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diff --git a/40423-8.txt b/40423-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index f26e681..0000000 --- a/40423-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,2221 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's Lessons in the Art of Illuminating, by W. J. Loftie - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Lessons in the Art of Illuminating - A Series of Examples selected from Works in the British - Museum, Lambeth Palace Library, and the South Kensington - Museum. - -Author: W. J. Loftie - -Release Date: August 6, 2012 [EBook #40423] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LESSONS IN THE ART OF ILLUMINATING *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Matthew Wheaton and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - LESSONS IN THE ART OF ILLUMINATING. - - - [Illustration: PLATE IX.--FACSIMILE PAGE OF A BOOK OF HOURS, - 15TH CENTURY.] - - - _VERE FOSTER'S WATER-COLOR SERIES._ - - - LESSONS IN THE ART OF ILLUMINATING - - A Series of Examples selected from - Works in the British Museum, - Lambeth Palace Library, - and the South Kensington Museum. - - With Practical Instructions, - And A Sketch Of The History Of The Art, - - By - - W. J. LOFTIE, B.A., F.S.A., - - AUTHOR OF "A HISTORY OF LONDON," - "MEMORIALS OF THE SAVOY PALACE," - "A CENTURY OF BIBLES," - "A PLEA FOR ART IN THE HOUSE," ETC. - - LONDON: BLACKIE & SON; GLASGOW, EDINBURGH, AND DUBLIN. - - -THE COLORED ILLUSTRATIONS ARE PRINTED BY W. G. BLACKIE & CO., GLASGOW, -FROM DRAWINGS BY J. A. BURT. - -_The Ornamental Border and Initial of the Title-page are interesting -examples of Italian work of the fifteenth century. They are from the -Harleian Collection, British Museum (3109 and 4902) different works, -but evidently executed by the same hand. The Colors are represented in -the engraving by means of lines (as explained on page 18), so that by -the aid of these directions the student can reproduce them in the -colors employed in the original MSS._ - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - TITLE-PAGE--Border and Initial, Italian Work of fifteenth century. - - GENERAL SKETCH OF THE ART OF ILLUMINATING, - Example of Illumination by Giulio Clovio, - Sixteenth-century Writing, from "Albert Durer's Prayer-Book," - - PRACTICAL INSTRUCTIONS AS TO MATERIALS AND MODES OF WORKING, - - ILLUMINATED PLATE I.--Initials by English Illuminators of the twelfth - and thirteenth centuries, - Description of Plate I., - French Initials, from an Alphabet of the fifteenth century, - - ILLUMINATED PLATE II.--Twelve Initial Letters from French Manuscript - of the fifteenth century, - Description of Plate II., - Large Initial Letter of the twelfth century, from Harleian MSS. - 3045, British Museum, - - ILLUMINATED PLATE III.--Examples of thirteenth-century work from two - Manuscripts in the British Museum, - Description of Plate III., - Outline Drawings of two pages of a Book of Hours of the fourteenth - century, - - ILLUMINATED PLATE IV.--Facsimile page of a Manuscript in Lambeth - Palace Library--fifteenth century, - Description of Plate IV., - Outline Drawings of two pages of a Book of Hours of the fourteenth - century, - - ILLUMINATED PLATE V.--Ornaments and large Initial from Manuscripts of - the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries in the British Museum and - South Kensington Museum, - Description of Plate V., - Outline Drawings of Bands and Border Ornaments of the fourteenth - century, - - ILLUMINATED PLATE VI.--A full page and separate Initials from a Book - of Hours (Low Countries, fifteenth century), and Border from - Manuscript in British Museum, - Description of Plate VI., - French Initial Letters and Border Ornaments of the fourteenth - century, - - ILLUMINATED PLATE VII.--Borders of Thirteenth and Fourteenth - Centuries,--and Heraldic Designs, from Manuscripts in British Museum - and Heralds' College, - Description of Plate VII., - Outline Drawing of Border and Text, with Adoration of the Three - Kings, sixteenth century, - - ILLUMINATED PLATE VIII.--Examples from the Book of Kells (ninth - century), in Library of Trinity College, Dublin, - Description of Plate VIII., - Outline Drawings of Early Irish Initial Letters, - - ILLUMINATED PLATE IX.--Facsimile page of a Book of Hours in Lambeth - Palace Library--early in fifteenth century, - Description of Plate IX., - - - _The outlined initials on pp. xv, 9, 13, 21, 25, 29, and 33 are - taken from a manuscript of the fifteenth century, preserved at - Nuremberg. The originals are very highly but delicately - colored, the ground being gold; the body of the letter, black; - and the scroll work and foliage pink, blue, green, and yellow. - The book, which is dated 1489, is a treatise entitled the - "Preservation of Body, Soul, Honour, and Goods." The tailpieces - throughout represent heraldic animals, from the Rows Roll and - other authentic sources._ - -[Illustration: HERALDIC BOAR.] - - - - -THE ART OF ILLUMINATING. - -GENERAL SKETCH. - - -Perhaps the art of Illumination, although it is closely connected with -that of Writing, may be entitled to a separate history. Men could -write long before it occurred to them to ornament their writings: and -the modern student will find that what he looks upon as genuine -illumination is not to be traced back many centuries. True one or two -Roman manuscripts are in existence which may be dated soon after A.D. -200, and which are illustrated rather than illuminated with pictures. -But the medieval art, and especially that branch of it which -flourished in our own country, has a different origin, and sprang from -the system, not of illustration, but of pure ornamentation, which -prevailed in Ireland before the eighth century, but which reached its -highest development among the Oriental Moslems. The works of the Irish -school were for long and are sometimes still called "Anglo-Saxon," and -there can be no doubt that the Irish missionaries brought with them to -Iona and to Lindisfarne the traditions and practice of the art, which -they taught, with Christianity, to the heathens of England. I will -therefore refer the reader who desires to know more of palæography in -general, and of the principal foreign schools of the art of writing, -to the great works of M. Sylvestre, of Messieurs Wyatt and Tymms, of -Henry Shaw, and Miss Stokes, and to various isolated papers in the -Transactions of the Antiquarian Societies; and I will begin with the -earliest practice of the art in our own country and by our own -ancestors. - -During the eighth century rivalry to Irish art sprung up in the south; -and the immediate followers of St. Augustine of Canterbury founded a -scriptorium which produced many fine specimens. In less than two -centuries a very high standard had been reached, and many of my -readers will remember the Utrecht Psalter, as it is called, which, -though it is one of the oldest Anglo-Saxon MSS. now preserved, is full -of spirited drawings of figures and of illuminated capital letters. -The volume formerly belonged to England, but was lost, and -subsequently turned up in Holland. By the tenth century the art had -reached such a pitch of perfection that we find a charter of King -Edgar wholly written in letters of gold. The Duke of Devonshire -possesses a volume written and illuminated for Ethelwold, bishop of -Winchester from 963 to 984, by a "scriptor" named Godemann, afterwards -Abbot of Thorney, the first English artist with whose name we are -acquainted, if we except his more famous contemporary, Archbishop -Dunstan, whose skill in metal work is better remembered than his -powers as an illuminator. The wonderful Irish MSS. the Book of Kells, -which is in the library of Trinity College, Dublin, the Book of -Durham, and others more curious than beautiful, belong to a slightly -earlier period, perhaps to the ninth century, as Miss Stokes has -suggested. - -Many schools of writing throughout England were destroyed in the -Danish wars, and the princes of the Norman race did little to -encourage literary art. Though one or two interesting MSS. of this -period survive, it is not until the accession of the Angevins that -English writing makes another distinct advance. By the beginning of -the thirteenth century the art had risen to the highest pitch it has -ever reached. The scriptorium of St. Albans was the most celebrated. -The works of Matthew Paris written there are still extant, and -testify, by the character of the pictures and colored letters, to a -purity of style and to the existence of a living and growing art which -has never been surpassed in this country. It is believed that the -numerous little Bibles of this period were chiefly written at -Canterbury, and certainly, as examples of what could be done before -printing, are most marvellous. One of these MSS. is before me as I -write. The written part of the page measures 2-5/8 inches in width and -3-3/4 inches in height, and the book is scarcely more than an inch -thick, yet it contains, on pages of fine vellum in a minute almost -microscopic hand, the whole Bible and Apocrypha. The beginning of each -book has a miniature representing a Scripture scene, and a larger -miniature, representing the genealogy of the Saviour, is at the -beginning of Genesis. Although this is the smallest complete Bible I -have met with, others very little larger are in the British Museum, -and with them one, of folio size, exquisitely ornamented in the same -style, which bears the name of the artist, "Wills. Devoniensis," -William of Devonshire. Besides Chronicles and Bibles the thirteenth -century produced Psalters, the form and character of which were -eventually enlarged and grew into the well-known "Horæ," or books of -devotional "Hours," which were illuminated in the fifteenth and -sixteenth centuries. - -Placing side by side a number of Psalters and Hours, and tracing by -comparison the prevalence of single sets of designs--all, however, -originating in the wonderful vitality of the thirteenth century--is a -very interesting study, though seldom possible. It was possible to -make such a comparison, however, in 1874, when a large number of -magnificently illuminated books were exhibited together at the rooms -of the Burlington Club in London. It was then seen that when the form -and subject of a decoration were once invented they remained fixed for -all generations. A Psalter of the thirteenth century, probably of -Flemish execution, which was in the collection of Mr. Bragge, was -ornamented with borders containing grotesque figures, and had a -calendar at the beginning, every page of which represented a scene -appropriate to the month, with the proper sign of the zodiac. Thus, -under January there was a great hooded fire-place, and a little figure -of a man seated and warming himself. The chimney formed a kind of -border to the page, and at the top was a stork on her nest feeding her -brood. This MS. was so early that some good judges did not hesitate to -assign it to the end of the twelfth century. Close to it was a Book of -Hours, written in the fifteenth if not early in the sixteenth century, -and under January we have the self-same scene, though the -grotesqueness, and indeed much of the quaint beauty of the design has -disappeared. It is the same with scriptural and ritual scenes. The -Bibles always had the same set of pictures; the Psalter and Hours the -same subjects; and the same arrangement of colors was handed down as -suitable for the representation of certain scenes, and was unvaried. - -It may enable the reader to form a clearer idea of what these highly -ornamented volumes were like if I extract the full description of one -which was lately in the catalogue of an eminent London bookseller:--It -was a Book of Hours, written in France at the beginning of the -sixteenth century, or, say during the reign of our Henry the Seventh, -1485 to 1509. It consisted of seventy-seven leaves of vellum, which -measured about seven inches by five, with an illuminated border to -every page. There were twenty miniatures, some the size of the full -page and some smaller. The borders were composed of flowers and fruit, -interspersed with grotesque animals, birds, and human figures, most -eccentrically conceived. Both the capital letters and the borders were -heightened with gold, sometimes flat, and sometimes brilliantly -burnished.[1] This is, of course, an unusually rich example. About the -same period great pains were taken to ornament the calendar with which -these books usually commenced. Some of these Calendars consist simply -of a picture in a gold frame, the composition so arranged that it does -not suffer by a large blank space being left in the middle. In this -space the calendar was written; and the rest of the page was occupied -with an agricultural scene, emblematic of the season. In the sky -above, painted in gold shell on the blue, was the sign of the zodiac -appropriate to each month. In some the border was in compartments. One -compartment contained the name of the month in gold letters or a -monogram. Another contained an agricultural scene, another the -zodiacal sign, another a flower, and the rest the figures of the -principal saints of the month. - - [1] The miniatures were as follows:--1. The Annunciation, a - beautiful miniature with the border painted upon a gold ground; - this is the case with all the borders containing miniatures. 2. - The Meeting of Mary and Elizabeth. 3. The Infant Jesus lying in - the manger at the Inn at Bethlehem, Joseph and the Virgin Mary - kneeling in adoration. 4. The Announcement of the Birth of the - Saviour to the Shepherds by night. 5. The Worship of the Magi. - 6. The Presentation in the Temple. 7. The Journey into Egypt. 8. - The Coronation of the Virgin. 9. The Crucifixion. 10. The - Descent of the Holy Spirit on the Day of Pentecost. 11. Saint - Anthony; a small miniature. 12. The Martyrdom of Saint - Sebastian; a small miniature. 13. King David at his devotions in - a chamber within his Palace. 14. The Raising of Lazarus. 15. The - Virgin Mary with the Infant Jesus, guarded by angels; a small - miniature. 16. The body of Jesus taken down from the Cross. 17. - Saint Quentin the Martyr. 18. Saint Adrian. 19. Mater Dolorosa. - 20. The Virgin and Child. The four last were small. - -The student turns with relief from this comparative monotony to -Chronicles in which historical scenes are given. One of the oldest is -among the Harleian Manuscripts in the British Museum, and relates to -the deposition of Richard II. It has been engraved in _Archæologia_, -vol. xx., so that it is accessible wherever there is a good library. A -little later French romances were similarly decorated, and we have -innumerable pictures to illustrate the manners and costumes of the -knights and ladies of whom we read in the stirring pages of Froissart. - -Illumination did not decline at once with the invention of printing. -On the contrary some exquisite borders and initials are found in books -printed on vellum, one very well known example being a New Testament -in the Lambeth Library, which was long mistaken for a manuscript, -though it is, in reality, a portion of the Great Bible supposed to -have been printed at Mentz before 1455, and to be the earliest work of -the press of Fust and Schoyffer. A few wealthy people had Prayer-books -illuminated for their own use down to a comparatively recent period. -The celebrated Jarry wrote exquisite little volumes for Louis XIV. -and his courtiers. A very fine Book of Hours was in the Bragge -Collection, and must have been written in the sixteenth century, -perhaps for some widow of rank in France. It contained sixteen -miniatures which closely resembled Limoges enamels, the only decided -color used being the carnation for the faces, the rest of the design -being in black, white, gold, and a peculiar pearly grey. Each page had -a border of black and gold. From another manuscript, a Book of Hours -written in France in the fourteenth century (and exhibited at the -Burlington Club by Mr. Robert Young), we have some outline tracings of -the ivy pattern (see page 12). The famous illuminations of Giulio -Clovio (a native of Croatia, who practised in Italy 1498-1578) hardly -deserve the admiration they receive. They are in fact small pictures, -the colors very crude and bright, and without the solemnity which -attaches to ancient religious art. An illuminated work by Clovio was -recently sold in London for the enormous sum of £2050. It had been -long in the possession of an old Lancashire family, and is believed to -have been illuminated for Cardinal Alexander Farnese, and by him -presented to his uncle Paul III., who was pope between 1534 and 1550. -In England the latest illuminators became the first miniature -painters; and the succession of English artists is carried on from -Godemann and Paris, through Nicholas Hilliard (1547-1619) and Isaac -Oliver (1556-1617), to the school of Cooper (1609-1672) and Dobson, -whose portraits are on vellum. - -[Illustration: CONVERSION OF ST. PAUL, BY GIULIO CLOVIO. -From "St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans," in the Soane Museum.] - -Short as is this survey of the history of Illumination, it will not do -to omit all reference to Heraldry. Heraldic manuscripts, it is curious -to remark, are rarely illuminated with borders or initials; but in the -Chronicles of Matthew Paris shields of arms are frequently introduced -with good effect. Occasionally in Books of Hours the arms of the -person for whom the work was undertaken are placed in the border. Some -fine examples of this kind are to be found in the so-called Bedford -Missal, which is really a Book of Hours, and was written for John, -duke of Bedford, the brother of Henry V. Most of the manuscripts now -extant on the subject are of late date and rude execution, consisting -chiefly of rolls of arms, catalogues with shields in "trick"--that is, -sketched with the colors indicated by a letter, or lists of banners, -of which last a fine example is in the library of the College of Arms. -Heraldry may be studied to advantage by the modern illuminator, who -should endeavour to become so conversant with the various charges that -in making a border or filling a letter he may be able to introduce -them artistically without violating the strict laws of the "science." -A late but very beautiful MS., in four little square volumes, which -belongs to Mr. Malcolm of Poltalloch, has been identified as having -been written for Bona of Savoy, duchess of Milan, who died in 1494. -This identification has been made by means of the frequent occurrence -of her badge and mottoes in the borders, many of which contain other -devices of a semi-heraldic character, such as a phoenix, which is -known to have been a favourite emblem of the duchess, an ermine, a -rabbit, and a child playing with a serpent or dragon, all of them -allusive to the heraldry of the lady and her husband. The study of -heraldry has a further advantage in offering certain fixed rules about -the use of colors which may help the student to attain harmony, and -also in accustoming the eye and the hand to adapting certain forms to -the place they have to fill, as for instance, the rampant lion within -his shield, so as to leave as little vacant space as possible. - -Some examples of animals treated in heraldic style will be found -interspersed in this work as tailpieces. One of these, at the end of -the Contents, represents a wild boar, to whose neck a mantle, bearing -a coat of arms, is attached. It will be understood that what are -called in heraldry "supporters" were a knight's attendants, who -disguised themselves as beasts, and held their master's shield at the -door of his tent at a tournament. The figures cannot, therefore, be -too much conventionalized. (See the examples shown in Plate VII.) Some -of the other designs are from the Rows Roll, a heraldic manuscript of -the time of the Wars of the Roses. Some beautiful heraldic designs are -to be found in Drummond's _Noble Families_. They were drawn by Mr. -Montagu, the author of a charming volume on _Heraldry_. - -Our facsimile reproductions of ancient manuscripts have been selected -with a view to supply such examples as are most likely to prove useful -to the student. For this purpose we have preferred in several -instances to present the whole page with its writing complete, so that -the modern illuminator may see how the ancient one worked, and how he -arranged his painting and his writing with respect to each other. - -To this we may add, that for the rest we have chosen our examples as -much as possible because they were pretty, instructive, and of English -workmanship, a majority of our pictures being copied from manuscripts -written in our own country. I need only call attention to the well -known but very beautiful style usually called the "English flower -pattern," which admits of an endless series of variations and even -improvements, and which is as characteristic of our mediæval painters -as the Perpendicular style in Gothic is of our architects, both having -flourished here and here only during a long period. - -And in conclusion I should be inclined to advise the illuminator -against stiffness. We are too fond of a vellum which is like sheets of -ivory, and of working on it with mathematical precision. The old -illuminators used a material much more like what is now called -"lawyer's parchment," but perfectly well adapted for taking color and -gold. A moment's inspection of our examples will show the freedom and -ease of the old work, and the dislike evinced by almost every ancient -book painter to having his work confined within definite lines. Such -freedom and ease are only attained by careful study combined with -experience. Every one has not the ability to originate, but without -great originality it may still be found possible to avoid servility. -"Who would be free himself must strike the blow;" but those who aspire -to climb must first be certain that they can walk. The thing that most -often offends the eye in modern illumination is that the artist, to -conceal his own want of style, mixes up a number of others. -Incongruity is sometimes picturesque, but this kind of incongruity is -always disagreeable, from the staring and inharmonious evidence of -ignorance which it betrays. - -[Illustration: HERALDIC BEAR FROM THE ROWS ROLL.] - -[Illustration: SIXTEENTH-CENTURY WRITING--FROM "ALBERT DURER'S -PRAYER-BOOK."] - - - - -PRACTICAL INSTRUCTIONS. - - -Unless when intended for mere practice, all illuminated work should be -executed upon _Vellum_; its extreme beauty of surface cannot be -imitated by any known process of manufacture, while its durability is -well known. _Bristol Board_ approaches nearest to it in appearance, is -equally pleasing to work upon, and for all practical purposes of the -amateur is quite as good. But, if even that is not attainable, -excellent work may be done on any _smooth grained drawing paper_. - -BRUSHES.--_Red Sable Brushes_ are preferable to all others for -illuminating purposes, and are to be had in goose, duck, and crow -quills,--the larger for laying on washes of color, or large grounds in -body color,--the duck and crow for filling in the smaller portions of -color, for shading and general work. One of the smallest size should -be kept specially for outlining and fine hair-line finishings. For -this purpose all the outer hairs should be neatly cut away with the -scissors, leaving only about one-third of the hair remaining. - -DRAWING-PEN--CIRCLE OR BOW-PEN.--For doing long straight lines or -circles these instruments are indispensable; they give out ink or -color evenly, making a smooth, true line of any thickness required for -lining any portion of the work, as in border margins, or any part -requiring even lines, unattainable by the hand alone. It is necessary -to put the ink or color into the pen with the brush after mixing it to -the proper consistency for use. Ink or _body color_ may be used with -equal facility. Before starting, the pen should always be tried upon a -piece of loose paper, to test the thickness of the line, and also to -see if the ink in the pen is not too thick or too thin: if too thick, -it will not work evenly, while, if too thin, it will flow too rapidly, -and _run_ upon a color ground as if on blotting paper. - -STRAIGHT-EDGE, PARALLEL-RULER, &C.--A thin wooden straight-edge, or, -what is better, a parallel-ruler, and also a set square (a -right-angled triangular piece of thin wood), will be found necessary -for planning out the work. - -BURNISHER AND TRACER.--_Agate Burnishers_ are to be had at the -artists' colormen's, either pencil or claw shaped; the former will be -most useful to a beginner. An ivory _style_, _or point_, is requisite -for tracing, and useful for indenting gold diapers. - -[Illustration] - -PENS.--For text or printing, either the quill or the steel pen may be -used; both require special manipulation to fit them for the work. It -will be most convenient, however, for the amateur to use the quill, as -being more easily cut into the shape required; though a steel pen, -once made, will last for years if taken care of. The point must be cut -off slightly at an angle, such as may be found most convenient. If a -steel pen is used, it will be necessary, after cutting off the point, -to rub the pen carefully on an oilstone to smooth the roughened edges, -and prevent it from scratching the paper. The text pen, when properly -made, should work smoothly, making every stroke of equal thickness. It -is well to have text pens of different widths, to suit for lettering -of various thicknesses of body stroke. The pen should be held more -upright than for ordinary writing. A broad, almost unyielding point, -will give a fine upward and a firm downward or backward stroke with -equal facility. For finer writing the pen should be cut with a longer -slope in the nib. Fine-pointed pens, for finishing and putting in the -hair lines into the text, should also be provided. For this the fine -_mapping_, or _lithographic_, pen, made by Gillott and others, is most -suitable. - -TEXT OR PRINTING LETTERS.--This is a kind of penmanship which the -amateur will, at first, find very difficult to write with regularity, -as it requires much special practice to attain anything like -proficiency in its execution. But as much of the beauty and excellence -of the illuminating depends upon the regularity and precision of the -text, it is well worth all the application necessary to master it. The -styles of text usually introduced within the illuminated borders are -known under the names of "Black Letter," "Church Text," "Old English," -and "German Text." - -INDIAN INK and LAMP BLACK are the only paints generally used for black -text; the difference being that Indian Ink is finer, and therefore -better adapted for writing of a fine or delicate character. It works -freely, and retains a slight gloss, while Lamp Black gives a full -solid tint, and dries with a dull or mat surface;--a little gum-water -added will help the appearance in this respect. Some illuminators -recommend a mixture of Indian Ink and Lamp Black, with a little -gum-water, as the best for text of a full black body, working better -than either alone. The mixture should be well rubbed together in a -small saucer with the finger before using. If a portion of the text is -to be in red, it should be in pure vermilion. If in gold, it must be -shell gold, highly burnished with the agate, as hereafter described. - -COLORS.--Not to confuse the learner with a multiplicity of pigments, -we will only mention such as are essential, and with which all the -examples in the following studies may be copied. As experience is -gained by practice, the range of colors may be increased as -requirements may dictate. - - GAMBOGE. CRIMSON LAKE. BURNT UMBER. PRUSSIAN BLUE. - INDIAN YELLOW. SEPIA. LAMP BLACK. BURNT SIENNA. - VERMILION. EMERALD GREEN. CHINESE WHITE. COBALT. - YELLOW OCHRE. - -A little experimental practice with the colors will do more to show -the various combinations of which they are capable than any lengthy -exposition. Various portions of color may be tried, particularly for -the more delicate tints, for greys, neutrals, and quiet compounds, -where great purity is required, and the most pleasing noted for future -use. - -There are two methods or styles of coloring, which are used either -alone, or in conjunction. In the Celtic, and other early styles, -including that of the fourteenth century, where the colors are used -flat--no relief by shading being given--it is purely a surface -decoration, the colors well contrasted, merely graduated from deep to -pale, and outlined with a clear, black outline. The masses of color or -gold are here usually enriched by diapers, while the stems, leaves, -&c., are elaborated by being worked over with delicate hair-line -finishings on the darker ground. The other method of treating -ornamental forms embraces a wide range of style of illuminating, -approaching more nearly to Nature in treatment, the ornament being -more or less _shaded_ naturally, or conventionalized to some extent. -It is important to lay the color evenly in painting, not getting it in -ridges, or piling it in lumps, as the amateur is apt to do. This will -be best attained by painting as evenly as possible with the brush, -mostly in one direction, and not too full of color, and refraining -from going back over the parts just painted, if it can be avoided. -Patches always show, more or less, and can hardly ever be made to look -smooth. - -GOLD, SILVER, &C.--To the inexperienced, the laying on of gold or -silver may seem a difficult affair; but it is really comparatively -easy, especially when gold and silver shells, sold by artists' -colormen, are used. These contain the pure metal ground very fine with -gum, and need no preparation. When a drop of water is added, the gold -can be removed from the shell, and used with the brush in the ordinary -way as a color. One brush should be kept for painting gold or other -metallic preparations. As silver is liable to turn black, we would -advise the use of aluminium instead, which is not affected by the -atmosphere. It can be had in shells in the same manner. In applying -gold, or other metal, it should be painted very level and even, -especially if it is to be burnished, which make irregularities more -prominent. Gold that is to be burnished should be applied before any -of the coloring is begun, as the burnisher is apt to mark and injure -the effect of the adjoining parts. When the gold is laid on, put a -piece of glazed writing paper over it, and, with the burnisher, rub -the paper briskly, pressing the particles of gold into a compact film: -this gives it a smooth even surface. In this way it is principally -used, and is called _mat gold_. For _burnished gold_, the paper is -removed, and the agate rubbed briskly upon the gold surface, not -dwelling too long upon any one part, until a fine, evenly-bright -metallic surface is produced. Rubbing the gold lightly with the -finger, after touching the skin or hair, facilitates the action of the -burnisher. - -PREPARING FOR WORK, &C.--The vellum or paper having been strained, the -surface will, when dry, be perfectly flat and smooth. If the paper or -vellum is to be much worked upon, it will be found advantageous to -fasten it to a board by drawing-pins or by glueing the edges, having -previously damped the back; when this is dry, the surface will be -perfectly level, and not apt to bag in working. Paper so mounted -should be larger than the size required, to allow for cutting off the -soiled margin when completed. To prevent the margins being soiled, a -sheet of paper should now be fastened as a _mask_ over the page, with -a flap the size of the work cut in it, by folding back portions of -which any part of the surface may be worked upon without exposing the -rest. - -It is almost impossible to erase pencil lines from vellum. The black -lead, uniting with the animal matter of the skin, can never be -properly got out--India rubber or bread only rubbing it into a greasy -smudge. It is, therefore, better to prepare a complete outline of the -design upon paper first, which can afterwards be transferred to the -strained sheet. For this purpose _tracing paper_ is required, -possessing this advantage, that corrections upon the sketch can be -made in tracing, and, in placing it upon the vellum, if the sheet has -been previously squared off for the work, its proper position can be -readily seen and determined. The tracing paper should be about one -inch larger each way, to allow of its being fastened to the mask over -the exposed surface of the page. A piece of _transfer paper_ of a -convenient size is then placed under the tracing. When the tracing is -fixed in its proper position by a touch of gum or paste at the upper -corners, slip the transfer paper, with the chalked side downwards, -between the vellum and the tracing, and tack down the bottom corners -of the tracing in the same way, to prevent shifting. Seated at a firm -table or desk of a convenient height, with the strained paper or -drawing board slightly on an incline, the amateur may consider all -ready for work. All the lines of the tracing are first to be gone over -with the tracing point, or a very hard pencil cut sharp will answer -the purpose. A corner may be raised occasionally to see that the -tracing is not being done too firmly or so faintly as to be almost -invisible. A piece of stout card should be kept under the hand while -tracing, to avoid marking the clean page with the prepared transfer -paper underneath, by undue pressure of the fingers. - -For larger work, not requiring such nicety of detail, the sketch may -be transferred direct--especially if the paper is thin--without the -use of tracing paper, by merely chalking the back of the drawing, and -going over the lines with the tracing point; but the other method is -best, and the transfer paper may be used over and over again. - -When the subject is carefully traced on the prepared page, and the -tracing and transfer paper removed, it will be best to begin with the -text. The experienced illuminator will generally, after arranging his -designs and spacing out his text, with the initial letters in their -proper places, transfer all to his vellum, and do the writing before -he begins coloring, covering up all the page except the portion he is -working upon. When the lettering is complete, it will in its turn be -covered, to prevent its being soiled while the border is being -painted. - -Work out the painting as directed under "Colors," beginning with the -gold where it is in masses, burnishing it level when dry, as before -explained: smaller portions can more readily be done afterwards. Paint -each color the full strength at once, keeping in mind that it becomes -lighter when dry, and finishing each color up to the last stage before -beginning another. - -OUTLINING AND FINISHING.--When the work is at this stage, the colors -will have a dull and hopeless appearance; but, as the outline is -added, it changes to one more pleasing. The addition of the fine white -edging and hair-line finishings (as in fourteenth-century style), -still further heightens the effect, giving the appearance of great -elaborateness and brilliancy to the coloring, and beauty and decision -to the forms. In the conventional style of treatment in coloring, a -careful outline is an imperative necessity, and, in this part of the -work, practice in the use of the brush is essential. Sometimes objects -are outlined in a deeper shade of the local color--as a pink flower or -spray with lake, pale blue with darker blue, &c.; but this is not very -usual. In the _real_ or natural treatment of the objects forming the -subject of the illumination, an outline is seldom used, everything -being colored and shaded as in Nature. Lamp black with a little gum -water will be found the best medium, being capable of making a very -fine or a firm line, at the same time retaining its intense glossy -black appearance. A little practice will enable the learner to know -the best consistency to make the ink. As it evaporates, a few drops of -water may be added, and rubbed up with the brush or finger. For -_hair-line finishing_, either light lines upon a darker ground or -_vice versâ_, the same kind of brush will be used as for outlining. -For _diapers_ of a geometrical character, the drawing-pen and small -bow-pen will be of great use, either upon color or gold grounds. The -ivory tracing point is used to indent upon gold scrolls or diapers. -Sometimes there is put over the entire back-ground a multitude of -minute points of gold, but not too close together, and punctured with -the point of the agate or tracing-point, producing a beautiful -glittering effect. - - - - -DESCRIPTION OF PLATE I. - - -Designed by English illuminators of the twelfth and thirteenth -centuries, the initials on this Plate must be separately described. -Those at the left top corner are the oldest, and show a certain -stiffness of form and dulness of color which contrasts strongly with -the spirit and lightness of the letters to the right side of the -Plate. These letters, which may be found in manuscripts of many -different periods, should be carefully studied. There are some -examples in which the initial is simply red or blue, as the case may -be. Next it is red and blue combined, the two colors being carefully -kept apart by a narrow line of white, which the student will do well -not to mark with white paint but to leave out by delicate -manipulation. Next the edge of the letter both within and without is -followed with a line of red or blue drawn a little way from it and -never touching. Then the space so marked within the letter is filled -by a tracery of slight flourishes in red and blue, the latter always -predominating in the whole design so as to obtain the more harmony of -effect. The blue and gold letters are very sparingly treated with red. -The blue is Prussian, but very deep in tint in the original. (Addl. -MSS. 11,435.) - -The initial S in the lower left-hand corner is of earlier date. It -will probably, like the letters above it, be seldom used for -ornamental purposes, and it will suffice here to mention that the -colors used are as follows:--Cobalt raised with Chinese White for the -blue parts; for the red, Vermilion shaded with Lake; and for the cool -pale olive tint, Indigo and Yellow Ochre, toned with Chinese White. - -The large initial E shows a sacred scene, and is of English late -thirteenth century work, in a private collection. The harmony is -studiously correct, and the original, which is slightly larger, glows -with color. It is rather more than four inches square. The figures are -firmly outlined, as are their draperies. The gold is leaf, the -architectural portion being left very flat, but the nimbus and the -border are burnished. It has been found impossible to reproduce -exactly the pattern of the ground in chromo-lithography, but as it may -readily be done by hand, a description taken direct from the original -will be acceptable to the pupil. The blue ground within the letter is -dark: on it is ruled a square cross-bar of deep olive lines of great -fineness. Intersecting them, and so to speak keeping them down, is a -net-work of very fine nearly white lines, the points of intersection -being marked by minute circles. Within the little spaces thus divided -are minute circles of vermilion. The outer groundwork is of olive -diapered with a deeper shade of the same color. The ground outside the -letter is pink divided into squares by brown lines, each square having -a little red circle in it. The edges of the draperies are marked by -minute white lines, and there is less shading than in the -reproduction. Altogether this letter represents the best work of the -period, and is an admirable example of the painstaking care by which -alone great effects are produced. Even a genius, such as was the -artist who produced this little picture, must condescend to take -infinite trouble if he would obtain an adequate reward. - -[Illustration: HERALDIC POPINJAY.] - -[Illustration: PLATE I.--INITIALS BY ENGLISH ILLUMINATORS, 12TH AND -13TH CENTURIES.] - -[Illustration: LETTERS FROM AN ALPHABET OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. -(The remainder of the alphabet is shown in colors in Plate II.)] - - - - -DESCRIPTION OF PLATE II. - - -Executed in the fifteenth century, probably in the north of France, -the small manuscript from which the twelve initial letters are taken -is in a private collection. It consists of twenty-four leaves of -rather stout vellum, measuring 4-3/8 inches by 3 inches, and has -evidently been a sampler or pattern book for a school of illumination. -It contains two alphabets. The letters in the plate are selected from -one of them. Outlines of the rest of this alphabet are on the back of -Plate I. In copying them for color the student will remember that -those letters which contain blue flowers are red, and _vice versâ_. -Each letter is painted on a ground of leaf-gold highly burnished, and -is ornamented with a natural flower. We may recognize the rose, the -pansy, the strawberry, the columbine, the wall-flower, the -corn-flower, the sweet pea, the iris, the daisy, the thistle, and -others. Pinks, dog-roses, and forget-me-nots also occur, and the -little volume forms, in this respect, a curious and interesting record -of the produce of the flower garden so long ago as the time of the -English "Wars of the Roses." - -The second alphabet is of a wholly different character, the letters, -not the ground on which they are placed, being gilt, and the ground -colored red or blue. Over the red and the blue is a scroll pattern in -white, but the red is sometimes decorated with a pattern in -body-yellow, which produces an exceedingly gorgeous effect. In two or -three cases the ground is green, worked over in a darker olive tint -heightened with yellow. In one, a flower or scroll of grey is placed -on a ground of blue dotted all over with minute gold spots. - -The blue used in copying these initials for the plate was Prussian, -mixed with Chinese White, and shaded with pure color. The green is a -mixture of Indian Yellow and Prussian Blue. The pink is Lake and White -shaded with pure Lake. The red terminals which appear in some of the -letters are of Vermilion, shaded with Lake. Chinese White body color -is largely used in working diapers over the letters of both colors. - -These letters are good examples of the form chiefly in use for -illuminated manuscripts and in ornamental sculpture all over northern -Europe from the twelfth century to the sixteenth. They are generally -called "the Lombardic character," from some real or fancied connection -with Lombardy. Such names must be cautiously accepted. "Arabic -numerals," for example, have been proved to be somewhat modified Greek -letters. But the Lombardic capitals, whatever their origin, lend -themselves readily to the exigencies of the illuminator, and are all -the more effective from the contrast they present to the text. - -It is now almost universally acknowledged that all the forms of the -mediæval and modern alphabet may be traced to Egyptian hieroglyphics. -A very interesting passage in Mr. Isaac Taylor's learned book on "The -Alphabet," shows us the development of the letter M from the Egyptian -picture of an owl. "It will be noticed," he says, "that our English -letter has preserved, throughout its long history of six thousand -years, certain features by which it may be recognized as the -conventionalized picture of an owl. In the capital letter M the two -peaks, which are the lineal descendants of the two ears of the owl, -still retain between them a not inapt representation of the beak, -while the first of the vertical strokes represents the breast." It -would be easy to show the same ancient origin for many other letters, -and for most of those in the Greek alphabet. F was a horned snake. G -was a basket with a handle. K was a triangle. L was a lion seated. N -was a zigzag line, of which only three strokes have survived. P was a -faggot of papyrus. There is no perceptible difference between the long -S still sometimes in use and the hieroglyphic form. U was a quail. Z -was a serpent. - -The initial E at the beginning of the previous page is of English -work, and represents Edward the Black Prince receiving a charter from -the hands of his father King Edward III. The prince places one knee on -his helmet, and has on his head only the ornamental cap called a -"bonnet." His arms and those of the king are colored on their -respective "tabards." - -The large letter M on the back of Plate II. is from a volume now in -the British Museum (Harl. MSS. 3045), which was written in Germany in -the twelfth century. It is illuminated in three colors. The ground is -emerald green; the letter itself red; and the scroll-work also in red -outline, a pale purple ground being substituted for the green in the -circular spaces. It would be instructive to the student to color the -outline from this description. - -[Illustration: PLATE II.--INITIAL LETTERS FROM FRENCH MANUSCRIPT, 15TH -CENTURY.] - -[Illustration: LARGE INITIAL LETTER OF TWELFTH CENTURY. -HARLEIAN MSS. 3045, BRITISH MUSEUM.] - - - - -DESCRIPTION OF PLATE III. - - -The beauty of the work executed in the thirteenth century in England, -and that part of what is now France which then belonged to England, -can hardly be exceeded. In this Plate are gathered a few examples of -the period. They are from two books, both in the British Museum, but -one probably written in France and the other at Canterbury. The -initials from the French manuscript may be readily distinguished. The -scroll-work is irregular and even wild, and in some examples the -artist seems to have aimed at nothing less than startling the reader -by his eccentricities. The volume is numbered in the Catalogue, -Additional MSS. 11,698, and contains a treatise on the art of war. The -letters numbered in the Plate 6, 7, and 8, are from this book. The -student will observe the simple scale of harmonious coloring, blue -predominating, as is necessary, and both yellow and also gold being -used to heighten the effect. In copying them the artist used these -colors, besides Chinese White and shell gold: namely, Prussian Blue, -Lake, Indian Red, Emerald Green, Indian Yellow, shaded with Burnt -Sienna, and Burnt Umber, with Sepia for the outlines. In imitating or -copying these initials, the student will find a firm but delicate and -even outline of the greatest importance. If the hand is very steady it -may be put in with a small brush, which is particularly useful in the -erratic flourishes in which this writer rejoiced so much. - -The English letters are much more sober and rectilinear in character. -The T (fig. 5) commences the prologue of the Book of Wisdom, for the -volume is a Bible (Bibl. Reg. 1 D. 1), and a small portion of the text -is given with the initial as a guide to the arrangement. The colors -are the same as in the French examples. The lines and dots in white -are very delicate, and may be closely imitated by the use of Chinese -White with a very fine brush, care being taken not to disturb the -underlying color. This is the book mentioned in the General Sketch as -being the work of a writer named "Wills. Devoniensis," or William of -Devonshire. It is a small folio in size and is written in double -columns. At the commencement of the book of Psalms there is a -magnificent illumination covering the greater part of the page, and -showing, with much scroll-work by way of border, a series of small -vignettes, which include a crucifixion, and a number of scenes from -the life of St. Thomas of Canterbury, better known in history as -Thomas Becket. - -A somewhat similar Bible, but not so delicate in workmanship, is also -in the British Museum (1 B. 12), and was written at Salisbury in 1254 -by William de Hales. - -The writing of the thirteenth century differs considerably from that -of the two following centuries. It is not so stiff, but much more -legible. The distinction will be apparent from a comparison of this -Plate with those two which are copied from manuscripts at Lambeth -(Plates IV. and IX.) Modern illuminators seem to have preferred the -later style, but the advantages of the early should recommend it. The -Chronicles written at St. Albans by and under the superintendence of -Matthew Paris are all in this style. Facsimiles of several pages are -given in the volumes published under the direction of the Master of -the Rolls. - -The initial T on the previous page is from a beautiful Nuremberg -treatise of 1489 on the "Preservation of Body, Soul, Honour, and -Goods." - -On the back of Plate III. are two pages in outline from a small Book -of Hours in the collection of Robert Young, Esq., Belfast. This kind -of work is known as the "Ivy Pattern." It was exclusively practised in -France in the fourteenth century. The coloring is usually of a very -sober character: the prevailing colors being blue and gold only. - -[Illustration: HART, BADGE OF RICHARD II.] - -[Illustration: PLATE III.--EXAMPLES OF THIRTEENTH-CENTURY WORK.] - -[Illustration: PAGES FROM A BOOK OF HOURS OF FOURTEENTH CENTURY.] - - - - -DESCRIPTION OF PLATE IV. - - -Our next Plate is from a manuscript in the Lambeth Library. Leave to -copy it was readily granted to us by the lamented Archbishop Tait. It -is No. 459 in the Library Catalogue, and contains no fewer than twenty -miniatures, as well as borders like this one. It belongs like Plate -IX. (the Frontispiece) to the English flower pattern style of the -fifteenth century, and is remarkable for the sober effect of the -gorgeous colors employed, and for the delicacy of the scroll-work in -black. - -A great deal of this effect is due to the application of gold. The -illuminators employed both what we call "shell gold" and leaf. They -attached the greatest importance to skill in gilding, and the result -is that their "raising" survives after centuries, when that executed -at the present day often cracks off after a few weeks or months, if -not very carefully handled. Many books, containing the secret of -making these preparations, and sizes of all kinds, are in existence; -and show that while the same end was attained by many different kinds -of processes, one ingredient was never omitted, namely, great care and -pains, and the gradual gathering of skill through experience. - -It is difficult to explain the method of using gold-leaf without an -actual demonstration: and the student will learn more in ten minutes -by watching a competent gilder than by reading a library of books on -the subject. The "raising" is to be obtained from any artist's -colorman, and nothing but practice long and assiduous can secure the -power to use it. The same rule must be laid down for burnishing, which -is an art not to be acquired in a day. It might be well to commence -with the dotted work, common in the fourteenth century, and when we -have learned to make a burnished dot with our agate point we may go on -and burnish a larger surface. The effect of burnished leaf gold cannot -be given in chromo-lithography, but it may be worth while to remark -that all the gilding in the original illumination from which this -Plate is copied is burnished on a raised surface, even the small -letters in the text. - -The colors employed by the copier were of a more mixed and complicated -character than those for the other page from the Lambeth Library. The -reason is apparent in a moment on comparing the two. In this page the -brilliancy is so tempered as to produce a comparatively subdued -effect. In the General Sketch mention has already been made of -miniatures in which the artist restricted himself to the use of -certain colors, so as to insure a peculiar and delicate effect. Here -there has been no such restriction, but each color has been softened -and so worked over with patterns and lines in body white or in pale -yellow, that there is no glare or contrast. The student should be -careful how he obtains harmony by this method, as he may find all his -work weakened and paled; but, skilfully used, the system may be made -to produce the most charming results. - -The blue is Prussian, over which are dots and lines of Chinese White. -The pink is obtained by mixing Lake and Chinese White, shaded with -darker Lake, and also heightened with white lines and dots. The orange -is pale Indian Yellow shaded with Burnt Sienna, and with an admixture -of Lake in the deeper shadows. The green in this example is obtained -by mixing Prussian Blue and Indian Yellow in different proportions. - -On the back of Plate IV. are two more outlines from Mr. Robert Young's -little French Book of Hours. They are admirable models of a kind of -work which for fully half a century was to France what the "flower -pattern" was to England. The branches are generally dark blue -delicately lined with white. The leaves are sometimes gold, that is -where there is not already a gold ground, and sometimes yellow, red, -and blue. The prevailing tint is blue, and in some pages no other -color, besides the gilding, is employed. - -Some outline borders and ornaments of the same period and style are to -be found on the back of Plates V. and VI. The coloring of some of them -will be indicated by a reference to Plates III. and I. - -[Illustration: BULL, BADGE OF NEVILLE.] - -[Illustration: PLATE IV.--FACSIMILE OF MANUSCRIPT IN LAMBETH PALACE -LIBRARY, 15TH CENTURY.] - -[Illustration: PAGES FROM A BOOK OF HOURS OF FOURTEENTH CENTURY.] - - - - -DESCRIPTION OF PLATE V. - - -Plate V. shows three ornaments from manuscripts of late date, all in -the National Collections. - -The border with the raspberries is from a Missal of the sixteenth -century in the British Museum (Addl. 18,855), and was probably written -and illuminated in the Low Countries. We have already mentioned the -extraordinary freedom and ease of the Flemish work of that period. -Every beautiful object was made use of for pictorial effect. Children, -birds, jewels, shells, as well as fruit and flowers, are to be found. -They particularly excelled in painting pearls. One border is green, -with chains and ropes of pearls strewn all over it. The calendar -represents domestic scenes, each strongly surrounded with a double -gold line, the written part being simply left out in the middle, so -that the scene forms its border. The gold ground presents a slightly -different appearance from that shown in our engraving, as it is flat, -being painted with shell-gold not put on very thickly. The shadows are -of Burnt Umber, which has a very transparent effect on the gold -ground. - -Beside this border is a fine letter of somewhat earlier date from a -chorale book, German work in all probability, which, with many others, -Italian and Flemish as well as German, were ruthlessly cut up into -fragments, perhaps at the Reformation, perhaps more recently, and are -now in the Art Library of the South Kensington Museum. They are much -rubbed and faded, and our chromo-lithograph represents this initial C -as it appeared when first finished. In much of the northern work of -this period--about the middle of the fifteenth century, say -1450--there is a beautiful style of ornamental scroll-work, which some -have proposed to call the "Leather Pattern." It may represent the cut -leather work of the mantling of a knight's tilting helmet. A small -specimen of it is shown in the turned-back petals of the flowers in -this letter, but whole volumes are to be seen entirely decorated with -it, and some of the best work of the period was accomplished in it. - -The third of these ornaments is also from the collection in the South -Kensington Museum. In this design the thing to be most noticed is -perhaps that which is least prominent, namely, the gold spots, with -black filaments, as it were, floating from them. They serve to eke out -and fill up the composition, and in some books are used with fine -effect on almost every page. They should be thickly gilt on a raised -surface, and should have dark outlines, and the filaments rapidly and -lightly drawn, either with a pen or with a very fine brush, pruned -down almost to a single hair. Many other pretty effects may be -obtained by early training the hand and eye to draw single lines in -this way. The letters in one of our other Plates (No. I.) are entirely -filled with tracery of the kind, and the patterns principally in use -are easily learned. Anything free is preferable to servile imitation -and tracing, and these diapers in particular lose more than almost -anything else in the whole art of illumination by direct copying. The -student should learn to adapt his delicate lines--chiefly in red and -blue--to any form of letter, and while drawing them should not let his -hand falter or hesitate for a moment. It is the same with the -lace-like patterns in white which were so much in vogue for -heightening the edges of letters in the thirteenth and fourteenth -centuries. They are very necessary to the effect, but must be painted -in with a light touch and great rapidity, or they lose all spirit. - -The initial P on the previous page, and also the initials in pages -vii. and 1, have been taken from MSS. illuminated with the "English -flower-pattern." An attempt has been made to represent the colors -employed by means of lines. This system was first applied to heraldry -in the first half of the seventeenth century. Horizontal lines -represent blue; vertical, red; cross hatching, black; dotting, gold or -yellow. Green is denoted by lines "in bend dexter," and purple by -lines "in bend sinister." - -The bands and borders on the back of Plate V. are of the fourteenth -century, but similar ornaments were common at all times. They are -chiefly red or blue, with patterns in white lines and dots, and in -highly burnished gold. They are employed both as borders and to fill -up incomplete lines of writing. - -[Illustration: PLATE V.--ORNAMENTS AND LARGE INITIAL, 15TH AND 16TH -CENTURIES.] - -[Illustration: BANDS AND BORDER ORNAMENTS--FOURTEENTH CENTURY.] - - - - -DESCRIPTION OF PLATE VI. - - -A page of writing and five separate initials from a book of "Hours," -written in Flanders or Holland at the end of the fifteenth century, -are here shown, with a border of the same period from another volume. -The first book, which is in a private collection, affords an example -of the kind of illumination which is styled by the French "grisaille," -a word which may be translated "grey-work." In this style, which -consists usually in the artist restricting himself to certain colors, -or to black, grey, and white only, very few books were ever written. I -have already, in the General Sketch, mentioned one which had pictures -in imitation of Limoges enamels. A volume apparently illuminated by -the same hand as those in our MS. is in the Burgundian Library at -Brussels. The figure pictures in both look as if they were not painted -by the same artist as the writing and illumination of the letters, and -it is probable two or more were employed in the production. - -There was great activity in all the arts in the Low Countries during -the fifteenth century, and the most gorgeous books ever illuminated -were written there at that period. At Dortrecht, at Bruges, and other -places there were schools of illuminators, and the practice of the art -was not confined, as in England, to ecclesiastics and the cloister. -The books written were, however, mainly religious; and the same -designs were used over and over again. It would, in fact, be easy to -identify each guild of miniature painters by their employment of the -same set of forms. This eventually led to deterioration, and only the -introduction of oil painting, by turning the minds of the artists into -a wider channel, saved Flemish art. The masters of the Van Eycks, of -Memling, of Matsys, of Van Romerswale were undoubtedly the teachers of -illumination in books. - -The artist in "grisaille" always took especial pains with his -draperies. He had so little wherewith to produce his effect that he -sometimes almost reached the _chiaro-scuro_ of a later period. Some of -the pictures of this school which I have seen look as if they were -intended to represent moonlight views. In the present volume the -effect of the soberly coloured figure subjects is greatly enhanced by -the rich colors of the border, and the brilliantly burnished gilding. -The ground on which the letter O is gilded in Plate VI., is quartered -into red and blue, and the outer part "counter-changed," as they say -in heraldry. A delicate pattern is worked over the colors in -body-white. The small leaves are painted with thick coats of Emerald -Green. - -The border is from a Book of Hours in the British Museum. The gilding -in the original is laid on with shell, worked very flat and very thin, -so as rather to impart a yellow tone to the ground than to give it any -special lustre. There are other borders in the book of a similar -character, and some which, on a green or a purple ground, show jewels -of various kinds, especially pearls, sometimes strewn irregularly over -the ground, sometimes worked up into ornaments, or made to look as if -they were mounted in richly designed gold settings. In fact, at that -age the artist let nothing escape him that would go to enhance the -beauty or brilliancy of his page. In the original this border enclosed -a very elaborate miniature. These miniatures are very carefully and -delicately painted, but perhaps by a different hand, as they are not -equal in refinement to the borders. The Office for the Dead is -ornamented with a black border, on which is architectural tracery in -gold on which skulls are arranged, one of them with a pansy or -heartsease and forget-me-not, beautifully painted, growing out of the -hollow eyes. The border of the picture of the Annunciation is made -with a tall lily growing from an ornamental vase at the side. - -The Dutch and Flemish illuminators at this period excelled in -manipulation, and many of the books which they painted have all the -merit and almost all the importance of pictures. Anything and -everything was used as ornament. In some no two pages are even in what -can be called the same style; but delicacy of workmanship, the faces -especially being finished as real miniatures, is characteristic of -all. It is probable that whole schools of artists worked on a single -volume, dividing the labour according to the skill of each artist. - -On the back of Plate VI. will be found some further examples of the -ornaments, letters, and "line finishings" of the thirteenth and -fourteenth centuries, chiefly from French books. The A and the Z are -from the same MS. as Nos. 6 and 7 on Plate III. The KL united form the -heading of the Calendar in a book with ivy pattern borders. - -[Illustration: PLATE VI.--PAGE AND INITIALS (LOW COUNTRIES, 15TH -CENTURY). BORDER FROM MS. IN BRITISH MUSEUM.] - -[Illustration: FRENCH INITIAL LETTERS AND BORDER ORNAMENTS--FOURTEENTH -CENTURY.] - - - - -DESCRIPTION OF PLATE VII. - - -Pictorially considered the illustrations on Plate VII., it must be -admitted, are more quaint than beautiful. All the subjects on this -page are, with the exception of the thirteenth and fourteenth century -borders (6), (4), more or less heraldic in character. It will be best -to take them in the order in which they are numbered. - -The lady seated (1) holds in either hand the arms of the Duke of -Burgundy, slightly varied as to quarterings. The picture is taken from -the famous "Bedford Missal" in the British Museum, which is not a -missal at all, but a Book of Hours, illuminated in France for the Duke -of Bedford, one of the brothers of Henry V. It therefore belongs to -the fifteenth century. The lady is sitting on what in heraldry is -called "a mount vert," which in turn is supported by the little half -architectural scroll-work below; her dress is purple, shaded with -grey, in opaque color; the arms are painted in Prussian Blue and -Vermilion, the gold being shell. - -The gentleman to the right (2) is Sir Nele Loring, a Knight of the -Garter. Some time in the fourteenth century a monk of St. Albans, -Thomas Walsingham, compiled a list of the benefactors of the abbey, -and as far as possible presented his readers with a portrait of each. -They are rather rough but eminently picturesque. The book is -particularly interesting from the curious particulars it gives us as -to the expenses of the illuminator. One Alan Strayler, it tells us, -"worked much upon this book," and the editor or compiler ran up a debt -with him of the comparatively large sum of three shillings and -fourpence, equal to at least £3, 10_s._ 0_d._ of our money, for the -colors he had used. The book came into the possession of the great -Lord Verulam, better known as Lord Chancellor Bacon, and by him it was -given to Sir Robert Cotton, who collected the Cottonian MSS. It is -known in the British Museum as "Nero D. vii." from its place in the -book-case of Sir Robert Cotton which bore the effigy of that Cæsar. -Sir Nele, or Nigel, Loring died in 1386, having given the abbey many -gifts, and as he was K.G. he is represented in a white robe diapered -with "garters." - -Our next picture (3) is from a very curious and beautiful, but much -injured manuscript, reckoned the number ii. in the collection at -Heralds' College. By the kindness of "Somerset Herald" we are allowed -to copy it. The book is a list of banners used probably at a -tournament in the reign of Henry VIII. Heraldry became more or less -the kind of "science" it still is under the last of the Plantagenet -kings, and was kept up in great glory by their successors, the first -two Tudors. The banner here given is that of Henry Stafford, who was -made Earl of Wiltshire in 1509. It shows the swan, the crest of the -Staffords, with a crown round its neck and a chain, and the ground, -partly black and partly red, the colors of the family, is powdered -with "Stafford knots," their badge. Across, in diagonal lines, is the -motto "D'Umble et Loyal." These banners, which might well be imitated -in modern illumination, are made up of livery colors, with crests and -badges, and are usually accompanied by the coat of arms of the person -to whom each belonged. - -The last of the heraldic features of the page (5) is also the -earliest. It represents part of the border of a Psalter made, it is -believed, in honour of the intended marriage of Prince Alphonso, the -son of Edward I., with a daughter of the King of Arragon. He died at -the age of ten years in 1282; but it is possible that the -illuminations refer to the intended marriage of his sister, the -princess Eleanor, with Alphonso, the young King of Arragon. In any -case the manuscript certainly belongs to the middle of the thirteenth -century. To the right we see a knight in the chain armour of the -period with his shield hung over his arm. Small gold crosses, -alternating with "lions rampant" on a blue ground, form part of the -border, the other part consisting of "lions passant" on a red ground. -Two shields bear, one, the arms of the son of King Edward, "England, -differenced with a label, azure," and the other, those of Leon. Crests -and mottoes had not been invented, and the artist had little scope for -his fancy. But it may not be out of place to call attention to the -fact that even at this early period heraldry was made use of for -ornament, as in this border, and that it answered the purpose -admirably. - -On the back of Plate VII. is the outline of an illumination of the -Adoration of the Magi, from a French MS. of the 16th century. Borders -of this type though very rich seldom occur in books ornamented in -England. The branch work is in delicate black lines, with leaves and -berries in gold or color. The scrolls are generally in blue, turned up -with gold, red, or pink; blue being, however, always the predominant -color, so as to insure a certain measure of harmony. The effect, -however, depended more on the skill with which the branch work in -black was disposed. - -[Illustration: PLATE VII.--BORDERS OF THIRTEENTH AND FOURTEENTH -CENTURIES, AND HERALDIC DESIGNS.] - -[Illustration: BORDER AND TEXT, WITH ADORATION OF THE THREE -KINGS--SIXTEENTH CENTURY.] - - - - -DESCRIPTION OF PLATE VIII. - - -No book on this subject would be complete without something more than -a passing reference to the earliest of all the fashions in -illumination which have prevailed in our islands. This Plate gives -some examples from the very curious manuscript in the Library of -Trinity College, Dublin, known as the "Book of Kells." This venerable -volume contains the four Gospels in Latin, and, it is sometimes -asserted, dates from the seventh century, but more probably belongs to -the ninth. The late Sir M. D. Wyatt says of it: "Of this very book Mr. -Westwood examined the pages, as I did, for hours together, without -ever detecting a false line, or an irregular interlacement. In one -space of about a quarter of an inch superficial, he counted, with a -magnifying glass, no less than one hundred and fifty-eight -interlacements, of a slender ribbon pattern, formed of white lines, -edged by black ones, upon a black ground. No wonder that tradition -should allege that these unerring lines should have been traced by -angels." - -The examples before us are purposely taken from a less complicated -page, but will be found sufficient to try the skill and patience of -even the most painstaking student. The colors are rather more vivid -than in the original, which has now greatly faded through age and -ill-usage. There is little to be said as to the beauty of the design. -Grotesques have an attraction in spite of their ugliness: but we can -hardly expect the most enthusiastic admirer of antiquity to imitate -these extraordinary complications of form and color, except as an -exercise of skill and patience. In one respect, however, early -manuscripts and especially manuscripts of this class, are well worthy -of imitation. The writing is very clear and distinct. It is easier to -read a charter of the seventh or the eighth century than one of the -seventeenth. Illuminators might do worse than learn the old Irish -alphabet, if only on this account. - -There is no gilding in the Book of Kells, but some occurs in the -contemporary, or nearly contemporary Book of Durham. The effect -depends wholly on the skill of the scribe in using a very limited -palette so as to make the most of it. The modern student would do well -to remember this. A wide range of colors does not always conduce to -bright or good coloring. Harmony is often found to follow from a -sparing use of the more brilliant pigments at our disposal, with a -careful eye to effect. The beginner too often imagines that he can -make his border or his initial look well if he puts enough gold or -vermilion on; but he should remember that the more sober and simple -his scale of coloring the more splendid will the bright colors look -when he does employ them. It is well to remember that absolute harmony -is obtained by the use of blue, red, and yellow in these -proportions:--blue, eight; red, five; yellow, three; and that all good -pictures or illuminations must depend on this principle. White and -black, and also in some cases gilding, may be treated as neutrals. -There is usually a sufficiency of black in the lettering of a page. -White, in the shape of dots and as heightening, may be largely -employed if there is any want of harmony detected. Gold should not be -used for this purpose, except in certain styles; and the student may -rest assured that a design which does not look well without gold will -not look better with it. - -A few other specimens, without color, will be found on the back of -Plate VIII. It might be good practice for the student to tint them in -the style of the colored examples. - -The Byzantine style, as it is called, prevailed about the same period -in the countries of eastern and northern Europe. The books are of a -very different but equally ungraceful character. The work is not so -minute or complicated, but the lavish use of gold distinguishes them. -Sometimes a page is written in gold letters on vellum stained purple; -sometimes the page is entirely gilt. None of the examples in the -British Museum are worth the trouble and indeed expense of copying, -but they are curious as specimens of barbaric splendour. - -[Illustration: Heraldic Lion.] - -[Illustration: PLATE VIII.--EXAMPLES FROM THE BOOK OF KELLS, 9TH -CENTURY.] - -[Illustration: EARLY IRISH INITIAL LETTERS.] - - - - -DESCRIPTION OF PLATE IX. - -(FRONTISPIECE.) - - -Such measure of perfection as had been attained by English -illuminators in the latest period is well illustrated by this Plate. -It is from a Book of Hours in the library of the Archbishop of -Canterbury at Lambeth. Leave to copy it was kindly accorded to us by -His Grace the late lamented Archbishop Tait. The volume is square in -shape and rather thick, the vellum not being of the fineness seen in -the Bibles of the thirteenth century, already noticed. It is numbered -474 in the Catalogue, and is described by Mr. S. W. Kershaw, F.S.A., -in his book on the _Art Treasures of the Lambeth Library_, who assigns -it to the early part of the fifteenth century. - -The illuminations in this book are admirable examples of what is known -as the English flower pattern, a style, as we have already observed, -which was as peculiar to our insular artists as the Perpendicular -style in architecture. It was used for all kinds of manuscripts, and -even law deeds are sometimes to be seen thus ornamented. Even after -the invention of printing it continued to flourish for a while; and -books are sometimes found printed on vellum abroad, and illuminated in -England with the beautiful native flower pattern in borders and -initials. - -Mr. Kershaw observes regarding the book from which the present page -has been taken: "This, a very nice example, is fairly written, and -ornamented with a profusion of beautiful illuminated initials of -English art. The volume contains but two miniature paintings, the -remainder usually found in MSS. of this class having been abstracted. -The initial letters vary in size and pattern; they are all upon -backgrounds of gold, and frequently form with their finials short -marginal ornaments of elegant tracery work. Pink, blue, and orange -brown are the prevailing colors, the blue being often heightened on -the outer edge with flat white tints. The larger initials are rich in -design and varied in their coloring, and would supply the artist or -amateur with abundant materials for study." - -I would desire to call the student's attention to one or two points -of importance. In imitating or copying work of this kind it is well -to observe that though the artist appears to have used the utmost -freedom of line and direction, he has really been most careful in his -composition. The initial O comes well out from among its surroundings, -and is not overpowered by the weight of its dependent ornament. The -scroll-work requires especial attention. That which fills the centre -of the letter appears to press tightly against the edge, and is so -arranged as to fill completely the vacancy for which it is intended. -There is nothing limp about it. Too often modern work can be detected -by its want of what I must call the crispness of the original. - -With regard to the writing, it will be observed that a great change in -the form of the letters has taken place since the thirteenth century. -The difference between u and n is often hardly perceptible, and has -led to many curious mistakes. Nevertheless, if the student is careful -about such particulars, this is a very beautiful style, and admirably -suited for modern requirements. The colors used by the artist who -copied this page were as follows:--for the blue, Prussian, lined and -dotted with Chinese White; for the pink, Lake and Chinese White, -shaded with the same color darker; the deepest shadows are Lake; for -the orange, pale Indian Yellow for the lights, shaded with Burnt -Sienna, and Lake for the deepest shadows. - -In some books illuminated in this style the centre of the letter is -occupied with a scene containing figures, and occasionally a picture -extends across the page, the initial fitting close up to it. The -picture, in this case, is always surrounded with a double line or -framework of blue, or red, and gold; and the color has a delicate -white line on it, and occasionally gives out a branch which, crossing -the gold line, bursts into flower in the margin. This style was -largely used for official documents for a long period, and many -excellent facsimiles representing examples are to be found as -frontispieces to the volumes of the Roll Series. It lasted with more -or less modification until the reign of Charles I. - - * * * * * - -VERE FOSTER'S WATER-COLOR BOOKS. - -"We can strongly recommend these volumes to young students of -drawing."--_The Times_, Dec. 27, 1884. - - -PAINTING FOR BEGINNERS.--First Stage. - -Teaching the use of One Color. Ten Facsimiles of Original Studies in -Sepia, by J. CALLOW, and numerous Illustrations in Pencil. With full -instructions in easy language. In Three Parts, 4to, 6_d each; or one -volume, cloth elegant, 2_s._ 6_d._ - -PAINTING FOR BEGINNERS.--Second Stage. - -Teaching the use of Seven Colors. Twenty Facsimiles of Original -Drawings by J. CALLOW, and many Illustrations in Pencil. With full -instructions in easy language. 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