Fig. 21). Little -wagons and carts were also common (Schreiber, LXXXII, 10), and Horace -speaks of hitching mice to toys of this sort. There are numerous -pictures and descriptions of children spinning tops, making them -revolve by blows of a whiplash, as in Europe nowadays. Hoops also were -a favorite plaything, driven with a stick and having pieces of metal -fastened to them to warn people of their approach. Boys walked on -stilts and played with balls (Fig. 22), too, but as men enjoyed this -sport as well, it may be deferred until we reach the subject of -amusements (<a href="#sect318">§318</a>).</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure22"> - <tr> - <td width="615"> - <img src="images/figure022.jpg" alt="FIGURE 22. CHILDREN PLAYING BALL"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="615" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 22. - C<small>HILDREN</small> P<small>LAYING</small> - B<small>ALL</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table><br> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure23"> - <tr> - <td width="406"> - <img src="images/figure023.jpg" alt="FIGURE 23. BOY AND GOOSE"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="406" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 23. - B<small>OY AND</small> G<small>OOSE</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect103"><b>103</b></a></span> -<b>Pets and Games.</b>—Pets were even more common then than now, and -then as now the dog was easily first in the affections of children -(Schreiber, LXXXII, 6). The cat, on the other hand, was hardly known -until very late in the history of Greece and Rome. Birds were very -commonly made pets, and besides the doves and pigeons which are -familiar to us as well, we are told that ducks, crows, and quail were -pets of children. So also were geese, odd as this seems to us, and the -statue of a child struggling with a goose as large as himself is well -known (Fig. 23). Monkeys were known, but could not have been common. -Mice have been mentioned already. Games of many kinds were played by -children, but we can only guess at the nature of most of them, as we -have hardly any formal descriptions. There were games corresponding to -our Odd or Even, Blindman's Buff, Hide and Seek, Jackstones (<a href="#sect320">§320</a>), -and Seesaw (Schreiber, LXXIX and LXXX). Pebbles and nuts were used in -games something like our marbles, and there were board-games also. To -these may be added for boys riding, swimming, and wrestling, although -these were taken too seriously, perhaps, to be called games and -belonged rather to their training for the duties of citizenship.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect104"><b>104</b></a></span> -<b>Home Training.</b>—The training of the children was conducted by -the father and mother in person. More stress was laid upon the moral -than upon the intellectual development: reverence for the gods, -respect for the law, unquestioning and instant obedience to authority, -truthfulness, and self-reliance were the most important lessons for -the child to learn. Much of this came from the constant association of -the children with their parents, which was the characteristic feature -of the home training of the Romans as compared with that of other -peoples of the time. The children sat at table with their elders or -helped to serve the meals. Until the age of seven both boys and girls -had their mother for their teacher. From her they learned to speak -correctly their native tongue, and Latin rhetoricians tell us that the -best Latin was spoken by the noble women of the great houses of Rome. -The mother taught them the elements of reading and writing and as much -of the simpler operations of arithmetic as children so young could -learn.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect105"><b>105</b></a></span> -From about the age of seven the boy passed under the care of -regular teachers, but the girl remained her mother's constant -companion. Her schooling was necessarily cut short, because the Roman -girl became a wife so young (<a href="#sect67">§67</a>), and there were things to learn in -the meantime that books do not teach. From her mother she learned to -spin and weave and sew: even Augustus wore garments woven by his wife. -By her mother she was initiated into all the mysteries of household -economy and fitted to take her place as the mistress of a household of -her own, to be a Roman <i>mātrōna</i>, the most dignified position to which -a woman could aspire in the ancient world (<a href="#sect90">§§90</a>, <a href="#sect91">91</a>).</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect106"><b>106</b></a></span> -The boy, except during the hours of school, was equally his -father's companion. If the father was a farmer, as all Romans were in -earlier times, the boy helped in the fields and learned to plow and -plant and reap. If the father was a man of high position and lived in -the capital, the boy stood by him in his hall as he received his -guests, learned to know their faces, names, and rank, and acquired a -practical knowledge of politics and affairs of state. If the father -was a senator, the boy, in the earlier days only it is true, -accompanied him to the senate house to hear the debates and listen to -the great orators of the time; and the son could always go with him to -the forum when he was an advocate or concerned in a public trial.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect107"><b>107</b></a></span> -Then as every Roman was bred a soldier the father trained the -son in the use of arms and in the various military exercises, as well -as in the manly sports of riding, swimming, wrestling, and boxing. In -these exercises strength and agility were kept in view, rather than -the grace of movement and symmetrical development of form, on which -the Greeks laid so much stress. On great occasions, too, when the -cabinets in the atrium were opened and the wax busts of their -ancestors displayed, the boy and girl of noble family were always -present and learned the history of the family of which they were a -part, and with it the history of Rome.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect108"><b>108</b></a></span> -<b>Schools.</b>—The actual instruction given to the children by the -father would vary with his own education and at best be subject to all -sorts of interruptions due to his private business or his public -duties. We find that this embarrassment was appreciated in very early -times, and that it was customary for a <i>pater familiās</i> who happened -to have among his slaves one competent to give the needed instruction, -to turn over to him the actual teaching of the children. It must be -remembered that slaves taken in war were often much better educated -than their Roman masters. Not all households, however, would include a -competent teacher, and it would seem only natural for the fortunate -owner of such a slave to receive into his house at fixed hours of the -day the children of his friends and neighbors to be taught together -with his own.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect109"><b>109</b></a></span> -For this privilege he might charge a fee for his own benefit, as -we are told that Cato actually did, or he might allow the slave to -retain as his <i>pecūlium</i> (<a href="#sect33">§33</a>) the little presents given him by his -pupils in lieu of direct payment. The next step, one taken in times -too early to be accurately fixed, was to select for the school a more -convenient place than a private house, one that was central and easily -accessible, and to receive as pupils all who could pay the modest fee -that was demanded. To these schools girls as well as boys were -admitted, but for the reason given in <a href="#sect105">§105</a> the girls had little time -for studying more than their mothers could teach them, and those who -did carry their studies further came usually of families who preferred -to educate their daughters in the privacy of their own homes and could -afford to do so. The exceptions to this rule were so few, that from -this point we may consider the education of boys alone.</p> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure24"> - <tr> - <td width="355"> - <img src="images/figure024.jpg" alt="FIGURE 24. WAXED TABLETS AND STILUS"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="355" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 24. - W<small>AXED</small> T<small>ABLETS AND</small> - S<small>TILUS</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect110"><b>110</b></a></span> -<b>Subjects Taught in Elementary Schools.</b>—In these elementary -schools the only subjects taught were reading, writing, and -arithmetic. In the first, great stress was laid upon the -pronunciation: the sounds were easy enough but quantity was hard to -master. The teacher pronounced first syllable by syllable, then the -separate words, and finally the whole sentence, the pupils pronouncing -after him at the tops of their voices. In the teaching of writing, wax -tablets (Fig. 24) were employed, much as slates were a generation ago. -The teacher first traced with a <i>stilus</i> the letters that served as a -copy, then he guided the pupil's hand with his own until the child had -learned to form the letters independently. When some dexterity had -been acquired, the pupil was taught to use the reed pen and write with -ink upon papyrus. For practice, sheets were used that had had one side -written upon already for more important purposes. If any books at all -were used in these schools, the pupils must have made them for -themselves by writing from the teacher's dictation.</p> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure25"> - <tr> - <td width="426"> - <img src="images/figure025.jpg" alt="FIGURE 25. ABACUS"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="426" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 25. - A<small>BACUS</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect111"><b>111</b></a></span> -In arithmetic mental calculation was emphasized, but the pupil -was taught to use his fingers in a very elaborate way that is not now -thoroughly understood, and harder sums were worked out with the help -of the reckoning board (<i>abacus</i>, Fig. 25). In addition to all this, -attention was paid to the training of the memory, and the pupil was -made to learn by heart all sorts of wise and pithy sayings and -especially the Twelve Tables of the Law. These last became a regular -fetich in the schools, and even when the language in which they were -written had become obsolete pupils continued to learn and recite them. -Cicero had learned them in his boyhood, but within his lifetime they -were dropped from the schools.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect112"><b>112</b></a></span> -<b>Grammar Schools.</b>—Among the results of contact with other -peoples that followed the Punic wars (<a href="#sect5">§5</a>) was the extension of -education at Rome beyond these elementary and strictly utilitarian -subjects. The Greek language came to be generally learned (<a href="#sect101">§101</a>) and -Greek ideas of education were in some degree adopted. Schools were -established in which the central thing was the study of the Greek -poets, and these schools we may call Grammar Schools because the -teacher was called <i>grammaticus</i>. Homer was long the universal -text-book, and students were not only taught the language, but were -instructed in the matters of geography, mythology, antiquities, -history, and ethics suggested by the portions of the text which they -read. The range of instruction and its value depended entirely upon -the teacher, as does such instruction to-day, but it was at best -fragmentary and disconnected. There was no systematic study of any of -these subjects, not even of history, despite its interest and -practical value to a world-ranging people like the Romans.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect113"><b>113</b></a></span> -The Latin language was soon made the subject of similar study, -at first in separate schools. The lack of Latin poetry to work upon, -for prose authors were not yet made text-books, led to the translation -by a Greek slave, Livius Andronicus (3d century <small>B.C.</small>), of the Odyssey -of Homer into Latin Saturnian verses. From this translation, rude as -the surviving fragments show it to have been, dates the beginning of -Latin literature, and it was not until this literature had furnished -poets like Terence, Vergil, and Horace, that the rough Saturnians of -Livius Andronicus disappeared from the schools.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect114"><b>114</b></a></span> -In these Grammar Schools, Greek as well as Latin, great stress -seems to have been laid upon elocution, a thing less surprising when -we consider the importance of oratory under the Republic. The teacher -had the pupils pronounce after him first the words, then the clauses, -and finally the complete sentences. The elements of rhetoric were -taught in some of these schools, but technical instruction in the -subject was not given until the establishment at a much later period -of special schools of rhetoric. In the Grammar Schools were also -taught music and geometry, and these made complete the ordinary -education of boyhood.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect115"><b>115</b></a></span> -<b>Schools of Rhetoric.</b>—The Schools of Rhetoric were formed on -Greek lines and conducted by Greek teachers. They were not a part of -the regular system of education, but corresponded more nearly to our -colleges, being frequented by persons beyond the age of boyhood and -with rare exceptions, of the higher classes only. In these schools the -study of prose authors was begun, but the main thing was the practice -of composition. This was begun in its simplest form, the narrative -(<i>nārrātiō</i>), and continued step by step until the end in view was -reached, the practice of public speaking (<i>dēclāmātiō</i>). One of the -intermediate forms was the <i>suāsōria</i>, in which the students took -sides on some disputed point of history and supported their views by -argument. A favorite exercise also was the writing of a speech to be -put in the mouth of some person famous in legend or history. How -effective these could be made is seen in the speeches inserted in -their histories by Sallust, Livy, and Tacitus.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect116"><b>116</b></a></span> -<b>Travel.</b>—In the case of persons of the noblest and most wealthy -families, or those whose talents in early manhood promised a brilliant -future, the training of the schools was sure to be supplemented by a -period of travel and residence abroad. Greece, Rhodes, and Asia Minor -were the most frequently visited, whether the young Roman cared for -the scenes of great historical events and the rich collections of -works of literature and art, or merely enjoyed the natural charms and -social splendors of the gay and luxurious capitals of the east. For -the purposes of serious study Athens offered the greatest attractions -and might almost have been called the university of Rome, in this -respect standing to Italy much as Germany now stands to the United -States. It must be remembered, however, that the Roman who studied in -Athens was as familiar with Greek as with his native Latin and for -this reason was much better prepared to profit by the lectures he -heard than is the average American who now studies on the continent.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect117"><b>117</b></a></span> -<b>Apprenticeship.</b>—There were certain matters, a knowledge of -which was essential to a successful public life, for training in which -no provision was made by the Roman system of education. Such matters -were jurisprudence, administration and diplomacy, and war. It was -customary, therefore, for the young citizen to attach himself for a -time to some older man, eminent in these lines or in some one of them, -in order to gain an opportunity for observation and practical -experience in the performance of duties that would sooner or later -devolve upon him. So Cicero learned the civil law under Quintus Mucius -Scaevola, the most eminent jurist of the time, and in later years the -young Marcus Coelius Rufus in turn served the same voluntary -apprenticeship (<i>tīrōcinium forī</i>) under Cicero. This arrangement was -not only very advantageous to the young men but was considered very -honorable for those under whom they studied.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect118"><b>118</b></a></span> -In the same way the governors of provinces and generals in the -field were attended by a voluntary staff (<i>cohors</i>) of young men, whom -they had invited to accompany them at state expense for personal or -political reasons. These <i>tīrōnēs</i> became familiar in this way -(<i>tīrōcinium mīlitiae</i>) with the practical side of administration and -war, while at the same time they were relieved of many of the -hardships and dangers suffered by those, less fortunate, who had to -rise from the ranks. It was this staff of inexperienced young men who -hid in their tents or went back to Rome when Caesar determined to meet -Ariovistus in battle, although some of them, no doubt, made gallant -soldiers and wise commanders afterward.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect119"><b>119</b></a></span> -<b>Remarks on the Schools.</b>—Having considered the possibilities in -the way of education and training within the reach of the more favored -few, we may now go back to the Elementary and Grammar Schools to get -an idea of the actual school life of the ordinary Roman boy. While -these were not public schools in our sense of the word, that is, while -they were not supported or supervised by the state, and while -attendance was not compulsory, it is nevertheless true that the -elements at least of education, a knowledge of the three R's, were -more generally diffused among the Romans than among any other people -of the ancient world. The schools were distinctly democratic in this, -that they were open to all classes, that the fees were little more -than nominal, that so far as concerned discipline and the treatment of -the pupils no distinction was made between the children of the -humblest and of the most lordly families.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure26"> - <tr> - <td width="666"> - <img src="images/figure026.jpg" alt="FIGURE 26. A ROMAN SCHOOL"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="666" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 26. - A R<small>OMAN</small> S<small>CHOOL</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table><br> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure27"> - <tr> - <td width="400"> - <img src="images/figure027.jpg" alt="FIGURE 27. CARICATURE OF A SCHOOL"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="400" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 27. - C<small>ARICATURE OF A</small> S<small>CHOOL</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect120"><b>120</b></a></span> -The school was usually in a <i>pergula</i>, a shedlike attachment to -a public building, roofed against the sun and rain, but open at the -sides and furnished merely with rough benches without backs. The -children were exposed, therefore, to all the distractions of the busy -town life around them, and the people living near were in turn annoyed -by the noisy recitations (<a href="#sect110">§110</a>) and even noisier punishments. A -picture of a schoolroom from a wall painting in Herculaneum is shown -in Fig. 26 and an ancient caricature, by a schoolboy probably, in Fig. -27.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect121"><b>121</b></a></span> -<b>The Teacher.</b>—The teacher was originally a slave, perhaps -usually a freedman. The position was not an honorable one, though this -depended upon the character of the teacher himself, and while the -pupils feared the master they seem to have had little respect for him. -The pay he received was a mere pittance, varying from three dollars a -year for the elementary teacher (<i>litterātor</i>, <i>magister litterārum</i>) -to five or six times that sum for a <i>grammaticus</i> (<a href="#sect112">§112</a>). In addition -to the fee, the pupils were expected to bring the master from time to -time little presents, a custom persisting probably from the time when -these presents were his only reward (<a href="#sect109">§109</a>). The fees varied, however, -with the qualifications of the master, and some whose reputations were -established and whose schools were "fashionable" charged no fees at -all, but left the amount to be paid (<i>honōrārium</i>) to the generosity -of their patrons.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect122"><b>122</b></a></span> -<b>Schooldays and Holidays.</b>—The schoolday began before sunrise, as -did all the work at Rome on account of the heat in the middle of the -day (cf. <a href="#sect79">§79</a>). The students brought candles by which to study until it -became light, and the roof was soon black with the grime and smoke. -The session lasted until time for the noonday luncheon and siesta -(<a href="#sect302">§302</a>), and was resumed in the afternoon. We do not know definitely -that there was any fixed length for the school-year. We know that it -regularly began on the 24th of March and that there were numerous -holidays, notably the Saturnalia in December and the Quinquatria from -the 19th to the 23rd of March. The great religious festivals, too, -especially those celebrated with games, would naturally be observed by -the schools, and apparently the market days (<i>nūndinae</i>) were also -holidays. It was until lately supposed that there was no school from -the last of June until the first of November, but this view rested -upon an incorrect interpretation of certain passages of Horace and -Martial which are now otherwise explained. It is certain, however, -that the children of wealthy parents would be absent from Rome during -the hot season, and this would at least cut down the attendance in -some of the schools and might perhaps close them altogether.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure28"> - <tr> - <td width="392"> - <img src="images/figure028.jpg" alt="FIGURE 28. PAEDAGOGUS"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="392" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 28. - P<small>AEDAGOGUS</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect123"><b>123</b></a></span> -<b>The Paedagogus.</b>—The boy of good family was always attended by a -trustworthy slave (<i>paedagōgus</i>), who accompanied him to school, -remained with him during the sessions, and saw him safely home again -when school was out. If the boy had wealthy parents, he might have, -besides, one or more slaves (<i>pedisequī</i>) to carry his satchel and -tablets. The <i>paedagōgus</i> was usually an elderly man, selected for his -good character and expected to keep the boy out of all harm, moral as -well as physical. He was not a teacher, despite the meaning of the -English derivative, except that after the learning of Greek became -general a Greek slave was usually selected for the position in order -that the boy might not forget what he had learned from his nurse -(<a href="#sect101">§101</a>). The scope of his regular duties is clearly shown by the Latin -words used sometimes instead of <i>paedagōgus:</i> <i>comes</i>, <i>custōs</i>, -<i>monitor</i>, and <i>rēctor</i>. He was addressed by his ward as <i>dominus</i>, -and seems to have had the right to compel obedience by mild -punishments (Fig. 28). His duties ceased when the boy assumed the toga -of manhood, but the same warm affection often continued between them -as between the woman and her nurse (<a href="#sect101">§101</a>).</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect124"><b>124</b></a></span> -<b>Discipline.</b>—The discipline seems to have been really Roman in -its severity, if we may judge from the picture of a school above -referred to (<a href="#sect120">§120</a>) and by the grim references to the rod and ferule in -Juvenal and Martial. Horace has given to his teacher, Orbilius, a -deathless fame by the adjective <i>plāgōsus</i>. From Nepos we learn that -then as now teachers might have appealed to the natural emulation -between well-bred boys, and we know that prizes, too, were offered. -Perhaps we may think the ferule well deserved when we read of the -schoolboy's trick immortalized by Persius. The passage (III, 44 f.) is -worth quoting in full:</p> -<table align="center" summary="quote1"> - <tr><td><i>Saepe oculōs, meminī, tangēbam parvus olīvō,<br> - Grandia sī nōllem moritūrī verba Cātōnis<br> - Discere et īnsānō multum laudanda magistrō!</i><small><small><sup>2</sup></small></small></td></tr> -</table> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>2</sup></small> "Often, I remember, as a small boy I used to give my eyes -a touch with oil, if I did not want to learn Cato's grand dying -speech, sure to be rapturously applauded by my wrong-headed master."</small></blockquote> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect125"><b>125</b></a></span> -<b>End of Childhood.</b>—There was no special ceremony to mark the -passing of girlhood into womanhood, but for the boy the attainment of -his majority was marked by the laying aside of the crimson-bordered -<i>toga praetexta</i> and the putting on of the pure white <i>toga virīlis</i>. -There was no fixed year, corresponding to the twenty-first with us, in -which the <i>puer</i> became <i>iuvenis;</i> something depended upon the -physical and intellectual development of the boy himself, something -upon the will or caprice of his <i>pater familiās</i>, more perhaps upon -the time in which he lived. We may say generally, however, that the -<i>toga virīlis</i> was assumed between the fourteenth and seventeenth -years, the later age belonging to the earlier time when citizenship -carried with it more responsibility than under the Empire and demanded -a greater maturity.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect126"><b>126</b></a></span> -For the classical period we may put the age required at sixteen, -and if we add to this the <i>tīrōcinium</i> (<a href="#sect117">§117</a>), which followed the -donning of the garb of manhood, we shall have the seventeen years -after the expiration of which the citizen had been liable in ancient -times to military duty. The day was even less precisely fixed. We -should expect the birthday at the beginning of the seventeenth year, -but it seems to have been the more usual, but by no means invariable, -custom to select for the ceremony the feast of Liber which happened to -come nearest to the seventeenth birthday. This feast was celebrated on -the 17th of March and was called the <i>līberālia</i>. No more appropriate -time could have been selected to suggest the freer life of manhood -upon which the boy was now about to enter.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect127"><b>127</b></a></span> -<b>The Liberalia.</b>—The festivities of the great day began in the -early morning, when the boy laid before the Lares of his house the -<i>bulla</i> (<a href="#sect99">§99</a>) and <i>toga praetexta</i>, called together the <i>īnsignia -pueritiae</i>. A sacrifice was then offered, and the <i>bulla</i> was hung -over the hearth, not to be taken down and worn again except on some -occasion when the man who had worn it as a boy should be in danger of -the envy of men and gods. The boy then dressed himself in the <i>tunica -rēcta</i> (<a href="#sect76">§76</a>), having one or two crimson stripes if he was the son of a -senator or a knight, and over this was carefully draped the <i>toga -virīlis</i>. This was also called in contrast to the gayer garb of -boyhood the <i>toga pūra</i>, and with reference to the freedom of manhood -the <i>toga lībera</i>.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect128"><b>128</b></a></span> -Then began the procession to the forum. The father had gathered -his slaves and freedmen and clients, had been careful to notify his -relatives and friends, and had used all his personal and political -influence to make the escort of his son as numerous and imposing as -possible. If the ceremony took place on the <i>līberālia</i>, the forum was -sure to be crowded with similar processions of rejoicing friends. Here -were extended the formal congratulations, and the name of one more -citizen was added to the official list. An offering was then made in -the temple of Liber on the Capitoline Hill, and the day ended with a -feast at the father's house.</p> -<br> -<br><a name="chap5"></a> -<br> -<br> -<h3>CHAPTER V</h3> - -<h4>DEPENDENTS: SLAVES AND CLIENTS. HOSPITES</h4> - -<blockquote><small>R<small>EFERENCES</small>: Marquardt, 135-212; Göll, II, 114-212; Guhl and Koner, -764-772; Friedländer, I, 404 f.; Ramsay, 124 f.; Pauly-Wissowa, -<i>clientēs;</i> Smith, <i>servus</i>, <i>lībertus</i>, <i>cliēns</i>, <i>clientēla</i>, -<i>hospitium;</i> Harper, <i>servus</i>, <i>lībertī</i>, <i>clientēs;</i> Lübker, <i>servī</i>, -<i>lībertīnus</i>, <i>hospitium</i>, <i>patrōnus</i>.</small></blockquote> -<br> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect129"><b>129</b></a></span> -<b>Growth of Slavery.</b>—So far as we may learn from history and -legend, slavery was always known at Rome. In the early days of the -Republic, however, the farm was the only place where slaves were -employed. The fact that most of the Romans were farmers and that they -and their free laborers were constantly called from the fields to -fight the battles of their country led to a gradual increase in the -number of slaves, until they were far more numerous than the free -laborers who worked for hire. We can not tell when the custom became -general of employing slaves in personal service and in industrial -pursuits, but it was one of the grossest evils resulting from Rome's -foreign conquests. In the last century of the Republic all manual -labor, almost all trades, and certain of what we now call professions -were in the hands of slaves. Not only were free laborers unable to -compete with slaves, but every occupation in which slaves engaged was -degraded in the eyes of freemen, until all labor was looked upon as -dishonorable. The small farms were gradually absorbed in the vast -estates of the rich, the sturdy yeomanry of Rome disappeared, and by -the time of Augustus the freeborn citizens of Italy who were not -soldiers were either slaveholders themselves or the idle proletariate -of the cities.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect130"><b>130</b></a></span> -Ruinous as were the economic results of slavery, the moral -effects were no less destructive. It is to slavery more than to -anything else that is due the change in the character of the Romans in -the first century of the Empire. With slaves swarming in their houses, -ministering to their luxury, pandering to their appetites, directing -their amusements, managing their business, and even educating their -children, it is no wonder that the old Roman virtues of simplicity, -frugality, and temperance declined and perished. And with the passing -of Roman manhood into oriental effeminacy began the passing of Roman -sway over the civilized world.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect131"><b>131</b></a></span> -<b>Numbers of Slaves.</b>—We have almost no testimony as to the number -of slaves in Italy, none even as to the ratio of the free to the -servile population. We have indirect evidence enough, however, to make -good the statements in the preceding paragraphs. That slaves were few -in early times is shown by their names (<a href="#sect58">§58</a>): if it had been usual for -a master to have more than one slave, such names as <i>Mārcipor</i>, and -Ōlipor would not have sufficed to distinguish them. An idea of the -rapid increase after the Punic wars may be gained from the number of -captives sold into slavery by successful generals. Scipio Aemilianus -is said to have disposed in this way of 60,000 Carthaginians, Marius -of 140,000 Cimbri, Aemilius Paulus of 150,000 Greeks, Pompeius and -Caesar together of more than a million of Asiatics and Gauls.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect132"><b>132</b></a></span> -The very insurrections of the slaves, unsuccessful as they -always were, also testify to their overwhelming numbers. Of the two in -Sicily, the first lasted from 134 to 132 <small>B.C.</small>, and the second from 102 -to 98; the last in spite of the fact that at the close of the first -the consul Rupilius had crucified 20,000, whom he had taken alive, as -a warning to others to submit in silence to their servitude. Spartacus -defied the armies of Rome for two years, and in the decisive battle -with Crassus (71 <small>B.C.</small>) left 60,000 dead upon the field. Cicero's -orations against Catiline show clearly that it was the calling out of -the hordes of slaves by the conspirators that was most dreaded in the -city.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect133"><b>133</b></a></span> -Of the number under the Empire we may get some idea from more -direct testimony. Horace tells us that ten slaves were as few as a -gentleman in even moderate circumstances could afford to own. He -himself had two in town and eight on his little Sabine farm, and he -was a poor man and his father had been a slave. Tacitus tells us of a -city prefect who had four hundred slaves in his mansion. Pliny says -that one Caius Caecilius Claudius Isodorus left at his death over four -thousand slaves. Athenaeus (170-230 <small>A.D.</small>) gives us to understand that -individuals owned as many as ten thousand and twenty thousand. The -fact that house slaves were commonly divided into "groups of ten" -(<i>decuriae</i>) points in the same direction.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect134"><b>134</b></a></span> -<b>Sources of Supply.</b>—Under the Republic the largest number of -slaves brought to Rome and offered there for sale were captives taken -in war, and an idea of the magnitude of this source of supply has -already been given (<a href="#sect131">§131</a>). The captives were sold as soon as possible -after they were taken, in order that the general might be relieved of -the trouble and risk of feeding and guarding such large numbers of men -in a hostile country. The sale was conducted by a quaestor, and the -purchasers were the wholesale slave dealers that always followed an -army along with other traders and peddlers. The spear (<i>hasta</i>), which -was always the sign of a sale conducted under public authority, was -set up in the ground to mark the place, and the captives had garlands -on their heads as did the victims offered in sacrifice. Hence the -expression <i>sub hastā</i> and <i>sub corōnā vēnīre</i> came to have -practically the same meaning.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect135"><b>135</b></a></span> -The wholesale dealers (<i>mangōnēs</i>) assembled their purchases in -convenient depots, and when sufficient numbers had been collected -marched them to Rome, in chains and under guard, to be sold to local -dealers or to private individuals. The slaves obtained in this way -were usually men and likely to be physically sound and strong for the -simple reason that they had been soldiers. On the other hand they were -likely to prove intractable and ungovernable, and many preferred even -suicide to servitude. It sometimes happened, of course, that the -inhabitants of towns and whole districts were sold into slavery -without distinction of age or sex.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect136"><b>136</b></a></span> -Under the Empire large numbers came to Rome as articles of -ordinary commerce, and Rome became one of the great slave marts of the -world. The slaves were brought from all the provinces of the Empire: -blacks from Egypt; swift runners from Numidia; grammarians from -Alexandria; from Cyrene those who made the best house servants; from -Greece handsome boys and girls, and well-trained scribes, accountants, -amanuenses, and even teachers; from Epirus and Illyria experienced -shepherds; from Cappadocia the most patient and enduring laborers.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect137"><b>137</b></a></span> -Some of these were captives taken in the petty wars that Rome -was always waging in defense of her boundaries, but these were -numerically insignificant. Others had been slaves in the countries -from which they came, and merely exchanged old masters for new when -they were sent to Rome. Others still were the victims of slave -hunters, who preyed on weak and defenseless peoples two thousand years -ago much as they are said to do in Africa in our own time. These -man-hunts were not prevented, though perhaps not openly countenanced, -by the Roman governors.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect138"><b>138</b></a></span> -A less important source of supply was the natural increase in -the slave population as men and women formed permanent connections -with each other, called <i>contubernia</i>. This became of general -importance only late in the Empire, because in earlier times, -especially during the period of conquest, it was found cheaper to buy -than to breed slaves. To the individual owner, however, the increase -in his slaves in this way was a matter of as much interest as the -increase of his flocks and herds. Such slaves would be more valuable -at maturity, for they would be acclimated and less liable to disease, -and besides would be trained from childhood in the performance of the -very tasks for which they were destined. They would also have more -love for their home and for their master's family, for his children -were often their playmates. It was only natural, therefore, for slaves -born in the <i>familia</i> to have a claim upon their master's confidence -and consideration that others lacked, and it is not surprising that -they were proverbially pert and forward. They were called <i>vernae</i> as -long as they remained the property of their first master. The -derivation of the word is not certain, but it is probable that it has -the same origin as Vesta and means something like "born in the house."</p> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure29"> - <tr> - <td width="415"> - <img src="images/figure029.jpg" alt="FIGURE 29. SALE OF A SLAVE"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="415" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 29. - S<small>ALE OF A</small> S<small>LAVE</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect139"><b>139</b></a></span> -<b>Sales of Slaves.</b>—Slave dealers usually offered their wares at -public auction sales (Fig. 29). These were under the supervision of -the aediles, who appointed the place and made rules and regulations to -govern them. A tax was imposed on imported slaves and they were -offered for sale with their feet whitened with chalk; those from the -east had also their ears bored, a common sign of slavery among -oriental peoples. As bids were asked for each slave he was made to -mount a stone or platform, corresponding to the "block" familiar to -the readers of our own history. From his neck hung a scroll -(<i>titulus</i>), setting forth his character and serving as a warrant for -the purchaser. If the slave had defects not made known in this warrant -the vendor was bound to take him back within six months or make good -the loss to the buyer. The chief items in the <i>titulus</i> were the age -and nationality of the slave, and his freedom from such common defects -as chronic ill-health, especially epilepsy, and tendencies to -thievery, running away, and suicide. In spite of the guarantee the -purchaser took care to examine the slaves as closely as possible. For -this reason they were commonly stripped, made to move around, handled -freely by the purchaser, and even examined by physicians. If no -warrant was given by the dealer, a cap (<i>pilleus</i>) was put on the -slave's head at the time of the sale and the purchaser took all risks. -The dealer might also offer the slaves at private sale, and this was -the rule in the case of all of unusual value and especially of marked -personal beauty. These were not exposed to the gaze of the crowd, but -were offered to those only who were likely to purchase. Private sales -and exchanges between citizens without the intervention of a regular -dealer were as common as the sales of other property, and no stigma -was attached to them. The trade of the <i>mangōnēs</i>, on the other hand, -was looked upon as utterly disreputable, but it was very lucrative and -great fortunes were often made in it. Vilest of all the dealers were -the <i>lēnōnēs</i>, who kept and sold slaves for immoral purposes only.</p> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure30"> - <tr> - <td width="411"> - <img src="images/figure030.jpg" alt="FIGURE 30. THE GAUL AND HIS WIFE"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="411" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 30. - T<small>HE</small> G<small>AUL AND</small> - H<small>IS</small> W<small>IFE</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect140"><b>140</b></a></span> -<b>Prices of Slaves.</b>—The prices of slaves varied as did the prices -of other commodities. Much depended upon the times, the supply and -demand, the characteristics and accomplishments of the particular -slave, and the requirements of the purchaser. Captives bought upon the -battlefield rarely brought more than nominal prices, because the sale -was in a measure forced (<a href="#sect134">§134</a>), and because the dealer was sure to -lose a large part of his purchase on the long march home through -disease, fatigue, and especially suicide. There is a famous piece of -statuary representing a hopeless Gaul killing his wife and then -himself (Fig. 30). We are told that Lucullus once sold slaves in his -camp at an average price of eighty cents each. In Rome male slaves -varied in value from $100, paid for common laborers in the time of -Horace, to $28,000 paid by Marcus Scaurus for an accomplished -grammarian. Handsome boys, well trained and educated, sold for as much -as $4,000. Very high prices were also paid for handsome and -accomplished girls. The music girls in Plautus and Terence cost their -lovers from $500 to $700, but girls of the lowest class sold for as -little as $25. It seems strange to us that slaves were matched in size -and color as carefully as horses are now, and that a well-matched pair -of boys would bring a much larger sum when sold together than when -sold separately.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect141"><b>141</b></a></span> -<b>Public and Private Slaves.</b>—Slaves were called <i>servī pūblicī</i> -and <i>servī prīvātī</i> according as they were owned by the state or by -individuals. The condition of the former was considered the more -desirable: they were not so likely to be sold, were not worked so -hard, and were not exposed to the whims of a capricious master. They -were employed to take care of the public buildings and as servants of -the magistrates and priests. The quaestors and aediles had great -numbers of them in their service, and they were drilled as a corps of -firemen to serve at night under the <i>triumvirī nocturnī</i>. Others were -employed as lictors, jailers, executioners, etc. The number of public -slaves while considerable in itself was inconsiderable as compared -with that of those in private service.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect142"><b>142</b></a></span> -<b>Private Slaves.</b>—Private slaves either were employed in the -personal service of their master and his family or were kept for gain. -The former, known as the <i>familia urbāna</i>, will be described later. -The latter may be classified according as they were kept for hire or -employed in the business enterprises of their master. Of these last -the most important as well as the oldest (<a href="#sect129">§129</a>) class was that of the -farm laborers (<i>familia rūstica</i>). Of the others, engaged in all sorts -of industries, it may be remarked that it was considered more -honorable for a master to employ his slaves in enterprises of his own -than to hire them out to others. At the same time slaves could always -be hired for any desired purpose in Rome or any other city.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect143"><b>143</b></a></span> -<b>Industrial Employment.</b>—It must be remembered that there were -practically no freeborn laborers left in the last century of the -Republic (<a href="#sect129">§129</a>), and that much work was then done by hand that is now -done by machinery. In work of this sort were employed armies of slaves -fit only for unskilled labor: porters for the transportation of -materials and merchandise, stevedores for the lading and discharging -of vessels, men who handled the spade, pickax, and crowbar, men of -great physical strength but of little else to make them worth their -keep. Above these came artisans, mechanics, and skilled workmen of -every kind: smiths, carpenters, bricklayers, masons, seamen, etc. The -merchants and shopkeepers required assistants, and so did the millers -and bakers, the dealers in wool and leather, the keepers of lodging -houses and restaurants, all who helped to supply the countless wants -of a great city. Even the professions, as we should call them, were -largely in the hands of slaves. Books were multiplied by slaves. The -artists who carved wood and stone, designed furniture, laid mosaics, -painted pictures, and decorated the walls and ceilings of public and -private buildings were slaves. So were the musicians and the acrobats, -actors and gladiators who amused the people at the public games. So -too, as we have seen (<a href="#sect121">§121</a>), were many of the teachers in the schools, -and physicians were usually slaves.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect144"><b>144</b></a></span> -And slaves did not merely perform these various functions under -the direction of their master or of the employer to whom he had hired -them for the time. Many of them were themselves captains of industry. -When a slave showed executive ability as well as technical knowledge, -it was common enough for his master to furnish him with the necessary -capital to carry on independently the business or profession which he -understood. In this way slaves were often the managers of estates, of -banks, of commercial enterprises, though these might take them far -beyond the reach of their masters' observation, even into foreign -countries. Sometimes such a slave was expected to pay the master -annually a fixed sum out of the proceeds of the business; sometimes he -was allowed to keep for himself a certain share of the profits; -sometimes he was merely required to repay the sum advanced with -interest from the time he had received it. In all cases, however, his -industry and intelligence were stimulated by the hope of acquiring -sufficient means from the venture to purchase his freedom and -eventually make the business his own.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect145"><b>145</b></a></span> -<b>The Familia Rustica.</b>—Under this name are comprised the slaves -that were employed upon the vast estates that long before the end of -the Republic had supplanted the small farms of the earlier day. The -very name points at this change, for it implies that the estate was no -longer the only home of the master. He had become a landlord, living -in the capital and visiting his lands only occasionally for pleasure -or for business. The estates may, therefore, be divided into two -classes: country seats for pleasure and farms or ranches for profit. -The former were selected with great care, the purchaser having regard -to their proximity to the city or other resorts of fashion, their -healthfulness, and the natural beauty of their scenery. They were -maintained upon the most extravagant scale. There were villas and -pleasure grounds, parks, game preserves, fish ponds and artificial -lakes, everything that ministered to open air luxury. Great numbers of -slaves were required to keep these places in order, and many of them -were slaves of the highest class: landscape gardeners, experts in the -culture of fruits and flowers, experts even in the breeding and -keeping of the birds, game, and fish, of which the Romans were -inordinately fond. These had under them assistants and laborers of -every sort, and all were subject to the authority of a superintendent -or steward (<i>vīlicus</i>), who had been put in charge of the estate by -the master.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect146"><b>146</b></a></span> -<b>Farm Slaves.</b>—But the name <i>familia rūstica</i> is more -characteristically used of the drudges upon the farms, because the -slaves employed upon the country seats were more directly in the -personal service of the master and can hardly be said to have been -kept for profit. The raising of grain for the market had long ceased -to be profitable, but various industries had taken its place upon the -farms. Wine and oil had become the most important products of the -soil, and vineyards and olive orchards were found wherever climate and -other conditions were favorable. Cattle and swine were raised in -countless numbers, the former more for draft purposes and the products -of the dairy than for beef. Sheep were kept for the wool, and woolen -garments were worn by the rich and poor alike. Cheese was made in -large quantities, all the larger because butter was unknown. The -keeping of bees was an important industry, because honey served, so -far as it could, the purposes for which sugar is used in modern times. -Besides these things that we are even now accustomed to associate with -farming, there were others that are now looked upon as distinct and -separate businesses. Of these the most important, perhaps, as it was -undoubtedly the most laborious, was the quarrying of stone; another -was the cutting of timber and working it up into rough lumber, and -finally the preparing of sand for the use of the builder. This last -was of much greater importance relatively then than now, on account of -the extensive use of concrete at Rome.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect147"><b>147</b></a></span> -In some of these tasks intelligence and skill were required as -they are to-day, but in many of them the most necessary qualifications -were strength and endurance, as the slaves took the place of much of -the machinery of modern times. This was especially true of the men -employed in the quarries, who were usually of the rudest and most -ungovernable class, and were worked in chains by day and housed in -dungeons by night, as convicts have been housed and worked in much -later times.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect148"><b>148</b></a></span> -<b>The Vilicus.</b>—The management of such an estate was also -intrusted to a <i>vīlicus</i> (<a href="#sect145">§145</a>), who was proverbially a hard -taskmaster, simply because his hopes of freedom depended upon the -amount of profits he could turn into his master's coffers at the end -of the year. His task was no easy one. Besides planning for and -overseeing the gangs of slaves already mentioned, he had under his -charge another body of slaves only less numerous, employed in -providing for the wants of the others. Everything necessary for the -farm was produced or manufactured on the farm. Enough grain was raised -for food, and this grain was ground in the farm mills and baked in the -farm ovens by millers and bakers who were slaves on the farm. The task -of turning the mill was usually given to a horse or mule, but slaves -were often made to do the grinding as a punishment. Wool was carded, -spun, and woven into cloth, and this cloth was made into clothes by -the female slaves under the eye of the steward's consort, the -<i>vīlica</i>. Buildings were erected, and the tools and implements -necessary for the work of the farm were made and repaired. These -things required a number of carpenters, smiths, and masons, though -they were not necessarily workmen of the highest class. It was the -touchstone of a good <i>vīlicus</i> to keep his men always busy, and it is -to be understood that the slaves were alternately plowmen and reapers, -vinedressers and treaders of the grapes, perhaps even quarrymen and -lumbermen, according to the season of the year and the place of their -toiling.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect149"><b>149</b></a></span> -<b>The Familia Urbana.</b>—The number of slaves kept by the wealthy -Roman in his city mansion was measured not by his needs, but by the -demands of fashion and his means. In the early days a sort of butler -(<i>ātriēnsis</i>), or major domo, had relieved the master of his household -cares, had done the buying, had kept the accounts, had seen that the -house and furniture were in order, and had looked after the few -servants who did the actual work. Even under the Republic all this was -changed. Other slaves, the <i>prōcūrātor</i> and <i>dispēnsātor</i>, relieved -the <i>ātriēnsis</i> of the purchasing of the supplies and the keeping of -the accounts, and left to him merely the supervision of the house and -its furniture. The duties of the slaves under him were, in the same -way, distributed among a number many times greater. Every part of the -house had its special staff of servants, often so numerous as to be -distributed into <i>decuriae</i> (<a href="#sect133">§133</a>), with a separate superintendent for -each division: one for the kitchen, another for the dining-rooms, -another for the bedrooms, etc.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect150"><b>150</b></a></span> -The very entrance door had assigned to it its special slave -(<i>ōstiārius</i> or <i>iānitor</i>), who was often chained to it like a -watchdog, in order to keep him literally at his post. And the duties -of the several sets were again divided and subdivided, each slave -having some one office to perform, and only one. The names of the -various functionaries of the kitchen, the dining-rooms, and the -bedchambers are too numerous to mention, but an idea of the complexity -of the service may be gained from the number of attendants that -assisted the master and mistress with their toilets. The former had -his <i>ōrnātor</i>, <i>tōnsor</i>, and <i>calceātor</i> (who cared for the feet); the -latter her hairdressers (<i>ciniflōnēs</i> or <i>cinerāriī</i>) and <i>ōrnātrīx;</i> -and besides these each had no less than three or four more to assist -with the bath. The children, too, had each his or her own attendants, -beginning with the <i>nūtrix</i>, and continuing in the case of the boy -with the <i>paedagōgus</i> and <i>pedisequī</i> (<a href="#sect123">§123</a>).</p> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure31"> - <tr> - <td width="297"> - <img src="images/figure031.jpg" alt="FIGURE 31. LECTICA"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="297" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 31. - L<small>ECTICA</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect151"><b>151</b></a></span> -When the master or mistress left the house a numerous retinue -was deemed necessary. If they walked, slaves went before to clear the -way (<i>anteambulōnēs</i>), and pages and lackeys followed carrying wraps -or the sunshade and fan of the mistress, and ready to perform any -little service that might be necessary. The master was always -accompanied out of the house by his <i>nōmenclātor</i>, who prompted him in -case he had forgotten the name of any one who greeted him. If they did -not walk, they were carried in litters (<i>lectīcae</i>, Fig. 31), -something like sedan chairs. The bearers were strong men, by -preference Syrians or Cappadocians (<a href="#sect136">§136</a>), all carefully matched in -size (<a href="#sect140">§140</a>) and dressed in gorgeous liveries. As each member of the -household had his own litter and bearers, this one class of slaves -made an important item in the family budget. And even when they rode -in this way the same attendants accompanied them as when they walked.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect152"><b>152</b></a></span> -When the master dined at the house of a friend his slaves -attended him as far as the door at least. Some remained with him to -care for his sandals, and others (<i>adversitōrēs</i>) returned at the -appointed hour to see him home. A journey out of the city was a more -serious matter and called for more pomp and display. In addition to -the horses and mules that drew the carts of those who rode, there were -mounted outriders and beasts of burden loaded with baggage and -supplies. Numerous slaves followed on foot, and a band of gladiators -not infrequently acted as escort and bodyguard. It is not too much to -say that the ordinary train of a wealthy traveler included scores, -perhaps hundreds, of slaves.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect153"><b>153</b></a></span> -Among the <i>familia urbāna</i> must be numbered also those who -furnished amusement and entertainment for the master and his guests, -especially during and after meals. There were musicians and readers, -and for persons of less refined tastes, dancers, jesters, dwarfs, and -even misshapen freaks. Under the Empire little children were kept for -the same purpose.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect154"><b>154</b></a></span> -Lastly may be mentioned the slaves of the highest class, the -confidential assistants of the master, the amanuenses who wrote his -letters, the secretaries who kept his accounts, and the agents through -whom he collected his income, audited the reports of his stewards and -managers, made his investments, and transacted all sorts of business -matters. The greater the luxury and extravagance of the house, the -more the master would need these trained and experienced men to -relieve him of cares which he detested, and by their fidelity and -skill to make possible the gratification of his tastes and passions.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect155"><b>155</b></a></span> -Such a staff as has been described belonged, of course, to a -wealthy and fashionable man. Persons with more good sense had only -such slaves as could be profitably employed. Atticus, the friend of -Cicero, a man of sufficient wealth and social position to defy the -demands of fashion, kept in his service only <i>vernae</i> (<a href="#sect138">§138</a>), and had -them so carefully trained that the meanest could read and write for -him. Cicero, on the other hand, could not think it good form to have a -slave do more than one kind of work, and Cicero was not to be -considered a rich man.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect156"><b>156</b></a></span> -<b>Legal Status of Slaves.</b>—The power of the master over the slave, -called <i>dominium</i> (<a href="#sect37">§37</a>), was absolute. He could assign him the most -laborious and degrading tasks, punish him even unto death at his sole -discretion, sell him, and kill him (or turn him out in the street to -die) when age or illness had made him incapable of labor. Slaves were -mere chattels in the eyes of the law, like oxen or horses. They could -not hold property, they could not make contracts, they could testify -in the courts only on the rack, they could not marry. The free person -<i>in potestāte</i> was little better off legally (<a href="#sect31">§31</a>), but there were two -important differences between the son, for example, and the slave. The -son was relieved of the <i>potestās</i> on the death of the <i>pater -familiās</i> (<a href="#sect34">§34</a>), but the death of the master did not make the slave -free. Again, the condition of the son was ameliorated by <i>pietās</i> -(<a href="#sect73">§73</a>) and public opinion (<a href="#sect32">§§32</a>, <a href="#sect33">33</a>), but there was no <i>pietās</i> for the -slave and public opinion hardly operated in his behalf. It did enable -him to hold as his own his scanty savings (<a href="#sect162">§162</a>), and it gave a sort -of sanction to the permanent unions of male and female slaves called -<i>contubernium</i>, but in other respects it did little for his benefit.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect157"><b>157</b></a></span> -Under the Empire various laws were passed that seemed to -recognize the slave as a person, not a thing: it was forbidden to sell -him for the purpose of fighting with wild beasts in the amphitheater; -it was provided that the slave should not be put to death by the -master simply because he was too old or too ill to work, and that a -slave "exposed" (<a href="#sect95">§95</a>) should become free by the act; at last the -master was forbidden to kill the slave at all without due process of -law. As a matter of fact these laws were very generally disregarded, -much as are our laws for the prevention of cruelty to animals, and it -may be said that it was only the influence of Christianity that at -last changed the condition of the slave for the better.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect158"><b>158</b></a></span> -<b>The Treatment of Slaves.</b>—There is nothing in the stern and -selfish character of the Roman that would lead us to expect from him -gentleness or mercy in the treatment of his slaves. At the same time -he was too shrewd and sharp in all matters of business to forget that -a slave was a piece of valuable property, and to run the risk of the -loss or injury of that property by wanton cruelty. Much depended, of -course, upon the character and temper of the individual owner, and -Juvenal gives us to understand that the mistress was likely to be more -spiteful and unreasonable than the master. But the case of Vedius -Pollio, in the time of Augustus, who ordered a slave to be thrown -alive into a pond as food for the fish because he had broken a goblet, -may be balanced by that of Cicero, whose letters to his slave Tiro -disclose real affection and tenderness of feeling. The passionate man -nowadays may kill or maim the dog or horse, although it has a money -value and he needs its services, and most of us know of worn-out -horses turned out upon the common to die. But these things are -exceptional, and if we consider the age in which the Roman lived and -pass for a moment the matter of punishments, we may say that he was -rather pitiless as a taskmaster than habitually cruel to his slaves.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect159"><b>159</b></a></span> -Of the daily life of the town slave we know but little except -that his work was light and he was the envy of the drudge upon the -farm. Of the treatment of the latter we get some knowledge from the -writings of the elder Cato, who may be taken as a fair specimen of the -rugged farmer of his time (234-149 <small>B.C.</small>). He held that slaves should -always be at work except in the hours, few enough at best, allowed -them for sleep, and he took pains to find plenty for his to do even on -the public holidays. He advised farmers to sell immediately worn-out -draft cattle, diseased sheep, broken implements, aged and feeble -slaves, "and other useless things."</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect160"><b>160</b></a></span> -<b>Food and Dress.</b>—Slaves were fed on coarse food, but when Cato -tells us that in addition to the monthly allowance of grain (about a -bushel) they were to have merely the fallen olives, or, failing these, -a little salt fish and vinegar, we must remember that this was no less -and no worse than the common food of the poorer Romans. Every -schoolboy knows that grain was the only ration of the sturdy soldiers -that won Caesar's battles for him. A slave was furnished a tunic every -year, and a cloak and a pair of wooden shoes every two years. Worn-out -clothes were returned to the <i>vīlicus</i> to be made up into patchwork -quilts. We are told that this same <i>vīlicus</i> often cheated the slaves -by stinting their allowance for his own benefit, and we can not doubt -that he, a slave himself, was more likely to be brutal and cruel than -the master would have been.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect161"><b>161</b></a></span> -But entirely apart from the grinding toil and the harshness and -insolence of the master and the overseer, the mere restraint from -liberty was torture enough in itself. There was little chance of -escape by flight. The Greek slave might hope to cross the boundary of -the little principality in which he served, to find freedom and refuge -under the protection of an adjoining power. But Italy was not cut up -into hostile communities, and should the slave by a miracle reach the -Rubicon or the sea, no neighboring state would dare defend him or even -hide him from his Roman master. If he attempted flight, he must live -the life of an outlaw, with organized bands of slave hunters on his -track, with a reward offered for his return, and unspeakable tortures -awaiting him as a warning for others. It is no wonder, then, that vast -numbers of slaves sought rest from their labors by a voluntary death -(<a href="#sect140">§140</a>). It must be remembered that many of them were men of good birth -and high position in the countries from which they came, some of them -even soldiers, taken on the field of battle with weapons in their -hands.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect162"><b>162</b></a></span> -<b>The Peculium.</b>—We have seen that the free man <i>in potestāte</i> -could not legally hold property, that all that he acquired belonged -strictly to his <i>pater familiās</i> (<a href="#sect31">§31</a>). We have also seen that he was -allowed to hold, manage and use property assigned to him by the <i>pater -familiās</i>, just as if it had been his own (<a href="#sect33">§33</a>). The same thing was -true in the case of a slave, and the property was called by the same -name (<i>pecūlium</i>). His claim to it could not be maintained by law, but -was confirmed by public opinion and by inviolable custom. If the -master respected these, there were several ways in which an -industrious and frugal slave could scrape together bit by bit a little -fund of his own, depending in great measure, of course, upon the -generosity of his master and his own position in the <i>familia</i>.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect163"><b>163</b></a></span> -If he belonged to the <i>familia rūstica</i>, the opportunities were -not so good, but by stinting himself he might save something from his -monthly allowance of food (<a href="#sect160">§160</a>), and he might, perhaps, do a little -work for himself in the hours allowed for sleep and rest, tilling, for -example, a few square yards of garden for his own benefit. If he were -a city slave there were besides these chances the tips from his -master's friends and guests, and perhaps a bribe for some little piece -of knavery or a reward for its success. We have already seen that a -slave teacher received presents from his pupils (<a href="#sect121">§121</a>). It was no -uncommon thing either, as has been said, for a shrewd master to teach -a slave a trade and allow him to keep a portion of the increased -earnings which his deftness and skill would bring. More rarely the -master would furnish the capital and allow the slave to start in -business and retain a portion of the profits (<a href="#sect144">§144</a>).</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect164"><b>164</b></a></span> -For the master the custom was undoubtedly profitable in the long -run. It stimulated the slave's energy and made him more contented and -cheerful. It also furnished a means of control more effective than the -severest corporal punishment, and that without physical injury to the -chattel. To the ambitious slave the <i>pecūlium</i> gave at least a chance -of freedom, for he hoped to save enough in time to buy himself from -his master. Many, of course, preferred to use their earnings to -purchase little comforts and luxuries nearer than distant liberty. -Some upon whom a high price was set by their owners used their -<i>pecūlium</i> to buy for themselves cheaper slaves, whom they hired out -to the employers of laborers already mentioned (<a href="#sect143">§143</a>). In this way -they hoped to increase their savings more rapidly. The slave's slave -was called <i>vicārius</i>, and legally belonged to the owner of his -master, but public opinion regarded him as a part of the -slave-master's <i>pecūlium</i>. The slave had a life interest only in his -savings, that is, they did not pass to his heirs on his death, for a -slave could have no "heirs," and he could not dispose of them by will. -If he died in slavery his property went to his master. Public slaves -(<a href="#sect141">§141</a>) were allowed as one of their greatest privileges to dispose of -one-half of their property by will.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect165"><b>165</b></a></span> -At the best the accumulation of a sum large enough (<a href="#sect140">§140</a>) to buy -his liberty was pitifully slow and painful for the slave, all the more -because the more energetic and industrious he was, the higher the -price that would be set upon him. We can not help feeling a great -respect for the man who at so great a price obtained his freedom. We -can sympathize, too, with the poor fellows who had to take from their -little hoards to make to the members of their masters' families the -presents that were expected on such great occasions as the marriage of -one of them, the naming of a child (<a href="#sect98">§98</a>), or the birthday of the -mistress (<a href="#sect91">§91</a>).</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect166"><b>166</b></a></span> -<b>Punishments.</b>—It is not the purpose of the following sections to -catalogue the fiendish tortures sometimes inflicted upon slaves by -their masters. They were not very common for the reason suggested in -<a href="#sect158">§158</a>, and were no more characteristic of the ordinary correction of -slaves than lynching and whitecapping are characteristic of the -administration of justice in Georgia and Indiana. Certain punishments, -however, are so frequently mentioned in Latin literature, that a -description of them is necessary in order that the passages in which -they occur may be understood by the reader.</p> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure32"> - <tr> - <td width="150" align="center"> - <img src="images/figure032.jpg" alt="FIGURE 32. FLAGELLUM"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="150" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 32. - F<small>LAGELLUM</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect167"><b>167</b></a></span> -The most common punishment for neglect of duty or petty -misconduct was a beating with a stick or flogging with a lash. If the -picture of a Roman school already referred to (<a href="#sect119">§119</a>) gives a correct -idea of the punishments inflicted upon a schoolboy with the consent of -his parents, we should expect that of a slave to be as severe as -regard for his usefulness afterwards would permit. Hence we find that -for the single rod or stick was often substituted a bundle of rods, -usually elm (<i>ulmī</i>) corresponding to the birch of England and the -hickory of America. For the lash or rawhide (<i>scutica</i> or <i>lōrum</i>) was -often used a sort of cat-o'-nine-tails, made of cords or thongs of -leather. When the offense was more serious, bits of bone were attached -to this, and even metal buttons, to tear the flesh, and the instrument -was called a <i>flagrum</i> or <i>flagellum</i> (Fig. 32). It could not have -been less severe than the knout of Russia, and we may well believe -that slaves died beneath its blows. To render the victim incapable of -resistance he was sometimes drawn up to a beam by the arms, and -weights were even attached to his feet, so that he could not so much -as writhe under the torture.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect168"><b>168</b></a></span> -In the comedies are many references to these punishments, and -the slaves make grim jests on the rods and the scourge, taunting each -other with the beatings they have had or deserve to have. Sometimes -the rods are parasites, who shave close the person to whom they attach -themselves; sometimes they are pens, the back of the culprit being the -copybook; sometimes they are catapults, dealing darts and death. -Sometimes the victim is a bottomless abyss of rods; sometimes he has -absorbed so much essence of elm that he is in danger of himself -becoming a tree; sometimes he is an anvil; sometimes he is a solid -melting under the blows; sometimes he is a garden well watered by -blows. Sometimes an entertainment is being prepared scot-free for his -back; and sometimes his back is a beautifully embroidered carpet.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect169"><b>169</b></a></span> -Another punishment for offenses of the same trivial nature -resembled the stocks of old New England days. The offender was exposed -to the derision of his fellows with his limbs so confined that he -could make no motion at all, could not so much as brush a fly from his -face. Variations of this form of punishment are seen in the <i>furca</i> -and in the "making a quadruped out of a man." The latter must have -been something like the "bucking and gagging" used as a punishment in -the militia; the former was so common that <i>furcifer</i> became a mere -term of abuse. The culprit carried upon his shoulders a log of wood, -shaped like a V, and had his arms stretched out before him with his -hands fastened to the ends of the fork. This log he had to carry -around in order that the other members of the <i>familia</i> might see him -and take warning. Sometimes to this punishment was added a lashing as -he moved painfully along.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect170"><b>170</b></a></span> -Less painful and degrading for the moment, but far more dreaded -by the slave, was a sentence to harder labor than he had been -accustomed to perform. The final penalty for misconduct on the part of -a city slave, for whom the rod had been spoiled in vain, was -banishment to the farm, and to this might be added at a stroke the -odious task of grinding at the mill (<a href="#sect148">§148</a>), or the crushing toil of -labor in the quarries. The last were the punishments of the better -class of farm slaves, while the desperate and dangerous class of -slaves who regularly worked in the quarries paid for their misdeeds -under the scourge and in heavier shackles by day and fewer hours of -rest by night. These may be compared to the galley slaves of later -times. Those utterly incorrigible might be sold for gladiators.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect171"><b>171</b></a></span> -For actual crimes, not mere faults or offenses, the punishments -were far more severe. Slaves were so numerous (<a href="#sect131">§131</a>) and their various -employments gave them such free access to the person of the master, -that his property and very life were always at their mercy. It was -indeed a just and gentle master that did not sometimes dream of a -slave holding a dagger at his throat. There was nothing within the -confines of Italy so much dreaded as an uprising of the slaves. It was -simply this haunting fear that led to the inhuman tortures inflicted -upon the slave guilty of an attempt upon the life of his master or of -the destruction of his property. The Romans had not learned twenty -centuries ago, as some of our own citizens have not yet learned, that -crimes are not lessened by increasing the sufferings of the criminals.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure33"> - <tr> - <td width="654"> - <img src="images/figure033.jpg" alt="FIGURE 33. SLAVE'S COLLAR"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="654" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 33. - S<small>LAVE'S</small> C<small>OLLAR</small><br> - <i>Servus sum dom(i)ni mei - Scholastici v(iri) sp(ectabilis). - Tene me ne fugiam de domo Pulverata.</i></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect172"><b>172</b></a></span> -The runaway slave was a criminal: he had stolen himself. He was -also guilty of setting a bad example to his fellow slaves; and, worst -of all, runaway slaves always became bandits (<a href="#sect161">§161</a>) and they might -find a Spartacus to lead them (<a href="#sect132">§132</a>). There were, therefore, standing -rewards for the capture of <i>fugitīvī</i>, and there were men who made it -their business to track them down and return them to their masters. -The <i>fugitīvus</i> was brought back in shackles, and was sure to be -flogged within an inch of his life and sent to the quarries for the -rest of his miserable days. Besides this, he was branded on the -forehead with the letter F, for <i>fugitīvus</i>, and sometimes had a metal -collar riveted about his neck. One such, still preserved at Rome, is -shown in Fig. 33, and another has the inscription:</p> - -<center>FUGI. TENE ME. CUM REVOCAVERIS ME D. M.<br> -ZONINO, ACCIPIS SOLIDUM.<small><small><sup>1</sup></small></small></center> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>1</sup></small> I have run away. Catch me. If you take me back to my -master Zoninus you'll be rewarded.</small></blockquote> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect173"><b>173</b></a></span> -For an attempt upon the life of the master the penalty was death -in its most agonizing form, by crucifixion. This was also the penalty -for taking part in an insurrection, witness the twenty thousand -crucified in Sicily (<a href="#sect132">§132</a>) and the six thousand crosses that Pompeius -erected along the road to Rome, each bearing the body of one of the -survivors of the final battle in which Spartacus fell. And the -punishment was inflicted not only upon the slave guilty of his -master's life, but also upon the family of the slave, if he had wife -(<a href="#sect156">§156</a>) and children. If the guilty man could not be found, his -punishment was made certain by the crucifixion of all the slaves of -the murdered man. Tacitus tells us that in the reign of Nero four -hundred slaves were executed for the murder of their master, Pedianus -Secundus, by one of their number undetected.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect174"><b>174</b></a></span> -The cross stood to the slave as the horror of horrors. The very -word (<i>crux</i>) was used among them as a curse, especially in the form -<i>ad</i> (<i>malam</i>) <i>crucem</i>. The various minor punishments were inflicted -at the order of the master or his representative by some fellow slave -called for the time <i>carnifex</i> or <i>lōrārius</i>, though these words by no -means imply that he was regularly or even commonly designated for the -disagreeable duty. Still, the administration of punishment to a fellow -slave was felt to be degrading, and the word <i>carnifex</i> was apt to -attach itself to such a person and finally came to be a standing term -of abuse and taunt. It is applied to each other by quarreling slaves, -apparently with no notion of its literal meaning, as many vulgar -epithets are applied to-day. The actual execution of a death sentence -was carried out by one of the <i>servī pūblicī</i> (<a href="#sect141">§141</a>) at a fixed place -of execution outside of the city walls.</p> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure34"> - <tr> - <td width="150" align="center"> - <img src="images/figure034.jpg" alt="FIGURE 34. COIN, SHOWING THE PILLEUS"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="150" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 34. - C<small>OIN</small>, S<small>HOWING THE</small> - P<small>ILLEUS</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect175"><b>175</b></a></span> -<b>Manumission.</b>—The slave might purchase his freedom from his -master by means of his savings, as we have seen (<a href="#sect164">§164</a>), or he might be -set free as a reward for faithful service or some special act of -devotion. In either case it was only necessary for the master to -pronounce him free in the presence of witnesses, though a formal act -of manumission often took place before a praetor. The new-made -freedman set proudly on his head the cap of liberty (<i>pilleus</i>), often -seen on Roman coins (Fig. 34). He was now called <i>lībertus</i> in -reference to his master, <i>lībertīnus</i> in reference to others; his -master was no longer <i>dominus</i>, but <i>patrōnus</i>. The relation that now -existed between them was one of mutual helpfulness. The patron -assisted the freedman in business, often supplying the means with which he -was to make a start in his new life. It the freedman died first, the -patron paid the expenses of a decent funeral and had the body buried -near the spot where his own ashes would be laid. He became the -guardian of the freedman's children, or if no heirs were left, he -himself inherited the property. The freedman was bound to show his -patron marked deference and respect on all occasions, to attend him -upon public occasions, to assist him in case of reverse of fortune, -and in short to stand to him in the same relation as the client had -stood to the patron in the brave days of old.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect176"><b>176</b></a></span> -<b>The Clients.</b>—The word <i>cliēns</i> (from <i>clueō;</i> therefore -"hearer," "one who obeys") is used in Roman history of two very -different classes of dependents, who are separated by a considerable -interval of time and may be roughly distinguished as the Old Clients -and the New. The former played an important part under the Kings, and -especially in the struggles between the patricians and plebeians in -the early days of the Republic, but had practically disappeared by the -time of Cicero. The latter are first heard of after the Empire was -well advanced, and never had any political significance. Between the -two classes there is absolutely no connection, and the student must be -careful to notice that the later is not a development of the earlier -class.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect177"><b>177</b></a></span> -<b>The Old Clients.</b>—Clientage (<i>clientēla</i>) goes back beyond the -founding of Rome to the most ancient social institutions of the -Italian communities. The <i>gentēs</i> who settled on the hills along the -Tiber (<a href="#sect22">§22</a>) had brought with them as a part of their <i>familiae</i> (<a href="#sect21">§21</a>) -numerous free retainers, who seem to have farmed their lands, tended -their flocks, and done them certain personal services in return for -protection against cattle thieves, raiders, and open enemies. These -retainers were regarded as inferior members of the <i>gēns</i> to which -they had severally attached themselves, had a share in the increase of -the flocks and herds (<a href="#sect33">§33</a>, <i>pecūlia</i>), and were given the clan name -(<a href="#sect47">§47</a>), but they had no right of marriage with persons of the higher -class and no voice in the government. They were the original <i>plēbs</i>, -while the <i>gentīlēs</i> (<a href="#sect22">§22</a>) were the <i>populus</i> of Rome.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect178"><b>178</b></a></span> -Rome's policy of expansion soon brought within the city a third -element, distinct from both <i>gentīlēs</i> and <i>clientēs</i>. Conquered -communities, especially those dangerously near, were made to destroy -their own strongholds (<i>oppida</i>) and move in mass to the city. Those -who possessed already the gentile organization were allowed to become -a part of the <i>populus</i>, or governing body, and these, too, brought -their <i>clientēs</i> with them. Those who had no such organization either -attached themselves to the <i>gentēs</i> as clients, or preferring personal -independence settled here and there, in and about the city, to make a -living as best they might. Some were possessed of means as large -perhaps as those of the patricians; others were artisans and laborers, -hewers of wood and drawers of water; but all alike were without -political rights and occupied the lowest position in the new state. -Their numbers increased rapidly with the expansion of Roman territory, -and they soon outnumbered the patricians with their retainers, with -whom, of course, as conquered people they could have no sympathies or -social ties. To them also the name of <i>plēbs</i> was given, and the old -<i>plēbs</i>, the <i>clientēs</i>, began to occupy an intermediate position in -the state, though politically included with the plebeians. Many of -them, owing perhaps to the dying out of ancient patrician families, -gradually lost their dependent relation and became identified in -interests with the newer element.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect179"><b>179</b></a></span> -<b>Mutual Obligations.</b>—The relation between the patrician patrons -and the plebeian clients is not now thoroughly understood; the -problems connected with it seem beyond solution. We know that it was -hereditary and that the great houses boasted of the number of their -clients and were eager to increase them from generation to generation. -We know that it was regarded as something peculiarly sacred, that the -client stood to the patron as little less than a son. Vergil tells us -that a special punishment in the underworld awaited the patron who -defrauded a client. We read, too, of instances of splendid loyalty to -their patrons on the part of clients, a loyalty to which we can only -compare in modern times that of Highlanders to the chief of their -clan. But when we try to get an idea of the reciprocal duties and -obligations we find little in our authorities that is definite (<a href="#sect12">§12, end</a>). -The patron furnished means of support for the client and his -family (<a href="#sect177">§177</a>), gave him the benefit of his advice and counsel, and -assisted him in his transactions with third parties, representing him -if necessary in the courts. On the other hand the client was bound to -advance the interests of his patron in every possible way. He tilled -his fields, herded his flocks, attended him in war, and assisted him -in special emergencies with money.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect180"><b>180</b></a></span> -It is evident that the mutuality of this relation depended -solely upon the predominant position of the patron in the state. So -long as the patricians were the only full citizens, so long, that is, -as the plebeians had no civil rights, the client might well afford to -sacrifice his personal independence for the sake of the countenance -and protection of one of the mighty. In the case of disputes over -property, for example, the support of his patron would assure him -justice even against a patrician, and might secure more than justice -were his opponent a plebeian without another such advocate. It is -evident, too, that the relation could not long endure after the -equalization of the orders. For a generation or two the patron and the -client might stand together against their old adversaries, but sooner -or later the client would see that he was getting no equivalent for -the service he rendered, and his children or his children's children -would throw off the yoke. The introduction of slavery, on the other -hand, helped to make the patron independent of the client, and while -we can hardly tell whether its rapid growth (<a href="#sect129">§129</a>) was the cause or -the effect of declining clientage, it is nevertheless significant that -the new relation of <i>patrōnus</i> and <i>lībertus</i> (<a href="#sect175">§175</a>) marks the -disappearance of that of <i>patrōnus</i> and <i>cliēns</i> in the old and better -sense of the words.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect181"><b>181</b></a></span> -<b>The New Clients.</b>—The new clients need not detain us long. They -came in with the upstart rich, who counted a long train of dependents -as necessary to their state as a string of high-sounding names (<a href="#sect50">§50</a>), -or a mansion crowded with useless slaves (<a href="#sect155">§155</a>). These dependents were -simply obscure and needy men who toadied to the rich and great for the -sake of the crumbs that fell from their tables. There might be among -them men of perverted talents, philosophers or poets like Martial and -Statius, but they were all at best a swarm of cringing, fawning, -time-serving flatterers and parasites. It is important to understand -that there was no personal tie between the new patron and the new -client, no bond of hereditary association. No sacrifice was involved -on either side. The client did not attach himself for life to one -patron for better or for worse; he frequently paid his court to -several at a time and changed his masters as often as he could hope -for better things. The patron in like manner dismissed a client when -he had tired of him.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect182"><b>182</b></a></span> -<b>Duties and Rewards.</b>—The service, however mean and degrading, -was easy enough. The chief duty was the <i>salūtātiō:</i> the clients -arrayed in the toga, the formal dress for all social functions, -assembled early in the morning in the great man's hall to greet him -when he first appeared. This might be all required of them for the -day, and there might be time to hurry through the streets to another -house to pay similar homage to another patron, perhaps to others -still, for the rich slept late. On the other hand the patron might -command their attendance in the house or by his litter (<a href="#sect151">§151</a>), if he -was going out, and keep them at his side the whole day long. Then -there was no chance to wait upon the second patron, but every chance -to be forgotten by him. And the rewards were no greater than the -services. A few coins for a clever witticism or a fulsome compliment; -a cast-off toga occasionally, for a shabby dress disgraced the levee; -or an invitation to the dinner table if the patron was particularly -gracious. One meal a day was always expected, and felt to be the due -of the client. But sometimes the patron did not receive and the -clients were sent empty away. Sometimes, too, after a day's attendance -the hungry and tired train were dismissed with a gift of cold food -distributed in little baskets (<i>sportulae</i>), a poor and sorry -substitute for the good cheer they had hoped for. From these baskets -the "dole," as we should call it now, came to be called <i>sportula</i> -itself, and in the course of time an equivalent in money, fixed -finally at about thirty cents, took the place of this. But it was -something to be admitted to the familiar presence of the rich and -fashionable, there was always the hope of a little legacy, if the -flattery was adroit, and even the dole would enable one to live more -easily than by work, especially if one could stand well with several -patrons and draw the dole from each of them.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect183"><b>183</b></a></span> -<b>The Hospites.</b>—Finally we come to the <i>hospitēs</i>, though these -in strictness ought not to be reckoned among the dependents. It is -true that they were often dependent on others for protection and help, -but it is also true that they were equally ready and able to extend -like help and protection to others who had the right to claim -assistance from them. It is important to observe that <i>hospitium</i> -differed from clientship in this respect, that the parties to it were -actually on the footing of absolute equality. Although at some -particular time one might be dependent upon the other for food or -shelter, at another time the relations might be reversed and the -protector and the protected change places.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect184"><b>184</b></a></span> -<i>Hospitium</i>, in its technical sense, goes back to a time when -there were no international relations, to the time when stranger and -enemy were not merely synonymous words, but absolutely the same word. -In this early stage of society, when distinct communities were -numerous, every stranger was looked upon with suspicion, and the -traveler in a state not his own found it difficult to get his wants -supplied, even if his life was not actually in danger. Hence the -custom arose for a man engaged in commerce or in any other occupation -that might compel him to visit a foreign country to form previously a -connection with a citizen of that country, who would be ready to -receive him as a friend, to supply his needs, to vouch for his good -intentions, and to act if necessary as his protector. Such a -relationship, called <i>hospitium</i>, was always strictly reciprocal: if A -agreed to entertain and protect B, when B visited A's country, then B -was bound to entertain and protect A, if A visited B's country. The -parties to an agreement of this sort were called <i>hospitēs</i>, and hence -the word <i>hospes</i> has a double signification, at one time denoting the -entertainer, at another the guest.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect185"><b>185</b></a></span> -<b>Obligations of Hospitium.</b>—The obligations imposed by this -covenant were of the most sacred character, and any failure to regard -its provisions was sacrilege, bringing upon the offender the anger of -<i>Iuppiter Hospitālis</i>. Either of the parties might cancel the bond, -but only after a formal and public notice of his intentions. On the -other hand the tie was hereditary, descending from father to son, so -that persons might be <i>hospitēs</i> who had never so much as seen each -other, whose immediate ancestors even might have had no personal -intercourse. As a means of identification the original parties -exchanged tokens <i>tesserae hospitālēs</i>, (see Rich and Harper, s. v.), -by which they or their descendants might recognize each other. These -tokens were carefully preserved, and when a stranger claimed -<i>hospitium</i> his <i>tessera</i> had to be produced and submitted for -examination. If it was found to be genuine, he was entitled to all the -privileges that the best-known guest-friend could expect. These seem -to have been entertainment so long as he remained in his host's city, -protection including legal assistance if necessary, nursing and -medical attendance in case of illness, the means necessary for -continuing his journey, and honorable burial if he died among -strangers. It will be noticed that these are almost precisely the -duties devolving upon members of our great benevolent societies at the -present time when appealed to by a brother in distress.</p> -<br> -<br><a name="chap6"></a> -<br> -<br> -<h3>CHAPTER VI</h3> - -<h4>THE HOUSE AND ITS FURNITURE</h4> - -<blockquote><small>R<small>EFERENCES</small>: Marquardt, 213-250, 607-645; Göll, II, 213-417; Guhl and -Koner, 556-580, 676-688, 705-725; Ramsay, 516-521; Pauly-Wissowa, -<i>ātrium</i>, <i>compluvium;</i> Smith, Harper, Rich, under <i>domus</i>, <i>mūrus</i>, -<i>tegula</i>, and the other Latin words used in the text; Lübker, 507-509; -Baumeister, 1365 f., 631, 927 f., 1373 f.; Mau-Kelsey, 239-348, -361-373, 446-474; Overbeck, 244-376, 520-537; Gusman, 253-316.</small></blockquote> -<br> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect186"><b>186</b></a></span> -<b>Domus.</b>—The house with which we are concerned is the residence -(<i>domus</i>) of the single household, as opposed to lodging houses or -apartment houses (<i>īnsulae</i>) intended for the accommodation of several -families, and the residence, moreover, of the well-to-do citizen, as -opposed on the one hand to the mansion of the millionaire and on the -other to the hovels of the very poor. At the same time it must be -understood that the Roman house did not show as many distinct types as -does the American house of the present time. The Roman was naturally -conservative, he was particularly reluctant to introduce foreign -ideas, and his house in all times and of all classes preserved certain -main features essentially unchanged. The proportion of these might -vary with the size and shape of the lot at the builder's disposal, the -number of apartments added would depend upon the means and tastes of -the owner, but the kernel, so to speak, is always the same, and this -makes the general plan much less complex, the description much less -confusing.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect187"><b>187</b></a></span> -Our sources of information are unusually abundant. Vitruvius, an -architect and engineer of the time of Caesar and Augustus, has left a -work on building, giving in detail his own principles of construction; -the works of many of the Roman writers contain either set descriptions -of parts of houses or at least numerous hints and allusions that are -collectively very helpful; and finally the ground plans of many houses -have been uncovered in Rome and elsewhere, and in Pompeii we have even -the walls of some houses left standing. There are still, however, -despite the fullness and authority of our sources, many things in -regard to the arrangement and construction of the house that are -uncertain and disputed (<a href="#sect12">§12, end</a>).</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect188"><b>188</b></a></span> -<b>The Development of the House.</b>—The primitive Roman house came -from the Etruscans. It goes back to the simple farm life of early -times, when all members of the household, father, mother, children, -and dependents, lived in one large room together. In this room the -meals were cooked, the table spread, all indoor work performed, the -sacrifices offered to the Lares (<a href="#sect27">§27</a>), and at night a space cleared in -which to spread the hard beds or pallets. The primitive house had no -chimney, the smoke escaping through a hole in the middle of the roof. -Rain could enter where the smoke escaped, and from this fact the hole -was called the <i>impluvium;</i> just beneath it in later times a basin -(<i>compluvium</i>) was hollowed out in the floor to catch the water for -domestic purposes. There were no windows, all natural light coming -through the <i>impluvium</i> or, in pleasant weather, through the open -door. There was but one door, and the space opposite it seems to have -been reserved as much as possible for the father and mother. Here was -the hearth, where the mother prepared the meals, and near it stood the -implements she used in spinning and weaving; here was the strong box -(<i>ārca</i>), in which the master kept his valuables, and here their couch -was spread.</p> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figures35to38"> - <tr> - <td width="279"> - <img src="images/figure035.jpg" alt="FIGURE 35. CINERARY URN"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="279" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 35. - C<small>INERARY</small> U<small>RN</small></small> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="279" align="center"> - <img src="images/figure036.jpg" alt="FIGURE 36. PLAN OF HOUSE"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="279" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 36. - P<small>LAN OF</small> H<small>OUSE</small></small> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="279" align="center"> - <img src="images/figure037.jpg" alt="FIGURE 37. PLAN OF HOUSE"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="279" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 37. - P<small>LAN OF</small> H<small>OUSE</small></small> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="279" align="center"> - <img src="images/figure038.jpg" alt="FIGURE 38. PLAN OF HOUSE"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="279" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 38. - P<small>LAN OF</small> H<small>OUSE</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect189"><b>189</b></a></span> -The outward appearance of such a house is shown in the Etruscan -cinerary urns (Fig. 35; see also Smith, I, 668; Schreiber, LIII, 5; -Baumeister, Fig. 146) found in various places in Italy. The ground -plan is a simple rectangle, as shown in Figure 36, without partitions. -This may be regarded as historically and architecturally the kernel of -the Roman house; it is found in all of which we have any knowledge. -Its very name (<i>ātrium</i>), denoting originally the whole house, was -also preserved, as is shown in the names of certain very ancient -buildings in Rome used for religious purposes, the <i>ātrium Vestae</i>, -the <i>ātrium Lībertātis</i>, etc., but afterwards applied to the -characteristic single room. The name was once supposed to mean "the -black (<i>āter</i>) room," but many scholars recognize in it the original -Etruscan word for house.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect190"><b>190</b></a></span> -The first change in the primitive house came in the form of a -shed or "lean-to" on the side of the <i>ātrium</i> opposite the door. It -was probably intended at first for merely temporary purposes, being -built of wooden boards (<i>tabulae</i>), and having an outside door and no -connection with the <i>ātrium</i>. It could not have been long, however, -until the wall between was broken through, and this once done and its -convenience demonstrated, the partition wall was entirely removed, and -the second form of the Roman house resulted (Fig. 37). This -improvement also persisted, and the <i>tablīnum</i> is found in all the -houses from the humblest to the costliest of which we have any -knowledge.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect191"><b>191</b></a></span> -The next change was made by widening the <i>ātrium</i>, but in order -that the roof might be more easily supported walls were erected along -the lines of the old <i>ātrium</i> for about two-thirds of its depth. These -may have been originally mere pillars, as nowadays in our cellars, not -continuous walls. At any rate, the <i>ātrium</i> at the end next the -<i>tablīnum</i> was given the full width between the outside walls, and the -additional spaces, one on each side, were called <i>ālae</i>. The -appearance of such a house as seen from the entrance door must have -been much like that of an Anglican or Roman Catholic church. The open -space between the supporting walls corresponded to the nave, the two -<i>ālae</i> to the transepts, while the bay-like <i>tablīnum</i> resembled the -chancel. The space between the outside walls and those supporting the -roof was cut off into rooms of various sizes, used for various -purposes (Fig. 38). So far as we know they received light only from -the <i>ātrium</i>, for no windows are assigned to them by Roman writers, -and none are found in the ruins, but it is hardly probable that in the -country no holes were made for light and air, however considerations -of privacy and security may have influenced builders in the towns. -From this ancient house we find preserved in its successors all -opposite the entrance door: the <i>ātrium</i> with its <i>ālae</i> and <i>tablīnum</i>, -the <i>impluvium</i> and <i>compluvium</i>. These are the characteristic -features of the Roman house, and must be so regarded in the -description which follows of later developments under foreign -influence.</p> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure39"> - <tr> - <td width="456"> - <img src="images/figure039.jpg" alt="FIGURE 39. PLAN OF HOUSE"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="456" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 39. - P<small>LAN OF</small> H<small>OUSE</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect192"><b>192</b></a></span> -The Greeks seem to have furnished the idea next adopted by the -Romans, a court at the rear of the <i>ātrium</i>, open to the sky, -surrounded by rooms, and set with flowers, trees, and shrubs. The open -space had columns around it, and often a fountain in the middle (Fig. -39). This court was called the <i>peristylum</i> or <i>peristylium</i>. -According to Vitruvius its breadth should have exceeded its depth by -one-third, but we do not find these or any other proportions strictly -observed in the houses that are known to us. Access to the -<i>peristylium</i> from the <i>ātrium</i> could be had through the <i>tablīnum</i>, -though this might be cut off from it by folding doors, and by a narrow -passage<small><small><sup>1</sup></small></small> by its side. The latter would be naturally used by servants -and by others who did not wish to pass through the master's room. Both -passage and <i>tablīnum</i> might be closed on the side of the <i>ātrium</i> by -portières. The arrangement of the various rooms around the court seems -to have varied with the notions of the builder, and no one plan for -them can be laid down. According to the means of the owner there were -bedrooms, dining-rooms, libraries, drawing-rooms, kitchen, scullery, -closets, private baths, together with the scanty accommodations -necessary even for a large number of slaves. But no matter whether -these rooms were many or few they all faced the court, receiving from -it light and air, as did the rooms along the sides of the <i>ātrium</i>. -There was often a garden behind the court.</p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>1</sup></small> This passage is called <i>faucēs</i> in the older books. Mau -has shown that the <i>faucēs</i> was on the entrance side of the <i>ātrium</i>. -He calls the passage by the <i>tablīnum</i> the <i>andrōn</i>.</small></blockquote> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure40"> - <tr> - <td width="566"> - <img src="images/figure040.jpg" alt="FIGURE 40. PLAN OF HOUSE"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="566" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 40. - P<small>LAN OF</small> H<small>OUSE</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect193"><b>193</b></a></span> -The next change took place in the city and town house only, -because it was due to conditions of town life that did not obtain in -the country. In ancient as well as in modern times business was likely -to spread from the center of the town into residence districts, and it -often became desirable for the owner of a dwelling-house to adapt it -to the new conditions. This was easily done in the case of the Roman -house on account of the arrangement of the rooms. Attention has -already been called to the fact that the rooms all opened to the -interior of the house, that no windows were placed in the outer walls, -and that the only door was in front. If the house faced a business -street, it is evident that the owner could, without interfering with -the privacy of his house or decreasing its light, build rooms in front -of the <i>ātrium</i> for commercial purposes. He reserved, of course, a -passageway to his own door, narrower or wider according to the -circumstances. If the house occupied a corner, such rooms might be -added on the side as well as in front (Fig. 40), and as they had no -necessary connection with the interior they might be rented as -living-rooms, as such rooms often are in our own cities. It is -probable that rooms were first added in this way for business purposes -by an owner who expected to carry on some enterprise of his own in -them, but even men of good position and considerable means did not -hesitate to add to their incomes by renting to others these -disconnected parts of their houses. All the larger houses uncovered in -Pompeii are arranged in this manner. One occupying a whole square and -having rented rooms on three sides is described in <a href="#sect208">§208</a>. Such a -detached house was called an <i>īnsula</i>.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect194"><b>194</b></a></span> -<b>The Vestibulum.</b>—Having traced the development of the house as a -whole and described briefly its permanent and characteristic parts, we -may now examine these more closely and at the same time call attention -to other parts introduced at a later time. It will be convenient to -begin with the front of the house. The city house was built even more -generally than now on the street line. In the poorer houses the door -opening into the <i>ātrium</i> was in the front wall, and was separated -from the street only by the width of the threshold. In the better sort -of houses, those described in the last section, the separation of the -<i>ātrium</i> from the street by the row of stores gave opportunity for -arranging a more imposing entrance. A part at least of this space was -left as an open court, with a costly pavement running from the street -to the door, adorned with shrubs and flowers, with statuary even, and -trophies of war, if the owner was rich and a successful general. This -courtyard was called the <i>vestibulum</i>. The derivation of the word is -disputed, but it probably comes from <i>ve-</i>, "apart," "separate," and -<i>stāre</i> (cf. <i>prōstibulum</i> from <i>prōstāre</i>), and means "a private -standing place"; other explanations are suggested in the dictionaries. -The important thing to notice is that it does not correspond at all to -the part of a modern house called after it the vestibule. In this -<i>vestibulum</i> the clients gathered, before daybreak perhaps (<a href="#sect182">§182</a>), to -wait for admission to the <i>ātrium</i>, and here the <i>sportula</i> was doled -out to them. Here, too, was arranged the wedding procession (<a href="#sect86">§86</a>), and -here was marshaled the train that escorted the boy to the forum the -day that he put away childish things (<a href="#sect128">§128</a>). Even in the poorer houses -the same name was given to the little space between the door and the -edge of the sidewalk.</p> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figures41to43"> - <tr> - <td width="370" align="center"> - <img src="images/figure041.jpg" alt="FIGURE 41. MOSAIC DOG"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="370" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 41. - M<small>OSAIC</small> D<small>OG</small></small> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="370" align="center"> - <img src="images/figure042.jpg" alt="FIGURE 42. IMPLUVIUM IN TUSCAN ATRIUM"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="370" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 42. - I<small>MPLUVIUM IN</small> T<small>USCAN</small> - A<small>TRIUM</small></small> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="370"> - <img src="images/figure043.jpg" alt="FIGURE 43. SECTION OF TUSCAN ATRIUM"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="370" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 43. - S<small>ECTION OF</small> T<small>USCAN</small> - A<small>TRIUM</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect195"><b>195</b></a></span> -<b>The Ostium.</b>—The entrance to the house was called the <i>ōstium</i>. -This includes the doorway and the door itself, and the word is applied -to either, though <i>forēs</i> and <i>iānua</i> are the more precise words for -the door. In the poorer houses (<a href="#sect194">§194</a>) the <i>ōstium</i> was directly on the -street, and there can be no doubt that it originally opened directly -into the <i>ātrium;</i> in other words, the ancient <i>ātrium</i> was separated -from the street only by its own wall. The refinement of later times -led to the introduction of a hall or passageway between the -<i>vestibulum</i> and the <i>ātrium</i>, and the <i>ōstium</i> opened into this hall -and gradually gave its name to it. The threshold (<i>līmen</i>) was broad, -the door being placed well back, and often had the word <i>salvē</i> worked -on it in mosaic. Over the door were words of good omen, <i>Nihil intret -malī</i>, for example, or a charm against fire. In the great houses where -an <i>ōstiārius</i> or <i>iānitor</i> (<a href="#sect150">§150</a>) was kept on duty, his place was -behind the door, and sometimes he had here a small room. A dog was -often kept chained in the <i>ōstium</i>, or in default of one a picture was -painted on the wall or worked in mosaic on the floor (Fig. 41) with -the warning beneath it: <i>Cavē canem!</i> The hallway was closed on the -side of the <i>ātrium</i> with a curtain (<i>vēlum</i>). This hallway was not so -long that through it persons in the <i>ātrium</i> could not see passers-by -in the street.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect196"><b>196</b></a></span> -<b>The Atrium.</b>—The <i>ātrium</i> (<a href="#sect188">§188</a>) was the kernel of the Roman -house, and to it was given the appropriate name <i>cavum aedium</i>. It is -possible that this later name belonged strictly to the unroofed -portion only, but the two words came to be used indiscriminately. The -old view that the <i>cavum aedium</i> was a middle court between the -<i>ātrium</i> and the <i>peristylium</i> is still held by a few scholars, but is -not supported by the monumental evidence (<a href="#sect187">§187</a>). The most conspicuous -features of the <i>ātrium</i> were the <i>impluvium</i> and the <i>compluvium</i> -(<a href="#sect188">§188</a>). The water collected in the latter was carried into cisterns; -over the former a curtain could be drawn when the light was too -intense, as over a photographer's skylight nowadays. We find that the -two words were carelessly used for each other by Roman writers. So -important was the <i>impluvium</i> to the <i>ātrium</i>, that the latter was -named from the manner in which the former was constructed. Vitruvius -tells us that there were four styles. The first was called the <i>ātrium -Tūscanicum</i>. In this the roof was formed by two pairs of beams -crossing each other at right angles, the inclosed space being left -uncovered and thus forming the <i>impluvium</i> (Figs. 42, 43). The name -(<a href="#sect188">§188</a>) as well as the simple construction shows that this was the -earliest form of the <i>ātrium</i>, and it is evident that it could not be -used for rooms of very large dimensions. The second was called the -<i>ātrium tetrastylon</i>. The beams were supported at their intersections -by pillars or columns. The third, <i>ātrium Corinthium</i>, differed from -the second only in having more than four supporting pillars. It is -probable that these two similar styles came in with the widening of -the <i>ātrium</i> (<a href="#sect191">§191</a>). The fourth was called the <i>ātrium displuviātum</i>. -In this the roof sloped toward the outer walls, as shown in the -cinerary urn mentioned in <a href="#sect189">§189</a>, and the water was carried off by -gutters on the outside, the <i>compluvium</i> collecting only so much as -actually fell into it from the heavens. We are told that there was -another style of <i>ātrium</i>, the <i>testūdinātum</i>, which was covered all -over and had neither <i>impluvium</i> nor <i>compluvium</i>. We do not know how -this was lighted; perhaps by windows in the ālae.</p> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure44"> - <tr> - <td width="271"> - <img src="images/figure044.jpg" alt="FIGURE 44. SMALL HOUSE AT POMPEII"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="271" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 44. - S<small>MALL</small> H<small>OUSE AT</small> - P<small>OMPEII</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect197"><b>197</b></a></span> -<b>The Change in the Atrium.</b>—The <i>ātrium</i> as it was in the early -days of the Republic has been described in <a href="#sect188">§188</a>. The simplicity and -purity of the family life of that period lent a dignity to the -one-room house that the vast palaces of the late Republic and Empire -failed utterly to inherit. By Cicero's time the <i>ātrium</i> had ceased to -be the center of domestic life; it had become a state apartment used -only for display. We do not know the successive steps in the process -of change. Probably the rooms along the sides (<a href="#sect191">§191</a>) were first used -as bedrooms, for the sake of greater privacy. The need of a detached -room for the cooking must have been felt as soon as the <i>peristylium</i> -was adopted (it may well be that the court was originally a kitchen -garden), and then of a dining-room convenient to it. Then other rooms -were added about this court and these were made sleeping-apartments -for the sake of still greater privacy. Finally these rooms were needed -for other purposes (<a href="#sect192">§192</a>) and the sleeping-rooms were moved again, -this time to an upper story. When this second story was added we do -not know, but it presupposes the small and costly lots of a city. Even -the most unpretentious houses in Pompeii have in them the remains of -staircases (Fig. 44).</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure45"> - <tr> - <td width="645"> - <img src="images/figure045.jpg" alt="FIGURE 45. ATRIUM IN HOUSE OF SALLUST IN POMPEII"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="645" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 45. - A<small>TRIUM IN</small> H<small>OUSE OF</small> - S<small>ALLUST IN</small> P<small>OMPEII</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect198"><b>198</b></a></span> -The <i>ātrium</i> was now fitted up with all the splendor and -magnificence that the owner's means would permit. The opening in the -roof was enlarged to admit more light, and the supporting pillars -(<a href="#sect196">§196</a>) were made of marble or costly woods. Between these pillars and -along the walls statues and other works of art were placed. The -<i>compluvium</i> became a marble basin, with a fountain in the center, and -was often richly carved or adorned with figures in relief. The floors -were mosaic, the walls painted in brilliant colors or paneled with -marbles of many hues, and the ceilings were covered with ivory and -gold. In such a hall (Fig. 45) the host greeted his guests (<a href="#sect185">§185</a>), the -patron received his clients (<a href="#sect182">§182</a>), the husband welcomed his wife -(<a href="#sect89">§89</a>), and here his body lay in state when the pride of life was over.</p> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure46"> - <tr> - <td width="401"> - <img src="images/figure046.jpg" alt="FIGURE 46. RUINS OF THE HOUSE OF THE POET IN POMPEII"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="401" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 46. - R<small>UINS OF THE</small> H<small>OUSE OF - THE</small> P<small>OET IN</small> P<small>OMPEII</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect199"><b>199</b></a></span> -Still some memorials of the older day were left in even the most -imposing <i>ātrium</i>. The altar to the Lares and Penates remained near -the place where the hearth had been, though the regular sacrifices -were made in a special chapel in the <i>peristylium</i>. In even the -grandest houses the implements for spinning were kept in the place -where the matron had once sat among her maidservants (<a href="#sect86">§§86</a>, <a href="#sect105">105</a>), as -Livy tells us in the story of Lucretia. The cabinets retained the -masks of simpler and may be stronger men (<a href="#sect107">§107</a>), and the marriage -couch stood opposite the <i>ōstium</i> (hence its other name, <i>lectus -adversus</i>), where it had been placed on the wedding night (<a href="#sect89">§89</a>), -though no one slept in the <i>ātrium</i>. In the country much of the -old-time use of the <i>ātrium</i> survived even Augustus, and the poor, of -course, had never changed their style of living. What use was made of -the small rooms along the sides of the <i>ātrium</i>, after they had ceased -to be bedchambers, we do not know; they served perhaps as conversation -rooms, private parlors, and drawing-rooms.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect200"><b>200</b></a></span> -<b>The Alae.</b>—The manner in which the <i>ālae</i>, or wings, were formed -has been explained (<a href="#sect191">§191</a>); they were simply the rectangular recesses -left on the right and left of the <i>ātrium</i>, when the smaller rooms on -the sides were walled off. It must be remembered that they were -entirely open to the <i>ātrium</i>, and formed a part of it, perhaps -originally furnishing additional light from windows in their outer -walls. In them were kept the <i>imāginēs</i>, as the wax busts of those -ancestors who had held curule offices were called, arranged in -cabinets in such a way that, by the help of cords running from one to -another and of inscriptions under each of them, their relation to each -other could be made clear and their great deeds kept in mind. Even -when Roman writers or those of modern times speak of the <i>imāginēs</i> as -in the <i>ātrium</i>, it is the <i>ālae</i> that are intended.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure47"> - <tr> - <td width="647"> - <img src="images/figure047.jpg" alt="FIGURE 47. VIEW FROM THE ATRIUM"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="647" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 47. - V<small>IEW FROM THE</small> A<small>TRIUM</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect201"><b>201</b></a></span> -<b>The Tablinum.</b>—The probable origin of the <i>tablīnum</i>, has been -explained above (<a href="#sect190">§190</a>), and its name has been derived from the -material (<i>tabulae</i>, "planks") of the "lean-to," perhaps a summer -kitchen, from which it developed. Others think that the room received -its name from the fact that in it the master kept his account books -(<i>tabulae</i>) as well as all his business and private papers. He kept -here also the money chest or strong box (<i>ārca</i>), which in the olden -time had been chained to the floor of the <i>ātrium</i>, and made the room -in fact his office or study. By its position it commanded the whole -house, as the rooms could be entered only from the <i>ātrium</i> or -<i>peristylium</i>, and the <i>tablīnum</i> was right between them. The master -could secure entire privacy by closing the folding doors which cut off -the private court, or by pulling the curtains across the opening into -the great hall. On the other hand, if the <i>tablīnum</i> was left open, -the guest entering the <i>ōstium</i> must have had a charming vista, -commanding at a glance all the public and semi-public parts of the -house (Fig. 47). Even when the <i>tablīnum</i> was closed, there was free -passage from the front of the house to the rear through the short -corridor (<a href="#sect192">§192</a>) by the side of the <i>tablīnum</i>. It should be noticed -that there was only one such passage, though the older authorities -assert that there were two.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure48"> - <tr> - <td width="640"> - <img src="images/figure048.jpg" alt="FIGURE 48. THE PERISTYLE FROM HOUSE IN POMPEII"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="640" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 48. - T<small>HE</small> P<small>ERISTYLE FROM</small> - H<small>OUSE IN</small> P<small>OMPEII</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table><br> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure49"> - <tr> - <td width="363"> - <img src="images/figure049.jpg" alt="FIGURE 49. ROOF OF PERISTYLE"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="363" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 49. - R<small>OOF OF</small> P<small>ERISTYLE</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect202"><b>202</b></a></span> -<b>The Peristyle.</b>—The <i>peristylium</i> or <i>peristylum</i> was adopted, -as we have seen (<a href="#sect192">§192</a>), from the Greeks, but despite the way in which -the Roman clung to the customs of his fathers it was not long in -becoming the more important of the two main sections of the house. We -must think of a spacious court (Fig. 48) open to the sky, but -surrounded by a continuous row of buildings, or rather rooms, for the -buildings soon became one, all facing it and having doors and latticed -windows opening upon it. All these buildings had covered porches on -the side next the court (Fig. 49), and these porches forming an -unbroken colonnade on the four sides were strictly the peristyle, -though the name came to be used of the whole section of the house, -including court, colonnade, and surrounding rooms. The court was much -more open to the sun than the <i>ātrium</i>, and all sorts of rare and -beautiful plants and flowers bloomed and flourished in it, protected -by the walls from cold winds. Fountains and statuary adorned the -middle part; the colonnade furnished cool or sunny promenades, no -matter what the time of day or the season of the year. Loving the open -air and the charms of nature as the Romans did, it is no wonder that -they soon made the peristyle the center of their domestic life in all -the houses of the better class, and reserved the <i>ātrium</i> for the more -formal functions which their political and public position demanded -(<a href="#sect197">§197</a>). It must be remembered that there was often a garden behind the -peristyle, and there was also very commonly a direct connection with -the street.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect203"><b>203</b></a></span> -<b>Private Rooms.</b>—The rooms surrounding the court varied so much -with the means and tastes of the owners of the houses that we can -hardly do more than give a list of those most frequently mentioned in -literature. It is important to remember that in the town house all -these rooms received their light by day from the court (<a href="#sect193">§193</a>), while -in the country there may well have been windows and doors in the -exterior wall (<a href="#sect191">§191</a>). First in importance comes the kitchen -(<i>culīna</i>), placed on the side of the court opposite the <i>tablīnum</i>. -It was supplied with an open fireplace for roasting and boiling, and -with a stove (Fig. 50) not unlike the charcoal affairs still used in -Europe. Near it was the bakery, if the mansion required one, supplied -with an oven. Near it, too, was the bathhouse (<i>lātrīna</i>) with the -necessary closet, in order that all might use the same connection with -the sewer (Fig. 51). If the house had a stable, it was also put near -the kitchen, as nowadays in Latin countries.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figures50and51"> - <tr> - <td width="265"> - <img src="images/figure050.jpg" alt="FIGURE 50. KITCHEN RANGE"> - </td> - <td width="264"> - <img src="images/figure051.jpg" alt="FIGURE 51. LATRINA"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="265" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 50. - K<small>ITCHEN</small> R<small>ANGE</small></small> - </td> - <td width="264" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 51. - L<small>ATRINA</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect204"><b>204</b></a></span> -The dining-room (<i>trīclīnium</i>) may be mentioned next. It was not -necessarily in immediate juxtaposition to the kitchen, because the -army of slaves (<a href="#sect149">§149</a>) made its position of little importance so far as -convenience was concerned. It was customary to have several trīclīnia -for use at different seasons of the year, in order that the room might -be warmed by the sun in winter, and in summer escape its rays. -Vitruvius thought that its length should be twice its breadth, but the -ruins show no fixed proportions. The Romans were so fond of the air -and the sky that the court must have often served as a dining-room, -and Horace has left us a charming picture of the master dining under -an arbor attended by a single slave. Such an outdoor dining-room is -found in the so-called House of Sallust at Pompeii (Fig. 52).</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure52"> - <tr> - <td width="452"> - <img src="images/figure052.jpg" alt="FIGURE 52. DINING-ROOM IN COURT"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="452" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 52. - D<small>INING-ROOM IN</small> C<small>OURT</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table><br> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure53"> - <tr> - <td width="267"> - <img src="images/figure053.jpg" alt="FIGURE 53. BEDROOM"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="267" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 53. - B<small>EDROOM</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect205"><b>205</b></a></span> -The sleeping-rooms (<i>cubicula</i>) were not considered so important -by the Romans as by us, for the reason, probably, that they were used -merely to sleep in and not for living-rooms as well. They were very -small and the furniture was scant (Fig. 53) in even the best houses. -Some of these seem to have had anterooms in connection with the -<i>cubicula</i>, which were probably occupied by attendants (<a href="#sect150">§150</a>), and in -even the ordinary houses there was often a recess for the bed. Some of -the bedrooms seem to have been used merely for the midday siesta -(<a href="#sect122">§122</a>), and these were naturally situated in the coolest part of the -court; they were called <i>cubicula diurna</i>. The others were called by -way of distinction <i>cubicula nocturna</i> or <i>dormitōria</i>, and were -placed so far as possible on the west side of the court in order that -they might receive the morning sun. It should be remembered that in -the best houses the bedrooms were preferably in the second story of -the peristyle.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect206"><b>206</b></a></span> -A library (<i>bibliothēca</i>) had a place in the house of every -Roman of education. Collections of books were large as well as -numerous, and were made then as now by persons even who cared nothing -about their contents. The books or rolls, which will be described -later, were kept in cases or cabinets around the walls, and in one -library discovered in Herculaneum an additional rectangular case -occupied the middle of the room. It was customary to decorate the room -with statues of Minerva and the Muses, and also with the busts and -portraits of distinguished men. Vitruvius recommends an eastern aspect -for the <i>bibliothēca</i>, probably to guard against dampness.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure54"> - <tr> - <td width="452" align="center"> - <img src="images/figure054.jpg" alt="FIGURE 54. CHAPEL IN HOUSE"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="452" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 54. - C<small>HAPEL IN</small> H<small>OUSE</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect207"><b>207</b></a></span> -Besides these rooms, which must have been found in all good -houses, there were others of less importance, some of which were so -rare that we scarcely know their uses. The <i>sacrārium</i> was a private -chapel (Fig. 54) in which the images of the gods were kept, acts of -worship performed, and sacrifices offered. The Lar or tutelary -divinity of the house seems, however, to have retained his ancient -place in the <i>ātrium</i>. The <i>oecī</i> were halls or saloons, corresponding -perhaps to our parlors and drawing-rooms, used occasionally, it may -be, for banquet halls. The <i>exedrae</i> were rooms supplied with -permanent seats which seem to have been used for lectures and similar -entertainments. The <i>sōlārium</i> was a place to bask in the sun, -sometimes a terrace, often the flat roof of the house, which was then -covered with earth and laid out like a garden and made beautiful with -flowers and shrubs. Besides these there were, of course, sculleries, -pantries, and storerooms. The slaves had to have their quarters -(<i>cellae servōrum</i>), in which they were packed as closely as possible. -Cellars under the houses seem to have been rare, though some have been -found at Pompeii.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure55"> - <tr> - <td width="677"> - <img src="images/figure055.jpg" alt="FIGURE 55. HOUSE OF PANSA"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="677" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 55. - H<small>OUSE OF</small> P<small>ANSA</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect208"><b>208</b></a></span> -<b>The House of Pansa.</b>—Finally we may describe a house that -actually existed, taking as an illustration one that must have -belonged to a wealthy and influential man, the so-called House of -Pansa at Pompeii (Fig. 55; and see also Overbeck's <i>Pompeii</i>, p. 325; -Harper, p. 549; Becker, II, p. 214; Smith, I, p. 681; Schreiber, LIII, -16; the various plans are slightly different). The house occupied an -entire square, facing a little east of south. Most of the rooms on the -front and sides were rented out for shops or stores; in the rear was a -garden. The rooms that did not belong to the house proper are shaded -in the plan here given. The <i>vestibulum</i>, marked 1 in the plan, is the -open space between two of the shops (<a href="#sect193">§193</a>). Behind it is the <i>ōstium</i> -(1'), with a figure of a dog (<a href="#sect195">§195</a>) in mosaic, opening into the -<i>ātrium</i> (2, 2) with three rooms on each side, the <i>ālae</i> (2', 2') -being in the regular place, the <i>compluvium</i> (3) in the middle, the -<i>tablīnum</i> (4) opposite the <i>ōstium</i>, and the passage on the eastern -side (5). The <i>ātrium</i> is of the <i>Tūscanicum</i> style (<a href="#sect196">§196</a>), and is -paved with concrete; the <i>tablīnum</i> and the passage have mosaic -floors. From these, steps lead down into the court, which is lower -than the <i>ātrium</i>, measures 65 by 50 feet, and is surrounded by a -colonnade with sixteen pillars. There are two rooms on the side next -the <i>ātrium</i>, one of these (6) has been called the <i>bibliothēca</i> -(<a href="#sect206">§206</a>), because a manuscript was found in it, but its purpose is -uncertain; the other (6') was possibly a dining-room. The court has -two projections (7', 7') much like the <i>ālae</i>, which have been called -<i>exedrae</i> (<a href="#sect207">§207</a>); it will be noticed that one of these has the -convenience of an exit (<a href="#sect202">§202</a>) to the street. The rooms on the west and -the small room on the east can not be definitely named. The large room -on the east (T) is the main dining-room (<a href="#sect204">§204</a>), the remains of the -dining couches being marked on the plan. The kitchen is at the -northwest corner (13), with the stable (14) next to it (<a href="#sect203">§203, end</a>); -off the kitchen is a paved yard (15) with a gateway into the street by -which a cart could enter. East of the kitchen and yard is a narrow -passage connecting the peristyle with the garden (<a href="#sect202">§202</a>). East of this -are two rooms, the larger of which (9) is one of the most imposing -rooms of the house, 33 by 24 feet in size, with a large window guarded -by a low balustrade, and opening into the garden. This was probably an -<i>oecus</i> (<a href="#sect207">§207</a>). In the center of the court is a basin about two feet -deep, the rim of which was once decorated with figures of water plants -and fish. Along the whole north end of the house ran a long veranda -(16, 16), overlooking the garden (11, 11) in which was a sort of -summer house (12). The house had an upper story, but the stairs -leading to it are in the rented rooms, suggesting that the upper floor -was not occupied by Pansa's family.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure56"> - <tr> - <td width="793"> - <img src="images/figure056.jpg" alt="FIGURE 56. SECTION OF THE HOUSE OF PANSA IN POMPEII"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="793" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 56. - S<small>ECTION OF THE</small> H<small>OUSE - OF</small> P<small>ANSA IN</small> P<small>OMPEII</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect209"><b>209</b></a></span> -Of the rooms facing the street it will be noticed that one, -lightly shaded in the plan, is connected with the <i>ātrium;</i> it was -probably used for some business conducted by Pansa himself (<a href="#sect193">§193, -end</a>), possibly with a slave (<a href="#sect144">§144</a>) or a freedman (<a href="#sect175">§175</a>) in immediate -charge of it. Of the others the suites on the east side (A, B) seem to -have been rented out as living apartments. The others were shops and -stores. The four connected rooms on the west, near the front, seem to -have been a large bakery; the room marked C was the salesroom, with a -large room opening off of it containing three stone mills, troughs for -kneading the dough, a water tap with sink, and a recessed oven. The -uses of the others are uncertain. The section plan (Fig. 56) -represents the appearance of the house if all were cut away on one -side of a line drawn from front to rear through the middle of the -house. It is, of course, largely conjectural, but gives a clear idea -of the general way in which the division walls and roof must have been -arranged.</p> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure57"> - <tr> - <td width="384"> - <img src="images/figure057.jpg" alt="FIGURE 57. WALL OF ROMULUS"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="384" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 57. - W<small>ALL OF</small> R<small>OMULUS</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect210"><b>210</b></a></span> -<b>The Walls.</b>—The materials of which the wall (<i>pariēs</i>) was -composed varied with the time, the place, and the cost of -transportation. Stone and unburned bricks (<i>laterēs crūdī</i>) were the -earliest materials used in Italy, as almost everywhere else, timber -being employed for merely temporary structures, as in the addition -(<a href="#sect190">§190</a>) from which the <i>tablīnum</i> developed. For private houses in very -early times and for public buildings in all times, walls of dressed -stone (<i>opus quadrātum</i>) were laid in regular courses, precisely as in -modern times (Fig. 57). Over the wall was spread a coating of fine -marble stucco for decorative purposes, which gave it a finish of -dazzling white. For less pretentious houses, not for public buildings, -the sun-dried bricks were largely used up to about the beginning of -the first century <small>B.C.</small> These, too, were covered with the stucco, for -protection against the weather as well as for decoration, but even the -hard stucco has not preserved walls of this perishable material to our -times. In classical times a new material had come into use, better -than either brick or stone, cheaper, more durable, more easily worked -and transported, which was employed almost exclusively for private -houses, and very generally for public buildings. Walls constructed in -the new way (<i>opus caementīcium</i>) are variously called "rubble-work" -or "concrete" in our books of reference, but neither term is quite -descriptive; the <i>opus caementīcium</i> was not laid in courses, as is -our rubble-work, while on the other hand larger stones were used in it -than in the concrete of which walls for buildings are now constructed.</p> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure58"> - <tr> - <td width="361"> - <img src="images/figure058.jpg" alt="FIGURE 58. METHOD OF CASTING CONCRETE WALLS"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="361" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 58. - M<small>ETHOD OF</small> C<small>ASTING</small> - C<small>ONCRETE</small> W<small>ALLS</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect211"><b>211</b></a></span> -<b>Paries Caementicius.</b>—The materials varied with the place. At -Rome lime and volcanic ashes (<i>lapis Puteolānus</i>) were used with -pieces of stone as large or larger than the fist. Brickbats sometimes -took the place of stone, and sand (<a href="#sect146">§146</a>) that of the volcanic ashes; -potsherds crushed fine were better than the sand. The harder the -stones the better the concrete; the very best was made with pieces of -lava, the material with which the roads were generally paved. The -method of forming the concrete walls was the same as that of modern -times, familiar to us all in the construction of sidewalks. It will be -easily understood from the illustration (Fig. 58). Upright posts, -about 5 by 6 inches thick, and from 10 to 15 feet in height, were -fixed about 3 feet apart along the line of both faces of the intended -wall. On the outside of these were nailed horizontally boards, 10 or -12 inches wide, overlapping each other. Into the intermediate space -the semi-fluid concrete was poured, receiving the imprint of posts and -boards. When the concrete had hardened, the frame-work was removed and -placed on top of it and the work continued until the wall had reached -the required height. Walls made in this way varied in thickness from a -seven-inch partition wall in an ordinary house to the eighteen-foot -walls of the Pantheon of Agrippa. They were far more durable than -stone walls, which might be removed stone by stone with little more -labor than was required to put them together; the concrete wall was a -single slab of stone throughout its whole extent, and large parts of -it might be cut away without diminishing the strength of the rest in -the slightest degree.</p> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figures59and60"> - <tr> - <td width="354" align="center"> - <img src="images/figure059.jpg" alt="FIGURE 59. WALL FACINGS"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="354" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 59. - W<small>ALL</small> F<small>ACINGS</small></small> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="354"> - <img src="images/figure060.jpg" alt="FIGURE 60. BRICK FOR FACING WALL"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="354" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 60. - B<small>RICK FOR</small> F<small>ACING</small> W<small>ALL</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect212"><b>212</b></a></span> -<b>Wall Facings.</b>—Impervious to the weather though these walls -were, they were usually faced with stone or kiln-burned brick -(<i>laterēs coctī</i>). The stone employed was usually the soft tufa, not -nearly so well adapted to stand the weather as the concrete itself. -The earliest fashion was to take bits of stone having one smooth face -but of no regular size or shape and arrange them with the smooth faces -against the frame-work as fast as the concrete was poured in; when the -frame-work was removed the wall presented the appearance shown at A in -Fig. 59. Such a wall was called <i>opus incertum</i>. In later times the -tufa was used in small blocks having the smooth face square and of a -uniform size. A wall so faced looked as if covered with a net (B in -Fig. 59) and was therefore called <i>opus rēticulātum</i>. A section at a -corner is shown at C. In either case the exterior face of the wall was -usually covered with a fine limestone or marble stucco, which gave a -hard finish, smooth and white. The burned bricks were triangular in -shape, but their arrangement and appearance can be more easily -understood from the illustration (Fig. 60) than from any description -that could be given here. It must be noticed that there were no walls -made of <i>laterēs coctī</i> alone, even the thin partition walls having a -core of concrete.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect213"><b>213</b></a></span> -<b>Floors and Ceilings.</b>—In the poorer houses the floor (<i>sōlum</i>) -of the first story was made by smoothing the ground between the walls, -covering it thickly with small pieces of stone, bricks, tile, and -potsherds, and pounding all down solidly and smoothly with a heavy -rammer (<i>fistūca</i>). Such a floor was called <i>pavīmentum</i>, and the name -came gradually to be used of floors of all kinds. In houses of a -better sort the floor was made of stone slabs fitted smoothly -together. The more pretentious houses had concrete floors, made as has -been described. Floors of upper stories were sometimes made of wood, -but concrete was used here, too, poured over a temporary flooring of -wood. Such a floor was very heavy, and required strong walls to -support it; examples are preserved of the thickness of eighteen inches -and a span of twenty feet. A floor of this kind made a perfect ceiling -for the room below, requiring only a finish of stucco. Other ceilings -were made much as they are now, laths being nailed on the stringers or -rafters and covered with mortar and stucco.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figures61and62"> - <tr> - <td width="281"> - <img src="images/figure061.jpg" alt="FIGURE 61. HUT OF ROMULUS"> - </td> - <td width="323"> - <img src="images/figure062.jpg" alt="FIGURE 62. TILE FOR ROOF"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="281" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 61. - H<small>UT OF</small> R<small>OMULUS</small></small> - </td> - <td width="323" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 62. - T<small>ILE FOR</small> R<small>OOF</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table><br> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure63"> - <tr> - <td width="354"> - <img src="images/figure063.jpg" alt="FIGURE 63. TILE ROOF"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="354" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 63. - T<small>ILE</small> R<small>OOF</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect214"><b>214</b></a></span> -<b>Roofs.</b>—The construction of the roofs (<i>tēcta</i>) differed very -little from the modern method, as may be seen in the illustration -shown in <a href="#sect196">§196</a>. They varied as much as ours do in shape, some being -flat, others sloping in two directions, others in four. In the most -ancient times the covering was a thatch of straw, as in the so-called -hut of Romulus (<i>casa Rōmulī</i>) on the Palatine Hill preserved even -under the Empire as a relic of the past (Fig. 61). Shingles followed -the straw, only to give place in turn to tiles. These were at first -flat, like our shingles, but were later made with a flange on each -side (Fig. 62) in such a way that the lower part of one would slip -into the upper part of the one below it on the roof. The tiles -(<i>tēgulae</i>) were laid side by side and the flanges covered by other -tiles, called <i>imbricēs</i> (Fig. 63) inverted over them. Gutters also of -tile ran along the eaves to conduct the water into cisterns, if it was -needed for domestic purposes. The appearance of the completed roof is -shown in Fig. 49, <a href="#sect202">§202</a>.</p> -<table align="left" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure64"> - <tr> - <td width="150" align="center"> - <img src="images/figure064.jpg" alt="FIGURE 64. DOOR OF ROMAN HOUSE"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="150" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 64. - D<small>OOR OF</small> R<small>OMAN</small> H<small>OUSE</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect215"><b>215</b></a></span> -<b>The Doors.</b>—The Roman doorway, like our own, had four parts: the -threshold (<i>līmen</i>), the two jambs (<i>postēs</i>), and the lintel (<i>līmen -superum</i>). The lintel was always of a single piece of stone and -peculiarly massive. The doors were exactly like those of modern times, -except in the matter of hinges, for while the Romans had hinges like -ours they did not use them on their doors. The door-hinge was really a -cylinder of hard wood, a little longer than the door and of a diameter -a little greater than the thickness of the door, terminating above and -below in pivots. These pivots turned in sockets made to receive them -in the threshold and lintel. To this cylinder the door was mortised, -their combined weight coming upon the lower pivot. The cut (Fig. 64) -makes this clear, and reminds one of an old-fashioned homemade gate. -The comedies are full of references to the creaking of these doors.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect216"><b>216</b></a></span> -The outer door of the house was properly called <i>iānua</i>, an -inner door <i>ōstium</i>, but the two words came to be used -indiscriminately, and the latter was even applied to the whole -entrance (<a href="#sect195">§195</a>). Double doors were called <i>forēs</i>, and the back door, -usually opening into a garden (<a href="#sect208">§208</a>), was called the <i>postīcum</i>. The -doors opened inwards and those in the outer wall were supplied with -bolts (<i>pessulī</i>) and bars (<i>serae</i>). Locks and keys by which the doors -could be fastened from without were not unknown, but were very heavy -and clumsy. Finally it should be noticed that in the interiors of -private houses doors were not nearly so common as now, the Romans -preferring portières (<i>vēla</i>, <i>aulaea</i>).</p> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure65"> - <tr> - <td width="150" align="center"> - <img src="images/figure065.jpg" alt="FIGURE 65. WINDOW"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="150" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 65. - W<small>INDOW</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect217"><b>217</b></a></span> -<b>The Windows.</b>—In the principal rooms of the house the windows -opened on the court, as has been seen, and it may be set down as a -rule that in rooms situated on the first floor and used for domestic -purposes there were no windows opening on the street. In the upper -floors there must have been windows on the street in such apartments -as had no outlook on the court, as in those for example above the -rented rooms in the House of Pansa (<a href="#sect208">§208</a>). Country houses may also -have had outside windows in the first story (<a href="#sect203">§203</a>). All the windows -(<i>fenestrae</i>) were small (Fig. 65), hardly larger than three feet by -two. Some were provided with shutters, which were made to slide -backward and forward in a frame-work on the outside of the wall. These -shutters were sometimes in two parts moving in opposite directions, -and when closed were said to be <i>iūnctae</i>. Other windows were -latticed, and others still were covered with a fine network to keep -out mice and other objectionable animals. Glass was known to the -Romans of the Empire but was too expensive for general use. Talc and -other translucent materials were also employed in window frames as a -protection against cold, but only in very rare instances.</p> -<table align="left" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure66"> - <tr> - <td width="249"> - <img src="images/figure066.jpg" alt="FIGURE 66. STOVE FOR HEATING"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="249" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 66. - S<small>TOVE FOR</small> H<small>EATING</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect218"><b>218</b></a></span> -<b>Heating.</b>—Even in the mild climate of Italy the houses must -often have been too cold for comfort. On merely chilly days the -occupants probably contented themselves with moving into rooms warmed -by the direct rays of the sun (<a href="#sect204">§204</a>), or with wearing wraps or heavier -clothing. In the more severe weather of actual winter they used -charcoal stoves or braziers of the sort that is still used in the -countries of southern Europe. They were merely metal boxes (Fig. 66) -in which hot coals could be put, with legs to keep the floors from -injury and handles by which they could be carried from room to room. -They were called <i>foculī</i>. The wealthy had furnaces resembling ours -under their houses, the heat being carried to the rooms by tile pipes; -in some instances the partitions and floors seem to have been made of -hollow tiles, through which the hot air circulated, warming the rooms -without being admitted to them. These furnaces had chimneys, but -furnaces were seldom used.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect219"><b>219</b></a></span> -<b>Water Supply.</b>—All the important towns of Italy had abundant -supplies of water piped from hills and brought sometimes from a -considerable distance. The Romans' aqueducts were among their most -stupendous and most successful works of engineering. Mains were laid -down the middle of the streets and from these the water was piped into -the houses. There was often a tank in the upper part of the house, -from which the water was distributed as it was needed. It was not -usually carried into many of the rooms, but there was always a jet or -fountain in the court (<a href="#sect202">§202</a>), in the bathhouse, the garden, and the -closet. The bathhouse had a separate heating apparatus of its own, -which kept the room or rooms at the desired temperature and furnished -hot water as required.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect220"><b>220</b></a></span> -<b>Decoration.</b>—The outside of the house was left severely plain, -the walls being merely covered with stucco, as we have seen (<a href="#sect212">§212</a>). -The interior was decorated to suit the tastes and means of the owner, -not even the poorer houses lacking charming effects in this direction. -At first the stucco-finished walls were merely marked off into -rectangular panels (<i>abacī</i>), which were painted deep, rich colors, -reds and yellows predominating. Then in the middle of these panels -simple center-pieces were painted and the whole surrounded with the -most brilliant arabesques. Then came elaborate pictures, figures, -interiors, landscapes, etc., of large size and most skillfully -executed, all painted directly upon the wall, as in some of our public -buildings to-day. Illustrations of these decorations may be found in -Baumeister II, L, and LI, and in colors in Gusman IX-XI, Kelsey XI. A -little later the walls began to be covered with panels of thin slabs -of marble with a baseboard and cornice. Beautiful effects were -produced by combining marbles of different tints, and the Romans -ransacked the world for striking colors. Later still came raised -figures of stucco work, enriched with gold and colors, and mosaic -work, chiefly of minute pieces of colored glass which had a jewel-like -effect.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure67"> - <tr> - <td width="642"> - <img src="images/figure067.jpg" alt="FIGURE 67. MOSAIC THRESHOLD"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="642" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 67. - M<small>OSAIC</small> T<small>HRESHOLD</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table><br> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure68"> - <tr> - <td width="655"> - <img src="images/figure068.jpg" alt="FIGURE 68. CARVED DOORWAY"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="655" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 68. - C<small>ARVED</small> D<small>OORWAY</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect221"><b>221</b></a></span> -The doors and doorways gave opportunities for treatment equally -artistic. The doors were richly paneled and carved, or were plated -with bronze, or made of solid bronze. The threshold was often of -mosaic (see the example from Pompeii in Fig. 67). The <i>postēs</i> were -sheathed with marble elaborately carved, as in the example from -Pompeii, shown in Fig. 68. The floors were covered with marble tiles -arranged in geometrical figures with contrasting colors, much as they -are now in public buildings, or with mosaic pictures only less -beautiful than those upon the walls. The most famous of these, "Darius -at the Battle of Issus," is shown in black and white in all our -reference books (best in Baumeister under <i>Mosaik</i>, Fig. 1000, and in -colors in Overbeck after p. 612). It measures sixteen feet by eight, -but despite its size has no less than one hundred and fifty separate -pieces to each square inch. The ceilings were often barrel-vaulted and -painted brilliant colors, or were divided into panels (<i>lacūs</i>, -<i>lacūnae</i>), deeply sunk, by heavy intersecting beams of wood or -marble, and then decorated in the most elaborate manner with raised -stucco work, or gold or ivory, or with bronze plates heavily -gilded.<small><small><sup>2</sup></small></small></p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>2</sup></small> The magnificence of some of the great houses, even in -Republican times, may be inferred from the prices paid for them. -Cicero paid about $140,000 for his; the consul Messala the same price -for his; Clodius $600,000 for his, the most costly known to us. All -these were on the Palatine Hill, where ground was costly, too.</small></blockquote> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect222"><b>222</b></a></span> -<b>Furniture.</b>—Our knowledge of Roman furniture is largely -indirect, because only such articles have come down to us as were made -of stone or metal. Fortunately the secondary sources are abundant and -good. Many articles are incidentally described in works of literature, -many are shown in the wall paintings mentioned above (<a href="#sect220">§220</a>), and some -have been restored from casts taken in the hardened ashes of Pompeii -and Herculaneum. In general we may say that the Romans had very few -articles of furniture in their houses, and that they cared less for -comfort, not to say luxurious ease, than they did for costly -materials, fine workmanship, and artistic forms. The mansions on the -Palatine were enriched with all the spoils of Greece and Asia, but it -may be doubted whether there was a comfortable bed within the walls of -Rome.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect223"><b>223</b></a></span> -<b>Principal Articles.</b>—Many of the most common and useful articles -of modern furniture were entirely unknown to the Romans. No mirrors -hung on their walls, they had no desks or writing tables, no dressers -or chiffoniers, no glass-doored cabinets for the display of -bric-a-brac, tableware, or books, no mantels, no hat-racks even. The -principal articles found in even the best houses were couches or beds, -chairs, tables, and lamps. If to these we add chests or cabinets, an -occasional brazier (<a href="#sect218">§218</a>), and still rarer water-clock, we shall have -everything that can be called furniture except tableware and kitchen -utensils. Still it must not be thought that their rooms presented a -desolate or dreary appearance. When one considers the decorations -(<a href="#sect220">§§220</a>, <a href="#sect221">221</a>), the stately pomp of the <i>ātrium</i> (<a href="#sect198">§198</a>), and the rare -beauty of the peristyle (<a href="#sect202">§202</a>), it is evident that a very few articles -of real artistic excellence were more in keeping with them than would -have been the litter and jumble that we now think necessary in our -rooms.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect224"><b>224</b></a></span> -<b>The Couches.</b>—The couch (<i>lectus</i>, <i>lectulus</i>) was found -everywhere in the Roman house, a sofa by day, a bed by night. In its -simplest form it consisted of a frame of wood with straps across the -top on which was laid a mattress. At one end there was an arm, as in -the case of our sofas; sometimes there was an arm at each end, and a -back besides. It was always provided with pillows and rugs or -coverlets. The mattress was originally stuffed with straw, but this -gave place to wool and even feathers. In some of the bedrooms of -Pompeii the frame seems to have been lacking, the mattress being laid -on a support built up from the floor (<a href="#sect205">§205</a>). The couches used for beds -seem to have been larger than those used as sofas, and they were so -high that stools (Fig. 69) or even steps were necessary -accompaniments. As a sofa the <i>lectus</i> was used in the library for -reading and writing, the student supporting himself on the left arm -and holding the book or writing with the right hand. In the -dining-room it had a permanent place, as will be described later. Its -honorary position in the great hall has been already mentioned (<a href="#sect199">§199</a>). -It will be seen that the <i>lectus</i> could be made highly ornamental. The -legs and arms were carved or made of costly woods, or inlaid or plated -with tortoise-shell or the precious metals. We even read of frames of -solid silver. The coverings were often made of the finest fabrics, -dyed the most brilliant colors and worked with figures of gold.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figures69and70"> - <tr> - <td width="272"> - <img src="images/figure069.jpg" alt="FIGURE 69. THE LECTUS"> - </td> - <td width="167"> - <img src="images/figure070.jpg" alt="FIGURE 70. THE SELLA"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="272" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 69. - T<small>HE</small> L<small>ECTUS</small></small> - </td> - <td width="167" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 70. - T<small>HE</small> S<small>ELLA</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect225"><b>225</b></a></span> -<b>The Chairs.</b>—The primitive form of seat (<i>sedīle</i>) among the -Romans as elsewhere was the stool or bench with four perpendicular -legs and no back. The remarkable thing is that it did not give place -to something better as soon as means permitted. The stool (<i>sella</i>) -was the ordinary seat for one person (Fig. 70), used by men and women -resting or working, and by children and slaves at their meals as well. -The bench (<i>subsellium</i>) differed from the stool only in accommodating -more than one person. It was used by senators in the <i>cūria</i>, by the -jurors in the courts, and by boys in the school (<a href="#sect120">§120</a>), as well as in -private houses. A special form of the <i>sella</i> was the famous curule -chair (<i>sella curūlis</i>), having curved legs of ivory (Fig. 71). The -curule chair folded up like our camp-stools for convenience of -carriage and had straps across the top to support the cushion which -formed the seat.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figures71and72"> - <tr> - <td width="299"> - <img src="images/figure071.jpg" alt="FIGURE 71. CURULE CHAIRS"> - </td> - <td width="279" align="center"> - <img src="images/figure072.jpg" alt="FIGURE 72. THE SOLIUM"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="299" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 71. - C<small>URULE</small> C<small>HAIRS</small></small> - </td> - <td width="279" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 72. - T<small>HE</small> S<small>OLIUM</small></small> - </td> -</table><br> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure73"> - <tr> - <td width="279"> - <img src="images/figure073.jpg" alt="FIGURE 73. CATHEDRA"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="279" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 73. - C<small>ATHEDRA</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect226"><b>226</b></a></span> -The first improvement upon the <i>sella</i> was the <i>solium</i>, a -stiff, straight, high-backed chair with solid arms, looking as if cut -from a single block of wood (Fig. 72), and so high that a footstool -was as necessary with it as with a bed (<a href="#sect224">§224</a>). Poets represented gods -and kings as seated in such a chair, and it was kept in the <i>ātrium</i> -for the use of the patron when he received his clients (<a href="#sect182">§§182</a>, <a href="#sect198">198</a>). -Lastly, we find the <i>cathedra</i>, a chair without arms, but with a -curved back (Fig. 73) sometimes fixed at an easy angle (<i>cathedra -supīna</i>), the only approximation to a comfortable seat that the Romans -knew. It was at first used by women only, being regarded as too -luxurious for men, but finally came into general use. Its employment -by teachers in the schools of rhetoric (<a href="#sect115">§115</a>) gave rise to the -expression <i>ex cathedrā</i>, applied to authoritative utterances of every -kind, and its use by bishops explains our word cathedral. Neither the -<i>solium</i> nor the <i>cathedra</i> was upholstered, but with them both were -used cushions and coverings as with the <i>lectī</i>, and they afforded -like opportunities for skillful workmanship and lavish decoration.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect227"><b>227</b></a></span> -<b>Tables.</b>—The table (<i>mēnsa</i>) was the most important article of -furniture in the Roman house whether we consider its manifold uses, or -the prices often paid for certain kinds. They varied in form and -construction as much as our own, many of which are copied directly -from Roman models. All sorts of materials were used for their supports -and tops, stone, wood, solid or veneered, the precious metals, -probably in thin plates only. The most costly, so far as we know, were -the round tables made from cross-sections of the citrus-tree, found in -Africa. The wood was beautifully marked and single pieces could be had -from three to four feet in diameter. For one of these Cicero paid -$20,000, Asinius Pollio $44,000, King Juba $52,000, and the family of -the Cethegi possessed one valued at $60,000. Special names were given -to tables of certain forms. The <i>monopodium</i> was a table or stand with -but one support, used especially to hold a lamp or toilet articles. -The <i>abacus</i> was a table with a rectangular top having a raised rim -and used for plate and dishes, in the place of the modern sideboard. -The <i>delphica</i> (sc. <i>mēnsa</i>) had three legs, as shown in Fig. 74. -Tables were frequently made with adjustable legs, so that the height -might be altered; the mechanism is clearly shown in the cut (Fig. 75). -On the other hand the permanent tables in the <i>trīclīnia</i> (<a href="#sect204">§204</a>) were -often built up from the floor of solid masonry or concrete, having -tops of polished stone or mosaic. The table gave a better opportunity -than even the couch or chair for artistic workmanship, especially in -the matter of carving and inlaying the legs and top.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figures74and75"> - <tr> - <td width="257"> - <img src="images/figure074.jpg" alt="FIGURE 74. MENSA DELPHICA"> - </td> - <td width="212"> - <img src="images/figure075.jpg" alt="FIGURE 75. ADJUSTABLE TABLE"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="257" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 74. - M<small>ENSA</small> D<small>ELPHICA</small></small> - </td> - <td width="212" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 75. - A<small>DJUSTABLE</small> T<small>ABLE</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect228"><b>228</b></a></span> -<b>The Lamps.</b>—The Roman lamp (<i>lucerna</i>) was essentially simple -enough, merely a vessel that would hold oil or melted grease with a -few threads twisted loosely together for a wick and drawn out through -a hole in the cover or top (Fig. 76). The light thus furnished must -have been very uncertain and dim. There was no glass to keep the flame -steady, much less was there a chimney or central draft. As works of -art, however, they were exceedingly beautiful, those of the cheapest -material being often of graceful form and proportions, while to those -of costly material the skill of the artist in many cases must have -given a value far above that of the rare stones or precious metals of -which they were made.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure76"> - <tr> - <td width="646"> - <img src="images/figure076.jpg" alt="FIGURE 76. VARIOUS FORMS OF LAMPS"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="646" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 76. - V<small>ARIOUS</small> F<small>ORMS OF</small> L<small>AMPS</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table><br> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure77"> - <tr> - <td width="659"> - <img src="images/figure077.jpg" alt="FIGURE 77. BASES FOR LAMPS"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="659" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 77. - B<small>ASES FOR</small> L<small>AMPS</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect229"><b>229</b></a></span> -Some of these lamps (cf. Fig. 76) were intended to be carried in -the hand, as shown by the handles, others to be suspended from the -ceiling by chains. Others still were kept on tables expressly made for -them, as the <i>monopodia</i> (<a href="#sect227">§227</a>) commonly used in the bedrooms, or the -tripods shown in Fig. 77. For lighting the public rooms there were, -besides these, tall stands, like those of our piano lamps, examples of -which may be seen in the last cut (Fig. 78). On some of these, several -lamps perhaps were placed at a time. The name of these stands -(<i>candēlābra</i>) shows that they were originally intended to hold wax or -tallow candles (<i>candēlae</i>), and the fact that these candles were -supplanted in the houses of the rich by the smoking and ill-smelling -lamp is good proof that the Romans were not skilled in the art of -making them. Finally it may be noticed that a supply of torches -(<i>facēs</i>) of dry, inflammable wood, often soaked in oil or smeared -with pitch, was kept near the outer door for use upon the streets.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figures78and79"> - <tr> - <td width="407"> - <img src="images/figure078.jpg" alt="FIGURE 78. CANDELABRA"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="407" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 78. - C<small>ANDELABRA</small></small> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="407" align="center"> - <img src="images/figure079.jpg" alt="FIGURE 79. STRONG BOX"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="407" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 79. - S<small>TRONG</small> B<small>OX</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect230"><b>230</b></a></span> -<b>Chests and Cabinets.</b>—Every house was supplied with chests -(<i>ārcae</i>) of various sizes for the purpose of storing clothes and -other articles not always in use, and for the safe keeping of papers, -money, and jewelry. The material was usually wood, often bound with -iron and ornamented with hinges and locks of bronze. The smaller -<i>ārcae</i>, used for jewel cases, were often made of silver or even gold. -Of most importance, perhaps, was the strong box kept in the <i>tablīnum</i> -(<a href="#sect201">§201</a>), in which the <i>pater familiās</i> stored his ready money. It was -made as strong as possible so that it could not easily be opened by -force, and was so large and heavy that it could not be carried away -entire. As an additional precaution it was sometimes chained to the -floor. This, too, was often richly carved and mounted, as is seen in -the illustration from Pompeii (Fig. 79).</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect231"><b>231</b></a></span> -The cabinets (<i>armāria</i>) were designed for similar purposes and -made of similar materials. They were often divided into compartments -and were always supplied with hinges and locks. Two of the most -important uses of these cabinets have been mentioned already: in the -library (<a href="#sect206">§206</a>) for the preserving of books against mice and men, and -in the <i>ālae</i> (<a href="#sect200">§200</a>) for the keeping of the <i>imāginēs</i>, or death-masks -of wax. It must be noticed that they lacked the convenient glass doors -of the cabinets or cases that we use for books and similar things, but -they were as well adapted to decorative purposes as the other articles -of furniture that have been mentioned.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect232"><b>232</b></a></span> -<b>Other Articles.</b>—The heating stove, or brazier, has been already -described (<a href="#sect218">§218</a>). It was at best a poor substitute for the poorest -modern stove. The place of our clock was taken in the court or garden -by the sun-dial (<i>sōlārium</i>), such as is often seen nowadays in our -parks, which measured the hours of the day by the shadow of a stick or -pin. It was introduced into Rome from Greece in 268 <small>B.C.</small> About a -century later the water-clock (<i>clepsydra</i>) was also borrowed from the -Greeks, a more useful invention because it marked the hours of the -night as well as of the day and could be used in the house. It -consisted essentially of a vessel filled at a regular time with water, -which was allowed to escape from it at a fixed rate, the changing -level marking the hours on a scale. As the length of the Roman hours -varied with the season of the year and the flow of the water with the -temperature, the apparatus was far from accurate. Shakspere's striking -of the clock in "Julius Caesar" (II, i, 192) is an anachronism. Of the -other articles sometimes reckoned as furniture, the tableware and -kitchen utensils, some account will be given elsewhere.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure80"> - <tr> - <td width="623"> - <img src="images/figure080.jpg" alt="FIGURE 80. A STREET IN POMPEII"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="623" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 80. - A S<small>TREET IN</small> P<small>OMPEII</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table><br> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure81"> - <tr> - <td width="398"> - <img src="images/figure081.jpg" alt="FIGURE 81. A PUBLIC FOUNTAIN"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="398" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 81. - A P<small>UBLIC</small> F<small>OUNTAIN</small></small> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="398" align="center"> - <img src="images/figure082.jpg" alt="FIGURE 82. STEPPING-STONES"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="398" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 82. - S<small>TEPPING-STONES</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect233"><b>233</b></a></span> -<b>The Street.</b>—It is evident from what has been said that a -residence street in a Roman town must have been severely plain and -monotonous in its appearance. The houses were all of practically the -same style, they were finished alike in stucco (<a href="#sect212">§212</a>), the windows -were few and in the upper stories only, there were no lawns or -gardens, there was nothing in short to lend variety or to please the -eye, except perhaps the decorations of the <i>vestibula</i> (<a href="#sect194">§194</a>), or the -occasional extension of one story over another (<i>maeniānum</i>, Fig. 80), -or a public fountain (Fig. 81). The street itself was paved, as will -be explained hereafter, and was supplied with a footway on either side -raised from twelve to eighteen inches above its surface. The -inconvenience of such a height to persons crossing from one footway to -the other was relieved by stepping-stones (<i>pondera</i>) of the same -height firmly fixed at suitable distances from each other across the -street. These stepping-stones were placed at convenient points on each -street, not merely at the intersections of two or more streets. They -were usually oval in shape, had flat tops, and measured about three -feet by eighteen inches, the longer axis being parallel with the walk. -The spaces between them were often cut into deep ruts by the wheels of -vehicles, the distance between the ruts showing that the wheels were -about three feet apart. The arrangement of the stepping-stones is -shown clearly in Fig. 82, but it is hard to see how the draft-cattle -managed to work their way between them.</p> -<br> -<br><a name="chap7"></a> -<br> -<br> -<h3>CHAPTER VII</h3> - -<h4>DRESS AND PERSONAL ORNAMENTS</h4> - -<blockquote><small>R<small>EFERENCES</small>: Marquardt, 475-606; Voigt, 329-335, 404-412; Göll, III, -189-310; Guhl and Koner, 728-747; Ramsay, 504-512; Blümner, I, -189-307; Smith, Harper, Rich, under <i>toga</i>, <i>tunica</i>, <i>stola</i>, -<i>palla</i>, and the other Latin words in the text; Lübker, under -<i>Kleidung;</i> Baumeister, 574 f., 1822-1846; Pauly-Wissowa, under -<i>calceī</i>.</small></blockquote> -<br> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect234"><b>234</b></a></span> -From the earliest to the latest times the clothing of the Romans -was very simple, consisting ordinarily of two or three articles only -besides the covering of the feet. These articles varied in material, -style, and name from age to age, it is true, but were practically -unchanged during the Republic and the early Empire. The mild climate -of Italy (<a href="#sect218">§218</a>) and the hardening effect of the physical exercise of -the young (<a href="#sect107">§107</a>) made unnecessary the closely fitting garments to -which we are accustomed, while contact with the Greeks on the south -and perhaps the Etruscans on the north gave the Romans a taste for the -beautiful that found expression in the graceful arrangement of their -loosely flowing robes. The clothing of men and women differed much -less than in modern times, but it will be convenient to describe their -garments separately. Each article was assigned by Latin writers to one -of two classes and called from the way it was put on <i>indūtus</i> or -<i>amictus</i>. To the first class we may give the name of under garments, -to the second outer garments, though these terms very inadequately -represent the Latin words.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect235"><b>235</b></a></span> -<b>The Subligaculum.</b>—Next the person was worn the <i>subligāculum</i>, -the loin-cloth familiar to us in pictures of ancient athletes and -gladiators (see Fig. 151, <a href="#sect344">§344</a>, and the culprit in Fig. 26, <a href="#sect119">§119</a>), or -perhaps the short drawers (trunks), worn nowadays by bathers or -college athletes. We are told that in the earliest times this was the -only under garment worn by the Romans, and that the family of the -Cethegi adhered to this ancient practice throughout the Republic, -wearing the toga immediately over it. This, too, was done by -individuals who wished to pose as the champions of old-fashioned -simplicity, as for example the younger Cato, and by candidates for -public office. In the best times, however, the <i>subligāculum</i> was worn -under the tunic or replaced by it.</p> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure83"> - <tr> - <td width="158"> - <img src="images/figure083.jpg" alt="FIGURE 83. THE TUNIC"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="158" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 83. - T<small>HE</small> T<small>UNIC</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect236"><b>236</b></a></span> -<b>The Tunic.</b>—The tunic was also adopted in very early times and -came to be the chief article of the kind covered by the word -<i>indūtus</i>. It was a plain woolen shirt, made in two pieces, back and -front, sewed together at the sides, and resembled somewhat the modern -sweater. It had very short sleeves, covering hardly half of the upper -arm, as shown in Fig. 83. It was long enough to reach from the neck to -the calf, but if the wearer wished for greater freedom for his limbs -he could shorten it by merely pulling it through a girdle or belt worn -around the waist. Tunics with sleeves reaching to the wrists (<i>tunicae -manicātae</i>), and tunics falling to the ankles (<i>tunicae tālārēs</i>) were -not unknown in the late Republic, but were considered unmanly and -effeminate.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect237"><b>237</b></a></span> -The tunic was worn in the house without any outer garment and -probably without a girdle; in fact it came to be the distinctive -house-dress as opposed to the toga, the dress for formal occasions -only. It was also worn with nothing over it by the citizen while at -work, but he never appeared in public without the toga over it, and -even then, hidden by the toga though it was, good form required the -wearing of the girdle with it. Two tunics were often worn (<i>tunica -interior</i>, or <i>subūcula</i>, and <i>tunica exterior</i>), and persons who -suffered from the cold, as did Augustus for example, might wear a -larger number still when the cold was very severe. The tunics intended -for use in the winter were probably thicker and warmer than those worn -in the summer, though both kinds were of wool.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect238"><b>238</b></a></span> -The tunic of the ordinary citizen was the natural color of the -white wool of which it was made, without trimmings or ornaments of any -kind. Knights and senators, on the other hand, had stripes of purple, -narrow and wide respectively, running from the shoulder to the bottom -of the tunic both behind and in front. These stripes were either woven -in the garment or sewed upon it. From them the tunic of the knight was -called <i>tunica angustī clāvī</i> (or <i>angusticlāvia</i>), and that of the -senator <i>lātī clāvī</i> (or <i>lāticlāvia</i>). Some authorities think that -the badge of the senatorial tunic was a single broad stripe running -down the middle of the garment in front and behind, but unfortunately -no picture has come down to us that absolutely decides the question. -Under this official tunic the knight or senator wore usually a plain -<i>tunica interior</i>. When in the house he left the outer tunic unbelted -in order to display the stripes as conspicuously as possible.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect239"><b>239</b></a></span> -Besides the <i>subligāculum</i> and the <i>tunica</i> the Romans had no -regular underwear. Those who were feeble through age or ill health -sometimes wound strips of woolen cloth (<i>fasciae</i>) around the legs for -the sake of additional warmth. These were called <i>feminālia</i> or -<i>tībiālia</i> according as they covered the upper or lower part of the -leg. Such persons might also use similar wrappings for the body -(<i>ventrālia</i>) and even for the throat (<i>fōcālia</i>), but all these were -looked upon as the badges of senility or decrepitude and formed no -part of the regular costume of sound men. It must be especially -noticed that the Romans had nothing corresponding to our trousers or -even long drawers, the <i>braccae</i> or <i>brācae</i> being a Gallic article -that was not used at Rome until the time of the latest emperors. The -phrase <i>nātiōnēs brācātae</i> in classical times was a contemptuous -expression for the Gauls in particular and barbarians in general.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect240"><b>240</b></a></span> -<b>The Toga.</b>—Of the outer garments or wraps the most ancient and -the most important was the <i>toga</i> (cf. <i>tegere</i>). Whence the Romans -got it we do not know, but it goes back to the very earliest time of -which tradition tells, and was the characteristic garment of the -Romans for more than a thousand years. It was a heavy, white, woolen -robe, enveloping the whole figure, falling to the feet, cumbrous but -graceful and dignified in appearance. All its associations suggested -formality. The Roman of old tilled his fields clad only in the -<i>subligāculum;</i> in the privacy of his home or at his work the Roman of -every age wore the comfortable, blouse-like <i>tunica;</i> but in the -forum, in the <i>comitia</i>, in the courts, at the public games, -everywhere that social forms were observed he appeared and had to -appear in the toga. In the toga he assumed the responsibilities of -citizenship (<a href="#sect127">§127</a>), in the toga he took his wife from her father's -house to his (<a href="#sect78">§78</a>), in the toga he received his clients also toga-clad -(<a href="#sect182">§182</a>), in the toga he discharged his duties as a magistrate, governed -his province, celebrated his triumph, and in the toga he was wrapped -when he lay for the last time in his hall (<a href="#sect198">§198</a>). No foreign nation -had a robe of the same material, color, and arrangement; no foreigner -was allowed to wear it, though he lived in Italy or even in Rome -itself; even the banished citizen left the toga with his civil rights -behind him. Vergil merely gave expression to the national feeling when -he wrote the proud verse (Aen. I, 282):</p> - -<center>Rōmānōs, rērum dominōs, gentemque togātam.<small><small><sup>1</sup></small></small></center> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>1</sup></small> The Romans, lords of deeds, the race that wears the -toga.</small></blockquote> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect241"><b>241</b></a></span> -<b>Form and Arrangement.</b>—The general appearance of the toga is -known to every schoolboy; of few ancient garments are pictures so -common and in general so good (Becker, p. 203; Guhl and Koner, p. 729; -Baumeister, p. 1823; Schreiber, LXXXV, 8-10; Harper, Rich, and Smith, -s.v.). They are derived from numerous statues of men clad in it, which -have come down to us from ancient times, and we have besides full and -careful descriptions of its shape and of the manner of wearing it in -the works of writers who had worn it themselves. As a matter of fact, -however, it has been found impossible to reconcile the descriptions in -literature with the representations in art (Fig. 84) and scholars are -by no means agreed as to the precise cut of the toga or the way it was -put on. It is certain, however, that in its earlier form it was -simpler, less cumbrous, and more closely fitted to the figure than in -later times, and that even as early as the classical period its -arrangement was so complicated that the man of fashion could not array -himself in it without assistance.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figures84and85"> - <tr> - <td width="293"> - <img src="images/figure084.jpg" alt="FIGURE 84. TIBERIUS IN THE TOGA"> - </td> - <td width="187"> - <img src="images/figure085.jpg" alt="FIGURE 85. BACK OF TOGA"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="293" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 84. - T<small>IBERIUS IN THE</small> T<small>OGA</small></small> - </td> - <td width="187" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 85. - B<small>ACK OF</small> T<small>OGA</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect242"><b>242</b></a></span> -Scholars who lay the greater stress on the literary authorities -describe the cut and arrangement of the toga about as follows: It -consisted of one piece of cloth of semicircular cut, about five yards -long by four wide, a certain portion of which was pressed into long -narrow plaits. This cloth was doubled lengthwise, not down the center -but so that one fold was deeper than the other. It was then thrown -over the left shoulder in such a manner that the end in front reached -to the ground, and the part behind (Fig. 85) was in length about twice -a man's height. This end was then brought around under the right arm -and again thrown over the left shoulder so as to cover the whole of -the right side from the armpit to the calf. The broad folds in which -it hung over were thus gathered together on the left shoulder. The -part which crossed the breast diagonally was known as the <i>sinus</i>, or -bosom. It was deep enough to serve as a pocket for the reception of -small articles. According to this description the toga was in one -piece and had no seams.</p> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure86"> - <tr> - <td width="381"> - <img src="images/figure086.jpg" alt="FIGURE 86. CUT OF TOGA"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="381" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 86. - C<small>UT OF</small> T<small>OGA</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect243"><b>243</b></a></span> -Those who attempt the reconstruction of the toga wholly or -chiefly from works of art find it impossible to reproduce on the -living form the drapery seen on the statues, with a toga of one piece -of goods or of a semicircular pattern. An experimental form is shown -in Fig. 86, and resembles that of a lamp shade cut in two and -stretched out to its full extent. The dotted line <i>GC</i> is the straight -edge of the goods; the heavy lines show the shape of the toga after it -had been cut out, and had had sewed upon it the ellipse-like piece -marked <i>FRAcba</i>. The dotted line <i>GE</i> is of a length equivalent to the -height of a man at the shoulder, and the other measurements are to be -calculated proportionately. When the toga is placed on the figure the -point <i>E</i> must be on the left shoulder, with the point <i>G</i> touching -the ground in front. The point <i>F</i> comes at the back of the neck, and -as the larger part of the garment is allowed to fall behind the figure -the points <i>L</i> and <i>M</i> will fall on the calves of the legs behind, the -point <i>a</i> under the right elbow, and the point <i>b</i> on the stomach. The -material is carried behind the back and under the right arm and then -thrown over the left shoulder again. The point <i>c</i> will fall on <i>E</i>, -and the portion <i>OPCa</i> will hang down the back to the ground, as shown -in Fig. 85, <a href="#sect242">§242</a>. The part <i>FRA</i> is then pulled over the right -shoulder to cover the right side of the chest and form the <i>sinus</i>, -and the part running from the left shoulder to the ground in front is -pulled up out of the way of the feet, worked under the diagonal folds -and allowed to fall out a little to the front. The front should then -present an appearance similar to that shown in the figure in <a href="#sect241">§241</a>. It -will be found in practice, however, that much of the grace of the toga -must have been due to the trained <i>vestiplicus</i>, who kept it properly -creased when it was not in use and carefully arranged each fold after -his master had put it on. We are not told of any pins or tapes to hold -it in place, but are told that the part falling from the left shoulder -to the ground behind kept all in position by its own weight, and that -this weight was sometimes increased by lead sewed in the hem.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect244"><b>244</b></a></span> -It is evident that in this fashionable toga the limbs were -completely fettered, and that all rapid, not to say violent, motion -was absolutely impossible. In other words the toga of the -ultrafashionable in the time of Cicero was fit only for the formal, -stately, ceremonial life of the city. It is easy to see, therefore, -how it had come to be the emblem of peace, being too cumbrous for use -in war, and how Cicero could sneer at the young dandies of his time -for wearing "sails not togas." We can also understand the eagerness -with which the Roman welcomed a respite from civic and social duties. -Juvenal sighed for the freedom of the country, where only the dead had -to wear the toga. Martial praises the unconventionality of the -provinces for the same reason. Pliny makes it one of the attractions -of his villa that no guest need wear the toga there. Its cost, too, -made it all the more burdensome for the poor, and the working classes -could scarcely have worn it at all.</p> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figures87and88"> - <tr> - <td width="234"> - <img src="images/figure087.jpg" alt="FIGURE 87. THE EARLIER TOGA"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="234" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 87. - T<small>HE</small> E<small>ARLIER</small> T<small>OGA</small></small> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="234" align="center"> - <img src="images/figure088.jpg" alt="FIGURE 88. THE CINCTUS GABINUS"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="234" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 88. - T<small>HE</small> C<small>INCTUS</small> G<small>ABINUS</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect245"><b>245</b></a></span> -The earlier toga must have been simpler by far, but no certain -representation of it has come down to us. The Dresden statue, often -used to illustrate its arrangement (Smith, Fig. 7, p. 848<i>b</i>; -Schreiber LXXXV, 8; Marquardt, Fig. 2, p. 558; Baumeister, Fig. 1921), -is more than doubtful, the garment being probably a Greek mantle of -some sort. An approximate idea of it may be gained perhaps from a -statue in Florence of an Etruscan orator (Fig. 87), which corresponds -very closely with the descriptions of it in literary sources. At any -rate it was possible for men to fight in it by tying the trailing ends -around the body and drawing the back folds over the head. This was -called the <i>cinctus Gabīnus</i>, and long after the toga had ceased to be -worn in war this <i>cinctus</i> was used in certain ceremonial observances. -It is shown in Fig. 88, though the toga is one of later times.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect246"><b>246</b></a></span> -<b>Kinds of Togas.</b>—The toga of the ordinary citizen was, like the -tunic (<a href="#sect238">§238</a>), of the natural color of the white wool of which it was -made, and varied in texture, of course, with the quality of the wool. -It was called <i>toga pūra</i> (or <i>virīlis</i>, <i>lībera</i> <a href="#sect127">§127</a>). A dazzling -brilliancy could be given to the toga by a preparation of fuller's -chalk, and one so treated was called <i>toga splendēns</i> or <i>candida</i>. In -such a toga all persons running for office arrayed themselves, and -from it they were called <i>candidātī</i>. The curule magistrates, censors, -and dictators wore the <i>toga praetexta</i>, differing from the ordinary -toga only in having a purple border. It was also worn by boys (<a href="#sect127">§127</a>) -and by the chief officers of the free towns and colonies. The <i>toga -picta</i> was wholly of purple covered with embroidery of gold, and was -worn by the victorious general in his triumphal procession and later -by the Emperors. The <i>toga pulla</i> was simply a dingy toga worn by -persons in mourning or threatened with some calamity, usually a -reverse of political fortune. Persons assuming it were called -<i>sordidātī</i> and were said <i>mūtāre vestem</i>. This <i>vestis mūtātiō</i> was a -common form of public demonstration of sympathy with a fallen leader. -In this case curule magistrates contented themselves with merely -laying aside the <i>toga praetexta</i> for the <i>toga pūra</i>, and only the -lower orders wore the <i>toga pulla</i>.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect247"><b>247</b></a></span> -<b>The Lacerna.</b>—In Cicero's time there was just coming into -fashionable use a mantle called <i>lacerna</i>, which seems to have been -first used by soldiers and the lower classes and then adopted by their -betters on account of its convenience. These wore it at first over the -toga as a protection against dust and sudden showers. It was a woolen -mantle, short, light, open at the sides, without sleeves, but fastened -with a brooch or buckle on the right shoulder. It was so easy and -comfortable that it began to be worn not over the toga but instead of -it, and so generally that Augustus issued an edict forbidding it to be -used in public assemblages of citizens. Under the later Emperors, -however, it came into fashion again, and was the common outer garment -at the theaters. It was made of various colors, dark naturally for the -lower classes, white for formal occasions, but also of brighter hues. -It was sometimes supplied with a hood (<i>cucullus</i>), which the wearer -could pull over the head as a protection or a disguise. No -representation of the <i>lacerna</i> in art has come down to us that can be -positively identified; that in Rich s.v. is very doubtful. The -military cloak, first called the <i>trabea</i>, then <i>palūdāmentum</i> and -<i>sagum</i>, was much like the <i>lacerna</i>, but made of heavier material.</p> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figures89to91"> - <tr> - <td width="358" align="center"> - <img src="images/figure089.jpg" alt="FIGURE 89. THE PAENULA"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="358" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 89. - T<small>HE</small> P<small>AENULA</small></small> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="358" align="center"> - <img src="images/figure090.jpg" alt="FIGURE 90. SOLDIER WEARING THE ABOLLA"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="358" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 90. - S<small>OLDIER</small> W<small>EARING THE</small> A<small>BOLLA</small></small> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="358"> - <img src="images/figure091.jpg" alt="FIGURE 91. SOLEAE"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="358" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 91. - S<small>OLEAE</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect248"><b>248</b></a></span> -<b>The Paenula.</b>—Older than the <i>lacerna</i> and used by all sorts and -conditions of men was the <i>paenula</i> (Fig. 89), a heavy coarse wrap of -wool, leather, or fur, used merely for protection against rain or -cold, and therefore never a substitute for the toga or made of fine -materials or bright colors. It seems to have varied in length and -fullness, but to have been a sleeveless wrap, made in one piece with a -hole in the middle, through which the wearer thrust his head. It was, -therefore, classed with the <i>vestīmenta clausa</i>, or closed garments, -and must have been much like the modern poncho. It was drawn on over -the head, like a tunic or sweater, and covered the arms, leaving them -much less freedom than the <i>lacerna</i> did. In those of some length -there was a slit in front running from the waist down, and this -enabled the wearer to hitch the cloak up over one shoulder, leaving -one arm comparatively free, but at the same time exposing it to the -weather. It was worn over either tunic or toga according to -circumstances, and was the ordinary traveling habit of citizens of the -better class. It was also commonly worn by slaves, and seems to have -been furnished regularly to soldiers stationed in places where the -climate was severe. Like the <i>lacerna</i> it was sometimes supplied with -a hood.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect249"><b>249</b></a></span> -<b>Other Wraps.</b>—Of other articles included under the general term -<i>amictus</i> we know little more than the names. The <i>synthesis</i> was a -dinner dress worn at table over the tunic by the ultrafashionable, and -sometimes dignified by the special name of <i>vestis cēnātōria</i>, or -<i>cēnātōrium</i> alone. It was not worn out of the house except on the -Saturnalia, and was usually of some bright color. Its shape is -unknown. The <i>laena</i> and <i>abolla</i> were very heavy woolen cloaks, the -latter (Fig. 90) being a favorite with poor people who had to make one -garment do duty for two or three. It was used especially by -professional philosophers, who were proverbially careless about their -dress. One is thought to be worn by the man on the extreme left, in -the picture of a school shown in <a href="#sect119">§119</a>. The <i>endormis</i> was something -like the modern bath robe, used by men after violent gymnastic -exercise to keep from taking cold, and hardly belongs under the head -of dress.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect250"><b>250</b></a></span> -<b>Footgear: the Soleae.</b>—It may be set down as a rule that freemen -did not appear in public at Rome with bare feet, except as nowadays -under the compulsion of the direst poverty. Two styles of footwear -were in use, slippers or sandals (<i>soleae</i>) and shoes (<i>calceī</i>). The -slipper consisted essentially of a sole of leather or matting attached -to the foot in various ways (see the several styles in Fig. 91). -Custom limited its use to the house and it went characteristically -with the tunic (<a href="#sect237">§237</a>), when that was not covered by an outer garment. -Oddly enough, it seems to us, the slippers were not worn at meals. -Host and guests wore them into the dining-room, but as soon as they -had taken their places on the couches (<a href="#sect224">§224</a>) slaves removed the -slippers from their feet and cared for them until the meal was over -(<a href="#sect152">§152</a>). Hence the phrase <i>soleās poscere</i> came to mean "to prepare to -take leave." When a guest went out to dinner in a <i>lectīca</i> (<a href="#sect151">§151</a>) he -wore the <i>soleae</i>, but if he walked he wore the regular out-door shoes -(<i>calceī</i>) and had his slippers carried by a slave.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure92"> - <tr> - <td width="566"> - <img src="images/figure092.jpg" alt="FIGURE 92. ROMAN SHOES"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="566" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 92. - R<small>OMAN</small> S<small>HOES</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect251"><b>251</b></a></span> -<b>The Calcei.</b>—Out of doors the <i>calceus</i> was always worn, -although it was much heavier and less comfortable than the <i>solea</i>. -Good form forbade the toga to be worn without the <i>calceī</i>, and they -were worn also with all the other garments included under the word -<i>amictus</i>. The <i>calceus</i> was essentially our shoe, made on a last of -leather, covering the upper part of the foot as well as protecting the -sole, fastened with laces or straps. The higher classes had shoes -peculiar to their rank. The shoe for senators is best known to us -(<i>calceus senātōrius</i>), and is shown in Fig. 92; but we know only its -shape, not its color. It had a thick sole, was open on the inside at -the ankle, and was fastened by wide straps which ran from the juncture -of the sole and the upper, were wrapped around the leg and tied above -the instep. The <i>mulleus</i> or <i>calceus patricius</i> was worn originally -by patricians only, but later by all curule magistrates. It was shaped -like the senator's shoe, was red in color like the fish from which it -was named, and had an ivory or silver ornament of crescent shape -(<i>lūnula</i>) fastened on the outside of the ankle. We know nothing of -the shoe worn by the knights. Ordinary citizens wore shoes that opened -in front and were fastened by a strap of leather running from one side -of the shoe near the top. They did not come up so high on the leg as -those of the senators and were probably of uncolored leather. The -poorer classes naturally wore shoes of coarser material, often of -untanned leather (<i>pērōnēs</i>), and laborers and soldiers had half-boots -(<i>caligae</i>) of the stoutest possible make, or wore wooden shoes. No -stockings were worn by the Romans, but persons with tender feet might -wrap them with <i>fasciae</i> (<a href="#sect239">§239</a>) to keep the shoes and boots from -chafing them.</p> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figures93and94"> - <tr> - <td width="244" align="center"> - <img src="images/figure093.jpg" alt="FIGURE 93. THE CAUSIA"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="244" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 93. - T<small>HE</small> C<small>AUSIA</small></small> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="244"> - <img src="images/figure094.jpg" alt="FIGURE 94. THE PETASUS"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="244" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 94. - T<small>HE</small> P<small>ETASUS</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect252"><b>252</b></a></span> -<b>Coverings for the Head.</b>—Men of the upper classes in Rome had -ordinarily no covering for the head. When they went out in bad weather -they protected themselves, of course, with the <i>lacerna</i> and -<i>paenula</i>, and these, as we have seen (<a href="#sect247">§§247</a>, <a href="#sect248">248</a>), were provided with -hoods (<i>cucullī</i>). If they were caught without wraps in a sudden -shower they made shift as best they could by pulling the toga up over -the head, cf. Fig. 88 in <a href="#sect245">§245</a>. Persons of lower standing, especially -workmen who were out of doors all day, wore a conical felt cap called -the <i>pilleus</i>, see the illustration in <a href="#sect175">§175</a>. It is probable that this -was a survival of what had been in prehistoric times an essential part -of the Roman dress, for it was preserved among the insignia of the -oldest priesthoods, the Pontifices, Flamines, and Salii, and figured -in the ceremony of manumission. Out of the city, that is, while -traveling or while in the country, the upper classes, too, protected -the head, especially against the sun, with a broad-brimmed felt hat of -foreign origin, the <i>causia</i> or <i>petasus</i>. They are shown in Figs. 93 -and 94. They were worn in the city also by the old and feeble, and in -later times by all classes in the theaters. In the house, of course, -the head was left uncovered.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect253"><b>253</b></a></span> -<b>The Hair and Beard.</b>—The Romans in early times wore long hair -and full beards, as did all uncivilized peoples. Varro tells us that -professional barbers came first to Rome in the year 300 <small>B.C.</small>, but we -know that the razor and shears were used by the Romans long before -history begins. Pliny says that the younger Scipio (†129 <small>B.C.</small>) was the -first of the Romans to shave every day, and the story may be true. -People of wealth and position had the hair and beard kept in order at -home by their own slaves (<a href="#sect150">§150</a>), and these slaves, if skillful -barbers, brought high prices in the market. People of the middle class -went to public barber shops, and made them gradually places of general -resort for the idle and the gossiping. But in all periods the hair and -beard were allowed to grow as a sign of sorrow, and were the regular -accompaniments of the mourning garb already mentioned (<a href="#sect246">§246</a>). The very -poor, too, went usually unshaven and unshorn, simply because this was -the cheap and easy fashion.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect254"><b>254</b></a></span> -Styles varied with the years of the persons concerned. The hair -of children, boys and girls alike, was allowed to grow long and hang -around the neck and shoulders. When the boy assumed the toga of -manhood the long locks were cut off, sometimes with a good deal of -formality, and under the Empire they were often made an offering to -some deity. In the classical period young men seem to have worn close -clipped beards; at least Cicero jeers at those who followed Catiline -for wearing full beards, and on the other hand declares that their -companions who could show no signs of beard on their faces were worse -than effeminate. Men of maturity wore the hair cut short and the face -shaved clean. Most of the portraits that have come down to us show -beardless men until well into the second century of our era, but after -the time of Hadrian (117-138 <small>A.D.</small>) the full beard became fashionable. -Figs. 2 to 11, <a href="#sect28">§§28</a>-<a href="#sect74">74</a>, are arranged chronologically and will serve to -show the changes in styles.</p> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure95"> - <tr> - <td width="378"> - <img src="images/figure095.jpg" alt="FIGURE 95. SEAL RINGS"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="378" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 95. - S<small>EAL</small> R<small>INGS</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect255"><b>255</b></a></span> -<b>Jewelry.</b>—The ring was the only article of jewelry worn by a -Roman citizen after he reached the age of manhood (<a href="#sect99">§99</a>), and good -taste limited him to a single ring. It was originally of iron, and -though often set with a precious stone and made still more valuable by -the artistic cutting of the stone, it was always worn more for use -than ornament. The ring was in fact in almost all cases a seal ring, -having some device upon it (Fig. 95) which the wearer imprinted in -melted wax when he wished to acknowledge some document as his own, or -to secure cabinets and coffers against prying curiosity. The iron ring -was worn generally until late in the Empire, even after the gold ring -had ceased to be the special privilege of the knights and had become -merely the badge of freedom. Even the engagement ring (<a href="#sect71">§71</a>) was -usually of iron, the setting giving it its material value, although we -are told that this particular ring was often the first article of gold -that the young girl possessed.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect256"><b>256</b></a></span> -Of course there were not wanting men as ready to violate the -canons of taste in the matter of rings as in the choice of their -garments or the style of wearing the hair and beard. We need not be -surprised, then, to read of one having sixteen rings, or of another -having six for each finger. One of Martial's acquaintances had a ring -so large that the poet advised him to wear it on his leg, and Juvenal -tells us of an upstart who wore light rings in the summer and heavy -rings in the winter. It is a more surprising fact that the ring was -worn on the joint, not pressed down as far as possible on the finger, -as we wear them now. If two were worn on the same finger they were -worn on separate joints, not touching each other. This fashion must -have seriously interfered with the movement of the finger.</p> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figures96to98"> - <tr> - <td width="235"> - <img src="images/figure096.jpg" alt="FIGURE 96. THE MAMILLARE"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="235" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 96. - T<small>HE</small> M<small>AMILLARE</small></small> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="235" align="center"> - <img src="images/figure097.jpg" alt="FIGURE 97. THE STROPHIUM"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="235" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 97. - T<small>HE</small> S<small>TROPHIUM</small></small> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="235" align="center"> - <img src="images/figure098.jpg" alt="FIGURE 98. THE ZONA"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="235" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 98. - T<small>HE</small> Z<small>ONA</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect257"><b>257</b></a></span> -<b>Dress of Women.</b>—It has been remarked already (<a href="#sect234">§234</a>) that the -dress of men and women differed less in ancient than in modern times, -and we shall find that in the classical period at least the principal -articles worn were practically the same, however much they differed in -name and probably in the fineness of their materials. At this period -the dress of the matron consisted in general of three articles: the -<i>tunica interior</i>, the <i>tunica exterior</i> or <i>stola</i>, and the <i>palla</i>. -Beneath the <i>tunica interior</i> there was nothing like the modern -corset-waist or corset, intended to modify the figure, but a band of -soft leather (<i>mamillāre</i>) was sometimes passed around the body under -the breasts for a support (Fig. 96), and the <i>subligāculum</i> (<a href="#sect235">§235</a>) was -also worn by women.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect258"><b>258</b></a></span> -<b>The Tunica Interior.</b>—The <i>tunica interior</i> did not differ much -in material or shape from the tunic for men already described (<a href="#sect236">§236</a>). -It fitted the figure more closely perhaps than the man's, was -sometimes supplied with sleeves, and as it reached only to the knee -did not require a belt to keep it from interfering with the free use -of the limbs. A soft sash-like band of leather (<i>strophium</i>), however, -was sometimes worn over it, close under the breasts, but merely to -support them, and in this case we may suppose that the <i>mamillāre</i> was -discarded. For this sash (Fig. 97) the more general terms <i>zōna</i> and -<i>cingulum</i> are sometimes used. This tunic was not usually worn alone, -even in the house, except by young girls.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect259"><b>259</b></a></span> -<b>The Stola.</b>—Over the <i>tunica interior</i> was worn the <i>tunica -exterior</i>, or <i>stola</i>, the distinctive dress of the Roman matron -(<a href="#sect91">§91</a>). It differed in several respects from the tunic worn as a -house-dress by men. It was open at both sides above the waist and -fastened on the shoulders by brooches. It was much longer, reaching to -the feet when ungirded and having in addition a wide border or flounce -(<i>īnstita</i>) sewed to the lower hem. There was also a border around the -neck, which seems to have been usually of purple. The <i>stola</i> was -sleeveless if the <i>tunica interior</i> had sleeves, but if the tunic -itself was sleeveless the <i>stola</i> had them, so that the arm was always -protected. These sleeves, however, whether in tunic or <i>stola</i>, were -open on the front of the upper arm and only loosely clasped with -brooches or buttons, often of great beauty and value.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure99"> - <tr> - <td width="653"> - <img src="images/figure099.jpg" alt="FIGURE 99. STATUE OF THE YOUNGER FAUSTINA"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="653" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 99. - S<small>TATUE OF THE</small> - Y<small>OUNGER</small> F<small>AUSTINA</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table><br> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure100"> - <tr> - <td width="254"> - <img src="images/figure100.jpg" alt="FIGURE 100. STATUE FROM HERCULANEUM"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="254" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 100. - S<small>TATUE FROM</small> H<small>ERCULANEUM</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect260"><b>260</b></a></span> -Owing to its great length the <i>stola</i> was always worn with a -girdle (<i>zōna</i>) above the hips (Fig. 98), and through it the <i>stola</i> -itself was pulled until the lower edge of the <i>īnstita</i> barely cleared -the floor. This gave the fullness about the waist seen in the statue -of Faustina (Fig. 99), in which the cut of the sleeves can also be -seen. The <i>zōna</i> was usually entirely hidden by the overhanging folds. -The <i>stola</i> was the distinctive dress of the matron, as has been said, -and it is probable that the <i>īnstita</i> was its distinguishing feature; -that is, the <i>tunica exterior</i> of the unmarried woman had no flounce -or border, though it probably reached to the floor.</p> -<table align="left" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure101"> - <tr> - <td width="232"> - <img src="images/figure101.jpg" alt="FIGURE 101. STATUE OF LIVIA"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="232" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 101. - S<small>TATUE OF</small> L<small>IVIA</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect261"><b>261</b></a></span> -<b>The Palla.</b>—The <i>palla</i> was a shawl-like wrap for use out of -doors. It was a rectangular piece of woolen goods, as simple as -possible in its form, but worn in the most diverse fashions in -different times. In the classical period it seems to have been wrapped -around the figure, much as the toga was. One-third was thrown over the -left shoulder from behind and allowed to fall to the feet. The rest -was carried around the back and brought forward either over or under -the right arm at the pleasure of the wearer. The end was then thrown -back over the left shoulder after the style of the toga, as in the -marble statue from Herculaneum shown in Fig. 100, or allowed to hang -loosely over the left arm, as in the statue of Livia (Fig. 101). It -was possible also to pull the <i>palla</i> up over the head, and this -method of using it is supposed by some scholars to be shown in the -statue of Livia, while others see in the covering of the head some -sort of a veil.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect262"><b>262</b></a></span> -<b>Shoes and Slippers.</b>—What has been said of the footgear of men -(<a href="#sect250">§§250</a>, <a href="#sect251">251</a>) applies also to that of women. Slippers (<i>soleae</i>) were -worn in the house, differing from those of men only in being -embellished as much as possible, sometimes even with pearls. An idea -of their appearance may be had from the statue of Faustina (<a href="#sect259">§259</a>). -Shoes (<i>calceī</i>) were insisted upon for out-door use, and differed -from those of men, as they chiefly differ from them now, in being made -of finer and softer leather. They were often white, or gilded, or of -bright colors, and those intended for winter wear had sometimes cork -soles.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect263"><b>263</b></a></span> -<b>Dressing of the Hair.</b>—The Roman woman regularly wore no hat, -but covered the head when necessary with the <i>stola</i> or with a veil. -Much attention was given to the arrangement of the hair, the fashions -being as numerous and as inconstant as they are to-day. For young -girls the favorite arrangement, perhaps, was to comb the hair back and -gather it into a knot (<i>nōdus</i>) on the back of the neck. For matrons -it will be sufficient to call attention to the figures already given -(<a href="#sect77">§§77</a>, <a href="#sect259">259</a>, <a href="#sect261">261</a>), and to show from statues five styles (Fig. 102) worn -at different times under the Empire, all belonging to ladies of the -court.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure102"> - <tr> - <td width="658"> - <img src="images/figure102.jpg" alt="FIGURE 102. STYLES OF DRESSING THE HAIR"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="658" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 102. - S<small>TYLES OF</small> D<small>RESSING - THE</small> H<small>AIR</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect264"><b>264</b></a></span> -For keeping the hair in position pins were used of ivory, -silver, and gold, often mounted with jewels. Nets (<i>rēticula</i>) and -ribbons (<i>vittae</i>, <i>taeniae</i>, <i>fasciolae</i>) were also worn, but combs -were not made a part of the head-dress. The Roman woman of fashion did -not scruple to color her hair, the golden-red color of the Greek hair -being especially admired, or to use false hair, which had become an -article of commercial importance early in the Empire. Mention should -also be made of the garlands (<i>corōnae</i>) of flowers, or of flowers and -foliage, and of the coronets of pearls and other precious stones that -were used to supplement the natural or artificial beauty of the hair. -These are illustrated in Fig. 102 above.</p> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure103"> - <tr> - <td width="429"> - <img src="images/figure103.jpg" alt="FIGURE 103. TOILET ARTICLES"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="429" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 103. - T<small>OILET</small> A<small>RTICLES</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect265"><b>265</b></a></span> -The woman's hairdresser was a female slave (<a href="#sect150">§150</a>), and Juvenal -tells us that she suffered cruelly from the impatience of her mistress -(<a href="#sect158">§158</a>), who found the long hairpins shown in the figure a convenient -instrument of punishment, The <i>ōrnātrīx</i> was an adept in all the -tricks of the toilet already mentioned, and besides used all sorts of -unguents, oils, and tonics to make the hair soft and lustrous and to -cause it to grow abundantly. In Fig. 103 are shown a number of common -toilet articles: <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, <i>h</i>, <i>i</i>, and <i>k</i> are hairpins, <i>d</i> -and <i>g</i> are hand mirrors made of highly polished metal, <i>f</i> is a comb, -and <i>e</i> a box for pomatum or powder.</p> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figures104and105"> - <tr> - <td width="302"> - <img src="images/figure104.jpg" alt="FIGURE 104. THE PARASOL"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="302" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 104. - T<small>HE</small> P<small>ARASOL</small></small> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="302" align="center"> - <img src="images/figure105.jpg" alt="FIGURE 105. FANS"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="302" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 105. - F<small>ANS</small> (See also Figure 73, <a href="#sect226">§226</a>)</small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect266"><b>266</b></a></span> -<b>Accessories.</b>—The parasol (<i>umbrāculum</i>, <i>umbella</i>) was commonly -used by women at Rome at least as early as the close of the Republic, -and was all the more necessary because they wore no hats or bonnets. -The parasols were usually carried for them by attendants (<a href="#sect151">§151</a>). From -vase paintings we learn that they were much like our own in shape -(Fig. 104, see also Smith and Harper, s.v.; Baumeister, p. 1684; -Schreiber XCV, 9), and could be closed when not in use. The fan -(<i>flābellum</i>) was used from the earliest times and was made in various -ways (Fig. 105); sometimes of wings of birds, sometimes of thin sheets -of wood attached to a handle, sometimes of peacock's feathers -artistically arranged, sometimes of linen stretched over a frame. -These fans were not used by the woman herself, being always handled by -an attendant who was charged with the task of keeping her cool and -untroubled by flies (see Fig. 73 in <a href="#sect226">§226</a>). Handkerchiefs (<i>sūdāria</i>), -the finest made of linen, were used by both sexes, but only for wiping -the perspiration from the face or hands. For keeping the palms cool -and dry ladies seem also to have used glass balls, or balls of amber, -the latter, perhaps, for the fragrance also.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect267"><b>267</b></a></span> -<b>Jewelry.</b>—The Roman woman was passionately fond of jewelry, and -incalculable sums were spent upon the adornment of her person. Rings, -brooches, pins, jeweled buttons, and coronets have been mentioned -already, and besides these bracelets, necklaces, and ear-rings or -pendants were worn from the earliest times by all who could afford -them. Not only were they made of costly materials, but their value was -also enhanced by the artistic workmanship that was lavished upon them. -Almost all the precious stones that are known to us were familiar to -the Romans and were to be found in the jewel-casket (<a href="#sect230">§230</a>) of the -wealthy lady. The pearl, however, seems to have been in all times the -favorite. No adequate description of these articles can be given here; -no illustrations can do them justice. It will have to suffice that -Suetonius says that Caesar paid six million sesterces (nearly -$300,000) for a single pearl, which he gave to Servilia, the mother of -Marcus Brutus, and that Lollia Paulina, the wife of the Emperor -Caligula, possessed a single set of pearls and emeralds which is said -by Pliny the elder to have been valued at forty million sesterces -(nearly $2,000,000).</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect268"><b>268</b></a></span> -<b>Dress of Children and Slaves.</b>—The picture from Herculaneum -(<a href="#sect119">§119</a>) shows that schoolboys wore the <i>subligāculum</i> and <i>tunica</i>, and -it is probable that no other articles of clothing were worn by either -boys or girls of the poorer classes. Besides these, children of -well-to-do parents wore the <i>toga praetexta</i> (<a href="#sect246">§246</a>), which the girl -laid aside on the eve of her marriage (<a href="#sect76">§76</a>) and the boy when he -reached the age of manhood (<a href="#sect127">§127</a>). Slaves were furnished a tunic, -wooden shoes, and in stormy weather a cloak, probably the <i>paenula</i> -(<a href="#sect248">§248</a>). This must have been the ordinary garb of the poorer citizens -of the working classes, for they would have had little use for the -toga, at least in later times, and could hardly have afforded so -expensive a garment.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect269"><b>269</b></a></span> -<b>Materials.</b>—Fabrics of wool, linen, cotton, and silk were used -by the Romans. For clothes woolen goods were the first to be used, and -naturally so, for the early inhabitants of Latium were shepherds, and -woolen garments best suited the climate. Under the Republic wool was -almost exclusively used for the garments of both men and women, as we -have seen, though the <i>subligāculum</i> was frequently, and the woman's -tunic sometimes, made of linen. The best native wools came from -Calabria and Apulia, that from near Tarentum being the best of all. -Native wools did not suffice, however, to meet the great demand, and -large quantities were imported. Linen goods were early manufactured in -Italy, but were used chiefly for other purposes than clothing until in -the Empire, and only in the third century of our era did men begin to -make general use of them. The finest linen came from Egypt, and was as -soft and transparent as silk. Little is positively known about the use -of cotton, because the word <i>carbasus</i>, the genuine Indian name for -it, was used by the Romans for linen goods also and when we meet the -word we can not always be sure of the material meant. Silk, imported -from China directly or indirectly, was first used for garments under -Tiberius, and then only in a mixture of linen and silk (<i>vestēs -sēricae</i>). These were forbidden for the use of men in his reign, but -the law was powerless against the love of luxury. Garments of pure -silk were first used in the third century.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect270"><b>270</b></a></span> -<b>Colors.</b>—White was the prevailing color of all articles of dress -throughout the Republic, in most cases the natural color of the wool, -as we have seen (<a href="#sect246">§246</a>). The lower classes, however, selected for their -garments shades that required cleansing less frequently, and found -them, too, in the undyed wool. From Canusium came a brown wool with a -tinge of red, from Baetica in Spain a light yellow, from Mutina a gray -or a gray mixed with white, from Pollentia in Liguria the dark gray -(<i>pulla</i>) used, as has been said (<a href="#sect246">§246</a>), for public mourning. Other -shades from red to deep black were furnished by foreign wools. Almost -the only artificial color used for garments under the Republic was -purple, which seems to have varied from what we call crimson, made -from the native trumpet-shell (<i>būcinum</i> or <i>mūrex</i>), to the true -Tyrian purple. The former was brilliant and cheap, but liable to fade. -Mixed with the dark <i>purpura</i> in different proportions, it furnished a -variety of permanent tints. One of the most popular of these tints, -violet, made the wool cost some $20 a pound, while the genuine Tyrian -cost at least ten times as much. Probably the stripes worn by the -knights and senators on the tunics and togas were much nearer our -crimson than purple. Under the Empire the garments worn by women were -dyed in various colors, and so, too, perhaps, the fancier articles -worn by men, such as the <i>lacerna</i> (<a href="#sect247">§247</a>) and the <i>synthesis</i> (<a href="#sect249">§249</a>). -The <i>trabea</i> of the augurs seems to have been striped with scarlet and -purple, the <i>palūdāmentum</i> of the general to have been at different -times white, scarlet, and purple, and the robe of the <i>triumphātor</i> -purple.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure106"> - <tr> - <td width="460"> - <img src="images/figure106.jpg" alt="FIGURE 106. FULLERS AT WORK"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="460" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 106. - F<small>ULLERS AT</small> W<small>ORK</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect271"><b>271</b></a></span> -<b>Manufacture.</b>—In the old days the wool was spun at home by the -maidservants working under the eye of the mistress (<a href="#sect199">§199</a>), and woven -into cloth on the family loom, and this was kept up throughout the -Republic by some of the proudest families. Augustus wore these -home-made garments. By the end of the Republic, however, this was no -longer general, and while much of the native wool was worked up on the -farms by the slaves directed by the <i>vīlica</i> (<a href="#sect148">§148</a>), cloth of any -desired quality could be bought in the open market. It was formerly -supposed that the garments came from the loom ready to wear, but this -is now known to have been incorrect. We have seen that the tunic was -made of two separate pieces sewed together (<a href="#sect236">§236</a>), that the toga had -probably to be fitted as carefully as a modern coat (<a href="#sect243">§243</a>), and that -even the coarse <i>paenula</i> (<a href="#sect248">§248</a>) could not have been woven or knitted -in one piece. But ready-made garments were on sale in the towns as -early as the time of Cato, though perhaps of the cheaper qualities -only, and in the Empire the trade reached large proportions. It is -remarkable that with the vast numbers of slaves in the <i>familia -urbāna</i> (<a href="#sect149">§149</a> f.) it never became usual to have soiled garments -cleansed at home. All garments showing traces of use were sent by the -well-to-do to the fullers (<i>fullōnēs</i>) to be washed (Fig. 106), -whitened (or re-dyed), and pressed. The fact that almost all were of -woolen materials made skill and care all the more necessary.</p> -<br> -<br><a name="chap8"></a> -<br> -<br> -<h3>CHAPTER VIII</h3> - -<h4>FOOD AND MEALS</h4> - -<blockquote><small>R<small>EFERENCES</small>: Marquardt, 264-268, 300-340, 414-465; Voigt, 327-329, -401-404; Göll, 311-454; Guhl and Koner, 747-759, 702-704; Friedländer, -III, 29-56; Ramsay, 490-501; Pauly-Wissowa, <i>cēna</i>, <i>comissātiō;</i> -Smith, Harper, Rich, <i>cēna</i>, <i>comissātiō</i>, <i>olea</i> (<i>olīva</i>), <i>vīnum;</i> -Baumeister, 845, 2086; Lübker, 724 f.; Mau-Kelsey, 256-260, 267-270.</small></blockquote> -<br> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect272"><b>272</b></a></span> -<b>Natural Conditions.</b>—Italy is blessed above all the other -countries of central Europe with the natural conditions that go to -make an abundant and varied supply of food. The soil is rich and -composed of different elements in different parts of the country. The -rainfall is abundant, and rivers and smaller streams are numerous. The -line of greatest length runs nearly north and south, but the climate -depends little upon latitude, being modified by surrounding bodies of -water, by mountain ranges, and by prevailing winds. These agencies in -connection with the varying elevation of the land itself produce such -widely different conditions that somewhere within the confines of -Italy almost all the grains and fruits of the temperate and subtropic -zones find the soil and climate most favorable to their growth.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect273"><b>273</b></a></span> -The early inhabitants of the peninsula, the Italian peoples, -seem to have left for the Romans the task of developing and improving -these means of subsistence. Wild fruits, nuts, and flesh have always -been the support of uncivilized peoples, and must have been so for the -shepherds who laid the foundations of Rome. The very word <i>pecūnia</i> -(from <i>pecus;</i> cf. <i>pecūlium</i>, <a href="#sect162">§162</a>) shows that herds of domestic -animals were the first source of Roman wealth. But other words show -just as clearly that the cultivation of the soil was understood by the -Romans in very early times: the names Fabius, Cicero, Piso, and Caepio -are no less ancient than Porcius, Asinius, Vitellius, and Ovidius.<small><small><sup>1</sup></small></small> -Cicero puts into the mouth of the elder Cato the statement that to the -farmer the garden was a second meat supply, but long before Cato's -time meat had ceased to be the chief article of food. Grain and grapes -and olives furnished subsistence for all who did not live to eat. -These gave the wine that maketh glad the heart of man, and oil to make -his face to shine, and bread that strengtheneth man's heart. On these -three abundant products of the soil the mass of the people of Italy -lived of old as they still live to-day. Something will be said of each -below, after less important products have been considered.</p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>1</sup></small> The words are connected respectively with <i>faba</i>, a bean, -<i>cicer</i>, a chick-pea, <i>pīstor</i>, a miller, <i>caepe</i>, an onion, <i>porcus</i>, -a pig, <i>asinus</i>, an ass, <i>vitellus</i>, a calf, and <i>ovis</i>, a sheep.</small></blockquote> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect274"><b>274</b></a></span> -<b>Fruits.</b>—Besides the olive and the grape, the apple, pear, plum, -and quince were either native to Italy or were introduced in -prehistoric times. Careful attention had long been given to their -cultivation, and by Cicero's time Italy was covered with orchards and -all these fruits were abundant and cheap in their seasons, used by all -sorts and conditions of men. By this time, too, had begun the -introduction of new fruits from foreign lands and the improvement of -native varieties. Great statesmen and generals gave their names to new -and better sorts of apples and pears, and vied with each other in -producing fruits out of season by hothouse culture (<a href="#sect145">§145</a>). Every fresh -extension of Roman territory brought new fruits and nuts into Italy. -Among the last were the walnut, hazelnut, filbert, almond, and -pistachio; the almond after Cato's time and the pistachio not until -that of Tiberius. Among the fruits were the peach (<i>mālum Persicum</i>), -the apricot (<i>mālum Armeniacum</i>), the pomegranate (<i>mālum Pūnicum</i> or -<i>grānātum</i>), the cherry (<i>cerasus</i>), brought by Lucullus from the town -Cerasus in Pontus, and the lemon (<i>citrus</i>), not grown in Italy until -the third century of our era. And besides the introduction of fruits -for culture large quantities were imported for food, either dried or -otherwise preserved. The orange, however, strange as it seems to us, -was not grown by the Romans.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect275"><b>275</b></a></span> -<b>Garden Produce.</b>—The garden did not yield to the orchard in the -abundance and variety of its contributions to the supply of food. We -read of artichokes, asparagus, beans, beets, cabbages, carrots, -chicory, cucumbers, garlic, lentils, melons, onions, peas, the poppy, -pumpkins, radishes, and turnips, to mention those only whose names are -familiar to us all. It will be noticed, however, that the vegetables -most highly prized by us, perhaps, the potato and tomato, were not -known to the Romans. Of those mentioned the oldest seem to have been -the bean and the onion, as shown by the names Fabius and Caepio -already mentioned (<a href="#sect273">§273</a>), but the latter came gradually to be looked -upon as unrefined and the former to be considered too heavy a food -except for persons engaged in the hardest toil. Cato pronounced the -cabbage the finest vegetable known, and the turnip figures in the -well-known anecdote of Manius Curius (<a href="#sect299">§299</a>).</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect276"><b>276</b></a></span> -The Roman gardener gave great attention, too, to the raising of -green stuffs that could be used for salads. Among these the sorts most -often mentioned are the cress and lettuce, with which we are familiar, -and the mallow, no longer used for food. Plants in great variety were -cultivated for seasoning. The poppy was eaten with honey as a dessert, -or was sprinkled over bread in the oven. Anise, cumin, fennel, mint, -and mustard were raised everywhere. And besides these seasonings that -were found in every kitchen garden, spices were imported in large -quantities from the east, and the rich imported vegetables of larger -sizes or finer quality than could be raised at home. Fresh vegetables -like fresh fruits could not be brought in those days from great -distances.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect277"><b>277</b></a></span> -<b>Meats.</b>—Besides the pork, beef, and mutton that we still use the -Roman farmer had goatsflesh at his disposal, and all these meats were -sold in the towns. Goatsflesh was considered the poorest of all, and -was used by the lower classes only. Beef had been eaten by the Romans -from the earliest times, but its use was a mark of luxury until very -late in the Empire. Under the Republic the ordinary citizen ate beef -only on great occasions when he had offered a steer or cow to the gods -in sacrifice. The flesh then furnished a banquet for his family and -friends, the heart, liver, and lungs (called collectively the <i>exta</i>) -were the share of the priest, and the rest was consumed on the altar. -Probably the great size of the carcass had something to do with the -rarity of its use at a time when meat could be kept fresh only in the -coldest weather; at any rate we must think of the Romans as using the -cow for dairy purposes and the ox for draft rather than for food.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect278"><b>278</b></a></span> -Pork was widely used by rich and poor alike, and was considered -the choicest of all domestic meats. The very language testifies to the -important place it occupied in the economy of the larder, for no other -animal has so many words to describe it in its different functions. -Besides the general term <i>sūs</i> we find <i>porcus</i>, <i>porca</i>, <i>verrēs</i>, -<i>aper</i>, <i>scrōfa</i>, <i>māiālis</i>, and <i>nefrēns</i>. In the religious ceremony -of the <i>suovetaurīlia</i> (<i>sūs</i> + <i>ovis</i> + <i>taurus</i>) it will be noticed -that the swine has the first place, coming before the sheep and the -bull. The vocabulary describing the parts used for food is equally -rich; there are words for no less than half a dozen kinds of sausages, -for example, with pork as their basis. We read, too, of fifty -different ways of cooking pork.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect279"><b>279</b></a></span> -<b>Fowl and Game.</b>—All the common domestic fowls, chickens, ducks, -geese, and pigeons, were used by the Romans for food, and besides -these the wealthy raised various sorts of wild fowl for the table, in -the game preserves that have been mentioned (<a href="#sect145">§145</a>). Among these were -cranes, grouse, partridges, snipe, thrushes, and woodcock. In Cicero's -time the peacock was most highly esteemed, having at the feast much -the same place of honor as the turkey has with us, but costing as much -as $10 each. Wild animals were also bred for food in similar -preserves, the hare and the wild boar being the favorites. The latter -was served whole upon the table as in feudal times. As a contrast in -size may be mentioned the dormouse (<i>glīs</i>), which was thought a great -delicacy.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect280"><b>280</b></a></span> -<b>Fish.</b>—The rivers of Italy and the surrounding seas must have -furnished always a great variety of fish, but in early times fish was -not much used as food by the Romans. By the end of the Republic, -however, tastes had changed, and no article of food brought higher -prices than the rarer sorts of fresh fish. Salt fish was exceedingly -cheap and was imported in many forms from almost all the Mediterranean -ports. One dish especially, <i>tyrotarīchus</i>, made of salt fish, eggs, -and cheese, and therefore something like our codfish balls, is -mentioned by Cicero in about the same way as we speak of hash. Fresh -fish were all the more expensive because they could be transported -only while alive. Hence the rich constructed fish ponds on their -estates, a Marcus Licinius Crassus setting the example in 92 <small>B.C.</small>, and -both fresh-water and salt-water fish were raised for the table. The -names of the favorite sorts mean little to us, but we find the mullet -(<i>mullus;</i> see <a href="#sect251">§251</a>) and a kind of turbot (<i>rhombus</i>) bringing high -prices, and oysters (<i>ostreae</i>) were as popular as they are now.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect281"><b>281</b></a></span> -Before passing to the more important matters of bread, wine, and -oil, it may be well to mention a few articles that are still in -general use. The Romans used freely the products of the dairy, milk, -cream, curds, whey, and cheese. They drank the milk of sheep and goats -as well as that of cows, and made cheese of the three kinds of milk. -The cheese from ewes' milk was thought more digestible though less -palatable than that made of cows' milk, while cheese from goats' milk -was more palatable but less digestible. It is remarkable that they had -no knowledge of butter except us a plaster for wounds. Honey took the -place of sugar on the table and in cooking, for the Romans had only a -botanical knowledge of the sugar cane. Salt was at first obtained by -the evaporation of sea-water, but was afterwards mined. Its -manufacture was a monopoly of the government, and care was taken -always to keep the price low. It was used not only for seasoning, but -also as a preservative agent. Vinegar was made from grape juice. In -the list of articles of food unknown to the Romans we must put tea and -coffee along with the orange, tomato, potato, butter, and sugar -already mentioned.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect282"><b>282</b></a></span> -<b>Cereals.</b>—The word <i>frūmentum</i><small><small><sup>2</sup></small></small> was a general term applied to -any of the many sorts of grain that were grown for food. Of those now -in use barley, oats, rye, and wheat were known to the Romans, though -rye was not cultivated and oats served only as feed for cattle. Barley -was not much used, for it was thought to lack nutriment, and therefore -to be unfit for laborers. In very ancient times another grain, spelt -(<i>far</i>), had been grown extensively, but it had gradually gone out of -use except for the sacrificial cake that had given its name to the -confarreate ceremony of marriage (<a href="#sect82">§82</a>). In classical times wheat was -the staple grain grown for food, not differing much from that which we -use to-day. It was usually planted in the fall, though on some soils -it would mature as a spring wheat. After the farming land of Italy was -diverted to other purposes (parks, pleasure grounds, game preserves: -see <a href="#sect145">§§145</a>, <a href="#sect146">146</a>), wheat had to be imported from the provinces, first -from Sicily, then from Africa and Egypt, the home supply being -inadequate to the needs of the teeming population.</p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>2</sup></small> The word <i>frūmentum</i> occurs fifty-five times in the -"Gallic War," meaning any kind of grain that happened to be grown for -food in the country in which Caesar was campaigning at the time. The -word "corn" used to translate it in our school editions is the worst -possible, because to the schoolboy the word "corn" means a particular -kind of grain, and a kind at that which was unknown to the Romans. The -general word "grain" is much better for translation purposes.</small></blockquote> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figures107and108"> - <tr> - <td width="280"> - <img src="images/figure107.jpg" alt="FIGURE 107. POUNDING GRAIN"> - </td> - <td width="363"> - <img src="images/figure108.jpg" alt="FIGURE 108. SECTION OF MILL"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="280" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 107. - P<small>OUNDING</small> G<small>RAIN</small></small> - </td> - <td width="363" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 108. - S<small>ECTION OF</small> M<small>ILL</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect283"><b>283</b></a></span> -<b>Preparation of the Grain.</b>—In the earliest times the grain -(<i>far</i>) had not been ground, but merely pounded in a mortar (Fig. -107). The meal was then mixed with water and made into a sort of -porridge (<i>puls</i>, whence our word "poultice"), which long remained the -national dish, something like the oatmeal of Scotland. Plautus (†184 -<small>B.C.</small>) jestingly refers to his countrymen as "pulse-eaters." The -persons who crushed the grain were called <i>pīnsitōrēs</i> or <i>pīstōrēs</i>, -whence the cognomen Pīsō (<a href="#sect273">§273</a>) is said to be derived, and in later -times the bakers were also called <i>pīstōrēs</i>, because they ground the -grain as well as baked the bread. In the ruins of bakeries we find -mills as regularly as ovens. See the illustration in <a href="#sect285">§285</a>.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect284"><b>284</b></a></span> -The grinding of the grain into regular flour was done in a mill -(<i>mola</i>). This consisted of three parts, the lower millstone (<i>mēta</i>), -the upper (<i>catillus</i>), and the frame-work that surrounded and -supported the latter and furnished the means to turn it upon the -<i>mēta</i>. All these parts are shown distinctly in the cut (Fig. 108; see -also Rich, Harper, and Smith under <i>mola;</i> Guhl and Koner, p. 774; -Schreiber LXVII; Baumeister, p. 933), and require little explanation. -The <i>mēta</i> was, as the name suggests, a cone-shaped stone (<i>A</i>) -resting on a bed of masonry (<i>B</i>) with a raised rim, between which and -the lower edge of the <i>mēta</i> the flour was collected. In the upper -part of the <i>mēta</i> a beam (<i>C</i>) was mortised, ending above in an iron -pin or pivot (<i>D</i>) on which hung and turned the frame-work that -supported the <i>catillus</i>. The <i>catillus</i> (<i>E</i>) itself was shaped -something like an hourglass, or two funnels joined at the neck. The -upper funnel served as a hopper into which the grain was poured; the -lower funnel fitted closely over the <i>mēta</i>, the distance between them -being regulated by the length of the pin, mentioned above, according -to the fineness of the flour desired. The mill without frame-work is -shown in Fig. 109.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figures109and110"> - <tr> - <td width="366"> - <img src="images/figure109.jpg" alt="FIGURE 109. - A POMPEIAN MILL WITHOUT ITS FRAME-WORK"> - </td> - <td width="282"> - <img src="images/figure110.jpg" alt="FIGURE 110. HORSE AND MILL"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="366" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 109. - A P<small>OMPEIAN</small> M<small>ILL - WITHOUT</small> I<small>TS</small> - F<small>RAME-WORK</small></small> - </td> - <td width="282" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 110. - H<small>ORSE AND</small> M<small>ILL</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect285"><b>285</b></a></span> -The frame-work was very strong and massive on account of the -heavy weight that was suspended from it. The beams used for turning -the mill were fitted into holes in the narrow part of the <i>catillus</i> -as shown in the cut. The power required to do the grinding was -furnished by horses or mules attached to the beams (Fig. 110), or by -slaves pushing against them. This last method was often used as a -punishment, as we have seen (<a href="#sect170">§§170</a>, <a href="#sect148">148</a>). Of the same form but much -smaller were the hand mills used by soldiers for grinding the -<i>frūmentum</i> furnished them as rations. Under the Empire water mills -were introduced, but they are hardly referred to in literature.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect286"><b>286</b></a></span> -The transition from the ancient porridge (<a href="#sect283">§283</a>) to bread baked -in the modern fashion must have been through the medium of thin cakes -baked in or over the fire. We do not know when bread baked in ovens -came into use. Bakers (<a href="#sect283">§283</a>) as representatives of a trade do not go -back beyond 171 <small>B.C.</small>, but long before this time, of course, the family -bread had been made by the <i>māter familiās</i>, or by a slave under her -supervision. After public bakeries were once established it became -less and less usual for bread to be made in private houses in the -towns. Only the most pretentious of the city mansions had ovens -attached, as shown by the ruins. In the country, on the other hand, -the older custom was always retained (<a href="#sect148">§148</a>). Under Trajan (98-118) it -became the custom to distribute bread to the people daily, instead of -grain once a month, and the bakers were organized into a guild -(<i>corpus</i>, <i>collegium</i>), and as a corporation enjoyed certain -privileges and immunities. In Fig. 111 are shown the ruins of a -Pompeian bakery with several mills in connection with it.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure111"> - <tr> - <td width="638"> - <img src="images/figure111.jpg" alt="FIGURE 111. BAKERY WITH MILLS"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="638" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 111. - B<small>AKERY WITH</small> M<small>ILLS</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table><br> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figures112and113"> - <tr> - <td width="361" align="center"> - <img src="images/figure112.jpg" alt="FIGURE 112. OVEN FOR BREAD"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="361" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 112. - O<small>VEN FOR</small> B<small>READ</small></small> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="361"> - <img src="images/figure113.jpg" alt="FIGURE 113. SALESROOM OF BAKERY"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="361" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 113. - S<small>ALESROOM OF</small> B<small>AKERY</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect287"><b>287</b></a></span> -<b>Breadmaking.</b>—After the flour collected about the edge of the -<i>mēta</i> (<a href="#sect284">§284</a>) had been sifted, water and salt were added and the dough -was kneaded in a trough by hand or by a simple machine shown in the -cut in Schreiber LXVII. Yeast was added as nowadays and the bread was -baked in an oven much like those still found in parts of Europe. One -preserved in the ruins of Pompeii is shown in the cut (Fig. 112): at -<i>a</i> is the oven proper, in which a fire was built, the draft being -furnished by the openings at <i>d</i>. The surrounding chamber, <i>b</i>, is -intended to retain the heat after the fire (usually of charcoal) had -been raked out into the ashpit, <i>e</i>, and the vents closed. The letter -<i>f</i> marks a receptacle for water, which seems to have been used for -moistening the bread while baking. After the oven had been heated to -the proper temperature and the fire raked out, the loaves were put in, -the vents closed, and the bread left to bake.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect288"><b>288</b></a></span> -There were several qualities of bread, varying with the sort of -grain, the setting of the millstones (<a href="#sect284">§284</a>) and the fineness of the -sieves (<a href="#sect287">§287</a>). The very best, made of pure wheat-flour, was called -<i>pānis silīgneus;</i> that made of coarse flour, of flour and bran, or of -bran alone was called <i>pānis plebēius</i>, <i>castrēnsis</i>, <i>sordidus</i>, -<i>rūsticus</i>, etc. The loaves were circular and rather flat—some have -been found in the ruins of Pompeii—and had their surface marked off -by lines drawn from the center into four or more parts. The wall -painting (Fig. 113) of a salesroom of a bakery, also found in Pompeii, -gives a good idea of the appearance of the bread. Various kinds of -cakes and confections were also sold at these shops.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect289"><b>289</b></a></span> -<b>The Olive.</b>—Next in importance to the wheat came the olive. It -was introduced into Italy from Greece, and from Italy has spread -through all the Mediterranean countries; but in modern as well as in -ancient times the best olives are those of Italy. The olive was an -important article of food merely as a fruit, being eaten both fresh -and preserved in various ways, but it found its significant place in -the domestic economy of the Romans in the form of the olive oil with -which we are familiar. It is the value of the oil that has caused the -cultivation of the olive to become so general in southern Europe, and -it is claimed that its use is constantly widening, extending -especially northward, where wine and oil are said to be supplanting -the native beer and butter. Many varieties were known to the Romans, -requiring different climates and soils and adapted to different uses. -In general it may be said that the larger berries were better suited -for eating than for oil.</p> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure114"> - <tr> - <td width="237"> - <img src="images/figure114.jpg" alt="FIGURE 114. PICKING OLIVES"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="237" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 114. - P<small>ICKING</small> O<small>LIVES</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect290"><b>290</b></a></span> -The olive was eaten fresh as it ripened and was also preserved -in various ways. The ripe olives were sprinkled with salt and left -untouched for five days; the salt was then shaken off, and the olives -dried in the sun. They were also preserved sweet without salt in -boiled must (<a href="#sect296">§296</a>). Half ripe olives were picked (Fig. 114) with their -stems and covered over in jars with the best quality of oil; in this -way they are said to have retained for more than a year the flavor of -the fresh fruit. Green olives were preserved whole in strong brine, -the form in which we know them now, or were beaten into a mass and -preserved with spices and vinegar. The preparation <i>epityrum</i> was made -by taking the fruit in any of the three stages, removing the stones, -chopping up the pulp, seasoning it with vinegar, coriander seeds, -cumin, fennel, and mint, and covering the mixture in jars with oil -enough to exclude the air. The result was a salad that was eaten with -cheese.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect291"><b>291</b></a></span> -<b>Olive Oil.</b>—The oil was used for several purposes. It was -employed most anciently to anoint the body after bathing, especially -by athletes; it was used as a vehicle for perfumes, the Romans knowing -nothing of distillation by means of alcohol; it was burned in lamps -(<a href="#sect228">§228</a>); it was an indispensable article of food. As a food it was -employed as butter is now in cooking or as a relish or dressing in its -natural state. The olive when subjected to pressure yields two fluids. -The first to flow (<i>amurca</i>) is dark and bitter, having the -consistency of water. It was largely used as a fertilizer, but not as -a food. The second, which flows after greater pressure, is the oil -(<i>oleum</i>, <i>oleum olīvum</i>). The best oil was made from olives not fully -ripe, but the largest quantity was yielded by the ripened fruit.</p> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure115"> - <tr> - <td width="309"> - <img src="images/figure115.jpg" alt="FIGURE 115. OLIVE MILL"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="309" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 115. - O<small>LIVE</small> M<small>ILL</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect292"><b>292</b></a></span> -The olives were picked from the tree (Fig. 114), those that fell -of their own accord being thought inferior (<a href="#sect160">§160</a>), and were spread -upon sloping platforms in order that a part of the <i>amurca</i> might flow -out by itself. Here the fruit remained until a slight fermentation -took place. It was then subjected to the action of a machine (Fig. -115) that bruised and pressed it. The oil that flowed out was caught -in a jar and from it ladled into a receptacle (<i>lābrum fictile</i>), -where it was allowed to settle, the <i>amurca</i> and other impurities -falling to the bottom. The oil was then skimmed off into another like -receptacle and again allowed to settle, the process being repeated (as -often as thirty times if necessary) until all impurities had been left -behind. The best oil was made by subjecting the berries at first to a -gentle pressure only. The bruised pulp was then taken out, separated -from the stones or pits, and pressed a second or even a third time, -the quality becoming poorer each time. The oil was kept in jars which -were glazed on the inside with wax or gum to prevent absorption, the -covers were carefully secured and the jars stored away in vaults (Fig. -116).</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure116"> - <tr> - <td width="652"> - <img src="images/figure116.jpg" alt="FIGURE 116. VAULT FOR STORING OIL"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="652" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 116. - V<small>AULT FOR</small> S<small>TORING</small> - O<small>IL</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect293"><b>293</b></a></span> -<b>Grapes.</b>—Grapes were eaten fresh from the vines and were also -dried in the sun and kept as raisins, but they owed their real -importance in Italy as elsewhere to the wine made from them. The vine -was not native to Italy, as until recently it was supposed to be, but -was introduced, probably from Greece, long before history begins. The -earliest name for Italy known to the Greeks was <i>Oenōtria</i>, "the land -of the vine-pole," and very ancient legends ascribe to Numa -restrictions upon the use of wine. It is probable that up to the time -of the Gracchi wine was rare and expensive. The quantity produced -gradually increased as the cultivation of cereals declined (<a href="#sect146">§146</a>), but -the quality long remained inferior, all the choice wines being -imported from Greece and the east. By Cicero's time, however, -attention was being given to viticulture and to the scientific making -of wines, and by the time of Augustus vintages were produced that vied -with the best brought in from abroad. Pliny, writing about the middle -of the first century of our era, says that of the eighty really choice -wines then known to the Romans two-thirds were produced in Italy, and -Arrian of about the same time says that Italian wines were famous as -far away as India.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect294"><b>294</b></a></span> -<b>Viticulture.</b>—Grapes could be grown almost anywhere in Italy, -but the best wines were made south of Rome within the confines of -Latium and Campania. The cities of Praeneste, Velitrae, and Formiae -were famous for the wines grown on the sunny slopes of the Alban -hills. A little farther south, near Terracina, was the <i>ager -Caecubus</i>, where was produced the Caecuban wine, pronounced by -Augustus the noblest of all. Then comes Mt. Massicus with the <i>ager -Falernus</i> on its southern side, producing the Falernian wines, even -more famous than the Caecuban. Upon and around Vesuvius, too, fine -wines were grown, especially near Naples, Pompeii, Cumae, and -Surrentum. Good wines but less noted than these were produced in the -extreme south, near Beneventum, Aulon, and Tarentum. Of like quality -were those grown east and north of Rome, near Spoletium, Caesena, -Ravenna, Hadria, and Ancona. Those of the north and west, in Etruria -and Gaul, were not so good.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect295"><b>295</b></a></span> -<b>Vineyards.</b>—The sunny side of a hill was the best place for a -vineyard. The vines were supported by poles or trellises in the modern -fashion, or were planted at the foot of trees up which they were -allowed to climb. For this purpose the elm (<i>ulmus</i>) was preferred, -because it flourished everywhere, could be closely trimmed without -endangering its life, and had leaves that made good food for cattle -when they were plucked off to admit the sunshine to the vines. Vergil -speaks of "marrying the vine to the elm," and Horace calls the plane -tree a bachelor (<i>platanus coelebs</i>), because its dense foliage made -it unfit for the vineyard. Before the gathering of the grapes the -chief work lay in keeping the ground clear; it was spaded over once -each month through the year. One man could properly care for about -four acres.</p> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure117"> - <tr> - <td width="360"> - <img src="images/figure117.jpg" alt="FIGURE 117. MAKING WINE"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="360" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 117. - M<small>AKING</small> W<small>INE</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect296"><b>296</b></a></span> -<b>Wine Making.</b>—The making of the wine took place usually in -September, the season varying with the soil and the climate. It was -anticipated by a festival, the <i>vīnālia rūstica</i>, celebrated on the -19th of August. Precisely what the festival meant the Romans -themselves did not fully understand, perhaps, but it was probably -intended to secure a favorable season for the gathering of the grapes. -The general process of making the wine differed little from that -familiar to us in Bible stories and still practiced in modern times. -After the grapes were gathered they were first trodden with the bare -feet (Fig. 117) and then pressed in the <i>prēlum</i> or <i>lorcular</i>. The -juice as it came from the press was called <i>mustum</i>, "new," and was -often drunk unfermented, as "sweet" cider is now. It could be kept -sweet from vintage to vintage by being sealed in a jar smeared within -and without with pitch and immersed for several weeks in cold water or -buried in moist sand. It was also preserved by evaporation over a -fire; when it was reduced one-half in this way it became a grape-jelly -(<i>dēfrutum</i>) and was used as a basis for various beverages and for -other purposes (<a href="#sect290">§290</a>).</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect297"><b>297</b></a></span> -Fermented wine (<i>vīnum</i>) was made by collecting the <i>mustum</i> in -huge vat-like jars (<i>dōlia</i>, shown in Fig. 116), large enough to hide -a man and containing a hundred gallons or more. These were covered -with pitch within and without and partially buried in the ground in -cellars or vaults (<i>vīnāriae cellae</i>), in which they remained -permanently. After they were nearly filled with the <i>mustum</i>, they -were left uncovered during the process of fermentation, which lasted -under ordinary circumstances about nine days. They were then tightly -sealed and opened only when the wine required attention<small><small><sup>3</sup></small></small> or was to -be removed. The cheaper wines were used directly from the <i>dōlia</i>, but -the choicer kinds were drawn off after a year into smaller jars -(<i>amphorae</i>), clarified and sometimes "doctored" in various ways, and -finally stored in depositories often entirely distinct from the -cellars (Fig. 118). A favorite place was a room in the upper story of -the house, where the wine was artificially aged by the heat rising -from the furnace or even by the smoke escaping from the fire. The -<i>amphorae</i> were sometimes marked with the name of the wine, and the -names of the consuls for the year in which they were filled.</p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>3</sup></small> Spoiled wine was used as vinegar (<i>acētum</i>), and vinegar -that became insipid and tasteless was called <i>vappa</i>. This last word -was used also as a term of reproach for shiftless and worthless men.</small></blockquote> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure118"> - <tr> - <td width="633"> - <img src="images/figure118.jpg" alt="FIGURE 118. WINE CELLAR"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="633" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 118. - W<small>INE</small> C<small>ELLAR</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect298"><b>298</b></a></span> -<b>Beverages.</b>—After water and milk, wine was the ordinary drink of -the Romans of all classes. It must be distinctly understood, however, -that they always mixed it with water and used more water than wine. -Pliny mentions one sort of wine that would stand being mixed with -eight times its own bulk of water. To drink wine unmixed was thought -typical of barbarism, and among the Romans it was so drunk only by the -dissipated at their wildest revels. Under the Empire the ordinary -qualities of wine were cheap enough to be sold at three or four cents -a quart (<a href="#sect388">§388</a>); the choicer kinds were very costly, entirely beyond -the reach, Horace gives us to understand, of a man in his -circumstances. More rarely used than wine were other beverages that -are mentioned in literature. A favorite drink was <i>mulsum</i>, made of -four measures of wine and one of honey. A mixture of water and honey -allowed to ferment together was called <i>mulsa</i>. Cider also was made by -the Romans, and wines from mulberries and dates. They also made -various cordials from aromatic plants, but it must be remembered -(<a href="#sect281">§281</a>) that they had no knowledge of tea or coffee.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect299"><b>299</b></a></span> -<b>Style of Living.</b>—The table supplies of a given people vary from -age to age with the development of civilization and refinement, and in -the same age with the means and tastes of classes and individuals. Of -the Romans it may be said that during the early Republic, perhaps -almost through the second century <small>B.C.</small>, they cared little for the -pleasures of the table. They lived frugally and ate sparingly. They -were almost strictly vegetarians (<a href="#sect273">§273</a>), much of their food was eaten -cold, and the utmost simplicity characterized the cooking and the -service of their meals. Everything was prepared by the <i>māter -familiās</i> or by the maidservants under her supervision (<a href="#sect90">§90</a>). The -table was set in the <i>ātrium</i> (<a href="#sect188">§188</a>), and the father, mother, and -children sat around it on stools or benches (<a href="#sect225">§225</a>), waiting upon each -other and their guests (<a href="#sect104">§104</a>). Dependents ate of the same food, but -apart from the family. The dishes were of the plainest sort, of -earthenware or even of wood, though a silver saltcellar was often the -cherished ornament of the humblest board. Table knives and forks were -unknown, the food being cut into convenient portions before it was -served, and spoons being used to convey to the mouth what the fingers -could not manage. During this period there was little to choose -between the fare of the proudest patrician and the humblest client. -The Samnite envoys found Manius Curius, the conqueror of Pyrrhus (275 -<small>B.C.</small>), eating his dinner of vegetables (<a href="#sect275">§275</a>) from an earthen bowl. A -century later the poet Plautus calls his countrymen a race of porridge -eaters (<i>pultiphagōnidae</i>, <a href="#sect283">§283</a>), and gives us to understand that in -his time even the wealthiest Romans had in their households no -specially trained cooks. When a dinner out of the ordinary was given, -a professional cook was hired, who brought with him to the house of -the host his utensils and helpers, just as a plumber or surgeon -responds to a call nowadays.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect300"><b>300</b></a></span> -The last two centuries of the Republic saw all this changed. The -conquest of Greece and the wars in Asia Minor gave the Romans a taste -of eastern luxury, and altered their simple table customs, as other -customs had been altered by like contact with the outside world (<a href="#sect5">§§5</a>, -<a href="#sect101">101</a>, <a href="#sect112">112</a>, <a href="#sect192">192</a>). From this time the poor and the rich no longer fared -alike. The former constrained by poverty lived frugally as of old: -every schoolboy knows that the soldiers who won Caesar's battles for -him lived on grain (<a href="#sect282">§282 and note</a>), which they ground in their -handmills and baked at their campfires. The very rich, on the other -hand, aping the luxury of the Greeks but lacking their refinement, -became gluttons instead of gourmands. They ransacked the world<small><small><sup>4</sup></small></small> for -articles of food, preferring the rare and the costly to what was -really palatable and delicate. They measured the feast by the -quantities they could consume, reviving the sated appetite by piquant -sauces and resorting to emetics to prolong the pleasures of the table -and prevent the effects of over-indulgence. The separate dining-room -(<i>trīclīnium</i>) was introduced, the great houses having two or more -(<a href="#sect204">§204</a>), and the <i>oecī</i> (<a href="#sect207">§207</a>) were pressed into service for banquet -halls. The dining couch (<a href="#sect224">§224</a>) took the place of the bench or stool, -slaves served the food to the reclining guests, a dinner dress (<a href="#sect249">§249</a>) -was devised, and every <i>familia urbāna</i> (<a href="#sect149">§149</a>) included a high-priced -chef with a staff of trained assistants. Of course there were always -wealthy men, Atticus, the friend of Cicero, for example (<a href="#sect155">§155</a>), who -clung to the simpler customs of the earlier days, but these could make -little headway against the current of senseless dissipation and -extravagance. Over against these must be set the fawning poor, who -preferred the fleshpots of the rich patron (<a href="#sect181">§§181</a>, <a href="#sect182">182</a>) to the bread -of honest independence. Between the two extremes was a numerous middle -class of the well-to-do, with whose ordinary meals we are more -concerned than with the banquets of the very rich. These meals were -the <i>ientāculum</i>, the <i>prandium</i>, and the <i>cēna</i>.</p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>4</sup></small> Gellius (2d century <small>A.D.</small>) gives a list from a satirical -poem of Varro: Peacock from Samos, heath-cock from Phrygia, crane from -Media, kid from Ambracia, young tunny-fish from Chalcedon, <i>mūrēna</i> -from Tartessus, cod (?) from Pessinus, oysters from Tarentum, scallop -from Chios (?), sturgeon (?) from Rhodes, <i>scarus</i> from Cilicia, nuts -from Thasos, dates from Egypt, chestnuts (?) from Spain.</small></blockquote> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect301"><b>301</b></a></span> -<b>Hours for Meals.</b>—Three meals a day was the regular number with -the Romans as with us, though hygienists were found then, as they may -be found nowadays, who believed two meals more healthful than three, -and then as now high livers often indulged in an extra meal taken late -at night. Custom fixed more or less rigorously the hours for meals, -though these varied with the age, and to a less extent with the -occupations and even with the inclinations of individuals. In early -times in the city and in all periods in the country the chief meal -(<i>cēna</i>) was eaten in the middle of the day, preceded by a breakfast -(<i>ientāculum</i>) in the early morning and followed in the evening by a -supper (<i>vesperna</i>). In classical times the hours for meals in Rome -were about as they are now in our large cities: that is, the <i>cēna</i> -was postponed until the work of the day was finished, thus crowding -out the <i>vesperna</i>, and a luncheon (<i>prandium</i>) took the place of the -old-fashioned "noon dinner." The evening dinner came to be more or -less of a social function, guests being present and the food and -service the best the house could afford, while the <i>ientāculum</i> and -<i>prandium</i> were in comparison very simple and informal meals.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect302"><b>302</b></a></span> -<b>Breakfast and Luncheon.</b>—The breakfast (<i>ientāculum</i> or -<i>iantāculum</i>) was eaten immediately after rising, the hour varying, of -course, with the occupation and condition of the individual. It -consisted usually merely of bread, eaten dry or dipped in wine or -sprinkled over with salt, though raisins, olives, and cheese were -sometimes added. Workmen pressed for time seem to have taken their -breakfast in their hands to eat as they went to the place of their -labor, and schoolboys often stopped on their way to school (<a href="#sect122">§122</a>) at a -public bakery (<a href="#sect286">§286</a>) to buy a sort of shortcake or pancake, on which -they made a hurried breakfast. More rarely the breakfast became a -regular meal, eggs being served in addition to the things just -mentioned, and <i>mulsum</i> (<a href="#sect298">§298</a>) and milk drunk with them. It is likely -that such a breakfast was taken at a later hour and by persons who -dispensed with the noon meal. The luncheon (<i>prandium</i>) came about -eleven o'clock. It, too, consisted usually of cold food: bread, salads -(<a href="#sect276">§276</a>), olives, cheese, fruits, nuts, and cold meats from the dinner -of the day before. Occasionally, however, warm meat and vegetables -were added, but the meal was never an elaborate one. It is sometimes -spoken of as a morning meal, but in this case it must have followed at -about the regular interval an extremely early breakfast, or it must -itself have formed the breakfast, taken later than usual, when the -<i>ientāculum</i> for some reason had been omitted. After the <i>prandium</i> -came the midday rest or siesta (<i>merīdiātiō</i>), when all work was laid -aside until the eighth hour, except in the law courts and in the -senate. In the summer, at least, everybody went to sleep, and even in -the capital the streets were almost as deserted as at midnight. The -<i>vesperna</i>, entirely unknown in city life, closed the day on the farm. -It was an early supper which consisted largely of the leavings of the -noonday dinner with the addition of such uncooked food as a farm would -naturally supply. The word <i>merenda</i> seems to have been applied in -early times to this evening meal, then to refreshments taken at any -time (cf. the English "lunch"), and finally to have gone out of use -altogether.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect303"><b>303</b></a></span> -<b>The Formal Meal.</b>—The busy life of the city had early crowded -the dinner out of its original place in the middle of the day and -fixed it in the afternoon. The fashion soon spread to the towns and -was carried by city people to their country estates (<a href="#sect145">§145</a>), so that in -classical times the late dinner (<i>cēna</i>) was the regular thing for all -persons of any social standing throughout the length and breadth of -Italy. It was even more of a function than it is with us, because the -Romans knew no other form of purely social intercourse. They had no -receptions, balls, musicales, or theater parties, no other -opportunities to entertain their friends or be entertained by them. It -is safe to say, therefore, that when the Roman was in town he was -every evening host or guest at a dinner as elaborate as his means or -those of his friends permitted, unless, of course, urgent business -claimed his attention or some unusual circumstances had withdrawn him -temporarily from society. On the country estates the same custom -prevailed, the guests coming from neighboring estates or being friends -who stopped unexpectedly, perhaps, to claim entertainment for a night -as they passed on a journey to or from the city (<a href="#sect388">§388</a>). These dinners, -formal as they were, are to be distinguished carefully from the -extravagant banquets of the ostentatious rich. They were in themselves -thoroughly wholesome, the expression of genuine hospitality. The -guests were friends, the number was limited, the wife and children of -the host were present, and social enjoyment was the end in view. -Before the meal itself is described something must be said of the -dining-room and its furniture.</p> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figures119to121"> - <tr> - <td width="311" align="center"> - <img src="images/figure119.jpg" alt="FIGURE 119. TABLE AND COUCHES"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="311" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 119. - T<small>ABLE AND</small> C<small>OUCHES</small></small> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="311" align="center"> - <img src="images/figure120.jpg" alt="FIGURE 120. TABLE AND COUCHES"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="311" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 120. - T<small>ABLE AND</small> C<small>OUCHES</small></small> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="311"> - <img src="images/figure121.jpg" alt="FIGURE 121. WOMAN SITTING ON DINING COUCH"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="311" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 121. - W<small>OMAN</small> S<small>ITTING ON</small> - D<small>INING</small> C<small>OUCH</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect304"><b>304</b></a></span> -<b>The Dining Couch.</b>—The position of the dining-room -(<i>trīclīnium</i>) in the Roman house has been described already (<a href="#sect204">§204</a>), -and it has been remarked (<a href="#sect300">§300</a>) that in classical times the stool or -bench had given place to the couch. This couch (<i>lectus trīcliniāris</i>) -was constructed much as the common <i>lectī</i> were (<a href="#sect224">§224</a>), except that it -was made broader and lower, had an arm at one end only, was without a -back, and sloped from the front to the rear. At the end where the arm -was, a cushion or bolster was placed, and parallel with it two others -were arranged in such a way as to divide the couch into three parts. -Each part was for one person, and a single couch would, therefore, -accommodate three persons. The dining-room received its name -(<i>trīclīnium</i>) from the fact that it was planned to hold three of -these couches (<i>κλίναι</i> in Greek), set on three sides of a table, the -fourth side of which was open. The arrangement varied a little with -the size of the room. In a large room the couches were set as in Fig. -119, but if economy of space was necessary they were placed as in Fig. -120, the latter being probably the more common arrangement of the two. -Nine may be taken, therefore, as the ordinary number at a Roman dinner -party. More would be invited only on unusual occasions, and then a -larger room would be used where two or more tables could be arranged -in the same way, each accommodating nine guests. In the case of -members of the same family, especially if one was a child, or when the -guests were very intimate friends, a fourth person might find room on -a couch, but this was certainly unusual; probably when a guest -unexpectedly presented himself some member of the family would -surrender his place to him. Often the host reserved a place or places -for friends that his guests might bring without notice. Such uninvited -persons were called <i>umbrae</i>. When guests were present the wife sat on -the edge of the couch (Fig. 121) instead of reclining, and children -were usually accommodated on seats at the open side of the table.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect305"><b>305</b></a></span> -<b>Places of Honor.</b>—The guest approached the couch from the rear -and took his place upon it, lying on the left side, with his face to -the table, and supported by his left elbow, which rested on the -cushion or bolster mentioned above. The position of his body is -indicated by the arrows in the cut above (Fig. 119). Each couch and -each place on the couch had its own name according to its position -with reference to the others. The couches were called respectively -<i>lectus summus</i>, <i>lectus medius</i>, and <i>lectus īmus</i>, and it will be -noticed that persons reclining on the <i>lectus medius</i> had the <i>lectus -summus</i> on the left and the <i>lectus īmus</i> on the right. Etiquette -assigned the <i>lectus summus</i> and the <i>lectus medius</i> to guests, while -the <i>lectus īmus</i> was reserved for the host, his wife, and one other -member of his family. If the host alone represented the family, the -two places beside him on the <i>lectus īmus</i> were given to the humblest -of the guests.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect306"><b>306</b></a></span> -The places on each couch were named in the same way, (<i>locus</i>) -<i>summus</i>, <i>medius</i>, and <i>īmus</i>, denoted respectively by the figures -<i>1</i>, <i>2</i>, and <i>3</i> in the cut. The person who occupied the place -numbered <i>1</i> was said to be above (<i>super</i>, <i>suprā</i>) the person to his -right, while the person occupying the middle place (<i>2</i>) was above the -person on his right and below (<i>īnfrā</i>) the one on the left. The place -of honor on the <i>lectus summus</i> was that numbered <i>1</i>, and the -corresponding place on the <i>lectus īmus</i> was taken by the host. The -most distinguished guest, however, was given the place on the <i>lectus -medius</i> marked <i>3</i>, and this place was called by the special name -<i>locus cōnsulāris</i>, because if a consul was present it was always -assigned to him. It will be noticed that it was next the place of the -host, and besides was especially convenient for a public official; if -he found it necessary to receive or send a message during the dinner -he could communicate with the messenger without so much as turning on -his elbow.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figures122and123"> - <tr> - <td width="195"> - <img src="images/figure122.jpg" alt="FIGURE 122. SIDEBOARD"> - </td> - <td width="331"> - <img src="images/figure123.jpg" alt="FIGURE 123. SIDEBOARD"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="195" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 122. - S<small>IDEBOARD</small></small> - </td> - <td width="331" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 123. - S<small>IDEBOARD</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect307"><b>307</b></a></span> -<b>Other Furniture.</b>—In comparison with the <i>lectī</i> the rest of the -furniture of the dining-room played an insignificant part. In fact the -only other absolutely necessary article was the table (<i>mēnsa</i>), -placed as shown in the figures above between the three couches in such -a way that all were equally distant from it and free access to it was -left on the fourth side. The space between the table and the couches -might be so little that the guests could help themselves, or on the -other hand so great that slaves could pass between to serve the food. -The guests had no individual plates to be kept upon the table, so that -it was used merely to receive the large dishes in which the food was -served, and certain formal articles, such as the saltcellar (<a href="#sect299">§299</a>) and -the things necessary for the offering to the gods. The table, -therefore, was never very large (one such would be almost lost in a -modern dining-room), but it was often exceedingly beautiful and costly -(<a href="#sect227">§227</a>). Its beauties were not hidden either by any cloth or covering; -the table-cloth, as we know it, did not come into use until about the -end of the first century of our era. The cost and beauty of the -dishes, too, were limited only by the means and taste of the owner. -Besides the couches and the table, sideboards (<i>abacī</i>) were the only -articles of furniture usually found in the <i>trīclīnium</i>. These varied -from a simple shelf to tables of different forms and sizes and open -cabinets, such as shown in Figs. 122 and 123 and in Schreiber LXVII, -11. They were set out of the way against the walls and served as do -ours to display plate and porcelain when not in use on the table.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect308"><b>308</b></a></span> -<b>Courses.</b>—In classical times even the simplest dinner was -divided into three parts, the <i>gustus</i> ("appetizer"), the <i>cēna</i> -("dinner proper"), and the <i>secunda mēnsa</i><small><small><sup>5</sup></small></small> ("dessert"); the dinner -was made elaborate by serving each of the parts in several courses. -The <i>gustus</i> consisted of those things only that were believed to -excite the appetite or aid the digestion: oysters and other shell-fish -fresh, sea-fish salted or pickled, certain vegetables that could be -eaten uncooked, especially onions, and almost invariably lettuce and -eggs, all with piquant sauces. With these appetizers <i>mulsum</i> (<a href="#sect298">§298</a>) -was drunk, wine being thought too heavy for an empty stomach, and from -the drink the <i>gustus</i> was also called the <i>prōmulsis;</i> another and -more significant name for it was <i>antecēna</i>. Then followed the real -dinner, the <i>cēna</i>, consisting of the more substantial viands, fish, -flesh, fowl, and vegetables. With this part of the meal wine was -drunk, but in moderation, for it was thought to dull the sense of -taste, and the real drinking began only when the <i>cēna</i> was over. The -<i>cēna</i> almost always consisted of several courses (<i>mēnsa prīma</i>, -<i>altera</i>, <i>tertia</i>, etc.), three being thought neither niggardly nor -extravagant; we are told that Augustus often dined on three courses -and never went beyond six. The <i>secunda mēnsa</i> closed the meal with -all sorts of pastry, sweets, nuts, and fruits, fresh and preserved, -with which wine was freely drunk. From the fact that eggs were eaten -at the beginning of the meal and apples at the close came the -proverbial expression, <i>ab ovō ad māla</i>.</p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>5</sup></small> This is the most common form, but the plural also occurs, -and the adjective may follow the noun.</small></blockquote> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect309"><b>309</b></a></span> -<b>Bills of Fare.</b>—We have preserved to us in literature the bills -of fare of a few meals, probably actually served, which may be taken -as typical at least of the homely, the generous, and the sumptuous -dinner. The simplest is given by Juvenal (†2d century <small>A.D.</small>): for the -<i>gustus</i>, asparagus and eggs; for the <i>cēna</i>, young kid and chicken; -for the <i>secunda mēnsa</i>, fruits. Two others are given by Martial -(43-101 <small>A.D.</small>): the first has lettuce, onions, tunny-fish, and eggs cut -in slices; sausages with porridge, fresh cauliflower, bacon, and -beans; pears and chestnuts, and with the wine olives, parched peas, -and lupines. The second has mallows, onions, mint, elecampane, -anchovies with sliced eggs, and sow's udder in tunny sauce; the <i>cēna</i> -was served in a single course (<i>ūna mēnsa</i>), kid, chicken, cold ham, -haricot beans, and young cabbage sprouts; fresh fruits, with wine, of -course. The last we owe to Macrobius (†5th century <small>A.D.</small>), who assigns -it to a feast of the pontifices during the Republic, feasts that were -proverbial for their splendor. The <i>antecēna</i> was served in two -courses: first, sea-urchins, raw oysters, three kinds of sea-mussels, -thrush on asparagus, a fat hen, panned oysters, and mussels; second, -mussels again, shell-fish, sea-nettles, figpeckers, loin of goat, loin -of pork, fricasseed chicken, figpeckers again, two kinds of -sea-snails. The number of courses in which the <i>cēna</i> was served is -not given: sow's udder, head of wild boar, panned fish, panned sow's -udder, domestic ducks, wild ducks, hares, roast chicken, starch -pudding, bread. No vegetables or dessert are mentioned by Macrobius, -but we may take it for granted that they corresponded to the rest of -the feast, and the wine that the pontifices drank was famed as the -best.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect310"><b>310</b></a></span> -<b>Serving the Dinner.</b>—The dinner hour marked the close of the -day's work, as has been said (<a href="#sect301">§301</a>), and varied, therefore, with the -season of the year and the social position of the family. In general -it may be said to have been not before the ninth and rarely after the -tenth hour (<a href="#sect418">§418</a>). It lasted usually until bedtime, that is, for three -or four hours at least, though the Romans went to bed early because -they rose early (<a href="#sect79">§§79</a>, <a href="#sect122">122</a>). Sometimes even the ordinary dinner lasted -until midnight, but when a banquet was expected to be unusually -protracted, it was the custom to begin earlier in order that there -might be time after it for the needed repose. Such banquets, beginning -before the ninth hour, were called <i>tempestīva convīvia</i>, the word -"early" in this connection carrying with it about the same reproach as -our "late" suppers. At the ordinary family dinners the time was spent -in conversation, though in some good houses (notably that of Atticus, -cf. <a href="#sect155">§155</a>) a trained slave read aloud to the guests. At "gentlemen's -dinners" other forms of entertainment were provided, music, dancing, -juggling, etc., by professional performers (<a href="#sect153">§153</a>).</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect311"><b>311</b></a></span> -When the guests had been ushered into the dining-room the gods -were solemnly invoked, a custom to which our "grace before meat" -corresponds. Then they took their places on the couches (<i>accumbere</i>, -<i>discumbere</i>) as these were assigned them (<a href="#sect306">§306</a>), their sandals were -removed (<a href="#sect250">§250</a>), to be cared for by their own attendants (<a href="#sect152">§152</a>), and -water and towels were carried around for washing the hands. The meal -then began, each course being placed upon the table on a waiter or -tray (<i>ferculum</i>), from which the dishes were passed in regular order -to the guests. As each course was finished the dishes were replaced on -the <i>ferculum</i> and removed, and water and towels were again passed to -the guests, a custom all the more necessary because the fingers were -used for forks (<a href="#sect299">§299</a>). Between the chief parts of the meal, too, the -table was cleared and carefully wiped with a cloth or soft sponge. -Between the <i>cēna</i> proper and the <i>secunda mēnsa</i> a longer pause was -made and silence was preserved while wine, salt, and meal, perhaps -also regular articles of food, were offered to the Lares. The dessert -was then brought on in the same way as the other parts of the meal. -The signal to leave the couches was given by calling for the sandals -(<a href="#sect250">§250</a>), and the guests immediately took their departure.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect312"><b>312</b></a></span> -<b>The Comissatio.</b>—Cicero tells us of Cato and his Sabine -neighbors lingering over their dessert and wine until late at night, -and makes them find the chief charm of the long evening in the -conversation. For this reason Cato declares the Latin word <i>convīvium</i> -"a living together," a better word for such social intercourse than -the one the Greeks used, <i>symposium</i>, "a drinking together." The -younger men in the gayer circles of the capital inclined rather to the -Greek view and followed the <i>cēna</i> proper with a drinking bout, or -wine supper, called <i>comissātiō</i> or <i>compōtātiō</i>. This differed from -the form that Cato approved not merely in the amount of wine consumed, -in the lower tone, and in the questionable amusements, but also in the -following of certain Greek customs unknown among the Romans until -after the second Punic war and never adopted in the regular dinner -parties that have been described. These were the use of perfumes and -flowers at the feast, the selection of a Master of the Revels, and the -method of drinking.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure124"> - <tr> - <td width="646"> - <img src="images/figure124.jpg" alt="FIGURE 124. END OF DRINKING BOUT"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="646" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 124. - E<small>ND OF</small> D<small>RINKING</small> B<small>OUT</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table><br> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure125"> - <tr> - <td width="177"> - <img src="images/figure125.jpg" alt="FIGURE 125. MIXING BOWL"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="177" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 125. - M<small>IXING</small> B<small>OWL</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect313"><b>313</b></a></span> -The perfumes and flowers were used not so much on account of the -sweetness of their scent, much as the Romans enjoyed it, as because -they believed that the scent prevented or at least retarded -intoxication. This is shown by the fact that they did not use the -unguents and the flowers throughout the whole meal, but waited to -anoint the head with perfumes and crown it with flowers until the -dessert and the wine were brought on. Various leaves and flowers were -used for the garlands (<i>corōnae convīvālēs</i>) according to individual -tastes, but the rose was the most popular and came to be generally -associated with the <i>comissātiō</i>. After the guests had assumed their -crowns (and sometimes garlands were also worn around the neck), each -threw the dice, usually calling as he did so upon his sweetheart or -some deity to help his throw. The one whose throw was the highest -(<a href="#sect320">§320</a>) was forthwith declared the <i>rēx</i> (<i>magister</i>, <i>arbiter</i>) -<i>bibendī</i>. Just what his duties and privileges were we are nowhere -expressly told, but it can hardly be doubted that it was his province -to determine the proportion of water to be added to the wine (<a href="#sect298">§298</a>), -to lay down the rules for the drinking (<i>lēgēs īnsānae</i>, Horace calls -them), to decide what each guest should do for the entertainment of -his fellows, and to impose penalties and forfeits for the breaking of -the rules.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure126"> - <tr> - <td width="644"> - <img src="images/figure126.jpg" alt="FIGURE 126. DRINKING CUPS"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="644" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 126. - D<small>RINKING</small> C<small>UPS</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table><br> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure127"> - <tr> - <td width="150" align="center"> - <img src="images/figure127.jpg" alt="FIGURE 127. CYATHUS"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="150" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 127. - C<small>YATHUS</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect314"><b>314</b></a></span> -The wine was mixed under the direction of the <i>magister</i> in a -large bowl (<i>crātēr</i>), the proportions of the wine and water being -apparently constant for the evening, and from the <i>crātēr</i> (Fig. 125), -placed on the table in view of all, the wine was ladled by the -servants into the goblets (<i>pōcula</i>, Fig. 126) of the guests. The -ladle (<i>cyathus</i>, Fig. 127) held about one-twelfth of a pint, or more -probably was graduated by twelfths. The method of drinking seems to -have differed from that of the regular dinner chiefly in this: at the -ordinary dinner each guest mixed his wine to suit his own taste and -drank as little or as much as he pleased, while at the <i>comissātiō</i> -all had to drink alike, regardless of differences in taste and -capacity. The wine seems to have been drunk chiefly in "healths," but -an odd custom regulated the size of the bumpers. Any guest might -propose the health of any person he pleased to name; immediately -slaves ladled into each goblet as many <i>cyathī</i> (twelfths of a pint) -as there were letters in the given name, and the goblets had to be -drained at a draft. The rest of the entertainment was undoubtedly wild -enough (<a href="#sect310">§310</a>); gambling seems to have been common, and Cicero speaks -of more disgraceful practices in his speeches against Catiline. -Sometimes the guests spent the evening roaming from house to house, -playing host in turn, and making night hideous as they staggered -through the streets with their crowns and garlands.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect315"><b>315</b></a></span> -<b>The Banquets of the Rich.</b>—Little need be said of the banquets -of the wealthy nobles in the last century of the Republic and of the -rich parvenus (<a href="#sect181">§181</a>) who thronged the courts of the earlier Emperors. -They were arranged on the same plan as the dinners we have described, -differing from them only in the ostentatious display of furniture, -plate, and food. So far as particulars have reached us, they were -grotesque and revolting, judged by the canons of to-day, rather than -magnificent. Couches made of silver, wine instead of water for the -hands, twenty-two courses to a single cēna, seven thousand birds -served at another, a dish of livers of fish, tongues of flamingos, -brains of peacocks and pheasants mixed up together, strike us as -vulgarity run mad. The sums spent upon these feasts do not seem so -fabulous now as they did then. Every season in our great capitals sees -social functions that surpass the feasts of Lucullus in cost as far as -they do in taste and refinement. As signs of the times, however, as -indications of changed ideals, of degeneracy and decay, they deserved -the notice that the Roman historians and satirists gave them.</p> -<br> -<br><a name="chap9"></a> -<br> -<br> -<h3>CHAPTER IX</h3> - -<h4>AMUSEMENTS; BATHS</h4> - -<blockquote><small>R<small>EFERENCES</small>: Marquardt, 269-296, 834-861; Staatsverwaltung, III, -504-565; Göll, III, 455-480, 104-157; Guhl and Koner, 643-658, -804-829, 609-618; Friedländer, II, 295-637; Ramsay, 394-409; -Pauly-Wissowa, <i>amphitheātrum</i>, <i>calx</i>, <i>circus</i>, <i>Bader;</i> Smith, -Harper, Rich, <i>amphitheātrum</i>, <i>balneae</i>, <i>circus</i>, <i>gladiātōrēs</i>, -<i>theātrum</i>, and other Latin words in text; Baumeister, 694, 241-244, -2089-2111; Lübker, 1073 f., 1199 f., 477 f., 1048 f., 185, 1213; -Kelsey-Mau, 135-161, 180-220.</small></blockquote> -<br> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure128"> - <tr> - <td width="371"> - <img src="images/figure128.jpg" alt="FIGURE 128. DISCUS THROWER"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="371" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 128. - D<small>ISCUS</small> T<small>HROWER</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect316"><b>316</b></a></span> -After the games of childhood (<a href="#sect102">§§102</a>, <a href="#sect103">103</a>) were passed the Roman -seemed to lose all instinct for play. Of sport for sport's sake he -knew nothing, he took part in no games for the sake of excelling in -them. He played ball before his dinner for the good of the exercise, -he practiced riding, fencing, wrestling, hurling the discus (Fig. -128), and swimming for the strength and skill they gave him in arms, -he played a few games of chance for the excitement the stakes -afforded, but there was no "national game" for the young men, and -there were no social amusements in which men and women took part -together. The Roman made it hard and expensive, too, for others to -amuse him. He cared nothing for the drama, little for spectacular -shows, more for farces and variety performances, perhaps, but the one -thing that really appealed to him was excitement, and this he found in -gambling or in such amusements only as involved the risk of injury to -life and limb, the sports of the circus and the amphitheater. We may -describe first the games in which the Roman participated himself and -then those at which he was a mere spectator. In the first class are -field sports and games of hazard, in the second the public and private -games (<i>lūdī pūblicī et prīvātī</i>).</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect317"><b>317</b></a></span> -<b>Sports of the Campus.</b>—The Campus Martius included all the level -ground lying between the Tiber and the Capitoline and Quirinal hills. -The northwestern portion of this plain, bounded on two sides by the -Tiber, which here sweeps abruptly to the west, kept clear of public -and private buildings and often called simply the <i>Campus</i>, was for -centuries the playground of Rome. Here the young men gathered to -practice the athletic games mentioned above, naturally in the cooler -parts of the day. Even men of graver years did not disdain a visit to -the Campus after the <i>merīdiātiō</i> (<a href="#sect302">§302</a>), in preparation for the bath -before dinner, instead of which the younger men preferred to take a -cool plunge in the convenient river. The sports themselves were those -that we are accustomed to group together as track and field athletics. -They ran foot races, jumped, threw the discus (Fig. 128), practiced -archery, and had wrestling and boxing matches. These sports were -carried on then much as they are now, if we may judge by Vergil's -description in the Fifth Aeneid, but an exception must be made of the -games of ball. These seem to have been very dull and stupid as -compared with ours. It must be remembered, however, that they were -played more for the healthful exercise they furnished than for the joy -of the playing, and by men of high position, too—Caesar, Maecenas, -and even the Emperor Augustus.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figures129and130"> - <tr> - <td width="218"> - <img src="images/figure129.jpg" alt="FIGURE 129. FOLLES"> - </td> - <td width="356"> - <img src="images/figure130.jpg" alt="FIGURE 130. GAME OF BALL"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="218" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 129. - F<small>OLLES</small></small> - </td> - <td width="356" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 130. - G<small>AME OF</small> B<small>ALL</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect318"><b>318</b></a></span> -<b>Games of Ball.</b>—Balls of different sizes are known to have been -used in the different games, variously filled with hair, feathers, and -air (<i>follēs</i>, Fig. 129). Throwing and catching formed the basis of -all the games, the bat being practically unknown. In the simplest game -the player threw the ball as high as he could, and tried to catch it -before it struck the ground. Variations of this were what we should -call juggling, the player keeping two or more balls in the air (Fig. -130), and throwing and catching by turns with another player. Another -game must have resembled our handball, requiring a wall and smooth -ground at its foot. The ball was struck with the open hand against the -wall, allowed to fall back upon the ground and bound, and then struck -back against the wall in the same manner. The aim of the player was to -keep the ball going in this way longer than his opponent could. -Private houses and the public baths often had "courts" especially -prepared for this amusement. A third game was called <i>trigōn</i>, and was -played by three persons, stationed at the angles of an equilateral -triangle. Two balls were used and the aim of the player was to throw -the ball in his possession at the one of his opponents who would be -the less likely to catch it. As two might throw at the third at the -same moment, or as the thrower of one ball might have to receive the -second ball at the very moment of throwing, both hands had to be used -and a good degree of skill was necessary. Other games, all of throwing -and catching, are mentioned here and there, but none is described with -sufficient detail to be clearly understood.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect319"><b>319</b></a></span> -<b>Games of Chance.</b>—The Romans were passionately fond of games of -chance, and gambling was so universally associated with such games -that they were forbidden by law, even when no stakes were actually -played for. A general indulgence seems to have been granted at the -Saturnalia in December, and public opinion allowed old men to play at -any time. The laws were hard to enforce, however, as such laws usually -are, and large sums were won and lost not merely at general gambling -resorts, but also at private houses. Games of chance, in fact, with -high stakes, were one of the greatest attractions at the men's dinners -that have been mentioned (<a href="#sect314">§314</a>). The commonest form of gambling was -our "heads or tails," coins being used as with us, the value depending -on the means of the players. Another common form was our "odd or -even," each player guessing in turn and in turn holding counters -concealed in his outstretched hand for his opponent to guess. The -stake was usually the contents of the hand though side bets were not -unusual. In a variation of this game the players tried to guess the -actual number of the counters held in the hand. Of more interest, -however, were the games of knuckle-bones and dice.</p> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure131"> - <tr> - <td width="411"> - <img src="images/figure131.jpg" alt="FIGURE 131. GIRLS PLAYING WITH KNUCKLE-BONES"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="411" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 131. - G<small>IRLS</small> P<small>LAYING WITH</small> - K<small>NUCKLE-BONES</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect320"><b>320</b></a></span> -<b>Knuckle-bones.</b>—Knuckle-bones (<i>tālī</i>) of sheep and goats, and -imitations of them in ivory, bronze, and stone, were used as -playthings by children and for gaming by men. Children played our -"jackstones" with them, throwing five into the air at once and -catching as many as possible on the back of the hand (Fig. 131). The -length of the <i>tālī</i> was greater than their width and they had, -therefore, four long sides and two ends. The ends were rounded off or -pointed, so that the <i>tālī</i> could not stand on them. Of the four long -sides two were broader than the others. Of the two broader sides one -was concave, the other convex; while of the narrower sides one was -flat and the other indented. As all the sides were of different shapes -the <i>tālī</i> did not require marking as do our dice, but for convenience -they were sometimes marked with the numbers 1, 3, 4, and 6, the -numbers 2 and 5 being omitted. Four <i>tālī</i> were used at a time, either -thrown into the air with the hand or thrown from a dice-box -(<i>fritillus</i>), and the side on which the bone rested was counted, not -that which came up. Thirty-five different throws were possible, of -which each had a different name. Four aces were the lowest throw, -called the Vulture, while the highest, called the Venus, was when all -the <i>tālī</i> came up differently. It was this throw that designated the -<i>magister bibendī</i> (<a href="#sect313">§313</a>).</p> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure132"> - <tr> - <td width="278"> - <img src="images/figure132.jpg" alt="FIGURE 132. PLAYING DICE"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="278" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 132. - P<small>LAYING</small> D<small>ICE</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect321"><b>321</b></a></span> -<b>Dice.</b>—The Romans had also dice (<i>tesserae</i>) precisely like our -own. They were made of ivory, stone, or some close-grained wood, and -had the sides numbered from one to six. Three were used at a time, -thrown from the <i>fritillus</i>, as were the knuckle-bones (Fig. 132), but -the sides counted that came up. The highest throw was three sixes, the -lowest three aces. In ordinary gaming the aim of the player seems to -have been to throw a higher number than his opponent, but there were -also games played with dice on boards with counters, that must have -been something like our backgammon, uniting skill with chance. Little -more of these is known than their names, but a board used for some -such game is shown in <a href="#sect336">§336</a> (Fig. 144). If one considers how much space -is given in our newspapers to the game of baseball, and how impossible -it would be for a person who had never seen a game to get a correct -idea of one from the newspaper descriptions only, it will not seem -strange that we know so little of Roman games.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect322"><b>322</b></a></span> -<b>Public and Private Games.</b>—With the historical development of -the Public Games this book has no concern (<a href="#sect2">§2</a>). It is sufficient to -say that these free exhibitions, given first in honor of some god or -gods at the cost of the state and extended and multiplied for -political purposes until all religious significance was lost, had come -by the end of the Republic to be the chief pleasure in life for the -lower classes in Rome, so that Juvenal declares that the free bread -(<a href="#sect286">§286</a>) and the games of the circus were the people's sole desire. Not -only were these games free, but when they were given all public -business was stopped and all citizens were forced to take a holiday. -These holidays became rapidly more and more numerous; by the end of -the Republic sixty-six days were taken up by the games, and in the -reign of Marcus Aurelius (161-180) no less than one hundred and -thirty-five days out of the year were thus closed to business.<small><small><sup>1</sup></small></small> -Besides these standing games, others were often given for -extraordinary events, and funeral games were common when great men -died. These last were not made legal holidays. For our purposes the -distinction between public and private games is not important, and all -may be classified according to the nature of the exhibitions as, <i>lūdī -scēnicī</i>, dramatic entertainments given in a theater, <i>lūdī -circēnsēs</i>, chariot races and other exhibitions given in a circus, and -<i>mūnera gladiātōria</i>, shows of gladiators usually given in an -amphitheater.</p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>1</sup></small> There are sixty holidays annually in Indiana, for -example, and this is about the average for the United States.</small></blockquote> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect323"><b>323</b></a></span> -<b>Dramatic Performances.</b>—The history of the development of the -drama at Rome belongs, of course, to the history of Latin literature. -In classical times dramatic performances consisted of comedies -(<i>cōmoediae</i>), tragedies (<i>tragoediae</i>), farces (<i>mīmī</i>), and -pantomimes (<i>pantomīmī</i>). The farces and pantomimes were used chiefly -as interludes and afterpieces, though with the common people they were -the most popular of all and outlived the others. Tragedy never had any -real hold at Rome, and only the liveliest comedies gained favor on the -stage. Of the comedies the only ones that have come down to us are -those of Plautus and Terence, all adaptations from Greek originals, -all depicting Greek life, and represented in Greek costumes (<i>fābulae -palliātae</i>). They were a good deal more like our comic operas than our -comedies, large parts being recited to the accompaniment of music and -other parts sung while the actor danced. They were always presented in -the daytime, as Roman theaters were provided with no means of -lighting, in the early period after the noon meal (<a href="#sect301">§301</a>), but by -Cicero's time they had come to be given in the morning. The average -comedy must have required about two hours for the acting, with -allowance for the occasional music between the scenes. We read of a -play being acted twice in a day, but this must have been very -exceptional, as time had to be allowed for the other more popular -shows given on the same occasion.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure133"> - <tr> - <td width="641"> - <img src="images/figure133.jpg" alt="FIGURE 133. SCENE FROM A COMEDY"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="641" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 133. - S<small>CENE FROM A</small> C<small>OMEDY</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect324"><b>324</b></a></span> -<b>Staging the Play.</b>—The play, as well as the other sports, was -under the supervision of the officials in charge of the games at which -it was given. They contracted for the production of the play with some -recognized manager (<i>dominus gregis</i>), who was usually an actor of -acknowledged ability and had associated with him a troupe (<i>grex</i>) of -others only inferior to himself. The actors were all slaves (<a href="#sect143">§143</a>), -and men took the parts of women. There was no limit fixed to the -number of actors, but motives of economy would lead the <i>dominus</i> to -produce each play with the smallest number possible, and two or even -more parts were often assigned to one actor. The characters in the -comedies wore the ordinary Greek dress of daily life and the costumes -(Fig. 133) were, therefore, not expensive. The only make-up required -was paint for the face, especially for the actors who took women's -parts, and the wigs that were used conventionally to represent -different characters, gray for old men, black for young men, red for -slaves, etc. These and the few properties (<i>ōrnāmenta</i>) necessary were -furnished by the <i>dominus</i>. It seems to have been customary also for -him to feast the actors at his expense if their efforts to entertain -were unusually successful.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect325"><b>325</b></a></span> -<b>The Early Theater.</b>—The theater itself deserved no such name -until very late in the Republic. During the period when the best plays -were being written (200-160 <small>B.C.</small>) almost nothing was done for the -accommodation of the actors or the audience. The stage was merely a -temporary platform, rather wide than deep, built at the foot of a hill -or a grass-covered slope. There were almost none of the things that we -are accustomed to associate with a stage, no curtains, no flies, no -scenery that could be changed, not even a sounding-board to aid the -actor's voice. There was no way either to represent the interior of a -house, and the dramatist was limited, therefore, to such situations as -might be supposed to take place upon a public street. This street the -stage represented; at the back of it were shown the fronts of two or -three houses with windows and doors that could be opened, and -sometimes there was an alley or passageway between two of the houses. -An altar stood on the stage, we are told, to remind the people of the -religious origin of the games. No better provision was made for the -audience than for the actors. The people took their places on the -slope before the stage, some reclining on the grass, some standing, -some perhaps sitting on stools they had brought from home. There was -always din and confusion to try the actor's voice, pushing and -crowding, disputing and quarreling, wailing of children, and in the -very midst of the play the report of something livelier to be seen -elsewhere might draw the whole audience away.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure134"> - <tr> - <td width="469"> - <img src="images/figure134.jpg" alt="FIGURE 134. EXTERIOR OF THEATER AT ORANGE"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="469" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 134. - E<small>XTERIOR OF</small> T<small>HEATER AT</small> O<small>RANGE</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table><br> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure135"> - <tr> - <td width="357"> - <img src="images/figure135.jpg" alt="FIGURE 135. THEATER AT POMPEII"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="357" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 135. - T<small>HEATER AT</small> P<small>OMPEII</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect326"><b>326</b></a></span> -<b>The Later Theater.</b>—Beginning about 145 <small>B.C.</small>, however, efforts -were made to improve upon this poor apology for a theater, in spite of -the opposition of those who considered the plays ruinous to morals. In -that year a wooden theater on Greek lines provided with seats was -erected, but the senate caused it to be pulled down as soon as the -games were over. It became a fixed custom, however, for such a -temporary theater with special and separate seats for senators, and -much later for the knights, to be erected as often as plays were given -at public games, until in 55 <small>B.C.</small> Pompeius Magnus erected the first -permanent theater at Rome. It was built of stone after the plans of -one he had seen at Mytilene and seated at least seventeen thousand -people; Pliny says forty thousand. This theater showed two noteworthy -divergences from its Greek model. The Greek theaters were excavated -out of the side of the hill, while the Roman theater was erected on -level ground (that of Pompeius in the Campus Martius) and gave, -therefore, a better opportunity for exterior magnificence. The Greek -theater had a large circular space for choral performances immediately -before the stage; in the Roman theater this space, called the -orchestra then as now, was much smaller, and was assigned to the -senators. The first fourteen rows of seats rising immediately behind -them were reserved for the knights. The seats back of these were -occupied indiscriminately by the people, on the principle apparently -of first come first served. No other permanent theaters were erected -at Rome until 13 <small>B.C.</small>, when two were constructed. The smaller had room -for eleven thousand spectators, the larger, erected in honor of -Marcellus, the nephew of Augustus, for twenty thousand. These improved -playhouses made possible spectacular elements in the performances that -the rude scaffolding of early days had not permitted, and these -spectacles proved the ruin of the legitimate drama. To make realistic -the scenes representing the pillaging of a city, Pompeius is said to -have furnished troops of cavalry and bodies of infantry, hundreds of -mules laden with real spoils of war, and three thousand mixing bowls -(<a href="#sect314">§314</a>). In comparison with these three thousand mixing bowls, the -avalanches, runaway locomotives, sawmills in full operation, and -cathedral scenes of modern times seem poor indeed.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure136"> - <tr> - <td width="791"> - <img src="images/figure136.jpg" alt="FIGURE 136. SECTION OF THEATER OF MARCELLUS"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="791" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 136. - S<small>ECTION OF</small> T<small>HEATER OF</small> - M<small>ARCELLUS</small> (Restored)</small> - </td> - </tr> -</table><br> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure137"> - <tr> - <td width="387"> - <img src="images/figure137.jpg" alt="FIGURE 137. PLAN OF THEATER"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="387" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 137. - P<small>LAN OF</small> T<small>HEATER</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect327"><b>327</b></a></span> -The general appearance of these theaters, the type of hundreds -erected later throughout the Roman world, may be gathered from Fig. -137, the plan of a theater on lines laid down by Vitruvius (<a href="#sect187">§187</a>). GH -is the front line of the stage (<i>proscaenium</i>); all behind it is the -<i>scaena</i>, devoted to the actors, all before it is the <i>cavea</i>, devoted -to the spectators. IKL in the rear mark the position of three doors, -for example, those of the three houses mentioned above (<a href="#sect325">§325</a>). The -semicircular orchestra CMD is the part appropriated to the senators. -The seats behind the orchestra, rising in concentric semicircles, are -divided by five passageways into six portions (<i>cuneī</i>), and in a -similar way the seats above the semicircular passage (<i>praecīnctiō</i>) -shown in the figure are divided by eleven passageways into twelve -<i>cuneī</i>. Access to the seats of the senators was afforded by -passageways under the higher seats at the right and the left of the -stage, one of which may be seen in Fig. 135, which represents a part -of the smaller of the two theaters uncovered at Pompeii, built not far -from 80 <small>B.C.</small> Over the vaulted passage will be noticed what must have -been the best seats in the theater, corresponding in some degree to -the boxes of modern times. These were reserved for the emperor, if he -was present, for the officials who superintended the games and (on the -other side) for the Vestals. Access to the higher seats was -conveniently given by broad stairways constructed under the seats and -running up to the passageways between the <i>cuneī</i>. These are shown in -Fig. 136, a theoretical restoration of the Marcellus theater mentioned -above. Behind the highest seats were broad colonnades, affording -shelter in case of rain, and above them were tall masts from which -awnings (<i>vēla</i>) were spread to protect the people from the sun. The -appearance of the stage end may be gathered from Fig. 134, showing the -remains of a Roman theater still existing at Orange,<small><small><sup>2</sup></small></small> in the south -of France. It should be noticed that the stage was connected with the -auditorium by the seats over the vaulted passages to the orchestra, -and that the curtain was raised from the bottom, to hide the stage, -not lowered from the top as ours is now. Vitruvius suggested that -rooms and porticos be built behind the stage, like the colonnades that -have been mentioned, to afford space for the actors and properties and -shelter for the people in case of rain.</p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>2</sup></small> This theater has been restored and used for reproductions -of the Classical Drama. See the interesting account of it in the -"Century Magazine" for June, 1895. It is supposed to have been erected -in the reign of Marcus Aurelius (161-180) and allowed to fall into -ruins in the fourth century <small>A.D.</small></small></blockquote> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure138"> - <tr> - <td width="239"> - <img src="images/figure138.jpg" alt="FIGURE 138. VICTORIOUS AURIGA"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="239" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 138. - V<small>ICTORIOUS</small> A<small>URIGA</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect328"><b>328</b></a></span> -<b>Roman Circuses.</b>—The games of the circus were the oldest of the -free exhibitions at Rome and always the most popular. The word -<i>circus</i> means simply a ring and the <i>lūdī circēnsēs</i> were therefore -any shows that might be given in a ring. We shall see below (<a href="#sect343">§343</a>) -that these shows were of several kinds, but the one most -characteristic, the one that is always meant when no other is -specifically named, is that of chariot races. For these races the -first and really the only necessary condition is a large and level -piece of ground. This was furnished by the valley between the Aventine -and Palatine hills, and here in prehistoric times the first Roman race -course was established. This remained <i>the</i> circus, the one always -meant when no descriptive term was added, though when others were -built it was called sometimes by way of distinction the Circus -Maximus. None of the others ever approached it in size, in -magnificence, or in popularity.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect329"><b>329</b></a></span> -The second circus to be built at Rome was the <i>circus -Flāminius</i>, founded in 221 <small>B.C.</small> by the same Caius Flaminius, who built -the Flaminian road. It was located in the southern part of the Campus -Martius (<a href="#sect317">§317</a>), and like the Circus Maximus was exposed to the -frequent overflows of the Tiber. Its position is fixed beyond -question, but the actual remains are very scanty, so that little is -known of its size or appearance. The third to be established was that -of Caius (Caligula) and Nero, named from the two emperors who had to -do with its construction, and erected, therefore, in the first century -<small>A.D.</small> It lay at the foot of the Vatican hill, but we know little more -of it than that it was the smallest of the three. These three were the -only circuses within the city. In the immediate neighborhood, however, -were three others. Five miles out on the <i>via Portuēnsis</i> was the -circus of the Arval Brethren. About three miles out on the Appian way -was the Circus of Maxentius, erected in 309 <small>A.D.</small> This is the best -preserved of all, and a plan of it is shown in the next paragraph. On -the same road, some twelve miles from the city, in the old town of -Bovillae, was a third, making six within easy reach of the people of -Rome.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure139"> - <tr> - <td width="650"> - <img src="images/figure139.jpg" alt="FIGURE 139. PLAN OF THE CIRCUS OF MAXENTIUS"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="650" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 139. - P<small>LAN OF THE</small> C<small>IRCUS - OF</small> M<small>AXENTIUS</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect330"><b>330</b></a></span> -<b>Plan of the Circus.</b>—All of the Roman circuses known to us had -the same general arrangement, which will be readily understood from -the plan of the Circus of Maxentius shown in Fig. 139. The long and -comparatively narrow stretch of ground which formed the race course -proper (<i>arēna</i>) is almost surrounded by the tiers of seats, running -in two long parallel lines uniting in a semicircle at one end. In the -middle of this semicircle is a gate, marked <i>F</i> in the plan, by which -the victor left the circus when the race was over. It was called, -therefore, the <i>porta triumphālis</i>. Opposite this gate at the other -end of the arena was the station for the chariots (<i>AA</i> in the plan), -called <i>carcerēs</i>, "barriers," flanked by two towers at the corners -(<i>II</i>), and divided into two equal sections by another gate (<i>B</i>), -called the <i>porta pompae</i>, by which processions entered the circus. -There are also gates (<i>HH</i>) between the towers and the seats. The -exterior appearance of the towers and barriers, called together the -<i>oppidum</i>, is shown in Fig. 140.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure140"> - <tr> - <td width="622"> - <img src="images/figure140.jpg" alt="FIGURE 140. OPPIDUM OF A CIRCUS"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="622" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 140. - O<small>PPIDUM OF A</small> C<small>IRCUS</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect331"><b>331</b></a></span> -The arena is divided for about two-thirds its length by a fence -or wall (<i>MM</i>), called the <i>spīna</i>, "backbone." At the end of this -were fixed pillars (<i>LL</i>), called <i>mētae</i>, marking the inner line of -the course. Once around the <i>spīna</i> was a lap (<i>spatium</i>, -<i>curriculum</i>), and the fixed number of laps, usually seven to a race, -was called a <i>missus</i>. The last lap, however, had but one turn, that -at the <i>mēta prīma</i>, the one nearest the <i>porta triumphālis</i>, the -finish being a straightaway dash to the <i>calx</i>. This was a chalk line -drawn on the arena far enough away from the second <i>mēta</i> to keep it -from being obliterated by the hoofs of the horses as they made the -turn, and far enough also from the <i>carcerēs</i> to enable the driver to -stop his team before dashing into them. The dotted line (<i>DN</i>) is the -supposed location of the <i>calx</i>. It will be noticed that the important -things about the developed circus are the <i>arēna</i>, <i>carcerēs</i>, -<i>spīna</i>, <i>mētae</i>, and the seats, all of which will be more -particularly described.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect332"><b>332</b></a></span> -<b>The Arena.</b>—The arena is the level space surrounded by the seats -and the barriers. The name was derived from the sand used to cover its -surface to spare as much as possible the unshod feet of the horses. A -glance at the plan will show that speed could not have been the -important thing with the Romans that it is with us. The sand, the -shortness of the stretches, and the sharp turns between them were all -against great speed. The Roman found his excitement in the danger of -the race. In every representation of the race course that has come -down to us may be seen broken chariots, fallen horses, and drivers -under wheels and hoofs. The distance was not a matter of close -measurement either, but varied in the several circuses, the Circus -Maximus being fully 300 feet longer than the Circus of Maxentius. All -seem to have had constant, however, the number of laps, seven to the -race, and this also goes to prove that the danger was the chief -element in the popularity of the contests. The distance actually -traversed in the Circus of Maxentius may be very closely estimated. -The length of the <i>spīna</i> is about 950 feet. If we allow fifty feet -for the turn at each <i>mēta</i>, each lap makes a distance of 2,000 feet, -and six laps, 12,000 feet. The seventh lap had but one turn in it, but -the final stretch to the <i>calx</i> made it perhaps 300 feet longer than -one of the others, say 2,300 feet. This gives a total of 14,300 feet -for the whole <i>missus</i>, or about 2.7 miles. Jordan calculates the -<i>missus</i> of the Circus Maximus at 8.4 kilometers, which would be about -5.2 miles, but he seems to have taken the whole length of the arena -into account, instead of that merely of the <i>spīna</i>.</p> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figures141and142"> - <tr> - <td width="375"> - <img src="images/figure141.jpg" alt="FIGURE 141. THE CARCERES"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="375" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 141. - T<small>HE</small> C<small>ARCERES</small></small> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="375" align="center"> - <img src="images/figure142.jpg" alt="FIGURE 142. BOX OF THE DATOR LUDORUM"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="375" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 142. - B<small>OX OF THE</small> D<small>ATOR</small> - L<small>UDORUM</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect333"><b>333</b></a></span> -<b>The Barriers.</b>—The <i>carcerēs</i> were the stations of the chariots -and teams when ready for the races to begin. They were a series of -vaulted chambers entirely separated from each other by solid walls, -and closed behind by doors through which the chariots entered. The -front of the chamber was formed by double doors, with the upper part -made of grated bars, admitting the only light which it received. From -this arrangement the name <i>carcer</i> was derived. Each chamber was large -enough to hold a chariot with its team, and as a team was composed -sometimes of as many as seven horses the "prison" must have been -nearly square. There was always a separate chamber for each chariot. -Up to the time of Domitian the highest number of chariots was eight, -but after his time as many as twelve sometimes entered the same race, -and twelve <i>carcerēs</i> had, therefore, to be provided, although four -chariots was the usual number. Half of these chambers lay to the -right, half to the left of the <i>porta pompae</i>. The appearance of a -section of the <i>carcerēs</i> is shown in Fig. 141.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect334"><b>334</b></a></span> -It will be noticed from the plan (<a href="#sect330">§330</a>) that the <i>carcerēs</i> were -arranged in a curved line. This is supposed to have been drawn in such -a way that every chariot, no matter which of the <i>carcerēs</i> it -happened to occupy, would have the same distance to travel in order to -reach the beginning of the course proper at the nearer end of the -<i>spīna</i>. There was no advantage in position, therefore, at the start, -and places were assigned by lot. In later times a starting line -(<i>līnea alba</i>) was drawn with chalk between the second <i>mēta</i> and the -seats to the right, but the line of <i>carcerēs</i> remained curved as of -old. At the ends of the row of chambers, towers were built which seem -to have been the stands for the musicians; over the <i>porta pompae</i> was -the box of the chief official of the games (<i>dator lūdōrum</i>), and -between his box and the towers were seats for his friends and persons -connected with the games. In Fig. 142 is shown a victor pausing before -the box of the <i>dator</i> to receive a prize before riding in triumph -around the arena.</p> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure143"> - <tr> - <td width="331"> - <img src="images/figure143.jpg" alt="FIGURE 143. DIAGRAM"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="331" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 143.</small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect335"><b>335</b></a></span> -<b>The Spina and Metae.</b>—The <i>spīna</i> divided the race course into -two parts, making a minimum distance to be run. Its length was about -two-thirds that of the arena, but it started only the width of the -track from the <i>porta triumphālis</i>, leaving entirely free a much -larger space at the end near the <i>porta pompae</i>. It was perfectly -straight, but did not run precisely parallel to the rows of seats; at -the end B in the exaggerated diagram (Fig. 143) the distance BC is -somewhat greater than the distance AB, in order to allow more room at -the starting line (<i>līnea alba</i>, <a href="#sect334">§334</a>), where the chariots would be -side by side, than further along the course, where they would be -strung out. The <i>mētae</i>, so named from their shape (<a href="#sect284">§284</a>), were -pillars erected at the two ends of the <i>spīna</i> and architecturally a -part of it, though there may have been a space between. In Republican -times the <i>spīna</i> and the <i>mētae</i> must have been made of wood and -movable, in order to give free space for the shows of wild beasts and -the exhibitions of cavalry that were originally given in the circus. -After the amphitheater was devised the circus came to be used for -races exclusively and the <i>spīna</i> became permanent. It was built up, -of most massive proportions, on foundations of indestructible concrete -(<a href="#sect210">§210</a> f.) and was adorned with magnificent works of art that must have -entirely concealed horses and chariots when they passed to the other -side of the arena.</p> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure144"> - <tr> - <td width="356"> - <img src="images/figure144.jpg" alt="FIGURE 144. BOARD-GAME SHOWING SPINA"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="356" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 144. - B<small>OARD-GAME</small> S<small>HOWING</small> - S<small>PINA</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect336"><b>336</b></a></span> -A representation of a circus has been preserved to us in a -board-game of some sort found at Bovillae (<a href="#sect329">§329</a>), which gives an -excellent idea of the <i>spīna</i>, (Fig. 144). We know from various -reliefs and mosaics that the <i>spīna</i> of the Circus Maximus was covered -with a series of statues and ornamental structures, such as obelisks, -small temples or shrines, columns surmounted by statues, altars, -trophies, and fountains. Augustus was the first to erect an obelisk in -the Circus Maximus; it was restored in 1589 <small>A.D.</small>, and now stands in -the Piazza del Popolo, measuring without the base about 78 feet in -height. Constantius erected another (Fig. 145) in the same circus, -which now stands before the Lateran church, measuring 105 feet. The -obelisk of the Circus of Maxentius now stands in the Piazza Navona. -Besides these purely ornamental features, every circus had at each end -of its <i>spīna</i> a pedestal supporting seven large eggs (<i>ōva</i>) of -marble, one of which was taken down at the end of each lap, in order -that the people might know just how many remained to be run. Another -and very different idea for the <i>spīna</i> is shown in Fig. 146 from a -mosaic at Lyons. This is a canal filled with water, with an obelisk in -the middle. The <i>mētae</i> in their developed form are shown very clearly -in this mosaic, three conical pillars of stone set on a semicircular -plinth, all of the most massive construction.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure145"> - <tr> - <td width="635"> - <img src="images/figure145.jpg" alt="FIGURE 145. OBELISK ONCE IN CIRCUS MAXIMUS"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="635" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 145. - O<small>BELISK</small> O<small>NCE IN</small> - C<small>IRCUS</small> M<small>AXIMUS</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table><br> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure146"> - <tr> - <td width="652"> - <img src="images/figure146.jpg" alt="FIGURE 146. A CANAL AS SPINA"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="652" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 146. - A C<small>ANAL AS</small> S<small>PINA</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect337"><b>337</b></a></span> -<b>The Seats.</b>—The seats around the arena in the Circus Maximus -were originally of wood, but accidents owing to decay and losses by -fire had led by the time of the Empire to reconstruction in marble -except perhaps in the very highest rows. The seats in the other -circuses seem to have been from the first of stone. At the foot of the -tiers of seats was a marble platform (<i>podium</i>) which ran along both -sides and the curved end, coextensive therefore with them. On this -<i>podium</i> were erected boxes for the use of the more important -magistrates and officials of Rome, and here Augustus placed the seats -of the senators and others of high rank. He also assigned seats -throughout the whole <i>cavea</i> to various classes and organizations, -separating the women from the men, though up to his time they had sat -together. Between the <i>podium</i> and the track was a screen of open -work, and when Caesar showed wild beasts in the circus he had a canal -ten feet wide and ten feet deep dug next the <i>podium</i> and filled with -water as an additional protection. Access to the seats was given from -the rear, numerous broad stairways running up to the <i>praecīnctiōnēs</i> -(<a href="#sect327">§327</a>), of which there were probably three in the Circus Maximus. The -horizontal spaces between the <i>praecīnctiōnēs</i> were called <i>maeniāna</i>, -and each of these was in turn divided by stairways into <i>cuneī</i> -(<a href="#sect327">§327</a>), and the rows of seats in the <i>cuneī</i> were called <i>gradūs</i>. The -sittings in the row do not seem to have been marked off any more than -they are now in the "bleachers" at our baseball grounds. When sittings -were reserved for a number of persons they were described as so many -feet in such a row (<i>gradus</i>) of such a section (<i>cuneus</i>) of such a -circle (<i>maeniānum</i>).</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure147"> - <tr> - <td width="639"> - <img src="images/figure147.jpg" alt="FIGURE 147. RESTORATION OF THE CIRCUS MAXIMUS"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="639" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 147. - R<small>ESTORATION OF THE</small> C<small>IRCUS</small> M<small>AXIMUS</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect338"><b>338</b></a></span> -The number of sittings testifies to the popularity of the races. -The little circus at Bovillae had seats for at least 8,000 people, -according to Hülsen, that of Maxentius for about 23,000, while the -Circus Maximus, accommodating 60,000 in the time of Augustus, was -enlarged to a capacity of nearly 200,000 in the time of Constantius. -The seats themselves were supported upon arches of massive masonry; an -idea of their appearance from the outside may be had from the exterior -view of the Coliseum in <a href="#sect356">§356</a>. Every third of these vaulted chambers -under the seats seems to have been used for a staircase, the others -for shops and booths and in the upper parts for rooms for the employés -of the circus, who must have been very numerous. Galleries seem to -have crowned the seats, as in the theaters (<a href="#sect327">§327</a>), and balconies for -the emperors were built in conspicuous places, the ruins not enabling -their positions to be fixed precisely. An idea of the appearance of -the seats from within the arena may be had from an attempted -reconstruction of the Circus Maximus (Fig. 147), the details of which -are quite uncertain.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect339"><b>339</b></a></span> -<b>Furnishing the Races.</b>—There must have been a time, of course, -when the races in the circus were open to all who wished to show their -horses or their skill in driving them, but by the end of the Republic -no persons of repute took part in the games, and the teams and drivers -were furnished by racing syndicates (<i>factiōnēs</i>), who practically -controlled the market so far as concerned trained horses and trained -men. With these syndicates the giver of the games contracted for the -number of races that he wanted (ten or twelve a day in Caesar's time, -later twice the number, and even more on special occasions), and they -furnished everything needed. These syndicates were named from the -colors worn by their drivers. We hear at first of two only, the red -(<i>russāta</i>) and the white (<i>albāta</i>); two more were added, the blue -(<i>veneta</i>) in the time of Augustus probably, and the green (<i>prasina</i>) -soon after, and finally Domitian added the purple and the gold. The -greatest rivalry existed between these organizations. They spent -immense sums of money on their horses, importing them from Greece, -Spain, and Mauritania, and even larger sums, perhaps, upon the -drivers. They maintained training stables on as large a scale as any -of which modern times can boast; a mosaic found in one of these -establishments in Algeria names among the attendants jockeys, grooms, -stable-boys, saddlers, doctors, trainers, coaches, and messengers, and -shows the horses covered with blankets in their stalls. This rivalry -spread throughout the city; each <i>factiō</i> had its partisans, and vast -sums of money were lost and won as each <i>missus</i> was finished. All the -tricks of the ring were skillfully practiced; horses were hocused, -drivers hired from rival syndicates or bribed, and even poisoned, we -are told, when they were proof against money.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure148"> - <tr> - <td width="647"> - <img src="images/figure148.jpg" alt="FIGURE 148. RACING CHARIOT AND TEAM"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="647" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 148. - R<small>ACING</small> C<small>HARIOT AND</small> T<small>EAM</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect340"><b>340</b></a></span> -<b>The Teams.</b>—The chariot used in the races was low and light, -closed in front, open behind, with long axles and low wheels to lessen -the risk of turning over. The driver seems to have stood well forward -in the car, there being no standing place behind the axle, as shown in -the cut (Fig. 148). The teams consisted of two horses (<i>bīgae</i>), three -(<i>trīgae</i>), four (<i>quadrīgae</i>), and in later times six (<i>sēiugēs</i>) or -even seven (<i>septeiugēs</i>), but the four-horse team was the most common -and may be taken as the type. Two of the horses were yoked together, -one on each side of the tongue, the others were attached to the car -merely by traces. Of the four the horse to the extreme left was the -most important, because the <i>mēta</i> lay always on the left and the -highest skill of the driver was shown in turning it as closely as -possible. The failure of the horse nearest it to respond promptly to -the rein or the word might mean the wreck of the car (by going too -close) or the loss of the inside track (by going too wide), and in -either case the loss of the race. Inscriptions sometimes give the -names of all the horses of the team, sometimes only the horse on the -left is mentioned. Before the races began lists of the horses and -drivers in each were published for the guidance of those who wished to -stake their money, and while no time was kept the records of horses -and men were followed as eagerly as now. From the nature of the course -(<a href="#sect332">§332</a>) it is evident that strength and courage and above all lasting -qualities were as essential as speed. The horses were almost always -stallions (mares are very rarely mentioned), and were never raced -under five years of age. Considering the length of the course and the -great risk of accidents it is surprising how long the horses lasted. -It was not unusual for a horse to win a hundred races (such a horse -was called <i>centēnārius</i>), and one Diocles, himself a famous driver, -owned a horse that had won two hundred (<i>ducēnārius</i>).</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure149"> - <tr> - <td width="448"> - <img src="images/figure149.jpg" alt="FIGURE 149. DRESS OF AN AURIGA"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="448" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 149. - D<small>RESS OF AN</small> A<small>URIGA</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect341"><b>341</b></a></span> -<b>The Drivers.</b>—The drivers (<i>agitātōrēs</i>, <i>aurīgae</i>) were slaves -or freedmen, some of whom had won their freedom by their skill and -daring in the course. Only in the most corrupt days of the Empire did -citizens of any social position take actual part in the races. The -dress of the driver is shown in Fig. 149; especially to be noticed are -the close fitting cap, the short tunic (always of the color of his -<i>factiō</i>), laced around the body with leathern thongs, the straps of -leather around the thighs, the shoulder pads, and the heavy leather -protectors for the legs. Our football players wear like defensive -armor. The reins were knotted together and passed around the driver's -body. In his belt he carried a knife to cut the reins in case he -should be thrown from the car, or to cut the traces if a horse should -fall and become entangled in them. The races gave as many -opportunities then as now for skillful driving, and required even more -of strength and daring. What we should call "fouling" was encouraged. -The driver might turn his team against another, might upset the car of -a rival if he could; having gained the inside track he might drive out -of the straight course to keep a swifter team from passing his. The -rewards were proportionately great. The successful <i>aurīga</i>, despised -though his station, was the pet and pride of the race-mad crowd, and -under the Empire at least he was courted and fêted by high and low. -The pay of successful drivers was extravagant, the rival syndicates -bidding against each other for the services of the most popular. Rich -presents, too, were given them when they won their races, not only by -their <i>factiōnēs</i>, but also by outsiders who had backed them and -profited by their skill.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure150"> - <tr> - <td width="388"> - <img src="images/figure150.jpg" alt="FIGURE 150. INSCRIPTION IN HONOR OF CRESCENS"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="388" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 150. - I<small>NSCRIPTION IN</small> H<small>ONOR OF</small> C<small>RESCENS</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect342"><b>342</b></a></span> -<b>Famous Aurigae.</b>—The names of some of these victors have come -down to us in inscriptions (<a href="#sect10">§10</a>) erected in their honor or to their -memory by their friends. Among these may be mentioned Publius Aelius -Gutta Calpurnianus (<a href="#sect58">§58</a>) of the late Empire (1,127 victories), Caius -Apuleius Diocles, a Spaniard (in twenty-four years 4,257 races, l,462 -victories, winning the sum of 35,863,120 sesterces, about $1,800,000), -Flavius Scorpus (2,048 victories at the age of twenty-seven), Marcus -Aurelius Liber (3,000 victories), Pompeius Muscosus (3,559 victories). -To these may be added Crescens, an inscription<small><small><sup>3</sup></small></small> in honor of whom was -found at Rome in 1878 and is shown in Fig. 150.</p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>3</sup></small> "Crescens, a driver of the blue syndicate, of the Moorish -nation, twenty-two years of age. He won his first victory as a driver -of a four-horse chariot in the consulship of Lucius Vipstanius -Messalla on the birthday of the deified Nerva in the twenty-fourth -race with these horses: Circius, Acceptor, Delicatus, and Cotynus. -From Messalla's consulship to the birthday of the deified Claudius in -the consulship of Glabrio he was sent from the barriers six hundred -and eighty-six times and was victorious forty-seven times. In races -between chariots with one from each syndicate he won nineteen times, -with two from each twenty-three times, with three from each five -times. He held back purposely once, took first place at the start -eight times, took it from others thirty-eight times. He won second -place one hundred and thirty times, third place one hundred and eleven -times. His winnings amounted to 1,558,346 sesterces (about $78,000)."</small></blockquote> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect343"><b>343</b></a></span> -<b>Other Shows of the Circus.</b>—The circus was used less frequently -for other exhibitions than chariot races. Of these may be mentioned -the performances of the <i>dēsultōrēs</i>, men who rode two horses and -leaped from one to the other while going at full speed, and of trained -horses who performed various tricks while standing on a sort of -wheeled platform which gave a very unstable footing. There were also -exhibitions of horsemanship by citizens of good standing, riding under -leaders in squadrons, to show the evolutions of the cavalry. The -<i>lūdus Trōiae</i> was also performed by young men of the nobility, a game -that Vergil has described in the Fifth Aeneid. More to the taste of -the crowd were the hunts (<i>vēnātiōnēs</i>), when wild beasts were turned -loose in the circus to slaughter each other or be slaughtered by men -trained for the purpose. We read of panthers, bears, bulls, lions, -elephants, hippopotami, and even crocodiles (in artificial lakes made -in the arena) exhibited during the Republic. In the circus, too, -combats of gladiators sometimes took place, but these were more -frequently in the amphitheater. One of the most brilliant spectacles -must have been the procession (<i>pompa circēnsis</i>) which formally -opened some of the public games. It started from the capitol and wound -its way down to the Circus Maximus, entering by the <i>porta pompae</i> -(named from it, <a href="#sect330">§330</a>), and passed entirely around the arena. At the -head in a car rode the presiding magistrate, wearing the garb of a -triumphant general and attended by a slave who held a wreath of gold -over his head. Next came a crowd of notables on horseback and on foot, -then the chariots and horsemen who were to take part in the games. -Then followed priests, arranged by their colleges, and bearers of -incense and of the instruments used in sacrifices, and statues of -deities on low cars drawn by mules, horses, or elephants, or else -carried on litters (<i>fercula</i>) on the shoulders of men. Bands of -musicians headed each division of the procession, a feeble -reminiscence of which is seen in the parade through the streets that -precedes the performance of the modern circus.</p> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure151"> - <tr> - <td width="295"> - <img src="images/figure151.jpg" alt="FIGURE 151. A 'SAMNITE'"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="295" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 151. - A "S<small>AMNITE</small>"</small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect344"><b>344</b></a></span> -<b>Gladiatorial Combats.</b>—Gladiatorial combats seem to have been -known in Italy long before the founding of Rome. We hear of them first -in Campania and Etruria. In Campania the wealthy and dissolute nobles, -we are told, made slaves fight to the death at their banquets and -revels for the entertainment of their guests. In Etruria the combats -go back in all probability to the offering of human sacrifices at the -burial of distinguished men in accordance with the ancient belief that -blood is acceptable to the dead. The victims were captives taken in -war, and it became the custom gradually to give them a chance for -their lives by supplying them with weapons and allowing them to fight -each other at the grave, the victor being spared at least for the -time. The Romans were slow to adopt the custom, the first exhibition -being given in the year 264 <small>B.C.</small>, almost five centuries after the -founding of the city. That they derived it from Etruria rather than -Campania is shown by the fact that the exhibitions were at funeral -games, the earliest at those of Brutus Pera in 264 <small>B.C.</small>, Marcus -Aemilius Lepidus in 216 <small>B.C.</small>, Marcus Valerius Lavinus in 200 <small>B.C.</small>, and -Publius Licinius in 183 <small>B.C.</small></p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect345"><b>345</b></a></span> -For the first one hundred years after their introduction the -exhibitions were infrequent as the dates just given show, those -mentioned being all of which we have any knowledge during the period, -but after this time they were given more and more frequently and -always on a larger scale. During the Republic, however, they remained -in theory at least private games (<i>mūnera</i>), not public games -(<i>lūdī</i>); that is, they were not celebrated on fixed days recurring -annually, and the givers of the exhibitions had to find a pretext for -them in the death of relatives or friends, and to defray the expenses -from their own pockets. In fact we know of but one instance in which -actual magistrates (the consuls Publius and Manlius, 105 <small>B.C.</small>) gave -such exhibitions, and we know too little of the attendant -circumstances to warrant us in assuming that they acted in their -official capacity. Even under the Empire the gladiators did not fight -on the days of the regular public games. Augustus, however, provided -funds for "extraordinary shows" under the direction of the praetors. -Under Domitian the aediles-elect were put in charge of these -exhibitions which were given regularly in December, the only instance -known of fixed dates for the <i>mūnera gladiātōria</i>. All others of which -we read are to be considered the freewill offerings to the people of -emperors, magistrates, or private citizens.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure152"> - <tr> - <td width="650"> - <img src="images/figure152.jpg" alt="FIGURE 152. WEAPONS OF GLADIATORS"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="650" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 152. - W<small>EAPONS OF</small> G<small>LADIATORS</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table><br> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure153"> - <tr> - <td width="362"> - <img src="images/figure153.jpg" alt="FIGURE 153. WOUNDED GLADIATOR"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="362" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 153. - W<small>OUNDED</small> G<small>LADIATOR</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect346"><b>346</b></a></span> -<b>Popularity of the Combats.</b>—The Romans' love of excitement -(<a href="#sect316">§316</a>) made the exhibitions immediately and immensely popular. At the -first exhibition mentioned above, that in honor of Brutus Pera, three -pairs of gladiators only were shown, but in the three that followed -the number of pairs rose in order to twenty-two, twenty-five, and -sixty. By the time of Sulla politicians had found in the <i>mūnera</i> the -most effective means to win the favor of the people, and vied with one -another in the frequency of the shows and the number of the -combatants. Besides this, the same politicians made these shows a -pretext for surrounding themselves with bands of bravos and bullies, -all called gladiators whether destined for the arena or not, with -which they started riots in the streets, broke up public meetings, -overawed the courts and even directed or prevented the elections. -Caesar's preparations for an exhibition when he was canvassing for the -aedileship (65 <small>B.C.</small>) caused such general fear that the senate passed a -law limiting the number of gladiators that a private citizen might -employ, and he was allowed to exhibit only 320 pairs. The bands of -Clodius and Milo made the city a slaughterhouse in 53 <small>B.C.</small>, and order -was not restored until late in the following year when Pompey as "sole -consul" put an end to the battle of the bludgeons with the swords of -his soldiers. During the Empire the number actually exhibited almost -surpasses belief. Augustus gave eight <i>mūnera</i>, in which no less than -ten thousand men fought, but these were distributed through the whole -period of his reign. Trajan exhibited as many in four months only of -the year 107 <small>A.D.</small>, in celebration of his conquest of the Dacians. The -first Gordian, emperor in 238 <small>A.D.</small>, gave <i>mūnera</i> monthly in the year of -his aedileship, the number of pairs running from 150 to 500. These -exhibitions did not cease until the fifteenth century of our era.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect347"><b>347</b></a></span> -<b>Sources of Supply.</b>—In the early Republic the gladiators were -captives taken in war, naturally men practiced in the use of weapons -(<a href="#sect161">§161</a>), who thought death by the sword a happier fate than the slavery -that awaited them (<a href="#sect140">§140</a>). This always remained the chief source of -supply, though it became inadequate as the demand increased. From the -time of Sulla training-schools were established in which slaves with -or without previous experience in war were fitted for the profession. -These were naturally slaves of the most intractable and desperate -character (<a href="#sect170">§170</a>). From the time of Augustus criminals were sentenced -to the arena (later "to the lions"), but only non-citizens, and these -for the most heinous crimes, treason, murder, arson, and the like. -Finally in the late Empire the arena became the last desperate resort -of the dissipated and prodigal, and these volunteers were numerous -enough to be given as a class the name <i>auctōrātī</i>.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure154"> - <tr> - <td width="647"> - <img src="images/figure154.jpg" alt="FIGURE 154. HELMETS OF GLADIATORS"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="647" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 154. - H<small>ELMETS OF</small> G<small>LADIATORS</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect348"><b>348</b></a></span> -As the number of the exhibitions increased it became harder and -harder to supply the gladiators demanded, for it must be remembered -that there were exhibitions in many of the cities of the provinces and -in the smaller towns of Italy as well as at Rome. The lines were, -therefore, constantly crossed, and thousands died miserably in the -arena whom only the most glaring injustice could number in the classes -mentioned above. In Cicero's time provincial governors were accused of -sending unoffending provincials to be slaughtered in Rome and of -forcing Roman citizens, obscure and friendless, of course, to fight in -the provincial shows. Later it was common enough to send to the arena -men sentenced for the pettiest offenses, when the supply of real -criminals had run short, and to trump up charges against the innocent -for the same purpose. The persecution of the Christians was largely -due to the demand for more gladiators. So, too, the distinction was -lost between actual prisoners of war and peaceful non-combatants; -after the fall of Jerusalem all Jews over seventeen years of age were -condemned by Titus to work in the mines or fight in the arena. Wars on -the border were waged for the sole purpose of taking men who could be -made gladiators, and in default of men, children and women were -sometimes made to fight.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure155"> - <tr> - <td width="796"> - <img src="images/figure155.jpg" alt="FIGURE 155. SCHOOL FOR GLADIATORS AT POMPEII"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="796" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 155. - S<small>CHOOL FOR</small> G<small>LADIATORS - AT</small> P<small>OMPEII</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect349"><b>349</b></a></span> -<b>Schools for Gladiators.</b>—The training-schools for gladiators -(<i>lūdī gladiātōriī</i>) have been mentioned already. Cicero during his -consulship speaks of one at Rome, and there were others before his -time at Capua and Praeneste. Some of these were set up by wealthy -nobles for the purpose of preparing their own gladiators for <i>mūnera</i> -which they expected to give; others were the property of regular -dealers in gladiators, who kept and trained them for hire. The -business was almost as disreputable as that of the <i>lēnōnēs</i> (<a href="#sect139">§139</a>). -During the Empire training-schools were maintained at public expense -and under the direction of state officials not only in Rome, where -there were four at least of these schools, but also in other cities of -Italy where exhibitions were frequently given, and even in the -provinces. The purpose of all the schools, public and private alike, -was the same, to make the men trained in them as effective fighting -machines as possible. The gladiators were in charge of competent -training masters (<i>lanistae</i>); they were subject to the strictest -discipline; their diet was carefully looked after, a special food -(<i>sagīna gladiātōria</i>) being provided for them; regular gymnastic -exercises were prescribed, and lessons given in the use of the various -weapons by recognized experts (<i>magistrī</i>, <i>doctōrēs</i>). In their -fencing bouts wooden swords (<i>rudēs</i>) were used. The gladiators -associated in a school were collectively called a <i>familia</i>.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure156"> - <tr> - <td width="474"> - <img src="images/figure156.jpg" alt="FIGURE 156. PLAN OF SCHOOL FOR GLADIATORS"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="474" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 156. - P<small>LAN OF</small> S<small>CHOOL FOR</small> - G<small>LADIATORS</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect350"><b>350</b></a></span> -These schools had also to serve as barracks for the gladiators -between engagements, that is, practically as houses of detention. It -was from the school of Lentulus at Capua that Spartacus had escaped, -and the Romans needed no second lesson of the sort. The general -arrangement of these barracks may be understood from the ruins of one -uncovered at Pompeii, though in this case the buildings had been -originally planned for another purpose, and the rearrangement may not -be ideal in all respects. A central court, or exercise ground (Figs. -155, 156) is surrounded by a wide colonnade, and this in turn by rows -of buildings two stories in height, the general arrangement being not -unlike that of the peristyle of a house (<a href="#sect202">§202</a>). The dimensions of the -court are nearly 120 by 150 feet. The buildings are cut up into rooms, -nearly all small (about twelve feet square), disconnected and opening -upon the court, those in the first story being reached from the -colonnade, those in the second from a gallery to which ran several -stairways. These small rooms are supposed to be the sleeping-rooms of -the gladiators, each accommodating two persons. There are seventy-one -of them (marked <i>7</i> on the plan), affording room for 142 men. The uses -of the larger rooms are purely conjectural. The entrance is supposed -to have been at <i>3</i>, with a room, <i>15</i>, for the watchman or sentinel. -At <i>9</i> was an <i>exedra</i>, where the gladiators may have waited in full -panoply for their turns in the exercise ground, <i>1</i>. The guard-room, -<i>8</i>, is identified by the remains of stocks, in which the refractory -were fastened for punishment or safe-keeping. They permitted the -culprits to lie on their backs or sit in a very uncomfortable -position. At <i>6</i> was the armory or property room, if we may judge from -articles found in it. Near it in the corner was a staircase leading to -the gallery before the rooms of the second story. The large room, -<i>16</i>, was the mess-room, with the kitchen, <i>12</i>, opening into it. The -stairway, <i>13</i>, gives access to the rooms above kitchen and mess-room, -possibly the apartments of the trainers and their helpers.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect351"><b>351</b></a></span> -<b>Places of Exhibition.</b>—During the Republic the combats of -gladiators took place sometimes at the grave or in the circus, but -regularly in the forum. None of these places was well adapted to the -purpose, the grave the least of all. The circus had seats enough, but -the <i>spīna</i> was in the way (<a href="#sect335">§335</a>) and the arena too vast to give all -the spectators a satisfactory view of a struggle that was confined -practically to a single spot. In the forum, on the other hand, the -seats could be arranged very conveniently; they would run parallel -with the sides, would be curved around the corners, and would inclose -only sufficient space to afford room for the combatants. The -inconvenience here was due to the fact that the seats had to be -erected before each performance and removed after it, a delay to -business if they were constructed carefully and a menace to life if -they were put up hastily. These considerations finally led the Romans, -as they had led the Campanians half a century before, to provide -permanent seats for the <i>mūnera</i>, arranged as they had been in the -forum, but in a place where they would not interfere with public or -private business. To these places for shows of gladiators came in the -course of time to be exclusively applied the word <i>amphitheātrum</i>, -which had been previously given in its correct general sense to any -place, the circus for example, in which the seats ran all the way -around, as opposed to the theater in which the rows of seats were -broken by the stage.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect352"><b>352</b></a></span> -<b>Amphitheaters at Rome.</b>—Just when the first amphitheaters, in -the special sense of the word, were erected at Rome can not be -determined with certainty. The elder Pliny (†79 <small>A.D.</small>) tells us that in -the year 55 <small>B.C.</small> Caius Scribonius Curio built two wooden theaters back -to back, the stages being, therefore, at opposite ends, and gave in -them simultaneous theatrical performances in the morning. Then, while -the spectators remained in their seats, the two theaters were turned -by machinery and brought together face to face, the stages were -removed, and in the space they had occupied shows of gladiators were -given in the afternoon before the united crowds. This story is all too -evidently invented to account for the perfected amphitheater of -Pliny's time, which he must have interpreted to mean "a double -theater." We are also told that Caesar erected a wooden amphitheater -in 46 <small>B.C.</small>, but we have no detailed description of it, and no reason -to think that it was anything more than a temporary affair. In the -year 29 <small>B.C.</small>, however, an amphitheater was built by Statilius Taurus, -partially at least of stone, that lasted until the great conflagration -in the reign of Nero (64 <small>A.D.</small>). Nero himself had previously erected -one of wood in the Campus. Finally, just before the end of the first -century of our era, was completed the <i>amphitheātrum Flāvium</i>, later -known as the <i>colossēum</i> or <i>colisēum</i>, which was large enough and -durable enough to make forever unnecessary the erection of other -similar structures in the city.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure157"> - <tr> - <td width="645"> - <img src="images/figure157.jpg" alt="FIGURE 157. EXTERIOR OF AMPHITHEATER AT POMPEII"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="645" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 157. - E<small>XTERIOR OF</small> A<small>MPHITHEATER - AT</small> P<small>OMPEII</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table><br> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure158"> - <tr> - <td width="638"> - <img src="images/figure158.jpg" alt="FIGURE 158. INTERIOR OF AMPHITHEATER AT POMPEII"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="638" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 158. - I<small>NTERIOR OF</small> A<small>MPHITHEATER - AT</small> P<small>OMPEII</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table><br> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure159"> - <tr> - <td width="799"> - <img src="images/figure159.jpg" alt="FIGURE 159. SECTION OF AMPHITHEATER AT POMPEII"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="799" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 159. - S<small>ECTION OF</small> A<small>MPHITHEATER - AT</small> P<small>OMPEII</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect353"><b>353</b></a></span> -<b>The Amphitheater at Pompeii.</b>—The essential features of an -amphitheater may be most easily understood from the ruins of the one -at Pompeii, erected about 75 <small>B.C.</small>, almost half a century before the -first permanent structure of the sort at Rome (<a href="#sect352">§352</a>), and the earliest -known to us from either literary or monumental sources. The exterior -is shown in Fig. 157 (see also Overbeck, pp. 176-180; Mau-Kelsey, pp. -206-212) and a section in Fig. 159. It will be seen at once that the -arena and most of the seats lie in a great hollow excavated for the -purpose, thus making sufficient for the exterior a low wall of hardly -more than ten to thirteen feet in height. Even this wall was necessary -on only two sides, as the amphitheater was built in the southeast -corner of the city and its south and east sides were bounded by the -city walls. The shape is elliptical, the major axis being 444 feet, -the minor 342. The arena occupies the middle space. It was encircled -by thirty-five rows of seats arranged in three divisions, the lowest -(<i>īnfima</i> or <i>īma cavea</i>) having five rows, the second (<i>media cavea</i>) -twelve, and the highest (<i>summa cavea</i>) eighteen. A broad terrace ran -around the amphitheater at the height of the topmost row of seats. -Access to this terrace was given from without by the double stairway -on the west, shown in Fig. 157, and by single stairways next the city -walls on the east and south (<i>10</i> in Fig. 160). Between the terrace -and the top seats was a gallery, or row of boxes, each about four feet -square, probably for women. Beneath the boxes persons could pass from -the terrace to the seats. The amphitheater had seating capacity for -about 20,000 people.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure160"> - <tr> - <td width="647"> - <img src="images/figure160.jpg" alt="FIGURE 160. PLAN OF ARENA IN AMPHITHEATER AT POMPEII"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="647" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 160. - P<small>LAN OF</small> A<small>RENA IN</small> - A<small>MPHITHEATER AT</small> P<small>OMPEII</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect354"><b>354</b></a></span> -The arena is shown in Fig. 158, its plan in Fig. 160. It was an -ellipse with axes of 228 and 121 feet. Around it ran a wall a little -more than six feet high, on a level with the top of which were the -lowest seats. For the protection of the spectators when wild animals -were shown, a grating of iron bars was put up on the top of the arena -wall. Access to the arena and to the seats of the <i>cavea īma</i> and the -<i>cavea media</i> was given by the two underground passageways, <i>1</i> and -<i>2</i> in Fig. 160, of which <i>2</i> turns at right angles on account of the -city wall on the south. From the arena ran also a third passage, <i>5</i>, -low and narrow, leading to the <i>porta Libitinēnsis</i>, through which the -bodies of the dead were dragged with ropes and hooks. Near the mouths -of these passages were small chambers or dens, marked <i>4</i>, <i>4</i>, <i>6</i>, -the purposes of which are not known. The floor of the arena was -covered with sand, as in the circus (<a href="#sect332">§332</a>), but in this case to soak -up the blood as well as to give a firm footing to the gladiators.</p> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure161"> - <tr> - <td width="318"> - <img src="images/figure161.jpg" alt="FIGURE 161. BISELLIUM"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="318" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 161. - B<small>ISELLIUM</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect355"><b>355</b></a></span> -Of the part of this amphitheater set aside for the spectators -the <i>cavea īma</i> only was supported upon artificial foundations. All -the other seats were constructed in sections as means were obtained -for the purpose, the people in the meantime finding places for -themselves on the sloping banks as in the early theaters (<a href="#sect325">§325</a>). The -<i>cavea īma</i> was strictly not supplied with seats all the way around, a -considerable section on the east and west sides being arranged with -four low, broad ledges of stone, rising one above the other, on which -the members of the city council could place the seats of honor -(<i>bisellia</i>, Fig. 161) to which their rank entitled them. In the -middle of the section on the east the lowest ledge is made of double -width for some ten feet; this was the place set apart for the giver of -the games and his friends. In the <i>cavea media</i> and the <i>cavea summa</i> -the seats were of stone resting on the bank of earth. It is probable -that all the places in the lowest section were reserved for people of -distinction, that seats in the middle section were sold to the -well-to-do, and that admission was free to the less desirable seats of -the highest section.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure162"> - <tr> - <td width="793"> - <img src="images/figure162.jpg" alt="FIGURE 162. EXTERIOR OF THE COLISEUM"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="793" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 162. - E<small>XTERIOR OF THE</small> C<small>OLISEUM</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect356"><b>356</b></a></span> -<b>The Coliseum.</b>—The Flavian amphitheater (<a href="#sect352">§352</a>) is the best known -of all the buildings of ancient Rome, because to a larger extent than -others it has survived to the present day. For our purpose it is not -necessary to give its history or to describe its architecture; it will -be sufficient to compare its essential parts with those of its modest -prototype in Pompeii. The latter was built in the outskirts of the -city, in a corner in fact of the city walls (<a href="#sect353">§353</a>); the coliseum lay -almost in the center of Rome, the most generally accessible of all the -public buildings. The interior of the Pompeian structure was reached -through two passages and by three stairways only, while eighty -numbered entrances made it easy for the Roman multitudes to find their -appropriate places in the coliseum. Much of the earlier amphitheater -was underground; all of the corresponding parts of the coliseum were -above the level of the street, the walls rising to a height of nearly -160 feet. This gave opportunity for the same architectural -magnificence that had distinguished the Roman theater from that of the -Greeks (<a href="#sect326">§326</a>). The general effect is shown in Fig. 162, an exterior -view of the ruins as they exist to-day.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure163"> - <tr> - <td width="646"> - <img src="images/figure163.jpg" alt="FIGURE 163. INTERIOR OF COLISEUM"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="646" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 163. - I<small>NTERIOR OF</small> C<small>OLISEUM</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect357"><b>357</b></a></span> -The interior is shown in Fig. 163. The form is an ellipse with -axes of 620 and 513 feet, the building covering nearly six acres of -ground. The arena is also an ellipse, its axes measuring 287 and 180 -feet. The width of the space appropriated for the spectators is, -therefore, 166½ feet all around the arena. It will be noticed, too, -that subterranean chambers were constructed under the whole building, -including the arena. These furnished room for the regiments of -gladiators, the dens of wild beasts, the machinery for the -transformation scenes that Gibbon has described in his twelfth -chapter, and above all for the vast number of water and drainage pipes -that made it possible to turn the arena into a lake at a moment's -notice and as quickly to get rid of the water. The wall that -surrounded the arena was fifteen feet high with the side faced with -rollers and defended like the one at Pompeii with a grating or network -of metal above it. The top of the wall was level with the floor of the -lowest range of seats, called the <i>podium</i> as in the circus (<a href="#sect337">§337</a>), -and this had room for two or at the most three rows of marble thrones. -These were for the use of the emperor and the imperial family, the -giver of the games, the magistrates, senators, Vestal virgins, -ambassadors of foreign states, and other persons of consequence.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure164"> - <tr> - <td width="637"> - <img src="images/figure164.jpg" alt="FIGURE 164. SECTION OF COLISEUM"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="637" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 164. - S<small>ECTION OF</small> C<small>OLISEUM</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect358"><b>358</b></a></span> -The arrangement of the seats with the method of reaching them is -shown in the sectional plan, Fig. 164. The seats were arranged in -three tiers (<i>maeniāna</i>, <a href="#sect337">§337</a>) one above the other, separated by broad -passageways and rising more steeply the farther they were from the -arena, and were crowned by an open gallery. In the plan the <i>podium</i> -is marked A. Twelve feet above it begins the first <i>maeniānum</i>, B, -with fourteen rows of seats reserved for members of the equestrian -order. Then came a broad <i>praecīnctiō</i> (<a href="#sect327">§327</a>) and after it the second -<i>maeniānum</i>, C, intended for ordinary citizens. Back of this was a -wall of considerable height and above it the third <i>maeniānum</i>, D, -supplied with rough wooden benches for the lowest classes, foreigners, -slaves, and the like. The row of pillars along the front of this -section made the distant view all the worse. Above this was an open -gallery, E, in which women found an unwelcome place. No other seats -were open to them unless they were of sufficient distinction to claim -a place upon the <i>podium</i>. At the very top of the outside wall was a -terrace, F, in which were fixed masts to support the awnings that gave -protection against the sun. The seating capacity of the coliseum is -said to have been 80,000, and it had standing room for 20,000 more.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure165"> - <tr> - <td width="410"> - <img src="images/figure165.jpg" alt="FIGURE 165. RETIARIUS AND SECUTOR"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="410" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 165. - R<small>ETIARIUS AND</small> S<small>ECUTOR</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table><br> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figures166and167"> - <tr> - <td width="202"> - <img src="images/figure166.jpg" alt="FIGURE 166. THRAEX"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="202" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 166. - T<small>HRAEX</small></small> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="202"align="center"> - <img src="images/figure167.jpg" alt="FIGURE 167. VOTIVE GALERUS"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="202" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 167. - V<small>OTIVE</small> G<small>ALERUS</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect359"><b>359</b></a></span> -<b>Styles of Fighting.</b>—Gladiators fought usually in pairs, man -against man, but sometimes in masses (<i>gregātim</i>, <i>catervātim</i>). In -early times they were actually soldiers, captives taken in war (<a href="#sect347">§347</a>), -and fought naturally with the weapons and equipment to which they were -accustomed. When the professionally trained gladiators came in, they -were given the old names, and were called Samnites, Thracians, etc., -according to their arms and tactics. In much later times victories -over distant peoples were celebrated with combats in which the weapons -and methods of war of the conquered were shown to the people of Rome; -thus, after the conquest of Britain <i>essedāriī</i> exhibited in the arena -the tactics of chariot fighting which Caesar had described generations -before in his Commentaries. It was natural enough, too, for the people -to want to see different arms and different tactics tried against each -other, and so the Samnite was matched against the Thracian, the heavy -armed against the light armed. This became under the Empire the -favorite style of combat. Finally when people had tired of the regular -shows, novelties were introduced that seem to us grotesque; men fought -blindfold (<i>andabatae</i>), armed with two swords (<i>dimachaerī</i>), with -the lasso (<i>laqueatōrēs</i>), with a heavy net (<i>rētiāriī</i>), and there -were battles of dwarfs and of dwarfs with women. Of these the -<i>rētiārius</i> became immensely popular. He carried a huge net in which -he tried to entangle his opponent, always a <i>secūtor</i> (see below), -despatching him with a dagger if the throw was successful. If -unsuccessful he took to flight while preparing his net for another -throw, of if he had lost his net tried to keep his opponent off with a -heavy three-pronged spear (<i>fuscina</i>), his only weapon beside the -dagger (Fig. 165).</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect360"><b>360</b></a></span> -<b>Weapons and Armor.</b>—The armor and weapons used in these combats -are known from pieces found in various places, some of which are shown -in Fig. 152, <a href="#sect345">§345</a>, and from paintings and sculpture, but we are not -always able to assign them to definite classes of gladiators. The -oldest class was that of the Samnites (Fig. 151, <a href="#sect344">§344</a>). They had -belts, thick sleeves on the right arm (<i>manica</i>), helmets with visors, -shown in Fig. 154, <a href="#sect348">§348</a>, greaves on the left leg, short swords, and -the long shield (<i>scūtum</i>). Under the Empire the name Samnite was -gradually lost and gladiators with equivalent equipment were called -<i>hoplomachī</i> (heavy armed), when matched against the lighter armed -Thracians, and <i>secūtōrēs</i>, when they fought with the <i>rētiāriī</i>. The -Thracians (Fig. 166) had much the same equipment as the Samnites, the -mark of distinction being the small shield (<i>parma</i>) in place of the -<i>scūtum</i> and, to make up the difference, greaves on both legs. They -carried a curved sword. The Gauls were heavy armed, but we do not know -how they were distinguished from the Samnites. In later times they -were called <i>murmillōnēs</i>, from an ornament on their helmets shaped -like a fish (<i>mormyr</i>). The rētiāriī had no defensive armor except a -leather protection for the shoulder, shown in Fig. 165. Of course the -same man might appear by turns as Samnite, Thracian, etc., if he was -skilled in the use of the various weapons; see the inscription in -<a href="#sect363">§363</a>.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect361"><b>361</b></a></span> -<b>Announcement of the Shows.</b>—The games were advertised in -advance by means of notices painted on the walls of public and private -houses, and even on the tombstones that lined the approaches to the -towns and cities. Some are worded in very general terms, announcing -merely the name of the giver of the games with the date:</p> - -<center>A • S<small>VETTI</small> • C<small>ERTI</small><br> -<small>AEDILIS</small> • <small>FAMILIA</small> • -<small>GLADIATORIA</small> • <small>PUGNAB</small> • -<small>POMPEIS</small><br> -<small>PR</small> • <small>K</small> • J<small>VNIAS</small> • -V<small>ENATIO</small> • <small>ET</small> • <small>VELA</small> • -<small>ERUNT<small><sup>4</sup></small></small></center> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>4</sup></small> "On the last day of May the gladiators of the Aedile -Aulus Suettius Certus will fight at Pompeii. There will also be a hunt -and the awnings will be used."</small></blockquote> - -<p>Others promise in addition to the awnings that the dust will be kept -down in the arena by sprinkling. Sometimes when the troop was -particularly good the names of the gladiators were announced in pairs -as they would be matched together, with details as to their equipment, -the school in which each had been trained, the number of his previous -battles, etc. To such a notice on one of the walls in Pompeii some one -added after the show the result of each combat. The following is a -specimen only of this announcement:<small><small><sup>5</sup></small></small></p> - -<center><img src="images/image3.jpg" alt="Announcement"></center> -<br> -<blockquote><small><small><sup>5</sup></small> "The games of -N... from the 12th to the 15th of May. The Thracian Pugnax, of the gladiatorial school -of Nero, who has fought three times will be matched against the -<i>murmillō</i> Murranus, of the same school and the same number of fights. -The <i>hoplomachus</i> Cycnus, from the school of Julius Caesar, -who has fought eight times will be matched with the Thracian Atticus of the same -school and of fourteen fights."</small></blockquote> - -<p>The letters in italics before the names of the gladiators were added -after the exhibition by some interested spectator, and stand for -<i>vīcit</i>, <i>periit</i>, and <i>missus</i> ("beaten, but spared"). Other -announcements added to such particulars as those given above the -statement that other pairs than those mentioned would fight each day, -this being meant to excite the curiosity and interest of the people.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect362"><b>362</b></a></span> -<b>The Fight Itself.</b>—The day before the exhibition a banquet -(<i>cēna lībera</i>) was given to the gladiators and they received visits -from their friends and admirers. The games took place in the -afternoon. After the <i>ēditor mūneris</i> had taken his place (<a href="#sect355">§355</a>), the -gladiators marched in procession around the arena, pausing before him -to give the famous greeting: <i>moritūrī tē salūtant</i>. All then retired -from the arena to return in pairs according to the published -programme. The show began with a series of sham combats, the -<i>prōlūsiō</i>, with blunt weapons. When the people had had enough of this -the trumpets gave the signal for the real exhibition to begin. Those -reluctant to fight were driven into the arena with whips or hot iron -bars. If one of the combatants was clearly overpowered without being -actually killed, he might appeal for mercy by holding up his finger to -the <i>ēditor</i>. It was customary to refer the plea to the people, who -waved cloths or napkins to show that they wished it to be granted, or -pointed their thumbs downward as a signal for death. The gladiator who -was refused release (<i>missiō</i>) received the death blow from his -opponent without resistance. Combats where all must fight to the death -were said to be <i>sine missiōne</i>, but these were forbidden by Augustus. -The body of the dead man was dragged away through the <i>porta -Libitinēnsis</i>, sand was sprinkled or raked over the blood, and the -contests were continued until all had fought.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure168plus"> - <tr> - <td width="342" align="center"> - <img src="images/figure168.jpg" alt="FIGURE 168. TESSERA GLADIATORIA"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="342" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 168. - T<small>ESSERA</small> G<small>LADIATORIA</small><small><sup>6</sup></small></small> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="342"> - <small><small><sup>6</sup></small> <i>Lepidus - Mummēiānī s(ervus). Spectāvit m(ense) Iuniō, C. - Sentiō Cōnsule.</i></small> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="342"> - <img src="images/image4.jpg" alt="Inscription"><small><small><sup>7</sup></small></small> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="342"> - <small><small><sup>7</sup></small> Inscription on - tomb of a gladiator. "To the Gods Manes - and the lasting memory of Hylas, a dimachaerus or - essedarius of seven - victories and head trainer. His wife Ermais - erected this monument to - her beloved husband and dedicated it, reserving - the usual rights."</small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect363"><b>363</b></a></span> -<b>The Rewards.</b>—Before making his first public appearance the -gladiator was technically called a <i>tīrō</i>. After his first victory he -received a token of wood or ivory (Fig. 168), which had upon it his -name and that of his master or trainer, a date, and the letters <small>SP</small>, -<small>SPECT</small>, <small>SPECTAT</small>, or <small>SPECTAVIT</small>, meaning perhaps <i>populus spectāvit</i>. -When after many victories he had proved himself to be the best of his -class, or second best, in his <i>familia</i>, he received the title of -<i>prīmus</i>, or <i>secundus</i>, <i>pālus</i>. When he had won his freedom he was -given a wooden sword (<i>rudis</i>). From this the titles <i>prīma rudis</i> and -<i>secunda rudis</i> seem to have been given to those who were afterwards -employed as training masters (<i>doctōrēs</i>, <a href="#sect349">§349</a>) in the schools. The -rewards given to famous gladiators by their masters and backers took -the form of valuable prizes and gifts of money. These may not have -been so generous as those given to the <i>aurīgae</i> (<a href="#sect341">§341</a>), but they were -enough to enable them to live in luxury the rest of their lives. The -class of men, however, who followed this profession probably found -their most acceptable reward in the immediate and lasting notoriety -that their strength and courage brought them. That they did not shrink -from the <i>īnfamia</i> that the profession entailed is shown by the fact -that they did not try to hide their connection with the amphitheater. -On the contrary, their gravestones record their classes and the number -of their victories, and have often cut upon them their likenesses with -the <i>rudis</i> in their hands.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect364"><b>364</b></a></span> -<b>Other Shows in the Amphitheater.</b>—Of other games that were -sometimes given in the amphitheaters something has been said in -connection with the circus (<a href="#sect343">§343</a>). The most important were the -<i>vēnātiōnēs</i>, hunts of wild beasts. These were sometimes killed by men -trained to hunt them, sometimes made to kill each other. As the -amphitheater was primarily intended for the butchery of men, the -<i>vēnātiōnēs</i> given in it gradually but surely took the form of -man-hunts. The victims were condemned criminals, some of them guilty -of crimes that deserved death, some of them sentenced on trumped up -charges, some of them (and among these were women and children) -condemned "to the lions" for political or religious convictions. -Sometimes they were supplied with weapons, sometimes they were exposed -unarmed, even fettered or bound to stakes, sometimes the ingenuity of -their executioners found additional torments for them by making them -play the parts of the sufferers in the tragedies of mythology. The -arena was well adapted, too, for the maneuvering of boats, when it had -been flooded with water (<a href="#sect357">§357</a>), and naval battles (<i>naumachiae</i>) were -often fought within the coliseum as desperate and as bloody as some of -those that have given a new turn to the history of the world. The -earliest exhibitions of this sort were given in artificial lakes, also -called <i>naumachiae</i>. The first of these was dug by Caesar, for a -single exhibition, in 46 <small>B.C.</small> Augustus had a permanent basin -constructed in 2 <small>B.C.</small>, measuring 1,800 by 1,200 feet, and four others -at least were built by later emperors.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure169"> - <tr> - <td width="621"> - <img src="images/figure169.jpg" alt="FIGURE 169. HALL IN THERMAE OF CARACALLA"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="621" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 169. - H<small>ALL IN</small> T<small>HERMAE OF</small> - C<small>ARACALLA</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect365"><b>365</b></a></span> -<b>The Daily Bath.</b>—To the Roman of early times the bath had stood -for health and decency only. He washed every day his arms and legs, -for the ordinary costume left them exposed (<a href="#sect239">§239</a>), his body once a -week. He bathed at home, using a very primitive sort of wash-room, -situated near the kitchen (<a href="#sect203">§203</a>) in order that the water heated on the -kitchen stove might be carried into it with the least possible -inconvenience. By the last century of the Republic all this had -changed, though the steps in the change can not now be followed. The -bath had become a part of the daily life as momentous as the <i>cēna</i> -itself, which it regularly preceded. It was taken, too, by preference -in one of the public bathing establishments which were by this time -operated on a large scale in all parts of Rome and also in the smaller -towns of Italy and even in the provinces. These offered all sorts of -baths, plain, plunge, douche, with massage (Turkish), and besides in -many cases features borrowed from the Greek gymnasia, exercise -grounds, courts for various games, reading and conversation rooms, -libraries, gymnastic apparatus, everything in fact that our athletic -clubs now provide for their members. The accessories had become really -of more importance than the bathing itself and justify the description -of the bath under the head of amusements. In places where there were -no public baths, or where they were at an inconvenient distance, the -wealthy fitted up bathing places in their houses, but no matter how -elaborate they were the private baths were merely a makeshift at best.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure170"> - <tr> - <td width="623"> - <img src="images/figure170.jpg" alt="FIGURE 170. TEPIDARIUM AT POMPEII"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="623" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 170. - T<small>EPIDARIUM AT</small> P<small>OMPEII</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect366"><b>366</b></a></span> -<b>Essentials for the Bath.</b>—The ruins of the public and private -baths found all over the Roman world, together with a dissertation by -Vitruvius, and countless allusions in literature, make very clear the -general construction and arrangement of the bath, but show that the -widest freedom was allowed in matters of detail. For the luxurious -bath of classical times four things were thought necessary: a warm -ante-room, a hot bath, a cold bath, and the rubbing and anointing with -oil. All these might have been had in a single room, as all but the -last are furnished in every modern bathroom, but as a matter of fact -we find at least three rooms set apart for the bath in very modest -private houses and often five or six, while in the public -establishments this number may be multiplied several times. In the -better equipped houses were provided: (1) A room for undressing and -dressing (<i>apodytērium</i>), usually unheated, but furnished with benches -and often with lockers for the clothes; (2) the warm ante-room -(<i>tepidārium</i>), in which the bather waited long enough for the -perspiration to start, in order to guard against the danger of passing -too suddenly into the high temperature of the next room; (3) the hot -room (<i>caldārium</i>) for the hot bath; (4) the cold room (<i>frīgidārium</i>) -for the cold bath; (5) the <i>ūnctōrium</i>, the room for the rubbing and -anointing with oil that finished the bath, from which the bather -returned into the <i>apodytērium</i> for his clothes.</p> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure171"> - <tr> - <td width="150" align="center"> - <img src="images/figure171.jpg" alt="FIGURE 171. STRIGILES"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="150" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 171. - S<small>TRIGILES</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect367"><b>367</b></a></span> -In the more modest houses space was saved by using a room for -several purposes. The separate <i>apodytērium</i> might be dispensed with, -the bather undressing and dressing in either the <i>frīgidārium</i> or -<i>tepidārium</i> according to the weather; or the <i>ūnctōrium</i> might be -saved by using the <i>tepidārium</i> for this purpose as well as for its -own. In this way the suite of five rooms might be reduced to four or -three. On the other hand, private houses had sometimes an additional -hot room without water (<i>lacōnicum</i>), used for a sweat bath, and a -public bathhouse would be almost sure to have an exercise ground -(<i>palaestra</i>), with a pool at one side (<i>piscīna</i>) for a cold plunge -and a room adjacent (<i>dēstrictārium</i>) in which the sweat and dirt of -exercise were scraped off with the <i>strigilis</i> (Fig. 171) before and -after the bath. It must not be supposed that all bathers went the -round of all the rooms in the order given above, though that was -common enough. Some would dispense with the hot bath altogether, -taking instead a sweat in the <i>lacōnicum</i>, or failing that, in the -<i>caldārium</i>, removing the perspiration with the strigil, following -this with a cold bath (perhaps merely a shower or douche) in the -<i>frīgidārium</i> and the rubbing with linen cloths and anointing with -oil. Young men who deserted the campus and the Tiber (<a href="#sect317">§317</a>) for the -<i>palaestra</i> and the bath would content themselves with removing the -effects of their exercise with the scraper, taking a plunge in the -open pool, and then a second scraping and the oil. Much would depend -on the time and the tastes of individuals, and physicians laid down -strict rules for their patients to follow.</p> -<table align="left" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure172"> - <tr> - <td width="425"> - <img src="images/figure172.jpg" alt="FIGURE 172. SUSPENSURA"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="425" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 172. - S<small>USPENSURA</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect368"><b>368</b></a></span> -<b>Heating the Bath.</b>—The arrangement of the rooms, were they many -or few, depended upon the method of heating. This in early times must -have been by stoves placed in the rooms as needed, but by the end of -the Republic the furnace had come into use, heating the rooms as well -as the water with a single fire. The hot air from the furnace was not -conducted into the rooms directly, as it is with us, but was made to -circulate under the floors and through spaces between the walls, the -temperature of the room depending upon its proximity to the furnace. -The <i>lacōnicum</i>, if there was one, was put directly over the furnace, -next to it came the <i>caldārium</i> and then the <i>tepidārium</i>, while the -<i>frīgidārium</i> and the <i>apodytērium</i> having no need of heat were at the -greatest distance from the fire and without connection with it. If -there were two sets of baths in the same building, as there sometimes -were for the accommodation of both men and women at the same time, the -two <i>caldāria</i> were put on opposite sides of the furnace (see the plan -in <a href="#sect376">§376</a>) and the other rooms were connected with them in the regular -order, the two entrances being at the greatest distance apart. The -method of conducting the air under the floors is shown in Fig. 172. -There were really two floors, the first being even with the top of the -firepot, the second (<i>suspēnsūra</i>) with the top of the furnace. -Between them was a space of about two feet into which the hot air -passed. On the top of the furnace, just above the level, therefore, of -the second floor, were two kettles for heating the water. One was -placed well back, where the fire was not so hot, and contained water -that was kept merely warm; the other was placed directly over the fire -and the water in it, received from the former, was easily kept -intensely hot. Near them was a third kettle containing cold water. -From these three kettles the water was piped as needed to the various -rooms. The arrangement will be easily understood after a study of the -plans in <a href="#sect376">§§376</a>, <a href="#sect378">378</a>.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure173"> - <tr> - <td width="621"> - <img src="images/figure173.jpg" alt="FIGURE 173. SECTION OF CALDARIUM"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="621" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 173. - S<small>ECTION OF</small> C<small>ALDARIUM</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect369"><b>369</b></a></span> -<b>The Caldarium.</b>—The hot water bath was taken in the <i>caldārium</i> -(<i>cella caldāria</i>), which served also as a sweat bath when there was -no <i>lacōnicum</i>. It was a rectangular room and in the public baths was -longer than wide (Vitruvius says the proportion should be 3:2) with -one end rounded off like an apse or bay window. At the other end stood -the large hot water tank (<i>alveus</i>), in which the bath was taken by a -number of persons at a time. The <i>alveus</i> (Fig. 173) was built up two -steps from the floor of the room, its length equal to the width of the -room and its breadth at the top not less than six feet. At the bottom -it was not nearly so wide, the back sloping inward, so that the -bathers could recline against it, and the front having a long broad -step, for convenience of descent into it, upon which, too, the bathers -sat. The water was received hot from the furnace, and was kept hot by -a metal heater (<i>testūdō</i>), opening into the <i>alveus</i> and extending -beneath the floor into the hot air chamber. Near the top of the tank -was an overflow pipe, and in the bottom was an escape pipe which -allowed the water to be emptied on the floor of the <i>caldārium</i>, to be -used for scrubbing it. In the apse-like end of the room was a tank or -large basin of metal (<i>lābrum</i>, <i>solium</i>), which seems to have -contained cool water for the douche. In private baths the room was -usually rectangular and then the <i>lābrum</i> was placed in a corner. For -the accommodation of those using the room for the sweat bath only, -there were benches along the wall. The air in the <i>caldārium</i> would, -of course, be very moist, while that of the <i>lacōnicum</i> would be -perfectly dry, so that the effect would not be precisely the same.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect370"><b>370</b></a></span> -<b>The Frigidarium and Unctorium.</b>—The <i>frīgidārium</i> (<i>cella -frīgidāria</i>) contained merely the cold plunge bath, unless it was made -to do duty for the <i>apodytērium</i>, when there would be lockers on the -wall for the clothes (at least in a public bath) and benches for the -slaves who watched them. Persons who found the bath too cold would -resort instead to the open swimming pool in the <i>palaestra</i>, which -would be warmed by the sun. In one of the public baths at Pompeii a -cold bath seems to have been introduced into the <i>tepidārium</i>, for the -benefit, probably, of invalids who found even the <i>palaestra</i> too cool -for comfort. The final process, that of scraping, rubbing, and oiling, -was exceedingly important. The bather was often treated twice, before -the warm bath and after the cold bath; the first might be omitted, but -the second never. The special room, <i>ūnctōrium</i>, was furnished with -benches and couches. The scrapers and oils were brought by the -bathers, usually carried along with the towels for the bath by a slave -(<i>capsārius</i>). The bather might scrape (<i>dēstringere</i>) and oil -(<i>deungere</i>) himself, or he might receive a regular massage at the -hands of a trained slave. It is probable that in the large baths -expert operators could be hired, but we have no direct testimony on -the subject. When there was no special <i>ūnctōrium</i> the <i>tepidārium</i> or -<i>apodytērium</i> was made to do instead.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure174"> - <tr> - <td width="434"> - <img src="images/figure174.jpg" alt="FIGURE 174. BATH AT CAERWENT"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="434" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 174. - B<small>ATH AT</small> C<small>AERWENT</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect371"><b>371</b></a></span> -<b>A Private Bathhouse.</b>—In Fig. 174 is shown the plan of a private -bath in Caerwent, Monmouthshire, England, the ruins of which were -discovered in the year 1855. It dates from about the time of -Constantine (306-333), and small though it is gives a clear notion of -the arrangement of the rooms. The entrance <i>A</i> leads into the -<i>frīgidārium B</i>, 10'6" x 6'6" in size, with a bath <i>C</i>, 10'6" x 3'3". -Off this is the <i>apodytērium D</i>, 10'6" x 13'3", which has the -apse-like end that the <i>caldārium</i> ought to have. Next is the -<i>tepidārium E</i>, 12' x 12', which contrary to all the rules is the -largest instead of the smallest of the four main rooms. Then comes the -<i>caldārium F</i>, 12' x 7'6", with its <i>alveus G</i>, 6' x 3' x 2', but with -no sign of its <i>lābrum</i> left, perhaps because the basin was too small -to require any special foundation. Finally comes the rare <i>lacōnicum -H</i>, 8' x 4', built over one end of the furnace <i>I</i>, which was in the -basement room <i>KK</i>. The hot air passed as indicated by the arrows, -escaping through openings near the roof in the outside wall of the -<i>apodytērium</i>. It should be noticed that there was no direct passage -from the <i>caldārium</i> to the <i>frīgidārium</i>, no special entrance to the -<i>lacōnicum</i>, and that the <i>tepidārium</i> must have served as the -<i>ūnctōrium</i>. The dimensions of the bath as a whole are 31 x 34 feet.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect372"><b>372</b></a></span> -<b>The Public Baths.</b>—To the simpler bathhouse of the earlier times -as well as to the bath itself was given the name <i>balneum</i> -(<i>balineum</i>), used often in the plural, <i>balnea</i>, by the dactylic -poets for metrical convenience. The more complex establishments of -later times were called <i>balneae</i>, and to the very largest with -features derived from the Greek gymnasia (<a href="#sect365">§365</a>) the name <i>thermae</i> was -finally given. These words, however, were loosely used and often -interchanged in practice. Public baths are first heard of after the -second Punic war. They increased in number rapidly, 170 at least being -operated in Rome in the year 33 <small>B.C.</small>, and later there were more than -800. With equal rapidity they spread through Italy and the provinces, -all the towns and many villages even having at least one. They were -public only in the sense of being open to all citizens who could pay -the modest fee demanded for their use. Free baths there were none, -except when some magistrate or public-spirited citizen or candidate -for office arranged to relieve the people of the fees for a definite -time by meeting the charges himself. So Agrippa in the year 33 <small>B.C.</small> -kept open free of charge 170 establishments at Rome. The rich -sometimes provided free baths for the people in their wills, but -always for a limited time.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect373"><b>373</b></a></span> -<b>Management.</b>—The first public baths were opened by individuals -for speculative purposes. Others were built by wealthy men as gifts to -their native towns, as such men give hospitals and libraries now, the -administration being lodged with the town authorities who kept the -buildings in repair and the baths open with the fees collected. Others -were built by the towns out of public funds, and others still as -monuments by the later emperors. However started, the management was -practically the same for all. They were leased for a definite time and -for a fixed sum to a manager (<i>conductor</i>) who paid his expenses and -made his profits out of the fees which he collected. The fee -(<i>balneāticum</i>) was hardly more than nominal. The regular price at -Rome for men seems to have been a <i>quadrāns</i>, less than a cent, the -bather furnishing his own towels, oil, etc., as we have seen (<a href="#sect370">§370</a>). -Women paid more, perhaps twice as much, while children up to a certain -age, unknown to us, paid nothing. Prices varied, of course, in -different places. It is likely that higher prices were charged in some -baths than in others in the same city, either because they were more -luxuriously equipped or to make them more exclusive and fashionable -than the rest, but we have no positive knowledge that this was done.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect374"><b>374</b></a></span> -<b>Hours Opened.</b>—The bath was regularly taken between the -<i>merīdiātiō</i> and <i>cēna</i>, the hour varying, therefore, within narrow -limits in different seasons and for different classes (<a href="#sect310">§310</a>). In -general it may be said to have been taken about the eighth hour, and -at this hour all the <i>conductōrēs</i> were bound by their contracts to -have the baths open and all things in readiness. As a matter of fact -many people preferred to bathe before the <i>prandium</i> (<a href="#sect302">§302</a>), and some -at least of the baths in the larger places must have been open then. -All were regularly kept open until sunset, but in the smaller towns, -where public baths were fewer, it is probable that they were kept open -later; at least the lamps found in large numbers in the Pompeian baths -seem to point at evening hours. It may be taken for granted that the -managers would keep the doors open as long as was profitable for them.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect375"><b>375</b></a></span> -<b>Accommodations for Women.</b>—Women of respectability bathed in the -public baths, as they bathe in public places now, but with women only, -enjoying the opportunity to meet their friends as much as did the men. -In the large cities there were separate baths devoted to their -exclusive use. In the larger towns separate rooms were set apart for -them in the baths intended generally for men. Such a combination is -shown in the next paragraph and the arrangement has been explained in -<a href="#sect368">§368</a>. In the very small places the bath was opened to men and women at -different hours. Late in the Empire we read of men and women bathing -together, but this was true of women only who had no claim to -respectability at all.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure175"> - <tr> - <td width="629"> - <img src="images/figure175.jpg" alt="FIGURE 175. THERMAE AT POMPEII"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="629" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 175. - T<small>HERMAE AT</small> P<small>OMPEII</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect376"><b>376</b></a></span> -<b>Thermae.</b>—In Fig. 175 is shown a plan of the so-called Stabian -baths at Pompeii, which gives a correct idea of the smaller <i>thermae</i> -and serves at the same time to illustrate the combination of baths for -men and women under the same roof. In the plan the unnumbered rooms -opening upon the surrounding streets were used for shops and stores -independent of the baths, those opening within were for the use of the -attendants or for purposes that can not now be determined. The main -entrance (<i>1</i>), on the south, opened upon the <i>palaestra</i> (<i>2</i>), -surrounded on three sides by colonnades and on the west by a bowling -alley (<i>3</i>), where large stone balls were found. Behind the bowling -alley was the <i>piscīna</i> (<i>6</i>) open to the sun, with a room on either -side (<i>5</i>, <i>7</i>) for douche baths and a <i>dēstrictārium</i> (<i>4</i>) for the -use of the athletes. There were two side entrances (<i>8</i>, <i>11</i>) at the -northwest, with the porter's room (<i>12</i>) and manager's office (<i>10</i>) -within convenient reach. The room (<i>9</i>) at the head of the bowling -alley was for the use of the players and may be compared with the -similar room for the use of the gladiators marked <i>9</i> in Fig. 156 -(<a href="#sect350">§350</a>). Behind the office was the <i>latrīna</i> (<i>14</i>).</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect377"><b>377</b></a></span> -On the east are the baths proper, the men's to the south. There -were two <i>apodytēria</i> (<i>24</i>, <i>25</i>) for the men, each with a separate -waiting-room for the slaves (<i>26</i>, <i>27</i>) with a door to the street. -Then come in order the <i>frīgidārium</i> (<i>22</i>), the <i>tepidārium</i> (<i>23</i>), -and the <i>caldārium</i> (<i>21</i>). The <i>tepidārium</i>, contrary to custom, had -a cold bath as explained in <a href="#sect370">§370</a>. The main entrance to the women's -bath was at the northeast (<i>17</i>), but there was also an entrance from -the northwest through the long corridor (<i>15</i>), both opening into the -<i>apodytērium</i> (<i>16</i>). This contained in one corner a cold bath, there -being no separate <i>frīgidārium</i> in the baths for women. Then come in -the regular position the <i>tepidārium</i> (<i>18</i>) and <i>caldārium</i> (<i>19</i>). -The furnace (<i>20</i>) was between the two <i>caldāria</i>, and the position of -the three kettles (<a href="#sect368">§368</a>) which furnished the water is clearly shown. -It should be noticed that there was no <i>lacōnicum</i>. It is possible -that one of the waiting-rooms for men (<i>24</i>) may have been used as an -<i>ūnctōrium</i>. The ruins show that the rooms were most artistically -decorated and there can be no doubt that they were luxuriously -furnished. The colonnades and the large waiting-rooms gave ample space -for the lounge after the bath, which the Roman prized so highly.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure176"> - <tr> - <td width="626"> - <img src="images/figure176.jpg" alt="FIGURE 176. BATHS OF DIOCLETIAN"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="626" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 176. - B<small>ATHS OF</small> D<small>IOCLETIAN</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect378"><b>378</b></a></span> -<b>Baths of Diocletian.</b>—The irregularity of plan and the waste of -space in the Pompeian <i>thermae</i> just described are due to the fact -that it was rebuilt at various times with all sorts of alterations and -additions. Nothing can be more symmetrical than the <i>thermae</i> of the -later emperors, as a type of which is shown in Fig. 176 the plan of -the Baths of Diocletian, dedicated in 305 <small>A.D.</small> They lay on the east -side of the city and were the largest and with the exception of those -of Caracalla the most magnificent of the Roman baths. The plan shows -the arrangement of the main rooms, all in the line of the minor axis -of the building; the uncovered <i>piscīna</i> (1), the <i>apodytērium</i> and -<i>frīgidārium</i> (2), combined as in the women's baths at Pompeii, the -<i>tepidārium</i> (3), and the <i>caldārium</i> (4) projecting beyond the other -rooms for the sake of the sunshine. The uses of the surrounding halls -and courts can not now be determined, but it is clear from the plan -that nothing was omitted known to the luxury of the time. An idea of -the magnificence of the central room may be had from Fig. 169 (<a href="#sect365">§365</a>), -showing the corresponding room in the Baths of Caracalla.</p> -<br> -<br><a name="chap10"></a> -<br> -<br> -<h3>CHAPTER X</h3> - -<h4>TRAVEL AND CORRESPONDENCE. BOOKS</h4> - -<blockquote><small>R<small>EFERENCES</small>: Marquardt, 469-474, 731-738, 799-833; Voigt, 359 f.; Göll, -II, 418-462, III, 1-45; Guhl and Koner, 538-544, 766 f., 783 f.; -Friedländer, II, 36-291; Ramsay, 76-78, 512-516; Pauly-Wissowa, -<i>carpentum</i>, <i>cisium</i>, <i>charta</i>, <i>Brief</i>, <i>Buch</i>, <i>Buchhandlung</i>, -<i>Bibliotheken;</i> Smith, Harper, Rich, Lübker, <i>viae</i>, <i>tabulae</i>, -<i>liber</i>, <i>bibliothēca</i>, and other Latin words in text; Baumeister, -2079 f., 354, 361-364; Blümner, I, 308-327; Johnston, Latin -Manuscripts, 13-21, 27-34, 36.</small></blockquote> -<br> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect379"><b>379</b></a></span> -For our knowledge of the means of traveling employed by the -Romans we have to rely upon indirect sources (<a href="#sect12">§12</a>), because if any -volumes of travel were ever written they have not come down to us. We -know, however, that while no distance was too great to be traversed, -no hardships too severe to be surmounted, for the sake of fame or -fortune, the Roman cared nothing for traveling in itself, for the mere -pleasure, that is, of sight-seeing. This was partly due to his -blindness to the charms of nature, more perhaps to his feeling that to -be out of Rome was to be forgotten. He made once in his life the grand -tour (<a href="#sect116">§116</a>), he spent a year abroad in the train of some general or -governor (<a href="#sect118">§118</a>), but this done, only the most urgent private affairs -or public duties could draw him from Italy. And Italy was to him only -Rome and his country estates (<a href="#sect145">§145</a>). These he visited when the hot -months had closed the courts and adjourned the senate, roaming -restlessly from one to another, impatient for his real life to begin -again. Even when public or private business called him from Rome, he -kept in touch with affairs by correspondence, expecting his friends to -write him voluminous letters, ready himself to return the favor when -positions should be reversed. So, too, the proconsul kept as near to -Rome as the boundaries of his province would permit; almost all the -uprisings in farther Gaul were due to Caesar's habit of hurrying off -to Italy as soon as winter had put an end to active operations in the -field.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect380"><b>380</b></a></span> -<b>By Water.</b>—The means of travel were the same as our ancestors -used a century ago. By water the Roman used sailing vessels, rarely -canal boats; by land vehicles drawn by horses or mules, for short -distances sedan chairs or litters. There were, however, no -transportation companies, no lines of boats or vehicles, that is, -running between certain places and prepared to carry passengers at a -fixed price on a regular schedule. The traveler by sea whose means did -not permit him to buy or charter a vessel for his exclusive use had -therefore to wait at the port until he found a boat going in the -desired direction and then make such terms as he could for his -passage. And there were other inconveniences. The boats were small, -and this made them uncomfortable in rough weather; the lack of the -compass caused them to follow the coast as much as possible, and this -often increased the distance; in winter navigation was usually -suspended. Traveling by water was, therefore, avoided as much as -possible. Rather than sail to Athens from Ostia or Naples, for -example, the traveler would go by land to Brundisium, by sea across to -Dyrrachium, and continue the journey by land. Between Brundisium and -Dyrrachium boats were constantly passing, and the only delay to be -feared was that caused by bad weather. The short voyage, only 100 -miles, was usually made within twenty-four hours.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect381"><b>381</b></a></span> -<b>By Land.</b>—The Roman who traveled by land was distinctly better -off than Americans of the time of the Revolution. His inns were not so -good, it is true, but his vehicles and cattle were fully equal to -theirs, and his roads were the best that have ever been built. -Horseback riding was not a recognized mode of traveling (the Romans -had no saddles), but there were vehicles with two wheels and with -four, for one horse and for two or more, covered and uncovered. These -were kept for hire near the gates of all important towns, but the -price is not known. To save the trouble of loading and unloading the -baggage it is probable that persons going great distances took their -own vehicles and merely hired fresh horses from time to time. There -were, however, no postroutes, and no places where horses were changed -at the end of regular stages for ordinary travelers, though there were -such arrangements for couriers and officers of the government, -especially in the provinces. For short journeys and when haste was not -necessary travelers would naturally use their own horses as well as -their own carriages. Of the pomp that often accompanied such journeys -something has been said in <a href="#sect152">§152</a>.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect382"><b>382</b></a></span> -<b>The Vehicles.</b>—The streets of Rome were so narrow (the widest -not over twenty-five feet, the average about fourteen) that wagons and -carriages were not allowed upon them at hours when they were likely to -be thronged with people. Throughout the Republic and for at least two -centuries afterwards the streets were closed to all vehicles during -the first ten hours of the day, with the exception of four classes -only: market wagons, which brought produce into the city by night and -were allowed to leave empty the next morning, transfer wagons -(<i>plaustra</i>) conveying material for public buildings, the carriages -used by the Vestals, <i>flāminēs</i>, and <i>rēx sacrōrum</i> in their priestly -functions, and the chariots driven in the <i>pompa circēnsis</i> (<a href="#sect343">§343</a>) and -in the triumphal processions. Similar regulations were in force in -almost all the Italian towns. This made general the use within the -walls of the <i>lectīca</i> and its bearers (<a href="#sect151">§151</a>). Besides the litter in -which the passenger reclined a sedan chair was common in which he sat -erect. Both were covered and curtained. The <i>lectīca</i> was sometimes -used for short journeys, and in place of the six or eight bearers, -mules were sometimes put between the shafts, one before and one -behind, but not until late in the Empire. Such a litter was called a -<i>basterna</i>.</p> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure177"> - <tr> - <td width="307"> - <img src="images/figure177.jpg" alt="FIGURE 177. CARPENTUM"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="307" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 177. - C<small>ARPENTUM</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect383"><b>383</b></a></span> -<b>Carriages.</b>—The monuments show us rude representations of -several kinds of vehicles and the names of at least eight have come -down to us, but we are not able positively to connect the figures and -the names, and have, therefore, very general notions only of the form -and construction of even the most common. Some seem to have been of -ancient design and retained merely for use as state carriages in the -processions that have been mentioned. Such were the <i>pīlentum</i> and the -<i>carpentum</i>, the former with four wheels, the latter with two, both -covered, both drawn by two horses, both used by the Vestals and -priests. The <i>carpentum</i> is rarely spoken of as a traveling carriage, -and its use for such a purpose was a mark of luxury. Livy makes the -first Tarquin come from Etruria to Rome in one, and it is generally -supposed that one is shown in an Etruscan painting reproduced here in -Fig. 177. The <i>petōritum</i> was also used in the triumphal processions, -but only for the spoils of war. It was essentially a baggage wagon and -was occupied by the servants in a traveler's train. The <i>carūca</i> was a -luxurious traveling van, of which we hear first in the late Empire. It -was furnished with a bed on which the traveler reclined by day and -slept by night.</p> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure178"> - <tr> - <td width="282"> - <img src="images/figure178.jpg" alt="FIGURE 178. CISIUM"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="282" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 178. - C<small>ISIUM</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect384"><b>384</b></a></span> -<b>The Reda and Cisium.</b>—The usual traveling vehicles, however, -were the <i>rēda</i> and the <i>cisium</i>. The former was large and heavy, -covered, had four wheels, and was drawn by two or four horses. It was -regularly used by persons accompanied by their families or having -baggage with them, and was kept for hire for this purpose. For rapid -journeys, when a man had no traveling companions and little baggage, -the two-wheeled and uncovered <i>cisium</i> was the favorite vehicle. It -was drawn by two horses, one between shafts and the other attached by -traces; it is possible that three were sometimes used. The <i>cisium</i> -had a single seat, broad enough to accommodate a driver also. It is -very likely that the cart on a monument found near Trieves (Fig. 178) -is a <i>cisium</i>, but the identification is not absolutely certain. -Cicero speaks of these carts making fifty-six miles in ten hours, -probably with one or more changes of horses. Other vehicles of the -cart type that came into use during the Empire were the <i>essedum</i> and -the <i>covīnus</i>, but we do not know how they differed from the <i>cisium</i>. -These carts had no springs, but the traveler took care to have plenty -of cushions. It is worth noticing that none of the vehicles mentioned -has a Latin name, all being Gallic with perhaps one exception -(<i>pīlentum</i>). In like manner most of our own carriages have foreign -names.</p> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figures179to184"> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" width="414" align="center"> - <img src="images/figure179.jpg" alt="FIGURE 179. ROAD CUT THROUGH HILL"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" width="414" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 179. - R<small>OAD</small> C<small>UT THROUGH</small> - H<small>ILL</small></small> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" width="414" align="center"> - <img src="images/figure180.jpg" alt="FIGURE 180. BRIDGE OVER STREAM"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" width="414" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 180. - B<small>RIDGE OVER</small> S<small>TREAM</small></small> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" width="414" align="center"> - <img src="images/figure181.jpg" alt="FIGURE 181. VIADUCT OVER MARSH"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" width="414" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 181. - V<small>IADUCT OVER</small> M<small>ARSH</small></small> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="100" align="center"> - <img src="images/figure182.jpg" alt="FIGURE 182. MILESTONE"> - </td> - <td width="314" align="center"> - <img src="images/image5.jpg" alt="MILESTONE INSCRIPTION"><small><small><sup>1</sup></small></small> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="100" align="center" valign="top"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 182. - M<small>ILESTONE</small></small> - </td> - <td width="314"> - <small><small><sup>1</sup></small> Inscription on - a milestone of the <i>via Salaria</i>. - "Erected by the consul (117 <small>B.C.</small>) - Lucius Caecilius Metellus, etc. - (<a href="#sect39">§39</a>). One hundred and - nineteen (miles) from Rome."</small> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" width="414"> - <img src="images/figure183.jpg" alt="FIGURE 183. EMBANKMENT AND CROSS-SECTION"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" width="414" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 183. - E<small>MBANKMENT AND</small> C<small>ROSS-SECTION</small></small> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" width="414" align="center"> - <img src="images/figure184.jpg" alt="FIGURE 184. CONSTRUCTION OF ROAD"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" width="414" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 184. - C<small>ONSTRUCTION OF</small> R<small>OAD</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect385"><b>385</b></a></span> -<b>The Roads.</b>—The engineering skill of the Romans and the lavish -outlay of money made their roads the best that the world has ever -known. They were strictly military works, built for strategic -purposes, intended to facilitate the despatching of supplies to the -frontier and the massing of troops in the shortest possible time. -Beginning with the first important acquisition of territory in Italy -(the <i>via Appia</i> was built in 312 <small>B.C.</small>) they kept pace with the -expansion of the Republic and the Empire. In Italy they were built at -the cost of the state, in the provinces the conquered communities bore -the expense of construction and maintenance, but the work was done -under the direction of Roman engineers and often by the legions -between campaigns. They ran in straight lines between the towns they -were to connect, with frequent crossroads and branch roads only less -carefully constructed. No natural obstacles were permitted to change -their course. The grade was always easy, hills being cut through (Fig. -179), gorges and rivers crossed on arches of solid stone (Fig. 180), -and valleys and marshes spanned by viaducts of the same material (Fig. -181).</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect386"><b>386</b></a></span> -Their surface was perfectly smooth and carefully rounded off and -there were gutters at the sides to carry off the rain and melted snow. -Regard was had for the comfort of all classes of travelers. Milestones -showed the distance from the starting point of the road and often that -to important places in the opposite direction, as well as the names of -the consuls or emperors under whom the roads were built (Fig. 182). -The roadbed was wide enough to permit the meeting and passing of the -largest wagons without trouble. For the pedestrian there was a -footpath on either side with frequent stepping-stones so he might -cross to the other side above the mud or dust of the wagon way, and -seats for him to rest upon were often built by the milestones. The -horseman found blocks of stone set here and there for his convenience -in mounting and dismounting. Where springs were discovered wayside -fountains for men and watering-troughs for cattle were constructed. -Such roads often went a hundred years without repairs, and some -portions of them have endured the traffic of centuries and are still -in good condition to-day.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect387"><b>387</b></a></span> -<b>Construction.</b>—Our knowledge of the construction of the military -roads is derived from a treatise of Vitruvius on pavements and from -existing remains of the roads themselves. The Latin phrase for -building a road (<i>mūnīre viam</i>) epitomizes the process exactly, for -throughout its full length, whether carried above the level of the -surrounding country (Fig. 183) or in a cut below it, the road was a -solid wall averaging fifteen feet in width and perhaps three feet in -height. The method followed will be easily understood from Fig. 184. A -cut (<i>fossa</i>) was first made of the width of the intended road and of -a depth sufficient to hold the filling which varied with the nature of -the soil. The earth at the bottom of the cut (E) was leveled and made -solid with heavy rammers (<a href="#sect213">§213</a>). Upon this was spread the <i>statūmen</i> -(D), a foundation course of stones not too large to be held in the -hand, the thickness of the layer varying with the porosity of the -soil. Over this came the <i>rūdus</i> (C), a nine-inch layer of coarse -concrete or rubble (<a href="#sect210">§210</a>) made of broken stones and lime. Over this -was laid the <i>nūcleus</i> (B), a six-inch bedding of fine concrete made -of broken potsherds and lime, in which was set the final course (A) of -blocks of lava or of other hard stone furnished by the adjacent -country. This last course (<i>dorsum</i>) made the roadway (<i>agger viae</i>) -and was laid with the greatest care so as to leave no seams or -fissures to admit water or to jar the wheels of vehicles. In the -diagram the stones are represented with the lower surface flat, but -they were commonly cut to a point or edge, as in Fig. 183, in order to -be held more firmly by the <i>nūcleus</i>. The <i>agger</i> was bounded on the -sides by <i>umbōnēs</i> (G,G), curbstones, behind which lay the footpaths -(F,F), <i>sēmitae</i> or <i>marginēs</i>. On a subsoil of rocky character the -foundation course or even the first and second courses might be -unnecessary. On the less traveled branch roads the <i>agger</i> seems to -have consisted of a thick course of gravel (<i>glārea</i>), well rounded -and compacted, instead of the blocks of stone, and the crossroads may -have been of still cheaper materials.</p> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure185"> - <tr> - <td width="176"> - <img src="images/figure185.jpg" alt="FIGURE 185. PLAN OF INN"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="176" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 185. - P<small>LAN OF</small> I<small>NN</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect388"><b>388</b></a></span> -<b>The Inns.</b>—There were numerous lodging houses and restaurants in -all the cities and towns of Italy, but all of the meanest character. -Respectable travelers avoided them scrupulously, either possessing -stopping places of their own (<i>dēversōria</i>) on roads that they used -frequently, or claiming entertainment from friends (<a href="#sect303">§303</a>) and -<i>hospitēs</i> (<a href="#sect184">§184</a>), whom they would be sure to have everywhere. Nothing -but accident, stress of weather, or unusual haste could drive them to -places of public entertainment (<i>tabernae dēversōriae</i>, <i>caupōnae</i>). -The guests of such places were, therefore, of the lowest class, and -innkeepers (<i>caupōnēs</i>) and inns bore the most unsavory reputations. -Food and beds were furnished the travelers, and their cattle were -accommodated under the same roof and in unpleasant proximity. The plan -of an inn at Pompeii (Fig. 185) may be taken as a fair sample of all -such houses. The entrance (<i>a</i>) is broad enough to admit wagons into -the wagon-room (<i>f</i>), behind which is the stable (<i>k</i>). In one corner -is a watering-trough (<i>l</i>), in another a <i>latrīna</i> (<i>i</i>). On either -side of the entrance is a wineroom (<i>b</i>, <i>d</i>), with the room of the -proprietor (<i>c</i>) opening off one of them. The small rooms (<i>e</i>, <i>g</i>, -<i>h</i>) are bedrooms, and others in the second story over the wagon-room -were reached by the back stairway. The front stairway has an entrance -of its own from the street and the rooms reached by it had probably no -connection with the inn. Behind this stairway on the lower floor was a -fireplace (<i>m</i>) with a water heater. An idea of the moderate prices -charged in such places may be had from a bill which has come down to -us in an inscription preserved in the museum at Naples: a pint of wine -with bread, one cent; other food, two cents; hay for a mule, two -cents. The corners of streets were the favorite sites for inns, and -they had signs (the elephant, the eagle, etc.) like those of much -later times.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect389"><b>389</b></a></span> -<b>Speed.</b>—The lack of public conveyances running on regular -schedules (<a href="#sect380">§380</a>) makes it impossible to tell the speed ordinarily made -by travelers. It depended upon the total distance to be covered, the -degree of comfort demanded by the traveler, the urgency of his -business, and the facilities at his command. Cicero speaks of -fifty-six miles in ten hours by cart (<a href="#sect384">§384</a>) as something unusual, but -on such roads it ought to have been possible to go much faster, if -fresh horses were provided at the proper distances, and if the -traveler could stand the fatigue. The sending of letters gives the -best standard of comparison. There was no public postal service, but -every Roman of position had among his slaves special messengers -(<i>tabellāriī</i>), whose business it was to deliver important letters for -him. They covered from twenty-six to twenty-seven miles on foot in a -day, and from forty to fifty in carts. We know that letters were sent -from Rome to Brundisium, 370 Roman miles, in six days, and on to -Athens in fifteen more. A letter from Sicily would reach Rome on the -seventh day, from Africa on the twenty-first day, from Britain on the -thirty-third day, and from Syria on the fiftieth day. In the time of -Washington it was no unusual thing for a letter to take a month to go -from the eastern to the southern states in winter.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect390"><b>390</b></a></span> -<b>Sending Letters.</b>—For long distances, especially over seas, -sending letters by special messengers was very expensive, and, except -for the most urgent matters, recourse was had to traders and travelers -going in the desired direction. Persons sending messengers or -intending to travel themselves made it a point of honor to notify -their friends in time for letters to be prepared and also carried -letters for entire strangers, if requested to do so. There was great -danger, of course, that letters sent in this way might fall into the -wrong hands or be lost. It was customary, therefore, to send a copy of -an important letter (<i>litterae eōdem exemplō</i>, <i>ūnō exemplō</i>), or at -least an abstract of its contents, by another person and if possible -by a different route. It was also customary to disguise the meaning by -the use of fictitious names known to the correspondents only or by the -employment of regular cypher codes. Suetonius tells us that Caesar -simply substituted for each letter the one that stood three places -lower in the alphabet: D for A, E for B, etc., but really elaborate -and intricate systems were in common use.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure186"> - <tr> - <td width="564"> - <img src="images/figure186.jpg" alt="FIGURE 186. CODICILLI"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="564" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 186. - C<small>ODICILLI</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table><br> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure187"> - <tr> - <td width="150" align="center"> - <img src="images/figure187.jpg" alt="FIGURE 187. BRONZE STILUS"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="150" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 187.<br> - B<small>RONZE</small> S<small>TILUS</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect391"><b>391</b></a></span> -<b>Writing the Letters.</b>—The extensive correspondence carried on by -every Roman of position (<a href="#sect379">§379</a>) made it impossible for him to write any -but the most important of his letters or those to his dearest friends -with his own hand. The place of the stenographer and writing machine -of to-day was taken by slaves or freedmen, often highly educated -(<a href="#sect154">§154</a>), who wrote at his dictation. Such slaves were called in general -terms <i>librāriī</i>, more accurately <i>servī ab epistolīs</i>, <i>servī ā -manū</i>, or <i>āmanuēnsēs</i>. Notes and short letters were written on -tablets (<i>tabellae</i>, Fig. 24, <a href="#sect110">§110</a>) of firwood or ivory of various -sizes, often fastened together in sets of two or more by wire hinges -(<i>codicillī</i>, <i>pugillārēs</i>, Fig. 186). The inner faces were slightly -hollowed out and the depression was nearly filled with wax, so as to -leave merely a raised rim about the edges, much like the frame of an -old-fashioned slate. Upon the wax the letters were traced with an -ivory or metal tool (<i>stilus</i>, <i>graphium</i>) with one end pointed, like -a pencil, for writing, and the other made broad and flat, like a paper -cutter, for smoothing the wax (Fig. 187). With the flat end mistakes -could be corrected or the whole letter erased and the tablets used -again, often for the reply to the letter itself. For longer -communications the Romans used a coarse paper (<i>papyrus</i>), the making -of which will be described below. Upon it they wrote with pens made of -split reeds and with a thick ink made of soot (lampblack) mixed with -resinous gums. Paper, pens, and ink were so poor that the bulky and -awkward tablets were used by preference for all but the longest -letters. Parchment did not come into general use until the fourth or -fifth century of our era.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect392"><b>392</b></a></span> -<b>Sealing and Opening the Letters.</b>—For sealing the letter thread -(<i>līnum</i>), wax (<i>cēra</i>), and a seal (<i>sīgnum</i>) were necessary. The -seal (<a href="#sect255">§255</a>) not only secured the letter against improper inspection, -but also attested the genuineness of those written by the <i>librariī</i>, -as autograph signatures seem not to have been thought of. The tablets -having been put together face to face with the writing on the inside, -the thread was passed around them and through small holes bored -through them, and was then securely tied. Upon the knot softened wax -was dropped and to this the seal was applied. Letters written on -sheets of paper (<i>schedae</i>) were rolled longitudinally and then -secured in the same way. On the outside was written the name of the -person addressed with perhaps the place where he was to be found if -the letter was not sent by a special messenger. When the letter was -opened care was taken not to break the seal, the cutting of the thread -giving access to the contents. If the letter was preserved the seal -was kept attached to it in order to attest its authenticity. Cicero -describes the opening of a letter in the tenth paragraph of the Third -Oration against Catiline.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure188"> - <tr> - <td width="620"> - <img src="images/figure188.jpg" alt="FIGURE 188. - FRAGMENT OF PAPYRUS ROLL FROM HERCULANEUM"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="620" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 188. - F<small>RAGMENT OF</small> P<small>APYRUS</small> - R<small>OLL FROM</small> H<small>ERCULANEUM</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect393"><b>393</b></a></span> -<b>Books.</b>—Almost all the materials used by the ancients to receive -writing were known to the Romans and used by them for one purpose or -another, at one time or another. For the publication of works of -literature, however, during the period when the great classics were -produced, the only material was paper (<i>papyrus</i>), the only form the -roll (<i>volūmen</i>). The book of modern form (<i>cōdex</i>), written on -parchment (<i>membrānum</i>), played an important part in the preservation -of the literature of Rome, but did not come into use for the purpose -of publication until long after the canon of the classics had been -completed and the great masters had passed away. The Romans adopted -the papyrus roll from the Greeks; the Greeks had received it from the -Egyptians. When the Egyptians first made use of it we do not know, but -we have preserved to us Egyptian rolls that were written at least -twenty-five hundred years before the Christian era. The oldest Roman -books of this sort that have been preserved were found in Herculaneum, -badly charred and broken. Those that have been deciphered contain no -Latin author of any value. A specimen of the writing on one of these, -a mere fragment by an unknown author, is shown in Fig. 188. At the -time it was buried there were still to be seen rolls in the -handwriting of the Gracchi, and autographs of Cicero, Vergil, and -Horace must have been common enough. All these have since perished so -far as we know.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect394"><b>394</b></a></span> -<b>Manufacture of Paper.</b>—The papyrus reed had a jointed stem, -triangular in shape, and reached a maximum height of perhaps fourteen -feet with a thickness of four or five inches. The stem contained a -pith of which the paper was made by a process substantially as -follows: The stem was cut through at the joints, the hard rind -removed, and the pith cut into thin sections or strips as evenly as -possible. The first cut seems to have been made from one of the angles -to the middle of the opposite side, and the others parallel with it to -the right and left. The strips were then assorted according to width, -and enough of them were arranged side by side as closely as possible -upon a board to make their combined width almost equal to the length -of the single strip. Across these was laid another layer at right -angles, with perhaps a coating of glue or paste between them. The -mat-like sheet that resulted was then soaked in water and pressed or -hammered into a substance not unlike our paper, called by the Romans -<i>charta</i>. After the sheets (<i>schēdae</i>) had been dried and bleached in -the sun, they were rid by scraping of rough places and trimmed into -uniform sizes, depending upon the length of the strips of pith. The -fewer the strips that composed each sheet, or in other words the -greater the width of each strip, the closer the texture of the -<i>charta</i> and the better its quality. It was possible, therefore, to -grade the paper by its size, and the width of the sheet rather than -its height was taken as the standard. The best quality seems to have -been sold in sheets about ten inches wide, the poorest that could be -used to write upon, about six. The height in each case was perhaps one -inch to two inches greater. It has been calculated that a single -papyrus plant would make about twenty sheets of the size proportioned -to its height, and this number seems to have been made the commercial -unit of measure (<i>scāpus</i>), by which the paper was sold in the market, -a unit corresponding roughly to our quire.</p> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure189"> - <tr> - <td width="373"> - <img src="images/figure189.jpg" alt="FIGURE 189. - INSTRUMENTS USED IN WRITING"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="373" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 189. - I<small>NSTRUMENTS</small> U<small>SED IN</small> - W<small>RITING</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect395"><b>395</b></a></span> -<b>Pens and Ink.</b>—Only the upper surface of the sheet was commonly -written upon, the one formed by the horizontal layer of strips, and -these showing even after the process of manufacture served to guide -the pen of the writer. In the case of books where it was important to -keep the number of lines constant to the page, they were ruled with a -circular piece of lead. The pen (<i>calamus</i>) was made of a reed brought -to a point and cleft much as our quill pens are. For the black ink -(<i>ātrāmentum</i>, <a href="#sect391">§391</a>) was occasionally substituted the liquid of the -cuttlefish. Red ink was much used for headings, ornaments, and the -like, and in pictures the inkstand is generally represented with two -compartments (Fig. 189). The ink was more like paint than modern ink, -and could be wiped off when fresh with a damp sponge and washed off -even when it had become dry and hard. To wash sheets in order to use -them a second time was a mark of poverty or niggardliness, but the -reverse side of <i>schēdae</i> that had served their purpose was often used -for scratch paper, especially in the schools (<a href="#sect110">§110</a>).</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect396"><b>396</b></a></span> -<b>Making the Roll.</b>—A single sheet might serve for a letter or -other brief document, but for literary purposes many sheets would be -required. These were not fastened side by side in a back, as are the -separate sheets in our books, or numbered and laid loosely together, -as we arrange them in our letters and manuscripts, but after the -writing was done they were glued together at the sides (not at the -tops) into a long unwieldy strip, with the lines on each sheet running -parallel with the length of the strip, and with the writing on each -sheet forming a column perpendicular to the length of the strip. On -each side of the sheet, therefore, a margin was left as the writing -was done, and these margins overlapping and glued together made a -thick blank space, a double thickness of paper, between every two -sheets in the strip. Very broad margins, too, were left at the top and -bottom, where the paper would suffer from use a great deal more than -in our books. When the sheets had been securely fastened together in -the proper order a thin slip of wood was glued to the left (outer) -margin of the first sheet, and a second slip (<i>umbilīcus</i>) to the -right (also outer) margin of the last sheet, much as a wall map is -mounted to-day. When not in use the volume was kept tightly rolled -about the <i>umbilīcus</i>, and hence received its name (<i>volūmen</i>).</p> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure190"> - <tr> - <td width="143"> - <img src="images/figure190.jpg" alt="FIGURE 190. CAPSA"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="143" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 190. - C<small>APSA</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect397"><b>397</b></a></span> -A roll intended for permanent preservation was finished with the -greatest care. The top and bottom (<i>frontēs</i>) were trimmed perfectly -smooth, polished with pumice-stone, and often painted black. The back -of the roll was rubbed with cedar oil to defend it from moths and -mice. To the ends of the <i>umbilīcus</i> were added knobs (<i>cornua</i>), -sometimes gilded or painted a bright color. The first sheet would be -used for the dedication, if there was one, and on the back of it a few -words were frequently written giving a clue to the contents of the -roll; sometimes a portrait of the author graced this page. In many -books the full title and the name of the author were written only at -the end of the roll on the last sheet, but in any case to the top of -this sheet was glued a strip of parchment (<i>titulus</i>) with the title -and author's name upon it, which projected above the edge of the roll. -For every roll a parchment cover was made, cylindrical in form, into -which it was slipped from the top, the <i>titulus</i> alone being visible. -If a work was divided into several volumes (see below), the rolls were -put together in a bundle (<i>fascis</i>) and kept in a wooden box (<i>capsa</i>, -<i>scrīnium</i>) like a modern hat box. When the cover was removed the -<i>titulī</i> were visible and the roll desired could be taken without -disturbing the others (Fig. 190). The rolls were kept sometimes in -cupboards (<i>armāria</i>, <a href="#sect231">§231</a>), laid lengthwise on the shelves with the -<i>titulī</i> to the front, as shown in the figure in the next paragraph.</p> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure191"> - <tr> - <td width="315"> - <img src="images/figure191.jpg" alt="FIGURE 191. READING A ROLL"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="315" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 191. - R<small>EADING A</small> R<small>OLL</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect398"><b>398</b></a></span> -<b>Size of the Rolls.</b>—When a volume was consulted the roll was -held in both hands and unrolled column by column with the right hand, -while with the left the reader rolled up the part he was done with on -the slip of wood fastened to the margin of the first sheet (Fig. 191). -When he had finished reading he rolled it back upon the <i>umbilīcus</i>, -usually holding it under the chin and turning the <i>cornua</i> with both -hands. In the case of a long roll this turning backward and forward -took much time and patience and must have sadly soiled and damaged the -roll itself. The early rolls were always long and heavy. There was -theoretically no limit to the number of sheets that might be glued -together, and consequently none to the size or length of the roll. It -was made as long as was necessary to contain the given work. In -ancient Egypt rolls were put together of more than fifty yards in -length, and in early times rolls of approximate length were used in -Greece and Rome. From the third century <small>B.C.</small>, however, it had become -customary to divide works of great length into two or more volumes, -the division at first being purely arbitrary and made wherever it was -convenient to end the roll, no matter how much the unity of thought -was interrupted. A century later authors had begun to divide their -works into convenient parts, each part having a unity of its own, such -as the five "books" of Cicero's <i>Dē Fīnibus</i>, and to each of these -parts or "books" was given a separate roll. An innovation so -convenient and sensible quickly became the universal rule. It even -worked backward, some ancient works being divided into books, which -had not been so divided by their authors, e.g., Herodotus, Thucydides, -and Naevius. About the same time, too, it became the custom to put the -sheets upon the market already glued together, to the amount at least -of the <i>scāpus</i> (<a href="#sect394">§394</a>). It was, of course, much easier to glue two or -three of these together, or to cut off the unused part of one, than to -work with the separate sheets. The ready-made rolls, moreover, were -put together in a most workmanlike manner. Even sheets of the same -quality (<a href="#sect394">§394</a>) would vary slightly in toughness or finish, and the -manufacturers of the roll were careful to put the very best sheets at -the beginning, where the wear was the most severe, and to keep for the -end the less perfect sheets, which might sometimes be cut off -altogether.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect399"><b>399</b></a></span> -<b>Multiplication of Books.</b>—The process of publishing the largest -book at Rome differed in no important respect from that of writing the -shortest letter. Every copy was made by itself, the hundredth or the -thousandth taking just as much time and labor as the first had done. -The author's copy would be distributed among a number of <i>librāriī</i>, -his own, if he were a man of wealth, a Caesar or a Sallust, his -patron's, if he were a poor man, a Terence or a Vergil. Each of the -<i>librāriī</i> would write and rewrite the portions assigned to him, until -the required number of copies had been made. The sheets would then be -arranged in the proper order and the rolls mounted as has been -described. Finally the books had to be looked through to correct the -errors that were sure to be made, a process much more tedious than the -modern proofreading, because every copy had to be corrected -separately, as no two copies would show precisely the same errors. -Books made in this way were almost exclusively for gifts, though -friends would exchange books with friends and a few might find their -way into the market. Up to the last century of the Republic, however, -there was no organized book trade, and no such thing as commercial -publication. When a man wanted a book, instead of buying it at a -bookstore he borrowed a copy from a friend and had his <i>librāriī</i> make -him as many more as he desired. In this way Atticus made for himself -and Cicero copies of all the Greek and Latin books on which he could -lay his hands, and distributed Cicero's own writings everywhere.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect400"><b>400</b></a></span> -<b>Commercial Publication.</b>—The publication of books at Rome as a -business began in the time of Cicero. There was no copyright law and -no protection therefore for author or publisher. The author's -pecuniary returns came in the form of gifts or grants from those whose -favor he had won by his genius; the publisher depended, in the case of -new books, upon meeting the demand before his rivals could market -their editions, and, in the case of standard books, upon the accuracy, -elegance, and cheapness of his copies. The process of commercial -publication was essentially the same as that already described, except -that larger numbers of <i>librāriī</i> would be employed and the copy would -be read to all at once to save them the trouble of handling the -awkward roll and keeping the place as they wrote. The publisher would -estimate as closely as possible the demand for any new work that he -had secured, would put as large a number of scribes upon it as -possible, and would take care that no copies should leave his -establishment until his whole edition was ready. After the copies were -once on sale they could be reproduced by anyone. The best houses took -all possible pains to have their books free from errors, having -competent correctors to read them copy by copy, but in spite of their -efforts blunders were legion. Authors sometimes corrected with their -own hands the copies intended for their friends. In the case of -standard works purchasers often hired scholars of reputation to revise -their copies for them, and copies of known excellence were borrowed or -hired at high prices for the purpose of comparison.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect401"><b>401</b></a></span> -<b>Rapidity and Cost of Publication.</b>—Cicero tells us of Roman -senators who wrote fast enough to take evidence <i>verbātim</i>, and the -trained scribes must have far surpassed them in speed. Martial tells -us that his second book could be copied in an hour. It contains five -hundred and forty verses, which would make the scribe equal to nine -verses to the minute. It is evident that a small edition, no larger, -for example, than twice or three times the number of the scribes, -could be put upon the market more quickly than it could be furnished -now. The cost of the books varied, of course, with their size and the -style of their mounting. Martial's first book, containing eight -hundred and twenty lines and covering twenty-nine pages in Teubner's -text, sold at thirty cents, fifty cents, and one dollar; his <i>Xenia</i>, -containing two hundred and seventy-four verses and covering fourteen -pages in Teubner's text, sold at twenty cents, but cost the publisher -less than ten. Such prices would hardly be considered excessive now. -Much would depend upon the reputation of the author and the consequent -demand, and high prices were put on certain books. Autograph -copies—Gellius († about 180 <small>A.D.</small>) says that one by Vergil cost the -owner $100—and copies whose correctness was vouched for by some -recognized authority commanded extraordinary prices.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect402"><b>402</b></a></span> -<b>Libraries.</b>—The gathering of books in large private collections -began to be general only toward the end of the Republic. Cicero had -considerable libraries not only in his house at Rome, but also at -every one of his half-dozen country seats. Probably the bringing to -Rome of whole libraries from the East and Greece by Lucullus and Sulla -started the fashion of collecting books; at any rate collections were -made by many persons who knew and cared nothing about the contents of -the rolls, and every town house had its library (<a href="#sect206">§206</a>) lined with -volumes. In these libraries were often displayed busts of great -writers and statues of the Muses. Public libraries date from the time -of Augustus. The first to be opened in Rome was founded by Asinius -Pollio (†4 <small>A.D.</small>), and was housed in the <i>Ātrium Lībertātis</i>. Augustus -himself founded two others, and the number was brought up to -twenty-eight by his successors. The most magnificent of these was the -<i>Bibliothēca Ulpia</i>, founded by Trajan. Smaller cities had their -libraries, too, and even the little town of Comum boasted one founded -by the younger Pliny and supported by an endowment that produced -thirty thousand sesterces annually. The public baths often had -libraries and reading-rooms attached (<a href="#sect365">§365</a>).</p> -<br> -<br><a name="chap11"></a> -<br> -<br> -<h3>CHAPTER XI</h3> - -<h4>SOURCES OF INCOME AND MEANS OF LIVING. THE ROMAN'S DAY</h4> -<br> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect403"><b>403</b></a></span> -It is evident from what has been said that abundant means were -necessary to support the state in which every Roman of position lived. -It will be of interest to see how the great mass of the people also -earned the scantier living with which they were forced to be content. -For the sake of this inquiry it will be convenient, if not very -accurate, to divide the people of Rome into the three great classes of -nobles, knights, and commons, into which political history has -distributed them. At the same time it must be remembered that there -was no hard and fixed line drawn between any two of these classes; a -noble might if he pleased associate himself with the knights, provided -only that he possessed the required sum of $20,000, and any freeborn -citizen might aspire to the highest offices of the state, however mean -the circumstances of his birth, however poor in pocket or in talent he -might be.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect404"><b>404</b></a></span> -<b>Careers of the Nobles.</b>—The nobles inherited certain of the -aristocratic notions of the old patriciate, which limited their -business activities and had much to do with the corruption of public -life in the last century of the Republic. Men in their position were -held to be above all manner of work, with the hands or with the head, -for the sake of sordid gain. Agriculture alone was free from debasing -associations, as it has been in England within our own time, and -statecraft and war were the only careers fit to engage their energies. -Even as statesmen and generals, too, they served their fellow citizens -without material reward, for no salaries were drawn by the senators, -none were attached to the magistracies or to positions of military -command. This theory had worked well enough in the time before the -Punic wars, when every Roman was a farmer, when the farm produced all -that he needed for his simple wants, when he left it only to serve as -a soldier in his young manhood or as a senator in his old age, and -returned to his fields, like Cincinnatus, when his services were no -longer required by his country. Under the aristocracy that supplanted -the pure democracy of the earlier time, it subverted every aim that it -was intended to secure.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect405"><b>405</b></a></span> -<b>Agriculture.</b>—The farm life that Cicero has described so -eloquently and praised so enthusiastically in his <i>Catō Māior</i> would -have scarcely been recognized by Cato himself and had become a memory -or a dream long before Cicero wrote. The farmer no longer tilled his -fields, even with the help of his slaves. The yeoman class had -practically disappeared from Italy. The small holdings had been -absorbed in the vast estates of the wealthy landowners, and the aims -and methods of farming had wholly changed. Something has been said of -this already (<a href="#sect146">§146</a> f.), and it will be sufficient here to recall the -fact that grain was no longer raised for the market in Italy, simply -because the market could be supplied more cheaply from over seas. The -grape and the olive had become the chief sources of wealth, and for -them Sallust and Horace complain that less and less space was being -left by the parks and pleasure grounds (<a href="#sect145">§145</a>). Still, the making of -wine and oil under the direction of a careful steward (<a href="#sect148">§148</a>) must have -been very profitable in Italy and many of the nobles had plantations -in the provinces as well, the revenues of which helped to maintain -their state at Rome.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect406"><b>406</b></a></span> -<b>Political Office.</b>—Politics must have been profitable for those -only who played the game to the end. No salaries were attached to the -offices, and the indirect gains from one of the lower would hardly pay -the expenses necessary to secure the next in order. The gain came -always through positions in the provinces. The quaestorship might be -spent in one, the praetorship and the consulship were sure to be -followed by a year abroad. To honest men the places gave the -opportunity to learn of profitable investments, and a good governor -was often selected by a community to look after its interests in the -capital, and this meant an honorarium in the form of valuable presents -from time to time. Cicero's justice and moderation as quaestor in -Sicily earned him a rich reward when he came to prosecute Verres for -plundering that same province, and when he was in charge of the grain -supply during his aedileship. To corrupt officials the provinces were -gold mines. Every sort of robbery and extortion was practiced, and the -governor was expected to enrich not merely himself but also the -<i>cohors</i> (<a href="#sect118">§118</a>) that had accompanied him. Catullus bitterly complains -of the selfishness of Memmius, who had kept for himself all the -plunder of Bithynia. The story of Verres may be read in any history of -Rome; it differs from that of the average governor only in the fate -that overtook the offender.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect407"><b>407</b></a></span> -<b>The Law.</b>—Closely connected with the political career then as -now was that of the law, but Rome knew of no class of professional -advocates practicing for fees and living upon their practice. And -there were no conditions imposed for practicing in the courts, not -even the good moral character which is insisted upon in Indiana. -Anyone could bring suit against anyone else on any charge that he -pleased, and it was no uncommon thing for a young politician to use -this license for the purpose of gaining notoriety, even when he knew -there were no grounds for the charges he brought. On the other hand -the lawyer was forbidden to accept pay for his services. In olden -times the client had of his right gone to his patron for legal advice -(<a href="#sect179">§179</a>), and the lawyer of later times was theoretically at least at -the service of all who applied to him. Men of the highest character -made it a point of honor to put their technical knowledge freely at -the disposal of their fellow citizens. At the same time the statutes -against fees were easily evaded. Grateful clients could not be -prevented from making valuable presents, and it was a very common -thing for generous legacies to be left to successful advocates. Cicero -had no other source of income, so far as we know, but while he was -never a rich man, he owned a house on the Palatine (<a href="#sect221">§221</a>, note) and -half a dozen country seats, lived well, and spent money lavishly on -works of art (<a href="#sect227">§227</a>) that appealed to his tastes, and on books (<a href="#sect402">§402</a>). -Corrupt judges (<i>praetōrēs</i>) could find other sources of income then -as now, of course, but we hear more of this in relation to the jurors -(<i>iudicēs</i>) than the judges, probably because with a province before -him the <i>praetor</i> did not think it fitting to stoop to petty -bribetaking.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect408"><b>408</b></a></span><b>The Army.</b>—The spoils of war went nominally into the treasury of -the state. Practically they passed first through the hands of the -commanding general, who kept what he pleased for himself, his staff -(<a href="#sect118">§118</a>), and his soldiers and sent the rest to Rome. The opportunities -were magnificent, and the Roman general understood how to use them -all. Some of them were legitimate enough according to the usages of -the time, the plunder of the towns and cities that were taken, the -ransom exacted from those that were spared, the sale of captives as -slaves (<a href="#sect134">§134</a>). Entirely illegitimate, of course, were the fortunes -made by furnishing supplies to the army at extravagant prices or -diverting these supplies to private uses. The reconstruction of the -conquered territory brought in returns equally rich; it is safe to say -that the Aedui paid Caesar well for the supremacy in central Gaul that -he assured them after his defeat of the Helvetii. The civil wars that -cost the best blood of Italy made the victors immensely rich. Besides -the looting of the public treasury, the estates of men in the opposing -party were confiscated and sold to the highest bidder. The proceeds -went nominally to the treasury of the new government, but the proceeds -were infinitesimal in comparison with the profits. After Sulla had -established himself in Rome the names of friends and foes alike were -put on the proscription lists, and if powerful influence was not -exerted in their behalf they lost lives and fortunes. For the -influence they had to pay dearly. One example may be cited. The estate -of one Roscius of Ameria, valued at $300,000, was bid in for $100 by -Lucius Chrysogonus, a freedman of Sulla, because no one dared bid -against the creature of the dictator. The settling of the soldiers on -grants of land made good business for the three commissioners who -superintended the distribution of the land. The grants were always of -farms owned and occupied by adherents of the beaten party, and the -bribes came from both sides.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect409"><b>409</b></a></span> -<b>Careers of the Equites.</b>—The name of knight had lost its -original significance long before the time of Cicero. The equites had -become the class of capitalists who found in financial transactions -the excitement and the profit that the nobles found in politics and -war. It was the immense scale of their operations that relieved them -from the stigma that attached to working for gain, just as in modern -times the wholesale dealer may have a social position entirely beyond -the hopes of the small retailer. As a body the equites exerted -considerable political influence, holding in fact the balance of power -between the senatorial and the democratic parties. As a rule they -exerted this influence only so far as was necessary to secure -legislation favorable to them as a class, and to insure as governors -for the provinces men that would not look too closely into their -transactions there. For it was in the provinces that the knights as -well as the nobles found their best opportunities. Their chief -business was the farming of the revenues. For this purpose syndicates -were formed, which paid into the public treasury a lump sum, fixed by -the senate, and reimbursed themselves by collecting what they could -from the province. The profits were beyond all reason, and the word -publican became a synonym for sinner. Besides farming the revenues -they "financed" the provinces and allied states, advancing money to -meet the ordinary or extraordinary expenses. Sulla levied a -contribution of 20,000 talents (about $20,000,000) on Asia. The money -was advanced by a syndicate of Roman capitalists, and they had -collected the amount six times over when Sulla interfered, for fear -that there would be nothing left for him in case of further needs. -More than one pretender was set upon a puppet throne in the East in -order to secure the payment of sums previously loaned him by the -capitalists. Their operations as individuals were only less extensive -and profitable. The grain in the provinces, the wool, the products of -mines and factories could be moved only with the money advanced by -them. They ventured, too, to engage in commercial enterprises abroad -that were barred against them at home, doing the buying and selling -themselves, not merely supplying the means to others. They loaned -money to individuals, too, though at Rome money lending was -discreditable. The usual rate was twelve per cent, but Marcus Brutus -was loaning money at forty-eight per cent in Cilicia, when Cicero went -there as governor in 51 <small>B.C.</small>, and expected Cicero to enforce his -contracts for him.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect410"><b>410</b></a></span> -<b>The Soldiers.</b>—The freeborn citizens of Rome below the nobles -and the knights may be roughly divided into two classes, the soldiers -and the proletariate. The civil wars had driven them from their farms -or had unfitted them for the work of farming, and the pride of race or -the competition of slave labor had closed against them the other -avenues of industry, numerous as these must have been in the world's -capital. The best of this class turned to the army. This had long -since ceased to be composed of citizen-soldiers, called out to meet a -special emergency for a single campaign, and disbanded at its close. -It was what we should call a regular army, the soldiers enlisting for -a term of twenty years, receiving stated pay and certain privileges -after an honorable discharge. In time of peace, when there was peace, -they were employed on public works (<a href="#sect385">§385</a>). The pay was small, perhaps -forty or fifty dollars a year with rations in Caesar's time, but this -was as much as a laborer could earn by the hardest kind of toil, and -the soldier had the glory of war to set over against the stigma of -work, and hopes of presents from his commander and the privilege of -occasional pillage and plunder. After he had completed his time he -might if he chose return to Rome, but many had formed connections in -the communities where their posts were fixed and preferred to make -their homes there on free grants of land, an important instrument in -spreading Roman civilization.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect411"><b>411</b></a></span> -<b>The Proletariate.</b>—In addition to the idle and the profligate -attracted to Rome by the free corn and by the other allurements that -bring a like element into our cities now, large numbers of the -industrious and the frugal had been forced into the city by the loss -of their property during the civil wars and the failure to find -employment elsewhere. No exact estimate of the number of these -unemployed people can be given, but it is known that before Caesar's -time it had passed the mark of 300,000. Relief was occasionally given -by the establishing of colonies on the frontiers—in this way Caesar -put as many as 80,000 in the way of earning their living again, short -as was his administration of affairs at Rome—but it was the least -harmful element that was willing to emigrate and the dregs were left -behind. Aside from beggary and petty crimes their only source of -income was the sale of their votes, and this made them a real menace -to the Republic. Under the Empire their political influence was lost -and the state found it necessary to make distributions of money -occasionally to relieve their want. Some of them played client to the -upstart rich (<a href="#sect181">§181</a>), but the most were content to be fed by the state -and amused by the constantly increasing shows and games (<a href="#sect322">§322</a>).</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect412"><b>412</b></a></span> -<b>Professions and Trades.</b>—The professions and trades, between -which the Romains made no distinction, in the last years of the -Republic were practically given over to the <i>lībertīnī</i> (<a href="#sect175">§175</a>) and to -foreigners. Of some of these something has been said already. Teachers -were poorly paid (<a href="#sect121">§121</a>), and usually looked upon with contempt. -Physicians were held in no higher esteem, but seem to have been well -paid, if we may judge from those that were attached to the court. Two -of these left a joint estate of $1,000,000, and another received from -the Emperor Claudius a yearly stipend of $25,000. In knowledge and -skill in both surgery and medicine they do not seem to have been much -behind the practitioners of two centuries ago. Bankers united money -changing with money loaning. The former was very necessary in a city -into which came all the coins of the known world; the latter was never -looked upon as entirely respectable for a Roman, but there can be no -doubt that many a Roman of the highest respectability drew large -profits from this business, carried on discreetly in the name of a -freedman. The trades were early organized at Rome in guilds, but their -only purpose seems to have been to hand down and perfect the technique -of the crafts; at least there was no obstacle in the way of workmen -not belonging to the guilds, and there were no such things known as -patents or special privileges in the way of work. Eight of these -guilds are older than history, those of the fullers, cobblers, -carpenters, goldsmiths, coppersmiths, potters, dyers, and (oddly -enough) the fluteblowers. Numerous others were formed as knowledge of -the arts advanced or the division of labor proceeded. Special parts of -the city seem to have been appropriated by special classes of workmen, -as like businesses are apt to be carried on in the same neighborhood -in our cities: Cicero speaks of a street of the Scythemakers.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect413"><b>413</b></a></span> -<b>Business and Commerce.</b>—The commerce of Rome covered all lands -and seas. Pliny tells us that the trade with India and China took from -Rome $5,000,000 yearly. The wholesale trade was to a large extent in -the hands of the capitalist class, the retail business was conducted -by freedmen and foreigners. How large these businesses were we have no -means of telling. The supplying of the food to the city must have -given employment to thousands; the clothing trade has been mentioned -already (<a href="#sect271">§271</a>). Building operations were carried on at an immense cost -and on the largest scale. All the public buildings and many of the -important private buildings were built by contract. There can be -little doubt that the letting of the contracts for the public -buildings was made very profitable for the officers who had it to do, -but it must be admitted on the other hand that the work was well done. -Crassus seems to have done a sort of salvage business. When buildings -seemed certain to be destroyed by fire he would buy them with their -contents at a nominal sum, and then fight the flames with gangs of -slaves that he had trained for the purpose. The slave trade itself was -very considerable and large fortunes were amassed in it (<a href="#sect139">§139</a>). The -heavy work of ordinary laborers was performed almost entirely by -slaves (<a href="#sect148">§148</a>), and it must be remembered that much work was then done -by hand that is now done by machinery. The book business has been -mentioned (<a href="#sect400">§400</a>). Even the place of the modern newspaper was taken by -letters written as a business by persons who collected all the news, -gossip, and scandal of the city, had it copied by slaves, and sent it -to persons away from the city who did not like to trouble their -friends (<a href="#sect379">§379</a>) and were willing to pay for intelligence.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect414"><b>414</b></a></span> -<b>The Civil Service.</b>—The free persons employed in the offices of -the various magistrates were of the lowest class, mostly <i>lībertīnī</i>. -They were paid by the state, and while appointed nominally for a year -only, they seem to have practically held their places during good -behavior. This was largely due to the shortness of the term of the -regular magistrates and the rarity of reëlection. Having no -experience themselves in conducting their offices the magistrates -would have all the greater need of thoroughly trained and experienced -assistants. The highest class of these officials formed an <i>ōrdō</i>, the -<i>scrībae</i>, whose name gives no adequate notion of the extent and -importance of their duties. All that is now done by cabinet officers, -secretaries, department heads, bureau chiefs, auditors, comptrollers, -recorders, and accountants, down to the work of the ordinary clerks -and copyists, was done by these "scribes." Below them came others -almost equally necessary but not equally respected, the lictors, -messengers, etc. These civil servants had special places at the -theater and the circus. The positions seem to have been in great -demand, as such places are now in France, for example. Horace is said -to have been a department clerk.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect415"><b>415</b></a></span> -<b>The Roman's Day.</b>—The way in which a Roman spent his day -depended, of course, upon his position and business, and varied -greatly with individuals and with the particular day. The ordinary -routine of a man of the higher class, the man of whom we read most -frequently in Roman literature, was something like this: The Roman -rose at a very early hour, his day beginning before sunrise, because -it ended so early. After a hurried breakfast (<a href="#sect302">§302</a>) he devoted such -time as was necessary to his private business, looking over accounts, -consulting with his managers, giving directions, etc. Cicero and Pliny -found these early hours the best for their literary work. Horace tells -of lawyers giving free advice at three in the morning. After his -private business was despatched the Roman took his place in the -<i>ātrium</i> (<a href="#sect198">§198</a>) for the <i>salūtātiō</i> (<a href="#sect182">§182</a>), when his clients came to -pay their respects, perhaps to ask for the help or advice that he was -bound to furnish them (<a href="#sect179">§179</a>). All this business of the early morning -might have to be dispensed with, however, if the Roman was asked to a -wedding (<a href="#sect79">§79</a>), or to be present at the naming of a child (<a href="#sect97">§97</a>), or to -witness the coming of age (<a href="#sect128">§128</a>) of the son of a friend, for all these -semi-public functions took place in the early morning. But after them -or after the levee the Roman went to the forum attended by his clients -and carried in his litter (<a href="#sect151">§151</a>) with his <i>nōmenclātor</i> at his elbow. -The business of the courts and of the senate began about the third -hour, and might continue until the ninth or tenth, that of the senate -was bound to stop at sunset. Except on extraordinary occasions all -business was pretty sure to be over before eleven o'clock, and at this -time the lunch was taken (<a href="#sect302">§302</a>).</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect416"><b>416</b></a></span> -Then came the midday siesta, so general that the streets were as -deserted as at midnight, and one of the Roman writers fixes upon this -as the proper time for a ghost story. Of course there were no sessions -of the courts or meetings of the senate on the public holidays, and -then the hours generally given to business might be spent at the -theater or the circus or other games. As a matter of fact the Romans -of the better class rather avoided these shows, unless they were -officially connected with them, and many of them devoted the holidays -to visiting their country estates. After the siesta, which lasted for -an hour or more, the Roman was ready for his regular athletic exercise -and bath, either in the Campus and the Tiber (<a href="#sect317">§317</a>) or in one of the -public bathing establishments (<a href="#sect365">§365</a>). The bath proper (<a href="#sect367">§367</a>) was -followed by the lounge (<a href="#sect377">§377</a>), perhaps a promenade in the court, which -gave him a chance for a chat with a friend, or an opportunity to hear -the latest news, to consult business associates, in short to talk over -any of the things that men now discuss at their clubs. After this came -the great event of the day, the dinner (<a href="#sect303">§303</a>), at his own house or at -that of some friend, followed immediately by retirement for the night. -Even on the days spent in the country this programme would not be -materially changed, and the Roman took with him into the provinces the -customs of his home life so far as possible.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure192"> - <tr> - <td width="312"> - <img src="images/figure192.jpg" alt="FIGURE 192. ANCIENT CALENDAR"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="312" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 192. - A<small>NCIENT</small> C<small>ALENDAR</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect417"><b>417</b></a></span> -<b>Hours of the Day.</b>—The day itself was divided into twelve hours -(<i>hōrae</i>), each being one-twelfth of the time between sunrise and -sunset and varying therefore with the season of the year. The length -of the day and hour at Rome in different times of the year is shown in -the following table:</p> -<table align="center" border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="lengthofday"> - <tr> - <td align="center">Month and Day</td> - <td align="center">Length of Day</td> - <td align="center">Length of Hour</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Dec. 23</td> - <td align="right">8° 54'</td> - <td align="right">44' 30"</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Feb. 6</td> - <td align="right">9° 50'</td> - <td align="right">49' 10"</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>March 23</td> - <td align="right">12° 00'</td> - <td align="right">1° 00' 00"</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>May 9</td> - <td align="right">14° 10'</td> - <td align="right">1° 10' 50"</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>June 25</td> - <td align="right">15° 06'</td> - <td align="right">1° 15' 30"</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Aug. 10</td> - <td align="right">14° 10'</td> - <td align="right">1° 10' 50"</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Sept. 25</td> - <td align="right">12° 00'</td> - <td align="right">1° 00' 00"</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Nov. 9</td> - <td align="right">9° 50'</td> - <td align="right">49' 10"</td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect418"><b>418</b></a></span> -Taking the days of June 25 and December 23 as respectively the -longest and shortest of the year, the following table gives the -conclusion of each hour for summer and winter:</p> -<table align="center" border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="hoursofday"> - <tr> - <td align="center">Time</td> - <td align="center">Summer</td> - <td align="center">Winter</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td align="right">Sunrise</td> - <td align="right">4° 27' 00"</td> - <td align="right">7° 33' 00"</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td align="right">1st Hour</td> - <td align="right">5° 42' 30"</td> - <td align="right">8° 17' 30"</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td align="right">2d Hour</td> - <td align="right">6° 58' 00"</td> - <td align="right">9° 02' 00"</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td align="right">3d Hour</td> - <td align="right">8° 13' 30"</td> - <td align="right">9° 46' 30"</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td align="right">4th Hour</td> - <td align="right">9° 29' 00"</td> - <td align="right">10° 31' 00"</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td align="right">5th Hour</td> - <td align="right">10° 44' 30"</td> - <td align="right">11° 15' 30"</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td align="right">6th Hour</td> - <td align="right">12° 00' 00"</td> - <td align="right">12° 00' 00"</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td align="right">7th Hour</td> - <td align="right">1° 15' 30"</td> - <td align="right">12° 44' 30"</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td align="right">8th Hour</td> - <td align="right">2° 31' 00"</td> - <td align="right">1° 29' 00"</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td align="right">9th Hour</td> - <td align="right">3° 46' 30"</td> - <td align="right">2° 13' 30"</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td align="right">10th Hour</td> - <td align="right">5° 02' 00"</td> - <td align="right">2° 58' 00"</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td align="right">11th Hour</td> - <td align="right">6° 17' 30"</td> - <td align="right">3° 42' 30"</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td align="right">12th Hour</td> - <td align="right">7° 33' 00"</td> - <td align="right">4° 27' 00"</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>In the same way the hours may be calculated for any given day, the -length of the day and the hour of sunrise being known, but for all -practical purposes the old couplet will serve:</p> -<table align="center" summary="quote2"> - <tr><td>The English hour you may fix,<br> - If to the Latin you add six.</td></tr> -</table> -<p>When the Latin hour is above six it will be more convenient to -subtract than to add.</p> -<br> -<br><a name="chap12"></a> -<br> -<br> -<h3>CHAPTER XII</h3> - -<h4>BURIAL-PLACES AND FUNERAL CEREMONIES</h4> - -<blockquote><small>R<small>EFERENCES</small>: Marquardt, 340-388; Voigt, 319-322, 396, 455; Göll, 480-547; -Guhl and Koner, 580-595, 857-863; Friedländer, III, 125-137; Ramsay, -479-482; Pauly-Wissowa, <i>cenotaphium</i>, <i>columbārium;</i> Smith, Harper, -Rich, <i>columbārium</i>, <i>fūnus</i>, <i>sepulcrum;</i> Lübker, <i>Bestattung</i>, -<i>sepulcrum;</i> Baumeister, 308-311, 604-609, 1520 f.; Mau-Kelsey, -399-428; Gusman, 44-54; Egbert, Latin Inscriptions, 230-242; Lanciani, -Ancient Rome, 64, 129 f.</small></blockquote> -<br> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect419"><b>419</b></a></span> -<b>Importance of Burial.</b>—The Romans' view of the future life -explains the importance they attached to the ceremonial burial of the -dead. The soul, they thought, could find rest only when the body had -been duly laid in the grave; until this was done it haunted the home, -unhappy itself and bringing unhappiness to others. To perform the -funeral offices (<i>iūsta facere</i>) was, therefore, a solemn religious -duty, devolving upon the surviving members of the family (<a href="#sect28">§28</a>), and -the Latin words show that these marks of respect were looked upon as -the right of the dead. In the case of a body lost at sea, or for any -other reason unrecovered, the ceremonies were just as piously -performed, an empty tomb (<i>cenotaphium</i>) being erected sometimes in -honor of the dead. And these same rites the Roman was bound to -perform, if he came anywhere upon the unburied corpse of a citizen, -because all were members of the greater family of the commonwealth. In -this case the scattering of three handfuls of dust over the body was -sufficient for ceremonial burial and the happiness of the troubled -spirit, if for any reason the body could not actually be interred.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect420"><b>420</b></a></span> -<b>Interment and Cremation.</b>—Burial was the way of disposing of the -dead practiced most anciently by the Romans, and even after cremation -came into very general use it was ceremonially necessary that some -small part of the remains, usually the bone of a finger, should be -buried in the earth. Burning was practiced before the time of the -Twelve Tables, for it is mentioned together with burial in them, but -we do not know how long before. Hygienic reasons had probably -something to do with its general adoption, and this implies, of -course, cities of considerable size. By the time of Augustus it was -all but universal, but even in Rome the practice of burial was never -entirely discontinued, for cremation was too costly for the very -poorest classes, and some of the wealthiest and most aristocratic -families held fast to the more ancient custom. The Cornelii, for -example, always buried their dead until the dictator required his body -to be burned for fear that his bones might be disinterred and -dishonored by his enemies, as he had dishonored those of Marius. -Children less than forty days old were always buried, and so, too, -slaves whose funeral expenses were paid by their masters. After the -introduction of Christianity burial came again to be the prevailing -use, largely because of the increased expense of burning.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure193"> - <tr> - <td width="523"> - <img src="images/figure193.jpg" alt="FIGURE 193. TOMB OF PLANCUS"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="523" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 193. - T<small>OMB OF</small> P<small>LANCUS</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table><br> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure194"> - <tr> - <td width="618"> - <img src="images/figure194.jpg" alt="FIGURE 194. TOMB OF CESTIUS"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="618" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 194. - T<small>OMB OF</small> C<small>ESTIUS</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect421"><b>421</b></a></span> -<b>Places of Burial.</b>—The most ancient place of burial, at least -for the head of the house, was beneath the hearthstone in the <i>ātrium</i> -of his house, later in the garden behind his house, but this had -ceased to be the custom long before history begins, and the Twelve -Tables forbade the burial or even the burning of the dead within the -walls of the city. For the very poor, places of burial were provided -in remote localities outside the walls, corresponding in some degree -to the Potter's Field of modern cities. The well-to-do made their -burial-places as conspicuous as their means would permit, with the -hope that the inscriptions upon the monuments would keep alive the -names and virtues of the dead, and with the idea, perhaps, that they -still had some part in the busy life around them. To this end they -lined the great roads on either side for miles out of the cities with -rows of tombs of the most elaborate and costly architecture. In the -vicinity of Rome the Appian way as the oldest (<a href="#sect385">§385</a>) showed the -monuments of the noblest and most ancient families, but none of the -roads lacked similar memorials. Many of these tombs were standing in -the sixteenth century, a few still remain. The same custom was -followed in the smaller towns, and an idea of the appearance of the -monuments may be had from the so-called "Street of Tombs" in Pompeii -(Fig. 195). There were other burial-places near the cities, of course, -less conspicuous and less expensive, and on the farms and country -estates like provision was made for persons of humbler station.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure195"> - <tr> - <td width="629"> - <img src="images/figure195.jpg" alt="FIGURE 195. STREET OF TOMBS AT POMPEII"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="629" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 195. - S<small>TREET OF</small> T<small>OMBS AT</small> - P<small>OMPEII</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table><br> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure196"> - <tr> - <td width="465"> - <img src="images/figure196.jpg" alt="FIGURE 196. EXTERIOR OF TOMB AT POMPEII"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="465" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 196. - E<small>XTERIOR OF</small> T<small>OMB AT</small> - P<small>OMPEII</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect422"><b>422</b></a></span> -<b>The Tombs.</b>—The tombs, whether intended to receive the bodies or -merely the ashes, or both, differed widely in size and construction -with the different purposes for which they were erected. Some were for -individuals only, but these in most cases were strictly public -memorials as distinguished from actual tombs intended to receive the -remains of the dead. The larger number of those that lined the roads -were family tombs, ample in size for whole generations of descendants -and retainers of the family, including guest-friends (<a href="#sect185">§185</a>), who had -died away from their own homes, and freedmen (<a href="#sect175">§175</a>). There were also -the burial-places of the <i>gentēs</i> (<a href="#sect21">§21</a>), in which provision was made -for all, even the humblest and poorest, who claimed connection with -the <i>gēns</i> and had had a place in its formal organization (<a href="#sect22">§22</a>). -Others were erected on a large scale by speculators who sold at low -prices space enough for an urn or two to persons too poor to erect -tombs of their own and without any claim on a family or gentile -burying-place. In imitation of these structures others were erected on -the same plan by burial societies formed by persons of the artisan -class, and others still by benevolent men, as we have seen baths -(<a href="#sect373">§373</a>) and libraries (<a href="#sect402">§402</a>) erected and maintained for the public -good. Something will be said of the tombs of all these kinds after the -public burying-places have been described.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure197"> - <tr> - <td width="620"> - <img src="images/figure197.jpg" alt="FIGURE 197. SECTIONS OF TOMB SHOWN IN FIGURE 196"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="620" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 197. - S<small>ECTIONS OF</small> T<small>OMB</small> - S<small>HOWN IN</small> F<small>IGURE</small> 196</small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect423"><b>423</b></a></span> -<b>The Potter's Field.</b>—During the Republic the Esquiline Hill, or -at least the eastern part of it, was the place to which was carted all -the refuse of the city that the sewers would not carry away. Here, -too, were the gravepits (<i>puticulī</i>) for the pauper class. They were -merely holes in the ground, about twelve feet square, without lining -of any kind. Into them were thrown the bodies of the friendless poor, -and along with them and over them the carcasses of dead animals and -the filth and scrapings of the streets. The pits were kept open, -uncovered apparently even when filled, and the stench and the -disease-breeding pollution made the hill absolutely uninhabitable. -Under Augustus the danger to the health of the whole city became so -great that the dumping grounds were moved to a greater distance, and -the Esquiline, covered over pits and all with pure soil to the depth -of twenty-five feet, was made a park, known as the <i>Hortī Maecēnātis</i>.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect424"><b>424</b></a></span> -It is not to be understood, however, that the bodies of Roman -citizens were ordinarily disposed of in this revolting way. Faithful -freedmen were cared for by their patrons, the industrious poor made -provision for themselves in coöperative societies mentioned above, and -the proletariate class (<a href="#sect411">§411</a>) was in general saved from such a fate by -gentile relations, by patrons (<a href="#sect181">§181</a>), or by the benevolence of -individuals. Only in times of plague and pestilence, it is safe to -say, were the bodies of known citizens cast into these pits, as under -like circumstances bodies have been burned in heaps in our own cities. -The uncounted thousands that peopled the Potter's Field of Rome were -the riffraff from foreign lands, abandoned slaves (<a href="#sect156">§156</a>), the victims -that perished in the arena (<a href="#sect362">§362</a>), outcasts of the criminal class, and -the "unidentified" that are buried nowadays at public expense. -Criminals put to death by authority were not buried at all; their -carcasses were left to birds and beasts of prey at the place of -execution near the Esquiline gate.</p> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure198"> - <tr> - <td width="359"> - <img src="images/figure198.jpg" alt="FIGURE 198. INTERIOR OF TOMB AT POMPEII"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="359" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 198. - I<small>NTERIOR OF</small> T<small>OMB AT</small> - P<small>OMPEII</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect425"><b>425</b></a></span> -<b>Plan of Tombs and Grounds.</b>—The utmost diversity prevails in the -outward form and construction of the tombs, but those of the classical -period seem to have been planned with the thought that the tomb was to -be a home for the dead and that they were not altogether cut off from -the living. The tomb, therefore, whether built for one person or for -many, was ordinarily a building inclosing a room (<i>sepulcrum</i>), and -this room was really the important thing. Attention has already been -called (<a href="#sect189">§189</a>) to the fact that even the urns had in ancient times the -shape of the house of one room. The floor of the <i>sepulcrum</i> was quite -commonly below the level of the surrounding grounds and was reached by -a short flight of steps. Around the base of the walls ran a slightly -elevated platform (<i>podium</i>, cf. <a href="#sect337">§§337</a>, <a href="#sect357">357</a>) on which were placed the -coffins of those who were buried, while the urns were placed either on -the platform or in niches in the wall. An altar or shrine is often -found, at which offerings were made to the <i>mānēs</i> of the departed. -Lamps are very common and so are other simple articles of furniture, -and the walls, floors, and ceilings are decorated in the same style as -those of houses (<a href="#sect220">§220</a> f.). Things that the dead liked to have around -them when living, especially things that they had used in their -ordinary occupations, were placed in the tomb at the time of burial, -or burned with them on the funeral pyre, and in general an effort was -made to give an air of life to the chamber of rest. The interior of a -tomb at Pompeii is shown in Fig. 198, and sections of another in Fig. -197, <a href="#sect423">§423</a>.</p> -<table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure199"> - <tr> - <td width="253"> - <img src="images/figure199.jpg" alt="FIGURE 199. PLAN OF GROUNDS ABOUT TOMB"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="253" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 199. - P<small>LAN OF</small> G<small>ROUNDS ABOUT</small> - T<small>OMB</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect426"><b>426</b></a></span> -The monument itself was always built upon a plot of ground as -spacious as the means of the builders would permit, sometimes several -acres in extent. In it provision was made for the comfort of surviving -members of the family, who were bound to visit the resting-place of -their dead on certain regularly recurring festivals (<a href="#sect438">§438</a>). If the -grounds were small there would be at least a seat, perhaps a bench. On -more extensive grounds there were places of shelter, arbors, or summer -houses. Dining-rooms, too, in which were celebrated the anniversary -feasts, and private <i>ūstrīnae</i> (places for the burning of bodies) are -frequently mentioned. Often the grounds were laid out as gardens or -parks, with trees and flowers, wells, cisterns or fountains, and even -a house, with other buildings perhaps, for the accommodation of the -slaves or freedmen who were in charge. A plan of such a garden is -shown in Fig. 199. In the middle of the garden is the <i>ārea</i>, the -technical word for the plot of ground set aside for the tomb, with -several buildings upon it, one of which is a storehouse or granary -(<i>horreum</i>); around the tomb itself are beds of roses and violets, -used in festivals (<a href="#sect438">§438</a>), and around them in turn are grapes trained -on trellises. In the front is a terrace (<i>sōlārium</i>, cf. <a href="#sect207">§207</a>), and in -the rear two pools (<i>piscīnae</i>) connected with the <i>ārea</i> by a little -canal, while at the back is a thicket of shrubbery (<i>harundinētum</i>). -The purpose of the granary is not clear as no grain seems to have been -raised on the lot, but it may have been left where it stood before the -ground was consecrated. A tomb surrounded by grounds of some extent -was called a <i>cēpotaphium</i>.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure200"> - <tr> - <td width="606"> - <img src="images/figure200.jpg" alt="FIGURE 200. RUINS OF COLUMBARIUM OF LIVIA"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="606" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 200. - R<small>UINS OF</small> C<small>OLUMBARIUM OF</small> L<small>IVIA</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect427"><b>427</b></a></span> -<b>Exterior of the Tombs.</b>—An idea of the exterior appearance of -monuments of the better sort may be had from Figs. 193-196. The forms -are very many, those of the altar and temple are the most common, -perhaps, but memorial arches and niches are often found, and at -Pompeii the semicircular bench that was used for conversation out of -doors occurs several times, covered and uncovered. Not all of the -tombs have the sepulchral chamber, the remains being sometimes -deposited in the earth beneath the monument. In such cases a tube or -pipe of lead ran from the receptacle to the surface, through which -offerings of wine and milk could be poured (<a href="#sect429">§§429</a>, <a href="#sect438">438</a>). In Fig. 193, -<a href="#sect420">§420</a>, is shown the round monument at Caieta of Lucius Munatius -Plancus, one of Caesar's marshals (<i>lēgātī</i>) in Gaul, the -inscription<small><small><sup>1</sup></small></small> on which recounts the positions he had filled and the -work he had done. In Fig. 194, <a href="#sect420">§420</a>, is shown the pyramid erected at -Rome in honor of Caius Cestius by his heirs, one of whom was Marcus -Agrippa. According to the inscription on it the monument was completed -in 330 days. The most imposing of all was the mausoleum of Hadrian -(Fig. 205, <a href="#sect438">§438</a>) at Rome, now the castle of St. Angelo. A less -elaborate exterior is that of the "tomb with the marble door" at -Pompeii, given in Fig. 196, <a href="#sect422">§422</a>.</p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>1</sup></small> Inscription on the tomb of Plancus: "Lucius Munatius -Plancus, son, etc. (<a href="#sect39">§39</a>), consul, censor, twice imperator, member of -the board of seven in charge of sacrificial feasts. He celebrated a -triumph over the people of Raetia. From the spoils of war he erected a -temple to Saturn. In Italy he assigned lands about Beneventum. In Gaul -he planted colonies at Lugdunum and Raurica."</small></blockquote> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure201"> - <tr> - <td width="371"> - <img src="images/figure201.jpg" alt="FIGURE 201. GROUND PLAN OF COLUMBARIUM OF LIVIA"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="371" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 201. - G<small>ROUND</small> P<small>LAN OF</small> - C<small>OLUMBARIUM OF</small> L<small>IVIA</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table><br> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure202"> - <tr> - <td width="403"> - <img src="images/figure202.jpg" alt="FIGURE 202. SARCOPHAGUS OF SCIPIO"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="403" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 202. - S<small>ARCOPHAGUS OF</small> S<small>CIPIO</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect428"><b>428</b></a></span> -<b>The Columbaria.</b>—From the family tombs were developed the -immense structures mentioned in <a href="#sect422">§422</a> intended to receive great numbers -of urns. They began to be erected in the time of Augustus and seem to -have been confined to Rome, where the high price of land made the -purchase of private burial-grounds impossible for the poorer classes. -An idea of their interior arrangements may be had from the ruins (Fig. -200) of one erected on the Appian way for the freedmen of Livia, the -wife of Augustus. From their resemblance to a dovecote or pigeon house -they were called <i>columbāria</i>. They are usually partly underground, -rectangular in form, with great numbers of the niches (also called -<i>columbāria</i>) running in regular rows horizontally (<i>gradūs</i>) and -vertically (<i>ōrdinēs</i>). In the larger <i>columbāria</i> provision was made -for as many as a thousand urns. Around the walls at the base was a -<i>podium</i>, on which were placed the sarcophagi of those whose remains -had not been burned, and sometimes chambers were excavated beneath the -floor for the same purpose. In the <i>podium</i> were also niches that no -space might be lost. If the height of the building was great enough to -warrant it, wooden galleries ran around the walls. Access to the room -was given by a stairway in which were niches, too; light was furnished -by small windows near the ceiling, and walls and floors were -handsomely finished and decorated.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure203"> - <tr> - <td width="361"> - <img src="images/figure203.jpg" alt="FIGURE 203. AEDICULA IN COLUMBARIUM"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="361" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 203. - A<small>EDICULA IN</small> C<small>OLUMBARIUM</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect429"><b>429</b></a></span> -The niches were sometimes rectangular in form, but more commonly -half round, as shown in Figs. 200 and 203. Some of the <i>columbāria</i> -have the lower rows rectangular, those above arched. They contained -ordinarily two urns (<i>ollae</i>, <i>ollae ossuāriae</i>) each, arranged side -by side, that they might be visible from the front. Occasionally the -niches were made deep enough for two sets of urns, those behind being -elevated a little over those in front. Above or below each niche was -fastened to the wall a piece of marble (<i>titulus</i>) on which was cut -the name of the owner. If a person required for his family a group of -four or six niches, it was customary to mark them off from the others -by wall decorations to show that they made a unit; a very common way -was to erect pillars at the sides so as to give the appearance of the -front of a temple (Fig. 203). Such groups were called <i>aediculae</i>. The -value of the places depended upon their position, those in the higher -rows (<i>gradūs</i>) being less expensive than those near the floor, those -under the stairway the least desirable of all. The urns themselves -were of various materials (<a href="#sect437">§437</a>) and usually cemented to the bottom of -the niches. The tops could be removed, but they, too, were sealed -after the ashes had been placed in them, small openings being left -through which offerings of milk and wine could be poured. On the urns -or their tops were painted the names of the dead with sometimes the -day and the month of death. The year is almost never found. Over the -door of such a <i>columbārium</i> on the outside was cut an inscription -giving the names of the owners, the date of erection, and other -particulars.</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure204"> - <tr> - <td width="535"> - <img src="images/figure204.jpg" alt="FIGURE 204. CINERARY URNS"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="535" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 204. - C<small>INERARY</small> U<small>RNS</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect430"><b>430</b></a></span> -<b>Burial Societies.</b>—Early in the Empire associations were -formed for the purpose of meeting the funeral expenses of their -members, whether the remains were to be buried or cremated, or for the -purpose of building <i>columbāria</i>, or for both. These coöperative -associations (<i>collegia fūnerāticia</i>) started originally among members -of the same guild (<a href="#sect412">§412</a>) or among persons of the same occupation. They -called themselves by many names, <i>cultōrēs</i> of this deity or that, -<i>collegia salūtāria</i>, <i>collegia iuvenum</i>, etc., but their objects and -methods were practically the same. If the members had provided places -for the disposal of their bodies after death they now provided for the -necessary funeral expenses by paying into the common fund weekly a -small fixed sum, easily within the reach of the poorest of them. When -a member died a stated sum was drawn for his funeral from the -treasury, a committee saw that the rites were decently performed, and -at the proper seasons (<a href="#sect438">§438</a>) the society made corporate offerings to -the dead. If the purpose of the society was the building of a -<i>columbārium</i>, the cost was first determined and the sum total divided -into what we should call shares (<i>sortēs virīlēs</i>), each member taking -as many as he could afford and paying their value into the treasury. -Sometimes a benevolent person would contribute toward the expense of -the undertaking, and then such a person would be made an honorary -member of the society with the title of <i>patrōnus</i> or <i>patrōna</i>. The -erection of the building was intrusted to a number of <i>cūrātōrēs</i>, -chosen by ballot, naturally the largest shareholders and most -influential men. They let the contracts and superintended the -construction, rendering account for all the money expended. The office -of the curators was considered very honorable, especially as their -names appeared on the inscription without the building, and they often -showed their appreciation of the honor done them by providing at their -own expense for the decoration of the interior, or by furnishing all -or a part of the <i>titulī</i>, <i>ollae</i>, etc., or by erecting on the -surrounding grounds places of shelter and dining-rooms for the use of -the members, like those mentioned in <a href="#sect426">§426</a>.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect431"><b>431</b></a></span> -After the completion of the building the <i>cūrātōrēs</i> allotted -the niches to the individual members. The niches were either numbered -consecutively throughout or their position was fixed by the number of -the <i>ōrdō</i> and <i>gradus</i> (<a href="#sect428">§428</a>) in which they were situated. Because -they were not all equally desirable, as has been explained, the -curators divided them into sections as fairly as possible and then -assigned the sections (<i>locī</i>) by lot to the shareholders. If a man -held several shares of stock he received a corresponding number of -<i>locī</i>, though they might be in widely different parts of the -building. The members were allowed freely to dispose of their holdings -by exchange, sale, or gift, and many of the larger stockholders -probably engaged in the enterprise for the sake of the profits to be -made in this way. After the division was made the owners had their -names cut upon the <i>titulī</i>, and might put up the columns to mark the -<i>aediculae</i>, set up statues, etc., if they pleased. Some of the -<i>titulī</i> give besides the name of the owner the number and position of -his <i>locī</i> or <i>ollae</i>. Sometimes they record the purchase of <i>ollae</i>, -giving the number bought and the name of the previous owner. Sometimes -the names on the <i>ollae</i> do not correspond with that over the niche, -showing that the owner had sold a part only of his holdings, or that -the purchaser had not taken the trouble to replace the <i>titulus</i>. The -expenses of maintenance were probably paid from the weekly dues of the -members, as were the funeral benefits.</p> -<center><img src="images/image6.jpg" alt="Titulus in Latin"><small><small><sup>2</sup></small></small></center> -<blockquote><small><small><sup>2</sup></small> Titulus in Columbarium: "Lucius Abucius Hermes (has -acquired) in this row, running from the ground to the top, nine niches -with eighteen urns for (the ashes of) himself and his descendants."</small></blockquote> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect432"><b>432</b></a></span> -<b>Funeral Ceremonies.</b>—The detailed accounts of funeral ceremonies -that have come down to us relate almost exclusively to those of -persons of high position, and the information gleaned from other -sources (<a href="#sect12">§12</a>) is so scattered that there is great danger of confusing -usages of widely different times. It is quite certain, however, that -very young children were buried at all times simply and quietly -(<i>fūnus acerbum</i>), that no ceremonies at all attended the burial of -slaves (<a href="#sect420">§420</a>) when conducted by their masters (nothing is known of the -forms used by the burial societies mentioned above), and that citizens -of the lowest class were laid to rest without public parade (<i>fūnus -plēbēium</i>). It is also known that burials took place by night except -during the last century of the Republic and the first two centuries of -the Empire, and it is natural to suppose that, even in the case of -persons of high position, there was ordinarily much less of pomp and -parade than on occasions that the Roman writers thought it worth while -to describe. This has been found true in the matter of wedding -festivities (<a href="#sect79">§79</a>). It will be convenient to take in order the -proceedings at the house, the funeral procession, and the ceremonies -at the place of burial.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect433"><b>433</b></a></span> -<b>At the House.</b>—When the Roman died at home surrounded by his -family, it was the duty of his oldest son to bend over the body and -call him by name, as if with the hope of recalling him to life. The -formal performance of the act (<i>conclāmātiō</i>) he announced immediately -with the words: <i>conclāmātum est</i>. The eyes of the dead were then -closed, the body was washed with warm water and anointed, the limbs -were straightened, and if the deceased had held a curule office a wax -impression of his features was taken. The body was then dressed in the -toga (<a href="#sect240">§240</a>) with all the insignia of rank that the dead had been -entitled to wear in life, and was placed upon the funeral couch -(<i>lectus fūnebris</i>) in the <i>ātrium</i> (<a href="#sect198">§198</a>), with the feet to the door, -to lie in state until the time of the funeral. The couch was -surrounded with flowers, and incense was burned about it. Before the -door of the house were set branches of pine or cypress as a warning -that the house was polluted by death. The simple offices that have -been described were performed in humble life by the relatives and -servants, in other cases by professional undertakers (<i>libitīnāriī</i>), -who also embalmed the body and superintended all the rest of the -ceremonies. Reference is made occasionally to the kissing of the dying -person as he breathed his last, as if this last breath was to be -caught in the mouth of the living, and in very early and very late -times it was undoubtedly the custom to put a small coin between the -teeth of the dead with which to pay his passage across the Styx in -Charon's boat. Neither of these formalities seems to have obtained -generally in classical times.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect434"><b>434</b></a></span> -<b>The Funeral Procession.</b>—The funeral procession of the ordinary -citizen was simple enough. Notice was given to neighbors and friends, -and surrounded by them and by the family, carried on the shoulders of -the sons or other near relatives, with perhaps a band of musicians in -the lead, the body was borne to the tomb. The procession of one of the -mighty, on the other hand, was marshaled with all possible display and -ostentation. It occurred as soon after death as the necessary -preparations could be made, there being no fixed intervening time. -Notice was given by a public crier in the ancient words of style: -<i>Ollus Quiris lētō datus. Exsequiās, quibus est commodum, īre iam -tempus est. Ollus ex aedibus effertur.</i><small><small><sup>3</sup></small></small> Questions of order and -precedence were settled by one of the undertakers (<i>dēsīgnātor</i>). At -the head went a band of musicians, followed at least occasionally by -persons singing dirges in praise of the dead, and by bands of buffoons -and jesters, who made merry with the bystanders and imitated even the -dead himself. Then came the imposing part of the display. The wax -masks of the dead man's ancestors had been taken from their place in -the <i>ālae</i> (<a href="#sect200">§200</a>) and assumed by actors in the dress appropriate to -the time and station of the worthies they represented. It must have -seemed as if the ancient dead had returned to earth to guide their -descendant to his place among them. Servius tells us that six hundred -<i>imāginēs</i> were displayed at the funeral of the young Marcellus, the -nephew of Augustus. Then followed the memorials of the great deeds of -the deceased, if he had been a general, as in a triumphal procession, -and then the dead himself, carried with face uncovered on a lofty -couch. Then came the family, including freedmen (especially those made -free by the testament of their master) and slaves, and then the -friends, all in mourning garb (<a href="#sect246">§§246</a>, <a href="#sect254">254</a>), and all freely giving -expression to the emotion that we try to suppress on such occasions. -Torch-bearers attended the train, even by day, as a remembrance of the -older custom of burial by night.</p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>3</sup></small> "This citizen has been surrendered to death. For those -who find it convenient it is now time to attend the funeral. He is -being brought from his house."</small></blockquote> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect435"><b>435</b></a></span> -<b>The Funeral Oration.</b>—The procession passed from the house -directly to the place of interment, unless the deceased was a person -of sufficient consequence to be honored by public authority with a -funeral oration (<i>laudātiō</i>) in the forum. In this case the funeral -coach was placed before the <i>rostra</i>, the men in the masks took their -places on curule chairs (<a href="#sect225">§225</a>) around it, the general crowd was massed -in a semicircle behind, and a son or other near relative delivered the -address. It recited the virtues and achievements of the dead and -recounted the history of the family to which he belonged. Like such -addresses in more recent times it contained much that was false and -more that was exaggerated. The honor of the <i>laudātiō</i> was freely -given in later times, especially to members of the imperial family, -including women. Under the Republic it was less common and more highly -prized, and so far as we know the only women so honored belonged to -the <i>gēns Iūlia</i>. It will be remembered that it was Caesar's address -on the occasion of the funeral of his aunt, the widow of Marius, that -pointed him out to the opponents of Sulla as a future leader. When the -address in the forum was not authorized, one was sometimes given more -privately at the grave or at the house.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect436"><b>436</b></a></span> -<b>At the Tomb.</b>—When the train reached the place of burial the -proceedings varied according to the time, but all provided for the -three things ceremonially necessary: the consecration of the -resting-place, the casting of earth upon the remains, and the -purification of all polluted by the death. In ancient times the body, -if buried, was lowered into the grave either upon the couch on which -it had been brought to the spot, or in a coffin of burnt clay or -stone. If the body was to be burned a shallow grave was dug and filled -with dry wood, upon which the couch and body were placed. The pile was -then fired and when wood and body had been consumed, earth was heaped -over the ashes into a mound (<i>tumulus</i>). Such a grave in which the -body was burned was called <i>būstum</i>, and was consecrated as a regular -<i>sepulcrum</i> by the ceremonies mentioned below. In later times the -body, if not to be burned, was placed in a sarcophagus (Fig. 203) -already prepared in the tomb (<a href="#sect425">§425</a>). If the remains were to be burned -they were taken to the <i>ūstrīna</i> (<a href="#sect426">§426</a>), which was not regarded as a -part of the <i>sepulcrum</i>, and placed upon the pile of wood (<i>rogus</i>). -Spices and perfumes were thrown upon it, together with gifts (<a href="#sect425">§425</a>) -and tokens from the persons present. The pyre was then lighted with a -torch by a relative, who kept his face averted during the act. After -the fire had burned out the embers were extinguished with water or -wine and those present called a last farewell to the dead. The water -of purification was then thrice sprinkled over those present, and all -except the immediate family left the place. The ashes were then -collected in a cloth to be dried, and the ceremonial bone (<a href="#sect420">§420</a>), -called <i>os resectum</i>, was buried. A sacrifice of a pig was then made, -by which the place of burial was made sacred ground, and food -(<i>silicernium</i>) was eaten together by the mourners. They then returned -to the house which was purified by an offering to the <i>Larēs</i>, and the -funeral rites were over.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect437"><b>437</b></a></span> -<b>After Ceremonies.</b>—With the day of the burial or burning of the -remains began the Nine Days of Sorrow, solemnly observed by the -immediate family. Some time during this period, when the ashes had had -time to dry thoroughly, members of the family went privately to the -<i>ūstrīna</i>, removed them from the cloth, placed them in an <i>olla</i> (Fig. -204) of earthenware, glass, alabaster, bronze, or other material, and -with bare feet and loosened girdles carried them into the <i>sepulcrum</i> -(<a href="#sect425">§425</a>). At the end of the nine days the <i>sacrificium novendiāle</i> was -offered to the dead and the <i>cēna novendiālis</i> was celebrated at the -house. On this day, too, the heirs formally entered upon their -inheritance and the funeral games (<a href="#sect344">§344</a>) were originally given. The -period of mourning, however, was not concluded on the ninth day. For -husband or wife, ascendants, and grown descendants mourning was worn -for ten months, the ancient year; for other adult relatives, eight -months; for children between the ages of three and ten years, for as -many months as they were years old.</p> -<p><span class="sectnum"><a name="sect438"><b>438</b></a></span> -<b>Memorial Festivals.</b>—The memory of the dead was kept alive by -regularly recurring days of obligation of both public and private -character. To the former belong the <i>parentālia</i>, or <i>diēs parentālēs</i> -(<a href="#sect75">§75</a>), lasting from the 13th to the 21st of February, the final day -being especially distinguished as the <i>fērālia</i>. To the latter belong -the annual celebration of the birthday (or the burial-day) of the -person commemorated, and the festivals of violets and roses -(<i>violāria</i>, <i>rosāria</i>), about the end of March and May respectively, -when violets and roses were distributed among the relatives and laid -upon the graves or heaped over the urns. On all these occasions -offerings were made in the temples to the gods and at the tombs to the -<i>mānēs</i> of the dead, and the lamps were lighted in the tombs (<a href="#sect425">§425</a>), -and at the tombs the relatives feasted together and offered food to -their dead (<a href="#sect426">§426</a>).</p> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="figure205"> - <tr> - <td width="619"> - <img src="images/figure205.jpg" alt="FIGURE 205. HADRIAN'S TOMB"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="619" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 205. - H<small>ADRIAN'S</small> T<small>OMB</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table><br> -<br> -<br> -<br> -<br> -<h3>INDEX</h3> - -<center>References are to Paragraphs. An asterisk denotes a cut.</center> -<br> -<br> -A<br> -<br> -<b>ā manū</b>, <a href="#sect391">391</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>abacus</b>, reckoning board, -<a href="#sect111">111*</a>;<br> - panels in wall decorations, -<a href="#sect220">220</a>;<br> - sideboard, -<a href="#sect227">227</a>, -<a href="#sect307">307*</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>ABBREVIATIONS</small> in names, -<a href="#sect41">41</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>ab epistolīs</b>, -<a href="#sect391">391</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>abolla</b>, cloak, -<a href="#sect249">249*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>ab ovō ad māla</b>, -<a href="#sect308">308</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>ACTORS</small>, slave, men only, -<a href="#sect324">324</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>ad</b> (<b>malam</b>) <b>crucem</b>, -<a href="#sect174">174</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>ADDITIONAL</small> names, -<a href="#sect51">51</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>ADDRESS</small> of letters, -<a href="#sect392">392</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>adfīnēs</b>, blood relations, -<a href="#sect26">26</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>ADJUSTABLE</small> tables, -<a href="#sect227">227*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>adoptiō</b>, see -<a href="#adoption"><small>ADOPTION</small></a>.<br> -<a name="adoption"></a><br> -<small>ADOPTION</small>, two kinds, -<a href="#sect29">29</a>;<br> - of a <b>fīlius familiās</b>, -<a href="#sect30">30</a>;<br> - of a <b>pater familiās</b>, -<a href="#sect30">30</a>;<br> - name given adopted person, -<a href="#sect52">52</a>, -<a href="#sect56">56</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>adrogātiō</b>, see -<a href="#adoption"><small>ADOPTION</small></a>.<br> -<br> -<b>adversitōrēs</b>, -<a href="#sect152">152</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>ADVERTISEMENTS</small> of gladiators, -<a href="#sect361">361*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>aediculae</b>, in <b>columbāria</b>, -<a href="#sect429">429*</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>AFFECTION</small> for nurses, -<a href="#sect101">101</a>;<br> - for pedagogues, -<a href="#sect123">123</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>agger viae</b>, -<a href="#sect387">387</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>agitātōrēs</b>, drivers of chariots, -<a href="#sect341">341</a>. See -<a href="#aurigae"><b>aurīgae</b></a>.<br> -<br> -<b>agnātī</b>, related through males, -<a href="#sect23">23</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>AGRICULTURE</small>, honorable occupation, -<a href="#sect404">404</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>ālae</b>, in house, -<a href="#sect191">191</a>;<br> - later, -<a href="#sect200">200</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>aliēnō iūrī subiectus</b>, -<a href="#sect17">17</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>alveus</b>, in bath, -<a href="#sect369">369*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>amictus</b>, outer garments, -<a href="#sect240">240*</a>-<a href="#sect249">249*</a>.<br> -<a name="amphitheater"></a><br> -<small>AMPHITHEATER</small>, meaning of word, -<a href="#sect351">351</a>;<br> - early at Rome, -<a href="#sect352">352</a>;<br> - at Pompeii, -<a href="#sect353">353*</a>, -<a href="#sect354">354*</a>, -<a href="#sect355">355*</a>;<br> - the coliseum, -<a href="#sect356">356*</a>, -<a href="#sect357">357*</a>, -<a href="#sect358">358*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>amphitheātrum</b>, see -<a href="#amphitheater"><small>AMPHITHEATER</small></a>.<br> -<br> -<b>amphorae</b>, for wine, -<a href="#sect297">297</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>amurca</b>, bitter fluid of olives, -<a href="#sect291">291</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>AMUSEMENTS</small>, <a href="#chap9">Chap. IX</a>. See <a href="#contents">Table of Contents</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>andabatae</b>, blindfold gladiators, -<a href="#sect359">359</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>andrōn</b>, formerly called <b>faucēs</b>, -<a href="#sect192">192</a> note.<br> -<br> -Andronicus, -<a href="#sect113">113</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>anteambulōnēs</b>, outriders, -<a href="#sect151">151</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>antecēna</b>, appetizer, -<a href="#sect308">308</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>ANTIQUITIES</small>, public and private distinguished, -<a href="#sect2">2</a>;<br> - and history, -<a href="#sect4">4</a>;<br> - private defined, -<a href="#sect1">1</a>;<br> - in philology, -<a href="#sect6">6</a>, -<a href="#sect7">7</a>;<br> - recent interest, -<a href="#sect8">8</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>apodytērium</b>, -<a href="#sect366">366</a>;<br> - makeshift for, -<a href="#sect367">367</a>;<br> - usually unheated, -<a href="#sect368">368</a>;<br> - one heated, -<a href="#sect378">378*</a>;<br> - in <b>thermae</b>, -<a href="#sect376">376*</a>, -<a href="#sect377">377*</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>APPIAN WAY</small>, as burial-place, -<a href="#sect421">421</a>;<br> - construction, -<a href="#sect385">385</a> f.<br> -<br> -<small>APPRENTICESHIP</small> in education, -<a href="#sect117">117</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>arbiter bibendī</b>, toast master, -<a href="#sect313">313</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>ārca</b>, strong box, -<a href="#sect188">188</a>, -<a href="#sect201">201</a>, -<a href="#sect230">230*</a>.<br> -<br> -Archias, name explained, -<a href="#sect60">60</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>ārea</b>, ground for tomb, -<a href="#sect426">426</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>arēna</b>, circus, -<a href="#sect330">330*</a>, -<a href="#sect332">332</a>;<br> - amphitheater (Pompeii), -<a href="#sect354">354*</a>, (Rome), -<a href="#sect357">357*</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>ARITHMETIC</small>, in the schools, -<a href="#sect111">111*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>armāria</b>, cabinets, -<a href="#sect231">231</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>ARMY</small>, as a career, (for nobles), -<a href="#sect408">408</a>, (for commons), -<a href="#sect410">410</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>ARRANGEMENT</small> of hair, -<a href="#sect263">263</a>;<br> - of hair of bride, -<a href="#sect78">78</a>;<br> - of couches in dining-room, -<a href="#sect304">304*</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>ATHENS</small>, university of Rome, -<a href="#sect116">116</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>ATHLETIC</small> sports and games, -<a href="#sect316">316*</a>, -<a href="#sect317">317*</a>, -<a href="#sect318">318*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>ātriēnsis</b>, butler, -<a href="#sect149">149</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>ātrium</b>, in primitive house, -<a href="#sect188">188</a>;<br> - meaning, -<a href="#sect189">189</a>;<br> - the developed <b>ātrium</b>, -<a href="#sect196">196</a>, -<a href="#sect197">197</a>, -<a href="#sect198">198*</a>;<br> - burial-place of Head of House, -<a href="#sect421">421</a>.<br> -<br> -Atticus, -<a href="#sect155">155</a>, -<a href="#sect300">300</a>, -<a href="#sect310">310</a>, -<a href="#sect399">399</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>auctōrātī</b>, volunteer gladiators, -<a href="#sect347">347</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>aulaea</b>, portières, -<a href="#sect216">216</a>.<br> -<a name="aurigae"></a><br> -<b>aurīgae</b>, chariot drivers, (Figs. <a href="#sect328">138</a>, -<a href="#sect333">142</a>), -<a href="#sect341">341*</a>, -<a href="#sect342">342</a>.<br> -<br> -<br> -B<br> -<br> -<small>BAKERIES</small>, -<a href="#sect286">286*</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>BAKERS</small>, as a guild, -<a href="#sect286">286</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>BALL</small>, played by children, -<a href="#sect102">102*</a>;<br> - by men, -<a href="#sect318">318*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>balneae</b>, meaning, -<a href="#sect372">372</a>. See -<a href="#bath"><small>BATH</small></a>.<br> -<br> -<b>balneāticum</b>, bath fee, -<a href="#sect373">373</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>balneum</b>, meaning, -<a href="#sect372">372</a>. See -<a href="#bath"><small>BATH</small></a>.<br> -<br> -<small>BANKING</small>, as profession, -<a href="#sect412">412</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>BANQUETS</small>, -<a href="#sect315">315</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>BARBER</small> shops, -<a href="#sect253">253</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>BARRIERS</small>, in circus, -<a href="#sect330">330*</a>, -<a href="#sect333">333*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>basterna</b>, litter drawn by mules, -<a href="#sect382">382</a>.<br> -<a name="bath"></a><br> -<small>BATH</small>, in early times, -<a href="#sect365">365</a>;<br> - public and private, -<a href="#sect365">365</a>;<br> - essentials for, -<a href="#sect366">366</a>;<br> - rooms combined, -<a href="#sect367">367</a>;<br> - heating, -<a href="#sect368">368</a>;<br> - <b>caldārium</b>, -<a href="#sect369">369</a>;<br> - <b>frīgidārium</b>, -<a href="#sect370">370</a>;<br> - <b>ūnctōrium</b>, -<a href="#sect370">370</a>;<br> - private bathhouse, -<a href="#sect371">371*</a>;<br> - public baths, -<a href="#sect372">372</a>;<br> - time opened, -<a href="#sect374">374</a>;<br> - fees, -<a href="#sect373">373</a>;<br> - for women, -<a href="#sect375">375</a>;<br> - <b>thermae</b>, -<a href="#sect376">376*</a>, -<a href="#sect377">377*</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>BATHHOUSE</small>, in Caerwent, -<a href="#sect371">371*</a>;<br> - in Pompeii, -<a href="#sect376">376*</a>;<br> - in Rome, -<a href="#sect377">377*</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>BATHROOMS</small>, in residences, -<a href="#sect203">203</a>, -<a href="#sect367">367</a>, -<a href="#sect371">371*</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>BEANS</small>, considered heavy food, -<a href="#sect275">275</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>BEARDS</small>, fashions in, -<a href="#sect254">254</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>BEEF</small>, rarely used, -<a href="#sect277">277</a>.<br> -<br> -Benoist, his definition of Philology, -<a href="#sect6">6</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>BETROTHALS</small>, -<a href="#sect70">70</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>BEVERAGES</small>, -<a href="#sect298">298</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>bibliothēca</b>, -<a href="#sect206">206</a>, -<a href="#sect402">402</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>BILLS</small> of fare, -<a href="#sect308">308</a>, -<a href="#sect309">309</a>.<br> -<a name="books"></a><br> -<small>BOOKS</small>, ancient forms, -<a href="#sect393">393</a>;<br> - materials, -<a href="#sect394">394</a>, -<a href="#sect395">395</a>;<br> - making, -<a href="#sect396">396</a>;<br> - finish of, -<a href="#sect397">397</a>;<br> - size, -<a href="#sect398">398</a>;<br> - publishing, -<a href="#sect399">399</a>, -<a href="#sect400">400</a>;<br> - cost, -<a href="#sect401">401</a>;<br> - libraries, -<a href="#sect402">402</a>.<br> -<br> -"<small>BOOKS</small>," divisions of literary work, -<a href="#sect398">398</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>BOXES</small>, in theater, -<a href="#sect327">327</a>;<br> - in circus, -<a href="#sect334">334</a>;<br> - in amphitheater, -<a href="#sect353">353</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>BOY</small>, named, -<a href="#sect97">97</a>;<br> - home training, -<a href="#sect104">104</a>, -<a href="#sect106">106</a>;<br> - athletics, -<a href="#sect107">107</a>;<br> - education, see -<a href="#schools"><small>SCHOOLS</small></a>;<br> - coming of age, -<a href="#sect125">125</a>;<br> - given citizenship, -<a href="#sect128">128</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>brācātae</b>, wearing trousers, -<a href="#sect239">239</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>BRAZIERS</small>, -<a href="#sect218">218*</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>BREAD</small>, -<a href="#sect286">286</a> f.;<br> - making, -<a href="#sect287">287</a>;<br> - kinds of, -<a href="#sect288">288</a>.<br> -<br> -"Bread and the Games of the Circus," -<a href="#sect322">322</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>BREAKFAST</small>, -<a href="#sect302">302</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>BREAKING</small> promise of marriage, -<a href="#sect71">71</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>BRICKS</small>, -<a href="#sect212">212*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>bulla</b>, -<a href="#sect99">99*</a>.<br> -<a name="burial"></a><br> -<small>BURIAL</small>-places and ceremonies, -<a href="#chap12">Chapter XII</a>. See <a href="#contents">Table of Contents</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>BURIAL SOCIETIES</small>, -<a href="#sect430">430</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>BUSINESS</small> rooms added to houses, -<a href="#sect193">193</a>;<br> - interests at Rome, -<a href="#sect413">413</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>BUTTER</small>, not a food, -<a href="#sect281">281</a>.<br> -<br> -<br> -C<br> -<br> -<small>CABINETS</small>, -<a href="#sect231">231</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>calamus</b> (<b>scriptōrius</b>), -<a href="#sect395">395</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>calceātor</b>, -<a href="#sect150">150</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>calceī</b>, -<a href="#sect251">251*</a>, -<a href="#sect262">262</a>;<br> - <b>senātōriī</b>, -<a href="#sect251">251</a>;<br> - <b>patriciī</b>, -<a href="#sect251">251</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>caldārium</b>, -<a href="#sect366">366</a>;<br> - near furnace, -<a href="#sect368">368</a>;<br> - furniture, -<a href="#sect369">369</a>;<br> - other uses of, -<a href="#sect369">369</a>;<br> - in plans, -<a href="#sect371">371*</a>, -<a href="#sect376">376*</a>, -<a href="#sect378">378*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>caligae</b>, half-boots, -<a href="#sect251">251</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>calx</b>, in circus, -<a href="#sect331">331*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>camillus</b>, -<a href="#sect82">82*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>campus Mārtius</b>, -<a href="#sect317">317</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>candēlābra</b>, -<a href="#sect229">229</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>CANDIDATES</small>' dress, -<a href="#sect235">235</a>, -<a href="#sect246">246</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>candidātī</b>, -<a href="#sect246">246</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>CANDLES</small>, ill made, -<a href="#sect229">229</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>CAP</small>, of liberty, -<a href="#sect175">175*</a>, -<a href="#sect252">252</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>CAPITALISTS</small>, their field, -<a href="#sect409">409</a>, -<a href="#sect413">413</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>capsa</b>, -<a href="#sect397">397*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>capsārius</b>, -<a href="#sect370">370</a>.<br> -<br> -Caracalla, hall in baths of, -<a href="#sect365">365*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>cāra cognātiō</b>, feast of, -<a href="#sect25">25</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>carcerēs</b>, in circus, -<a href="#sect330">330*</a>, -<a href="#sect333">333*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>carnifex</b>, term of abuse, -<a href="#sect174">174</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>carpentum</b>, traveling carriage, -<a href="#sect383">383*</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>CARRIAGES</small>, for travel, -<a href="#sect383">383*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>carūca</b>, sleeping car, -<a href="#sect383">383</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>casa Rōmulī</b>, -<a href="#sect214">214*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>cathedra</b>, easy chair, -<a href="#sect226">226*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>catillus</b>, outer part of mill, -<a href="#sect284">284*</a>.<br> -<br> -Cato (234-149), treatment of slaves, -<a href="#sect159">159</a>;<br> - opinion of cabbage, -<a href="#sect275">275</a>;<br> - word for dinner, -<a href="#sect312">312</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>causia</b>, hat, -<a href="#sect252">252*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>cavea</b>, in theater, -<a href="#sect327">327</a>;<br> - in circus, -<a href="#sect337">337</a>;<br> - in amphitheater (Pompeii), -<a href="#sect353">353*</a>, (Rome), -<a href="#sect358">358*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>cavum aedium</b>, -<a href="#sect196">196</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>CEILINGS</small>, construction, -<a href="#sect213">213</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>cellae</b>, <b>servōrum</b>, -<a href="#sect207">207</a>;<br> - <b>vīnāriae</b>, -<a href="#sect297">297*</a>;<br> - <b>oleāriae</b>, -<a href="#sect292">292*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>cēna</b>, in early times, -<a href="#sect301">301</a>;<br> - in the city, -<a href="#sect303">303</a>-<a href="#sect311">311</a>;<br> - hours, -<a href="#sect303">303</a>;<br> - importance in social life, -<a href="#sect303">303</a>;<br> - bills of fare, -<a href="#sect308">308</a>, -<a href="#sect309">309</a>;<br> - service, -<a href="#sect310">310</a>, -<a href="#sect311">311</a>;<br> - <b>lībera</b>, -<a href="#sect362">362</a>;<br> - <b>nūptiālis</b>, -<a href="#sect85">85</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>cēna</b>, "dinner proper," -<a href="#sect308">308</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>cenotaphium</b>, empty tomb, -<a href="#sect419">419</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>centēnārius</b>, winner of 100 races, -<a href="#sect340">340</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>cēpotaphium</b>, tomb with grounds, -<a href="#sect426">426</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>cēra</b>, for sealing letter, -<a href="#sect392">392</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>cerasus</b>, cherry, -<a href="#sect274">274</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>CEREALS</small> for food, -<a href="#sect282">282</a>.<br> -<br> -Cestius, tomb of, -(<a href="#sect420">420*</a>), -<a href="#sect427">427</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>CHAIRS</small>, -<a href="#sect225">225*</a>, -<a href="#sect226">226*</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>CHALKED FEET</small>, -<a href="#sect139">139</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>CHARIOT RACES</small>, -<a href="#sect330">330</a> f.;<br> - number of chariots, -<a href="#sect333">333</a>;<br> - racing syndicates, -<a href="#sect339">339</a>;<br> - teams, -<a href="#sect340">340</a>;<br> - drivers, -<a href="#sect341">341</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>charta</b>, paper, see -<a href="#papyrus"><b>papyrus</b></a>.<br> -<br> -<small>CHEESE</small>, -<a href="#sect281">281</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>CHESTS</small>, -<a href="#sect230">230*</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>CHILDHOOD</small>, see -<a href="#children"><small>CHILDREN</small></a>;<br> - end of, -<a href="#sect125">125</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>CHILDLESSNESS</small>, a reproach, -<a href="#sect28">28</a>.<br> -<a name="children"></a><br> -<small>CHILDREN</small>, rights of, see -<a href="#potestas"><b>potestās</b></a>;<br> - property of, see -<a href="#peculium"><b>pecūlium</b></a>;<br> - civil position of, -<a href="#sect69">69</a>, -<a href="#sect94">94</a>;<br> - acknowledgment of, -<a href="#sect95">95</a>;<br> - exposure of, -<a href="#sect96">96</a>;<br> - maiming of, -<a href="#sect96">96</a>;<br> - games, etc., -<a href="#sect102">102</a>, -<a href="#sect103">103</a>;<br> - home training, -<a href="#sect104">104</a>;<br> - punishment of, -<a href="#sect120">120*</a>, -<a href="#sect124">124</a>;<br> - in the dining-room, -<a href="#sect304">304</a>;<br> - burial of young children, -<a href="#sect420">420</a>.<br> -<br> -Chrysogonus and Roscius, -<a href="#sect408">408</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>CHURCH</small>, like Roman house, -<a href="#sect191">191</a>.<br> -<br> -Cicero (106-43), number of his slaves, -<a href="#sect155">155</a>;<br> - names of his freedmen, -<a href="#sect59">59</a>;<br> - goodness to slaves, -<a href="#sect158">158</a>;<br> - his books, -<a href="#sect399">399</a>, -<a href="#sect402">402</a>;<br> - income, -<a href="#sect407">407</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>CINERARY</small> urns, -<a href="#sect189">189*</a>, -<a href="#sect428">428</a>, -<a href="#sect437">437</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>ciniflōnēs</b>, hairdressers, -<a href="#sect150">150</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>CIRCUS</small> at Rome, -<a href="#sect328">328</a> f.;<br> - plan, -<a href="#sect330">330*</a>;<br> - <b>arēna</b>, -<a href="#sect332">332*</a>;<br> - <b>carcerēs</b>, -<a href="#sect333">333*</a>, -<a href="#sect334">334*</a>;<br> - <b>spīna</b>, <b>mētae</b>, -<a href="#sect335">335*</a>, -<a href="#sect336">336*</a>;<br> - seats, -<a href="#sect337">337*</a>;<br> - capacity, -<a href="#sect338">338</a>;<br> - races in, -<a href="#sect339">339</a> f.<br> -<br> -<b>circus Flāminius</b>, -<a href="#sect329">329</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>circus Maxentiī</b>, -<a href="#sect329">329</a>;<br> - plan of, -<a href="#sect330">330*</a>;<br> - <b>arēna</b>, -<a href="#sect332">332</a>;<br> - obelisk in, -<a href="#sect336">336</a>;<br> - seating capacity, -<a href="#sect338">338</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>circus Maximus</b>, -<a href="#sect328">328</a>;<br> - <b>missus</b> in, -<a href="#sect332">332</a>;<br> - <b>spīna</b> in, -<a href="#sect336">336</a>;<br> - obelisk in -<a href="#sect336">336*</a>;<br> - seats in, -<a href="#sect337">337</a>, -<a href="#sect338">338*</a>;<br> - reconstruction, -<a href="#sect338">338*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>cisium</b>, two-wheeled cart, -<a href="#sect384">384*</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>CIVIL SERVICE</small>, -<a href="#sect414">414</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>clepsydra</b>, water-clock, -<a href="#sect232">232</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>clientēla</b>, clientage, -<a href="#sect177">177</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>CLIENTS</small>, -<a href="#chap5">Chap. V</a>. See -<a href="#contents">Table of Contents</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>CLIMATE</small> of Italy, -<a href="#sect272">272</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>CLOCKS</small>, -<a href="#sect232">232</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>CLOTHING</small>, -<a href="#chap7">Chap. VII</a>. See -<a href="#contents">Table of Contents</a>;<br> - colors worn, -<a href="#sect270">270</a>;<br> - manufacture of, -<a href="#sect271">271</a>;<br> - cleaning, -<a href="#sect271">271*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>codicillī</b>, set of writing tablets, -<a href="#sect391">391*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>coēmptiō</b>, plebeian form of marriage, -<a href="#sect63">63</a>;<br> - implying <b>manus</b>, -<a href="#sect66">66</a>;<br> - ceremony of, -<a href="#sect83">83</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>COFFINS</small>, -<a href="#sect425">425</a>, -<a href="#sect436">436</a>.<br> -<a name="cognates"></a><br> -<small>COGNATES</small>, defined, -<a href="#sect25">25</a>;<br> - importance among plebeians, -<a href="#sect65">65</a>;<br> - degrees between, -<a href="#sect25">25</a>, -<a href="#sect68">68</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>cognātī</b>, see -<a href="#cognates"><small>COGNATES</small></a>.<br> -<br> -<b>cognātiō</b>, see -<a href="#cognates"><small>COGNATES</small></a>.<br> -<a name="cognomen"></a><br> -<b>cognōmen</b>, before <b>nōmen</b>, -<a href="#sect40">40</a>;<br> - marking family, -<a href="#sect48">48</a>;<br> - age of, -<a href="#sect49">49</a>;<br> - nickname, -<a href="#sect49">49</a>;<br> - indication of lineage, -<a href="#sect50">50</a>;<br> - <b>ex virtūte</b>, -<a href="#sect53">53</a>;<br> - differing in same family, -<a href="#sect55">55</a>;<br> - as fourth element in name, -<a href="#sect55">55</a>.<br> -<a name="coliseum"></a><br> -<small>COLISEUM</small>, date of, -<a href="#sect352">352</a>;<br> - plan, -<a href="#sect356">356*</a>;<br> - <b>arēna</b>, -<a href="#sect357">357*</a>;<br> - seats, -<a href="#sect358">358*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>collegia</b>, <b>fūnerāticia</b>, <b>iuvenum</b>, <b>salūtāria</b>, -<a href="#sect430">430</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>COLONIES</small>, -<a href="#sect411">411</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>COLORS</small>, of articles of dress, -<a href="#sect270">270</a>;<br> - of racing syndicates, -<a href="#sect339">339</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>columbāria</b>, -<a href="#sect428">428*</a>-<a href="#sect431">431*</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>COMIC OPERAS</small>, -<a href="#sect323">323</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>COMMERCE</small>, -<a href="#sect413">413</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>comissātiō</b>, drinking bout, -<a href="#sect312">312*</a>, -<a href="#sect313">313</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>COMMON PEOPLE</small>, employments of, -<a href="#sect410">410</a> f.<br> -<br> -<b>compluvium</b>, -<a href="#sect188">188</a>, -<a href="#sect191">191</a>, -<a href="#sect196">196</a>, -<a href="#sect198">198</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>compōtātiō</b>, drinking bout, -<a href="#sect312">312*</a><br> -<br> -<b>conclāmātiō</b>, cry of farewell, -<a href="#sect433">433</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>CONCRETE</small>, extensive use, -<a href="#sect146">146</a>;<br> - method of making, -<a href="#sect211">211*</a>;<br> - in roads, -<a href="#sect387">387</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>conductor</b>, manager of baths, -<a href="#sect373">373</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>cōnfarreātiō</b>, -<a href="#sect61">61</a>;<br> - religious aspect, -<a href="#sect64">64</a>;<br> - implying <b>manus</b>, -<a href="#sect66">66</a>;<br> - ceremony of, -<a href="#sect81">81</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>CONFISCATION</small> of property, -<a href="#sect408">408</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>CONFUSION</small> of names, -<a href="#sect55">55</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>CONSENT</small> necessary to marriage, -<a href="#sect74">74</a>.<br> -<br> -Constantius (Emperor 337-361 <small>A.D.</small>), -<a href="#sect338">338</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>CONSTRUCTION</small> of house, -<a href="#sect210">210*</a> f.;<br> - mill, -<a href="#sect284">284*</a>;<br> - roads, -<a href="#sect387">387*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>contubernia</b>, unions of slaves, -<a href="#sect138">138</a>, -<a href="#sect156">156</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>conventiō in manum</b>, -<a href="#sect35">35</a>;<br> - <b>cum conventiōne</b>, -<a href="#sect61">61</a>;<br> - <b>sine conventiōne</b>, -<a href="#sect62">62</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>convīvia</b>, dinners, -<a href="#sect312">312</a>;<br> - <b>convīvia tempestīva</b>, -<a href="#sect310">310</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>COOKS</small>, hired in early times, -<a href="#sect299">299</a>.<br> -<br> -Cornelii, buried their dead, -<a href="#sect420">420</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>corōnae convīvālēs</b>, -<a href="#sect313">313</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>CORRESPONDENCE</small>, -<a href="#sect391">391</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>COST</small>, of baths, -<a href="#sect373">373</a>;<br> - books, -<a href="#sect401">401</a>;<br> - meals (inns), -<a href="#sect388">388</a>;<br> - slaves, -<a href="#sect140">140</a>;<br> - tables, -<a href="#sect227">227</a>;<br> - wines, -<a href="#sect298">298</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>COTTON</small> goods, -<a href="#sect269">269</a>.<br> -<a name="couches"></a><br> -<small>COUCHES</small>, sofas or beds, -<a href="#sect224">224*</a>;<br> - dining, -<a href="#sect304">304*</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>COVERINGS</small> for the head, men, -<a href="#sect252">252*</a>;<br> - women, -<a href="#sect263">263</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>covīnus</b>, two-wheeled cart, -<a href="#sect384">384</a>.<br> -<br> -Crassus, in salvage business, -<a href="#sect413">413</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>crātēr</b>, mixing bowl, -<a href="#sect314">314*</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>CREMATION</small>, introduced at Rome, -<a href="#sect420">420</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>crepundia</b>, child's rattle, -<a href="#sect98">98*</a>.<br> -<br> -Crescens, famous driver, -<a href="#sect342">342</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>CRIMSON</small> or purple, -<a href="#sect270">270</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>CRUCIFIXION</small> of slaves, -<a href="#sect173">173</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>cubicula</b>, bedrooms, -<a href="#sect205">205</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>cucullus</b>, hood, -<a href="#sect247">247</a>, -<a href="#sect248">248</a>, -<a href="#sect252">252</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>culīna</b>, kitchen, -<a href="#sect203">203*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>cumerus</b>, -<a href="#sect82">82*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>cuneī</b>, in theater, -<a href="#sect327">327</a>;<br> - circus, -<a href="#sect337">337</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>cūrātōrēs</b>, of burial societies, -<a href="#sect430">430</a>.<br> -<br> -Curius and his dinner, -<a href="#sect299">299</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>curriculum</b>, lap in race, -<a href="#sect331">331</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>CURTAIN</small> in later theater, -<a href="#sect327">327</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>CURULE</small> chair, -<a href="#sect225">225*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>cyathus</b>, ladle, -<a href="#sect314">314*</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>CYPHER</small> correspondence, -<a href="#sect390">390</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>CYPRESS</small>, as emblem of death, -<a href="#sect433">433</a>.<br> -<br> -<br> -D<br> -<br> -<small>DAIRY</small> products, -<a href="#sect281">281</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>DANCERS</small>, -<a href="#sect153">153</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>dator lūdōrum</b>, giver of games, -<a href="#sect334">334</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>DAY</small>, a Roman's, -<a href="#sect415">415</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>dēclāmātiō</b>, public speaking, -<a href="#sect115">115</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>DECORATION</small> of houses, -<a href="#sect220">220</a> f.;<br> - walls, -<a href="#sect220">220*</a>;<br> - doors, -<a href="#sect221">221*</a>;<br> - floors, -<a href="#sect221">221*</a>;<br> - of tombs, -<a href="#sect425">425*</a>, -<a href="#sect428">428*</a>, -<a href="#sect430">430*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>decuriae</b>, of slaves, -<a href="#sect133">133</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>dēfrutum</b>, grape jelly, -<a href="#sect296">296</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>delphica</b> (<b>mēnsa</b>), -<a href="#sect227">227*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>dēsīgnātor</b>, funeral director, -<a href="#sect434">434</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>dēstrictārium</b>, in baths, -<a href="#sect367">367</a>, -<a href="#sect376">376*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>dēsultōrēs</b>, circus riders, -<a href="#sect343">343</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>DEVELOPMENT</small> of the house, -<a href="#sect188">188*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>dextrārum iūnctiō</b>, in marriage, -<a href="#sect81">81*</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>DICE</small>, gaming with, -<a href="#sect321">321*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>diēs</b>, <b>lūstricus</b>, -<a href="#sect97">97</a>;<br> - <b>parentālēs</b>, -<a href="#sect75">75</a>, -<a href="#sect438">438</a>;<br> - <b>religiōsī</b>, -<a href="#sect75">75</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>dimachaerī</b>, gladiators with two swords, -<a href="#sect359">359</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>DINING-ROOM</small>, -<a href="#sect204">204</a>, -<a href="#sect304">304*</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>DINNER</small>, in the city, -<a href="#sect303">303</a>-<a href="#sect311">311</a>;<br> - early times, -<a href="#sect301">301</a>;<br> - hour, -<a href="#sect310">310</a>;<br> - bill of fare, -<a href="#sect309">309</a>;<br> - order of courses, -<a href="#sect308">308</a>;<br> - places of honor, -<a href="#sect306">306</a>.<br> -<br> -Diocletian (Emperor 284-305 <small>A.D.</small>) baths of, -<a href="#sect378">378*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>discus</b>, throwing the, -<a href="#sect316">316*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>dispēnsātor</b>, steward, -<a href="#sect149">149</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>diurna cubicula</b>, -<a href="#sect205">205</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>DIVORCE</small>, -<a href="#sect72">72</a>, -<a href="#sect93">93</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>DOG</small>, as pet, -<a href="#sect103">103</a>;<br> - in hallway, -<a href="#sect195">195*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>dōlia</b>, for oil, -<a href="#sect292">292*</a>;<br> - for wine, -<a href="#sect297">297</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>dominica potestās</b>, -<a href="#sect37">37</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>dominus gregis</b>, head actor, -<a href="#sect324">324</a>.<br> -<br> -Domitian (Emperor 81-96 <small>A.D.</small>), -<a href="#sect339">339</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>domus</b>, -<a href="#sect186">186</a>;<br> - see -<a href="#house"><small>HOUSE</small></a>.<br> -<br> -<small>DOORS</small>, construction, -<a href="#sect215">215*</a> f.;<br> - names, -<a href="#sect216">216</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>dormitōria</b>, -<a href="#sect205">205</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>dorsum</b>, top course in road, -<a href="#sect387">387</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>dōs</b>, dowry, -<a href="#sect72">72</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>DOWRY</small>, -<a href="#sect72">72</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>DRAMATIC</small> performances, -<a href="#sect323">323</a> f.<br> -<br> -<small>DRESS</small>, -<a href="#chap7">Chap. VII</a>. See -<a href="#contents">Table of Contents</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>DRINKING</small> bouts, -<a href="#sect312">312*</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>DRIVERS</small>, chariot races, -<a href="#sect341">341*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>ducēnārius</b>, horse of 200 victories, -<a href="#sect340">340</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>DWARFS</small>, kept for amusement, -<a href="#sect153">153</a>.<br> -<br> -<br> -E<br> -<br> -"<small>EARLY DINNERS</small>," -<a href="#sect310">310</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>EARLY FORMS</small>, of marriage, -<a href="#sect61">61</a>;<br> - of names, -<a href="#sect38">38</a>, -<a href="#sect57">57</a>, -<a href="#sect58">58</a>;<br> - of table customs, -<a href="#sect299">299</a>;<br> - of toga, -<a href="#sect245">245</a>;<br> - of theater, -<a href="#sect325">325</a>;<br> - of baths, -<a href="#sect365">365</a>;<br> - of gladiatorial shows, -<a href="#sect345">345</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>EARLY HOURS</small> at Rome, -<a href="#sect79">79</a>, -<a href="#sect415">415</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>EARS</small> of slaves bored, -<a href="#sect139">139</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>EDUCATION</small>, -<a href="#chap4">Chap. IV</a>. See -<a href="#contents">Table of Contents</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>ELM TREE</small>, for grapes, -<a href="#sect295">295</a>;<br> - for switches, -<a href="#sect167">167</a>;<br> - "essence of elm," -<a href="#sect168">168</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>ēditor mūnerum</b>, giver of gladiatorial show, -<a href="#sect362">362</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>ELOCUTION</small> in schools, -<a href="#sect114">114</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>EMANCIPATION</small>, of a son, -<a href="#sect18">18</a>;<br> - of a slave, -<a href="#sect175">175</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>endormis</b>, bath robe, -<a href="#sect249">249</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>ENGAGEMENTS</small>, marriage, -<a href="#sect71">71</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>EPIGRAPHIC</small> sources, -<a href="#sect10">10</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>epityrum</b>, olive salad, -<a href="#sect290">290</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>equitēs</b>, career of, -<a href="#sect409">409</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>ERRORS</small> in manuscript books, -<a href="#sect399">399</a>.<br> -<br> -Esquiline Hill, as burial-place, -<a href="#sect423">423</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>essedāriī</b>, chariot fighters, -<a href="#sect359">359</a>;<br> - spelled <b>assidāriī</b>, -<a href="#sect362">362</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>ESSENTIALS</small> for the bath, -<a href="#sect366">366</a>;<br> - for burial, -<a href="#sect436">436</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>EXAGGERATION</small> in satire, -<a href="#sect93">93</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>ex cathedrā</b>, official utterance, -<a href="#sect226">226</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>exedrae</b>, reception halls, -<a href="#sect207">207</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>expōnere</b>, "expose," of children, -<a href="#sect95">95</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>EXPOSURE</small> of children, -<a href="#sect32">32</a>, -<a href="#sect95">95</a>;<br> - slaves, -<a href="#sect157">157</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>exta</b>, of the sacrifices, -<a href="#sect277">277</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>EXTINCTION</small> of the <b>potestās</b>, -<a href="#sect34">34</a>;<br> - of a family, -<a href="#sect30">30</a>.<br> - See -<a href="#adoption"><small>ADOPTION</small></a>.<br> -<br> -<br> -F<br> -<br> -<b>f.</b>, abbreviation in names, -<a href="#sect39">39</a>, -<a href="#sect57">57</a>;<br> - for <b>fugitīvus</b>, -<a href="#sect172">172</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>fābulae palliātae</b>, -<a href="#sect323">323</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>facēs</b>, torches kept in doorways, -<a href="#sect229">229</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>factiōnēs</b>, racing syndicates, -<a href="#sect339">339</a>.<br> -<a name="familia"></a><br> -<b>familia</b>, meanings, -<a href="#sect17">17</a>, -<a href="#sect21">21</a>;<br> - =<b>stirps</b>, -<a href="#sect22">22</a>;<br> - <b>gladiātōria</b>, -<a href="#sect349">349</a>;<br> - <b>rūstica</b>, -<a href="#sect142">142</a>, -<a href="#sect145">145</a>;<br> - <b>urbāna</b>, -<a href="#sect149">149</a>.<br> -<a name="family"></a><br> -<small>FAMILY</small>, -<a href="#chap1">Chap. I</a>. See -<a href="#contents">Table of Contents</a>;<br> - defined, -<a href="#sect17">17</a>;<br> - splitting up of, -<a href="#sect19">19</a>;<br> - cult, -<a href="#sect27">27</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>FANS</small>, -<a href="#sect266">266*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>far</b>, early sort of grain, -<a href="#sect282">282</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>FARMING</small> of revenues, -<a href="#sect409">409</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>FARM</small> slaves, see -<a href="#familia"><b>familia rūstica</b></a>;<br> - work, -<a href="#sect148">148</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>fasciae</b>, wrappings of cloth, -<a href="#sect239">239</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>fascinātiō</b>, evil eye, -<a href="#sect98">98</a>, -<a href="#sect99">99</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>fascis</b>, a set of books, -<a href="#sect397">397</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>FASTENINGS</small> for doors, -<a href="#sect216">216</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>FATHER</small>, see -<a href="#paterfamilias"><b>pater familiās</b></a>;<br> - as companion of his sons, -<a href="#sect106">106</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>faucēs</b>, in a house, -<a href="#sect192">192</a>, note.<br> -<br> -<small>FEES</small>, in schools, -<a href="#sect109">109</a>, -<a href="#sect119">119</a>;<br> - baths, -<a href="#sect373">373</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>fēlīciter</b>, in congratulations, -<a href="#sect82">82</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>feminālia</b>, wrappings for legs, -<a href="#sect239">239</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>fenestrae</b>, windows, -<a href="#sect217">217*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>fērālia</b>, -<a href="#sect438">438</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>Fescinnīnī versūs</b>, -<a href="#sect87">87</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>FESTIVALS</small>, <b>cāra cognātiō</b>, -<a href="#sect25">25</a>;<br> - <b>fērālia</b>, -<a href="#sect438">438</a>;<br> - <b>mātrōnālia</b>, -<a href="#sect91">91</a>;<br> - <b>līberālia</b>, -<a href="#sect127">127</a>;<br> - <b>rosāria</b>, -<a href="#sect438">438</a>;<br> - <b>Sāturnālia</b>, -<a href="#sect319">319</a>;<br> - <b>vīnālia rūstica</b>, -<a href="#sect296">296</a>;<br> - <b>violāria</b>, -<a href="#sect438">438</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>FESTIVITIES</small>, wedding, -<a href="#sect80">80</a>, -<a href="#sect85">85</a>, -<a href="#sect86">86</a>, -<a href="#sect89">89</a>;<br> - coming of age, -<a href="#sect127">127</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>FIREMEN</small>, slaves as, -<a href="#sect141">141</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>FISH</small>, as food, -<a href="#sect280">280</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>fistūca</b>, heavy rammer, -<a href="#sect213">213</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>flābellum</b>, fan, -<a href="#sect266">266*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>flagrum</b>, scourge, -<a href="#sect167">167*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>flammeum</b>, bridal veil, -<a href="#sect77">77*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>Flāvium amphitheātrum</b>, see -<a href="#coliseum"><small>COLISEUM</small></a>.<br> -<br> -<small>FLOORS</small>, construction, -<a href="#sect213">213</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>FLOWERS</small>, at feasts, -<a href="#sect313">313</a>;<br> - at tombs, -<a href="#sect438">438</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>fōcālia</b>, wrappings for throat, -<a href="#sect239">239</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>foculī</b>, heating stoves, -<a href="#sect218">218*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>follēs</b>, balls filled with air, -<a href="#sect318">318*</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>FOOD</small>, -<a href="#chap8">Chap. VIII</a>. See -<a href="#contents">Table of Contents</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>FORBIDDEN DEGREES</small> of kinship, -<a href="#sect25">25</a>, -<a href="#sect68">68</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>forēs</b>, double doors, -<a href="#sect195">195</a>, -<a href="#sect216">216</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>FORKS</small>, not used, -<a href="#sect299">299</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>forum</b>, place of early shows, -<a href="#sect351">351</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>FOUNDLINGS</small>, fate of, -<a href="#sect96">96</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>FOWLS</small>, domestic, -<a href="#sect279">279</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>FREEDMAN</small>, name, -<a href="#sect59">59</a>;<br> - relation to patron, -<a href="#sect175">175</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>frīgidārium</b>, -<a href="#sect366">366</a>;<br> - other uses, -<a href="#sect367">367</a>;<br> - position, -<a href="#sect368">368</a>;<br> - furnishings, -<a href="#sect370">370</a>;<br> - shown on plans, -<a href="#sect371">371*</a>, -<a href="#sect376">376*</a>, -<a href="#sect377">377*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>fritillus</b>, dice box, -<a href="#sect321">321</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>frontēs</b>, of papyrus rolls, -<a href="#sect397">397</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>FRUITS</small>, known to Romans, -<a href="#sect274">274</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>frūmentum</b>, grain, -<a href="#sect282">282</a>, and note.<br> -<br> -<b>fugitīvī</b>, -<a href="#sect172">172</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>fullōnēs</b>, as cleaners, -<a href="#sect271">271*</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>FUNERAL</small> games, -<a href="#sect344">344</a>, -<a href="#sect345">345</a>;<br> - ceremonies, -<a href="#chap12">Chap. XII</a>. See -<a href="#contents">Table of Contents</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>fūnus</b>, <b>acerbum</b>, <b>plēbēium</b>, -<a href="#sect432">432</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>furca</b>, as punishment, -<a href="#sect169">169</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>FURNACE</small> for houses, -<a href="#sect218">218</a>;<br> - for baths, -<a href="#sect368">368</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>FURNITURE</small>, -<a href="#sect222">222</a> f.;<br> - modern lacking, -<a href="#sect223">223</a>;<br> - couches, -<a href="#sect224">224*</a>;<br> - chairs, -<a href="#sect225">225*</a>;<br> - tables, -<a href="#sect227">227*</a>;<br> - lamps, -<a href="#sect228">228*</a>;<br> - chests and cabinets, -<a href="#sect230">230*</a>;<br> - other articles, -<a href="#sect232">232</a>.<br> -<br> -<br> -G<br> -<br> -<b>Gāius</b>, meaning, -<a href="#sect44">44</a>, -<a href="#sect81">81</a>;<br> - as a nomen, -<a href="#sect55">55</a>, -<a href="#sect81">81</a>;<br> - in the marriage ceremony, -<a href="#sect81">81</a>, -<a href="#sect88">88</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>GAME</small>, wild, for table, -<a href="#sect279">279</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>GAMES</small>, of children, -<a href="#sect103">103</a>, -<a href="#sect320">320*</a>;<br> - public and private, see <small>AMUSEMENTS</small>. -<a href="#chap9">Chap. IX</a>;<br> - of ball for men, -<a href="#sect318">318*</a>;<br> - of chance, -<a href="#sect319">319*</a>, -<a href="#sect320">320*</a>, -<a href="#sect321">321*</a>;<br> - funeral, -<a href="#sect344">344</a>, -<a href="#sect345">345</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>GARDEN</small>, behind the peristyle, -<a href="#sect202">202</a>;<br> - produce, -<a href="#sect275">275</a>, -<a href="#sect276">276</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>GARLANDS</small> worn by slaves, -<a href="#sect134">134</a>;<br> - by bride and groom, -<a href="#sect78">78</a>;<br> - by women, -<a href="#sect264">264</a>;<br> - at feasts by men, -<a href="#sect313">313</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>GEESE</small> as pets, -<a href="#sect103">103*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>gēns</b>, theory of, -<a href="#sect22">22</a>;<br> - marked by <b>nōmen</b>, -<a href="#sect38">38</a>;<br> - burial-places of, -<a href="#sect422">422</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>gentīlēs</b>, -<a href="#sect22">22</a>;<br> - at the confarreate ceremony, -<a href="#sect81">81*</a>.<br> -<br> -"<small>GENTLEMEN'S DINNERS</small>," -<a href="#sect310">310</a> f.<br> -<br> -<small>GIRL</small>, named, -<a href="#sect97">97</a>;<br> - home training, -<a href="#sect104">104</a>, -<a href="#sect105">105</a>;<br> - married at early age, -<a href="#sect67">67</a>, -<a href="#sect105">105</a>;<br> - admitted to schools, -<a href="#sect109">109</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>GLADIATORS</small>, -<a href="#sect344">344</a> f.;<br> - in Etruria and Campania, -<a href="#sect344">344</a>;<br> - first shows at Rome, -<a href="#sect344">344</a>;<br> - in theory private shows, -<a href="#sect345">345</a>;<br> - numbers exhibited, -<a href="#sect346">346</a>;<br> - whence obtained, -<a href="#sect347">347</a>;<br> - innocent and guilty, -<a href="#sect348">348</a>;<br> - training, -<a href="#sect349">349</a>;<br> - fashions and tactics, -<a href="#sect359">359</a>;<br> - armor, -<a href="#sect360">360</a>;<br> - the fight, -<a href="#sect362">362</a>;<br> - rewards, -<a href="#sect363">363</a>;<br> - bravos and bullies, -<a href="#sect346">346</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>GLASS</small>, for windows, -<a href="#sect217">217</a>;<br> - balls for hands, -<a href="#sect266">266</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>gradūs</b>, rows of seats, -<a href="#sect337">337</a>;<br> - of urns, -<a href="#sect428">428</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>GRAMMAR</small> schools, -<a href="#sect112">112</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>grammaticus</b>, of a teacher, -<a href="#sect112">112</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>GRAPES</small>, -<a href="#sect293">293</a>;<br> - where grown, -<a href="#sect294">294</a>;<br> - how grown, -<a href="#sect295">295</a>;<br> - jelly, -<a href="#sect296">296</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>GREEK</small>, place in schools, -<a href="#sect112">112</a>;<br> - nurses, -<a href="#sect101">101</a>;<br> - teachers, -<a href="#sect115">115</a>;<br> - taught to children, -<a href="#sect101">101</a>, -<a href="#sect116">116</a>, -<a href="#sect123">123</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>GROUNDS</small>, about tombs, -<a href="#sect426">426*</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>GUARDIANS</small>, of women, -<a href="#sect19">19</a>, -<a href="#sect70">70</a>;<br> - of children, -<a href="#sect22">22</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>gustus</b>, first course at dinner, -<a href="#sect308">308</a>.<br> -<br> -<br> -H<br> -<br> -Hadrian (Emperor 117-138 <small>A.D.</small>), tomb, -<a href="#sect427">427</a>, -<a href="#sect438">438*</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>HAIR</small>, arrangement, men, -<a href="#sect254">254</a>;<br> - women, -<a href="#sect263">263</a>;<br> - of a bride, -<a href="#sect78">78</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>HANDBALL</small>, -<a href="#sect318">318</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>HANDKERCHIEFS</small>, -<a href="#sect266">266</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>HARD LABOR</small>, as punishment, -<a href="#sect170">170</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>hasta</b>, sign of auction, -<a href="#sect134">134</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>HATS</small>, -<a href="#sect252">252</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>HEAD</small> of the House, see -<a href="#paterfamilias"><b>pater familiās</b></a>.<br> -<br> -<small>HEATING</small> houses, -<a href="#sect218">218</a>;<br> - baths, -<a href="#sect368">368*</a>, -<a href="#sect369">369</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>HINGES</small> of doors, -<a href="#sect215">215*</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>HISTORY</small>, and antiquities, -<a href="#sect4">4</a>;<br> - not taught systematically in schools, -<a href="#sect112">112</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>HOLIDAYS</small>, numerous, -<a href="#sect322">322</a>;<br> - school, -<a href="#sect122">122</a>;<br> - avoided as wedding days, -<a href="#sect75">75</a>;<br> - spent in country, -<a href="#sect416">416</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>HOME</small> training, -<a href="#sect104">104</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>HONEY</small>, used for sugar, -<a href="#sect281">281</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>hoplomachī</b>, later name for "Samnites," -<a href="#sect360">360</a>, -<a href="#sect344">344*</a>.<br> -<br> -Horace, (65-8 <small>B.C.</small>), his slaves, -<a href="#sect133">133</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>HORSES</small>, in chariot races, -<a href="#sect339">339</a>, -<a href="#sect340">340</a>;<br> - in other shows, -<a href="#sect343">343</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>Hortī Maecēnātis</b>, -<a href="#sect423">423</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>hospitēs</b>, -<a href="#sect183">183</a> f.<br> -<br> -<b>hospitium</b>, -<a href="#sect184">184</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>HOURS</small>, of the day, -<a href="#sect417">417</a>, -<a href="#sect418">418</a>;<br> - for meals, -<a href="#sect301">301</a>;<br> - for baths, -<a href="#sect374">374</a>;<br> - all semi-public functions, -<a href="#sect415">415</a>.<br> -<a name="house"></a><br> -<small>HOUSE</small>, dwelling, -<a href="#chap6">Chap. VI</a>. See -<a href="#contents">Table of Contents</a>;<br> - =<b>familia</b>, see -<a href="#family"><small>FAMILY</small></a>;<br> - Head of House, -<a href="#paterfamilias">see <b>pater familiās</b></a>;<br> - house slaves, -<a href="#sect149">149</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>HOUSE</small> of Pansa, -<a href="#sect208">208*</a>;<br> - of Sallust, court, -<a href="#sect204">204*</a>;<br> - of the poet, ruins, -<a href="#sect199">199*</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>HOUSEHOLD</small>, translation of <b>familia</b>, -<a href="#sect17">17</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>HUMAN</small> sacrifices, -<a href="#sect344">344</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>HUT</small>, of Romulus, -<a href="#sect214">214*</a>;<br> - early Romans, -<a href="#sect189">189*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>hymenaeus</b>, marriage hymn, -<a href="#sect86">86</a>.<br> -<br> -<br> -I<br> -<br> -<b>iānitor</b>, chained to post, -<a href="#sect150">150</a>, -<a href="#sect195">195</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>iantāculum</b>, breakfast, -<a href="#sect302">302</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>iānua</b>, distinguished from <b>ōstium</b>, -<a href="#sect216">216</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>ientāculum</b>, breakfast, -<a href="#sect302">302</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>imāginēs</b>, kept in <b>ālae</b>, -<a href="#sect200">200</a>;<br> - in funeral processions, -<a href="#sect434">434</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>imbricēs</b>, tiles for roof, -<a href="#sect214">214*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>imperium paternum</b>, -<a href="#sect31">31</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>impluvium</b>, -<a href="#sect188">188</a>, -<a href="#sect191">191</a>, -<a href="#sect196">196*</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>INCOME</small>, sources of, -<a href="#chap11">Chap. XI</a>. See -<a href="#contents">Table of Contents</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>INDUSTRIAL</small> employment of slaves, -<a href="#sect143">143</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>indūtus</b>, clothing, -<a href="#sect234">234</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>INK</small>, <small>INKSTANDS</small>, etc., -<a href="#sect395">395*</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>INNS</small>, -<a href="#sect388">388*</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>INSCRIPTIONS</small>, importance of, -<a href="#sect10">10</a>;<br> - of a <b>fugitīvus</b>, -<a href="#sect172">172</a>;<br> - of Crescens, -<a href="#sect342">342</a>;<br> - gladiatorial show, -<a href="#sect361">361</a>;<br> - of Hylas, -<a href="#sect362">362</a>;<br> - milestone, -<a href="#sect386">386</a>;<br> - in <b>columbāria</b>, -<a href="#sect431">431</a>;<br> - of Plancus, -<a href="#sect427">427</a>, note, -<a href="#sect420">420</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>īnstita</b>, flounce of <b>stola</b>, -<a href="#sect260">260</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>INSURRECTIONS</small> of slaves, -<a href="#sect132">132</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>INTERMENT</small>, see -<a href="#burial"><small>BURIAL</small></a>.<br> -<br> -<b>iūdicium domesticum</b>, -<a href="#sect32">32</a>.<br> -<br> --<b>ius</b>, original in <b>nōmen</b>, -<a href="#sect46">46</a>;<br> - in other names, -<a href="#sect55">55</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>iūs cōnūbiī</b>, -<a href="#sect64">64</a>;<br> - <b>ōsculī</b>, -<a href="#sect25">25</a>;<br> - <b>patrium</b>, -<a href="#sect31">31</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>iūstī līberī</b>, rightful children, -<a href="#sect69">69</a>.<br> -<br> -<br> -J<br> -<br> -<small>JACKSTONES</small>, -<a href="#sect103">103</a>, -<a href="#sect320">320*</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>JESTERS</small>, -<a href="#sect153">153</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>JEWELRY</small> worn by men, -<a href="#sect255">255</a>;<br> - women, -<a href="#sect267">267</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>JOINING</small> hands in marriage ceremony, -<a href="#sect74">74</a>.<br> -<br> -Juvenal (about 67-127 <small>A.D.</small>), on the toga, -<a href="#sect244">244</a>;<br> - "bread and games," -<a href="#sect322">322</a>.<br> -<br> -<br> -K<br> -<br> -<small>KITCHEN</small>, -<a href="#sect203">203</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>KNIGHTS</small>, income of, -<a href="#sect409">409</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>KNIVES</small> and forks, -<a href="#sect299">299</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>KNUCKLE-BONES</small>, -<a href="#sect320">320*</a>.<br> -<br> -<br> -L<br> -<br> -<b>l.</b>, abbreviation for <b>lībertus</b>, -<a href="#sect59">59</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>lābrum</b>, basin in bath, -<a href="#sect369">369</a>, -<a href="#sect376">376</a>, -<a href="#sect377">377</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>lacerna</b>, cloak, -<a href="#sect247">247</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>lacōnicum</b>, dry sweat bath, -<a href="#sect367">367</a>, -<a href="#sect371">371*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>laena</b>, woolen cloak, -<a href="#sect249">249</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>LAMPS</small>, -<a href="#sect228">228</a>, -<a href="#sect229">229*</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>LAND</small>, travel by, -<a href="#sect381">381</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>lanista</b>, trainer of gladiators, -<a href="#sect349">349</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>laqueatōrēs</b>, gladiators with lassos, -<a href="#sect359">359</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>larēs</b>, <b>compitālēs</b>, gods of crossroads, -<a href="#sect87">87</a>;<br> - of the house, -<a href="#sect199">199</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>LATER</small> theater, -<a href="#sect326">326</a> f.<br> -<br> -<b>laterēs coctī</b>, -<a href="#sect212">212*</a>;<br> - <b>crūdī</b>, -<a href="#sect210">210</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>LATIN</small> in schools, -<a href="#sect113">113</a>;<br> - best spoken by women, -<a href="#sect92">92</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>lātrīna</b>, toilet room, -<a href="#sect203">203*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>laudātiō funebris</b>, funeral address, -<a href="#sect435">435</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>LAW</small>, practice of, -<a href="#sect407">407</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>lectīca</b>, and bearers, -<a href="#sect151">151*</a>;<br> - on journeys, -<a href="#sect382">382</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>lectus</b>, see -<a href="#couches"><small>COUCHES</small></a>;<br> - <b>adversus</b>, -<a href="#sect199">199</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>LEGAL</small> status of children, -<a href="#sect94">94</a>;<br> - slaves, -<a href="#sect156">156</a>;<br> - women, -<a href="#sect35">35</a>, -<a href="#sect36">36</a>, -<a href="#sect90">90</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>lēnōnēs</b>, -<a href="#sect139">139</a>.<br> -<a name="letters"></a><br> -<small>LETTERS</small>, writing of, -<a href="#sect391">391</a>;<br> - sending, -<a href="#sect390">390</a>;<br> - speed, -<a href="#sect389">389</a>;<br> - sealing and opening, -<a href="#sect392">392</a>;<br> - the address, -<a href="#sect392">392</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>lībera cēna</b>, feast for gladiators, -<a href="#sect362">362</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>Līberālia</b>, -<a href="#sect127">127</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>lībertīnī</b>, in business, -<a href="#sect412">412</a> f.<br> -<br> -<b>lībertus</b>, opposed to <b>lībertīnus</b>, -<a href="#sect175">175</a>;<br> - relation to patron, -<a href="#sect175">175</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>LIBERTY</small>, cap of, -<a href="#sect175">175*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>libitīnāriī</b>, undertakers, -<a href="#sect433">433</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>LIBRARIES</small>, -<a href="#sect206">206</a>, -<a href="#sect402">402</a>.<br> -<a name="librarii"></a><br> -<b>librāriī</b>, copyists, -<a href="#sect391">391</a>, -<a href="#sect399">399</a>, -<a href="#sect401">401</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>līmen</b>, threshold, -<a href="#sect195">195</a>, -<a href="#sect215">215</a>;<br> - <b>superum</b>, -<a href="#sect215">215</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>LIMITATIONS</small> of <b>patria poteatās</b>, -<a href="#sect32">32</a>, -<a href="#sect33">33</a>;<br> - of <b>manus</b>, -<a href="#sect36">36</a>;<br> - of <b>dominica potestās</b>, -<a href="#sect156">156</a>, -<a href="#sect157">157</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>LINEN</small> goods, -<a href="#sect269">269</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>līnum</b>, -<a href="#sect392">392</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>LITERARY</small> sources, -<a href="#sect9">9</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>litterae</b>, see -<a href="#letters"><small>LETTERS</small></a>;<br> - <b>eōdem exemplō</b>, -<a href="#sect390">390</a>.<br> -<br> -Livia, <b>columbārium</b> of, -<a href="#sect428">428*</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>LOAVES</small> of bread, -<a href="#sect288">288*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>locus</b>, <b>cōnsulāris</b>, -<a href="#sect306">306</a>;<br> - in <b>columbārium</b>, -<a href="#sect431">431</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>lōrārius</b>, executioner, -<a href="#sect174">174</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>lucerna</b>, lamp, -<a href="#sect228">228*</a>, -<a href="#sect229">229*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>lūdī</b>, <b>circēnsēs</b>, -<a href="#sect328">328</a> f.;<br> - <b>scēnicī</b>, -<a href="#sect323">323</a> f.;<br> - <b>gladiātōriī</b> (schools), -<a href="#sect349">349*</a>, -<a href="#sect350">350</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>lūdus</b>, see -<a href="#schools"><small>SCHOOLS</small></a>;<br> - <b>lūdus Trōiae</b>, -<a href="#sect343">343</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>LUNCHEON</small>, -<a href="#sect302">302</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>lūnula</b>, ornament, -<a href="#sect98">98</a>;<br> - for shoe, -<a href="#sect251">251</a>.<br> -<br> -<br> -M<br> -<br> -<b>M.</b> and <b>M'</b>, in names, -<a href="#sect41">41</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>m.</b>, for <b>missus</b>, of pardoned gladiator, -<a href="#sect361">361</a>.<br> -<br> -Maecenas, gardens of, -<a href="#sect423">423</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>maeniāna</b>, sections of seats, -<a href="#sect337">337</a>, -<a href="#sect358">358</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>maeniānum</b>, projecting second story, -<a href="#sect233">233*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>magister bibendī</b>, master of revels, -<a href="#sect313">313</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>maiestās patria</b>, -<a href="#sect31">31</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>mālum</b>, <b>Armeniacum</b>, <b>grānātum</b>, <b>Persicum</b>, <b>Pūnicum</b>, -<a href="#sect274">274</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>mamillāre</b>, -<a href="#sect257">257*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>mangōnēs</b>, -<a href="#sect135">135</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>MANHOOD</small>, when reached, -<a href="#sect126">126</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>MANUFACTURE</small> of clothing, -<a href="#sect271">271</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>MANUMISSION</small> of slaves, -<a href="#sect175">175</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>manus</b>, defined, -<a href="#sect35">35</a>;<br> - limited, -<a href="#sect36">36</a>;<br> - unpopular, -<a href="#sect65">65</a>, -<a href="#sect66">66</a>;<br> - when necessary, -<a href="#sect66">66</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>Marcellus</b>, theater of, -<a href="#sect327">327*</a>.<br> -<a name="marriage"></a><br> -<small>MARRIAGE</small>, -<a href="#chap3">Chap. III</a>. See -<a href="#contents">Table Of Contents</a>;<br> - by capture, -<a href="#sect78">78</a>, -<a href="#sect86">86</a>, -<a href="#sect88">88</a>;<br> - hymn, -<a href="#sect86">86</a>;<br> - cry, -<a href="#sect87">87</a>;<br> - torch, -<a href="#sect86">86</a>, -<a href="#sect89">89</a>;<br> - religious duty, -<a href="#sect28">28</a>.<br> -<br> -Martial (43-101 <small>A.D.</small>) and the toga, -<a href="#sect244">244</a>;<br> - and cost of books, -<a href="#sect401">401</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>MASTER</small>, heir of his slaves, -<a href="#sect164">164</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>MATERIALS</small> for clothing, -<a href="#sect269">269</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>MATCHED PAIRS</small> of slaves, -<a href="#sect140">140</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>mātrimōnium</b>, motherhood, -<a href="#sect64">64</a>;<br> - <b>iniūstum</b>, -<a href="#sect69">69</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>mātrīmus</b>, with a living mother, -<a href="#sect82">82</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>mātrōnālia</b>, -<a href="#sect91">91</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>MEALS</small>, -<a href="#chap8">Chap. VIII</a>. See -<a href="#contents">Table of Contents</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>MEANINGS</small> of names, -<a href="#sect44">44</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>MEAT</small>, early food of Italians, -<a href="#sect273">273</a>;<br> - various kinds, -<a href="#sect277">277</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>MEMORIAL</small> festivals, -<a href="#sect438">438</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>mēnsa</b>, table in general, -<a href="#sect227">227</a>;<br> - dining, -<a href="#sect307">307</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>mēnsa prīma</b>, first course, -<a href="#sect308">308</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>mēnsa secunda</b>, dessert, -<a href="#sect308">308</a>, -<a href="#sect309">309</a>, -<a href="#sect311">311</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>MENU</small>, of dinner, -<a href="#sect309">309</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>merenda</b>, irregular meal, -<a href="#sect302">302</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>merīdiātiō</b>, noonday rest, -<a href="#sect302">302</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>mēta</b>, of a grain mill, -<a href="#sect284">284*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>mētae</b>, in a circus, -<a href="#sect331">331*</a>, -<a href="#sect335">335</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>MILESTONES</small>, -<a href="#sect386">386*</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>MILL</small>, for grain, -<a href="#sect284">284*</a>;<br> - for olives, -<a href="#sect292">292*</a>;<br> - as a punishment, -<a href="#sect148">148</a>, -<a href="#sect171">171</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>missus</b>, seven laps in a race, -<a href="#sect331">331</a>;<br> - "spared," of a gladiator, -<a href="#sect361">361</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>MIXING BOWLS</small>, -<a href="#sect314">314*</a>;<br> - three thousand of Pompeius, -<a href="#sect326">326</a>;<br> - mixing wine, -<a href="#sect314">314</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>mola</b>, mill, -<a href="#sect284">284*</a>, -<a href="#sect285">285*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>monopodium</b>, table with one support, -<a href="#sect227">227*</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>MONUMENTAL</small> sources, -<a href="#sect11">11</a>.<br> -<br> -"<b>Moritūrī tē salūtant</b>," -<a href="#sect362">362</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>MOSAICS</small>, -<a href="#sect221">221</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>MOTHER</small>, as nurse, -<a href="#sect100">100</a>;<br> - as teacher, -<a href="#sect104">104</a>, -<a href="#sect105">105</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>MOURNING</small>, signs of, -<a href="#sect246">246</a>, -<a href="#sect253">253</a>;<br> - periods of, -<a href="#sect437">437</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>mulleus</b>, patrician shoe, -<a href="#sect251">251</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>mulsa</b>, water and honey, -<a href="#sect298">298</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>mulsum</b>, wine and honey, -<a href="#sect298">298</a>.<br> -<a name="munera"></a><br> -<b>mūnera</b>, opposed to <b>lūdī</b>, -<a href="#sect345">345</a>;<br> - gladiātōria, -<a href="#chap9">Chap. IX</a>. See -<a href="#contents">Table of Contents</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>mūnīre viam</b>, of road building, -<a href="#sect387">387</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>murmillōnēs</b>, class of gladiators, -<a href="#sect360">360</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>mustāceum</b>, wedding cake, -<a href="#sect85">85</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>mustum</b>, new wine, -<a href="#sect296">296</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>MUTUAL</small> obligations, of patron and freedman, -<a href="#sect175">175</a>;<br> - patrician patron and client, -<a href="#sect179">179</a>;<br> - later patron and client, -<a href="#sect182">182</a>;<br> - of hospitēs, -<a href="#sect185">185</a>.<br> -<br> -<br> -N<br> -<br> -<small>NAME</small>, -<a href="#chap2">Chap. II</a>. See -<a href="#contents">Table of Contents</a>.<br> - See also -<a href="#praenomen"><b>praenōmen</b></a>, -<a href="#nomen"><b>nōmen</b></a>, -<a href="#cognomen"><b>cognōmen</b></a>.<br> -<br> -<b>nārrātiō</b>, narration, taught in schools, -<a href="#sect115">115</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>NATURALIZED</small> citizens, names of, -<a href="#sect60">60</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>naumachiae</b>, naval battles, -<a href="#sect364">364</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>NETS</small>, for the hair, -<a href="#sect264">264</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>NEW</small> clients, -<a href="#sect181">181</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>NEWSPAPER</small>, substitute for, -<a href="#sect413">413</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>NICKNAMES</small>, -<a href="#sect54">54</a>;<br> - See also -<a href="#cognomen"><b>cognōmen</b></a>.<br> -<br> -<small>NIGHT</small> for burial, -<a href="#sect432">432</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>NOBLES</small>, debarred from business careers, -<a href="#sect404">404</a>;<br> - funerals of, -<a href="#sect433">433</a> f.<br> -<br> -<b>nodus Herculāneus</b>, -<a href="#sect77">77</a>.<br> -<a name="nomen"></a><br> -<b>nōmen</b>, before and after <b>cognōmen</b>, -<a href="#sect40">40</a>;<br> - endings of, -<a href="#sect46">46</a>;<br> - sign of <b>gēns</b>, -<a href="#sect21">21</a>, -<a href="#sect47">47</a>;<br> - two or more in one name, -<a href="#sect55">55</a>;<br> - used as <b>praenōmen</b>, -<a href="#sect55">55</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>nōmenclātor</b>, -<a href="#sect151">151</a>, -<a href="#sect415">415</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>nōminālia</b>, -<a href="#sect97">97</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>novendiāle</b>, -<a href="#sect437">437</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>nūbere</b>, meaning, -<a href="#sect77">77</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>nūcleus</b>, in roads, -<a href="#sect387">387</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>NUMERALS</small> as <b>praenōmina</b>, -<a href="#sect44">44</a>;<br> - as names of women, -<a href="#sect57">57</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>nūptiae iūstae</b>, -<a href="#sect67">67</a>;<br> - <b>iniūstae</b>, -<a href="#sect69">69</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>NURSERY</small> stories, -<a href="#sect100">100</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>NURSES</small>, -<a href="#sect100">100</a>;<br> - Greek preferred, -<a href="#sect101">101</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>NUTS</small>, in wedding festivities, -<a href="#sect87">87</a>;<br> - for marbles, -<a href="#sect103">103</a>;<br> - grown in Italy, -<a href="#sect274">274</a>.<br> -<br> -<br> -O<br> -<br> -<small>OBELISKS</small> in the circuses, -<a href="#sect336">336*</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>OCCUPATIONS</small> of slaves, -<a href="#sect143">143</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>oecī</b>, rooms in house, -<a href="#sect207">207</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>OLD</small> and new clients, -<a href="#sect176">176</a> f.<br> -<br> -<b>oleum olīvum</b>, olive oil, -<a href="#sect291">291</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>OLIVE</small>, uses, -<a href="#sect289">289</a> f.;<br> - preserved, -<a href="#sect290">290</a>;<br> - oil, uses, -<a href="#sect291">291</a>;<br> - manufacture, -<a href="#sect292">292</a>.<br> -<a name="ollae"></a><br> -<b>ollae</b>, urns for ashes of dead, -<a href="#sect428">428</a>, -<a href="#sect429">429</a>, -<a href="#sect430">430*</a>, -<a href="#sect431">431</a>, -<a href="#sect437">437</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>ollus quiris lētō datus</b>, -<a href="#sect434">434</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>ONION</small>, unrefined, -<a href="#sect275">275</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>oppidum</b>, in circus, -<a href="#sect330">330*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>opus</b>, <b>caementīcium</b>, -<a href="#sect210">210</a>, -<a href="#sect211">211*</a>;<br> - <b>incertum</b>, -<a href="#sect212">212*</a>;<br> - <b>quadrātum</b>, -<a href="#sect210">210*</a>;<br> - <b>rēticulātum</b>, -<a href="#sect212">212*</a>.<br> -<br> -Orange, theater at, -<a href="#sect327">327*</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>ORANGE</small>, not grown in Italy, -<a href="#sect274">274</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>ōrdō</b>, in <b>columbārium</b>, -<a href="#sect428">428</a>, -<a href="#sect431">431</a>;<br> - <b>scrībārum</b>, -<a href="#sect414">414</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>ōrnāmenta</b>, theatrical properties, -<a href="#sect324">324</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>ōrnātor</b>, valet, -<a href="#sect150">150</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>ōrnātrīx</b>, ladies' maid, -<a href="#sect150">150</a>, -<a href="#sect265">265</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>os resectum</b>, bone for burial, -<a href="#sect436">436</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>ōstium</b>, door, -<a href="#sect195">195</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>ōva</b>, in the circus, -<a href="#sect336">336</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>OVEN</small>, for bread, -<a href="#sect287">287*</a>.<br> -<br> -<br> -P<br> -<br> -<b>p.</b>, for <b>periit</b>, of gladiators, -<a href="#sect361">361</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>paedagōgus</b>, -<a href="#sect123">123*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>paenula</b>, cloak, -<a href="#sect248">248*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>palaestra</b>, exercise ground, -<a href="#sect367">367</a>, -<a href="#sect376">376*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>palla</b>, woman's robe, -<a href="#sect261">261</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>palūdāmentum</b>, general's cloak, -<a href="#sect247">247</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>pālus</b>, with <b>prīmus</b> or <b>secundus</b>, -<a href="#sect363">363</a>.<br> -<a name="papyrus"></a><br> -<b>papyrus</b>, manufacture, -<a href="#sect394">394</a>;<br> - rolls, -<a href="#sect396">396</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>PARASOL</small>, -<a href="#sect266">266*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>parentālia</b>, festival of, -<a href="#sect438">438</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>pariēs</b>, house wall, -<a href="#sect210">210</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>pater</b> and derivatives, -<a href="#sect26">26</a>.<br> -<a name="paterfamilias"></a><br> -<b>pater familiās</b>, defined, -<a href="#sect17">17</a>;<br> - powers, see -<a href="#potestas"><b>potestās</b></a>;<br> - adopted into another family, -<a href="#sect30">30</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>patria potestās</b>, see -<a href="#potestas"><b>potestās</b></a>.<br> -<br> -<b>patriciī</b>, sons of fathers, -<a href="#sect64">64</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>patrimōnium prōfundere</b>, -<a href="#sect33">33</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>patrīmus</b>, with a living father, -<a href="#sect82">82</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>patrōnus</b>, derivation of word, -<a href="#sect26">26</a>;<br> - and <b>lībertus</b>, -<a href="#sect175">175</a>;<br> - patrician and client, -<a href="#sect179">179</a>;<br> - and client of later times, -<a href="#sect182">182</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>PAUPERS</small>, burial of, -<a href="#sect423">423</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>PAVEMENT</small>, construction, -<a href="#sect387">387</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>pavīmentum</b>, floor, -<a href="#sect213">213</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>PAY</small> of teachers, -<a href="#sect121">121</a>;<br> - of chariot drivers, -<a href="#sect342">342</a>;<br> - of soldiers, -<a href="#sect410">410</a>.<br> -<a name="peculium"></a><br> -<b>pecūlium</b>, defined, -<a href="#sect33">33</a>;<br> - of slaves, -<a href="#sect162">162</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>pecūnia</b>, meaning, -<a href="#sect273">273</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>pedisequī</b>, lackeys, -<a href="#sect123">123</a>, -<a href="#sect150">150</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>PENS</small>, -<a href="#sect395">395</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>peregrīnus</b>, foreigner, -<a href="#sect69">69</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>PERFUMES</small> at feasts, -<a href="#sect313">313</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>PERISTYLE</small>, -<a href="#sect192">192</a>, -<a href="#sect202">202*</a>;<br> - perhaps a kitchen garden originally, -<a href="#sect197">197</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>pērō</b>, shoe of untanned leather, -<a href="#sect251">251</a>.<br> -<br> -Persius (34-62 <small>A.D.</small>) as a schoolboy, -<a href="#sect124">124</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>pessulī</b>, bolts for doors, -<a href="#sect216">216</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>petasus</b>, hat, -<a href="#sect252">252*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>petōritum</b>, baggage wagon, -<a href="#sect383">383</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>PETS</small> for children, -<a href="#sect103">103</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>PHILOLOGY</small>, defined, -<a href="#sect6">6</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>PHYSICIANS</small>, income and attainments, -<a href="#sect412">412</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>pietās</b>, affection, -<a href="#sect73">73</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>pīlentum</b>, state carriage, -<a href="#sect383">383</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>pilleus</b>, cap of liberty, -<a href="#sect175">175*</a>, -<a href="#sect252">252</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>piscīna</b>, plunge bath, -<a href="#sect367">367</a>, -<a href="#sect370">370</a>, -<a href="#sect376">376*</a>, -<a href="#sect377">377*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>pīstōrēs</b>, millers and bakers, -<a href="#sect283">283</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>PLACES</small>, of honor at dinner, -<a href="#sect305">305*</a>;<br> - in the theater, -<a href="#sect326">326</a>;<br> - in the circus, -<a href="#sect337">337</a>;<br> - in the amphitheater (Pompeii), -<a href="#sect355">355</a>, (Rome), -<a href="#sect358">358</a>;<br> - where gladiators were shown, -<a href="#sect356">356</a>;<br> - of burial, -<a href="#sect421">421</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>PLAN</small>, of theater after Vitruvius, -<a href="#sect327">327</a>;<br> - circus of Maxentius, -<a href="#sect330">330</a>;<br> - of gladiatorial school at Pompeii, -<a href="#sect349">349</a>;<br> - of houses, -<a href="#sect189">189</a>, -<a href="#sect190">190</a>, -<a href="#sect191">191</a>, -<a href="#sect192">192</a>, -<a href="#sect193">193</a>;<br> - of house of Pansa, -<a href="#sect208">208</a>;<br> - of baths, -<a href="#sect371">371</a>, -<a href="#sect376">376</a>, -<a href="#sect378">378</a>;<br> - of inn, -<a href="#sect388">388</a>;<br> - of tombs and grounds, -<a href="#sect425">425</a>, -<a href="#sect426">426</a>.<br> -<br> -Plancus, tomb of, -<a href="#sect420">420*</a>, -<a href="#sect427">427</a>.<br> -<br> -Plautus (†184 <small>B.C.</small>) on <b>puls</b>, -<a href="#sect283">283</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>PLAYTHINGS</small> for children, -<a href="#sect102">102*</a>.<br> -<a name="plebeians"></a><br> -<small>PLEBEIANS</small>, marriages of, -<a href="#sect62">62</a>;<br> - importance of cognates, -<a href="#sect65">65</a>;<br> - gain right of marriage, -<a href="#sect64">64</a>;<br> - old plebeians, -<a href="#sect177">177</a>;<br> - new, -<a href="#sect178">178</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>plēbs</b>, see -<a href="#plebeians"><small>PLEBEIANS</small></a>.<br> -<br> -Pliny, the elder (†79 <small>A.D.</small>), -<a href="#sect352">352</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>pōcula</b>, goblets, -<a href="#sect314">314*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>podium</b>, in circus, -<a href="#sect337">337</a>;<br> - in amphitheater, -<a href="#sect357">357</a>;<br> - in tombs, -<a href="#sect425">425</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>POLITICS</small>, as a career, -<a href="#sect406">406</a>.<br> -<br> -Pollio, Vedius, cruelty of, -<a href="#sect158">158</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>POLYGAMY</small> unknown at Rome, -<a href="#sect61">61</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>pompa circēnsis</b>, parade in circus, -<a href="#sect343">343</a>.<br> -<br> -Pompeii, importance of discoveries at, -<a href="#sect11">11</a>, -<a href="#sect12">12</a>;<br> - house plans, -<a href="#sect187">187</a> f.;<br> - business rooms in private house, -<a href="#sect194">194</a>;<br> - small house at, -<a href="#sect197">197*</a>;<br> - house of poet, -<a href="#sect199">199*</a>;<br> - of Pansa, -<a href="#sect208">208*</a>;<br> - smaller theater at, -<a href="#sect327">327*</a>;<br> - <b>lūdī gladiātōriī</b>, -<a href="#sect350">350*</a>;<br> - amphitheater, -<a href="#sect353">353*</a>;<br> - <b>thermae</b>, -<a href="#sect376">376*</a>;<br> - street of tombs, -<a href="#sect421">421*</a>;<br> - tomb with marble door, -<a href="#sect427">427*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>pondera</b>, stepping-stones, -<a href="#sect233">233*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>pontifex maximus</b>, in marriage ceremony, -<a href="#sect82">82</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>POOR</small>, burial of, -<a href="#sect428">428</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>por</b>, for <b>puer</b> in names, -<a href="#sect58">58</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>PORK</small>, favorite meat, -<a href="#sect278">278</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>PORRIDGE</small>, -<a href="#sect283">283</a>, -<a href="#sect286">286</a>, -<a href="#sect299">299</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>porta triumphālis</b> in circus, -<a href="#sect330">330</a>;<br> - <b>pompae</b>, -<a href="#sect330">330</a>;<br> - <b>Libitinēnsis</b>, -<a href="#sect354">354</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>POSITION</small> of women, -<a href="#sect90">90</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>POSTAL</small> service, -<a href="#sect389">389</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>postīcum</b>, garden door, -<a href="#sect216">216</a>.<br> -<a name="potestas"></a><br> -<b>potestās</b>, <b>patria</b>, -<a href="#sect31">31</a>;<br> - limitations, -<a href="#sect32">32</a>, -<a href="#sect73">73</a>;<br> - extinguished, -<a href="#sect34">34</a>;<br> - suspension of, -<a href="#sect34">34</a>;<br> - <b>dominica</b>, -<a href="#sect37">37</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>POTTER</small>'s <small>FIELD</small> at Rome, -<a href="#sect423">423</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>praecīnctiō</b>, in theater, -<a href="#sect327">327</a>;<br> - in circus, -<a href="#sect337">337</a>;<br> - in coliseum, -<a href="#sect358">358</a>.<br> -<a name="praenomen"></a><br> -<b>praenōmen</b>, first name, -<a href="#sect41">41</a>;<br> - number, -<a href="#sect41">41</a>;<br> - abbreviations, -<a href="#sect41">41</a>, -<a href="#sect45">45</a>;<br> - limited in certain families, -<a href="#sect42">42</a>;<br> - given to firstborn son, -<a href="#sect43">43</a>;<br> - meanings of, -<a href="#sect44">44</a>;<br> - two in one name, -<a href="#sect55">55</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>prandium</b>, luncheon, -<a href="#sect302">302</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>PRICES</small>, of baths, -<a href="#sect373">373</a>;<br> - books, -<a href="#sect401">401</a>;<br> - houses, -<a href="#sect221">221</a>, note;<br> - meals, -<a href="#sect388">388</a>;<br> - slaves, -<a href="#sect140">140</a>;<br> - tables, -<a href="#sect227">227</a>;<br> - wines, -<a href="#sect298">298</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>PRIMITIVE</small> house, -<a href="#sect188">188</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>prīmus pālus</b>, title of honor, -<a href="#sect363">363</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>PRIVATE</small>, antiquities, -<a href="#sect2">2</a>;<br> - slaves, -<a href="#sect141">142</a> f.;<br> - bathhouse at Caerwent, -<a href="#sect371">371*</a>;<br> - games, -<a href="#sect322">322</a>;<br> - rooms in house, -<a href="#sect203">203</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>PROCESSION</small>, bridal, -<a href="#sect86">86</a>;<br> - in circus, -<a href="#sect343">343</a>;<br> - in the amphitheater, -<a href="#sect362">362</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>prōcūrātor</b>, steward, -<a href="#sect149">149</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>PROFESSIONS</small> in hands of freedmen and foreigners, -<a href="#sect412">412</a>;<br> - even of slaves, -<a href="#sect143">143</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>PROLETARIATE</small>, -<a href="#sect411">411</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>prōlūsiō</b>, sham fight, -<a href="#sect362">362</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>prōmulsis</b>, appetizer, -<a href="#sect308">308</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>prōnuba</b>, matron of honor, -<a href="#sect81">81</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>PROVINCES</small>, corruption in, -<a href="#sect406">406</a>, -<a href="#sect409">409</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>PUBLIC</small>, antiquities, -<a href="#sect2">2</a>;<br> - baths, -<a href="#sect372">372</a> f., -<a href="#sect376">376*</a>, -<a href="#sect377">377*</a>;<br> - fountains, -<a href="#sect233">233*</a>;<br> - games, -<a href="#sect322">322</a>;<br> - opinion, in case of children, -<a href="#sect32">32</a>, -<a href="#sect33">33</a>;<br> - in case of slaves, -<a href="#sect156">156</a>.<br> -<br> -"<small>PUBLICANS</small> and sinners," -<a href="#sect409">409</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>PUBLICATION</small> of books, -<a href="#sect400">400</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>puer</b>, for <b>servus</b>, -<a href="#sect58">58</a>;<br> - written por, -<a href="#sect58">58</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>pugillārēs</b>, writing tablets in sets, -<a href="#sect391">391*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>puls</b>, ancient national diet, -<a href="#sect283">283</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>pultiphagōnidae</b>, -<a href="#sect299">299</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>PUNISHMENTS</small> of schoolboys, -<a href="#sect120">120*</a>, -<a href="#sect124">124</a>;<br> - of slaves, -<a href="#sect166">166</a> f.<br> -<br> -<b>pūp</b>(<b>us</b>), of unnamed child, -<a href="#sect55">55</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>PURPLE</small> or crimson, -<a href="#sect270">270</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>puticulī</b>, gravepits, -<a href="#sect423">423</a>.<br> -<br> -<br> -Q<br> -<br> -<b>quadrāns</b>, regular bath charge, -<a href="#sect373">373</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>quadrīgae</b>, in races, -<a href="#sect340">340</a>.<br> -<br> -<br> -R<br> -<br> -<small>RACEHORSES</small>, -<a href="#sect339">339</a> f.<br> -<br> -<small>RACES</small> in circus, -<a href="#sect339">339</a> f.;<br> - teams, -<a href="#sect340">340</a>;<br> - drivers, -<a href="#sect341">341</a>;<br> - syndicates, -<a href="#sect339">339</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>RACING</small> syndicates, -<a href="#sect339">339</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>RAPE</small> of the Sabines, -<a href="#sect86">86</a>, -<a href="#sect87">87</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>READING</small>, how taught, -<a href="#sect110">110</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>rēda</b>, carriage, -<a href="#sect384">384</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>REFERENCE</small> books, -<a href="#sect13">13</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>RELATIONSHIPS</small>, <b>agnātī</b>, -<a href="#sect23">23</a>;<br> - <b>cognātī</b>, -<a href="#sect25">25</a>;<br> - <b>adfīnēs</b>, -<a href="#sect26">26</a>.<br> -<a name="renuntiare"></a><br> -<b>renūntiāre</b>, break an engagement to marry, -<a href="#sect71">71</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>repōtia</b>, -<a href="#sect85">85</a>, -<a href="#sect89">89</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>repudium renūntiāre</b>, see -<a href="#renuntiare"><b>renūntiāre</b></a>.<br> -<br> -<b>rētiāriī</b>, gladiators with nets, -<a href="#sect359">359</a>, -<a href="#sect360">360*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>rēticula</b>, nets for the hair, -<a href="#sect264">264</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>REWARDS</small> of <b>aurīgae</b>, -<a href="#sect341">341</a>;<br> - of gladiators, -<a href="#sect363">363</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>rēx bibendī</b>, lord of the feast, -<a href="#sect313">313</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>RICE</small> in modern wedding festivities, -<a href="#sect87">87</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>RINGS</small>, engagement, -<a href="#sect71">71</a>;<br> - men's, -<a href="#sect255">255</a>;<br> - women's, -<a href="#sect267">267</a>;<br> - worn on joint, -<a href="#sect256">256</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>ROADS</small>, -<a href="#sect385">385*</a>-<a href="#sect387">387*</a>.<br> -<br> -Romulus, legislation of, -<a href="#sect32">32</a>, -<a href="#sect95">95</a>;<br> - wall of, -<a href="#sect210">210*</a>;<br> - hut of, -<a href="#sect214">214*</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>ROOF</small>, of peristyle, -<a href="#sect202">202*</a>;<br> - construction of, -<a href="#sect214">214*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>rosāria</b>, feast of roses, -<a href="#sect438">438</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>rudēs</b>, fencing swords, -<a href="#sect349">349</a>;<br> - with <b>prīma</b> or <b>secunda</b>, -<a href="#sect363">363</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>rūdus</b>, in roads, -<a href="#sect387">387*</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>RUNAWAY</small> slaves, -<a href="#sect161">161</a>, -<a href="#sect172">172*</a>.<br> -<br> -<br> -S<br> -<br> -<b>sacra gentīlīcia</b>, -<a href="#sect22">22</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>sacrārium</b>, private chapel, -<a href="#sect207">207*</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>SADDLES</small>, not used by Romans, -<a href="#sect381">381</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>sagīna gladiātōria</b>, training food, -<a href="#sect349">349</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>sagum</b>, military cloak, -<a href="#sect247">247</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>SALADS</small>, -<a href="#sect276">276</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>SALES</small> of captives, -<a href="#sect134">134</a>;<br> - of slaves, -<a href="#sect139">139</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>SALTCELLAR</small> of silver, -<a href="#sect299">299</a>;<br> - always on table, -<a href="#sect307">307</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>salūtātiō</b>, morning levee, -<a href="#sect182">182</a>.<br> -<br> -"<b>Samnītēs</b>," name for gladiators, -<a href="#sect359">359</a>, -<a href="#sect360">360*</a>;<br> - later called <b>secūtōrēs</b> or <b>hoplomachī</b>, -<a href="#sect360">360</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>SANDALS</small>, see -<a href="#slippers"><small>SLIPPERS</small></a>.<br> -<br> -<b>sarcophagus</b> -<a href="#sect436">436*</a>, -<a href="#sect428">428</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>SAVINGS</small> of slaves, -<a href="#sect162">162</a>-<a href="#sect164">164</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>SCALES</small>, in marriage ceremony, -<a href="#sect83">83</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>scāpus</b>, fixed quantity of paper, -<a href="#sect394">394</a>, -<a href="#sect398">398</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>schēdae</b>, sheets of paper, -<a href="#sect395">395</a>.<br> -<a name="schools"></a><br> -<small>SCHOOLS</small>, -<a href="#chap4">Chap. IV</a>. See -<a href="#contents">Table of Contents</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>SCHOOLS</small> for gladiators, -<a href="#sect349">349*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>scrībae</b>, in civil service, -<a href="#sect414">414</a>;<br> - as copyists, see -<a href="#librarii"><b>librāriī</b></a>.<br> -<br> -<b>scrīnium</b>, case for books, -<a href="#sect397">397*</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>SEALS</small>, -<a href="#sect255">255*</a>, -<a href="#sect392">392</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>SEATS</small>, in theater, of classes, -<a href="#sect326">326</a>;<br> - arrangement, -<a href="#sect327">327</a>;<br> - in circus, -<a href="#sect337">337</a>;<br> - in amphitheater (Pompeii), -<a href="#sect355">355</a>, (Rome), -<a href="#sect358">358</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>secunda mēnsa</b>, -<a href="#sect308">308</a>, -<a href="#sect309">309</a>, -<a href="#sect311">311</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>secūtōrēs</b>, later name for "<b>Samnītēs</b>," -<a href="#sect360">360</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>SEDAN CHAIRS</small>, in travel, -<a href="#sect382">382</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>sella curūlis</b>, -<a href="#sect225">225*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>sēmitae</b>, sidewalks, -<a href="#sect387">387</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>sepulcrum</b>, -<a href="#sect425">425</a>, -<a href="#sect436">436</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>serae</b>, bars, -<a href="#sect216">216</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>Servius</b> and <b>Sergius</b>, derivation, -<a href="#sect41">41</a>.<br> -<br> -Servius, grammarian (4th cent. <small>A.D.</small>), -<a href="#sect434">434</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>SEVENTEEN</small>, time of coming of age, -<a href="#sect126">126</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>SHIPS</small>, travel by, -<a href="#sect380">380</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>SHOES</small>, -<a href="#sect251">251*</a>, -<a href="#sect262">262*</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>SHOWS</small> of gladiators. See -<a href="#munera">mūnera</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>SHUTTERS</small> for windows, -<a href="#sect217">217</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>SIDEWALKS</small>, -<a href="#sect233">233</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>SIGNS</small> of mercy in amphitheater, -<a href="#sect362">362</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>silicernium</b>, funeral feast, -<a href="#sect436">436</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>SILK</small> goods, -<a href="#sect269">269</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>sine missiōne</b>, "to the death," -<a href="#sect362">362</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>SIZE</small> of books, -<a href="#sect398">398</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>SLAVEHUNTERS</small>, -<a href="#sect161">161</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>SLAVERY</small> and clientage, -<a href="#sect180">180</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>SLAVES</small>, -<a href="#chap5">Chap. V</a>. See -<a href="#contents">Table of Contents</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>SLEEPING</small> rooms, -<a href="#sect205">205</a>.<br> -<a name="slippers"></a><br> -<small>SLIPPERS</small>, -<a href="#sect250">250*</a>, -<a href="#sect262">262*</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>SMOKE</small> to ripen wine, -<a href="#sect297">297</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>sōlārium</b>, place to take the sun, -<a href="#sect207">207</a>, -<a href="#sect426">426</a>;<br> - sun-dial, -<a href="#sect232">232</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>SOLDIERS</small>, career, -<a href="#sect410">410</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>soleae</b>, -<a href="#sect250">250*</a>, -<a href="#sect262">262*</a>;<br> - <b>soleās poscere</b>, "to take leave," -<a href="#sect250">250</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>solium</b>, chair, -<a href="#sect226">226*</a>;<br> - basin in bath, -<a href="#sect369">369</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>sōlum</b>, floor, -<a href="#sect213">213</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>sordidātī</b>, in mourning garb, -<a href="#sect246">246</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>sortēs virīlis</b>, a shareholder's part, -<a href="#sect430">430</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>SOURCES</small> of philological knowledge, literary, -<a href="#sect9">9</a>;<br> - epigraphic, -<a href="#sect10">10</a>;<br> - monumental, -<a href="#sect11">11</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>Sp.</b>, abbreviation for <b>Spurius</b>, -<a href="#sect41">41</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>sp.</b>, abbreviation for <b>spectāvit populus</b>, -<a href="#sect363">363</a>.<br> -<br> -Spartacus, -<a href="#sect132">132</a>, -<a href="#sect172">172</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>spatium</b>, lap in circus, -<a href="#sect331">331</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>SPEED</small>, in travel, -<a href="#sect389">389</a>;<br> - in writing, -<a href="#sect401">401</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>spīna</b> in circus, -<a href="#sect331">331*</a>, -<a href="#sect336">336*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>spīna alba</b>, of wedding torch, -<a href="#sect86">86</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>SPINNING</small> wheel, -<a href="#sect199">199</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>SPLITTING</small> up of a house, -<a href="#sect19">19</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>spondeō</b>, technical word in contract, -<a href="#sect71">71</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>spōnsa</b>, of a girl betrothed, -<a href="#sect71">71</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>spōnsālia</b>, ceremony of betrothal, -<a href="#sect70">70</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>SPORT</small>, Roman idea of, -<a href="#sect316">316</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>SPORTS</small> of the campus, -<a href="#sect317">317</a>;<br> - of children, -<a href="#sect102">102</a>, -<a href="#sect103">103</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>sportula</b>, the clients' dole, -<a href="#sect182">182</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>STAGE</small>, early, -<a href="#sect325">325</a>;<br> - later, -<a href="#sect326">326</a> f.;<br> - of Vitruvius, -<a href="#sect327">327*</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>STAGING</small> a play, -<a href="#sect324">324</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>statūmen</b> in roads, -<a href="#sect387">387</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>STEPPING-STONES</small> in streets, -<a href="#sect233">233*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>stilus</b>, for writing, -<a href="#sect391">391</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>stola</b>, -<a href="#sect259">259</a>, -<a href="#sect260">260*</a>;<br> - <b>mātrōnālis</b>, -<a href="#sect91">91</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>STOOLS</small>, -<a href="#sect225">225*</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>STOVE</small>, for cooking, -<a href="#sect203">203*</a>;<br> - for heating, -<a href="#sect218">218*</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>STREET</small>, appearance, -<a href="#sect233">233*</a>;<br> - construction, -<a href="#sect387">387</a>;<br> - closed to vehicles, -<a href="#sect382">382</a>;<br> - of tombs at Pompeii, -<a href="#sect421">421*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>strigilēs</b>, flesh scrapers, -<a href="#sect367">367*</a>, -<a href="#sect370">370</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>strophium</b>, girdle, -<a href="#sect258">258</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>STUCCO</small>, as finish for exterior wall, -<a href="#sect212">212</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>STYLE</small> of living, -<a href="#sect299">299</a>;<br> - of bathing, -<a href="#sect367">367</a>.<br> -<br> -Styx, passage of, -<a href="#sect433">433</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>suāsōria</b>, debates in schools, -<a href="#sect115">115</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>sub hastā vēnīre</b>, auction sale, -<a href="#sect134">134</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>SUBJECTS</small> taught in schools, -<a href="#chap4">Chap. IV</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>subligāculum</b>, loin cloth, -<a href="#sect235">235</a>, -<a href="#sect257">257</a> .<br> -<br> -<b>subūcula</b>, under-tunic, -<a href="#sect237">237</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>sūdāria</b>, handkerchiefs, -<a href="#sect266">266</a>.<br> -<br> -Suetonius (about 75-160), -<a href="#sect390">390</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>SUICIDE</small> of captives and slaves, -<a href="#sect140">140*</a>, -<a href="#sect161">161</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>suī iūris</b>, independent, -<a href="#sect17">17</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>Sulla</b> and <b>Sura</b>, derivation, -<a href="#sect55">55</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>SUPPLY</small> of gladiators, -<a href="#sect347">347</a>;<br> - of slaves, -<a href="#sect134">134</a>;<br> - of horses for racing, -<a href="#sect339">339</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>Sura</b>, derivation, -<a href="#sect55">55</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>susceptiō</b>, acknowledgment of children, -<a href="#sect95">95</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>SUSPENSION</small> of <b>potestās</b>, -<a href="#sect34">34</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>suspēnsūra</b>, elevated floor of bath room, -<a href="#sect368">368*</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>SWEAT</small> bath, dry, -<a href="#sect367">367</a>;<br> - moist, -<a href="#sect369">369</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>synthesis</b>, dinner dress, -<a href="#sect249">249</a>.<br> -<br> -<br> -T<br> -<br> -<b>tabellae</b>, for writing, -<a href="#sect110">110*</a>, -<a href="#sect391">391*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>tabellāriī</b>, letter carriers, -<a href="#sect389">389</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>TABLE</small> knives and forks unknown, -<a href="#sect299">299</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>TABLES</small>, cost, kinds, materials, -<a href="#sect227">227*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>tablīnum</b>, in early house, -<a href="#sect190">190</a>;<br> - in later house, -<a href="#sect201">201</a>;<br> - meaning of word, -<a href="#sect201">201</a>.<br> -<br> -Tacitus (about 55-117) on the toga, -<a href="#sect133">133</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>Talassiō</b>, marriage cry, -<a href="#sect87">87</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>tālī</b>, knuckle-bones, -<a href="#sect320">320*</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>TEACHERS</small>, -<a href="#sect121">121</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>tēcta</b>, roofs, -<a href="#sect214">214</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>tēgulae</b>, tiles, -<a href="#sect214">214*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>tepidārium</b>, purpose, -<a href="#sect366">366</a>;<br> - other uses, -<a href="#sect367">367</a>;<br> - position, -<a href="#sect368">368</a>;<br> - unusual size, -<a href="#sect371">371*</a>;<br> - several in one bath, -<a href="#sect376">376*</a>;<br> - in the large <b>thermae</b>, -<a href="#sect377">377</a>;<br> - with cold bath, -<a href="#sect370">370</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>tessera gladiātōria</b>, -<a href="#sect363">363*</a>;<br> - <b>hospitālis</b>, -<a href="#sect185">185</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>THEATER</small>, early, -<a href="#sect325">325</a>;<br> - later, -<a href="#sect326">326</a>;<br> - of Vitruvius, -<a href="#sect327">327*</a>;<br> - at Pompeii, -<a href="#sect327">327*</a>;<br> - at Orange, -<a href="#sect327">327*</a>;<br> - of Pompeius, -<a href="#sect326">326</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>thermae</b>, meaning, -<a href="#sect372">372</a>;<br> - plan of small, -<a href="#sect376">376*</a>;<br> - of large, -<a href="#sect378">378*</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>THIRD FINGER</small> for engagement ring, -<a href="#sect71">71</a>.<br> -<br> -"<b>Thracians</b>," gladiators, -<a href="#sect360">360*</a>, -<a href="#sect361">361</a>.<br> -<br> -"<small>THUMBS</small> down," signal for death, -<a href="#sect362">362</a>.<br> -<br> -Tiberius (Emperor, 14-37 <small>A.D.</small>), -<a href="#sect274">274</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>tībiālia</b>, wrappings for the legs, -<a href="#sect239">239</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>TILES</small>, for roofs, etc., -<a href="#sect214">214*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>tīrōcinium forī</b>, -<a href="#sect117">117</a>;<br> - <b>mīlitiae</b>, -<a href="#sect118">118</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>tīrōnēs</b>, of untrained gladiators, -<a href="#sect118">118</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>titulus</b>, description of slave, -<a href="#sect139">139</a>;<br> - in <b>columbāria</b>, -<a href="#sect429">429</a>, -<a href="#sect431">431*</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>TOAST-MASTER</small>, -<a href="#sect313">313</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>TOASTS</small>, -<a href="#sect314">314</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>TOGA</small>, material and use, -<a href="#sect240">240</a>;<br> - appearance, -<a href="#sect241">241*</a>;<br> - in literature, -<a href="#sect242">242*</a>;<br> - on the monuments, -<a href="#sect243">243*</a>;<br> - cumbrous and uncomfortable, -<a href="#sect244">244</a>;<br> - earlier toga, -<a href="#sect245">245*</a>;<br> - kinds of, -<a href="#sect246">246</a>;<br> - see also the Latin word below.<br> -<br> -<b>toga</b>, see the English word above;<br> - <b>candida</b>, -<a href="#sect246">246</a>;<br> - <b>lībera</b>, -<a href="#sect127">127</a>;<br> - <b>picta</b>, -<a href="#sect246">246</a>;<br> - <b>pulla</b>, -<a href="#sect246">246</a>;<br> - <b>pūra</b>, -<a href="#sect246">246</a>;<br> - <b>praetexta</b>, -<a href="#sect76">76</a>, -<a href="#sect125">125</a>, -<a href="#sect246">246</a>;<br> - <b>splendēns</b>, -<a href="#sect246">246</a>;<br> - <b>virīlis</b>, -<a href="#sect125">125</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>TOILET</small> articles, -<a href="#sect265">265*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>tollere</b>, acknowledge a child, -<a href="#sect44">44</a>, -<a href="#sect95">95</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>TOMBS</small>, -<a href="#sect422">422</a> f.<br> -<br> -<b>tōnsor</b>, barber and barber-shop, -<a href="#sect254">254</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>TORCHES</small>, at funerals, -<a href="#sect434">434</a>;<br> - weddings, -<a href="#sect86">86</a>, -<a href="#sect89">89</a>.<br> -<br> -"To the lions," -<a href="#sect364">364</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>TOWN-SLAVES</small>, -<a href="#sect159">159</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>trabea</b>, cloak for men, -<a href="#sect247">247</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>TRADES</small>, -<a href="#sect412">412</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>TRAINERS</small> of gladiators, -<a href="#sect349">349</a>, -<a href="#sect363">363</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>TRAVEL</small>, -<a href="#chap10">Chap. X</a>. See -<a href="#contents">Table of Contents</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>TRAVELING</small> cloak, -<a href="#sect248">248</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>TREADING</small> grapes for wine, -<a href="#sect296">296*</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>TREATMENT</small> of slaves, -<a href="#sect158">158</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>trīclīnium</b>, dining-room, -<a href="#sect204">204</a>, -<a href="#sect304">304*</a>;<br> - in court, -<a href="#sect204">204*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>trigōn</b>, three handed ball, -<a href="#sect318">318</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>TRIPLE</small> name, -<a href="#sect38">38</a>;<br> - expanded, -<a href="#sect39">39</a>;<br> - shortened, -<a href="#sect40">40</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>Tullus</b>, meaning, -<a href="#sect44">44</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>TUNIC</small>, -<a href="#sect236">236*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>tunica</b>, -<a href="#sect236">236*</a>;<br> - <b>angustī clāvī</b>, -<a href="#sect238">238</a>;<br> - <b>lātī clāvī</b>, -<a href="#sect238">238</a>;<br> - <b>exterior</b> (men's), -<a href="#sect237">237</a>;<br> - (women's), -<a href="#sect259">259*</a>;<br> - <b>interior</b>, -<a href="#sect237">237</a>, -<a href="#sect258">258</a>;<br> - <b>manicāta</b>, -<a href="#sect237">237</a>;<br> - <b>tālāris</b>, -<a href="#sect239">239</a>;<br> - <b>rēcta</b>, -<a href="#sect76">76</a>;<br> - <b>rēgilla</b>, -<a href="#sect76">76</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>Tūscanicum ātrium</b>, -<a href="#sect196">196</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>tūtor</b>, guardian, -<a href="#sect19">19</a>, -<a href="#sect70">70</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>TWELVE TABLES</small> (450 <small>B.C.</small>), in the schools, -<a href="#sect111">111</a>;<br> - mention both burial and burning of dead, -<a href="#sect420">420</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>tyrotarīchus</b>, a dish of cheese and salt fish, -<a href="#sect280">280</a>.<br> -<br> -<br> -U<br> -<br> -<b>umbella</b>, parasol, -<a href="#sect266">266*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>umbilīcus</b>, of a papyrus roll, -<a href="#sect397">397</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>umbōnēs</b>, of a road, -<a href="#sect387">387</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>umbrāculum</b>, parasol, -<a href="#sect266">266*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>umbrae</b>, unexpected guests, -<a href="#sect304">304</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>ūnctōrium</b>, use, -<a href="#sect366">366</a>;<br> - makeshift for, -<a href="#sect367">367</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>UNLUCKY</small> days, -<a href="#sect75">75</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>URNS</small>, for ashes of dead, see -<a href="#ollae"><b>ollae</b></a>.<br> -<br> -<b>ūstrīna</b>, place for private cremation, -<a href="#sect426">426</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>ūsus</b>, of marriage, definition, -<a href="#sect62">62</a>;<br> - ceremony of, -<a href="#sect84">84</a>.<br> -<br> -<br> -V<br> -<br> -<b>v.</b>, for <b>vīcit</b>, of gladiators, -<a href="#sect361">361</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>vappa</b>, term of reproach, -<a href="#sect297">297</a>, note.<br> -<br> -Varro (116-28 <small>B.C.</small>), -<a href="#sect253">253</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>VEGETABLES</small> grown by Romans, -<a href="#sect275">275</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>VEGETARIANS</small>, early Romans, -<a href="#sect299">299</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>VEHICLES</small>, used for travel, -<a href="#sect382">382</a> f.<br> -<br> -<b>vēla</b>, portières, -<a href="#sect216">216</a>;<br> - awnings, -<a href="#sect358">358</a>, -<a href="#sect361">361</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>vēnātiōnēs</b>, hunts in circus and amphitheater, -<a href="#sect343">343</a>, -<a href="#sect364">364</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>ventrālia</b>, wrappings for the body, -<a href="#sect239">239</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>Venus</b>, the high throw, -<a href="#sect320">320</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>vernae</b>, slaves born in the house, -<a href="#sect138">138</a>;<br> - of Atticus, -<a href="#sect155">155</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>Verrēs</b>, as a <b>nōmen</b>, -<a href="#sect46">46</a>;<br> - the governor of Sicily, -<a href="#sect406">406</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>vesperna</b>, evening meal in country, -<a href="#sect302">302</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>Vestālēs</b>, special seats in theater, -<a href="#sect327">327</a>;<br> - in amphitheater, -<a href="#sect357">357</a>;<br> - allowed carriages in the city, -<a href="#sect382">382</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>vestibulum</b>, space before the door, -<a href="#sect194">194</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>via Appia</b>, -<a href="#sect385">385*</a>, -<a href="#sect387">387*</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>vicārius</b>, a slave's slave, -<a href="#sect164">164</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>vīlicus</b>, overseer, -<a href="#sect145">145</a>, -<a href="#sect148">148</a>;<br> - cheats slaves, -<a href="#sect160">160</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>VILLAS</small> of the rich, -<a href="#sect145">145</a>, -<a href="#sect379">379</a>, -<a href="#sect416">416</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>vīnālia rūstica</b>, festival, -<a href="#sect296">296</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>VINEGAR</small>, -<a href="#sect281">281</a>, -<a href="#sect297">297</a>, note.<br> -<br> -<small>VINEYARD</small>, -<a href="#sect295">295</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>vīnum</b>, fermented wine, -<a href="#sect297">297</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>violāria</b>, feast of violets, -<a href="#sect438">438</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>VITICULTURE</small>, -<a href="#sect293">293</a>, -<a href="#sect294">294</a>.<br> -<br> -Vitruvius, architect of the first century, -<a href="#sect187">187</a>, -<a href="#sect327">327</a>, -<a href="#sect366">366</a>, -<a href="#sect387">387</a>.<br> -<br> -<b>volūmen</b>, papyrus roll, -<a href="#sect396">396</a>. See -<a href="#books"><small>BOOKS</small></a>.<br> -<br> -<small>VULTURE</small>, the lowest throw, -<a href="#sect320">320</a>.<br> -<br> -<br> -W<br> -<br> -<small>WALL</small>, of house, -<a href="#sect210">210</a> f.;<br> - facing for, -<a href="#sect212">212*</a>;<br> - around arena, -<a href="#sect354">354*</a>, -<a href="#sect357">357*</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>WATER</small>, supply for houses, -<a href="#sect219">219</a>;<br> - for baths, -<a href="#sect368">368</a>;<br> - traveling by, -<a href="#sect380">380</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>WAX</small> masks, of the dead, -<a href="#sect433">433</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>WEDDING</small>, see -<a href="#marriage"><small>MARRIAGE</small></a>;<br> - day, -<a href="#sect75">75</a>;<br> - feast, -<a href="#sect85">85</a>;<br> - garments, -<a href="#sect76">76</a>;<br> - torch, -<a href="#sect86">86</a>, -<a href="#sect89">89</a>;<br> - procession, -<a href="#sect86">86</a>.<br> -<br> -Whitney (1827-1894), definition of Philology, -<a href="#sect6">6</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>WINDOWS</small>, -<a href="#sect217">217*</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>WINE</small>, in Italy, -<a href="#sect293">293</a>;<br> - districts, -<a href="#sect294">294</a>;<br> - making, -<a href="#sect296">296*</a>;<br> - vaults, -<a href="#sect297">297*</a>;<br> - jars, -<a href="#sect297">297</a> (Fig. 116);<br> - drunk diluted, -<a href="#sect298">298</a>;<br> - cost, -<a href="#sect298">298</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>WOMEN</small>, names of, -<a href="#sect57">57</a>;<br> - position of, -<a href="#sect90">90</a>;<br> - education of, -<a href="#sect92">92</a>;<br> - dress of, -<a href="#sect257">257</a> f.;<br> - at table, -<a href="#sect302">302</a>, -<a href="#sect304">304*</a>;<br> - at amphitheater, -<a href="#sect353">353</a>, -<a href="#sect358">358</a>;<br> - at baths, -<a href="#sect375">375</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>WOOL</small> for clothing, -<a href="#sect269">269</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>WORDS</small> of style in contracts, -<a href="#sect70">70</a>;<br> - at funerals, -<a href="#sect434">434</a>.<br> -<br> -<small>WRITING</small>, how taught, -<a href="#sect110">110</a>;<br> - of books, -<a href="#sect398">398</a>.<br> -<br> -<br> -Z<br> -<br> -<b>zōna</b>, girdle, -<a href="#sect260">260*</a>.<br> -<br> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Private Life of the Romans, by -Harold Whetstone Johnston - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PRIVATE LIFE OF THE ROMANS *** - -***** This file should be named 40549-h.htm or 40549-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/0/5/4/40549/ - -Produced by Ron Swanson - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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