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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 40384 ***
+
+Produced by Veronika Redfern, Linda Cantoni, Bryan Ness
+and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images
+generously made available by The Internet Archive/American
+Libraries.) Music transcribed by Veronika Redfern.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+     MUSICAL
+     MYTHS AND FACTS
+
+     BY
+
+     CARL ENGEL.
+
+     IN TWO VOLUMES.--VOL. II.
+
+     LONDON:
+     NOVELLO, EWER & CO.,
+     1, BERNERS STREET (W.), AND 80 & 81, QUEEN STREET, CHEAPSIDE (E. C.)
+     NEW YORK: J. L. PETERS, 843, BROADWAY.
+
+     MDCCCLXXVI.
+
+     [_All rights reserved._]
+
+
+
+
+     NOVELLO, EWER AND CO.,
+     TYPOGRAPHICAL MUSIC AND GENERAL PRINTERS,
+     1, BERNERS STREET, LONDON.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS OF VOLUME II.
+
+
+                                                            PAGE
+
+     MATTHESON ON HANDEL                                       1
+
+     DIABOLIC MUSIC                                           28
+
+         The Awful Deception                                  28
+         The Indefatigable Fiddler                            29
+         The Effectual Expedient                              30
+         The Old Chorale                                      31
+         The Haunted Mansion                                  31
+         The Mode Asbein                                      32
+         Witches                                              33
+         The Changeling                                       33
+         The Vendish Sorcerer                                 36
+         The Rat-Catcher of Hameln                            37
+         The Exquisite Organ                                  39
+
+     ROYAL MUSICIANS                                          41
+
+     COMPOSERS AND PRACTICAL MEN                              56
+
+     MUSIC AND MEDICINE                                       84
+
+     POPULAR STORIES WITH MUSICAL TRADITIONS                 114
+
+         The Royal Music-Master                              115
+         The Handsome Minstrel                               115
+         The Daisy Lady                                      116
+         The Invisible Flute-Player                          118
+         The Banished Musician                               119
+         The Walriderske                                     120
+         The Jew in the Thicket                              122
+         The Pope's Wife                                     126
+         The Two Hunchbacks                                  128
+         The Parson's Advice                                 132
+         Relics of the Goblins                               133
+         The Golden Harvest                                  135
+         Gipsies                                             137
+         The Nautch-People                                   139
+         The Monk of Afflighem                               141
+         The Plague in Goldberg                              142
+         Fictions and Facts                                  145
+
+     DRAMATIC MUSIC OF UNCIVILIZED RACES                     147
+
+     A SHORT SURVEY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC                  171
+
+     CHRONOLOGY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC                      179
+
+     THE MUSICAL SCALES IN USE AT THE PRESENT DAY            228
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+MATTHESON ON HANDEL.
+
+
+The biographical notices of Handel's youth transmitted to us are but
+scanty and unsatisfactory. The same might, however, be said of most of
+our celebrated musicians, and the cause of the meagreness is, as we have
+seen in another place, easily explicable.[1] Of Handel's musical
+pursuits before his arrival in Hamburg, at the age of eighteen, we know
+scarcely more than that he was a pupil of Zachau, an organist at Halle,
+where Handel was born; that, as a boy, he paid a short visit to Berlin,
+where his talent attracted some attention; and that subsequently he
+studied Law, at the University of Halle. The latter fact indicates that
+the choice of music as a profession was not hastily determined in his
+childhood; and this surmise accords with the stated reluctance of his
+father, a medical practitioner in Halle, to have his son brought up as a
+musician.
+
+Arrived in Hamburg, in the year 1703, Handel soon made the acquaintance
+of Mattheson, an intelligent and industrious young musician, who was
+competent to appreciate the genius of Handel, and faithfully to record
+the progress of the promising youth during his sojourn in Hamburg, which
+lasted about three years. Mattheson was four years older than Handel,--a
+difference which, between two lads of twenty-two and eighteen, is not
+without some weight in their mutual intercourse, especially if the elder
+is already enjoying a certain success, while the younger is a new comer,
+intent upon gaining a footing. Mattheson's observations about Handel,
+although occasionally tinged with jealousy of his talented brother
+artist, are therefore particularly noteworthy in the biography of the
+great composer.
+
+Johann Mattheson, born in Hamburg, in the year 1681, was at the time of
+Handel's arrival tenor singer and musical composer at the theatre of the
+town, and teacher of singing, the harpsichord, and thorough-bass. When,
+in the year 1705, an increasing deafness compelled him to relinquish his
+engagement as singer and actor in operas at the theatre, his
+accomplishments, combined with commendable habits of industry and
+punctuality, induced the British Ambassador at Hamburg to engage him as
+tutor for his son, and afterwards to appoint him his secretary. During
+an active life of unusual duration,--he died in the year 1764, at the
+age of 83,--Mattheson published a great number of treatises on musical
+subjects, some of which still possess value as books of reference. His
+vanity, not unfrequently exhibited in his writings, may in some measure
+have been nourished by his many flatterers among his musical
+contemporaries, who evidently feared his sarcastic pen all the more
+because they did not possess the literary ability to engage successfully
+in a controversy with him when they disagreed with his opinion.
+
+As regards the musical compositions of Mattheson, we know from his own
+statement, in his autobiography, that his operas were greatly admired by
+the public; but this favourable opinion is hardly supported by such of
+his compositions as have appeared in print. A collection of twelve
+Suites for the harpsichord, the manuscript of which he sent to England,
+where it was published in two volumes, in the year 1714, bears the
+title:--'Pièces de Clavecin, en deux Volumes, consistant des Ouvertures,
+Preludes, Fugues, Allemandes, Courentes, Sarabandes, Gigues et Aires,
+composées par J. Mattheson, Secr.--London, printed for J. D. Fletcher.'
+The work is prefaced by an address to the musical public, written by the
+editor, J. D. Fletcher, in which he says:--"Britain may now hope to
+return those arts with interest, which she borrowed from other nations;
+and foreigners in time may learn of those whom their forefathers
+taught.... As the harpsichord is an instrument yet capable of greater
+improvement, so the following pieces claim a precedence of all others of
+this nature; not only that they are composed by one of the greatest
+masters of the age, in a taste altogether pleasing and sublime; but, as
+they are peculiarly adapted to that instrument, and engraven with an
+exactness that cannot be equall'd by any of their nature yet extant."
+Sir John Hawkins, who probably had not seen these Suites, relates:
+"Mattheson had sent over to England, in order to their being published
+here, two collections of lessons for the harpsichord, and they were
+accordingly engraved on copper, and printed for Richard Meares in St.
+Paul's Church-yard, and published in the year 1714. Handel was at that
+time in London, and in the afternoon was used to frequent St. Paul's
+Church for the sake of hearing the service, and of playing on the organ
+after it was over; from whence he and some gentlemen of the choir would
+frequently adjourn to the Queen's Arms tavern in St. Paul's Church-yard,
+where was a harpsichord. It happened one afternoon, when they were thus
+met together, Mr. Weely, a gentleman of the choir, came in and informed
+them that Mr. Mattheson's lessons were then to be had at Mr. Meares'
+shop; upon which Mr. Handel ordered them immediately to be sent for, and
+upon their being brought, played them all over without rising from the
+instrument." Still more odd appears Hawkins' statement that Handel
+"approved so highly of the compositions of Mattheson, particularly his
+lessons, that he was used to play them for his private amusement."[2]
+
+If Handel really could amuse himself by playing these lessons, which are
+in no respect superior to the usual productions of the mediocre
+musicians of his time, it probably was only from feelings of curiosity
+and kindness towards a former friend. Mattheson composed a great deal,
+and made at last even his own Funeral Anthem, which after his death was
+performed to his honour, and which, if report speaks correctly, sounded
+truly miserable; and this may well be believed, considering that when
+he composed the music Mattheson had been deaf for nearly thirty years.
+Still, though he was but a poor composer, he possessed ample musical
+knowledge and practical skill to enable him to judge the works of his
+superior contemporaries. His jealous disposition, however, sometimes
+prevented him from forming a just opinion. His disparaging critique of
+an early work of Handel, in his 'Critica Musica,' Hamburg, 1725, at a
+time when Handel had become a resident in London, was evidently
+influenced by jealousy, and the same is more or less observable in his
+other writings. Nevertheless, he took every opportunity to keep up a
+correspondence with Handel, and to boast of his former familiarity with
+the celebrated man. Mattheson, having solicited Handel's opinion upon a
+certain theoretical question on which he was in dispute with some German
+musicians, and having also expressed the hope that Handel might favour
+him with some biographical notices, Handel, at the conclusion of his
+letter in reply, excuses himself for not complying with the second point
+in question:--
+
+     "Pour ce qui est du second point, vous pouvez juger vous même qu'il
+     demande beaucoup de recueillement, dont je ne suis pas le maître
+     parmi les occupations pressantes, que j'ai par devers moi. Dès que
+     j'en ferai un peu debarassé, je repasserai les Epoques principales
+     que j'ai eues dans le cours de ma Profession, pour vous faire voir
+     l'estime et la consideration particulière avec laquelle j'ai
+     l'honneur d'être,
+
+                             Monsieur,
+                                   Votre très humble et très
+                                            Obeissant Serviteur,
+                                                         G. F. HANDEL.
+
+     A Londres, Fevr. 24, 1719."
+
+In the year 1740, Mattheson published his _Grundlage einer Ehrenpforte_
+('Foundation of a Triumphal Arch'), which contains a series of
+biographies of the celebrated musicians of his time,--Mattheson's
+included. During the preparation of this work, he addressed another
+request to Handel to supply him with materials for a correct biography.
+He also dedicated twelve fugues of his own composition to Handel, of
+which he sent him a copy to ensure prompt attention. Handel's reply was
+again evasive:--
+
+                                    "A Londres ce 29 de Juillet, 1735.
+
+     Monsieur,
+
+     Il y a quelque tems que j'ai reçu une de vos obligeantes lettres;
+     mais à présent je vien de recevoir votre dernière avec votre ouvrage.
+     Je vous en remercie, Monsieur, et je vous assure que j'ai toute
+     l'estime pour votre mérite, je souhaiterois seulement que mes
+     circonstances m'étaient plus favorables pour vous donner des marques
+     de mon inclination à vous servir. L'ouvrage est digne de l'attention
+     des connoisseurs, et quand à moi, je vous rends justice.
+
+     Au reste, pour rammasser quelque époque, il m'est impossible
+     puisqu'une continuelle application au service de cette cour et
+     noblesse me détourne de toute autre affaire.
+
+                  Je suis, avec une considération très parfaite, etc."
+
+Handel was at this period in circumstances by no means flourishing, his
+operatic enterprises having failed. Mattheson's request came therefore
+at a very inopportune time, since it would have been only painful to
+Handel to occupy his mind with recollections of events of his earlier
+life, and with the record of expectations which he now found were not to
+be realized.
+
+It is singular that almost all Handel's letters to Germans which have
+been preserved, including those to his brother-in-law in Halle, are
+written in French. Besides, they are so extremely formal and
+ceremonious, even those to his nearest relations! This may be in great
+measure accounted for by the usages of his time, and by the circumstance
+of his coming frequently into contact with persons of a higher position
+in society than himself. But, however reserved he may appear in his
+letters, evidences are not wanting testifying to his kindheartedness and
+generosity.
+
+When Mattheson found that it was useless to endeavour to elicit
+information direct from Handel for his 'Ehrenpforte,' he compiled a
+biography interspersed with recollections of their mutual experiences
+during the years of their intercourse in Hamburg. The following extracts
+from Mattheson's gossip are translated as literally as possible:--
+
+"In the summer of the year 1703 he came to Hamburg, rich in abilities
+and good intentions. I was almost the first acquaintance he made, and I
+took him to the organs and choirs of the town, and to operas and
+concerts. I also introduced him to a certain family where all were
+extremely devoted to music."
+
+In another place Mattheson records that he made Handel's acquaintance
+accidentally at the organ of the church of St. Mary Magdalen, and that
+he took him at once with him to his father's house, and paid him every
+possible attention. Mattheson further relates:--
+
+"At first he played the second violin in the orchestra of the opera, and
+seemed as if he could not count above five; in fact, he was naturally
+much inclined to dry humour. But, one day, when a harpsichord player was
+wanted, he allowed himself to be persuaded to take his place, and showed
+himself a man, when no one but I expected it. I am sure if he reads this
+he will laugh in his sleeve, for outwardly he seldom laughs. Especially
+will he laugh if he recollects the pigeon-dealer who once travelled post
+with us to Lübeck; likewise, the son of the pastry-cook who had to blow
+the bellows while we were playing the organ in the church of St. Mary
+Magdalen of this place. This was on the thirtieth of July, 1703, after
+our having been out on the water on the fifteenth."
+
+"He composed at that time very long, long airs, and almost endless
+cantatas, which, although the harmonious treatment was perfect,
+nevertheless had not the requisite fitness; nor did they exhibit the
+proper taste. However, the high school of the opera soon put him on the
+right track."
+
+"He was great upon the organ, greater than Kuhnau in fugues and
+counterpoint, especially in extemporizing. However, he knew but very
+little of melody before he had to do with the operas in Hamburg. On the
+other hand, Kuhnau's pieces were all exceedingly melodious, and suited
+for the voice, even those arranged for playing. In the preceding century
+scarcely any one thought of melody; all aimed merely at harmony."
+
+"At that time he dined almost daily by invitation with my father, and in
+return opened to me some particular manoeuvres in counter point. On
+the other hand, in dramatic style I have been of no little service to
+him; so that one hand washed the other."
+
+"On the seventeenth of August, in the year 1703, we travelled together
+to Lübeck, and in the carriage composed many double-fugues, _da mente
+non da penna_. I had been invited there by the President of the Privy
+Council, Magnus von Wedderkopp, in order to choose a successor for the
+excellent organist, Dieterich Buxtehude. I took Handel there with me. We
+tried almost all the organs and harpsichords in Lübeck; and, with regard
+to our playing, we arranged between ourselves that he should play
+exclusively on the organ, and I on the harpsichord. We also heard with
+due attention the above-mentioned artist in his St. Mary's Church. But
+when we found that a certain marriage, for which neither of us had the
+slightest inclination, was a stipulated condition with the appointment,
+[the successful candidate had to marry the daughter of Buxtehude] we
+departed thence, after having received much honour, and having enjoyed
+many entertainments. Johann Christian Schieferdecker subsequently
+accommodated himself to the requirements, conducted the bride home, and
+obtained the fine appointment."
+
+"In the year 1704, when I was in Holland, intending to proceed to
+England, I received in Amsterdam, on the twenty-first of March, a letter
+from Handel in Hamburg, so obliging and pressing, that it at once
+induced me to return home. The letter, which is dated March 18th, 1704,
+contains, among others, these expressions:--
+
+'I much desire your highly agreeable conversation, the privation of
+which will soon be repaired, as the time approaches in which it will be
+impossible to undertake anything in the way of operas without your
+presence. I therefore pray you obediently to inform me of your
+departure, that I may have the opportunity of showing my obligation by
+meeting you with Miss Sbülens,' etc., etc."
+
+These extracts from Mattheson's 'Ehrenpforte' are quoted here because
+they throw light upon some occurrences alluded to in the remarks with
+which Mattheson has interspersed his German translation of Mainwaring's
+'Memoirs of the Life of the late George Frederick Handel; to which is
+added a Catalogue of his works, and observations upon them; London,
+1760.'
+
+Mainwaring was a young clergyman, whose admiration of Handel induced him
+to collect as much material for the compilation of a biography as he was
+able to obtain. His work, published anonymously a year after Handel's
+death, much as it has been disparaged on account of its chronological
+inaccuracies and its want of musical erudition, is certainly valuable as
+containing the fullest account of Handel's life in England written by a
+contemporary of the great musician. Mattheson's German translation, with
+annotations, is entitled _Georg Friderich Händel's Lebensbeschreibung,
+nebst einem Verzeichnisse seiner Ausübungswerke und deren Beurtheilung;
+übersetzt, auch mit einigen Anmerkungen, absonderlich über den
+hamburgischen Artikel, versehen von Legations-Rath Mattheson. Hamburg.
+Auf Kosten des Uebersetzers_, 1761. ('George Frederick Handel's
+Biography, with a list of his Compositions, and a critical examination
+of them; translated, and annotated with some remarks, especially upon
+the part relating to Hamburg, by Mattheson, Councillor of Legation.
+Hamburg. Published at the expense of the translator, 1761.') The book is
+now scarce. Victor Schoelcher, in his 'Life of Handel,' London, 1857,
+notices it only with the remark: "My endeavours have hitherto been in
+vain to obtain a copy of this in Germany, and it is not to be found in
+the British Museum." At any rate, it is not likely to be known to many
+English musicians. A translation of Mattheson's annotations is therefore
+offered here.
+
+As regards the Introduction with which Mattheson has prefaced his
+translation, it is so diffuse, and contains so little about Handel, that
+few musicians now would care to read it entirely. It is headed by a
+quotation in English, from the _Tatler_ (No. 92):--"_Panegyricks are
+frequently ridiculous, let them be addressed where they will._"
+
+Mattheson aims more at impressing the reader with his own merits than
+with those of Handel. He says, for instance: "In describing an artist's
+life, it is not sufficient to represent the man only as an artist; the
+artist must rather be considered also as a man; for thus only can his
+merits be properly understood. However, no one is able to know or to do
+everything in his vocation. Thus, in music, one performer excels on the
+organ-pedals, while another surpasses him on the harpsichord. The first
+may be called coarse; the second, delicate. The first may be only
+appreciated by connoisseurs; the second, by everyone. A company of
+artists--if any such exists--is like a bunch of different keys. No one
+of these is to be extolled before the other but only in so far as it
+opens an important lock which encloses a treasure. One musician is not
+only a player, but also a singer; another never opens his mouth to
+sing--nay, not even to laugh. The former, besides being able to compose,
+to sing, to play, and to dance, acts a principal character on the stage;
+the latter, with his quantity of musical scores, has taken care not to
+appear upon the boards of the theatre. Indeed, he would have cut a funny
+figure had he done so. Here, some one who occupies himself with music,
+and also with various sciences, in a superior manner, works at the same
+time for kings and princes; there some one employs his gifts principally
+in the service and for the amusement of the subjects. From this it is
+clear that each in his particular line may deserve honour and laudation;
+not properly on account of his person, but on account of his
+achievements.... No mere _Musicus practicus ecclesiastico-dramaticus_,
+who took a high rank as a director of the orchestra, and a still higher
+rank as an organist, but who was neither a singer nor an actor, and
+least of all a mathematician--has ever, before Handel, attained to this,
+that without his help a special book of a considerable size on his life
+has been written, and supplied with instructive observations--still
+more, that his biography has been translated into another language by a
+brother-artist by no means of the common class. Competing successors do
+not feel hurt by these stimulating spurs!"
+
+In order to render the following annotations by Mattheson properly
+intelligible, the statements of Mainwaring to which they refer are
+inserted with them. The latter are copied exactly as they were
+originally written; while Mattheson's annotations are translated from
+the German.
+
+_Mainwaring_ (P. 1). "George Frederick Handel was born at Hall,[3] a
+city in the circle of Upper-Saxony, the 24th February, 1684,[4] by a
+second wife of his father, who was an eminent surgeon and physician of
+the same place, and above sixty when his son was born."
+
+_Mattheson._ "The author is wrong in calling Halle a town of
+Upper-Saxony. It lies in the Dukedom of Magdeburg, which belongs to
+Lower-Saxony. Handel was, therefore, no Upper-Saxon, but rather a
+Lower-Saxon."
+
+_Mainwaring_ (P. 6). "It may not be unpleasant to the reader just now to
+remind him of the minute and surprising resemblance between the early
+periods of Handel's life and some which are recorded in that of the
+celebrated M. Pascal, written by his sister. Nothing could equal the
+bias of the one to Mathematics but the bias of the other to Music; both
+in their very childhood out-did the efforts of maturer age; they pursued
+their respective studies not only without any assistance, but against
+the consent of their parents, and in spite of all the opposition they
+contrived to give them."
+
+_Mattheson._ "Almost the same was the case with Tycho Brahe, and with
+the translator of this biography, each in his vocation."
+
+_Mainwaring_ (P. 15). "Zackaw [Zachau] was proud of a pupil who already
+began to attract the attention of all persons who lived near Hall
+[Halle], or resorted thither from distant quarters. And he was glad of
+an assistant who, by his uncommon talents, was capable of supplying his
+place whenever he had an inclination to be absent, as he often was, from
+his love of company and a cheerful glass."
+
+_Mattheson._ "Could not the life of Handel have been written without
+aspersing the brave tone-artist Zachau forty years after his death on
+account of a glass of wine?"
+
+_Mainwaring_ (P. 15). "It may seem strange to talk of an assistant of
+seven years of age, for he could not be more, if indeed he was quite so
+much, when first he was committed to the care of this person."
+
+_Mattheson._ "The author appears to have not the least scruple in
+committing the most palpable anachronism by making his hero the younger
+the taller he grows. This will presently appear evident."
+
+_Mainwaring_ (P. 16). "We have already hinted at some striking
+coincidences of life and character which are found in him and the famous
+Pascal. In this place we may just observe that the latter at the age of
+twelve compos'd a treatise on the propagation of sounds, and at sixteen
+another upon conic sections."
+
+_Mattheson._ "But it must be remembered that afterwards he entirely gave
+up mathematics. _See_ Bayle."
+
+_Mainwaring_ (P. 18). "It was in the year 1698 that he went to Berlin.
+The opera there was in a flourishing condition under the direction of
+the King of Prussia (grandfather of the present), who, by the
+encouragement which he gave to singers and composers, drew thither some
+of the most eminent from Italy and other parts."
+
+_Mattheson._ "Anno 1698 there was no King in Prussia; the first dated
+from 1701. Handel has, therefore, seen no king in Berlin. That the
+author is as bad a genealogist and politician as he is a chronologist,
+is proved by his mistaking the grandfather of the present king for the
+father, and by his always mentioning the then reigning Elector as the
+King."
+
+_Mainwaring_ (P. 20). "Attilio's fondness for Handel commenced at his
+first coming to Berlin, and continued to the time of his leaving it. He
+would often take him on his knee, and make him play on his harpsichord
+for an hour together, equally pleased and surprised with the
+extraordinary proficiency of so young a person; for at this time he
+could not exceed thirteen, as may easily be seen by comparing dates."
+
+_Mattheson._ "He was born anno 1684.[5] He arrived in Berlin anno 1698.
+Even if the various occurrences with Buononcini and Attilio, with the
+Elector and his court, took only a few hours--nay, even if they are not
+taken into account at all, there are still at least fourteen years. One
+should think that he was much above seven years when Ariosti (Attilio)
+took him on his lap."[6]
+
+_Mainwaring_ (P. 31). "Before we advance any farther in his history, it
+is necessary some account should be given of the opera at Hamburg, as
+well as some character of the composer and singers. The principal
+singers were Conratini and Mathyson. The latter was secretary to Sir
+Cyril Wych, who was resident for the English court, had Handel for his
+music-master, and was himself a fine player on the harpsichord. Mathyson
+was no great singer, for which reason he sung only occasionally; but he
+was a good actor, a good composer of lessons, and a good player on the
+harpsichord. He wrote and translated several treatises. One that he
+wrote was on composition. He had thoughts of writing the life of Handel
+many years before his death. Had he pursued this design, he would have
+had advantages beyond what we can pretend to, _i. e._, ampler and
+fresher materials; at least, for so much of the life as had then
+elapsed. All that is here intended, is to give a plain, artless account
+of such particulars as we have been able to learn, and such only as we
+have reason to believe authentic."
+
+_Mattheson._ "This whole story, with everything subsequently recorded
+about the operas in Hamburg, is so full of errors that one can scarcely
+rectify them. The Conradin (not Conratini) possessed almost perfect
+beauty, and had withal an extraordinary splendid voice, which extended
+in equal power from [Music: 'A' below the treble staff] to [Music: 'D'
+above the treble staff]. This gave her claim to be the principal singer.
+Mattheson (not Mathyson) instructed her for several years; _i. e._, he
+sung everything to her daily until she could retain it in her memory. At
+that time no gentleman was called a great singer unless he had a soprano
+voice, and such a gentleman we did not possess. An inferior teacher
+would certainly have been of no use to the Conradin. It is ridiculous to
+say of Mattheson that he sang only occasionally, considering that he was
+fifteen years at the theatre, that he acted almost always the principal
+character, exciting his audience by means of his unaffected singing as
+well as by his mimic art, which is of the utmost importance in opera,
+sometimes fear and terror, sometimes tears, sometimes merriment and
+delight. On the 9th of June, 1703, he made Handel's acquaintance at an
+organ, when Handel was 19-1/4 years old, and Mattheson 21-3/4, so that
+the difference in age amounted only to two years and a half.[7] On the
+17th of August, in the same year, they travelled together to Lübeck, and
+played in that town, as well as in Hamburg, on the organ and
+harpsichord, so to say in emulation, in which Handel proved himself the
+most successful on the former instrument, but acknowledged himself
+obliged to yield the palm to his rival on the latter instrument; so that
+they made a compact together never to encroach upon each other's ground.
+This they have also faithfully kept during five or six years. On the
+20th of October, Mattheson brought out his fifth, or sixth opera, called
+Cleopatra, on which occasion Handel played the harpsichord under the
+direction of the former. Soon afterwards, on the 7th of November in the
+same year, Sir John Wich,[8] Knight, Royal Ambassador of Great Britain,
+engaged Mattheson as teacher and tutor for his son Cyril Wich, nine
+years old; and soon afterwards he made him his Secretary, with a salary
+of three hundred Reichsthaler, and two hundred _ditto_ perquisites _per
+annum_. This gave occasion for jealous looks, especially as he now bid
+farewell to the theatre. Thus, after a secure foundation had been laid,
+the progress was very perceptible. True, the young master Wich had
+already had a few very unimportant lessons from Handel; they did not
+give satisfaction; the tutor was therefore appealed to, and under his
+guidance the young gentleman attained, in the course of time, a high
+degree of perfection. He succeeded his father, after the death of the
+latter, and obtained in 1729 the hereditary dignity of a Baronet.
+Mattheson always remained in royal service, was twelve or thirteen times
+'Chargé des Affaires,' was employed on important missions, etc.,--as has
+already been circumstantially recorded in the 'Ehrenpforte,' published
+in 1740. At last, after the lapse of fifty years, the highly-meritorious
+Baronet departed to a better world on the 18th of August, when he had
+just returned from an embassy to Russia. If the author of the present
+biography had consulted Mattheson's books, especially the
+above-mentioned 'Ehrenpforte,' and the 'Critica Musica,' which are
+_publici juris_, he would not have been devoid of authentic materials.
+Under those favourable conditions the though not _great_ yet formerly
+_principal_ singer and actor composed, notwithstanding all diplomatic
+and pressing dispatches in the whole district of Lower-Saxony, not only
+a great number of sacred pieces for the Church, but oratorios, operas,
+and music for the harpsichord and other instruments, which cannot be
+unknown in England. Besides he was occupied as Kapellmeister of the Duke
+of Holstein, as Canonicus et Cantor Cathedralis Hamburgensis, and as
+director of several grand concerts; he wrote not _one_, but _eighty-six_
+books, most of which treat profoundly of the theory of music and the art
+of singing. Furthermore, when the St. Michael's Church was burnt down,
+he contributed some forty thousand marks for a new organ, paid the money
+in advance, and intends to do more _per codicillum_ in different ways.
+His life, led in the fear of God, extends now to the eightieth year, in
+cheerfulness and useful works. For the sake of truth this is here
+inserted."
+
+_Mainwaring_ (P. 32). "Conratini excelled greatly, both as an actress
+and as a singer. Keysar[9] did the same as a composer; but, being a man
+of gaiety and expence, involved himself in debts, which forced him to
+abscond. His operas for some time continued to be performed during his
+absence. On his disappearing, the person who before had played the
+second harpsichord demanded the first. This occasioned a dispute between
+him and Handel, the particulars of which, partly for the sake of their
+singularity, and partly on account of their importance, may deserve to
+be mentioned. On what reasons Handel grounded his claim to the first
+harpsichord I do not understand. He had played a violin in the
+orchestra, he had a good command on this instrument, and was known to
+have a better on the other. But the older candidate[10] was not unfit
+for the office, and insisted on the right of succession. Handel seemed
+to have no plea but that of natural superiority, of which he was
+conscious, and from which he would not recede. This dispute occasioned
+parties in the Opera-house. On the one side it was said, with great
+appearance of reason, that to set such a boy as Handel over a person so
+much his senior, was both unjust and unprecedented. On the other, it was
+urged with some plausibility, that the opera was not to be ruined for
+punctilios; that it was easy to foresee, from the difficulties Keysar
+was under, that a composer would soon be wanted, but not so easy to find
+a person capable of succeeding him, unless it were Handel. In short,
+matters, they said, were now at that pass that the question, if fairly
+stated, was not who should conduct the opera, but whether there should
+be any opera at all. These arguments prevailed; and he to whom the first
+place seemed of course to be due, was constrained to yield it to his
+stripling competitor. But, how much he felt the indignity may be guessed
+from the nature and degree of his resentment, more suited to the
+glowing temper of an Italian, than to the phlegmatic constitution of a
+German."
+
+_Mattheson._ "He calls the Germans phlegmatic, and a _querelle
+allemande_ does not occur to him."
+
+_Mainwaring_ (P. 35). "For, determined to make Handel pay dear for his
+priority, he stifled his rage for the present, only to wait an
+opportunity to give it full vent. As they were coming out of the
+orchestra, he made a push at him with a sword, which, being aimed full
+at his heart, would for ever have removed him from the office he had
+usurped, but for the friendly _Score_ which he accidentally carried in
+his bosom; and through which to have forced it, would have demanded all
+the might of Ajax himself. Had this happened in the early ages, not a
+mortal but would have been persuaded that Apollo himself had interposed
+to preserve him, in the form of a music-book. From the circumstances
+which are related of this affair, it has more the appearance of an
+assassination than of a rencounter; if the latter, one of Handel's years
+might well be wanting the courage, or the skill, to defend himself; if
+the former, supposing him capable of making a defence, he could not be
+prepared for it. How many great men, in the very dawning of their glory
+have been planted, like him, on the very verge of destruction! as if
+Fortune, jealous of Nature, made a show of sacrificing her noblest
+productions only to remind her of that supremacy to which she aspires.
+Whatever might be the merits of the quarrel at first,"----
+
+_Mattheson._ "Here I must again interrupt the subtle reasoner, in order
+to show him his confusion, which is even greater and ruder than the
+preceding one, since that contained only above a dozen falsehoods, while
+we have here double the number. The cause of the quarrel was, indeed,
+quite different from what is here related. It was already mentioned long
+since, with all possible modesty, in the 'Ehrenpforte,' p. 94 and 193;
+but there was then no occasion, as there is now, to remind the reader
+that a cool box on the ear is no assassination, but rather a necessary
+warning to prepare for defence. This settles the first statement. The
+incorrectly-informed author relates a fable rather than a true event.
+Never, so long as can be remembered, have two harpsichords been played
+together in the orchestra of the opera in Hamburg at the same time; and
+as there has always been but one, a dispute about it, as narrated, could
+not possibly have occurred. Now, as to this dispute is attributed the
+origin of the fight, the remainder of the invention falls with it to the
+ground. There we have the second blunder. Subsequently erroneous
+statements are so frequent that it is scarcely possible to count them.
+Handel, in the beginning, played only the second violin in the
+orchestra; and he was, as may easily be conceived, not a more
+accomplished performer on that instrument than any other member of the
+orchestra. There we have the third falsehood, which is besides a
+boasting untruth. The fray occurred on the 5th of December, 1704.
+Handel, whom the biographer insists, as much as is in his power, on
+making younger the older he grows, was nearly twenty-one years of
+age,[11] tall, strong, broad, and vigorous in body; he was,
+consequently, man enough to defend himself, and to make use of the sword
+which he had hanging at his side. That is the fourth point, and a strong
+one too, which a writer very sensitive of his reputation should
+especially bear in mind when he, instead of recording real facts,
+indulges in high-flown laudations, and occasions the translator much
+unnecessary trouble."
+
+_Mainwaring_ (P. 37). "Whatever might be the merits of the quarrel at
+first, Handel seemed now to have purchased his title to precedence by
+the dangers he had incurred to support it. What he and his friends
+expected, soon happened. From conducting the performance, he became
+composer of the opera. Keiser, from his unhappy situation, could no
+longer supply the manager, who therefore applied to Handel, and
+furnished him with a drama to set. The name of it was Almira, and this
+was the first opera which he made. The success of it was so great that
+it ran for thirty nights without interruption. He was at this time not
+much above fourteen; before he was fifteen he made a second, entitled
+Florinda; and soon after, a third, called Nerone; which were heard with
+the same applause."
+
+_Mattheson._ "The fifth brag, as to a certain opera having been
+performed in Hamburg, with every advantage and good result, thirty times
+without intermission, is surely not worth mentioning. The sixth,
+however, is even still finer. Let us just analyze it a little. 'Almira'
+was performed the first time on the 8th of January, anno 1705. Now, our
+chronologist counts from the 24th of February, 1684, when Handel was
+born, until the 8th of January, 1705, as a little more than fourteen
+years, while the period really is nearly twenty-one years.[12] But he is
+not particular about seven years. A fine arithmetician, to be sure!
+Mistake No. 7. 'Nero' was not the third of Handel's operas, as our
+author erroneously states (mistake No. 8), but the second; and it was
+performed for the first time on the 25th of February, in 1705. Thus,
+there were only forty-eight days between the two performances; at the
+utmost, seven weeks. In the seven weeks there were seven Sundays, seven
+Saturdays, fourteen post-days, not to count the St. Mary-days and the
+holydays. How is it then possible that the 'Almira' could have been
+represented thirty times without interruption? Whoever believes only
+half of what this historicus here writes, believes too much. That was
+mistake No. 9. The tenth concerns the Florindo as a man, not the
+Florinda as a female. Handel's opera called 'Florindo' was not his
+second, but his third; and it was performed in 1708, three years after
+'Nero.' Meanwhile, Keiser had not only composed a new 'Almira,' as well
+as the operas 'Octavia,' 'Lucretia,' 'Fedelta coronata,' 'Masagnello
+furioso,' 'Sueno,' 'Genio di Holsatia,' 'Carnival of Venice;' but also
+Schieferdecker had brought out his 'Justin'; Grünwald, his 'Germanicum;'
+and Graupner his 'Dido.' In the year 1708, Handel produced another
+opera, called 'Daphne,' which was the fourth of those he wrote for
+Hamburg, and which appears to be unknown to his biographer, as he omits
+it entirely. Has the man not had trustworthy sources for
+information?[13] Howbeit, the dozen mistakes is complete, and we merely
+remark in addition, that in 1708 Handel was not 15 years of age, but
+quite 24. This _error calculi_ may be regarded as a master stroke. Did
+we not know with certainty that George Frederick Handel died anno 1759,
+on the fourteenth of April, at the age of 76,[14] and we had to rely
+upon this blundering prosaic Homer for information respecting our
+musical Achilles, he would have remained constantly fifteen years,
+perhaps even _imberbis_ until he came to the grave, and our barber in
+Hamburg, who every alternate day attended him, during five or six years,
+would have gained his money wrongfully. If an Englishman thinks that he
+can entertain us with his dreams in his mixture-language, he must be
+prepared for an answer from us in our heroic language. We understand him
+well, and have learnt his tongue; if he does not understand us, he may
+still learn this too.... Having observed Handel during his sojourn in
+Hamburg, we leave the celebrated man to the Italians and the English;
+but we do not believe that the moon is made of green cheese."
+
+_Mainwaring_ (P. 42). "Four or five years had elapsed from the time of
+his coming to Hamburg to that of his leaving it."
+
+_Mattheson._ "Should say five or six."
+
+_Mainwaring_ (P. 42). "Instead of being chargeable to his mother he
+began to be serviceable to her before he was well settled in his new
+situation. Though he had continued to send her remittances from time to
+time, yet, clear of his own expenses, he had made up a purse of 200
+ducats. On the strength of this fund he resolved to set out for Italy."
+
+_Mattheson._ "Anno 1709 he was still in Hamburg, but did nothing.[15]
+Then there occurred the opportunity of his travelling with Herr von
+Binitz to Italy, free of expense; and in 1710 he had his 'Agrippina'
+performed at Venice."
+
+_Mainwaring_ (P. 44). "The very first answer of the fugue in the
+overture for 'Mucius Scævola' [an opera by Handel] affords an instance
+of this kind [viz., a musical licence]. Geminiani, the strictest
+observer of rule, was so charmed with this direct transgression of it
+that, on hearing its effect, he cried out _Quel semitono_ (meaning the
+F-sharp) _vale un mondo_!"
+
+_Mattheson._ "What does that prove? Nothing!"
+
+_Mainwaring_ (P. 50). "At the age of eighteen he made [at Florence] the
+opera of Rodrigo, for which he was presented with 100 sequins and a
+service of plate."
+
+_Mattheson._ "Actually an intentional miscalculation of eight years!"
+
+_Mainwaring_ (P. 52). "In three weeks he finished [at Venice] his
+'Agrippina,' which was performed twenty-seven nights successively."
+
+_Mattheson._ "In the year 1709, at his departure from Hamburg, Handel
+was 25 years old. He resided a year in Florence before he went to
+Venice, where he had his 'Agrippina' performed at the theatre of St. Gio
+Crisostomo, during the Carnival in 1710. Now, let him calculate who can,
+and convince himself whether this makes, from February 24th, 1684,
+eighteen years, as our biographer says, or whether it amounts to
+twenty-six."
+
+_Mainwaring_ (P. 74). "It was in the winter of the year 1710 when he
+arrived at London."
+
+_Mattheson._ "In this year he performed his 'Agrippina' at Venice, and
+in 1709 he was still in Hamburg."[16]
+
+_Mainwaring_ (P. 74). "During this period scarce a mail arrived from
+Holland which did not bring some fresh accounts of victories or
+advantages gained by the English hero [Marlborough] over the armies of a
+monarch but lately the terror of Europe, though now the scorn of every
+Dutch burgomaster."
+
+_Mattheson._ "What a Frenchman may say to this is his own concern. In
+Handel's biography it is lugged in; and such scurrilities reveal an
+ignoble heart."
+
+_Mainwaring_ (P. 88). "Our business is not to play the panegyrist but
+the historian."
+
+_Mattheson._ "If you know that, blessed are you if you act upon it."
+
+_Mainwaring_ (P. 110). "Having one day some words with Cuzzoni on her
+refusing to sing _Falsa imagine_ in 'Ottone': 'Oh! Madame,' Handel said,
+'je scais bien que vous êtes une véritable diablesse; mais je vous ferai
+scavoir, moi, que je suis Beelzebub, le _chef_ des diables!' With this
+he took her up by the waist, and swore that if she made any more words
+he would fling her out of the window. It is to be noted that this was
+formerly one of the methods of executing criminals in some parts of
+Germany, a process not unlike that of the Tarpeian rock, and probably
+derived from it."
+
+_Mattheson._ "This heroic deed was undoubtedly accomplished unawares.
+Who could face such a woman with her claws? The Quixotic story with its
+ingenious reference to the Tarpeian rock, and to criminal processes,
+testify to the author's extensive reading in law and history. Whoever
+can read it without a smile is commendable, especially if he is a
+German, better informed and phlegmatic."
+
+_Mainwaring_ (P. 115). "The little taste he [Handel] had already had of
+adversity lessened that self-confidence which success is apt to inspire.
+He found that it was not the necessary consequence of great abilities,
+and that without prudence the greatest may be almost annihilated in the
+opinions of men."
+
+_Mattheson._ "To this the British proverb applies: 'Give a man luck and
+throw him into the Thames.'"
+
+_Mainwaring_ (P. 116). "He now removed to Covent-garden, and entered
+into partnership with Rich, the master of that house. Hasse and Porpora
+were the composers at the Haymarket. When the former was invited over,
+it is remarkable that the first question he asked was whether Handel was
+dead. Being answered in the negative he refused to come, from a
+persuasion that where his countryman was--for they were both Saxons by
+birth--no other person of the same profession was likely to make any
+figure."
+
+_Mattheson._ "This agrees with a remark of mine before made. Hasse was
+born in Bergedorf, a small town belonging to Hamburg and Lübeck in
+common; he is, therefore, a Lower-Saxon of the highest type.... However,
+the reason why these two Saxons did not wish to encroach upon each
+other's precincts was a very different one from that indicated by our
+biographer."
+
+_Mainwaring_ (P. 132). "Dublin has always been famous for the gaiety and
+splendour of its court, the opulence and spirit of its principal
+inhabitants, the valour of its military, and the genius of its learned
+men. Where such things were held in esteem he [Handel] rightly reckoned
+that he could not better pave the way to his success than by setting out
+with a striking instance and public act of generosity and benevolence.
+The first step that he made was to perform his Messiah for the benefit
+of the city-prison."
+
+_Mattheson._ "On a beau être généreux et liberal, quand il n'en coute
+que des chansons, et que d'autres payent les violons; c'est en bon
+allemand: _Mit der Wurst nach dem Schinken werfen_ ('To throw the
+sausage at the ham')."
+
+_Mainwaring_ (P. 135). "The Foundling Hospital [in London] originally
+rested on the slender foundation of private benefactions. At a time when
+this institution was yet in its infancy; when all men seemed to be
+convinced of its utility; when nothing was at all problematical but the
+possibility of supporting it;--Handel formed the noble resolution to
+lend his assistance, and perform his Messiah annually for its benefit.
+The sums raised by each performance were very considerable, and
+certainly of great consequence in such a crisis of affairs. But, what
+was of much greater, was the magic of his name and the universal
+character of his sacred drama."
+
+_Mattheson._ "Notes were his magic, or his black-art."
+
+_Mainwaring_ (P. 137). "So that it may truly be affirmed that one of the
+noblest and most extensive charities that ever was planned by the
+wisdom, or projected by the piety of men, in some degree owes its
+continuance as well as prosperity to the patronage of Handel."
+
+_Mattheson._ "By this he was not out of pocket; it rather brought him
+credit, which is better than money."
+
+_Mainwaring_ (P. 138). "In the year 1751 a gutta serena deprived him of
+his sight. This misfortune sunk him for a time into the deepest
+despondency. He could not rest until he had undergone some operations as
+fruitless as they were painful. Finding it no longer possible for him to
+manage alone, he sent to Mr. Smith to desire that he should play for
+him, and assist him in conducting the oratorios."
+
+_Mattheson._ "He remained blind until his death,--a period of eight
+years. Nothing is said here of a so-called monumental column, and of an
+amazingly large property left by Handel, although it has been a subject
+of much gossip."
+
+_Mainwaring_ (P. 141). "His incessant and intense application to the
+studies of his profession, rendered constant and large supplies of
+nourishment the more necessary to recruit his exhausted spirits."
+
+_Mattheson._ "J. Sirach, chap. xxxviii., v. 34; Phil., chap. iii., v.
+19."
+
+_Mainwaring_ (P. 142). "The design of the foregoing sheets is only to
+give the reader those parts of his character as a Man, that any way tend
+to open and explain his character as an Artist."
+
+_Mattheson._ "If this were done, the arts and the manners would exhibit
+not unfrequently striking contrasts."
+
+_Mainwaring_ (P. 143). "The author has nothing to add but his sincere
+wishes that every artist who is truly deserving in his profession may
+meet with a person equally desirous of doing justice to his memory."
+
+_Mattheson._ "This wish is as kind as it is reasonable. It proves the
+belief of the author that there must be other people, unknown to him,
+who, on account of their arts, deserve quite as much honour as Handel.
+Alas! how much pains has the 'Great-Thorough-Bass School' taken to show
+this, not to mention the 'Triumphal Arch.'[17] ... Bach, Fux, Graun,
+Graupner, Grünewald, Heinichen, Keiser, etc., have died without
+experiencing it; perhaps the same will happen with Hasse, and with
+several others."
+
+_Mainwaring_ (P. 149). "A great quantity of music, not mentioned in the
+Catalogue, was made [by Handel] in Italy and Germany. How much of it is
+yet in being, is not known. Two chests-full were left at Hamburg,
+besides some at Hanover, and some at Halle."
+
+_Mattheson._ "We Hamburgians have hitherto heard nothing of those two
+chests. In Wich's music-book of the year 1704 are two minuets and half
+an air, that is all."
+
+_Mainwaring_ (P. 164). "The generality of mankind have not enough of
+delicacy to be much affected with minute instances of beauty, but yet
+are so formed as to be transported with every the least mark of grandeur
+and sublimity."
+
+_Mattheson._ "That is true."
+
+_Mainwaring_ (P. 165). "The taste in music, both of the Germans and
+Italians, is suited to the different characters of the two nations. That
+of the first is rough and martial; and their music consists of strong
+effects produced, without much delicacy, by the rattle of a number of
+instruments."
+
+_Mattheson._ "Surely this is not phlegmatic, as before said."
+
+_Mainwaring_ (P. 174). "However well some of the Italians may have
+succeeded in the management of the instrumental parts in their
+song-music, there is one point in which Handel stands alone, and in
+which he may possibly never be equalled; I mean in the instrumental
+parts of his choruses and full church-music."
+
+_Mattheson._ "This is true enough; but it was all derived from Zachau
+and his organ-playing. Germany is the fatherland of all powerful
+harmony, elaborate compositions for the organ, fugues and chorales, used
+in Divine Service. Italy has melody for her daughter, with songstresses,
+singers, and very delicate solo-players on violin-instruments to touch
+the heart. France produces its magnificent choruses, instrumental
+pieces, dance-music, to cheer the heart; and to England we leave the
+honour of admiring and recompensing these rarities."
+
+_Mainwaring_ (P. 179). "But how shall we excuse for those instances of
+coarseness and indelicacy which occur so frequently in the airs of his
+oratorios? For, as the melody is a fundamental and essential part in
+vocal music, it should seem that nothing can atone for the neglect of
+it. The best painter would be blamed should he draw off the attention
+too much from the principal figure in his piece, however perfect, by the
+very high and exquisite finishing of some inferior object; but, much
+more would he deserve to be blamed if he left that figure the least
+finished which all the rules of his art required to be the most so. Now,
+in music, though there may sometimes be occasion for giving the
+instruments the ascendancy over the voices, yet never should the
+song-parts be unmeaning or inexpressive, much less coarse or ordinary."
+
+_Mattheson._ "Golden words! All this, however, is owing to the
+circumstance that Handel was neither a singer nor an actor. During a
+period of five or six years, when we had daily intercourse with each
+other, I never heard a singing tone from his mouth. When Earl Granville
+(at that time Lord Carteret) was here in Hamburg, and heard me sing and
+also play, he said: 'Handel plays also thus, but he does not sing thus.'
+In my opinion singing and acting are of great assistance to a composer
+of dramatic music. Hasse knows this well, and has cultivated both
+earnestly, _me teste_. Keiser, likewise, sang very admirably. Both have,
+therefore, extraordinarily charming melodies."
+
+_Mainwaring_ (P. 202). "In his fugues and overtures, Handel is quite
+original. The style of them is peculiar to himself, and in no way like
+that of any master before him. In the formation of these pieces,
+knowledge and invention seem to have contended for the mastery."
+
+_Mattheson._ "A certain philosopher recently made himself conspicuous by
+maintaining that the Fine Arts ought not to be regarded as Sciences,
+because their systems are sensuous. Nevertheless, the old adage always
+stands firm: _Nihil esse in intellectu quod non prius fuerit in sensu._
+Our biographer belongs perhaps to that sect, for he scarcely uses the
+word science, even when he refers to the science of music, as on the
+present occasion. He always uses only the word _knowledge_ or _skill_.
+Perhaps this is unintentional. Thus much, however, is certain: musicians
+are in need of literary works, and he who can only write notes, his
+honour and reputation are only _vox, practeraque nihil_. On the second
+of March, this year [1761,] we had here, in Hamburg, a sale of a large
+number of scarce and valuable books on all sciences; but the science of
+music was not represented by a single work in the comprehensive
+catalogue. That is surely neglect of a science! If any one can show me
+that I am mistaken, I shall be happy."
+
+_Mainwaring_ (P. 208). "Little, indeed, are the hopes of ever equalling,
+much less of excelling, so vast a proficient in his own way; however, as
+there are so many avenues to excellence still open, so many paths to
+glory still untrod, it is hoped that the example of this illustrious
+foreigner will rather prove an incentive than a discouragement to the
+industry and genius of our own countrymen."
+
+_Mattheson._ "Whoever intends to describe accurately the life of Handel,
+can hardly do it without a reference to the following books: 'Musica
+Critica,' Hamburg, 1722; 'The Musical Patriot,' Hamburg, 1728;
+'Ehrenpforte,' Hamburg, 1740."
+
+Mattheson now quotes an extract from a letter of Handel's, dated
+February 24th, 1719, which has already been given above;[18] and he
+remarks: "To promise, and to fulfil a promise, are two things." He
+quotes once more Handel's complimentary letter, also given above,[19]
+which evidently afforded him great satisfaction; and he adds: "Even the
+most insignificant letters in some degree depict the writer, in
+reference to the time and place in which they were written. Horace is
+quite right: _Coelum non animum mutant qui trans mare currunt._"
+
+Some writers have blamed Mattheson very much on account of his vanity
+and his jealousy of Handel. Still, it remains a debatable question
+whether the conceit of his detractors does not perhaps surpass his own.
+It is a common practice with inferior musical authors to assume an air
+of superiority, and to endeavour to make themselves important by finding
+fault with others who have distinguished themselves in the same field in
+which they are labouring, and to whom they ought to be grateful.
+
+Mattheson had not only a better scientific education than most musicians
+of his time, but his literary productions are also more readable than
+those of his modern commentators who censure him.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[1] Vol. I., p. 94.
+
+[2] Hawkins's 'History of Music,' Vol. V., p. 253.
+
+[3] Halle.
+
+[4] Should be 1685.
+
+[5] That Handel was born on the 23rd of February, 1685, and not on the
+24th of February, 1684, is correctly stated in J. J. Walther's
+'Musicalisches Lexicon,' Leipzig, 1732. To settle the uncertainty about
+the date, which appears to have arisen chiefly through Mainwaring's
+mis-statement, J. J. Eschenburg consulted the Baptismal Register of the
+Frauenkirche in Halle, where he found the year 1685 given. (_See_ 'Dr.
+Karl Burney's Nachricht von Georg Friedrich Handel's Lebens umständen,
+und der ihm zu London im May und Juny, 1784, angestellten
+Gedächtnissfeyer, aus den Englischen übersetzt von J. J. Eschenburg;
+Berlin, 1785').--Förstemann ('Händel's Stammbaum,' Leipzig, 1844), and
+others, have subsequently convinced themselves that Eschenburg's date is
+correct. The year 1684, given on Handel's Monument in Westminster Abbey,
+therefore, requires rectifying.
+
+[6] Chrysander ('G. F. Handel,' Leipzig, 1858, Vol. I., p. 52) surmises
+that Handel was not in Berlin in 1698, but in 1696, when he was eleven
+years old.
+
+[7] This is a mis-statement. Handel, born in 1685, was 18 years old; and
+Mattheson, born in 1681, was 22 years old.
+
+[8] Wych?
+
+[9] Keiser.
+
+[10] Mattheson.
+
+[11] He was not quite twenty years old.
+
+[12] See the note above, page 11.
+
+[13] Mainwaring had probably obtained some of his information
+from Handel himself; but he may have forgotten the dates, or Handel may
+not have remembered them exactly.
+
+[14] Handel was 74 years old when he died.
+
+[15] Mattheson is mistaken here. It has been satisfactorily
+ascertained that Handel left Hamburg for Italy in the year 1706. (See G.
+F. Händel, von F. Chrysander, Leipzig, 1858, Vol. I., p. 139.)
+
+[16] The following well-authenticated data may serve to correct
+the "corrections" of Mattheson:--Handel was born in 1685; went to
+Hamburg in 1703; thence to Italy in 1706; from Italy to Hanover in 1710;
+thence to London in 1710; back to Hanover in 1711; returned to England
+in 1712, where he died in 1759.
+
+[17] Two works by Mattheson.
+
+[18] Page 4.
+
+[19] Page 7.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+DIABOLIC MUSIC.
+
+
+It is a suggestive fact that those spirits of the mountains, rivers, and
+of lonely places, which delight in music and dancing, are, according to
+popular tradition, generally well-intentioned and harmless creatures.
+Sometimes, however, a very evil-disposed spirit resorts to these arts
+for the purpose of accomplishing some wicked design. A few stories from
+different countries which illustrate the superstitious notions on the
+subject will be given here. Although the stories are still in the mouth
+of the people, it can hardly be said that they are still really
+believed, at least not in European countries. But there are always
+ignorant persons who half believe whatever appeals forcibly to their
+imagination.
+
+
+THE AWFUL DECEPTION.
+
+At Arfeld, a small village in Germany, a number of young lads and lasses
+were assembled one winter evening in a warm and comfortable room, the
+girls spinning and singing, as they usually do on these occasions.
+
+One of the lads, in silly playfulness, said to the girls he should like
+them to try whether they could hang him on a single thread of their
+spinning. The novel idea found ready approval. They made him stand on a
+chair, and bound a thin thread around his neck, fastening it on a nail
+under the ceiling.
+
+At this moment all were greatly surprised by hearing strains of
+exquisitely fine music penetrating into the house. They directly
+hastened outside the door to ascertain whence it came; but there they
+neither heard nor saw anything.
+
+On returning to the room, they found, to their great astonishment and
+dismay, that the chair had been drawn from under the lad, and that the
+poor fellow was hanging on the thread and was dead.[20]
+
+
+THE INDEFATIGABLE FIDDLER.
+
+The following strange event happened in the parish of Börne, two miles
+south of Ripen, in Denmark, and is still known to the people in all its
+details.
+
+One Sunday evening, a company of young men and girls of the village had
+assembled in a farm-house, and were indulging in all kinds of frolic and
+flirting. After they had enjoyed their nonsense for some time they
+thought they should like to have a little dancing. In the midst of much
+noisy and useless debating how to procure a musician to play to them,
+one of the youths--the wildest of the party--cut the matter short by
+saying boastingly: "Now, my lads, leave that to me! I will bring you a
+musician, even if it should be the devil himself!" With these words the
+wicked youth placed his cap knowingly on one side of his head, and
+marched out of the room.
+
+He had not advanced many steps along the road when he met with an old
+beggarly-looking man, who carried a fiddle under his arm. The lad lost
+no time in striking a bargain with the man, and triumphantly introduced
+him into the house. In a few minutes all the young folks were wildly
+dancing up and down the room to the old crowder's fascinating music; and
+soon the perspiration actually streamed down their faces. They now
+desired to stop for a moment to rest themselves a little. But this they
+found impossible so long as the old crowder continued playing; and they
+could not induce him to leave off, however earnestly they implored him.
+It was really an awful affair!
+
+Soon they would have been all dead from sheer exhaustion, had it not so
+happened, fortunately for them, that there resided in the lower part of
+the house an old deaf woman, the housekeeper of the farmer, who
+accidentally becoming aware of the desperate condition of the dancers,
+ran as fast as she could to fetch the parish priest. The holy man was
+already in bed, and it took some time to arouse him; and then he had to
+dress himself. But at last he was quite prepared; and when he arrived at
+the farm-house and saw the fearful scene, he at once took out of his
+pocket a little book, from which he read something in Latin or Hebrew.
+Scarcely had he read a verse, when the indefatigable fiddler let his arm
+sink, and drawing himself gradually up until he stood merely on the tips
+of his toes, he suddenly vanished through the ceiling, leaving no traces
+behind. Some people say, however, that there was a sulphurous odour
+about the house shortly after this miraculous event.
+
+
+THE EFFECTUAL EXPEDIENT.
+
+The next story, told by the Manx people, is almost literally transcribed
+from Waldron's 'History and Description of the Isle of Man,' London,
+1744.
+
+"A fiddler having agreed with a person, who was a stranger, for so much
+money, to play to some company he should bring him to, all the twelve
+days of Christmas, and having received an earnest for it, saw his new
+master vanish into the earth the moment he had made the bargain. Nothing
+could exceed the terror of the poor fiddler. He found he had engaged
+himself in the devil's service, and he looked on himself as already
+doomed; but, having recourse to a clergyman he received some hope. The
+clergyman desired him, as he had taken an earnest, to go when he should
+be summoned; but, whatever tunes should be called for, to play none but
+psalm-tunes.
+
+"On the day appointed the same person appeared, with whom he went, but
+with what inward reluctance it is easy to guess. He punctually obeying
+the minister's directions, the company to whom he played were so angry
+that they all vanished at once, leaving him at the top of a high hill,
+and so bruised and hurt, though he was not sensible when or from what
+hand he received the blows, that it was with the utmost difficulty he
+got home."
+
+
+THE OLD CHORALE.
+
+The following is recorded from Oldenburg, North Germany.
+
+The sexton at Esenshammer, one day on entering the church alone, heard
+the organ playing most charmingly. He looked up and saw to his great
+surprise that there was no player; it played by itself. He lost no time
+in running to the Pastor, to tell him what was going on in the church.
+
+The Pastor quickly put on his gown and hastened with his sexton to
+witness the phenomenon. Sure enough; the organ was playing wonderfully
+all kinds of profane airs; they both heard it distinctly. But, look
+where they would, they could not see any performer.
+
+After having recovered a little from his astonishment, the Pastor in a
+solemn tone of voice called out towards the organ:--
+
+"If thou up there canst play everything, just play to me our old Chorale
+_Wer nur den lieben Gott lässt walten_."
+
+In a moment the organ was silent.
+
+
+THE HAUNTED MANSION.
+
+Diabolic musical performances have often been heard at midnight in a
+certain mansion in Schleswig-Holstein. Years ago, the young and gay
+daughter of the then lord of the manor, at a family festivity and grand
+ball, proved herself so insatiable in dancing, that, after having danced
+all the evening, she flippantly exclaimed: "And if the devil himself
+appeared and invited me to dance, I should not decline!"
+
+Scarcely had she said these words, when the door of the ball-room flew
+open, and an unknown cavalier entered, went up to her, and led her to
+dance. Round and round they whirled, unceasingly, incessantly faster and
+faster, until--O, horror! suddenly she fell down dead.
+
+A long time has elapsed since this occurred; but the lady still haunts
+the mansion. Every year on the day when the frightful event took place,
+precisely at midnight, the mansion resounds with the most diabolic
+music. The lady arises from her grave and repairs to the ball-room,
+where she anxiously waits for a partner; for, if any good Christian
+should come and dance with her, she afterwards will have rest. Hitherto
+no one has had the courage to stay in the house during the awful hour. A
+daring young adventurer once had nearly succeeded. In that case, the
+mansion would have come into his possession, according to an old deed
+found in the house. But as soon as the diabolic music began, his courage
+forsook him, and he made off as fast as he could. It terrified him so
+much, that even now when he hears violins he trembles all over, and
+imagines the diabolic noise is recommencing.
+
+
+THE MODE ASBEIN.
+
+A modern writer on Arabic music, as it is practised in Algiers and
+Tunis, mentions among the various Modes used at the present day a
+peculiarly impressive one, called Asbein, which the Mohammedans believe
+to have been especially appropriated by Satan for the purpose of
+tempting man. They have a long story respecting its origin and demoniac
+effects. The writer alluded to, a Frenchman, had the gratification of
+hearing a piece or two played in this Mode by a musician, who had the
+reputation of being one of the best performers in Tunis, and who used to
+entertain the frequenters of a certain coffee-house in a suburb. To this
+place the Frenchman repaired, and induced the musician to play in the
+Mode Asbein. To surmise from his description of the performance, there
+must have been something really frightful in the degree of ecstacy which
+the player exhibited. But there is something funny in the Frenchman's
+mode of reasoning, which deserves to be noticed, because it shows how
+opinions like the above are sometimes adopted readily enough even by
+professed sceptics. The Frenchman was a sceptic, and had made up his
+mind before he proceeded to examine the matter, that the impression of
+the Arabs respecting the Mode Asbein was due entirely to their religious
+enthusiasm. They are, of course, Mohammedans. Now, after the
+performance, the Frenchman accidentally learnt that the musician was a
+Jew. Then he no longer doubted the demoniac power of the Mode Asbein.
+
+
+WITCHES.
+
+Respecting the music of witches, a few short remarks may suffice. Every
+one knows that witches, at their meetings, amuse themselves especially
+with music and dancing. In Germany, the largest assemblages of these
+objectionable beings take place in the night of the first of May
+(Walpurgis), and the most favourite resort for their festivities is the
+summit of the Harz mountain, called Brocken, or Blocksberg. The
+musicians sit on old stumps of trees, or on projecting rocks, and fiddle
+upon skulls of horses.
+
+Whoever desires to witness these ghastly scenes must provide himself
+with the upper board of an old coffin in which a knot has been forced
+out, and must peep through the hole.
+
+
+THE CHANGELING.
+
+According to an old superstition, which was widely spread during the
+Middle Ages, the elves sometimes steal a handsome, new-born child from
+its cradle, and substitute an ill-formed, ugly child of their own. The
+little Irish prodigy who is the hero of an event which happened in the
+county of Tipperary, was such a Changeling. The story told of him, it
+will be seen, is stamped with the peculiar wildness of fancy which
+generally characterizes Irish fairy-tales.
+
+Mick Flanigan and his wife, Judy, were a poor couple, blessed with
+nothing but four little boys. Three of the children were as healthy and
+rosy-cheeked as any thriving Irish boy you can meet with; but the
+fourth was a little urchin, more ugly than it is possible to imagine;
+and, even worse, he was as mischievous as he was ugly. Innumerable were
+the tricks which he played upon his brothers, and even upon his parents.
+Although before he was a twelve-month old he had already grown a
+formidable set of teeth, and ate like a glutton, he would nevertheless
+lie constantly in his cradle near the fire, even after he had reached
+the age of five years. Resting on his back, and half closing his little
+eyes, he would observe everything which was going on in the room,
+watching for opportunities to annoy the people.
+
+Now, one afternoon it came to pass that Tim Carrol, the blind bagpiper,
+an old friend of the family, called in and sat down near the fire to
+have a bit of chat. As he had brought his bagpipe with him, they soon
+asked him to treat them with a tune. So blind Tim Carrol buckled on his
+bagpipe, and began to play.
+
+Presently the little urchin raised himself in the cradle, moved his ugly
+head to and fro, and evidently manifested excessive delight at the nasal
+sounds. When the affectionate mother saw how eagerly the child stretched
+out both its hands for the bagpipe, she begged old blind Tim Carrol just
+to humour her little darling for a moment; and as blind Tim was not the
+man to say "No," he mildly laid the bagpipe upon the cradle. But how
+great was their astonishment when the urchin took up the instrument,
+and, handling it like a practised bagpiper, played without the least
+effort a lively jig, then another, even more lively, and several others,
+in rapid succession.
+
+The first thing the father did was to sell his pig and to buy a bagpipe
+for his prodigy. It soon turned out that the rogue had a peculiar tune
+of his own, which made people dance however little they might feel
+disposed for dancing. Even his poor mother happening to come into the
+room one day with a pailfull of milk, and hearing that bewitching tune,
+must needs let the pail drop, spill all the milk, and spin round like a
+very top.
+
+About the time when the boy was six years old, the farmer of the
+village, by whom Mick Flanigan was employed as day labourer, had
+various mischances with his cattle. Two of his cows lost their appetite,
+and gave little or no milk. A very promising calf stumbled, and broke
+both its hind legs. And shortly afterwards one of his best horses
+suddenly got the colic and died in no time. The people in the village
+had long since settled among themselves that there was something not
+right in Mick Flanigan's family; so it naturally occurred to the farmer
+that the imp with the bagpipe must be the cause of all his misfortunes.
+He therefore thought it wise to give warning at once to Mick Flanigan,
+and to advise him to look out for work elsewhere. Fortunately, poor Mick
+Flanigan soon succeeded in getting employment at a farmer's, a few miles
+off, who was in want of a ploughman.
+
+On the appointed day the new master sent a cart to fetch the few
+articles of furniture which Mick Flanigan could call his own. Having
+placed the cradle with the boy and his bagpipe at the top, the whole
+family drove off to their new home. When they had got about half the
+way, they had to cross a river. Slowly they drove upon the rickety
+bridge, little anticipating the exciting scene which now occurred. The
+boy had hitherto remained very quiet in the cradle, apparently half
+asleep as usual. But, just when the cart had reached the middle of the
+bridge, he raised his head, looked wistfully at the water, and then
+suddenly grasping his bagpipe he jumped down into the river.
+
+His terrified parents set up a cry of distress, and made some efforts to
+save him, when, to their unspeakable astonishment, they saw him
+swimming, diving and gamboling about in the water like a very otter.
+Nay, he actually began to play on his bagpipe, shouting lustily all the
+while and exhibiting other signs which clearly showed that he was now in
+his right element. Soon he disappeared entirely. Then the poor people
+became fully convinced that the boy was a Changeling, and had now gone
+home to his own kinsfolk.[21]
+
+
+THE VENDISH SORCERER.
+
+The Vends are a Slavonic race inhabiting some districts in Lusatia,
+Germany. Although living amidst Germans, they still preserve their own
+language, as well as a considerable number of national songs and legends
+of their own, some of which are very beautiful.
+
+The Vendish Sorcerer, whose name was Draho, lived in a mountain, near
+the town of Teichnitz, at the time when the Christian religion was just
+beginning to take root in Lusatia. He was, of course, a pagan; and every
+scheme he could devise to hurt the defenceless Christians living
+scattered about the neighbourhood, he did not fail remorselessly to put
+into action. Moreover, his great power he derived from a magic whistle,
+by means of which he made certain mischievous spirits subservient to his
+will.
+
+This sorcerer had a disciple, who, becoming acquainted with the
+blessings of Christianity, forsook his wicked master, and seizing a
+favourable opportunity when the old rogue was taking a nap, possessed
+himself of the magic whistle, and flew from the mountain into the valley
+to his friends the Christians.
+
+Now, when the people learnt that the sorcerer had been deprived of his
+whistle, they knew that his power was gone, and that they might venture
+to approach him without incurring much danger. So they went up to the
+top of the mountain, provided with all kinds of arms, and soon succeeded
+in capturing the old pagan. Having securely bound him, they made a large
+fire of wood, upon which they placed him, and solemnly burnt him to
+death. Meanwhile, the disciple, who had already received Holy Baptism,
+stepped forward and threw the magic whistle into the flame, that it
+might be consumed without leaving a trace.
+
+Nevertheless, every year in the spring, on the eve of Oculi Sunday, the
+old sorcerer appears on the top of the mountain, and in the night blows
+a most frightful shriek upon his magic whistle. The people who go out at
+midnight to listen for it have not long to wait before they hear the
+awful sound. For, what people are bent upon hearing, they are sure to
+hear, especially if it is something objectionable.
+
+
+THE RAT-CATCHER OF HAMELN.
+
+In the year 1284, the town of Hameln, situated on the river Weser, in
+Germany, became awfully infested with rats and mice. All kinds of traps,
+poisons, and other means employed to destroy the vermin proved of no
+avail, and the harassed citizens were actually at their wits' end what
+to do. The plague grew daily more formidable until the people had every
+reason to fear that before long not only their victuals but they
+themselves would all be devoured.
+
+When the misery had reached a height positively frightful, there
+appeared in Hameln a strange man with a queer-shaped hat, who offered to
+deliver the town from the scourge for a stipulated reward. Some say the
+reward he demanded was a round sum of money; others maintain that he
+wanted to marry the burgomaster's pretty daughter. Whatever it may have
+been, there is certainly no doubt that it was readily promised him.
+
+As soon as the bargain had been struck, the strange man drew from his
+pocket a small pipe, began to play and walked through the streets of the
+town. Presently, all the rats and mice came running out of their holes
+and followed him. Lustily playing he marched with his odd army out of
+the town and into the river Weser, where every rat and mouse was
+drowned.
+
+Then the inhabitants of Hameln rejoiced greatly, as after a victory over
+a powerful enemy. But, when the strange man came to claim the promised
+reward, they withheld it from him, and treated him with derision.
+
+However, a few days afterwards, how sorely were they punished for their
+ingratitude!
+
+The enraged rat-catcher unexpectedly appeared, this time dressed
+entirely in red. Strange to say, even his face and hands seemed to be
+quite red. He took his pipe and walked through the streets, playing as
+before. Presently, all the little children of Hameln came running out
+of the houses and followed him. He marched with them out of the town
+into the mountains, where he vanished with them into a deep hole in a
+rock.
+
+Some persons believe that the children afterwards came to light again,
+very far off in Transylvania. At all events, there are villages in that
+country in which the people speak the same language as in Hameln.
+
+The gate through which the strange man took the children is still
+extant, and there are other evidences of similar importance to be found
+in Hameln, which prove to the satisfaction of certain respectable
+citizens that the story is quite true in all its details.
+
+The earliest record of the Rat-catcher of Hameln written in English is
+probably the quaint one contained in 'A Restitution of decayed
+Intelligence in Antiquities by the studie and travaile of Richard
+Verstegan,' Antwerp, 1605. Verstegan concludes his relation with the
+statement: "And this great wonder hapned on the 22 day of July, in the
+yeare of our Lord one thowsand three hundreth seauentie and six." The
+brothers Grimm, however, than whom a better authority could not be
+adduced, say that according to the old records preserved in the
+town-hall of Hameln the memorable event occurred on the 22nd of June,
+Anno Domini 1284, and that there was formerly on the wall of the
+town-hall the following old and oddly-spelt inscription:
+
+     Im Jahr 1284 na Christi gebort
+     Tho Hamel worden uthgewort
+     Hundert and dreiszig Kinder dasülwest geborn
+     Dorch einen Piper under den Köppen verlorn.[22]
+
+Which means in plain English--
+
+     In the year 1284, after the birth of Christ,
+     There were led out of Hameln
+     One hundred and thirty children, natives of that place,
+     By a Piper, and were lost under the mountain.
+
+The reader will perhaps be surprised at the smallness of the number
+recorded of the children lost. But, Hameln is not a large town, and was
+most likely even less populous six hundred years ago than it is at the
+present day.
+
+
+THE EXQUISITE ORGAN.
+
+The following story is told by the villagers in the Netherlands.
+
+Once upon a time a countryman of the province of Hainault went on some
+business matters to the village of Flobeck, which lies not far from
+Krekelberg. When he was crossing the flat and lonely tract of land, some
+miles south-east of Flobeck, he heard some distant music, which came so
+sweetly through the air that he thought he would just take a few steps
+in the direction whence it proceeded to ascertain its origin.
+
+He had not gone far when he saw a beautiful palace, from which the
+fascinating music evidently issued. This astonished him greatly; but he
+was not one of those faint-hearted men who would have crossed themselves
+and taken to their heels. Quite the contrary; he at once determined to
+investigate the matter a little nearer. And so he entered the palace.
+
+Having ascended the broad staircase leading to the principal rooms, he
+opened the large door and paced from one hall to another. All were
+splendidly decorated, and most richly furnished. But, nowhere did he
+meet with any living being. Soon it became evident to him that the
+inmates were feasting and dancing in an interior court of the palace.
+Thither he bent his steps.
+
+To be sure, there they were!--a large assemblage of odd-looking people
+in high glee dancing to the performance of a musician, who had on his
+lap an instrument in appearance not unlike a barrel-organ; for it had a
+long handle which the player turned with all his energy.
+
+Nov, when these strange people saw the countryman peeping in, they
+beckoned him to come forward. He availed himself gladly of the
+invitation, and took his seat by the side of the musician; for, no
+music he had ever heard in his life appeared to him comparable to that
+which the man produced on the admirable instrument with the long handle.
+Sometimes it was very soft and deep-toned;--suddenly it rose up to a
+high pitch, like an Æolian harp when a gust of wind passes over its
+strings;--now it gradually diminished in power, and its sweetness
+actually moved our countryman to tears;--now, again, it grew suddenly so
+loud, as if a whole military band was playing, only that it was much
+more beautiful.
+
+The countryman expressed his admiration in the highest terms, adding
+that nothing in the world could delight him more than to be permitted to
+turn the handle of the exquisite organ for a little while. The musician
+showed himself quite willing to afford him this pleasure, and placed the
+instrument on his lap.
+
+The delighted countryman turned the handle a few times round:--No sound
+was forthcoming.--He turned again, more vigorously:--The delicious music
+began.
+
+"Oh! Ever-blessed Mother Mary! how exquisite!" exclaimed the enraptured
+countryman.
+
+Scarcely had he said the words when everything vanished, and he found
+himself sitting in a fallow field, having on his lap a large cat whose
+tail he had been wrenching so vehemently that poor puss was still mewing
+from its very heart in most ear-piercing modulations. On the spot where
+the palace had stood he saw a large dust heap, and that was all.[23]
+
+[20] 'Sagen, Gebräuche, und Märchen aus Westfahlen, gesammelt von A.
+Kuhn. Leipzig, 1859.' Vol. I., p. 175.
+
+[21] 'Fairy Legends and Traditions of the South of Ireland, by T.
+Crofton Croker; London, 1862,' p. 22.--Compare also 'Hans mein Igel,' in
+Grimm's Kinder und Hausmärchen.
+
+[22] 'Deutsche Sagen, herausgegeben von den Brüdern Grimm; Berlin,
+1816;' Vol. I., p. 330.
+
+[23] 'Niederländische Sagen, herausgegeben von J. W. Wolf; Leipzig,
+1843;' p. 464.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+ROYAL MUSICIANS.
+
+
+A royal personage being a lover of music possesses many advantages for
+attaining proficiency in this art, which are rarely at the command of a
+poor musician, however talented he may be. The young prince has from the
+beginning the best instruction, excellent instruments, and every
+possible assistance in making progress. The most distinguished musicians
+consider it an honour to play to him whenever he is disposed to listen
+to them. If it affords him pleasure to be a composer, whatever he
+produces, even if it is a large orchestral work, he can directly have
+performed; and he is thus enabled to ascertain at once whether it sounds
+exactly as he contemplated in composing it, and whether the peculiar
+instrumental effects in certain bars, which he had aimed at producing,
+really answer his expectation. Repeated rehearsals, and revisions of the
+score, with the ready assistance of the most experienced professional
+musicians in his service, enable him to improve his composition as long
+as he likes. And should he be inclined to join the musicians with his
+instrument in a performance,--to become for a little while, so to say,
+one of them,--he may be sure that they will do everything to help him
+through by covering his mistakes and giving him, if possible, the
+opportunity of displaying his skill.
+
+What can be more delightful for an influential amateur than to join with
+first-rate professional players in practising the classical Quartets of
+Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven! All this, and more, is at the command of
+the royal musician; and the poor striving disciple of the art may have
+some excuse for envying him on this account.
+
+However, if the poor disciple is a true artist, he will also duly
+appreciate the disadvantage under which the royal musician labours for
+attaining proficiency in the art. He will see how necessary it is for
+the sake of progress to know exactly the truth about one's own powers
+and requirements, and that in this respect even a musical beggar enjoys
+an advantage above the King,--or rather, he has it, whether he enjoys it
+or not; a candid opinion as to his musical accomplishments is
+gratuitously offered him, and it is often a just one. If his music is
+bad, he, instead of being deceived with fine words of flattery, will
+simply be told: "Leave off! Begone!" If it pleases, he will be rewarded.
+But the royal musician gets praise, however his music may be; there is
+no distinction made between good and bad.
+
+No wonder, therefore, that history records but few good royal musicians,
+although many are known to have occupied themselves with music almost
+like professional musicians. As an example of an estimable one may be
+mentioned King David "the sweet singer of Israel," who, as a youth,
+soothed the evil spirit of Saul by playing upon his _kinnor_; and who
+later, as King, admonished his people in the psalms: "Praise ye the
+Lord! Praise him with the sound of the trumpet; praise him with the
+psaltery and harp. Praise him with the timbrel and dance: praise him
+with stringed instruments and organs. Praise him upon the loud cymbals.
+Praise him upon the high-sounding cymbals."
+
+And in his religious fervour he joined his royal band in a procession
+conveying the ark. On this occasion "David danced before the Lord with
+all his might." The band consisted of vocal and instrumental performers.
+"And David was clothed with a robe of fine linen, and all the Levites
+that bare the ark, and the singers, and Chenaniah, the master of the
+song with the singers: David also had upon him an ephod of linen. Thus
+all Israel brought up the ark of the covenant of the Lord with shouting
+and with sound of the cornet, and with trumpets, and with cymbals,
+making a noise with psalteries and harps. And it came to pass, as the
+ark of the covenant of the Lord came to the city of David, that Michal,
+the daughter of Saul, looking out at a window, saw King David dancing
+and playing: and she despised him in her heart." (II. Sam. chap. vi., I.
+Chron. chap. xv.) Michal, Saul's daughter, was David's wife;
+nevertheless, after the ceremony she upbraided him: "How glorious was
+the King of Israel to-day, who uncovered himself in the eyes of the
+handmaids, as one of the vain fellows who shamelessly uncovereth
+himself!" If the musicians exhibited some vanity, they might, at any
+rate, be more easily excused than many of the present day; for it was an
+extraordinary honour for them to perform with a King who was certainly a
+noble musician, and of whose companionship they could have been proud
+even if he had not been a King. Moreover, he was, as is recorded in the
+Bible, not only "cunning in playing," but also "a mighty and valiant
+man, and a man of war, and prudent in matters, and a comely person, and
+the Lord was with him." There are not many royal musicians of whom thus
+much could be said without flattery.
+
+The German common saying--
+
+     Wo man singt da lass dich ruhig nieder,
+     Böse Menschen haben keine Lieder;
+
+is as untenable as Shakespeare's assertion--
+
+     The man that has no music in himself,
+     Nor is not mov'd with concord of sweet sounds,
+     Is fit for treasons, stratagems and spoils;
+
+considering that the Italian banditti sing hymns to the Virgin Mary, and
+that there are kind-hearted Englishmen who cannot distinguish between
+the airs of 'God save the Queen' and the 'Old Hundredth.' Anyhow, it may
+be doubted whether certain distinguished royal musicians had really
+music in their soul. Take, for instance, the Emperor Nero, who lived
+about the middle of the first century of our era. Some statements
+transmitted to us, respecting the depravity of this cruel monarch may be
+unfounded,--such as that the large conflagration of Rome, which
+occurred in his reign, was the work of incendiaries secretly hired by
+him, and that he amused himself with looking at the fire from the top of
+a high tower, and singing to the accompaniment of the lyre the
+destruction of Troy, of which he had read, and which he desired to see
+represented in the spectacle before him. Some say that he played on the
+bagpipe. His principal instruments, on which he practised assiduously,
+were the lyre and the harp. His voice was weak and hoarse; nevertheless,
+in contesting with the best singers of his time, he always, of course,
+gained the prize. Foreign musicians streamed to Rome to hear him, and to
+flatter him. About five thousand of them were successful in so far as
+they obtained appointments in his service with high salaries. He
+undertook a professional tour through Greece, to perform in public; and
+as those of his audience who did not applaud him ran the risk of losing
+their life, a brilliant success could not fail to be constantly the
+result of his appearance as a musician. The surest means of obtaining
+his favour was to praise his voice, to be enraptured by his singing, and
+distressed when he took the whim that he could not sing. It gratified
+him to be pressingly implored to sing. In short, he did not appreciate
+music for the sake of its beauties, but because it appeared to him a
+suitable means for flattering his excessive vanity.
+
+Such miserable royal musicians would at the present day, fortunately,
+not be tolerated. But a rather harmless vanity like that shown in the
+following example is still not uncommon, and may easily be excused, as
+it is not incompatible with a good heart.
+
+Joseph Clemens Cajetan, Elector and Archbishop of Cologne, sent in the
+year 1720, the following letter to the Jesuit Seminary in Munich. It is
+here translated from the German.
+
+                                               "Bonn, July 28th, 1720.
+
+     Dear Privy Councillor Rauch!
+
+     It may perhaps appear presumptuous that an Ignoramus, who knows
+     nothing at all about music, ventures to compose. This applies to
+     me, as I send you herewith eleven Motetts and other pieces, which
+     I have composed myself. I have achieved this in a strange way,
+     since I am not acquainted with the notes; nor have I the slightest
+     understanding respecting the art of music. I am, therefore,
+     compelled, when anything musical enters my head, to sing it to a
+     musical composer, and he commits it to paper. However, I must have
+     a good ear and good taste, because the public, when they hear my
+     music, always applaud it. The method which I have prescribed to
+     myself in composing is that of the bees, which extract the honey
+     from the most beautiful flowers, and mix it together. Thus also I.
+     Everything I have composed I have taken from only good masters
+     whose works pleased me. I candidly confess my theft, while others
+     deny theirs, as they want to appropriate whatever they have taken
+     from others. No one, therefore, dares to be vexed if he hears old
+     airs in my compositions; for, as they are beautiful, their
+     antiquity cannot detract from their value. I have determined to
+     present this work to the church Sti. Michaelis Archangeli, with the
+     P. P. Societatis Jesu, wherein my grandparents founded a Seminarium
+     Musicale; and I desire that this memorial of myself shall be
+     preserved there for eternity, especially for the reason that I have
+     composed most of this music in the time of my persecution. The
+     causes which induced me to compose the several pieces I herewith
+     add, thus:--
+
+     No. 1. Adjutorium nostrum in nomine Domini;--I made when I had to
+     suffer the greatest persecution, anno 1706.
+
+     No. 2. Ne nobis Domine;--on account of obtained victories.
+
+     No. 3. Tempus est;--on leaving the two towns, Rüssel and Valencien,
+     in gratitude for the many kindnesses which I and my kindred
+     received from the inhabitants of those towns.
+
+     No. 4. Victoria;--after the battle of Belgrade against the Turks,
+     in 1717.
+
+     No. 5. Per hoc vitæ spatium;--when I was debating with myself what
+     pursuit I should follow, whether I should become spiritual or
+     remain secular.
+
+     No. 6. Quare fremuerunt gentes;--for my own consolation at a time
+     when I was unjustly persecuted to the utmost.
+
+     No. 7. Quem vidistis Pastores;--for Christmas.
+
+     No. 8. Parce Domine!--at Lent.
+
+     No. 9. Maria Mater gratiæ;--to the honour of the ever-blessed
+     Mother of God.
+
+     No. 10. When my brother-in-law, the Dauphin, died, anno 1711.
+
+     No. 11. On the death of the nephew of the Dauphin and his consort,
+     in 1712; which composition I request the Seminary to have sung also
+     for me after my death.
+
+     I therefore desire you herewith to deliver the compositions, with
+     this letter by my own hand, in my name, to the P. Magister Chori,
+     and at the same time to assure him and the whole Seminary of my
+     clemency. I attribute all this to Divine Grace which has
+     enlightened me to accomplish thus much. I also assure you of my
+     clemency.
+
+                                                      JOSEPH CLEMENS."
+
+For this present from the Elector, the Inspector of the Seminary in
+Munich, the Jesuit Gregorius Schilger, thanked him in a letter written
+in Latin, of which the following is a literal translation:--
+
+     "Most Exalted and Serene Prince and Elector! Most
+     Gracious Lord and Master!
+
+     With most humble reverence, I kiss your gracious hand and your most
+     valuable gift of your musical compositions, which to the great joy
+     and with feelings of gratitude of us all, were handed to me, with
+     your gracious letter, by your Serene Highness' Privy Councillor,
+     Joannes Rauch. For, is it not a great blessing, not only to the
+     Gregorian Institution of the Munich Seminary, but also to those on
+     whom devolves the direction and management of it, that you so
+     graciously remember them, and present them with a musical treasure
+     so precious!
+
+     We, therefore, throw ourselves at the feet of your Serene Highness,
+     and before the Archipiscopal Pastoral Staff, and express as well
+     as it is in our power our most dutiful thanks, with every devotion
+     and reverence, as we are in duty bound to your sovereign clemency
+     for ever.
+
+     This memorial of your highest favour shall be permanently preserved
+     in the archives of the Elector's church at Munich, to the
+     everlasting glory of God, to the honour of the Holy Virgin and of
+     the Holy Archangel Michael, and in memory of your gracious
+     condescension.
+
+     Moreover, we admire the very great merit of the music of your
+     Serene Highness not only on account of the high position of its
+     composer, but also on account of its very pleasing artistic effect,
+     which has astonished every one, when the music had been carefully
+     examined by all the Gregorian musicians we summoned to try it. We
+     all--not only I, who consider myself the most insignificant, but
+     also the Gregorian disciples--we all pray in deep humility that the
+     kindly blessings of Heaven may for many years support your Serene
+     Highness in your beneficent functions, for the advantage of the
+     Church, and for the consolation of all good people, especially also
+     for the benefit of your dependants, of whom the Gregorian disciples
+     delight in being the most humble. Permit me to recommend especially
+     these, together with myself, your most humble servant, in our
+     deepest reverence, to your most gracious favour and benevolence. We
+     thus continually pray with bended knees, venturing to hope with the
+     most implicit confidence that Heaven's blessing will result to us
+     from the Archipiscopal Mitre and Pastoral Staff, which we humbly
+     reverence with our kisses.
+
+               Your Serene Highness'
+                         Most humble Servant,
+
+                    GREGORIUS SCHILGER, Soc. Jesu,
+                          Inspector of the St. Gregorian House.
+
+     Munich, August 7th, 1720."
+
+There are some touching instances on record of royal personages in
+affliction finding relief and consolation in studying music. The last
+King of Hanover had the misfortune of being nearly deprived of his
+eyesight some time before he came to the throne. As Crown Prince he
+published a pamphlet entitled 'Ideas and Reflections on the Properties
+of Music,' from which a few short extracts may find a place here, as
+they show how soothing a balm this art was to him:--
+
+     "From early youth I have striven to make music my own. It has
+     become to me a companion and comforter through life; it has become
+     more and more valuable to me the more I learnt to comprehend and
+     appreciate its boundless exuberance of ideas, its inexhaustible
+     fulness, the more intimately its whole poetry was interwoven with
+     my whole being.... By means of music, ideas, feelings, and
+     historical events, natural phenomena, pictures, scenes of life of
+     all sorts, are as clearly and intelligibly expressed as by any
+     language in words; and we are ourselves enabled to express
+     ourselves in such a manner and to make ourselves understood by
+     others.... Of all the senses of man, sight and hearing are those by
+     which most effect is produced upon mind and heart, and which are
+     consequently the most powerful springs for the moral and rational
+     feelings, actions, and opinions of men. But Hearing appears to be
+     the most influential and operative of the two organs; for this
+     reason, that by inharmonious discordant tones our feelings may be
+     so shocked, even to their deepest recesses, and so painfully
+     wounded as to drive us almost beside ourselves; which impression
+     cannot possibly be produced in us by a bad picture, a dreary
+     landscape, or a very faulty poem.... I have known persons whose
+     spirits were broken, and their hearts rent by care, grief, and
+     affliction. They wandered about, murmuring at their fate, absorbed
+     in meditation, in vain seeking hope, in vain looking for a way to
+     escape. But, the excess of their inward pangs needed alleviation;
+     the heart discovered the means of procuring it: the deep-drawn
+     sighs of the oppressed bosom were involuntarily converted into
+     tones of lamentation, and this unconscious effusion was productive
+     of relief, composure, and courageously calm resignation. Yes,
+     indeed, it is above all in the gloomy hours of affliction that
+     Music is a soothing comforter, a sympathizing friend to the
+     sufferer; it gives expression to the gnawing anguish which rends
+     the soul, and which it thereby mitigates and softens: it lends a
+     tear to the stupefaction of grief; it drops mollifying healing
+     balsam into every wounded heart. Whoever has experienced this
+     effect himself, or witnessed it in others, will admit with me that
+     for this fairest service rendered by the art we cannot sufficiently
+     thank and revere it."
+
+How sad and suggestive are these lines, penned by a royal musician!
+
+Blind people delight in descriptive music depicting scenes which
+painters might use as subjects for pictures. By the help of a lively
+imagination, the ear to some extent serves also the purpose of the eye.
+Thus may be explained the preference given by the Crown Prince to
+certain compositions which are by no means of the highest class.
+Speaking of Bellini's opera 'Norma,' he remarks: "In the Introduction
+there is a most ingenious representation of a country. Commencing with
+low tones, it unfolds itself in sombre harmony, and faithfully
+reproduces the same impression that the darkness of the thick wood makes
+upon the wanderer. Single, sliding, and abrupt notes seem to denote
+lighter spots in the dark wood, and thus the first decoration of the
+opera, the grove of sacrifice, is appropriately represented. The reader
+will certainly be still more struck by the appositeness of this musical
+picture, when I assure him that I know a blind person who, when he first
+heard this introduction, immediately guessed that it was intended to
+represent a scene in a wood."
+
+Beethoven's Pastoral Symphony is, as might be expected, an especial
+favourite with him, and he gives a detailed description of its several
+movements, prefaced by the exclamation: "How clearly are the daily
+occurrences and the individual scenes of rural life presented to the
+hearer!"
+
+Neither is it surprising that Haydn's 'Creation,' with its many
+descriptive passages, should forcibly and very agreeably appeal to his
+imagination. In commenting upon certain beauties in this oratorio, which
+he especially admires, he remarks: "Above all, how strikingly has the
+composer represented with all the powers of music the moment called
+forth by the creative words 'Let there be light!' _and there was light_.
+At these words the orchestra discharges itself in a truly electric
+manner, so as absolutely to dazzle you. The hearer feels perfectly the
+impression which the real occurrence of this adorable miracle of
+Almighty power would make upon him; and in this delineation by tones is
+exhibited to the sense of mortal man the only possible representation of
+that sublime wonder in the most striking and convincing manner."
+
+It not unfrequently happens to a musical composer that when a new idea
+occurs to him while he is extemporizing, it appears to him at the first
+moment more beautiful than he finds it to be on reconsideration. The
+Prince, who enjoyed extemporizing on the pianoforte, kept in his service
+a pianist, whose business it was to write down his inventions, which he
+played repeatedly to the pianist to enable him to sketch at once as
+faithfully as possible the chief ideas and modulations. These sketches
+the pianist, who was a talented musician, had to take home in order to
+work them out carefully according to the rules of musical composition.
+Having accomplished his task, he attended at the palace with the
+manuscript; and now it was his turn to play the new piece to his royal
+master. But, however anxious he had been to preserve intact the original
+ideas, he generally learnt to his concern that the music possessed no
+longer those beauties which had been dictated to him.
+
+Royal musicians who have studied Thorough Bass are sometimes formidable
+critics. At any rate, it would appear so from some musical criticisms of
+Frederick II., and of his sister the Princess Amalia. Frederick II.
+(Frederick the Great) King of Prussia (born 1712, died 1786) was a
+composer as well as a virtuoso on the flute. He regularly practised his
+instrument daily. In earlier life it was his habit to play the scales
+every morning as soon as he had risen from his bed; and he often
+performed in the evening five concertos on the flute, which his royal
+orchestra had to accompany. In composing he wrote down only the melody,
+and he indicated with it in words how the bass and the other parts
+should be contrived; for instance,--"Here the bass shall be in
+Quavers;"--"Here the violins shall play alone," etc. These directions he
+gave to his Kapellmeister Agricola, who then completed the score.
+
+The musical pursuits of Frederick II. are interesting, but are too well
+known to be here circumstantially recorded. Suffice it to mention his
+singular behaviour on the occasion of the performance of Graun's 'Te
+Deum,' after the termination of the Seven Years' War, in 1763. The
+orchestra and singers who had assembled in the royal palace at
+Charlottenburg punctually at the time at which they had been ordered to
+appear, found to their surprise that there was no audience assembling.
+After having waited for about half an hour in suspense, wondering
+whether the performance of the 'Te Deum' was to take place, or whether
+they had been summoned by inadvertence, they observed a side door being
+opened at the end of the hall opposite to them, through which the King
+entered quite alone, without any attendance. He sat down on a chair in a
+corner, and made a sign to them to commence. At some of the full
+choruses, when all the voices united, he held his hands before his eyes
+to hide his tears. Several of the musicians who saw him became so much
+affected that the tears rolled down their cheeks while they played. At
+the end of the performance the King thanked them by a slight inclination
+of his head, and retired through the side door through which he had
+entered.
+
+This noble royal musician was, however, so prepossessed by the
+compositions of Graun, that hardly any composer, but such as wrote in
+Graun's style, had a chance of finding favour with him. Kirnberger, the
+celebrated theorist, in vain endeavoured to insinuate himself with the
+King by submitting to "His Majesty's approval" a new treatise of his on
+Thorough Bass. The treatise was soon returned to him with the following
+letter:--
+
+     "His Royal Majesty of Prussia, etc., our most gracious Lord, cannot
+     persuade himself that the announced work of the Princely
+     Chamber-musician Kirnberger, in Berlin, contains anything new, or
+     particularly useful for the art of music, or for musical
+     composition, considering that Thorough Bass was already brought to
+     a certain perfection many years ago. This is, therefore, not to be
+     withheld from the said Kirnberger, in reply to his solicitation of
+     the day before yesterday.
+
+                                                           FRIEDERICH.
+
+     Potsdam, February 25th, 1781."
+
+The Princess Amalia, a pupil of Kirnberger, was a great upholder of the
+rules of Thorough Bass, and a sharp critic. As Gluck did not care much
+about many of those dry rules, it is perhaps not surprising that the
+Princess Amalia did not care much about Gluck. What she thought of him
+she has expressed forcibly enough in the following extract from a letter
+to Kirnberger, who had sent her the opera 'Iphigenia in Tauris':--
+
+"Mr. Gluck will, in my opinion, never pass for a clever man in musical
+composition. He has, firstly, not the least invention; secondly, a bad,
+miserable melody; and thirdly, no accent, no expression,--it is all
+alike. He is very different from Graun and Hasse, but very similar
+to.... The introductory piece ought to be a kind of overture; but the
+good man does not like Imitations, and he is right, for they require
+labour. However, he is more fond of Transposition. This is not
+altogether objectionable; for, if a bar is often repeated, the hearer
+will all the more easily remember it; but Gluck appears to transpose the
+same idea from want of a new one. Finally, regarded in its entirety, the
+opera is very miserable. Now, this is in the new taste which has a great
+many adherents. However, I thank you for having sent it me. Through the
+faults of others one learns to know one's own. Be so kind as to procure
+for me the words of the whole opera; but, as regards the musical
+notation, I am not yet wise enough to find it beautiful."
+
+If the letters of musicians to princes are often sadly devoid of
+sincerity, those of princes to musicians possess generally at least the
+negative merit of not containing intentional misrepresentations, since
+a prince has seldom a motive for disguising his likes and dislikes in
+music. Whether the estimable Kapellmeister Schulz had committed the
+indiscretion of suggesting to Princess Amalia that she was still capable
+of some improvement as a musical composer is uncertain, but appears
+probable, to judge from the following letter which she wrote to him
+after he had sent her the manuscript of his choruses to 'Athalia,' with
+the humble request for permission to dedicate them to her,--or, as he
+expressed himself, "to preface the work with the adorable name of so
+illustrious a connoisseur."
+
+The reply he received from her is here translated from the German as
+literally as possible.
+
+     "To the Kapellmeister Schulz in Rheimsberg.
+
+     I surmise, Mr. Schulz, that by an oversight you have sent me,
+     instead of your own work, the musical bungling of a child, since I
+     cannot discover in it the least scientific art; on the contrary, it
+     is throughout faulty from beginning to end, in the expression,
+     sentiment, and meaning of the language as well as in the rhythm.
+     The _motus contrarius_ has been entirely neglected; there is no
+     proper harmony; no impressive melody; the interval of the Third is
+     often entirely omitted; the key is never clearly indicated, so that
+     one has to guess in what key the music is meant to move. There are
+     no canonic imitations, not the least trace of counterpoint, but
+     plenty of consecutive fifths and octaves! And this is to be called
+     music! May heaven open the eyes of those who possess such a high
+     conceit of themselves, and enlighten their understanding to make
+     them comprehend that they are but bunglers and fumblers. I have
+     heard it said that the work ought to praise the master; now-a-day
+     everything is reversed and confused, the masters are the only ones
+     who praise themselves, even if their works are offensive. Enough of
+     this.
+
+                                                               AMALIA.
+
+     Berlin, January 31st, 1785."
+
+The amiable and respected Kapellmeister Schulz, in mentioning to an old
+friend the contents of this letter, merely added: "All this may be true;
+but why tell it me so rudely?"[24]
+
+No doubt the most praiseworthy royal musicians are those who make it
+less their object to be accomplished players, composers, or theorists,
+than to discover and to assist really talented professional musicians,
+and thus to promote the advancement of the art. Prince Louis Ferdinand
+of Prussia, who lost his life in the battle of Saalfeld in 1806, at the
+age of 34 years, may be noticed as a remarkable exception. He was a
+distinguished pianist; a fine composer,--perhaps the best of all the
+royal musicians whose compositions have been published or are otherwise
+known; and a true patron of the art,--which he showed by his cultivation
+of classical music as well as by his kindness to Beethoven, Dussek,
+Spohr, and other eminent composers. This is the prince of whom it is
+told that Beethoven, on hearing him play, exclaimed with surprise: "Your
+Royal Highness does not play like a Prince; you play like a musician!"
+
+As a true patron of music, who in this capacity has been more useful to
+the art than if he had composed operas and symphonies, must be mentioned
+Rudolph, Archduke of Austria, the pupil of Beethoven. The subjoined
+letter by him, translated from the German, speaks for itself:--
+
+     "Dear Beethoven,
+
+     I shall return to Vienna as early as Tuesday, August 5th, and I
+     shall then remain in town for several days. I only wish that your
+     health may permit you to come then to town. In the afternoon, from
+     four to seven o'clock, I am generally at home.
+
+     My brother-in-law, Prince Anton, has written to me already that the
+     King of Saxony expects your beautiful Mass.
+
+     Respecting D----r, I have spoken with our gracious Monarch, and
+     likewise with Count Dietrichstein. I do not know whether this
+     recommendation will be of use, as there is to be a competition for
+     the appointment in question, in which any one wishing to obtain it,
+     has to prove his fitness. It would be a gratification to me if I
+     could be useful to that clever man, whom I heard with pleasure
+     playing the organ last Monday in Baden,--especially as I am
+     convinced that you would not recommend an unworthy person.
+
+     I hope you have written down your Canon, and I pray you, in case it
+     might be injurious to your health to come to town, not to exert
+     yourself too soon out of attachment to me.
+
+                            Your well-wishing
+
+                                                          RUDOLPH.[25]
+
+     Vienna, July 31st, 1823."
+
+No doubt, there have been in olden time kings who, as history records,
+possessed as much skill in music as their best bards or minstrels. If
+Alfred the Great could enter and explore the Danish camp under the
+disguise of a harper, his harp-playing must have been in the genuine
+professional manner of his time, otherwise it would have revealed to the
+Danish lovers of music that he was not what he pretended to be.
+
+To become an eminent musician, one requires, besides an
+extraordinary talent, much time, freedom from disturbance, and
+perseverance,--conditions which are seldom at the command of royal
+personages. The middle classes are in this respect the most
+favoured,--as they are, in fact, in all intellectual pursuits. When King
+Solomon says: "Give me neither poverty nor riches," (Proverbs, Chap.
+XXX. v. 8), he speaks rather as a musician, or poet. A king requires
+riches as necessarily as a musician requires talent.
+
+[24] 'Tonkünstler-Lexicon Berlin's, von C. Freiherrn von Ledebur;'
+Berlin, 1861; p. 6.
+
+[25] 'Biographie von Ludwig van Beethoven, verfasst von A. Schindler;'
+Münster, 1845; p. 141.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+COMPOSERS AND PRACTICAL MEN.
+
+
+It is sad to think how some of our distinguished musical composers have
+had to struggle with poverty, when with a proper attention to business
+matters they might easily have been men of independent means. True, to
+be what is called a practical man requires a talent very different from
+that required by an artist; and an inferior artist may be,--nay, often
+is a far more practical man than a superior artist. But a superior
+artist is not necessarily devoid of the qualifications which constitute
+a clever man of business. To maintain that a highly gifted musical
+composer must needs be deficient in common sense as regards money
+transactions would be as unwarrantable as to assert that a musician who
+understands how to use the art as a milch-cow must necessarily be a bad
+musician. His love for the art, and his desire to achieve something
+great, not unfrequently animates the true artist to disregard, or even
+to sacrifice for its sake, his property, health, and other advantages
+which the practical man regards as the real happiness of life.
+
+Whatever the composer produces less as a labour of love than for gain,
+by command, according to a plan prescribed to him, and under similar
+circumstances, is generally not the best he is capable of accomplishing.
+An artist must be allowed to create unfettered the work with which he
+feels the greatest inclination to occupy himself. But, if he possesses
+no property, he may starve before his work is finished. There are some
+painful instances on record of starving musical composers, who, with
+their admirable talents, might have saved themselves and others much
+trouble, if only they had thought it worth their while to be a little
+more practical.
+
+Composers generally receive their worst pay for their best works. Their
+best works are generally those which made them celebrated; and when they
+have become celebrated, they are often well paid for insignificant or
+mediocre productions.
+
+Composers sometimes appear to be much more unpractical than they really
+are. This may, for instance, easily be the case with those who strike
+out a new path in the art, or who aim at a reform, the disirableness of
+which seems questionable to all but themselves. However, occasionally it
+happens that an innovation, which is at first unpopular, comes by some
+unexpected cause rather suddenly in vogue, or at least finds many
+advocates; and in this case the originator of the innovation, who was
+regarded as an unpractical man, may attain the reputation of being of a
+remarkably practical turn of mind. When Richard Wagner, about thirty
+years ago, as a poor and obscure musician in Paris, was arranging
+operatic melodies for the cornet-à-piston to save himself from
+starvation, his notions about the opera of the future appeared to those
+few musicians to whom he communicated them, as a dream which to realize
+would be as impossible as it would be undesirable. At the present day he
+has many estimable musicians among his ardent admirers; he is honoured
+by kings, leads the life of a prince, and probably there are but few
+persons who would deny that he deserves to be called a practical man.
+
+Several of our classical composers have shown that they could be shrewd
+men of business at periods when the pressure of want, or the desire for
+independence, urgently incited them to acquire property. Beethoven on
+one or two occasions formed the resolution of making it his special
+object to accumulate a sum of money, the possession of which would
+enable him to compose without regard to publishers and mercantile
+speculations. But the endeavour to carry out this resolution seems to
+have been generally of but short duration. In the year 1821, the
+music-seller Tobias Haslinger, in Vienna, compiled a tariff in which he
+enumerated the different kinds of compositions with the prices he was
+willing to pay for them, if Beethoven by signing the tariff would bind
+himself to give all his new compositions to Haslinger for publication.
+This tariff is so interesting that it shall be inserted here, although
+Beethoven, who at first expected from it a golden future, was soon
+dissuaded by his friends from entering into any contract of the kind.
+
+INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC.
+
+     Symphony for full Orchestra                     60-80 ducats.
+     Overture for full Orchestra                     20-30   "
+     Concerto for Violin with Orchestral
+       accompaniment                                    50   "
+     Octett for different instruments                   60   "
+     Septett, ditto                                     60   "
+     Sextett, ditto                                     60   "
+     Quintett for 2 Violins, 2 Tenors, and
+       Violoncello                                      50   "
+     Quartett for 2 Violins, 2 Tenors, and
+       Violoncello                                      40   "
+     Trio for Violin, Tenor and Violoncello             40   "
+
+FOR PIANOFORTE.
+
+     Concerto for Pianoforte with Orchestral
+       accompaniment                                    60   "
+     Fantasia, ditto                                    30   "
+     Rondo, ditto                                       30   "
+     Variations, ditto                                  30   "
+     Octett for Pianoforte with accompaniment
+       of other instruments                             50   "
+     Septett, ditto                                     50   "
+     Quintett, ditto                                    60   "
+     Quartett, ditto                                    70   "
+     Trio for Pianoforte, Violin, and Violoncello       50   "
+     Duett for Pianoforte and Violin                    40   "
+     Duett for Pianoforte and Violoncello               40   "
+     Duett for Pianoforte _à quatre mains_              60   "
+     Grand Sonata for Pianoforte alone                  40   "
+     Sonata for Pianoforte alone                        30   "
+     Fantasia for Pianoforte                            30   "
+     Rondo for Pianoforte                               15   "
+     Variations for Pianoforte with accompaniment    10-20   "
+     Variations for Pianoforte alone                 10-20   "
+     Six Fugues for Pianoforte alone                 30-40   "
+     Pieces, such as Divertimenti, Airs,
+       Preludes, Potpourris, Bagatelles,
+       Adagios, Andantes, Toccatas, Caprices,
+       etc., for Pianoforte alone, each              10-15   "
+
+VOCAL MUSIC.
+
+     Grand Mass                                        130   "
+     Smaller Mass                                      100   "
+     Grand Oratorio                                    300   "
+     Smaller Oratorio                                  200   "
+     Graduale                                           20   "
+     Offertorium                                        20   "
+     Te Deum Laudamus                                   50   "
+     Requiem                                           120   "
+     Vocal pieces with Orchestral accompaniment         20   "
+     An Opera Seria                                    300   "
+     Six large Songs with Pianoforte accompaniment      20   "
+     Six smaller Songs, ditto                           12   "
+     A Ballad                                           15   "[26]
+
+It must be borne in mind that these terms were offered to Beethoven at
+the period of his life when he had already published his first eight
+symphonies and almost all his famous pianoforte sonatas, and other
+works, up to Op. 109, and when he therefore was in the zenith of his
+reputation in the eyes of the daily increasing number of lovers of music
+who were able to understand his genius. In fact, he afterwards received
+higher prices; for instance, the publisher Schott, in Mayence, paid him,
+in 1825, for the second Mass (D major) 1000 florins; for the ninth
+Symphony, 600 florins; for the Quartett Op. 127, fifty ducats; and for
+the Quartett Op. 131, eighty ducats. He was still better remunerated, on
+a certain occasion, by the publisher Diabelli, in Vienna, who having
+composed a Waltz for the pianoforte, wished Beethoven to write six or
+seven variations upon it, for which he offered to give him eighty
+ducats. Well, Beethoven sat down to compose seven variations. But, the
+longer he wrote, the more new ideas occurred to him, and the seven
+variations soon increased to ten, then to twenty, then to twenty-five.
+When Diabelli learnt that Beethoven had written twenty-five variations
+and was still continuing to add to their number, he became rather
+alarmed lest the work should grow too voluminous for practical use.
+However, he did not succeed in stopping the composer until after the
+thirty-third variation. The entire set was published by Diabelli in
+1823, under the title '33 Veränderungen über einen Walzer von A.
+Diabelli, von Ludwig van Beethoven, Op. 120.'
+
+What must one think of Beethoven's knowledge of money matters when in a
+letter to a friend, in which he laments his reduced circumstances, he
+asks for advice how he can obtain "money for a bank-note;" while all he
+has to do is to cut off from his bond a coupon, and to have it cashed by
+the nearest money-changer.[27] Beethoven, owing to his unpractical
+habits, required much money, although he lived but frugally. For
+instance, it happened that he had to pay rent for three or four
+residences at a time, because he had neglected to give warning at the
+old residence when he hired a new one. Fortunately for him, some of his
+admirers among men of position and wealth interested themselves about
+his personal comfort. In an honourable and delicate way they ensured him
+an annual income in addition to the gains accruing to him by the sale of
+his works. The result was that he actually left some money at his death.
+He died (to use an English expression) worth one thousand pounds.
+
+If the correspondence of some of our most celebrated composers with
+their publishers were made known, we should probably find therein
+unvarnished statements which would surprise us, inasmuch as they would
+reveal disappointments which it is now difficult to reconcile with the
+celebrity of those composers. The obstacles which some of our classical
+composers have encountered in getting their works printed are very
+remarkable. J. S. Bach himself engraved on copper-plates his esteemed
+work 'The Art of Fugue;' only thirty copies were struck off, as
+sufficient to supply the demand; and, after the death of the old master,
+his exceedingly practical son, Emanuel, offered the plates for sale at
+the value of the copper plates.[28] It is painful to reflect that some
+composers who lived in straitened circumstances obtained little or
+nothing for certain of their works which have enriched their publishers.
+Franz Schubert had to struggle for his daily bread. When the 'Erl-King'
+was sung by his friend Vogl for the first time in public, at a concert
+in Vienna in the year 1821, it produced sensation, while other
+compositions by Schubert which were performed on the same occasion, met
+with a cool reception. Schubert published the 'Erl-King' at his own
+expense, with the assistance of some friends. But, as his needy
+circumstances soon compelled him to sell the copyright of this song,
+which was then but little known, his gain was very small, even if
+compared with the profits which some arrangers have derived from
+transcribing the song for the pianoforte. Although the conditions which
+he proposed to the publishers were always modest, they were generally
+rejected as being exorbitant. How cautiously the publishers treated him,
+may be seen from a letter which Peters, in Leipzig, wrote to
+Hüttenbrenner, a friend of Schubert. As this letter is also interesting
+inasmuch as it affords a glance into the speculations of a practical man
+who makes the art his business, it deserves a place here, although it is
+rather long. The translation, which is from the German, is as literal as
+possible:--
+
+     "Having been extremely busy since I received your letter of the
+     18th of October, I trust you will excuse the tardiness of my reply.
+
+     "I am very much obliged to you for your communication respecting
+     Herr Schubert. Several of his vocal compositions are favourably
+     known to me, and give me confidence in your recommendation of this
+     artist. It will be a great pleasure to me to assist in a wider
+     diffusion of the works of this composer than the Vienna
+     music-sellers are capable of effecting. But, before I enter into
+     any obligation, allow me to give you a little sketch of my business
+     arrangements.
+
+     "At the moment when I commenced my present business I resolved to
+     distinguish myself advantageously as a publisher, never to print
+     anything bad, but rather as much as possible to print only the
+     best. It is impracticable to carry out this plan thoroughly; for I
+     cannot obtain from the most distinguished artists alone as many
+     manuscripts as I require. Besides, we publishers are also often
+     compelled from policy to print many things which I at least would
+     otherwise not print. Nay, we must publish even many slight works in
+     order to provide for a certain public; for, if we confined
+     ourselves to classical works only, we should have a very limited
+     sphere of business; since, as is well known, the connoisseurs do
+     not constitute the majority. Nevertheless, I have not been
+     influenced by desire for gain to patronize the more lucrative but
+     trashy fashionable trifles; I have always taken care that also the
+     works for the great majority of the people should never be bad.
+     Always keeping my favourite aim in view, I have chiefly striven to
+     issue superior works; and this my endeavour will in future become
+     more and more apparent, since every year increases the number of my
+     valuable connections, which my financial resources permit me to
+     maintain.
+
+     "These observations lead me to mention two obstacles which often
+     frustrate my plan. The first is want of time, which almost
+     continually curbs me. In order to obtain as many good works as
+     possible, I must seek after connections with good artists, and I
+     must strengthen these connections not only by endeavouring to
+     satisfy the artists, but also by proving myself a publisher always
+     ready at their service,--a mutual understanding which is convenient
+     to both parties. My connection with most of those of my authors who
+     are valuable to me,--as for instance, Spohr, Romberg, Hummel,
+     etc.,--has grown into a friendly relation. I am, therefore, doubly
+     compelled to accept all that such friends and good artists send me,
+     although there is often much among it of which I know at once that
+     I shall gain nothing by it. These obligations take up much of my
+     time, not only because those artists give me constant occupation,
+     but also because I require leisure for examining such works of
+     other authors as I receive unexpectedly, as is the case with the
+     present ones. Thus, the time remaining to me is seldom sufficient
+     to enable me to undertake the publication of more works than I have
+     in hand; and I am continually prevented forming new connections
+     with composers from want of time.
+
+     "The second obstacle which renders a new connection difficult, and
+     which proceeds from the facts above stated, is the novelty, and the
+     name of a young composer unknown in my sphere of business. Very
+     often I am reproached with not making known the works of new
+     composers, and that a new composer cannot become known if the
+     publishers do not undertake the publication of his works. This
+     reproach is, however, quite undeserved as far as I am concerned;
+     for I cannot do everything, and must keep to a fixed plan in order
+     to succeed. My plan is to obtain the works of artists who are
+     already celebrated. True, I print many other works besides; but if
+     I can obtain enough of those, I must leave to other publishers the
+     introduction to the public of new composers. These publishers are
+     also able to do something, and many are glad to engage new
+     composers, because they fear to pay the sums demanded by older and
+     more valuable artists. But as soon as the new composer has obtained
+     a name, and his works are known as being good, then I am his man;
+     and then the publication of his works accords with my plan, which
+     is calculated more with regard to honour than to gain. I will then
+     rather pay a high price for his works than procure them in the
+     beginning on low terms.
+
+     "You see, therefore, that it is difficult for me to meet at once
+     your proposal respecting Herr Schubert, especially as my time is so
+     much taken up. However, my opinion of him makes me reluctant to
+     disregard altogether the wish of this young artist. As a middle
+     course, I would, therefore, propose that Herr Schubert should send
+     me some of his works which he desires to have printed, so that I
+     may examine them; for, without having previously seen the
+     manuscript, I accept nothing from a young composer who is but
+     little known. If a great and well-known artist produces something
+     bad, the blame falls upon him, because his name is my guarantee;
+     but if I bring out something by a new artist which is not liked,
+     the blame falls upon me; for, who compels me to print a composition
+     of the merit of which I am not convinced? Here the name of the
+     composer is no protection to me. Herr Schubert may be sure that in
+     trusting his manuscripts to me, he places them in safe hands; there
+     will be no misuse made of them. In case that I find them
+     satisfactory, I shall retain of them as many as I find convenient;
+     on the other hand, Herr Schubert must not feel hurt if I do not
+     like one or other piece. I shall be quite candid, for candour is
+     the surest way to lead to a right understanding.
+
+     "Furthermore, I must beg him to forward to me only his most
+     successful works. True, he will not think of publishing anything
+     which he does not consider a successful production. Be this as it
+     may, a composer is always more successful with one work than with
+     another; and I must have the best. I say I must have the best; not
+     for the sake of gain, but for the sake of my reputation, when I
+     introduce a composer to my public, which is very extensive. I have
+     been very painstaking to make my establishment as complete as
+     possible, and I now experience from many quarters the recompense
+     that my firm enjoys in an extraordinary degree the confidence of
+     others. People expect from me the publication of many good works;
+     and if I bring out a new author, they soon give him their
+     confidence, believing that he must be good because I had taken
+     notice of him. No doubt, there have been mistakes; but I am
+     becoming more and more cautious, in order that I may always ensure
+     and strengthen my reputation, which to acquire I have taken so much
+     trouble. For this reason I insist upon a new author giving me his
+     best, in order that I may recommend him properly from the
+     beginning, my recommendation being justified. Besides, the first
+     impression often opens the road to the whole future; wherefore, to
+     composers just beginning, the good advice to proceed with the
+     publication of their works as cautiously as possible, cannot be too
+     often repeated. They may venture much, but should have only little
+     printed until their reputation is established.
+
+     "Spohr has hitherto brought out only 58 works; Andreas Romberg, 66;
+     Bernhard Romberg, 38; while now many other artists who are much
+     younger have already had printed above a hundred. Those well-known
+     composers have written much more, which, however, they thought
+     advisable to withhold from publication. If, by way of
+     contradiction, you point out to me the fertile, and nevertheless
+     valuable Mozart, Haydn, Beethoven, etc., I declare that such men
+     are rare masters whom we ought certainly to regard as models, but
+     that experience must first teach us whether the young aspirant is
+     similarly gifted. Moreover, many of the earlier compositions of
+     Mozart have never been printed.
+
+     "Now, have the kindness to confer with Herr Schubert upon my
+     communication to you, and decide what is further to be done. As
+     regards the terms, I beg you to inform me of them, because it is
+     disagreeable to my feelings to make an offer for an intellectual
+     production. Most likely there will not be any difficulty about
+     settling the conditions. The perseverance with which my authors
+     stick to me, sufficiently shows that they do well with me; this I
+     can assert of myself to my own praise. Besides, the conditions of a
+     young artist cannot be so high that they could not easily be
+     conceded to. I believe that, as you intimate, of a new work by Herr
+     Schubert, perhaps 300 copies might be sold in Vienna alone. But
+     then it must be printed in Vienna. I do not think that I should
+     sell there 100 copies, although I am in connection with all the
+     music-sellers of that town. You will understand this quite well,
+     and I need not explain the cause, but you may believe me that it is
+     so; experience confirms it, and the exceptions are rare indeed.
+
+                     I remain, with high esteem, etc.,
+                                                         B. V. PETERS.
+
+     Leipzig, November 14th, 1822."
+
+     "Should Herr Schubert send me vocal compositions, I should prefer
+     songs, each with a name, like Beethoven's 'Adelaide,' or others of
+     the kind. There are so many songs now published that no sufficient
+     attention is given to them if they have no names."[29]
+
+During the years 1826-28, Schubert had still trouble in getting his
+compositions printed. This is evident from the tone of the replies to
+his solicitations as well as from the conditions demanded by the
+publishers. Probst, in Leipzig, in a letter to Schubert, dated August
+26th, 1826, remarks:--"It was, no doubt, an honour to me, which I
+appreciate, to make your acquaintance through your letter of the 12th
+instant; and thanking you heartily for your confidence in me, I am quite
+willing to contribute, as far as lies in my power, to the spread of your
+reputation as an artist. I must, however, candidly confess that the
+peculiar direction of your intellectual productions, which often shows
+genius, but which is also sometimes rather strange, is not yet
+sufficiently and generally understood by our public. I, therefore, pray
+you to take this kindly into consideration when you send me manuscripts.
+A selection of songs, and pianoforte compositions for two or four hands,
+which are not difficult, and which are pleasant and easily
+comprehensible, would appear to me suitable for attaining your aim and
+my wish. When the way has been once opened, anything will do; but, in
+the beginning one must in some measure comply with the public taste,"
+etc.
+
+In another letter to Schubert, by the same publisher, written in 1827,
+he says: "However much pleasure it would give me to incorporate your
+name in my catalogue, I must for the present renounce it, as I am
+overwhelmed with work owing to the publication of Kalkbrenner's
+_Oeuvres complètes_. I also confess that the honorarium of eighty
+florins[30] for each manuscript seems to me rather high terms. I keep
+the works at your disposal, and remain," etc.
+
+A year later, in 1828, he writes more encouragingly: "I have been
+sincerely grieved that a difference in our opinions, before my journey
+to Vienna, frustrated your esteemed application for the publication of
+your compositions through my firm.... Have, therefore, the kindness when
+you have completed something which is a success, to send it
+here--especially songs, ballads, romances, which, without being devoid
+of originality, are easily comprehensible; also some pianoforte pieces
+for two performers, written in the same style.... As regards the
+honorarium, we shall readily come to an agreement, if you will only
+treat with me on a moderate scale; and you will find me always in these
+matters reasonable, provided the works are so that I can be pleased with
+them. The prices of the Vienna publishers might here fairly serve as a
+guide. Herr Lähne would pay you your honorarium in proper time
+punctually. Moreover, I must beg you to examine beforehand carefully the
+works which you intend me to have, and not to show them first to the
+Vienna publishers. Such business transactions must remain entirely
+between ourselves. I give you my solemn word that you shall never repent
+it if you favour me with your friendly confidence, and if, by selecting
+only such compositions for me in which you have been successful, you
+afford me the opportunity of exerting myself for the sake of your
+reputation."
+
+Breitkopf and Härtel, the famous publishers in Leipzig, in a letter to
+Schubert, dated September 7th, 1826, cautiously suggest: "We reply with
+grateful thanks to your kind intention of sending us some compositions
+for publication, and we assure you that it would give us much pleasure
+to enter into a mutually advantageous business relation with you. But as
+we are yet quite unacquainted with the mercantile result of your
+compositions, and as we, therefore, cannot meet you by offering you a
+fixed pecuniary remuneration,--which the publisher can only fix and
+allow after the success of the work,--we must leave it to you whether
+you will make an attempt to form a connection with us which may perhaps
+be durable, and whether in order to facilitate this attempt you will be
+satisfied with a certain number of copies as remuneration for the first
+work, or works, which you may send us. We have no doubt that you will
+agree to the proposal, since with you as well as with us the object is
+less the publication of a single work, than the introduction to a
+continued connection. In this case we propose that you should send us
+first a few pianoforte pieces for one performer or for two. Should our
+hope of a good result be realized, so that we may be enabled to offer
+you for the subsequent works a proper remuneration in money, it will be
+a pleasure to us to render thereby your connection with us agreeable to
+you.
+
+                We remain, with the highest esteem, etc.,
+
+                                            BREITKOPF AND HÄRTEL."[31]
+
+Somewhat later, when Schubert had become a little better known, he
+received more favourable replies. Schott, in Mayence, offered to publish
+several of his works, and to pay for them. In a letter dated April 28th,
+1828, Schott, however, declined to accept the trio in E-flat major,
+which Schubert had mentioned in his list of finished manuscripts: "The
+trio," Schott remarks, "is probably large; and as we have recently
+brought out several trios, we must postpone to a later period the
+publication of compositions of this kind to avoid disadvantages for our
+business; and the delay would be against your interest." This trio (Op.
+100) was afterwards bought by Probst, in Leipzig, for about two pounds,
+paid with a grumble, and with the insulting remark: "In any case, I hope
+the Trio in question is not the 'Fantasia' which was performed on the
+5th of February in Herr Slawick's concert at the Kärnthnerthor theatre;
+for that composition was unfavourably criticized in the Leipzig Musical
+Gazette, No. XIV., page 223."
+
+Again, in a letter from Schott, dated October 30th, 1828, and received
+by Schubert about three weeks before his death, he is told among other
+business matters: "We shall soon print your Quintett;[32] but we must
+remark that the price put on this little work is too high. The
+pianoforte part takes up only six printed pages, and we surmise it to be
+by an oversight that we are asked to pay sixty florins[33] for it. We
+offer you thirty florins for it.... The pianoforte piece, Op. 101,
+certainly would not be too dear for us; but its unsuitableness for our
+sale in France is very vexatious. Should you compose occasionally
+something less difficult and yet brilliant, and also in an easy key,
+this you may send us, if you please, without further communication."[34]
+
+Under these circumstances it is no wonder that after the death of
+Schubert there should have been some difficulty in defraying the
+expenses of his burial, which amounted to about seven pounds; while his
+effects, consisting of his dress, a bed, and some old music-books, were
+together valued at six pounds six shillings.
+
+Mozart's pecuniary circumstances were scarcely more cheerful than
+Schubert's, considering how highly Mozart was appreciated by many during
+the last few years of his life. Having in his youth been guided by his
+prudent father to be careful in the management of his gains and
+expenses, he always wished to be careful, and sometimes troubled himself
+much about being practical, but evidently found it very difficult. When
+the publisher Hofmeister, in Leipzig, said to him: "Mozart, you must
+make concessions to the popular taste, or I cannot buy anything more
+from you for publication!" Mozart replied: "Well, I must write what I
+think good, though I should starve." Some music-sellers, in an
+inexplicable way, succeeded in procuring manuscripts of his, for which
+they did not pay him anything.[35] His famous opera, 'Die Zauberflöte,'
+he wrote with the object of benefiting his friend, the embarrassed
+theatrical manager Schikaneder; and the statement of some writers, that
+Mozart gained only fifty thalers (about £7 10s.) by this opera, may
+therefore be correct. The King of Prussia offered him an appointment as
+Kapellmeister in Berlin, with a salary of 3,000 thalers. Mozart
+solicited an audience of his master, the Emperor Joseph II. and asked
+for his dismission. "Dear Mozart, you will leave me?" said the emperor.
+"No, your Majesty!" replied Mozart, touched by the hearty tone in which
+the Emperor spoke to him: "No, your Majesty, I remain!"
+
+A friend, to whom Mozart soon afterwards related this occurrence, said:
+"But why did you not seize this favourable opportunity to ask for a
+fixed income?"
+
+Mozart replied: "How could I at that moment think of money matters!"
+
+He subsequently received an annual pay of 800 florins, with the title of
+Kapellmeister in the service of the Emperor. At his death, he left a
+debt of 3,000 florins. The copyright of 'La Clemenza di Tito' was
+offered to Breitkopf, in Leipzig, for sixteen ducats. Breitkopf having
+declined the opera, it was bought by his apprentice, A. Böhme, who with
+it laid the foundation of his prosperous publishing-house in Hamburg.
+
+It must be admitted that among our modern composers several very
+practical men could be pointed out. Some, who are the offspring of rich
+bankers, may have inherited business-like habits in a natural course;
+this appears all the more probable since they belong to a race which is
+known to possess extraordinary talent for money-making.
+
+It has long been a favourite project with distinguished musicians on the
+continent to visit England, to be there extremely practical, in order to
+accumulate as much money as they could in the shortest time possible,
+and then to retire to the fatherland to be happy ever after. Possibly
+the rumour concerning Handel's property, and his bequests, to which also
+Mattheson alludes in his annotations to the 'Memoirs of the Life of
+Handel,'[36] may have contributed to entice other continental musicians
+to try to make their fortune in England; and many have shown common
+sense enough in this attempt. Handel in London generally received for
+the copyright of an oratorio twenty guineas. The wealthy publisher,
+Walsh, gained £1500 by the publication of the opera 'Rinaldo,' a fact
+which elicited from Handel the remark: "My dear sir, it is only right
+that we should be upon an equal footing; _you_ shall compose the next
+opera, and _I_ will sell it." At any rate, so the story goes. Handel,
+after having lost, by his enterprise as manager of the Haymarket
+Theatre, all the money he had gained during a residence in England of
+about twenty-four years, which amounted to about £10,000, commenced
+anew, exerting himself as a practical man in another and more successful
+way. Handel died "worth" upwards of twenty thousand pounds.
+
+Music-printing in the eighteenth century was not in the flourishing
+state which it has now attained. The composers had other sources of
+profit besides the sale of their manuscripts,--such as public
+performances, dedications of works to wealthy patrons of the art, or by
+having an appointment, with a fixed salary, in the service of a
+sovereign. To judge correctly of the capacity for business of a
+distinguished musician, it is necessary to take into consideration the
+usages of his time.
+
+Haydn, on his first visit to London, in 1791, was engaged by Salomon for
+£500, for which sum he had to compose six symphonies, and personally to
+direct the performance of them at the concerts; and to resign the
+copyright of those six symphonies. Furthermore, £200 were guaranteed to
+him by Salomon for a benefit concert.
+
+That Rossini could be practical in England, is evident from the
+following conversation of this composer with F. Hiller. It is given here
+in translation from the German. By way of preface to it, may be
+mentioned that Rossini, in Italy, received for an opera from twenty to
+thirty pounds. However, for the 'Barber of Seville' he received about
+eighty pounds.
+
+_Hiller._ "Considering, Maestro, that you have grown up among singers
+and actors, and that you possessed a fine voice, it seems almost
+singular that you did not think of becoming an operatic singer."
+
+_Rossini._ "I had no other intention, dear sir; but I also wished to
+learn my art more thoroughly than most of the singers with whom I came
+into contact at that time had learnt it. This was easy enough; at an
+early period I already officiated as _Maëstro al Cembalo_; then there
+came the period when the mutation of my voice interfered with my
+singing; my attempts at composition found favourable reception; and thus
+I fell almost accidentally into the career of the composer. I adhered to
+it, although I had from the beginning the opportunity of observing how
+incomparably better the singers are rewarded than we are."
+
+_Hiller._ "Heaven knows! Beethoven has hardly received for all his works
+as much as Cruvelli obtains annually at the Grand Opera."
+
+_Rossini._ "It was not quite so bad at that time as it is now; but that
+makes no difference. When the composer received fifty ducats, the singer
+received a thousand. I confess that I never could help feeling vexed at
+this injustice, and often have I given vent to my dissatisfaction in the
+presence of the singers. You ignorant fellows, I said, you cannot sing
+even so well as I can, and you gain more in one evening than I am paid
+for a whole score! But, what was the use of talking thus. Neither do the
+German composers get rich."
+
+_Hiller._ "Certainly not, Maestro! But they obtain appointments which,
+though they are not lucrative, ensure the most important necessities of
+life. No German composer has ever gained so much by his operas that he
+could live upon the proceeds. However, it appears to be now better in
+this respect than it formerly was."
+
+_Rossini._ "Incomparably better. The former Italian opera composers
+could write Heaven knows how many operas, and had nevertheless to
+struggle to make both ends meet. I was scarcely better off until I
+obtained an appointment with Barbaja."[37]
+
+_Hiller._ "Tancredi was the first of your operas which proved a decided
+hit; how much did you get for it, Maestro?"
+
+_Rossini._ "Five hundred francs. And when I composed my last Italian
+opera, 'Semiramide,' and insisted upon having five thousand francs for
+it, not only the theatrical manager, but the whole public regarded me as
+a sort of highwayman."
+
+_Hiller._ "You have the consolation of knowing that singers, managers,
+and publishers have become rich through you."
+
+_Rossini._ "A fine consolation! Except during my stay in England, I have
+never gained by my art so much that I could lay anything by; and the
+money which I made in London, I did not make as a composer, but as an
+accompanist."
+
+_Hiller._ "Yet it was because you were a celebrated composer."
+
+_Rossini._ "That is what my friends said, to persuade me to take to the
+new occupation. It may have been a prejudice with me, but I had a
+dislike to being paid for accompanying on the pianoforte, and I have
+submitted to it nowhere but in London. However, they were determined to
+see my nose, and to hear my wife. I had fixed for our co-operation at
+musical evenings the rather high terms of £50. We attended at about
+sixty of such evenings, and the pecuniary result was certainly worth the
+trouble. Moreover, in London the musicians will do anything to make
+money. I have witnessed there, queer doings."
+
+_Hiller._ "There one scarcely trusts one's eyes, still less one's ears."
+
+_Rossini._ "Thus, for instance, when I accepted my first engagement as
+accompanist at such a Soirée, I was told that Puzzi, the celebrated
+virtuoso on the horn, and Dragonetti, the celebrated double-bass player,
+would also be present. I thought they would play solo, but this was far
+from being the case, they had only been engaged to assist me in
+accompanying. Have you then written parts for all these pieces? I
+asked--'Oh, dear, no!' they replied, 'but we get well paid, and so we
+accompany with whatever comes into our head.' These attempts at
+improvised instrumental performances appeared to me, however, too
+venturesome; I therefore begged Dragonetti to restrict himself to
+twanging occasionally some Pizzicatos, whenever I should wink my eyes to
+him; and I suggested to Puzzi to fall in with his horn whenever a
+cadence occurred, which he, as a good musician, easily accomplished.
+Thus we went through it without very serious accidents, and everyone was
+contented."
+
+_Hiller._ "That is capital! But the English, it appears to me, have made
+great progress in regard to music. They have at present much good music
+well performed and attentively listened to; that is, in public concerts.
+In the drawing-room, music is still painfully maltreated. Many persons
+without the least musical talent parade themselves with an incredible
+boldness, and give instruction in things of which they know little or
+nothing."
+
+_Rossini._ "I knew in London a certain X., who as teacher of the
+pianoforte had amassed a large property. All he knew of music, however,
+was that he blew the flute a little, and that quite miserably. Another,
+who was greatly in demand as a teacher of singing, did not know even the
+notes. He kept his own accompanist, whose business it was first to
+hammer those pieces into his master, and afterwards to accompany him
+when he taught the pieces to the pupils. This singer possessed however
+a nice voice."[38]
+
+For the sake of truth some business letters written by distinguished
+German composers to English publishers must be noticed here, although
+they redound to the honour of the writers as little as do some of the
+letters of the German publishers just cited. Not that they reveal a
+deficiency in common sense as regards business transactions; they
+exhibit the writers as rather too practical. Among the letters which the
+music-seller W. Forster, in London, received from Haydn, with whom he
+kept up a correspondence about the purchase of manuscripts for
+publication in England, the following, which was originally written in
+German, is selected as a characteristic specimen. It dates from the year
+1788, and was published by S. A. Forster, a son of the music-seller, in
+his account of the correspondence which his father had with Haydn.
+
+     "My dear Mr. Forster,
+
+     Do not be annoyed with me that on my account you have had trouble
+     with Mr. Longman. I will satisfy you another time on that point. It
+     is not my fault, but that of the usurer Artaria. So much I promise
+     you that so long as I live, neither Artaria nor Longman shall
+     receive anything from me or through me. I am too honourable and
+     upright to annoy or injure you. So much, however, you will yourself
+     plainly understand that whoever will have six new pieces from me
+     must give me more than twenty guineas. I did, in fact, some time
+     ago conclude a contract with somebody who pays me for every six
+     pieces one hundred guineas and more. Another time I will write you
+     more; meanwhile I am with all respect,
+
+                                             Your obedient servant,
+
+                                                        JOSEPH HAYDN."
+
+Still less creditable to the writer are the following extracts from
+letters addressed by Beethoven to the publisher, R. Birchall, of London,
+who had bought the copyright for Great Britain and Ireland of four
+works by Beethoven, viz.:--The pianoforte arrangement of the Battle
+Symphony, Op. 91; the pianoforte arrangement of the A major Symphony,
+Op. 92; the Sonata for pianoforte and violin in G major, Op. 96; and the
+B-flat major Trio for pianoforte, violin, and violoncello, Op. 97. The
+letters were originally written in English. They are too long for entire
+insertion here. To render the extracts fully comprehensible, it is
+necessary to state that Beethoven, after having received from Birchall
+the sum agreed upon for those works, unexpectedly demanded five pounds
+for the copying and postage of them; and when Birchall had shown him so
+much consideration as to satisfy him also on this point, Beethoven wrote
+to him as follows:--
+
+                                           "Vienna, October 1st, 1816.
+
+     "My dear Sir,
+
+     I have duly received the £5, and thought previously you would not
+     increase the number of Englishmen neglecting their word and honour,
+     as I had the misfortune of meeting with two of this sort. In reply
+     to the other topics of your favour, I have no objection to write
+     variations according to your plan, and I hope you will not find £30
+     too much; the accompaniment will be a flute, or violin, or a
+     violoncello; you'll either decide it when you send me the
+     approbation of the price, or you'll leave it to me.... Concerning
+     the expenses of copying and packing, it is not possible to fix them
+     beforehand; they are at any rate not considerable, and you'll
+     please to consider that you have to deal with a man of honour, who
+     will not charge one sixpence more than he is charged himself....
+     With all the new works which you will have of me, or which I offer
+     you, it rests with you to name the day of their publication at your
+     own choice. I entreat you to honour me as soon as possible with an
+     answer, having many orders for compositions, and that you may not
+     be delayed....
+
+                                Your most humble Servant,
+
+                                                LUDWIG VAN BEETHOVEN."
+
+These remarks of Beethoven elicited the following reply from Mr. C.
+Lonsdale, the manager at R. Birchall's.
+
+                                                "London, Nov. 8, 1816.
+
+     "Sir,
+
+     In answer to yours of the 1st October I am desired by Mr. Birchall
+     to inform you he is glad to find you are now satisfied respecting
+     the promise of paying you £5,--in addition to what you before
+     received according to agreement,--but he did not think you would
+     have delayed sending the receipt signed, after the receipt of the
+     130 ducats, merely because you had not received the £5, which
+     latter sum was not included in the receipt. Till it arrives, Mr.
+     Birchall cannot at any rate enter into any fresh arrangement, as
+     his first care will be to secure those pieces he has already paid
+     for, and see how they answer his purpose as a music-seller; and
+     without the receipt he cannot prevent any other music-seller from
+     publishing them. In regard to the airs with variations, the price
+     of £30, which it is supposed you mean for each, is considerably
+     more than he could afford to give,--even to have any hopes of
+     seeing them repay him; if that should be your lowest price, Mr.
+     Birchall will give up his idea of them altogether.... I am sorry to
+     say Mr. Birchall's health has been very bad for two or three years
+     back, which prevents him from attending to business; and as there
+     are, I fear, but little hopes of his being much better, he is less
+     anxious respecting making any additions to his catalogue than he
+     otherwise would have been. He is much obliged to you for the offer
+     of the Sonata and the Trio; but he begs to decline it for the
+     reasons before mentioned. Hoping to hear soon respecting the paper
+     sent for your signature.
+
+                             I am, Sir,
+
+                                       For R. Birchall, etc.,
+
+                                                         C. LONSDALE."
+
+To this reasonable letter Beethoven replies (in English):
+
+                                             "Vienna, Dec. 14th, 1816.
+
+     "Dear Sir,
+
+     I give you my word of honour that I have signed and delivered the
+     receipt to the house Fries and Co., some day last August, who, as
+     they say, have transmitted it to Messrs. Coutts and Co., where
+     you'll have the goodness to apply. Some error might have taken
+     place, that instead of Messrs. C. sending it to you they have been
+     directed to keep it till fetched. Excuse this irregularity, but it
+     is not my fault, nor had I ever the idea of withholding it from the
+     circumstance of the £5 not being included. Should the receipt not
+     come forth at Messrs. C., I am ready to sign any other, and you
+     shall have it directly with return of post.
+
+     If you find variations--in my style--too dear at £30, I will abate
+     for the sake of your friendship one third, and you have the offer
+     of such variations, as fixed in our former letters, for £20 each
+     air.... I anxiously hope your health is improving. Give me leave to
+     subscribe myself,
+
+                            Dear Sir,
+
+                                     Your very obedient Servant,
+
+                                            LUDWIG VAN BEETHOVEN."[39]
+
+Beethoven being unacquainted with the English language was obliged to
+employ some person to write these letters for him. But, as he signed
+them, he must be held answerable for their contents. Had he been able to
+read them, he would probably have disapproved of the manner in which his
+business transactions were conducted by his interpreter.
+
+During the later years of his life it was a favourite idea with
+Beethoven to visit England for the purpose of making money. In the year
+1817 he corresponded (in German) with F. Ries, in London, on the
+subject, in consequence of an invitation from the Philharmonic Society.
+The conditions under which he was willing to accept the invitation he
+carefully specified as follows:--
+
+"1. I propose to be in London at the latest during the first half of the
+month of January, in 1818.
+
+2. I promise to bring with me two new large symphonies, which shall
+become the exclusive property of the Philharmonic Society.
+
+3. The Philharmonic Society pledges itself to pay me for the two
+symphonies three hundred guineas, and for my travelling expenses one
+hundred guineas. I expect that the journey will cost me much more than
+the sum which I ask, because I shall necessarily require a travelling
+companion.
+
+4. In order that I may be enabled to occupy myself at once
+uninterruptedly with composing those large symphonies, the Philharmonic
+Society binds itself to pay 150 guineas of the above sum in advance, so
+that I may procure without delay a travelling carriage and other
+travelling equipments.
+
+5. The conditions proposed by the Philharmonic Society as regards my
+non-appearance in any other public orchestra than its own, about not
+conducting the orchestra, and about suchlike matters for the advantage
+of the Society, I consent to unreservedly. My feeling of honour would
+have dictated them to me as a matter of course.
+
+6. I dare to hope that the Philharmonic Society will oblige me with its
+assistance in the preparation and promotion of one benefit concert, or
+perhaps more....
+
+7. I must beg that the conditions, or the agreement to the above, shall
+be written in the English language, signed by three Directors of the
+Philharmonic Society in the name of the Society, and forwarded to me."
+
+Failing health prevented Beethoven from undertaking the journey. The
+Philharmonic Society, believing him to be in want, which was far from
+being the case, in a delicate way presented him with £100. Indeed,
+Beethoven had every reason to feel gratified by the generous attention
+shown to him by those Englishmen who were able to appreciate his merits.
+In the year 1817, some of his London admirers gave him great pleasure by
+sending him a new grand-piano of Broadwood's manufacture; and in 1826,
+the kind-hearted Mr. J. A. Stumpff, in London, a German by birth, and a
+harp-maker in by no means affluent circumstances, made him a present of
+Arnold's edition of Handel's works, in forty volumes folio,--a gift
+which was taken to the bedside of the dying composer, and which soothed
+his last days of suffering.
+
+Also Haydn received from England touching marks of veneration. Some
+instances of homage offered by enthusiastic amateurs, must have caused
+him amusement on account of their singularity, if for no better reason.
+The worsted-spinner W. Gardiner, of Leicester, forwarded to him a
+present of six pairs of cotton stockings in which he had worked the
+notation of some popular melodies by Haydn,--such as the air "My mother
+bids me bind my hair;" the theme of the Andante in the Surprise
+Symphony; the tune of the Hymn "God preserve the Emperor," etc. W.
+Gardiner was himself a musical composer, his mode of composing being
+that of the Bavarian prince Joseph Clemens, who set about it "like the
+bees which extract honey from the most beautiful flowers, and mix it
+together."[40] Thus W. Gardiner "composed" a whole oratorio, which he
+made up of choruses and airs borrowed from various masters, and more or
+less distorted to suit them to their new place. Only the overture was
+wanting. He wrote to Beethoven to induce him to compose one for this
+oratorio, and offered to pay 100 guineas for it. Beethoven never
+answered the letter.[41] Had he been really as greedy of gain as in his
+correspondence with Birchall he appears to be, he would probably have
+accepted the offer, which was rather liberal. Nevertheless, had he
+accepted it, the result would very likely have proved the manufacturer a
+more practical man than the composer. Be this as it may, it is quite
+comprehensible that to Beethoven an attempt to associate him with
+musical jobbery must have been especially repulsive.
+
+Perhaps no opera composer had a better chance of becoming a rich man
+than had Carl Maria von Weber. The success of 'Der Freischütz' was
+immense. The fascinating melodies of this opera were sung, played and
+whistled everywhere, by musical and unmusical people. It would be
+difficult to point out a civilized country in which 'Der Freischütz' has
+not been performed and listened to with rapture. Before the popularity
+of the opera was fully established, Weber offered the pianoforte score
+to the publisher Schlesinger, in Berlin, for sixty Frederick-d'ors
+(£51). Schlesinger thought the demand exorbitant, and offered two
+hundred and twenty thalers (£33), which Weber accepted.[42]
+Nevertheless, in consequence of the many performances of 'Der
+Freischütz' in various towns on the Continent, from which the composer
+derived some pecuniary advantage, the opera proved rather lucrative to
+him. Still, it was more remunerative indirectly than directly, inasmuch
+as its universal success induced Charles Kemble, the manager of the
+Theatre Royal, Covent Garden, to engage Weber to compose 'Oberon,' and
+to visit London for the purpose of conducting the new opera. Thus Weber
+had an excellent opportunity of exercising his aptitude for business.
+How he acquitted himself of the task, may be gathered from his rejecting
+at the outset the terms offered by Kemble,--which were £500, and all his
+expenses paid,--and proposing his own terms, which, with the help of
+some one acquainted with the English language, he had penned as
+follows:--
+
+"At my arrival at London I will first of all preside at the piano in six
+representations of the 'Freischütz'; for the first five you will give me
+every night a pecuniary compensation of two hundred pounds, and the
+sixth as a benefit for me. During this time we will prepare 'Oberon' and
+I will preside at the piano also the first six representations at the
+same conditions. I must be assured that all this be settled in three
+months, otherwise I should claim an adequate indemnification. The music
+of 'Oberon' (Partition, and adapted by me for the Piano) is then your
+property for Great Britain. The poem and the music are mine for all the
+rest of Europe."
+
+According to this proposal Weber would have realized in the course of
+three months £2,400. But he soon experienced that one may also be too
+practical. His shattered health rendered the journey to England
+exceedingly fatiguing, and the trouble, excitement and disappointments
+connected with the rehearsals and representations of 'Oberon,' and with
+the necessary preparations for his concerts, accelerated his
+dissolution. He died in 1826, when he had been about three months in
+London, and the proceeds of his toil during the time amounted to about
+£1,100, or less than half the sum which he at first demanded from
+Kemble.
+
+The musical student, in perusing the master-works in his art, has
+continually occasion to admire the careful consideration which the
+composers have given to every bar so as to produce great effects by
+simple means, interesting variety in unity, thus achieving as nearly as
+possible a perfect work of art. Also, their remarks upon their
+compositions show how thoughtfully they laboured, considering and
+reconsidering every step they took. It is unnecessary to illustrate this
+fact by quotations, as instances will probably occur to the reader.
+Suffice it to notice a remark by Mozart, which shows how cleverly he
+contrived to make concessions to the popular taste, in as far as he
+could accomplish this without deterioration to his compositions as works
+of art. In a letter to his father, which he wrote from Paris, he thus
+describes the performance of a new symphony, which he had been requested
+to compose for the _Concert Spirituel_:--
+
+"In the middle of the first Allegro is a passage of which I knew well
+that it would please. All the auditors were transported by it, and there
+was great applause. As I knew, when I wrote the passage, what its effect
+would be, I introduced it once more towards the end of the movement.
+Then they demanded a repetition of the entire Allegro. The Andante
+pleased also; but especially the last Allegro. As I had been told that
+it was the usual custom with the composers here in Paris to commence the
+last Allegro of a symphony, like the first, with the full orchestra,
+generally in unison, I commenced mine with only the first and second
+violins, _piano_ through eight bars. Then came suddenly _forte_.
+Consequently, the auditors made first, as I had expected,--hush! and
+then the _forte_ surprised them so greatly, that they applauded as a
+matter of course."
+
+Is this not thoroughly practical in an artistic point of view?
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[26] 'Biographie von Ludwig van Beethoven, verfasst von A. Schindler;'
+Münster, 1845; p. 246.
+
+[27] 'Biographische Notizen über L. van Beethoven, von Wegeler und
+Ries;' Coblenz, 1838; p. 34.
+
+[28] 'Historisch-Kritische Beiträge zur Aufnahme der Musik, von F. W.
+Marpurg.' Vol. II., Berlin, 1756; p. 575.
+
+[29] 'Franz Schubert, von H. Kreiszle von Hellborn;' Wien, 1865, p. 272.
+
+[30] £8.
+
+[31] 'Franz Schubert, von H. Kreiszle von Hellborn;' Wien, 1865; p. 388.
+
+[32] Op. 114.
+
+[33] £6.
+
+[34] 'Franz Schubert, von H. Kreiszle von Hellborn;' Wien, 1865; p. 442.
+
+[35] 'Biographie W. A. Mozart's, von G. N. von Nissen;' Leipzig, 1828,
+p. 584.
+
+[36] See above, page 23.
+
+[37] Barbaja, the Impressario of the San Carlo Theatre at Naples.
+
+[38] 'Aus dem Tonleben unserer Zeit, von Ferdinand Hiller; Leipzig,
+1868.' Vol. II., p. 22.
+
+[39] 'Jahrbücher für Musikalische Wissenschaft, herausgegeben von F.
+Chrysander.' Leipzig, 1863, p. 434.
+
+[40] See above, p. 45.
+
+[41] 'Music and Friends, by William Gardiner.' Vol. III., London, 1853,
+p. 378.
+
+[42] 'Carl Maria von Weber, ein Lebensbild,' von Max C. M. von Weber;
+Leipzig, 1864. Vol. II., p. 270.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+MUSIC AND MEDICINE.
+
+
+Music is capable of exercising a favourable influence upon health, but
+it may also prove injurious. In order to know how to employ it with good
+result in certain illnesses, an exact acquaintance with its various
+effects is requisite. First of all, it ought to be borne in mind that
+music may serve as a remedy either by directly affecting the mind, or by
+acting primarily upon the body. In the former case its influence may be
+called psychical; and in the latter, physical.
+
+Considering how much in the cure of certain illnesses depends upon the
+spirits of the patient, it will easily be understood that the affecting
+power of music deserves special attention. There are illnesses in which
+the attainment of a calm state of mind may be a most important condition
+for the recovery of the patient,--nay, instances are conceivable in
+which with this attainment the illness is already in a great measure
+removed. Some persons are much more susceptible of music than others;
+but there are few in whose heart it finds not some response, however
+slight. Indeed, the beneficial influence of music is almost universally
+felt, and is evidenced by examples the authenticity of which is
+indisputable. No other art is so capable of easily moving man to tears
+of grief, of exciting him in a moment to cheerfulness, of inspiring him
+with courage, and of making him forget his real or imaginary troubles
+and anxieties. Hence, with almost every nation we find the employment of
+music resorted to on occasions of sadness and mourning, at solemn
+celebrations and joyful festivities, in warlike exploits, in religious
+worship,--in fact, wherever a definite direction of a certain feeling is
+especially requisite.
+
+Also the popular stories, of which a selection is given in the present
+work, testify to the universally-felt power of music. In many of the
+stories miraculous effects are ascribed to music. What stronger proof
+can be cited of its intense impression upon the human heart than the
+popularity of such conceptions traditionally preserved through
+centuries!
+
+But also the direct influence which the cultivation of music may
+exercise upon the body is not insignificant, considered medically. Thus,
+for instance, singing, if judiciously practised, is conducive to health,
+inasmuch as it benefits the lungs and the chest; and the playing on
+certain musical instruments is salutary, while on others it is
+injurious. Moreover, in combination with dancing, music is likely to
+prove in some complaints an efficacious remedy. Of course, everything
+depends upon its judicious employment, if it is to serve medically. In
+order exactly to ascertain its efficacy it is advisable to examine its
+employment as we find it in different nations. Even the most uncivilized
+tribes ought not to be ignored in this enquiry, because the dictates of
+instinct are often not less suggestive than the speculations of reason.
+
+Nations, or tribes, in a low state of civilization, as there are many
+still existing at the present day, have generally so-called
+"mystery-men," or "medicine-men," who combine in one person the
+avocation of the priest, physician, and musician, and who are also
+usually prophets, sorcerers, rain-makers, shrewd advisers,--in short,
+men who by their comparatively superior knowledge and skill obtain
+considerable influence over their ignorant and superstitious fellow-men.
+
+The most ancient nations historically known were far more advanced in
+civilization than these our contemporaries. However, we find with them
+traces of the original existence of "mystery-men." With the Greeks,
+music, or the art of the Muses, originally comprised, besides the
+tone-art, several other arts and sciences; from which it may be
+conjectured that the earliest Greek musicians practised also the healing
+art like the mystery-men of our time. The ancient Egyptians, at an
+early period, had attained a considerably higher stage of development in
+the cultivation of music than many nations of the present day have
+achieved. This assertion will not appear exaggerated to any musician who
+has carefully examined the ancient representations of the
+variously-constructed instruments which were in use with the Egyptians,
+centuries before our Christian era. Equally suggestive is a statement of
+Herodotus, indicating the progress which the Egyptians had made in the
+healing art, nearly 500 years before our era. He remarks (Euterpe 84):
+"The art of medicine is thus divided amongst them: each physician
+applies himself to one disease only, and not more. All places abound in
+physicians; some physicians are for the eyes, others for the head,
+others for the teeth, others for the parts about the belly, and others
+for internal disorders." Such a high degree of cultivation of an art or
+science, in which each professor occupies himself especially with a
+particular branch in order to achieve the utmost possible perfection in
+it, is known at the present day only among the most civilized nations.
+
+If, therefore, we desire to obtain an accurate idea of the primitive
+treatment of diseases by means of music, a reference to the usages of
+some rude tribes in uncivilized lands will be the proper step for
+acquiring the information.
+
+Considering that the mystery-men alluded to are, as a rule, mentally the
+most gifted and the most crafty personages of the tribe to which they
+belong, and that they are especially familiar with the views,
+inclinations, customs, and weaknesses of their people, a detailed
+account of the social position and doings of these extraordinary
+individuals in different parts of the world might be very interesting.
+It would, however, be out of place here to describe them further than as
+they appear in their medical and musical capacities.
+
+The mystery-men of the North American Indians, or the "medicine-men," as
+they are more usually called, are acquainted with the medicinal virtues
+of a great many different kinds of roots and herbs, of which they make
+use in their prescriptions, and for which they are paid. Some of them
+enjoy a high reputation on account of their skill; and in general the
+medicine-man takes a high position among the people. Only when the
+common remedies of roots and herbs have proved unsuccessful does he
+resort to "medicine" or mystery. He arrays himself in a most grotesque
+dress, and provides himself with a rattle, commonly made of a gourd,
+which is hollowed and partly filled with pebbles. Thus equipped, he
+approaches his dying patient to cure him by a charm. He dances about
+him, singing songs of incantation, and producing a frightful noise by
+shaking his rattle. Catlin records a scene of an attempted cure of this
+description which he himself witnessed, as follows: "Several hundred
+spectators, including Indians and traders, were assembled round the
+dying man, when it was announced that the medicine-man was coming. We
+were required to form a ring, leaving a space of some thirty or forty
+feet in diameter around the dying man, in which the doctor would perform
+his wonderful operations; and a space was also opened to allow him free
+room to pass through the crowd without touching any one.... He
+approached the ring with his body in a crouching position, with a slow
+and tilting step. His body and head were entirely covered with the skin
+of a yellow bear, the head of which--his own head being inside of
+it--served as a mask; the huge claws of which also were dangling on his
+wrists and ankles. In one hand he shook a frightful rattle, and in the
+other he brandished his medicine-spear, or magic wand; to the rattling
+din and discord of all of which he added the wild and startling jumps
+and yelps of the Indian, and the horrid and appalling grunts, snarls,
+and growls of the grizzly bear, in ejaculatory and gutteral incantations
+to the Good and Bad Spirits, in behalf of his patient, who was rolling
+and groaning in the agonies of death, whilst he was dancing around him,
+jumping over him, and pawing him about, and rolling him in every
+direction. In this wise the strange operation proceeded for half an hour
+to the surprise of a numerous and death-like silent audience, until the
+man died; and the medicine-man danced off to his quarters, and packed
+up, tied and secured from the sight of the world his mystery dress and
+equipments."[43] Should the exhausted patient unaccountably recover
+after such a ceremony, the lucky medicine-man will be seen for several
+days after the event on the top of a wigwam, extending his right arm,
+waving it to the gaping multitude, and boasting of his skill.
+
+With the Indian tribes in Columbia and Vancouver Island the
+medicine-man, although he may become of great importance if he is
+clever, is liable to be put to death if he fails to cure his patient; it
+being presumed that he possesses the power, but not the wish, to cure. A
+strange procedure of one of these fellows in trying to cure a female who
+lay dangerously ill, was witnessed by an Englishman, who has given a
+circumstantial description of it, from which the following extract will
+suffice:--
+
+"Towards night the doctor came, bringing with him his own and another
+family to assist in the ceremony. After they had eaten supper, the
+centre of the lodge was cleared and fresh sand strewed upon it. A bright
+fire of dry wood was then kindled, and a brilliant light kept up by
+occasionally throwing oil upon it. I considered this a species of
+incense offered, as the same light would have been produced, if desired,
+by a quantity of pitch-knots which were lying in the corner. The
+patient, well wrapped in blankets, was laid on her back, with her head a
+little elevated, and her hands crossed on her breast. The doctor knelt
+at her feet, and commenced singing a song, the subject of which was an
+address to the dead, asking them why they had come to take his friend
+and mother, and begged them to go away and leave her. The rest of the
+people then sung the chorus in a low, mournful chant, keeping time by
+knocking on the roof with long wands they held.... As the performance
+proceeded, the doctor became more and more excited, singing loudly and
+violently, with great gesticulation, and occasionally making passes with
+his hand over the face and person of the patient, similar to those made
+by mesmeric manipulators."[44]
+
+Likewise, in a cure effected in the case of a sick lad of the Wallawalla
+Indians, Columbia river, which Mr. Drayton witnessed, there appears to
+have been a kind of mesmerism used in combination with music. This case
+is also noteworthy inasmuch as it shows that the Indians have female
+physicians. The lad was lying on his back in a lodge and appeared to be
+in a dying state. Over him stood an old haggard-looking squaw, who was
+singing in great excitement, while about a dozen men and boys were
+accompanying her with their voices in a sort of chorus, the rhythmical
+effect of which they increased by striking sticks together at regular
+intervals. The music thus produced sounded unearthly to the foreign
+bystander. The squaw was all the time very busy about the lad, now
+bending over him and making all kinds of grimaces, and now baring his
+chest and pretending by her actions to be scooping out his disease, and
+now again falling on her knees before him and striving to draw out the
+evil spirit with both her hands. She blew into her hands and then moved
+them over the patient in a peculiar manner as if she were tossing the
+noxious spirit away into the air. Then again she would blow with her
+mouth on his neck downwards, making a quick sputtering noise; and at
+last she began to suck his neck and chest in different parts. Whatever
+may be thought of this operation, the boy certainly soon got better.
+Moreover, our informant concludes his account of the occurrence with the
+statement: "One singular custom prevailing here (with the Indians of
+Wallawalla) is that all the convalescents are directed to sing for
+several hours during the day."[45]
+
+The Indian tribes in Guiana have mystery-men, called Piatzas, or Piaies,
+who constitute a powerful priesthood. In their incantations they use
+rattles, and also drums and bells. When a person suffering from a
+protracted illness finds the commonly-used medicines of no avail, his
+refuge is to the Piatza, to induce him to drive out the evil spirit that
+must be the cause of the mischief. The Piatza carries the patient into
+the nearest forest, and having fastened his hammock to some tree across
+a pass, he commences the incantations, which he accompanies with the
+noise of his rattle. The rattle consists of a calabash partly filled
+with small pebbles. During his incantations no one is permitted to
+witness what he is doing, even the patient being enjoined to close his
+eyes and to keep them shut until the end of the ceremony. The Piatza
+draws a circle round the sick person and addresses the evil spirit.[46]
+
+Again, the _Manchi_, or medicine-man of the Peguenches and other Indian
+tribes in the Argentine Provinces, is skilled in the use of herbs. If
+remedies of this kind prove ineffectual, mysterious ceremonies are
+resorted to. A sheep and a colt are killed, and are placed with vessels
+of a fermented liquor, called _chichala_, under trees close to a hut;
+the patient is carried out of the hut and laid on the sunny side of the
+trees. The _Manchi_ and the women now dance in a circle round the trees,
+the animals, and the sick person. When the dancers are exhausted the
+_Manchi_ fumigates the animals and the sick person three times, and then
+sucks the diseased part of the man with such force as to draw blood.
+After this, he sucks the heart of the colt and anoints the sick person
+with the blood of the animal. At the conclusion of these disgusting
+ceremonies, in the performance of which the _Manchi_ affects to be in a
+trance, dancing is recommenced, and the patient is forced to join in it,
+supported by his friends. A general feast, in which the people consume
+the animals, concludes the ceremony.[47] The _Manchi_ generally uses a
+kind of drum in his incantations.
+
+The mystery-men of the Araucanian Indians are called _Gligua_, or
+_Dugol_, and some of them are distinguished by the epithets
+_Guenguenu_, _Genpugni_, and _Genpuri_ (_i. e._ "Master of the heavens,
+of epidemic diseases, of worms and insects,") and are supposed to have
+the power of curing every disease, of producing rain, and of preventing
+the ravages of worms and insects. The real medicine-men are called
+_Machi_,[48] and their method of curing is similar to that of the
+_Manchi_ of the Argentine Provinces just described. The ceremony is,
+however, always performed in the night. The hut in which the patient
+lies is lighted with a great number of torches. In a corner of the room
+is placed, among branches of laurel, a large bough of cinnamon, to which
+is suspended the magic drum; and near to it is a sheep which is to be
+killed for sacrifice. A number of women sing aloud and beat upon little
+drums, while the _Machi_ proceeds, with frightful gesticulations and
+horrible contortions of his body, to exorcise the evil spirit which is
+supposed to be the cause of the malady.[49] Sometimes he will suddenly
+exhibit in triumph a spider, a toad, or some other obnoxious animal,
+which he pretends to have extracted from the body of the sufferer.[50] A
+more detailed account of these impostors is unnecessary, especially as
+the works are mentioned which contain full descriptions of them.
+
+The largest Indian tribes in Patagonia, the Moluches and the Puelches,
+have male and female sorcerers. Boys who suffer from epileptic fits, or
+from the St. Vitus's dance, are selected for this office, and are
+brought up in it. They have to adopt female apparel, which they continue
+to wear when grown up. These men, dressed like women, are supposed to
+have been destined for their profession by the demons themselves. They,
+likewise, assume the power of curing disease by means of incantations
+accompanied with the noise of rattles and drums.[51]
+
+The close resemblance of certain practices of the medicine-men among
+uncivilized nations in different parts of the globe, is especially
+suggestive. Nor are the differences without interest.
+
+Turning to Africa, we have musical-medical practitioners with the
+Negroes and Kafirs, whose art must have originated quite independently
+of that of the American medicine-men. The Negroes in Jamaica have
+sorcerers and physicians, called Obeah-men, whose ceremonies are
+probably of African origin, although they are in many respects similar
+to those of the Indian medicine-men. The Obeah-men, being well
+acquainted with the peculiar effects of the different poisonous plants,
+it is said, often make bad use of their knowledge.[52] When attending a
+sick person, the Obeah-man generally commences his cure with a dance,
+and he administers a powder, or a liquor, to his victim.[53]
+
+The Negroes in Western Africa have professional musicians or minstrels,
+called in Senegambia, _Griots_; singing men, or bards, called
+_Jillikea_; Fetish priests who drum and dance as if they themselves were
+possessed of evil spirits; Priestesses of the Serpent worship, which has
+its principal temples in Whydah; Rain-makers; Wizards, called
+_Greegree-men_; and other "wise men," who are also physicians and
+musicians. The _Ganga_, in Loango, South Western Africa, are, according
+to the Abbé Proyard, priests as well as physicians: "When they come to a
+patient, they ask him where his ailment lies. They blow on the part
+affected: after that, they make fomentations, and tie up his limbs in
+different places with bandages. These are the preliminaries used in all
+diseases. They know nothing either of phlebotomy, or of medicine....
+They know a very salutary remedy, in their opinion, for all diseases;
+but this they only employ in favour of those who can afford the expense.
+When they are called in to a rich man, they take with them all the
+performers on musical instruments they can find in the country. They
+all enter in silence; but, at the first signal which they give, the
+musical troop begin their performance. Some are furnished with stringed
+instruments, others beat on the trunks of hollow trees covered with
+skin,--a sort of tabor. All of them uniting their voices with the sound
+of the instruments round the patient's bed, make a terrible uproar and
+din, which is often continued for several days and nights in
+succession."[54]
+
+The mystery-man in Benguela is called _Kimbanda_. He performs his
+ceremonies in the forest, in the presence of the people. Before him
+stands a calabash with a wide opening, in which are figures rudely
+carved, of wood or bone, which represent different kinds of wild
+animals. A rattle, which he holds in his hand, consists of a hollow
+calabash containing pebbles. He shakes his rattle and addresses the
+figures in a recitation, interspersed with questions concerning the
+ailments of his patient. An assistant, who is hidden in the
+neighbourhood of the figures, answers the questions in a hollow tone of
+voice, as if it came from the figures. However, for the accomplishment
+of the cure a sacrifice of a cow is generally demanded by those greedy
+figures; or even more, according to the means of the patient. The
+answers given by the figures are generally so indistinct that no one but
+the _Kimbanda_ can understand them; and he communicates them to the
+people.[55]
+
+The Somali, in Eastern Africa, have similar mystery-men, called
+_Tawuli_; and the natives of Zanzibar have the _Mganga_, who professes
+to heal the patient by expelling the demon by means of his singing and
+the shaking of his rattle. The mystery-man of the Kafirs of Natal
+likewise accompanies his recitations with a rattle. He is an
+extraordinarily dangerous and objectionable personage; for, when the
+cattle fall sick, or some other mischief happens, he is apt to declare
+that it has been caused by some evil-doer whom he can find out. He
+sings and dances towards several individuals in succession, and affects
+to examine them by his olfactory sense. Suddenly he touches one with the
+gnu's tail which he carries in his hand. He leaps over the head of the
+unhappy man, and points him out as the offender.[56] Also the Bechuana,
+in fact every Kafir tribe, has one or more of such personages, who are
+physicians and musicians, as well as priests, prophets, and rain-makers.
+
+Considering the very low state of civilization of those natives of
+Australia who have not come into contact with the European settlers, it
+is especially interesting to learn their notions on the employment of
+music in the cure of disease. These aborigines are divided into numerous
+tribes, who have no chief, or leader properly speaking, except the
+_Crodgy_, or "wise man," who, besides being a quack, is also the
+conductor of their ceremonies. They not unfrequently suffer from
+rheumatic pains in their limbs, which they believe to be caused by some
+demon. To protect themselves against the demons, they carry about them
+charms consisting of bits of rock crystal, called "mundy-stones," which
+they value highly. They endeavour to drive away the demons by whirling
+round their head an oval-shaped board, called _moor-y-umkarr_, which is
+curiously ornamented, and is suspended to a string. It produces an
+unearthly, humming sound, sometimes soft, sometimes loud and roaring,
+according to the force with which it is whirled. The doctor, in curing a
+sick person, proceeds much in the same manner as the medicine-man of the
+North American Indians. He, however, uses no rattle; a bunch of green
+reeds held in the hand and shaken serves the same purpose. The small-pox
+is so greatly feared by the natives that they possess a special song,
+called _nguitkurra_, by the singing of which the disease is believed to
+be prevented, or checked in its progress.[57] A native from the
+vicinity of Port Jackson, whose wife was complaining of a pain in the
+stomach, was observed by a European traveller to cure her in the
+following manner: "After blowing on his hand, he warmed it at a fire,
+and then applied it to the part affected, beginning at the same time a
+song which was probably calculated for the occasion. A piece of flannel
+being warmed and applied by a bystander, rendered the warming his hand
+unnecessary; but he continued his song, always keeping his mouth very
+near to the part affected, and frequently stopping to blow on it, making
+a noise after blowing, in imitation of the barking of a dog. But, though
+he blew several times, he only made that noise once at every pause, and
+then continued his song. The woman always made short responses whenever
+he ceased to blow and bark."[58]
+
+An English missionary in Tanna Island, New Hebrides, relates that when a
+native of that Island is taken ill, his friends believe that his illness
+is occasioned by some one burning his _nakah_ (_i.e._ "rubbish"). They
+have "disease-makers" who are believed to have in their hands the power
+of life and death, and who are consequently much feared. Every kind of
+_nakah_ is carefully buried or thrown into the sea, lest the
+disease-maker should pick it up, wrap it in a leaf, and burn it. When a
+native is taken ill, his friends blow on a conch trumpet, which
+signifies a supplication to the disease-maker to discontinue burning the
+rubbish. If the sick man recovers, the disease-man receives a present
+for having left off burning. The rubbish generally consists of some
+refuse of food.[59] The New Zealanders had formerly similar
+disease-makers, who were supposed to require a lock of hair, or some
+nail-parings, of the person whom they intended to afflict with disease.
+
+Let us now turn to some tribes in cold regions of the North, to compare
+their musical ceremonies in the cure of illness with those in tropical
+countries.
+
+The natives of Kamtschatka have persons called _Shamans_, who profess to
+be able to communicate with the spirits by arraying themselves in a
+grotesque garment, chanting, beating a drum, dancing, and working
+themselves up to a state of trance. They, on these occasions, drink an
+infusion of a species of fungus, which has an intoxicating power, and
+which sometimes makes them sleep afterwards for three or four days
+without interruption. Its effect must therefore be similar to that of
+opium. The Shamans of the Ostiaks, and of the Samoiedes, in Siberia,
+suspend to their dress metal representations of strange birds, fishes,
+and quadrupeds, with bones, teeth, and other frightful-looking things.
+In their incantations they shake the dress so that the metallic
+appendages produce clanging and tinkling sounds, the effect of which is
+increased by the Shaman's beating a drum, of the tambourine kind. Also
+the Laplanders, about a century ago, had such sorcerers, who used a drum
+called _rune-bomme_, or _gobodes_, the parchment of which was marked
+with mystic signs. The sorcerer was called _Noaaid_, or _Spagubbe_.
+Besides his magic drum he had a magic chain, about twelve inches in
+length, of tin and copper, which, when shaken, produced a shrill,
+tinkling noise. No journey, no business transaction was undertaken by
+the Lapp without his having previously consulted the Noaaid, who by
+means of a ring placed on the parchment of his drum, predicted the
+success of the undertaking. When he beat the drum, the vibration caused
+the ring to move to one or other of the mysterious signs marked upon the
+parchment; and from the position of the ring, he pretended to be able to
+divine the future. Moreover, he cured diseases by beating his drum to
+incantations and wild dancing. The Lapps believed that the defunct
+relations of the sick person attempted to draw him over to them; it,
+therefore, naturally suggested itself to his friends to engage the
+interference of the Noaaid, who professed to have intercourse with the
+spirits of the dead. The pagan Finns had the same notion, which is not
+surprising, considering that they and the Lapps are of one race. The
+sorcerers of the Finns recited songs, called _lugut_, when they
+attempted to exorcise the evil spirit of the patient, or to remove the
+witchcraft occasioning the mischief. These superstitions the Finnish
+races probably brought with them originally from Asia, where we still
+meet with them at the present day. It is remarkable that in time of
+remote antiquity, the priests of certain Eastern nations used tinkling
+instruments for the purpose of frightening away the demons. The ancient
+Egyptians shook the Sistrum; and the priests of the Copts and of the
+Abyssinian Christians observe still this very ancient custom. The Hebrew
+priests, at the time of Moses, had little bells attached to their robes
+for protection against evil influences; at any rate, it is recorded that
+the sound of Aaron's bell was to be heard "that he die not." (Exod.
+chap. xxviii., v. 35.)
+
+A curious account of the employment of music in the cure of diseases in
+Chinese Tartary is given by M. Huc. He says: "When illness attacks any
+one his friends run to the nearest monastery for a Lama, whose first
+proceeding upon visiting the patient is to run his fingers over the
+pulse of both wrists simultaneously, as the fingers of a musician run
+over the strings of an instrument.... After due deliberation the Lama
+pronounces his opinion as to the particular nature of the malady.
+According to the religious belief of the Tartars all illness is owing to
+the visitation of a _Tchutgour_, or demon, but the expulsion of the
+demon is first a matter of medicine. The Lama physician next proceeds,
+as Lama apothecary, to give the specific befitting the case. The Tartar
+pharmacopoeia rejecting all mineral chemistry, the Lama remedies
+consist entirely of vegetables pulverized, and either infused in water
+or made up into pills. If the Lama doctor happens not to have any
+medicine with him he is by no means disconcerted; he writes the names of
+the remedies upon little scraps of paper, moistens the paper with
+saliva, and rolls them into pills, which the patient tosses down with
+the same perfect confidence as though they were genuine medicaments."
+When the invalid is a person of property, the Lamas make extraordinary
+preparations for expelling the _Tchutgour_, for which the invalid has to
+give them dresses and other presents. The aunt of Tokoura, chief of an
+encampment, visited by M. Huc, was seized one evening with an
+intermittent fever. "I would invite the attendance of the Lama doctor,"
+said Tokoura, "but if he finds that there is a very big Tchutgour
+present, the expense will ruin me." He waited for some days; but, as the
+aunt grew worse and worse, he at last sent for a Lama. "His
+anticipations," M. Huc relates, "were confirmed. The Lama pronounced
+that a demon of considerable rank was present, and that no time must be
+lost in expelling him. Eight other Lamas were forthwith called in, who
+at once set about the construction, in dried herbs, of a great puppet,
+which they entitled _The Demon of Intermittent Fevers_, and which, when
+completed, they placed on its legs by means of a stick in the patient's
+tent. The ceremony began at eleven o'clock at night. The Lamas ranged
+themselves in a semi-circle round the upper portion of the tent, with
+cymbals, conch-trumpets, bells, tambourines, and other instruments of
+the noisy Tartar music. The remainder of the circle was completed by the
+members of the family squatting on the ground close to one another, the
+patient kneeling, or rather crouched on her knees, opposite the 'Demon
+of intermittent fevers.' The Lama doctor-in-chief had before him a large
+copper basin filled with millet, and some little images made of paste.
+The dung-fuel (_argols_) threw, amid much smoke, a fantastic and
+quivering light over the strange scene.[60] Upon a given signal, the
+clerical orchestra executed an introductory piece harsh enough to
+frighten Satan himself, the lay congregation beating time with their
+hands to the charivari of clanging instruments and ear-splitting voices.
+The diabolic concert over, the Grand Lama opened the Book of Exorcisms,
+which he rested on his knees. As he chanted one of the forms, he took
+from the basin, from time to time, a handful of millet, which he threw
+east, west, north and south, according to the Rubric. The tones of his
+voice, as he prayed, were sometimes mournful and suppressed, sometimes
+vehemently loud and energetic. All of a sudden he would quit the
+regular cadence of prayer, and have an outburst of apparently
+indomitable rage, abusing the herb puppet with fierce invectives and
+furious gestures. The exorcism terminated, he gave a signal by
+stretching out his arms, right and left, and the other Lamas struck up a
+tremendously noisy chorus, in hurried, dashing tones; all the
+instruments were set to work, and meantime the lay congregation, having
+started up with one accord, ran out of the tent, one after the other,
+and, tearing round it like mad people, beat it at their hardest with
+sticks, yelling all the while at the pitch of their voices, in a manner
+to make ordinary hair stand on end."
+
+Then they returned to the tent, and repeated the same scene. After they
+had done this three times, they covered their faces with their hands,
+and the Grand Lama set fire to the herb figure. "As soon as the flames
+rose, he uttered a loud cry, which was repeated with interest by the
+whole company.... After this strange treatment, the malady did not
+return. The probability is that the Lamas, having ascertained the
+precise moment at which the fever-fit would recur, met it at the exact
+point of time by this tremendous counter-excitement, and overcame
+it."[61]
+
+The Burmese, especially those of the mountain region of south and east
+Burmah, have priests and sorcerers, called _Wees_ and _Bookhoos_, who
+"pretend to cure diseases, to know men's thoughts, and to converse with
+the spirits. Their performances are fraught with awe and terror to a
+superstitious people. They begin with solemn and mysterious movements;
+at length every muscle is agitated, while with frantic looks and foaming
+mouth they utter oracles, or speak to a man's spirit and declare its
+responses."[62] In cases of severe illness which have resisted the skill
+of native medical art, the physician gravely tells the patient and
+relatives that it is useless to have recourse any longer to medicine.
+An evil _Natch_ ("spirit") is the author of the complaint, and requires
+to be expelled. This is accomplished by means of music and dancing,
+while the physician gives to the patient some medicine, pointed out to
+him as an infallible remedy by an accomplice in a kind of trance during
+the ceremony.[63]
+
+That in certain complaints it may be beneficial to the invalid to dance
+to the sound of music, is owing to the exhilarating influence of the
+music as well as to the bodily exercise of the dancing.
+
+The treatment of the Tarantism, or the derangement of the system caused
+by the bite of the Tarantula, a venomous spider in Apulia, Italy, has
+been so often described by medical and musical men, that a detailed
+account of it is hardly required here. Suffice it to notice the opinions
+entertained by some careful medical inquirers, respecting the efficacy
+of music and dancing in the cure of this illness. Nicolo Peroti, an
+Italian Archbishop, who lived in the fifteenth century, is supposed to
+have been the first who in his writings has drawn attention to the
+symptoms attributed to the bite of the Tarantula. Achille Vergari, a
+physician, in his treatise, entitled, 'Tarantismo, o malattia prodotta
+dalle Tarantole velenose,' Naples, 1839, says that not all these spiders
+are alike poisonous, but that some are so to a degree that a person
+bitten by them is sure to die almost immediately, notwithstanding all
+antidotes administered to him. According to Vergari, the Tarantula is
+found not only in South Italy, but also in Sardinia, the Caucasus,
+Persia, Abyssinia, Madagascar, the West Indies, and in several other hot
+regions. The poison consists in a fluid secreted in glands, which, when
+the spider bites, is pressed into the wound, and thus diffused
+throughout the body. The poison is most virulent during the dog-days,
+and during the period of breeding, especially if the spider is
+irritated, and if the person bitten is particularly susceptible for the
+action of the poison; under other circumstances it causes but little
+injury, or none at all. The only specific cure for the bite is believed
+to be music and dancing. The animating sound of the tune known as the
+Tarantella subdues the depressing effect of the poison; the invalid
+feels invigorated by the music; he raises himself and begins to move his
+hands and feet to the time of it; and, be he old or young, though he may
+never before in his life have danced, he is irresistibly forced to dance
+until exhaustion compels him to desist. The dancing sometimes lasts
+three hours without cessation, and is repeated for three or four
+successive days. The most salutary time for it is the early morning, at
+sunrise, when the patient usually perspires, sighs, complains, and
+behaves like an intoxicated person. Occasionally, while dancing, he
+takes in his hands green branches, or ribbons of some particular colour;
+or he wants to be dressed in showy garments. The black colour he hates,
+and the sight of a person dressed in black irritates him greatly. The
+room in which the dancing takes place is ornamented with different
+bright colours, green branches, and looking-glasses. Some insist upon
+carrying weapons in their hands while dancing; others desire to be
+beaten; or they beat themselves; and so on. The musical instruments
+formerly used in playing the Tarantella are the violin, violoncello,
+guitar, flute, organ, lute, cither, shalm, and tambourine. Some of these
+instruments have now become obsolete; nor are the others always used in
+combination, but more frequently singly.
+
+These statements were collected by Vergari from the observations of the
+most intelligent physicians and surgeons in Apulia, and other districts
+of the former kingdom of Naples.
+
+De Renzi, a distinguished physician of Naples, sent, in the year 1841,
+to the 'Raccoglitore Medico,' published in Fano, the following account
+of a Tarantism witnessed by Doctor Samuele Costa. Giuseppe Mastria, a
+peasant from a small village in the southern district of the province
+Terra d'Otranto, twenty years of age, of robust bodily constitution,
+while mowing grass, in June, 1840, felt a sudden pain on his right arm,
+near the insertion of the Deltoid muscle, and saw that he was bitten by
+a speckled spider, the Aranea Tarantula. The wound having become livid,
+enlarged and spread the pain over the arm and the back of the neck. He
+was seized with anxiety and with pressure on the Præcordia, inclination
+to vomit, faintness, cold skin, and weak pulse. After some time, the
+warmth of the body increased, and the pulse became stronger. The patient
+experienced great thirst, heavy breathing, restlessness, and the
+impossibility of standing on his legs. When, however, the Tarantella was
+played to him, he suddenly became convulsive, jumped out of the bed, and
+danced briskly for nearly two hours. Tired and profusely perspiring, he
+consequently slept quietly and uninterruptedly. After several
+repetitions of the music in the course of three days, he entirely
+recovered.[64]
+
+Dr. Martinus Kähler, a Swedish physician, who visited Apulia in the year
+1756, for the express purpose of investigating the Tarantism thoroughly,
+came to the conclusion that it is not caused by the Tarantula, but that
+it is a peculiar hypochondria with hysteria, to which the inhabitants of
+the island of Taranto are especially subject on account of their mode of
+living, and from their food consisting principally of green vegetables,
+oysters, and periwinkles. Be this as it may, the complaint is, according
+to medical opinion, curable by means of music and dancing.
+
+Thomas Shaw, who visited the Barbary States about the year 1730,
+mentions the _Boola-kaz_, a venomous spider in the desert of Sahara, the
+bite of which is cured thus: "The patient lies sometimes buried all
+over, excepting his head, in the hot sands, or else in a pit dug and
+heated for the purpose, in order, no doubt, to obtain the like copious
+perspiration that is excited by dancing in those who are bitten by the
+Tarantula."[65]
+
+The Tigretiya of Abyssinia is in some respects similar to the Tarantism;
+it is, however, not caused by the bite, or sting, of any animal. The
+Tigretiya has its name from occurring principally in the Abyssinian
+district called Tigré. It is a kind of melancholy, the first symptoms
+of which usually are a gradual wasting away of the attacked person.
+Music and dancing are used as the most effective remedies for healing
+the sufferer.
+
+A strange illness of the natives of Madagascar is described by the
+Missionary W. Ellis as "an intermittent disorder, with periods of
+delirium, a species of hysteria readily infectious." The sufferers
+perambulate in groups, singing, dancing, and running, accompanied by
+their friends, who carry bottles of water for them, as they generally
+complain of thirst,--which is not surprising, considering the state of
+excitement to which they work themselves up. Their whims being
+encouraged by the people, must rather impede the beneficial result which
+they might derive from singing and dancing, as far as concerns the
+restoration to a sound state of health. Their morbid affection of the
+nervous system is, however, especially interesting if compared with a
+similar derangement in European countries during the Middle Ages, of
+which some account shall presently be given.
+
+The exercise of dancing to the sound of cheerful music is universally
+known to be, under certain circumstances conducive to the preservation
+of health. Thus, the traveller, H. Salt, relates that the Negro slaves
+in Mozambique "assembled in the evening to dance, according to the usual
+practice, for keeping them in health."[66] The same means were formerly
+resorted to by slave-owners in America. Likewise, during a voyage to the
+Arctic Sea, it has been found useful to order the sailors occasionally
+to dance on deck to the music of a barrel-organ, to keep them in health
+and good spirits.
+
+On the other hand, there are instances on record of music and dancing
+having nourished morbid feelings and extravagant notions. At all events,
+certain Terpsichorean performances of religious fanatics can only be
+thus regarded. The most extraordinary exhibitions of this kind among
+Christian sects occurred on the Continent during the Middle Ages, and
+are described in an interesting little book, by J. F. C. Hecker,
+entitled 'Die Tanzwuth, eine Volkskrankheit im Mittelalter; nach den
+Quellen für Aerzte und gebildete Nichtärzte bearbeitet,' (The Dancing
+Mania, an epidemic in the Middle Ages; compiled from original sources,
+for medical men and intelligent non-medical men. Berlin, 1832.) The
+author, a Doctor of Medicine, in Berlin, treats especially of the St.
+John's Dance and the St. Vitus's Dance, which, during the fourteenth and
+fifteenth centuries, were performed in Germany by perambulating fanatics
+who, in some respects, resembled certain Revivalists of our days. He
+carefully traces the origin of these morbid conceptions, the extravagant
+practices to which they led, and their gradual discontinuance during the
+seventeenth century. The persons afflicted with this nervous malady, men
+and women, wandered in troops from town to town and danced to the sound
+of musical instruments in the churches and streets. The authorities of
+some of the towns were of opinion that music and dancing alone could
+effectively cure this strange affection. They, therefore, hired
+musicians in order to bring on the dancing-fits the more rapidly; and
+they ordered strong, healthy men, to mix with the dancers with the
+object of compelling them to continue their violent exertions until they
+were quite exhausted,--a condition which was supposed to be a
+preliminary step to their restoration to health. Of the magistrates of
+Basle, for instance, it is recorded that in the sixteenth century they
+engaged some strong men to dance with a girl afflicted with the dancing
+mania, until she was recovered. One man substituted another, and this
+strange cure they continued about four weeks with scarcely any
+interruption, until the patient was exhausted and unable to stand on her
+legs. She was then carried to an hospital, where she completely regained
+her health.
+
+The following miraculous occurrence, which is recorded in William of
+Malmesbury's 'Chronicle of the Kings of England' as having taken place
+in the year 1012, illustrates the fanaticism alluded to. The statement
+is by one of the poor sufferers:--
+
+"I, Ethelbert, a sinner, even were I desirous of concealing the divine
+judgment which overtook me, yet the tremor of my limbs would betray me;
+wherefore I shall relate circumstantially how this happened, that all
+may know the heavy punishment due to disobedience. We were on the eve of
+our Lord's nativity, in a certain town of Saxony, in which was the
+church of Magnus the Martyr, and a priest named Robert had begun the
+first mass. I was in the church-yard with eighteen companions,--fifteen
+men and three women,--dancing and singing profane songs to such a degree
+that I interrupted the priest, and our voices resounded amid the sacred
+solemnity of the mass. Wherefore, having commanded us to be silent and
+not being attended to, he cursed us in the following words:--'May it
+please God and St. Magnus that you may remain singing in the same manner
+for a whole year!'--His words had their effect. The son of John the
+Priest seized his sister, who was singing with us, by the arm, and
+immediately tore it from the body; but not a drop of blood flowed out.
+She also remained a whole year with us dancing and singing. The rain
+fell not upon us; nor did cold, nor heat, nor hunger, nor thirst, nor
+fatigue assail us: we neither wore our clothes nor shoes, but we kept on
+singing as though we had been insane. First we sunk into the ground up
+to our knees; next to our thighs. A covering was at length, by the
+permission of God, built over us, to keep off the rain. When a year had
+elapsed, Herbert, bishop of the city of Cologne, released us from the
+tie wherewith our hands were bound, and reconciled us before the altar
+of St. Magnus. The daughter of the priest, with the other two women,
+died immediately; the rest of us slept three whole days and nights. Some
+died afterwards, and were famed for miracles; the remainder betray their
+punishment by the trembling of their limbs.
+
+"This narrative was given to us by the Lord Peregrine, the successor of
+Herbert, in the year of our Lord 1013."
+
+In our time, exhibitions of a morbid religious enthusiasm, called forth,
+or promoted by music, are less common with Christians than with
+Mohammedans. In the sacred dance of the Dervishes, the music, which is
+soft and plaintive, represents the music of the spheres; while the
+Dervishes turning in a circle round their superior, who sits quietly in
+the centre, represent the planetary system in its relation to the sun.
+So far, the procedures of these fanatics are intelligible enough; but
+the words of their songs are so mystic that probably the Dervishes
+themselves are unable to attach a reasonable meaning to them. Still more
+extraordinary is the behaviour of the Aïssaoua, a kind of Mohammedan
+fraternity in the Barbary States, who by means of music and dancing work
+themselves up to a state of ecstasy, in which they fancy themselves to
+be camels,--or, at any rate, in which they convey to others the
+impression that they are brutes rather than reasonable beings. As
+regards Christian sects, certain sacred evolutions of the Shakers, in
+the United States of North America, are not less extravagant than those
+of the Dervishes in Egypt or Turkey. Here too, music appears to have an
+injurious effect upon the people, inasmuch as it excites their morbid
+emotions.
+
+Turning now to our literature on the medical employment of music, we
+find a number of treatises, the most important of which shall be briefly
+noticed by their titles. Of such only as are not easily attainable, some
+account of their contents shall be added.
+
+'Medica Musica: or, a Mechanical Essay on the effects of Singing,
+Musick, and Dancing, on Human Bodies; Revis'd and corrected. To which is
+annex'd a New Essay on the nature and cure of the Spleen and Vapours. By
+Richard Browne, Apothecary, in Oakham, in the County of Rutland; London,
+1729.'--This is the second edition, enlarged. The first edition was
+published without the name of the author.
+
+'Die Verbindung der Musik mit der Arzneygelahrtheit, von Ernst Anton
+Nicolai.' (The Association of Music with the Science of Medicine, by E.
+A. Nicolai; Halle, 1745.)--Nicolai was Professor of Medicine at the
+University of Jena, in Germany.
+
+'Reflections on Antient and Modern Musick, with the application to the
+Cure of Diseases; to which is subjoined an essay to solve the question
+wherein consisted the difference of ancient musick from that of modern
+time;' London, 1749.--The author, Richard Brocklesby, was a physician
+in London.--A circumstantial account of the contents of this treatise is
+given in 'Historisch-Kritische Beyträge zur Aufnahme der Musik, von F.
+W. Marpurg;' Vol. II., Berlin, 1756; p. 16-37.
+
+'Traité des Effets de la Musique sur le corps humain, traduit du Latin
+et augmenté des notes, par Etienne Sainte-Marie;' Paris, 1803.--This is
+an annotated translation of a dissertation written in Latin by Joseph
+Ludovicus Roger, and published at Avignon in 1758.
+
+Desbout (Luigi): 'Ragionamento fisico-chirurgico sopra l'effetto della
+Musica nelle malattie nervose;' Livorno, 1780.--A French translation
+appeared in the year 1784, in St. Petersburg, entitled: 'Sur l'Effet de
+la Musique dans les Maladies nerveuses.'
+
+Buc'hoz (Pierre Joseph): 'L'Art de connaître et de désigner le pouls par
+les notes de la Musique, de guérir par son moyen la mélancolie, et le
+Tarentisme qui est une espèce de mélancolie; accompagné de 198
+observations, tirées tant de l'histoire que des annales de la médicine
+qui constatent l'éfficacité de la musique, non seulement sur le corps
+mais sur l'âme, dans l'état de santé, ainsi que dans celui de maladie.
+Ouvrage curieux, utile et intéressant; propre à inspirer le goût de cet
+art, qui est pour nous un vrai présent des cieux;' Paris, 1806.--A
+treatise with a similar title, by F. N. Marquet, appeared at Nancy in
+the year 1747.
+
+Lichtenthal (Peter): 'Der musikalische Arzt; oder, Abhandlung von dem
+Einflusse der Musik auf den menschlichen Körper, und von ihrer Anwendung
+in gewissen Krankheiten,' (The Musical Physician; or, a Treatise on the
+influence of music upon the human body, and on its application in
+certain illnesses. Vienna, 1807.)--An Italian translation of this work
+appeared in Milan in the year 1811.
+
+Schneider (Peter Joseph): 'System einer medizinischen Musik; ein
+unentbehrliches Handbuch für Medizin-Beflissene, Vorsteher der
+Irren-Heilanstalten, praktische Aerzte, und unmusikalische Lehrer
+verschiedener Disciplinen,' (A System of Medical Music; an indispensable
+guide for Students of Medicine, Principals of Lunatic Asylums,
+Practical Physicians, and unmusical teachers of different methods. Bonn,
+1835.) This comprehensive work, in two volumes, contains much
+information on the subject in question, interspersed with many remarks
+and citations which have little or no bearing on music considered
+medically. The last seventy-two pages of the second volume contain a
+sort of autobiography of the author.
+
+To musicians, the most useful books among this class of literature are
+those which give good advice concerning the preservation of health.
+
+F. W. Hunnius, a Doctor of Medicine in Weimar, wrote a book entitled
+'Der Arzt für Schauspieler und Sänger' (The Physician for Actors and
+Singers. Weimar, 1798,) which, no doubt, has been useful to many.
+Another German publication of the kind, in which especial attention is
+given to the practice of musical instruments in so far as it affects the
+health, bears the title 'Aerztlicher Rathgeber für Musiktreibende'
+(Medical Adviser for those who cultivate Music) by Karl Sundelin,
+Berlin, 1832. The author, a Doctor of Medicine in Berlin, wrote his book
+with the assistance of his brother, who was a professional musician in
+the orchestra of the King of Prussia. This treatise is so noteworthy
+that the following account of it will, it is hoped, be of interest to
+the reflecting musician. Its table of contents is:--
+
+"I. Of Singing. On the means of facilitating the practice of singing.
+Dietary and general rules for male singers, and for female singers. Of
+the different human voices.
+
+II. Of the Clavier-Instruments, or Keyed-Instruments. The Pianoforte.
+The Organ. The Harmonica with a key-board.
+
+III. Of the Stringed Instruments. The Violin and the Viola (or Tenor).
+The Violoncello. The Double Bass. The Guitar. The Harp.
+
+IV. Of the Wind Instruments. Means for facilitating the practice and
+dietary rules for players on wind instruments. The Flageolet and the
+Czakan. The Flute. The Oboe and the English Horn. The Clarionet and the
+Basset Horn. The Bassoon and the Contra-Fagotto. The Horn. The Trumpet.
+The Trombone. The Serpent. General dietary and medical rules for those
+who cultivate music. Of the disturbances and injuries to the nervous
+system through disadvantageous influences by the practice of music. Care
+and treatment of particular diseased parts and structures. Of the chest
+and the lungs. The especial attention and care required by the organs of
+the voice. Of the diseases to which the mouth is subjected. The Teeth.
+The Lips. Of the Fingers. The Eyes and the Face. Prescriptions for some
+of the medicaments alluded to in the preceding dissertation."
+
+The author is of opinion that the practice of music may be in many ways
+injurious to bodily health. However, he remarks, that since music is
+capable of expressing emotions which cannot be expressed by words or
+pictures, it relieves the heart of anything which is oppressive and
+distressing, and thus through the mind generally acts beneficially upon
+the body. He asserts that music has healed many a sufferer whose life
+was embittered by the fetters of melancholia, or the tortures of
+hypochondria. To persons suffering from indigestion and its harassing
+effects, he recommends a daily practice on some instrument which
+requires a rather fatiguing exertion of the body; such as the organ, on
+which hands and feet are occupied. His remarks on singing are judicious;
+but many of them would naturally suggest themselves to any thinking
+musician. No doubt, moderation in eating and drinking is recommendable,
+and the singer has to take care not to catch a cold; but it may be
+useful to him to be told by a medical man what kind of food is most
+conducive to the preservation of his voice, and how he can best protect
+himself against the injurious effects of sudden changes from heat and
+cold, to which professional singers are often exposed.
+
+Pianoforte playing our medical adviser considers rather hurtful to
+health. The exertion of the hands and arms, while the position of the
+body remains nearly immovable, causes a stronger flow of blood to the
+chest than is natural. The pressure of the points of the fingers, where
+the nerves are especially sensitive, is apt to be injurious to the
+nervous system. This is still more the case in practising on
+instruments on which the strings are pressed down with the points of the
+fingers, as for instance on the violin; and also, though in a less
+degree, on instruments the strings of which are twanged with the
+fingers, as they are on the harp. The practice, however, causes the skin
+at the finger-ends to harden, and the touch becomes consequently less
+sensitive. Decidedly hurtful to the nerves is the sensation produced by
+the friction of the moistened fingers in playing the glass-harmonica and
+similar instruments. Among the wind instruments blown by being placed to
+the mouth, those which require a sudden and prolonged retardation of the
+breath, or a forcible compression of the air in the lungs, are
+especially liable, by constant practice, to prove injurious to health.
+The author has much to say on this subject, and he particularly warns
+against too continuous playing on the oboe, trumpet, horn, trombone, and
+serpent. As regards the clarionet, its practice, he says, is likely to
+be injurious on account of the quantity of air which it requires. The
+player is often compelled to take a deeper inspiration than is natural,
+and constantly to pay regard to being provided with a supply of air
+compressed in his lungs. Furthermore, considering that musical
+performances very frequently take place in artificial light, the
+eyesight of the musician is apt to be disadvantageously affected. In
+this respect also the playing on some instruments is more injurious than
+on others. The Double Bass player, for instance, is compelled, from the
+size of his instrument, to have the musical notation placed at a greater
+distance before him than is naturally convenient for his sight, which
+renders it necessary for him to exert his eyes in an extraordinary
+degree. Thus much from Sundelin's 'Medical Adviser,' to which the
+following remarks may be added.
+
+The musical instruments used by our forefathers, two or three centuries
+ago, were softer and more soothing in quality of sound than our present
+ones; at any rate, this was the case with the stringed instruments, and
+the wind instruments of the flute kind. Certain wind instruments of the
+trumpet kind had a very harsh sound; but these were intended especially
+to be played in the open air. Of the stringed instruments principally
+favoured in family circles--such as the lute, cither, clavichord,
+virginal, harpsichord, etc.,--almost all possessed a less exciting
+quality of sound than our present substitutes for them. The same was the
+case with the music composed for the instruments; it did not possess the
+passionate modulations which characterize much of our music of the
+present day. It was, therefore, evidently more conducive to social
+comfort, and consequently to health, than is our modern music,
+notwithstanding the progress which has been made in the cultivation of
+the art. Martin Luther said to an old hypochondriac schoolmaster who
+complained to him of his miserable feelings: "Take to the Clavichord!"
+Everyone acquainted with the character of the clavichord will probably
+admit that Luther's advice was judicious. The soft and unpretending
+sound of the clavichord is so expressive that the instrument may be said
+to respond to the sufferer as a sympathizing friend; while its
+successor, the loud and brilliant pianoforte, is apt to convey the
+impression of being cold and heartless, unless it is touched by a
+master-hand. Thus also the "trembling lute," and some other antiquated
+instruments appear to be remarkably suitable for consoling and calming
+the anxious heart.
+
+The glass-harmonica is evidently hurtful to the health of the performer.
+We have seen that Sundelin attributes its injurious effect to the
+friction of the fingers upon the bowls, which revolve on a spindle. But
+it is a well-ascertained fact that the fascinating sound of this
+instrument exercises a distressing influence also upon persons who do
+not play it, but who often listen to it. Likewise, certain wind
+instruments of a so-called reedy quality of sound, as, for instance, the
+harmonium, are probably injurious rather than beneficial to the health
+of the players. Sounds of this nature are generally very pleasant when
+heard for a short time, but soon become harassing. They might be
+compared with confectionery, a little of which may be very palatable and
+innocuous, but which if made a meal of would probably produce sickness.
+
+The effect of music upon animals is a subject for investigation so
+closely connected with an inquiry into the influence of music upon the
+human body, that some notice of it must not be omitted here. The
+investigation requires far more discernment than would appear at a first
+glance. Many of the anecdotes recorded respecting the effect of music
+upon animals are not properly authenticated; or rather, they are
+misrepresentations of facts not clearly understood by the observers. Nor
+is it surprising that this should be the case, considering how difficult
+it is to appreciate rightly the mental capacities even of our domestic
+animals, which we have constant opportunity of watching. Nothing is more
+common, even with intelligent observers, than to attribute to a dog
+certain motives for certain actions, which may possibly be the real
+motives, but which may also only appear to be the real ones. Acute and
+thoroughly unbiassed investigators, such as was for instance Gilbert
+White of Selborne, about a hundred years ago, are rare. At all events,
+many of the anecdotes given in works on Natural History, as illustrating
+the power of music upon animals, have evidently been copied by one
+author from another without any one of them having taken the trouble to
+ascertain by careful observation whether they are well founded. With
+quadrupeds it is probably generally more the rhythmical effect of the
+music than the tones which pleases them; while birds appear to be
+pleased by the tones rather than by the rhythm. All this requires more
+exact investigation than it has hitherto received; and surely it
+deserves the consideration of a Darwin.
+
+In conclusion, attention may be drawn to a curious fact which is perhaps
+more interesting to musical antiquarians than to medical men. It is well
+known that the barbers in England, about three centuries ago, generally
+had some musical instruments in their shops for the amusement of their
+customers. In Germany it is still not unusual to meet with a musical
+barber. In former times the barbers were also surgeons and physicians to
+some extent. It would be interesting to trace the origin of their habit
+of cultivating the art of music. It is probably of high antiquity. May
+it not date from a remote period in which the physicians of European
+nations resorted to music and incantations like the medicine-men of
+uncivilized tribes of whom an account has been given in the beginning of
+this essay?
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[43] 'Illustrations of the Manners, Customs and Condition of the North
+American Indians, by G. Catlin.' London, 1848; Volume I., p. 40.
+
+[44] 'Four Years in British Columbia and Vancouver Island, by R. C.
+Mayne.' London, 1862; p. 261.
+
+[45] 'Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition during the
+years 1838-42, by Charles Wilkes.' London, 1845; Vol. IV., p. 399.
+
+[46] 'Missionary Labours in British Guiana,' by the Rev. J. H. Bernau;
+London, 1847. p. 55.
+
+[47] 'Two Thousand Miles' Ride through the Argentine Provinces,' by
+William MacCann; London, 1853. Vol. I., p. 111.
+
+[48] _Machi_ is evidently identical with _Manchi_.
+
+[49] 'The Geographical, Natural, and Civic History of Chili,' by the
+Abbé Don J. Ignatius Molina; London, 1809. Vol. II., p. 105.
+
+[50] 'The Araucanians,' by E. R. Smith; London, 1855; p. 235.
+
+[51] 'A Description of Patagonia and the adjoining parts of South
+America,' by Thomas Faulkner; Hereford, 1774; p. 115.
+
+[52] 'Journal of a Residence among the Negroes in the West Indies,' by
+M. G. Lewis; London, 1845; p. 158.
+
+[53] The word _Obeah_ is probably identical with _Piaie_, mentioned
+above, page 89.
+
+[54] 'History of Loango,' by the Abbé Proyard; Paris, 1776. 'A General
+Collection of Voyages and Travels,' by John Pinkerton; London, 1808;
+Vol. XIV., p. 572.
+
+[55] 'Reisen in Süd-Africa,' von Ladislaus Magyar; Pest, 1859; Vol. I.,
+p. 26.
+
+[56] 'The Kafirs of Natal and the Zulu Country,' by J. Shooter; London,
+1857; p. 173.
+
+[57] 'Outlines of a Grammar, Vocabulary, and Phraseology of the
+Aboriginal Language of South Australia.' By G. C. Teichelmann and C. W.
+Schürmann. Adelaide, 1840; part II.
+
+[58] 'An Historical Journal of the Transactions at Port Jackson and
+Norfolk Islands.' By John Hunter. London, 1793; p. 476.
+
+[59] 'Nineteen Years in Polynesia.' By the Rev. G. Turner. London, 1861.
+
+[60] Dried dung, which constitutes the chief, and indeed in many places
+the sole fuel in Tartary, is called _argols_.
+
+[61] 'Travels in Tartary, Thibet, and China, during the years 1844-46,'
+by M. Huc; Vol. I., p. 76.
+
+[62] 'Travels in South-eastern Asia,' by H. Malcom; Boston, 1839; Vol.
+II., p. 197.
+
+[63] 'Six Months in British Burmah,' by C. F. Winter; London, 1858; p.
+161.
+
+[64] 'Allgemeine Musikalische Zeitung;' Leipzig, 1841, No. 17.
+
+[65] 'Travels and Observations relating to Barbary,' by Thomas Shaw. 'A
+General Collection of Voyages and Travels,' by J. Pinkerton; London,
+1808; Vol. XV., p. 635.
+
+[66] 'A Voyage to Abyssinia, etc.' By Henry Salt. London, 1814; p. 33.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+POPULAR STORIES WITH MUSICAL TRADITIONS.
+
+
+The intelligent reader need hardly be reminded that an insight into the
+peculiar notions respecting the beauty and power of music current among
+different nations may be of valuable assistance in the study of national
+music, inasmuch as it tends to throw light upon questions which appear
+obscure and inexplicable.
+
+The following popular stories, like those which have previously been
+given in this work, are told exactly as they are heard from the mouth of
+the people. It is necessary that this should be mentioned by way of
+introduction to the stories, because the degree of interest which they
+may possess depends almost entirely upon the faithfulness with which
+they are recorded. For the same reason it must be stated that, although
+additions have been carefully avoided, it is otherwise with omissions,
+since it appeared desirable to abridge several of the stories by
+excluding passages which do not touch upon the subject of music. Should
+the reader find among the stories an old acquaintance with a somewhat
+different face than is familiar to him, he will, it is hoped, bear in
+mind that, just as there are varieties of a popular tune to be found in
+different districts of a country, so there are also different readings
+of a popular tale. Even the degree of education attained by the
+narrator, his personal character, and his peculiar views, will tend in
+some measure to modify the features of a story, although nothing
+extraneous may have been admitted into the incidents recorded.
+
+
+THE ROYAL MUSIC-MASTER.
+
+The modern Greeks have a long story, said to have been derived from Asia
+Minor, the substance of which is as follows:--
+
+A mighty king in a distant land had a son who was an excellent flute
+player, but a bashful youth, and a woman-hater. The king, considering it
+all-important that his dynasty should be preserved, sends the young
+prince in a ship to a foreign court, to find, if possible, among the
+princesses a wife to his liking. The ship is wrecked, and all on board
+are drowned except the prince, who is thrown by the waves upon the shore
+of a beautiful island. Having dried himself, he meets a poor fisherman,
+with whom he changes clothes. Hiding his luxuriant hair under a
+bladder-cap, he sets out to the residence of the king of the island,
+into whose service he is taken by the master of the horse as a
+stable-boy. His chief occupation now is to fetch water for the horses
+from a spring in the garden of the palace. In the evening, when he is
+alone in the garden, he plays upon his flute so enchantingly that even
+the nightingales become silent in admiration. The King's daughter hears
+him, comes down into the garden, and, with the consent of her father,
+makes him her music-master. When he perceives that she really loves him,
+he loves her too, discloses to her that he is a King's son, and soon
+makes her his queen in his own dominions.[67]
+
+
+THE HANDSOME MINSTREL.
+
+The following story is told in Germany:--
+
+A handsome minstrel plays under a window of the King's palace upon a
+golden instrument. His music is so alluring that the King, yielding to
+the entreaties of his daughter, invites the handsome minstrel to come
+up to him in his palace. The King's daughter soon learns to play on the
+instrument, and longs to possess a similar one. All the goldsmiths of
+the kingdom are applied to; but not one of them is able to construct
+such an artistic work. Thereupon the King's daughter becomes greatly
+dejected; and when the handsome minstrel learns the cause of her sadness
+he tells her that if she will marry him she shall have the golden
+instrument. But she rejects the offer with scorn.
+
+Some days afterwards the handsome minstrel appears again under the
+window, playing on an instrument still more precious, and producing
+sounds most ravishing. The King's daughter is enchanted beyond measure;
+but the goldsmiths of the kingdom are still less capable of constructing
+such a wonderful work of art.
+
+Then the handsome minstrel offers to give her both instruments if she
+will marry him. She cannot resist, and says, "Yes!" After the
+celebration of the wedding the handsome minstrel conducts his bride to
+his house, deep in the forest. The house is so small and poor, that the
+King's daughter, when she sees it, is overwhelmed with pride and
+remorse, and faints away. When she recovers she finds herself lying on a
+magnificent bed, and the handsome minstrel is a King.
+
+
+THE DAISY LADY.
+
+Among the Fairy Tales of the Hindus we meet with a story entitled 'Brave
+Seventee Bai,' which seems to contain the original key-note of the
+German 'Trusty Ferdinand.'[68] Seventee Bai (_i.e._ "The Daisy Lady") is
+the daughter of a Rajah. Bent upon roving about in the world, she
+assumes the dress and manners of a youth. Her rambles lead her into the
+garden of a beautiful enchantress whose name is Hera Bai (_i.e._ "The
+Diamond's Daughter.") This beautiful enchantress is described as being a
+child of the Great Cobra, a serpent which plays an important part in
+many of the Hindu traditions. Here are to be found some striking
+coincidences between the superstitions respecting serpents popular among
+the country people in Germany and in Hindustan.
+
+Well, Hera Bai, the beautiful enchantress, falls in love with Seventee
+Bai, who successfully maintains her disguise as a youth, but who cannot
+be prevailed upon to remain in the garden, averring that an important
+mission must be accomplished before the marriage takes place. The
+enchantress, finding persuasion unavailing, gives Seventee Bai a small
+golden flute. "Take this flute," she says; "whenever you wish to see me,
+or are in need of my aid, go into the jungle and play upon it, and
+before the sound ceases I will be there; but do not play it in the
+towns, nor yet amid a crowd." Seventee Bai puts the golden flute into
+the folds of her dress and proceeds on her wanderings. Sometime
+afterwards, when she is in need of assistance, she goes into the jungle,
+draws out of her dress the golden flute and plays. The beautiful
+enchantress appears, swinging in a silver tree, just as she appeared in
+the garden.
+
+Again, on another occasion the beautiful lady immediately comes at the
+sound of the flute, inquiring, "Husband, what can I do for you?"[69]
+
+In the Scandinavian Fairy Tales, collected by Asbjörnsen and Moe, we
+have a story entitled 'East o' the Sun and West o' the Moon,' in which a
+young country lass is taken into the cave of a shaggy White Bear, who
+afterwards turns out to be a lovely prince. When the White Bear has
+carried the lass to his home, which gleams with silver and gold, he
+gives her a silver bell and politely tells her that whenever she wants
+anything she has only to ring the bell, and her wishes shall be at once
+fulfilled.[70]
+
+How effectively the magic flute and magic bells have been introduced
+into Mozart's opera 'Il Flauto Magico' is well known to lovers of good
+music,--or, which is the same, to admirers of Mozart.
+
+
+THE INVISIBLE FLUTE-PLAYER.
+
+A strange story is told by the peasants in Holstein of an invisible
+flute-player, who is said to have haunted, about fifty years ago, a
+farm-house situated near the river Elbe. Some of the children of the
+farmer who owned the house are still alive.
+
+The mysterious affair commenced in a cabbage garden behind the house.
+There the people often heard flute-playing, but no one could make out
+whence it came. Gradually the invisible flutist intruded into the house.
+More and more frequently he came, until at last he took up his abode in
+the house altogether. Sometimes he played his flute in the sitting-room;
+sometimes in one of the bedrooms; at other times in the cellar, or in
+the garret. Occasionally also he paid a visit to a neighbouring house.
+The people on the farm became quite used to him; and when the children,
+or the servant lads and lasses, were disposed to enjoy a little dancing,
+they would just name a certain tune, or sing a bar or two of it, and ask
+him to play it; and directly they heard the desired tune. When the
+milkmaid was occupied in the dairy, she sometimes took an apple in her
+hand, for fun, and said: "Now, my boy, play me a nice air, and thou
+shalt have an apple!" In a moment the apple vanished out of her hand,
+and the music commenced.
+
+In the course of time, however, the invisible flutist became very
+intrusive, and at last he proved quite a nuisance. One night he would
+amuse himself by breaking all the windows in the house; another night he
+had his gambols in the kitchen, turning everything topsy-turvy; and at
+mid-day, when the family had sat down to dinner, it sometimes happened
+that the large dish of stew before them, from which all were eating, was
+emptied in an instant by invisible hands. They would then jump up and
+run about the room, beating the air with their spoons. When they thought
+they had at last driven the fellow into a corner of the room, suddenly
+they heard him spitefully playing his flute in another corner.
+
+In short, the annoyance became quite unbearable. There was no peace in
+the house. The farmer everywhere expressed the wish that he could find
+somebody who had the power to expel the invisible flute-player; he did
+not mind the expense. At last there came a clever man from the
+neighbouring town, who offered to settle the matter; he only wanted to
+know beforehand whether he should show and banish the flutist in his
+real figure, or in the figure of a poodle.
+
+The farmer said: "I would rather not see him at all! Here are ten
+Thalers; all I want is to get rid of him, and to have peace in my own
+house."
+
+By means of queer rhymes, and smoke, the clever man from town actually
+succeeded in driving out the troublesome guest, and no mysterious
+flute-playing has been heard since on the farm.[71]
+
+
+THE BANISHED MUSICIAN.
+
+At the bottom of the lake called "Das Langholter Meer," in the vicinity
+of the river Weser, south of Bremen, lives, according to popular
+tradition, a skilful musician who was banished there by a Pastor; but,
+the reason why he was banished to this place,--and indeed, why he was
+banished at all,--is not exactly known.
+
+One day, in the winter, when the lake was all frozen over, two young
+lads happened to be keeping sheep in the neighbourhood; and when they
+saw the smooth ice, the tallest said to the other: "Come, let us not
+stand shivering here; let us go on the lake, and the musician shall play
+to us."
+
+Having said this, he went to the ice; his companion followed him, and
+they amused themselves for a while with sliding. It then occurred to
+them again that there was a musician at the bottom of the lake, and they
+called out in high glee: "If thou art still there below, old fellow,
+just strike up a tune, and we will dance to it."
+
+But, how terrified they were when suddenly there arose from the bottom
+of the lake music such as they never had heard in all their life. It was
+the most ravishing music in the world!--Of course, they thought no
+longer of dancing, but left the lake as quickly as they could slide.[72]
+
+
+THE WALRIDERSKE.
+
+According to a tradition current in Northern Germany, especially near
+Holland, the Walriderske is a kind of a witch. Assuming the figure of
+some rough-haired animal, she visits the sleeper in the night, and
+presses herself upon his chest so as to prevent his moving any part of
+his body, scarcely permitting him to breathe. She creeps up to the
+sleeper from below, gradually crawling over his whole body. First he
+feels a pressure on his feet; then on his stomach; and at last on his
+chest. Meanwhile the tortured victim is unable to move even a finger.
+All he can do is to sigh and groan in almost intolerable anguish.
+
+The apparition sometimes resembles a poodle, sometimes a cat, and at
+other times a strange-looking unknown beast particularly repulsive. Its
+colour is most commonly black; there are, however, also brown, and even
+white ones. Not unfrequently the sleeper feels the pressure without
+seeing the figure. In short, this unwelcome visitor is as bad as the
+worst nightmare, if not worse.
+
+But, occasionally the Walriderske appears in the shape of a beautiful
+girl, and sings more charmingly than can be described. Indeed, from the
+oldest traditions still extant may be gathered that the Walriderskes
+ought to be regarded as superhuman beings; for, although they
+occasionally appear in human shape, and are in many ways like human
+beings, they live subject to other laws, and are endued with powers
+other than ours. It admits of no doubt that in the traditions respecting
+them much is to be found which has been derived from the pagan mythology
+of our ancestors relating to the Walküren, who rode or sailed in the
+clouds. The Walriderskes are frequently described as floating through
+the air and singing most sweetly. In Ostfriesland, England is the home
+assigned to these charming singers. They come from far over the sea to
+seek their sacrifice. Their boat is a sieve, such as the peasants in
+Ostfriesland use for straining milk, and which is called _Tähmse_. Their
+oars are human shoulder-blades.
+
+A peasant of Barssel once, while on a moonlight night he was mowing his
+corn, towards midnight, became tired and threw himself down under a
+sheaf to sleep. He had not lain long when he heard at a distance a
+melodious song, which gradually came nearer and nearer until it was
+above the field where he lay. He looked up and saw sailing in the air a
+Walriderske who had come over from England. She descended, hid her
+_Tähmse_ and oars under a sheaf, and went away in the direction towards
+Barssel. The peasant lost no time in appropriating to himself the things
+which the Walriderske had hidden. Towards morning she returned; and when
+she missed her _Tähmse_ and oars, she began to sing so dolefully that
+the peasant felt sorry for her, and gave her back the things.
+
+In the following night, when curiosity led him to go again to the place
+where this had happened, he found there, to his surprise, a large piece
+of the finest linen, evidently a present of the Walriderske. He took it
+home, and had it made into shirts. He wore the shirts without
+experiencing any harm; although his neighbours had warned him that he
+exposed himself to great danger by keeping the linen.[73]
+
+
+THE JEW IN THE THICKET.
+
+Many popular tales could be noticed of instrumental performers who
+possess the power of making everyone dance. Not only men, but animals,
+and sometimes even inanimate objects are compelled to wheel around. Take
+for instance the following German tale, known as 'The Jew in the
+Thicket.'
+
+Once upon a time there lived in a small village a poor peasant lad whose
+name was Heinrich, but whom his neighbours used to call Honest Heinrich,
+because he was as honest as he was poor. Whether he was so poor because
+he was so honest, or whatever else was the cause of his poverty, would
+now be useless to speculate upon. Enough that he found it expedient to
+improve his circumstances; and for this purpose he set out on a journey
+into the world, with only a few copper coins in his pocket.
+
+After a while, his way led him to a lonely place near some hills. He
+thought he was quite alone, when unexpectedly a little grey man, very
+old-looking, accosted him and solicited alms. "Give me whatever thou
+hast in coppers," said the grey man, "and thou shalt have no cause to
+repent thy generosity; thou seest, I am old and infirm; but thou art
+young and robust, and wilt easily make thy way in the world."
+
+When Honest Heinrich heard the grey man speak thus, it went to his
+heart, and he put his hand into his pocket, took out the copper
+coins,--which, in fact, constituted all the property he possessed in the
+world,--and gave them to the old beggar. Then cheerfully whistling he
+resumed his journey.
+
+"Hallo! just wait a bit, my lad!" cried the grey man: "I know thou art
+an honest fellow, and deservest a helping hand to push thee on in the
+world; so thou mayst have three wishes, and they shall be granted to
+thee."
+
+Then Honest Heinrich saw at once that he had to do with an Onnerersk, as
+the little folks are called who dwell under ground in golden halls deep
+in the mountains; so, having bethought himself for a moment, he touched
+his cap and said:
+
+"Well sir, let me have a fiddle which when I play upon it makes everyone
+dance. And let me have a blow-pipe with which I am sure to hit
+everything I want to shoot. And my third wish shall be, if you please,
+that whenever I ask a favour of anybody, it will not be refused me."
+
+All these wishes were readily conceded to Honest Heinrich, and it may
+easily be imagined what great advantages he now possessed in his
+endeavours to make his fortune in the world. The third wish especially
+proved invaluable to him. Neither was the fiddle to be despised; nay, it
+actually saved him from the gallows! and how this happened to come to
+pass, shall now be related.
+
+After Honest Heinrich had proceeded on his way a mile or two, he came
+beside a thicket of thorns, in the middle of which sat a lovely little
+bird that sang even more beautifully than it was beautiful to look at.
+And near the thicket stood a Jew counting a bag of money, which was not
+exactly his own, for he had taken it from somewhere, so to say, without
+asking permission. Now, the Jew was in an awkward fix, for he could not
+move from the spot where he stood, because the lovely little bird had
+enchanted him with his melodious music. He had, however, a particular
+reason for moving on as quickly as possible, since it was not at all
+unlikely that somebody might follow him, overtake him, and say, "you are
+wanted; just come back with me to town!" Therefore, when he saw Honest
+Heinrich carrying a blow-pipe, he called out to him:
+
+"A good piece of money I would gladly part with if thou couldst procure
+for me that charming bird."
+
+Then Honest Heinrich took his blow-pipe, aimed, and hit the little bird:
+he only said "There!" and the charming little songster fell down into
+the thicket. Directly the Jew worked himself among the thorn bushes to
+take the bird out; meanwhile he made all kinds of excuses for not giving
+the piece of money which he had promised.
+
+"O ho!" said Honest Heinrich, "that matter we shall easily settle!"
+Presently he took up his fiddle to try its effect upon the Jew. One
+stroke of the bow, and the Jew began to wabble;--another stroke, and he
+lifted up his right leg;--a third stroke, and the dancing began in
+earnest.
+
+"O dear me!" cried the Jew, "leave off that confounded fiddling! The
+thorns hurt me dreadfully! Upon my honour, I shall be a dead man before
+I am safely out of the thicket!" But, Honest Heinrich was becoming warm
+with trying his newly-acquired instrument; so he only replied: "Never
+mind the thorns; all right!" and struck up a quicker tune. "O torture!"
+cried the perspiring dancer, "I am a ruined man! Here,--here is my whole
+bag of money,--all genuine coins,--take it,--only cease that fiddling!"
+
+Honest Heinrich made what musicians call a brilliant cadence, which
+caused the Jew to throw a few somersaults, and then gave the finishing
+stroke, or in other words, the concluding chord. The Jew crept out of
+the thicket, handed over the bag to the fiddler, and made off as rapidly
+as he could into the wide world.
+
+Honest Heinrich, on the other hand, took the direction towards the town
+with the intention of restoring the bag of money to its rightful owner.
+He was soon met by a man dressed in an unpretending kind of uniform,
+who, seeing the bag, in a friendly and almost playful way, gave Honest
+Heinrich a little tap on his shoulder, and said: "You are wanted; you
+must come with me to town." Then Honest Heinrich was taken to prison;
+and when the judge asked him about the bag of money, and he replied, "A
+Jew gave it me," the judge smiled and said, "A Jew? you will never make
+me believe that!" In short, Honest Heinrich was found guilty of robbery,
+and the judge sentenced him to be hanged.
+
+There prevailed a strange taste in the town where this occurred.
+Whenever an execution took place, the people had a kind of festival.
+Days, nay, even weeks, before the interesting event, the wretched
+culprit was considered almost as a martyr. Whatever he said was
+carefully recorded, and made publicly known. Men of rank felt honoured
+when he shook hands with them; and when the awful hour for his execution
+had arrived, and he stood under the gallows, he would address the throng
+of people assembled as spectators. The women, of course, relished the
+exciting scene even more than the men, and cried with all their heart.
+Now, as Honest Heinrich was innocent, he did not like to have any fuss
+made about him; so, when he stood under the gallows, he only asked that
+he might be permitted to play a "Last Farewell" upon his dear fiddle.
+The judge said he would not deny the last request of a dying sinner.
+"Pray, your worship!" cried the Jew, who had mingled with the
+spectators, and who rejoiced in his heart at the turn which the money
+affair had taken, "Pray, your worship, do not allow him his fiddle; his
+music will do us mischief!" But the judge took no notice of the Jew, and
+said, "Play, my lad, but make it short; we have not much time to lose."
+
+Then Honest Heinrich took his fiddle and played. One stroke with the
+bow, and all the people began to wabble. Another stroke, and every one
+lifted up his right leg. A third stroke, and the dancing began in
+earnest. The judge, the clergyman, the doctor, the hangman, the Jew,
+women with their babies in their arms, ladies with their
+smelling-bottles in their hands; in short, every one present, old and
+young, danced with the utmost exertion. Even the very dogs which had
+followed their masters, raised themselves upon their hind-legs and
+danced, profusely perspiring like all the people.
+
+"Hold! stop! hold!" cried the exhausted judge, "Thy life is spared; only
+put aside that dreadful fiddle!"
+
+As soon as Honest Heinrich heard the judge's promise of acquittal he
+ceased playing and came down the steps from the gallows. At the foot of
+the steps he found the Jew lying prostrate on his back. "Confess
+directly," said Honest Heinrich, "how you came by the bag of money, or I
+shall give you a little private performance, with a brilliant cadence at
+the end, you know!" In a moment the alarmed Jew stood upon his legs
+again, and exclaimed, "Upon my honour, I stole it!"
+
+Then they hanged the Jew upon the gallows. As for Honest Heinrich, he
+continued his wanderings in the world, and soon made his fortune. When
+he had become rich, he went home again to his village, and courted his
+neighbour's daughter, who had formerly jilted him when he was poor, but
+who loved him now dearly, not because he was rich (she said) but on
+account of his former poverty. Soon they married, and were happy ever
+after.
+
+
+THE POPE'S WIFE.
+
+There are several modifications current of the story of the Jew in the
+Thicket just told. A similar story which in olden time was popular in
+England, is given under the heading 'A Mery Geste of the Frere and the
+Boye,' in Ritson's Pieces of Ancient Popular Poetry, London, 1791.
+Again, a somewhat similar story is current in Greece. A lad has a flute
+given to him by some superhuman being. He goes to the market-place of
+the town, where piles of crockery are exhibited for sale. As soon as he
+begins to play, all the pots, jugs and basins fly about in the air and
+clash against each other until they are broken to pieces. The personage
+whom he compels to dance in the thorns is a priest.[74]
+
+Perhaps the most tragic incident of this kind is the sad fate of the
+Pope's wife, related by the Wallachians. It need scarcely be said that
+it does not concern the Pope of Rome, who, as everyone knows, has no
+wife. But in Wallachia the common village priest of the Greek Church is
+called Pope, and may marry. He generally avails himself of the
+permission.
+
+As regards Bakâla, whose music, as we shall presently see, killed the
+Pope's wife, various tricks of his are on record, which clearly show
+that he was a great fool, somewhat resembling the German Till
+Eulenspiegel, who had perhaps more happy ideas than many persons who
+have passed for wise.
+
+Well, Bakâla, one fine day, took it into his head to ascend a high
+mountain, merely for pleasure, and for the sake of boasting. Arrived at
+the top of the mountain he was fortunate enough to make the
+acquaintance of a well-disposed spirit, who offered him a present from
+the clouds. The articles from which Bakâla was invited to select a
+keepsake looked mean and shabby, like those which people generally
+consign to the lumber-room. Bakâla, however, examined them carefully,
+and chose an old and dusty bagpipe; for he imagined, as some people are
+apt to do, that he was madly fond of music. Moreover, the sound of the
+bagpipe--this Bakâla soon discovered--had the power of making everyone
+dance.
+
+When Bakâla had come down from the mountain he engaged himself as
+shepherd to a village Pope in the valley. Every day he led the sheep
+into the fields, and blowing his bagpipe he made them caper and jump
+into the air like grasshoppers. And when, one morning, his master had
+sneaked out before him into the fields, and had hid himself in some
+bushes of sloes and dog-roses to watch his servant's strange
+proceedings, Bakâla made the Pope dance as well as his flock.
+
+The Pope was a soft-hearted sort of man. Quietness he loved above all
+things in the world; for its sake no sacrifice appeared to him too
+great. As to his wife, she was of a different disposition. To say the
+truth, she was just the reverse of her husband. She had more courage in
+her little finger than he had in all his limbs. His _Yes_ was her _No_,
+and when he called a thing white she was sure to declare that she had
+long since found it to be very black indeed. Neither would she believe
+in the power of Bakâla's bagpipe. When the poor Pope, after his return
+from the sloes and dog-roses, showed her his tattered clothes and
+scratched limbs, all the sympathy he got from her was, "Tush! tush!
+nonsense! If I were as soft-hearted as some people are said to be, I
+might perhaps pity you."
+
+"Well, my dear," replied the cowed husband, "you shall hear him
+to-night. I want to convince you"----
+
+"Convince me?" cried the Pope's wife: "Fudge! I to be frightened by a
+bagpipe? Let him come on!"
+
+Then the Pope thought that it was time to withdraw for the sake of
+quietness. But in the evening he took Bakâla aside, and desired him
+just to serenade their mistress for a little while under the window.
+
+Before Bakâla commenced playing the Pope sat down on the ground and
+bound two heavy stones to his feet by way of precaution, while his wife
+busied herself in the upper story of the house. No sooner had Bakâla
+begun his performance than she danced so furiously that she made the
+whole house shake. Bakâla played faster and faster; her stamping grew
+louder and louder. She danced until she had actually stamped a hole in
+the floor, through which she descended into the lower story. The Pope
+peeped into the room; and when he saw what had happened he felt sorry,
+and he beckoned Bakâla to leave off playing. But, alas! he beckoned too
+late! The poor lady had danced herself to death.
+
+Now, one might have thought the Pope would have dismissed Bakâla,
+telling him that his services were not any further required. But this is
+just precisely what he did not do. On the contrary, he kept Bakâla in
+his service, and treated him even better than before.[75]
+
+
+THE TWO HUNCHBACKS.
+
+The story of the two Hunchbacks is widely diffused. It is told in
+Ireland as well as in Germany and Italy; moreover it is said to be also
+current in Spain. There are, of course, many varieties of it in these
+countries. Compare, for instance, the Irish narrative of Lusmore, in
+'Fairy Legends and Traditions of the South of Ireland, by T. Crofton
+Croker,' with the one given here, which has been obtained from the
+country people in Rhenish Prussia.
+
+On St. Matthew's day, in the year 1549, a poor hump-backed musician was
+returning late at night to Aachen[76] from a village where he had been
+playing at a wedding. Being in a half drowsy state, he took but little
+heed of time or place, and so he passed the Minster without concerning
+himself about anything particularly, just as the large clock in the
+tower boomed midnight. The sound startled him, especially as at the same
+time there arose in the air a strange whirring like the unearthly sound
+of owls and bats on the wing. It now occurred to him that this was the
+night of quarter-day, and he quickened his steps to escape the terrors
+of the ghost's hour and of apparitions. Nervously he turned into the
+Schmiedstrasse (Smith-street) as the nearest way to his home, which was
+in the Jakobstrasse (James-street). But on reaching the Fish
+Market,--what did he see! All the stalls glistened with innumerable
+lights, and about them were seated a large party of richly-dressed
+ladies, feasting on dainty viands served in golden and silver dishes,
+and drinking sparkling wine from crystal goblets. The musician, much
+frightened, endeavoured to hide himself in a corner; for, he had not the
+least doubt that he saw an assemblage of witches. But it was too late;
+one of the ladies nearest him had already observed him, and she
+conducted him to the table.
+
+"Don't be frightened!" said the lady to the musician, who stood before
+her with chattering teeth and trembling knees: "Don't be frightened;
+but, play us some merry tunes, and thou shalt be paid for it."
+
+The poor hunchback had no choice but to take up his violin, and to amuse
+the strange company as long as they pleased. Having quickly set aside
+the stalls with everything upon them, the witches--among whom the poor
+hunchback thought he recognised several ladies of high position from the
+town--whirled round in pairs to the sound of his fiddle. But the
+strangest thing was that the longer the fellow continued to play, the
+finer and fuller his performance appeared to him; so that he really
+thought he must be either dreaming, or there must be a whole band of
+violins and flutes placed behind him which joined in his performance.
+
+Now the Minster clock struck a quarter to one; all the dancers
+instantaneously stopped, visibly exhausted, and everything was
+reinstated in its former order. Hesitating, the musician looked on,
+uncertain whether he ought to stay any longer, or whether he might go;
+when the lady who had engaged his services came up to him and said:
+'Brave musician! thou hast done thy work to our content, and shalt now
+receive thy recompense."
+
+While saying the words she pulled off his jacket, and, before he was
+aware of it, she had slipped behind him, and at one grasp relieved him
+of his hump. Who so happy as the disburthened fiddler? In thankfulness
+he was just going to throw himself on his knees before his
+benefactress,--when the clock struck One, and in a moment, ladies,
+lights, and dishes were gone, and the musician found himself at dark
+night standing alone in the middle of the Fish Market. Bewildered, he
+put his hand to his back, doubting lest the adventure had been merely a
+confused dream. But, no; it was reality! The hump was gone, and the
+happy fellow rejoiced in feeling as upright as man can be. Moreover, his
+joy was still increased when he took up his jacket, which lay before him
+on the ground. Perceiving it to be unaccountably heavy, and thrusting
+his hands into the pockets to ascertain the cause, he found that both
+pockets were filled with money. Doubly happy, he hastened home, and in
+thankfulness he made the next morning an offering of his fiddle to his
+Patron Saint, under whose image in the church he hung it as a glorious
+relic to be venerated by his children and his children's children for
+ever.
+
+Now, the marvellous affair created, as may easily be understood, an
+immense sensation in the town. People went to the church to look at the
+fiddle; and whenever the lucky musician showed himself in public, a knot
+of curious idlers hovered around him, anxious to get a peep at his back.
+Moreover, his good fortune, as may likewise be easily understood,
+aroused the envy of his rivals in his profession.
+
+The most envious of these professional brothers possessed himself a
+tolerably respectable hump, which annoyed him all the more, since he was
+not less vain than envious. His estimation of his personal appearance
+was, however, exceeded by that of his musical accomplishments.
+
+"How surprised they will be!" said he to himself: "If that wretched
+scraper could please them, I am sure I have only to treat them with a
+few of my inimitable flourishes, and I shall be a straight man and a man
+of property in no time!"
+
+It was at midnight of St. Gerhard's day when the vain virtuoso repaired
+to the Fish Market. The old clock of the Minster had already boomed the
+last stroke announcing the twelfth hour, when he arrived at the place.
+He actually found there a large party of ladies, just as he expected,
+and they invited him to play. Confidently he stepped forward, and having
+bowed with a smile which he was wont to assume whenever he appeared
+before the public, he threw his fiddlestick across the strings and
+extemporized a few rapid passages up and down, to show at once his
+superior skill. But, how wretchedly provoking! Never in his life had he
+produced such miserable tones; they sounded so execrably thin and poor,
+as if the strings had been stretched over a piece of solid wood instead
+of a violin. Enraged, he renewed his exertions, but only to render the
+matter worse; for, now he produced a noise so horribly ear-piercing that
+he thought there must be standing behind him a whole chorus of whistling
+and screeching sneerers accompanying his performance.
+
+Highly exasperated, he tucked his violin under his arm, and walked up to
+the dancing witches. Then boldly addressing one of the richly-attired
+ladies, in whom he believed he recognised the wife of the burgomaster of
+the town, he said:--
+
+"Ah, Madam! I wonder what your husband, our respected burgomaster would
+say if he knew of your night-excursions on the broom-stick! But that is
+your own affair. All I care for is my due reward, if you please."
+
+With these words he threw off his jacket and turned round. The lady
+quickly uncovered a silver dish, from which she took the hump of the
+former musician, and before the vain virtuoso was aware of it, she had
+pressed it on his back beside the other hump.
+
+The clock had struck One, and the witches were already on their
+broom-sticks riding through the air homewards, when the musician
+recovered from his shock. He slowly put his hand to his back, hoping
+that perchance he might only have had a bad dream. But no! it was all
+right,--or rather all wrong. There remained now nothing for him to do
+but to take up his jacket and make the best of his way home. But the
+jacket felt so unusually heavy;--could there, perhaps, be gold in it to
+make up in some measure for the cruel infliction? Eagerly he rummaged
+the pockets; but what should he find? A few heavy stones and
+rubbish.[77]
+
+
+THE PARSON'S ADVICE.
+
+This tale of the Manx people is almost literally copied from 'The
+History and Description of the Isle of Man, by George Waldron, London,
+1744.'
+
+"A man, one day, was led by invisible musicians for several miles
+together; and not being able to resist the harmony, followed till it
+conducted him to a large common, where a great number of people were
+sitting round a table, and eating and drinking in a very jovial manner.
+Among them were some faces which he thought he had formerly seen; but he
+forbore taking any notice, or they to him; till, the little people
+offering him drink, one of them whose features seemed not unknown to
+him, plucked him by the coat, and forbade him, whatever he did, to taste
+anything he saw before him. 'For, if you do,' added he, 'you will be as
+I am, and return no more to your family.'
+
+The poor man was much affrighted, but resolved to obey the injunction.
+Accordingly, a large silver cup, filled with some sort of liquor, being
+put into his hand, he found an opportunity to throw what it contained on
+the ground. Soon after, the music ceasing, all the company disappeared,
+leaving the cup in his hand; and he returned home, though much wearied
+and fatigued. He went the next day and communicated to the minister of
+the parish all that had happened, and asked his advice how he should
+dispose of the cup: To which the parson replied, he could not do better
+than devote it to the service of the church. And this very cup, they
+say, is that which is now used for the consecrated wine in Kirk
+Merlugh."
+
+
+RELICS OF THE GOBLINS.
+
+The old tradition embodied in the preceding story from the Isle of Man,
+is also current,--with various modifications,--in the north of Germany,
+in Denmark, and in Sweden. Afzelius, in his interesting account of
+Swedish popular superstitions, mentions some curious notions on this
+subject. The country people in Sweden still preserve an old belief that
+if a person drinks of the contents of a beaker, offered to him by the
+goblins inhabiting the mountains, he loses all recollection of the past,
+and must become one of them. Several cups are said to have been
+purloined from these mysterious beings by persons who stealthily avoided
+partaking of the proffered liquor. Some are still shown in churches, to
+which they were presented by the purloiners; and it is asserted that
+these oddly-shaped vessels were formerly used in the Communion Service.
+
+The goblins in Sweden have their principal meetings at midnight before
+Christmas, and their amusements consist chiefly in music and dancing.
+They generally assemble in those isolated spots among the mountains
+where are found large stones resting on pillars, around which they
+delight to dance. It is considered decidedly dangerous to encounter them
+at their pastimes on Christmas Eve.
+
+Many years ago,--some say it was so far back as in the year 1490,--a
+farmer's wife in Sweden, whose name was Cissela Ulftand, distinctly
+heard, on Christmas Eve, the wild music of the goblins who had assembled
+not far from her house. The farm in which the good woman lived is called
+Ljungby, and the group of curiously-placed stones around which the
+goblins had congregated is well known to many people; indeed, almost
+everyone in Sweden knows the Magle-Stone.
+
+Well, when Mistress Ulftand heard the music, she spoke to one of her
+farm-servants, a strong and daring young fellow, and induced him to
+saddle a horse and to ride in the direction of the Magle-Stone, that he
+might learn something about the mysterious people, and tell her
+afterwards all he had seen. The lad rather liked the adventure; he lost
+no time in mounting his horse, and was soon galloping towards the scene
+of the music and rejoicing. In approaching the Magle-Stone, he somewhat
+slackened his speed; however, he drew quite near to the dancers.
+
+After he had been gazing a little while at the strange party, a handsome
+damsel came up to him and handed him a drinking-horn and a pipe, with
+the request that he would first drink the health of the King and then
+blow the pipe. The lad accepted both, the drinking-horn and the pipe;
+but, as soon as he had them in his hands, he poured out the contents of
+the horn, and spurring his horse he gallopped off over hedges and
+ditches straight homewards. The whole company of goblins followed him in
+the wildest uproar, threatening and imploring him to restore to them
+their property; but the fellow proved too quick for them, and succeeded
+in safely reaching the farm, where he delivered up the trophies of his
+daring enterprise to his mistress. The goblins now promised all manner
+of good luck to the farmer's wife and her family, if she would return to
+them the two articles; but she kept them, and they are still preserved
+in Ljungby as a testimony to the truth of this wonderful narrative.
+
+The drinking-horn is of a metallic composition, the nature of which has
+not been exactly ascertained; its ornaments are, however, of brass. The
+pipe is made of the bone of a horse. Moreover, the possession of these
+relics, we are told, has been the cause of a series of disasters to the
+owners of the farm. The lad who brought them to the house died three
+days after the daring enterprise, and the day following, the horse
+suddenly fell down and expired. The farm-house has twice burnt down,
+and the descendants of the farmer's wife have experienced all kinds of
+misfortunes, which to enumerate would be not less laborious than
+painful. It is only surprising that they should still keep the unlucky
+horn and pipe.
+
+
+THE GOLDEN HARVEST.
+
+This is a genuine Dutch story. A long time may have elapsed since the
+hero of the event recorded was gathered to his fathers. Howbeit, his
+name lives, and his deeds will perhaps be longer retained by the people
+in pleasant remembrance than the deeds of some heroes who have made more
+noise in the world.
+
+An old village crowder, whose name was Kartof, and who lived in
+Niederbrakel, happened once, late in the night, to traverse a little
+wood on his way home from Opbrakel, where he had been playing at a dance
+during the wake. He had his pockets full of coppers, and felt altogether
+mighty comfortable and jolly; for the young folks in Opbrakel had
+treated him well, and the liquor was genuine Old Hollands. But, there is
+nothing complete in this world, as the saying is, and as old Kartof was
+presently to experience to his dismay, when he put his hand into his
+pocket for his match-box. Had he not just filled his old clay pipe in
+the pleasant expectation, amounting to a certainty, that he should
+indulge in a comfortable smoke all the way home? And did he not feel,
+with a certain pride, that he deserved a good smoke after all his
+exertions with the fiddlestick? But what use was it to rummage his
+pockets for the match-box! It certainly was not there, and must have
+been lost or left behind somewhere.
+
+"The deuce!" muttered old Kartof, "If I had only a bit of fire now to
+light my pipe, I should not care for anything else in the world, I am
+sure!"
+
+Scarcely had he said these words, when he espied a light gleaming
+through the bushes. He went towards it, but it was much further off than
+it at first appeared to him; indeed, he had to go more than a hundred
+yards into the brush-wood before he came up to it. He now saw that it
+was a large fagot burning, around which a party of men and women, joined
+hand in hand, were dancing in a circle. "How odd!" thought old Kartof;
+but being a man accustomed to genteel society, he was at no loss how to
+address them politely; so, taking off his hat, he said:--
+
+"Ladies and Gentlemen! Excuse me. I hope I am not intruding too much if
+I ask the favour of your permission to help myself to a little fire to
+light my pipe."
+
+He had not even quite finished his speech, when several of the dancers
+stepped forward and handed him glowing embers in abundance. Now, when
+approaching him they perceived that he carried a violin under his arm,
+they importuned him to play for them to dance, intimating that he should
+be well rewarded for his services. "Why not?" said old Kartof: "It is
+only about midnight, and I can sleep to-morrow in the day-time; it will
+not be the first time that I have gone to bed in the morning."
+
+While talking in this way, he tuned his instrument; and soon he struck
+up his best tunes, one after the other. But, though he played ever so
+much, he could never play enough, the dancers were so insatiable!
+Whenever his arm sank down from sheer fatigue, they threw a golden ducat
+into the sound-hole of his violin, which pleased him immensely, and
+always animated him to renew his exertions, especially also as they did
+not neglect to refresh him occasionally with a remarkably fine-flavoured
+Schiedam, from a bottle so oddly-shaped that he had never seen anything
+like it, so funny it was. He could not help smiling whenever he looked
+at the bottle.
+
+Gradually his violin became heavier--of course, that was from the golden
+ducats which the dancers continually threw into it. But also his arm
+became heavier, and at last old Kartof felt altogether too heavy, sank
+softly down, and fell asleep.
+
+How long he lay in this state no one knows, nor is ever likely to know.
+But, thus much is certain, when old Kartof awoke the day was already far
+advanced, and the sun shone brightly upon his face. He rubbed his eyes
+and looked about, doubtful whether he was a man of property or whether
+he had only dreamt of golden ducats. There was the violin lying in the
+grass near his feet. He hastily took it up;--it felt as light as usual.
+He shook it;--no rattling of ducats. He held it before his face and
+peeped into the sound holes;--to be sure, there was something in it,
+yellow and glittering like gold. He shook it out on the grass;--what
+should it be?--a score or two of decayed yellow birch-leaves.
+
+Disappointed, old Kartof rose to his feet to look around whether he
+could not find the place where the fire had been.
+
+Yes, there it was! Some embers were still glimmering in the ashes. This
+appeared to him more odd than anything else he had experienced. But old
+Kartof, after all, took the matter quietly enough. He lighted his pipe,
+and taking up his violin set out on his way home, resolving as he went
+never to go to that confounded place again after twelve o'clock at
+midnight.[78]
+
+
+GIPSIES.
+
+There prevails in popular traditions much mystery respecting gipsies. No
+wonder that this should be the case, since these strange vagabonds are
+in most countries so very different from the inhabitants in their
+appearance and habits; and their occupations are often so well
+calculated to appeal to the imagination of superstitious people, that a
+gipsy is regarded by them almost as a sorcerer. His better-half not
+unfrequently pretends to be a soothsayer, and he is often a musician.
+However different the gipsy hordes which rove about in European
+countries may be from each other in some respects, they are all fond of
+music, magic, and mysterious pursuits. Among the gipsy bands in Hungary
+and Transylvania talented instrumental performers are by no means rare;
+and in Russia, the gipsy singers of Moscow enjoy a wide reputation for
+their musical accomplishments. It is told,--not as a myth but as a
+fact,--that when the celebrated Italian singer Signora Catalani heard in
+Moscow the most accomplished of the gipsy singing-girls of that town,
+she was so highly delighted with the performance that she took from her
+shoulders a splendid Cashmere shawl which the Pope had presented to her
+in admiration of her own talent, and embracing the dear gipsy girl, she
+insisted on her accepting the shawl, saying that it was intended for the
+matchless cantatrice which she now found she could not longer regard
+herself.
+
+There is a wildness in the gipsy musical performances, which admirably
+expresses the characteristic features of these vagrants. Indeed theirs
+is just the sort of music which people ought to make who encamp in the
+open air, feed upon hedgehogs and whatever they can lay hand on, and
+profess to be adepts in sorcery and prophecy.
+
+The following event is told by the peasants in the Netherlands as having
+occurred in Herzeele. A troop of gipsies had arrived in a valley near
+that place. They stretched a tight rope, on which they danced, springing
+sometimes into the air so high that all who saw it were greatly
+astonished. A little boy among the spectators cried: "Oh, if I could but
+do that!"--
+
+"Nothing is easier," said an old gipsy who stood near him: "Here is a
+powder; when you have swallowed it, you will be able to dance as well as
+any of us."
+
+The boy took the powder and swallowed it. In a moment his feet became so
+light that he found it impossible to keep them on the ground. The
+slightest movement which he made raised him into the air. He danced upon
+the ears of the growing corn, on the tops of the trees,--yea, even on
+the weather-cock of the church-tower. The people of the village thought
+this suspicious, and shook their heads, especially when they furthermore
+observed a disinclination in the boy to attend church. They, therefore,
+consulted with the parson about the boy. The parson sent for him, and
+got him all right on his legs again by means of exorcism; but it was a
+hard struggle to banish the potent effects of the gipsy's powder.[79]
+
+The gipsies were formerly supposed to be descendants of the ancient
+Egyptians. The German peasants call them Taters,[80] a name indicating
+an Asiatic origin; and it has been ascertained that they migrated from
+Western India. The roving Nautch-people in Hindustan are similarly
+musical and mysterious.
+
+
+THE NAUTCH-PEOPLE.
+
+The Nautch-people in Hindustan are not only singers and dancers who
+exhibit their skill before those who care to admire and to reward them;
+but they possess also dangerous charms.
+
+In a popular story of the Hindus, called 'Chandra's Vengeance' we are
+told of a youth who, on hearing the music of the Nautch-people at a
+great distance, is irresistibly compelled to traverse the jungle in
+search of them. When, after twelve days' anxious endeavour to reach
+them, he discovers their encampment, Moulee, the daughter of the chief
+Nautch-woman, approaches him singing and dancing, and throws to him the
+garland of flowers which she wears on her head. He feels spell-bound,
+and the Nautch-people offer him a drink which, as soon as he has tasted
+it, makes him totally forget his family and his dear home. So he remains
+with the Nautch-people, and wanders with them about the country as one
+of the company.
+
+Again, in a Hindu story called 'Panch-Phul Ranee,' a Rajah, or King, is
+enchanted by the Nautch-people, so that he finds his happiness in roving
+with them from place to place, and in beating the drum for the dancers.
+His enchantment is accomplished in this way: He had set out on a
+journey, leaving his wife and infant son behind. One day he happened to
+fall in with a gang of Nautch-people, singing and dancing. He was a
+remarkably handsome man, and the Nautch-people, on seeing him approach,
+said to each other "How well he would look beating the drum for the
+dancers!" The Rajah was hungry and told them that he required some food;
+whereupon one of the women offered him a little rice, upon which her
+companions threw a certain powder. He ate it, and the effect was that it
+made him forget his wife, child, rank, journey, and whatever had
+happened to him in all his life. He willingly remained with the
+Nautch-people, and wandered about with them, beating the drum at their
+performances, full eighteen years. His son, the prince, being now grown
+up, could no longer be detained from setting out in the world in search
+of his beloved father. After many fruitless attempts the prince
+discovered his father among the Nautch people,--a wild, ragged-looking
+man whose business it was to beat the drum. The joyful prince summoned
+the wisest doctors in the kingdom to restore the Rajah to his former
+consciousness; but their exertions did not at first prove at all
+successful. In vain did they assure the old drummer that he was a Rajah,
+and that he ought to remember his former greatness and splendour. The
+old man always answered that he remembered nothing but how to beat the
+drum; and, to prove his assertion, he treated them on the spot with a
+tap and roll on his tom-tom. He really believed that he had beaten it
+all his life.
+
+However, through the unabated exertions of the doctors, a slight
+remembrance came gradually over him; and by-and-by his former mental
+power returned. He now recollected that he had a wife and a son. He also
+recognized his old friends and servants. Having reseated himself on the
+throne, he governed as if nothing had ever occurred to interrupt his
+reign.[81]
+
+
+THE MONK OF AFFLIGHEM.
+
+The aim of the present series of popular stories demands that some
+notice should now be taken of such musical legends as breathe a thorough
+Christian spirit. Several of these are, as might be expected, very
+beautiful; but they are familiar to most readers. One or two which are
+less well known may, however, find a place here.
+
+The legend of the Monk of Afflighem bears some resemblance to the
+beautiful tradition of the Seven Sleepers. If it fails to interest the
+reader, the cause must be assigned to the simple manner in which it is
+told rather than to the subject itself.
+
+Towards the end of the eleventh century occurred in the Abbey of
+Afflighem, in Dendermonde, East Flanders, a most wonderful event, the
+pious Fulgentius being at that time the Abbot of the monastery.
+
+One day, a monk of very venerable appearance, whom no one remembered to
+have seen before, knocked at the door of the monastery, announcing
+himself as one of the brotherhood. The pious Abbot Fulgentius asked him
+his name, and from what country he had come. Whereupon the monk looked
+at the Abbot with surprise, and said that he belonged to the house.
+Being further questioned, he replied that he had only been away for a
+few hours. He had been singing the Matins, he said, in the morning of
+the same day in the choir with the other brothers. When, in chanting,
+they came to the verse of the ninetieth psalm, which says: "For, a
+thousand years in thy sight are but as yesterday!" he pondered upon it
+so deeply that he did not perceive when the singers left the choir, and
+he remained sitting alone, absorbed by the words. After he had been a
+while in this state of reflection, he heard heavenly strains of music,
+and on looking up he saw a little bird which sang with a voice so
+enchantingly melodious that he arose in ecstasy. The little bird flew to
+the neighbouring wood, whither he followed it. He had been only a little
+while in the wood listening to the heavenly song of the bird; and now,
+in coming back he felt bewildered,--the appearance of the neighbourhood
+was so changed he scarcely knew it again.
+
+When the pious Abbot Fulgentius heard the monk speak thus, he asked of
+him the name of the Abbot, and also the name of the King who governed
+the country. And after the monk had answered him and mentioned the
+names, it was found to the astonishment of all that these were the names
+of the Abbot and the King who had lived three hundred years ago. The
+monk startled, lifted up his eyes, and said: "Now indeed I see that a
+thousand years are but as one day before the Lord." Whereupon he asked
+the pious Abbot Fulgentius to administer to him the Holy Sacraments; and
+having devoutly received them, he expired.[82]
+
+
+THE PLAGUE IN GOLDBERG.
+
+The inhabitants of Goldberg, a town in Germany, observe an old custom of
+inaugurating Christmas, which is peculiar to themselves. Having attended
+divine service, which commences at midnight on Christmas Eve, they
+assemble at two o'clock to form a procession to the Niederring, a hill
+situated close to the town. When the procession has arrived at the top
+of the Niederring, old and young unite in singing the Chorale _Uns ist
+ein Kindlein heut geboren_ ("For us this day a child is born"). As soon
+as this impressive act of devotion is concluded, the town band stationed
+in the tower of the old parish church performs on brass instruments the
+noble Chorale _Allein Gott in der Höh sei Ehr_ ("All glory be to God on
+High"), which in the stillness of the night is heard over the whole
+town, and even in the neighbouring villages.
+
+The origin of this annual observance dates from the time when the town
+of Goldberg was visited by a deadly plague called _Der schwarze Tod_
+("The black Death"). According to some accounts the awful visitation
+occurred in the year 1553; at all events this date appears to have been
+assigned to it on an old slab embedded in the wall of the parish church
+of Goldberg; but the inscription has become so much obliterated in the
+course of time, that no one can make out the year with certainty. Thus
+much, however, is declared by all to be authentic: The plague spread
+throughout the town with frightful rapidity. The people died in their
+houses, in the streets, everywhere, at night, and in the day-time. Some,
+while at their work, suddenly were stricken and fell down dead. Some
+died while at their meals; others while at prayers; others in their
+endeavours to escape the scourge by hastening away from the doomed town.
+Indeed, it was as if the Angel of Death had stretched out his hand over
+the place, saying "Ye are all given up to me!"
+
+The plague raged for some weeks, and then quietness reigned in Goldberg.
+The few survivors had shut themselves up solitarily in their houses, not
+knowing of each other; for, no one now ventured into the street; neither
+did anyone open a window, fearing the poisonous air; for the corpses
+were lying about, and there remained none living to bury the dead.
+
+Such was the condition of Goldberg in the month of December, just before
+Christmas. On Christmas Eve one of the solitary survivors, deeply
+impressed with the import of the holy festival, attained the blessing of
+a firm trust in the wisdom of the inscrutable decrees of Providence. He
+thought of the happy time of his childhood when his parents lighted up
+for him the glorious Christmas tree; and this recalled to his mind the
+simple and impressive Christmas hymn which his mother had taught him to
+recite on the occasion. Strengthened by devout contemplation, he
+ventured to open the window. The night was beautiful, and the air wafted
+to him so pure and delicious that he resolved to leave his prison. At
+the second hour after midnight he went out of the house, and bent his
+steps through the desolated streets towards the Niederring. Arrived at
+the top of the hill he knelt down and sang from the depth of his heart
+the Christmas hymn.
+
+His voice was heard by another solitary survivor, who perceiving that he
+was not, as he had supposed, the only person still living in Goldberg,
+gained courage and likewise from his hiding place repaired to the
+Niederring, and kneeling down joined the singer with sincere devotion.
+Soon a third person made his appearance, slowly drawing near like one
+risen from the grave. Then a fourth, a fifth, until the number of them
+amounted to twenty-five; and these were all the inhabitants of Goldberg
+who had escaped the ravages of the Black Death.
+
+[Music:
+
+     Uns ist ein Kind-lein heut ge-born, Gott mit
+     uns! Von ein'r Jung-frau aus-er-korn. Gott mit
+     uns! Gott mit uns! Wer will seyn wi-der uns!
+]
+
+The Christmas Chorale sung in the refreshing mountain air wonderfully
+invigorated their desponding spirits. They arose and solemnly vowed
+henceforth to unite in Christian fellowship, with reliance upon the
+wisdom of the divine ordinances. The next day they buried their dead;
+and when their vow became known in the neighbourhood, many good people
+were drawn to Goldberg. The town soon revived, and prospered more than
+ever.
+
+The inhabitants have not forgotten the visitation which befel their
+forefathers, but remember it in humiliation; and this is a lasting
+blessing.[83]
+
+
+FICTIONS AND FACTS.
+
+Knowledge is, of course, to superstition as light is to darkness; still,
+some nations endowed with a lively imagination, although they are much
+advanced in mental development, cling to the superstitions of their
+forefathers, since the superstitions accord with their poetical
+conceptions, or are endeared to them by associations which pleasantly
+engage the imaginative faculties.
+
+Besides, in countries where the inhabitants frequently witness grand and
+awful natural phenomena, their poetical conceptions are likely to be
+more or less nourished by these impressive occurrences, however well
+acquainted they may be with their natural causes.
+
+It is therefore not surprising that many superstitious notions, such as
+have been recorded in the preceding stories, should be found in
+civilized nations.
+
+Moreover, in some countries, a more careful research into the old
+traditions harbouring among the uneducated classes of the people has
+been made, than in other countries. It would, therefore, be hasty, from
+the sources at present accessible, to judge of the degree of mental
+development attained by individual nations. The Germans are not less
+rational than the English; nevertheless, a far greater number of Fairy
+Tales have been collected in Germany than in England.
+
+An enquiry into the musical traditions of the different European races
+is likely to increase in interest the more we turn to the mythological
+conceptions originally derived from Central Asia, and dispersed
+throughout Europe at a period on which history is silent, but upon which
+some light has been thrown by recent philological and ethnological
+researches.
+
+A word remains to be said on the musical myths of modern date. We read
+in the biographies of our celebrated musicians facts which would almost
+certainly be regarded as fictions, were they not well authenticated. On
+the other hand, it would not be difficult to point out modern myths
+referring to the art of music. Tempting as it might be to cite the most
+remarkable examples of this kind, and anecdotes relating to musicians in
+which fiction is strangely mingled with fact, it is unnecessary to
+notice them here; for, are they not written in our works on the history
+of the art and science of music?
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[67] 'Griechische und Albanische Märchen, gesammelt von J. G. v. Hahn.'
+Leipzig, 1864; Vol. I., p. 273.
+
+[68] See above, Vol. I., p. 84.
+
+[69]'Old Deccan Days; or Hindu Fairy Legends, current in Southern
+India.' Collected from oral tradition by M. Frere. London, 1868; p. 25.
+
+[70] 'Popular Tales from the Norse, translated by G. W. Dasent.'
+Edinburgh, 1859; p. 27.
+
+[71] 'Sagen, Märchen und Lieder der Herzogthümer Schleswig, Holstein und
+Lauenburg,' von Karl Müllenhoff; Kiel, 1845; p. 336.
+
+[72] 'Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg, herausgegeben
+von Strackerjan;' Oldenburg, 1867; Vol. I., p. 190.
+
+[73] 'Aberglaube and Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg, herausgegeben
+von Strackerjan;' Oldenburg, 1867; Vol. I., p. 375.
+
+[74] 'Griechische und Albanische Märchen, gesammelt von J. G. v. Hahn;'
+Leipzig, 1864; Vol. I., p. 222, and Vol. II., p. 240.
+
+[75] 'Wallachische Märchen, herausgegeben von A. Schott;' Stuttgart,
+1845, p. 228.
+
+[76] Aix-la-Chapelle.
+
+[77] 'Deutsche Märchen and Sagen, gesammelt von J. W. Wolf.' Leipzig,
+1845; p. 472.
+
+[78] 'Niederländische Sagen, herausgegeben von J. W. Wolf;' Leipzig,
+1843; p. 466.
+
+[79] 'Niederländische Sagen, herausgegeben von J. W. Wolf;' Leipzig,
+1843; p. 648.
+
+[80] _Taters_ is evidently synonymous with _Tartars_.
+
+[81] 'Old Deccan Days; or Hindu Fairy Legends, current in Southern
+India.' Collected from oral tradition, by M. Frere. London, 1868; pp.
+139, 273.
+
+[82] 'Niederländische Sagen, herausgegeben von J. W. Wolf;' Leipzig,
+1843. p 230.
+
+[83] 'Deutsche Volksfeste, von F. A. Reimann;' Weimar, 1839; p. 218.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+DRAMATIC MUSIC OF UNCIVILIZED RACES.
+
+
+The first music of a dramatic kind originated probably in the passion of
+love. Savages, unacquainted with any other dramatic performances, not
+unfrequently have dances representing courtship, and songs to which
+these dances are executed. However rude the exhibitions may be, and
+however inartistic the songs may appear,--which, in fact, generally
+consist merely of short phrases constantly repeated, and perhaps
+interspersed with some brutish utterances,--they may nevertheless be
+regarded as representing the germ from which the opera has gradually
+been developed. Dancing is not necessarily associated with dramatic
+music; the dances of nations in a low degree of civilization are,
+however, often representations of desires or events rather than
+unmeaning jumps and evolutions.
+
+Even in the popular dances of nations in an advanced state of
+civilization love is generally the most attractive subject for
+exhibition by action and music. The Italian national dances,--the
+_Saltarello_, the _Monferrino_, and several others,--have an
+unmistakable meaning; or, as Mac Farlane says, "there is a story in them
+which at times is told in a very broad, significant, and unsophistical
+way. The story is a sort of primitive courtship, varied by the coyness
+or coquetry of the female dancer, and animated by the passion and
+impatience of the wooer."[84] The same may be said of the Spanish Bolero
+and Fandango.
+
+The excitement of the chase appears to be another cause of the origin of
+dramatic music. The savage, in pursuing the animals which he requires
+for his subsistence, experiences successes and disappointments which are
+to him highly interesting, and the recollection of which he enjoys. He
+naturally feels proud of results which he could not have achieved
+without agility and shrewdness, and he delights in showing to his
+friends how he proceeded in accomplishing his feat. Besides, savages
+have a strong instinct for imitation, almost like monkeys. Hence their
+fancy for counterfeiting the habits of certain animals which they chase
+and with the peculiarities of which they are generally well acquainted.
+
+The aborigines of Australia have a dance in which they imitate the
+movements of the Kangaroo. The women sing, and produce a rhythmical
+accompaniment by beating two pieces of wood together; while the men, who
+represent the Kangaroos, produce sounds peculiar to these animals. The
+North American Indians have an Eagle Dance, a Bear Dance, and even a Dog
+Dance. The natives of Kamtschatka have a dance in which they cleverly
+imitate, not only the attitudes and tricks of the Bear, but also its
+voice. The peasants in Finland, in the beginning of the present century,
+still occasionally performed a similar dance, or rather action. The
+Aleutian Islanders, who have various pantomimic dances executed with
+masks frightfully ugly, have also a favourite representation in which a
+sportsman shoots a beautiful bird, and afterwards cries for grief at
+having killed it; when, suddenly, the beautiful bird revives, changed
+into a beautiful woman. The sportsman, of course, falls over head and
+ears in love with her, and thus all ends well.[85] This story is enacted
+with recitations accompanied by some musical instruments.
+
+Next to love and the chase, it is probably war which elicited the first
+attempts at dramatic music. To recall to the memory by a lively
+description with gesticulations, the valiant deeds, clever stratagems,
+and glorious achievements of the warriors after the battle, must have
+been always a fascinating entertainment to the victorious combatants.
+The Dyaks in Borneo, who preserve the heads of their slain enemies
+suspended near their hearths as ornamental trophies, perform a war-dance
+in which some of the combatants, gaily decorated, cleverly act a scene
+by seizing swords and handling them in various expressive ways. The
+Scalp-Dance of the North American Indians, performed in celebration of a
+victory, may be described as a kind of histrionic entertainment, which
+generally takes place at night by torchlight. The singular procedure of
+the Maori warriors in New Zealand in a certain dance, of projecting all
+of them their tongues simultaneously at fixed intervals, appears to be a
+pantomimic expression of defiance or contempt for the enemy.
+
+The Corroborie Dance of the natives of Australia had perhaps also
+originally reference to warlike exploits, although this does not appear
+at once evident to European witnesses. Twenty or more men paint their
+naked dark bodies to represent skeletons, which they accomplish by
+drawing white lines across the body with pipe-clay, to correspond with
+the ribs, and broader ones on the arms, legs, and the head. Thus
+prepared they perform the Corroborie at night before a fire. The
+spectators, placed at some distance from them, see only the white
+skeletons, which vanish and re-appear whenever the dancers turn round.
+The wild and ghastly action of the skeletons is accompanied by vocal
+effusions and some rhythmical noise which a number of hidden bystanders
+produce by beating their shields in regular time.
+
+Traces of dramatic music in its most primitive condition may also be
+discovered in representations of occurrences and scenes like the
+following:
+
+Wilhelm Steller, in his 'Description of Kamtschatka' (published in the
+German language in the year 1774), says that the inhabitants of that
+country possess an astounding talent for imitating the manners and
+conduct of strangers whom they happen to see. During their long evenings
+one of their chief amusements consists in acting extempore comedies, in
+which the habits of any foreigners with whom they have become
+acquainted, are cleverly mimicked and ridiculed.
+
+The missionary W. Ellis remarks of the Polynesian Islanders that "they
+had songs which, when recited on public occasions, were accompanied with
+gestures and actions corresponding to the events and scenes described,
+and which assumed in this respect a histrionic character. In some cases,
+and on public occasions, the action represented a kind of
+pantomime."[86] Other travellers have given more detailed accounts of
+these performances. During Captain Cook's first voyage round the world,
+Banks and Solander, who accompanied him, witnessed in one of the Society
+Islands, in the year 1769, a comedy with music and dancing, performed by
+the natives, the subject of which was the adroitness of a thief, and his
+subsequent capture. At Cook's second circumnavigation, during the years
+1772-75, he was treated by the Society Islanders with a somewhat similar
+comic opera called _Teto_ (_i.e._ "The Thief"). G. Forster, who was with
+Cook, remarks that the dialogue, which of course he was unable to
+understand, seemed to be closely connected with their actions. One of
+them kneeled down, and another beat him and plucked him by the beard.
+Then two others were treated by the torturer in the same unceremonious
+manner; until one of them seized a stick and gave him a sound thrashing
+in return. This formed the conclusion of the first act, and the players
+withdrew. The commencement of the second act was announced by the
+musicians beating their drums. There were actresses as well as actors
+engaged in the performance.[87] A more detailed account of the dramatic
+attempts of the Polynesian Islanders is given by W. Mariner, who, during
+his sojourn with the natives, had the best opportunity of becoming
+acquainted with their customs and amusements. His observations, which
+refer especially to the Tonga Islanders, show that the actors recite
+sentences which are answered by a chorus of singers. There is a great
+variety in their movements and groupings. Occasionally they sing slowly,
+and afterwards quickly for about a quarter of an hour. Sometimes they
+form a semi-circle, assume a bending position, and sing in a subdued
+tone of voice a soft air; which is soon again followed by a loud and
+vehement recitation.[88]
+
+Grotesque dresses and adornments are, of course, an essential attribute
+in these entertainments. Neither are buffoons wanting. According to B.
+Seeman, the entertainment called _Kalau Rere_, which he witnessed in the
+Fiji Islands, "with its high poles, streamers, evergreens, masquerading,
+trumpet-shells, chants and other wild music, is the nearest approach to
+dramatic representation the Fijians seem to have made, and it is with
+them what private theatricals are with us. They are also on other
+occasions very fond of dressing themselves in fantastic, often very
+ridiculous costume; and in nearly every large assembly there are
+buffoons. Court fools, in many instances hunchbacks, are attached to the
+chief's establishment."[89]
+
+Also the Negroes in Senegambia and Upper Guinea have buffoons, who
+delight the people with their antics and acting in processions and
+public festivities. Buffoons are popular even in Mohammedan countries,
+where dramatic performances are generally considered objectionable.
+Morier states that in Persia the princes, governors of provinces, etc.,
+as well as the King, have a band of _Looties_, or buffoons, in their
+pay, who are looked upon as a necessary part of Persian state. They
+attend at merry-makings and public festivals, and some of them are
+endowed with great natural wit. This was, for instance, the case with a
+certain buffoon named Looti Bashee. "His dress, when he came to the
+ambassador, was composed of a felt hat, the crown of which was made like
+ours, but with two long ears projecting before, and two behind. Others
+of his troop were dressed in the same way; all looked grotesque, and I
+conjectured that nothing could give one a better idea of Satyrs and
+Bacchanalians, particularly as they were attended by a suite of monkeys
+headed by a large ape, which were educated to perform all sorts of
+tricks. They carried copper drums slung under the arm, which they beat
+with their fingers, making a noise like castanets; others played the
+tambourine; and when all this was put into motion, with their voices
+roaring in loud chorus, the scene was unique."[90]
+
+Sir Robert Ker Porter witnessed at Bagdad, in the beginning of the
+present century, a kind of musical drama performed by men and boys, the
+latter being dressed like females. "This amusement," he remarks, "is the
+only one of a theatrical complexion known among the people. It is often
+called for by the female part of the inhabitants; but I am told that
+with the men it is now very rare, the Pasha so setting his face against
+it as to forbid the avowed existence of hirable dancing-boys in his
+capital."[91] There is a Turkish theatre at Pera in which Turkish plays,
+adapted from the Italian, are acted by Turkish actors, and Turkish women
+appear unveiled upon the stage.[92] The women in the hareem, who in
+their diversions are only permitted to employ slaves of their own sex,
+occasionally make them act melodramas, the subject of which is generally
+a love story.
+
+The Indians in Mexico have some characteristic dances in which scenes
+are pantomimically enacted referring to Montezuma and to the conquest of
+Mexico by the Spaniards.
+
+In most of the entertainments, of which examples have just been given,
+the music must necessarily partake of a dramatic character. Generally,
+the tunes are not selected at pleasure, but certain tunes belong to
+certain representations. The dramatic effect of the music depends,
+however, chiefly upon its execution, which naturally changes according
+to the action which it accompanies. Thus, if the actors represent a
+sentimental or heart-rending scene, their vocal effusions will naturally
+be in a subdued tone, and the sympathizing musicians will touch their
+instruments delicately and slowly. If, on the other hand, the actors
+represent some exciting or heart-stirring scene, they will naturally
+raise their voices, and the musicians will play louder and faster as a
+matter of course. In fact, when their pulse beats quicker, the
+rhythmical flow of their music, however rude and inartistic it may be,
+becomes more animated unpremeditatedly. Such is the most primitive
+condition, or the commencement of the development of dramatic music. Let
+us now examine it in a somewhat more advanced stage of cultivation.
+
+The Javanese, who among the islanders of the Indian Archipelago are
+renowned for their skill in the dramatic art, generally use fabulous
+traditions from their own history, or Hindu legends, as subjects for
+their performances, which are acted exclusively by men. A full band of
+musicians generally accompanies the drama. The instruments mostly belong
+to the class called Instruments of Percussion, but several of them are
+constructed with plates of metal which produce a series of sweet tones,
+arranged according to the pentatonic scale. Some of the Javanese airs,
+which have been collected by Europeans, are very expressive, and it
+might be instructive to musical enquirers, if some really musical
+European visitor in Java would faithfully commit to notation the
+orchestral accompaniments of some of the most popular Javanese dramas.
+Madame Ida Pfeiffer relates that she was treated in the house of a
+Rajah, at Bandong, with a kind of pantomime in three acts, the third of
+which represented a combat. "The music that accompanied the combat," she
+remarks, "was very noisy and discordant; but, on the defeat of the one
+party, a soft plaintive melody arose at some distance off. The whole
+performance was really pretty and expressive."[93] Sir Stamford Raffles,
+and other travellers, give similar descriptions, and have besides much
+to say about the clever puppet-shows of the Javanese, in which the
+characters of dramas are represented by puppets, or by their shadows.
+
+The Siamese are fond of theatrical performances. According to Turpin's
+history of Siam, published in the year 1771, "whenever they burn the
+body of a minister or great man, a theatre is erected on the side of a
+river, where the actors appear habited according to their parts; and
+during three days they never quit the scene from eight in the morning
+till seven at night." De La Loubère, who visited Siam in the year 1687,
+says that the subjects of the dramas are "historical, in verse, serious,
+and sung by several actors who are always present, and who only sing
+reciprocally. One of them sings the historian's part, and the rest sing
+those of the personages which the history makes to speak; but they are
+all men that sing, and no women." About a century ago it appears to have
+been the custom to employ only men as actors, although there were female
+dancers. But, at the present day there are actresses, at any rate in the
+palace of the King, where Sir John Bowring saw them perform on several
+occasions. In one of these entertainments "the actors were all females,
+almost all girls. A few matrons, however, took the part of warriors,
+monkeys, priests; and the three manageresses, or prompteresses, were not
+only old and ugly, but seemed very spiteful, and on several occasions
+scolded and slapped the ladies who required correction. One of them had
+the drama written on black sheets in white letters before her, from
+which she prompted the singers of the recitative. The story began by the
+appearance of a monster monkey in a forest, which is visited by a number
+of ladies of rank, one of whom, after an unsuccessful struggle, the
+others having managed to escape, the monster monkey contrives to carry
+off. She is redeemed by the interference of a priest, whose temple is in
+the forest. Afterwards we are introduced to a sovereign Court, where all
+the ceremonies are observed which are practised in daily life, the
+dresses being those ordinarily worn, and most gorgeous they are....
+There is a battle, and rewards to the victors, and a crowning of a
+king's son in recompense for his valour, and offerings to Buddha, and a
+great feast, etc."[94] The principal performers act, but do not speak.
+The tale is told in recitative by a body of singers, accompanied by
+various instruments. The band assisting generally consists of about
+twenty members who play on wind instruments of the oboe kind, gongs,
+large castanets above a foot in length, and several sonorous instruments
+of percussion constructed with slabs of wood, or plates of metal,
+somewhat similar to those of the Javanese before mentioned.
+
+The Cochin-Chinese are remarkably fond of dramatic entertainments, which
+are generally of an operatic character commemorating historical events.
+An English gentleman who witnessed the performance of some of these
+plays remarks of the actors: "Their singing is good, when the ear has
+become accustomed to it; and the modulation of voice of the females is
+really captivating."[95] Sir George Staunton was evidently surprised to
+find that a kind of historical opera, which he heard in the town of
+Turon (called by the natives Hansán) contained recitatives, airs, and
+choruses, which were, he says, "as regular as upon the Italian stage."
+He adds: "Some of the female performers were by no means despicable
+singers. They all observed time accurately, not only with their voices,
+but every joint of their hands and feet was obedient to the regular
+movement of the instruments."[96] The band consisted of stringed
+instruments, wind instruments, and instruments of percussion. Sir John
+Barrow describes the theatre at Turon as "a shed of bamboo." He relates:
+"In the farther division of the building a party of comedians was
+engaged in the midst of an historical drama when we entered; but, on our
+being seated they broke off, and, coming forward, made before us an
+obeisance of nine genuflexions and prostrations, after which they
+returned to their labours, keeping up an incessant noise and bustle
+during our stay. The heat of the day, the thermometer in the shade
+standing at 81 deg. in the open air, and at least 10 deg. higher in the
+building, the crowds that thronged to see the strangers, the horrible
+crash of the gongs, kettle-drums, trumpets, and squalling flutes, were
+so stunning and oppressive that nothing but the novelty of the scene
+could possibly have detained us for a moment. The most entertaining, as
+well as the least noisy part of the theatrical exhibition, was a sort of
+Interlude, performed by three young women for the amusement, it would
+seem, of the principal actress, who sat as a spectator in the dress and
+character of some ancient Queen, whilst an old eunuch, very whimsically
+dressed, played his antic tricks like a scaramouch or buffoon in a
+Harlequin entertainment. The dialogue in this part differed entirely
+from the querulous and nearly monotonous recitation of the Chinese,
+being light and comic, and occasionally interrupted by cheerful airs
+which generally concluded with a chorus. These airs, rude and unpolished
+as they were, appeared to be regular compositions, and were sung in
+exactly measured time. One in particular attracted our attention, whose
+slow melancholy movement breathed the kind of plaintiveness so peculiar
+to the native airs of the Scotch, to which indeed it bore a close
+resemblance."
+
+Probably the air was founded on the pentatonic scale, which is common in
+the music of the Chinese and Javanese, and of which traces are to be
+found in the Scotch popular tunes.
+
+"The voices of the women are shrill and warbling, but some of their
+cadences were not without melody. The instruments at each pause gave a
+few short flourishes, till the music gradually increased in loudness by
+the swelling and deafening gong. Knowing nothing of the language, we
+were of course as ignorant of the subject as the majority of an English
+audience is of an Italian opera."[97]
+
+A curious mode of paying the actors, which prevails in Cochin-China, may
+be mentioned here. An Englishman who was present at a theatrical
+performance in the town of Kangwarting, relates that the Quong, or
+governor of the province, bore the expense of the entertainment. The
+musical drama was performed in a large shed before a great concourse of
+spectators. "The Quong was there squatted on a raised platform in front
+of the actors with a small drum before him, supported in a diagonal
+position, on which he would strike a tap every time any part of the
+performance pleased him; which also was a signal for his purse-bearer to
+throw a small string of about twenty cash to the actors. To my taste,
+this spoiled the effect of the piece; for, every time the cash fell
+among them there would be a silence, and the next moment a scramble for
+the money; and it fell so frequently as almost to keep time with the
+discordant music of the orchestra. The actors were engaged by the day,
+and in this manner received their payment, the amount of which entirely
+depended upon the approbation of the Quong and the number of times he
+encored them by tapping his drum. I could see that many of them paid far
+more attention to the drum than they did to their performance; though I
+suppose, the amount thrown to them is equally divided. Sometimes the
+string on which the cash was tied, unluckily broke, and the money flew
+in all directions; by which some of the bystanders profited, not being
+honourable enough to hand it up to the poor actors."[98]
+
+The Burmese have dramas performed by men, and also comedies represented
+by means of marionettes, or puppets. In the latter entertainments the
+figures are cleverly managed by persons situated beneath a stage which
+is hidden by a coarse curtain. The dialogues between these figures are
+much relished by the common spectators. At any rate, as they are apt to
+elicit uproarious mirth, they may be supposed to be often irresistibly
+comic. The real dramatic performances of the Burmese are acted by
+professional players, generally in the open air. The principal
+characters of the piece usually consist of a prince, a princess, a
+humble lover, a slave, and a buffoon. The female characters are
+represented by boys dressed in female attire. The dresses are handsome
+and gorgeous. However, the best theatrical performances take place in a
+building. On these occasions, there are two musical bands, one being
+placed on each side of the scene. The principal musical instruments of
+such an orchestra are of the percussion kind, containing a series of
+sonorous slabs of wood, or plates of metal, and somewhat resembling the
+Javanese instruments, but being attuned according to a diatonic order of
+intervals, instead of the pentatonic order. Also a curious contrivance,
+consisting of a set of drums suspended in a frame, each drum having a
+fixed tone, is used on these occasions. Moreover, the Burmese orchestra
+generally contains several wind instruments of the oboe and trumpet
+kind, as well as cymbals, large castanets of split bamboo, and other
+instruments of percussion, which serve to heighten the rhythmical effect
+of the music. The story of the drama is usually taken from ancient
+Burmese history. Captain Henry Yule, who has given a more detailed
+account of the Burmese plays than any previous traveller, remarks that
+when he was at Amarapoora he procured copies of some of the plays which
+he saw acted, from which it was evident to him that, while the general
+plan of the drama, comprising the more dignified and solemn part of the
+dialogue, was written down at considerable length, the humorous portions
+were left to the extempore wit of the actors. The following scenes are
+from a drama commemorating an episode from the life of Oodeinna, King of
+Kauthambi, a country in India. This drama, which was obtained by Captain
+Henry Yule, is a translation from the Pali, and the whole is in Burmese
+verse of four syllables.
+
+(The scene opens in the Capital of Kauthambi. The king is seated on his
+throne, with his courtiers around him.)
+
+_King._--(_Addresses them_) "Great nobles and chiefs!"
+
+_Nobles._--"Phra, (Lord)!"
+
+_King._--"Are my subjects happy and prosperous?"
+
+_Nobles._--"Since Your Majesty's happy reign began, religion has shone
+forth with splendour; the seasons have been propitious; the earth has
+been bountiful; the rich and the poor, men and women, have enjoyed peace
+and prosperity, and the happy years have been to them as water to the
+lotus."
+
+                                                       (_Scene closes._)
+
+              _Himalaya Mountains.--Enter a Nát._[99]
+
+_Nát._--"Now I am a Nát! When, and in what body was I before? Ah!
+looking with a Nát's eyes and understanding, I perceive I was a hermit
+in these wilds. My companion, Alakappa, is still here. I will seek my
+friend."
+
+                                                  (_Approaches a cave._)
+
+_Hermit._--"Who art thou that comest suddenly to my cell in the garb and
+appearance of a Nát, with the nine jewels in thy crown?"
+
+_Nát._--"O holy Hermit, of a good lineage, who ever livest in the
+forest, tell me all thou desirest, so that nought may remain unsaid!"
+
+_Hermit._--"O Nát, who by stupendous merit has reached the exalted
+abode! I have nothing particular to ask; but numerous elephants come
+around my cell and do great damage. Be pleased to forbid this for the
+future."
+
+_Nát._--"O holy Hermit! I will give thee a golden harp, and by the
+virtue of its sounds, and thy songs accompanying, elephants will come or
+go as thou commandest."
+
+From this passage it is evident that the Burmese ascribe to music a
+great power, and the same is also indicated in several other remarks
+occurring in the drama. It is, however, unnecessary here to give the
+entire drama, which the reader will find in the interesting book above
+alluded to.[100] Suffice it to notice the following passages from a
+subsequent scene.
+
+(_The young Prince Oodeinna enters. The Hermit presents him with the
+golden harp and teaches him a tune and song. The Prince retires to a
+tree, ascends it, and plays. The wild elephants of the forest come
+around him, and are obedient to his voice and harp, etc._--)
+
+Captain Yule remarks that "the comic stage-effects of the characters
+addressing the orchestra is very frequent," and there are several
+indications of the kind in the present drama. Take, for instance, the
+following:--
+
+(_Scene in the solitary wilds of Himalaya_).
+
+                        _Enter an immense Bird._
+
+BIRD (speaks).--"From the beginning of the world there have been
+numerous sorts of birds: cranes, ducks, crows, peacocks, and others. I
+am not of their sort. My power would extinguish them all. My home is
+amidst vast mountains and pathless forests, and ever and anon I descend
+from them. I will now go to the country of Kauthambi to seek for food.
+So now (_to the band_), as I am about to fly, strike up a victorious
+melody, O leader of the orchestra!"
+
+_The bird commences his flight, and, soaring aloft, says_:--
+
+"This is a beautiful country, and full of golden palaces, and lovely
+gardens with gorgeous-coloured flowers and shrubs. Nevertheless, I must
+look out for something to eat. Thus, turning north and turning south,
+looking up and looking down, I spy outside the King's palace a piece of
+flesh, red, red as blood. It is mine, sure as the food in a monk's
+begging-dish; it cannot escape. I will stoop at it, seize it, and fly
+away; and now that I may easily reach the large tree in my own mountain
+from this country of Kauthambi, play a soft and simple air, O leader of
+the orchestra!"
+
+     (_The bird seizes the Queen, mistaking her red mantle for flesh,
+     flies away with her to the mountains, and deposits her in a tree.
+     The bird comes as if to devour her, when the Queen claps her hands
+     at him, which frightens the bird, and he flies away_).
+
+This scene shows that the Burmese employ in their dramas loud and soft
+music, according to the events represented; and that the orchestra is
+conducted by a leader or music-director. The following example, from
+another scene, indicates the employment of the full orchestra
+_fortissimo_ in conformity with the action.
+
+                           _Forest. A Hunter._
+
+HUNTER.--"I and my dog will now go and kill whatever enemy appears. With
+my bow and my dog I care not what I encounter, elephants, deer, or what
+not; so come along (_to his dog_) brave Tiger. (_To the band._) Now as I
+go on a grand expedition, burst forth like thunder!"
+
+A detailed description of a kind of opera which was performed at
+Singapore is given by Charles Wilkes;[101] but, as the actors were
+transient visitors to Singapore, who came from the neighbourhood of
+Madras, their play must have been a specimen of the popular Hindu
+dramas. Its title was 'The Results of Misplaced Friendship;' the words
+were recited in a "monotonous recitative," accompanied by a band of
+instrumental performers. As regards the plot of the piece, suffice it to
+say that it had a moral aim, and that a Brahmin and a clown were the
+most amusing characters of the Dramatis Personæ. The clown displayed
+much cleverness in mimicking a European in his dress and manners. The
+'Select Specimens of the Theatre of the Hindus,' translated from the
+original Sanskrit, by R. H. Wilson, London, 1835, contain but few
+allusions to music; but these are ancient dramas, and the Hindus
+possess, as R. H. Wilson in his interesting Introduction points out,
+different kinds of theatrical entertainments. There was in former time
+no building appropriated to the public performance of dramas. The Kings
+had in their palaces a kind of music hall, called _Sangita Sálá_, in
+which were given entertainments consisting principally of music and
+dancing, and occasionally of dramatic representations.
+
+Turning to Thibet, we meet with actors who are also singers, dancers,
+and acrobats. They perform in the streets, courtyards, and other open
+places of the towns, and their entertainments are enlivened by a musical
+band, and by the witticisms of their clowns. The actors generally wear
+masks.[102]
+
+In China, dramatic performances, enacted by itinerant players, take
+place not unfrequently in the Joss-houses, or houses of religious
+ceremonies. The plays generally have reference to some remarkable event
+in the lives of the earliest Chinese Emperors, and almost always combine
+the comic with the tragic. The musical band occupies the back part of
+the stage behind the actors. The expenses of the entertainment are
+sometimes defrayed by private persons. Thus, on a certain occasion three
+performances were given in a town daily, for three days in succession,
+in honour of "The Mother of Heaven," a goddess who presides over the
+welfare of sailors, the defrayers of the entertainment being three
+merchants who had just received the returns of a lucky venture.[103]
+Female characters are represented by boys and eunuchs. The plot of a
+Chinese drama, which was performed at Tien-sing before the English
+Ambassador, in a temporary theatre erected opposite to his yacht, is
+described by Sir G. Staunton, as follows:--
+
+"An Emperor of China and his Empress are living in supreme felicity,
+when on a sudden his subjects revolt. A civil war ensues, battles are
+fought; and, at last, the arch-rebel, who is a General of cavalry,
+overcomes his sovereign, kills him with his own hand, and routes the
+imperial army. The captive Empress then appears upon the stage in all
+the agonies of despair naturally resulting from the loss of her husband
+and her dignity, as well as the apprehension of that of her honour."
+
+How interesting would it be to the student of National Music to possess
+an exact notation of the music belonging to this scene, and to ascertain
+in what manner the intense emotions and vehement passions represented
+are expressed in the Chinese musical compositions!
+
+"Whilst she is tearing her hair, and rending the skies with her
+complaints, the conqueror enters, approaches her with respect, addresses
+her in a gentle tone, soothes her sorrows with his compassion, talks of
+love and adoration, and like Richard the Third with Lady Anne, in
+Shakespeare, prevails in less than half-an-hour on the Chinese Princess
+to dry up her tears, to forget her deceased consort, and to yield to a
+consoling wooer. The piece concludes with a wedding and a grand
+procession."[104]
+
+The Japanese are fond of dramatic representations, and have special
+buildings for their performances. Captain Golownin describes the theatre
+in Matsmai, the capital city of the island of Yesso, as "a large and
+pretty high building. At the back is the stage, which, as with us, has a
+raised floor. From the stage to the front wall, where the entrance is
+situated, two rows of seats are placed for the spectators. In the
+middle, where we have the pit, there is a vacant space in which straw
+mats are laid down for the spectators. As this space is much lower than
+the stage, those in front do not intercept the view from those behind.
+There is no orchestra, either because the Japanese perform no music in
+their theatres, or because the musicians are reckoned among the actors."
+
+The place for the orchestra was probably at the back of the stage, as in
+the Chinese theatre. Captain Golownin visited the building only in the
+day-time, and when the house was empty, the permission to see a piece
+performed having been refused to him by the government of the capital.
+
+"Opposite the stage, where in our theatres are the Emperor's box and the
+galleries, there are only a bare wall and the door for the entrance.
+There were no ornaments in the interior; the walls were not even
+painted. The dresses and decorations are kept in a separate building.
+The subjects of their plays are chiefly memorable events in Japanese
+history; but they have also other representations which are of a comic
+nature, and which serve to amuse the public."[105] Moreover, the
+Japanese have annual religious festivals in which scenic representations
+take place, and which are very popular. The dramas usually commemorate
+the deeds of ancient heroes or a myth; some have for their subject a
+fanciful love-story; and some are especially designed to enforce a
+certain moral precept. According to Siebold and Fisher, many of the
+Japanese plays are very instructive and moral. They are often so
+constructed that not more than two actors appear on the stage during a
+scene. There are no actresses, the female characters being represented
+by boys. It is not unusual for the actors to pass through the pit on
+their way to the stage, in order to give the audience an opportunity to
+admire their appearance and costume as closely as possible.
+
+Such dramatic music of extra-European countries as has been derived from
+Europe does not come within the scope of our present inquiry. It
+happens, however, not unfrequently that the European music is to some
+extent modified, by being interspersed with national tunes of the
+extra-European country into which it has been introduced, or by being
+performed in a peculiar manner. Whenever this is the case, it deserves
+the special attention of the student of national music.
+
+The Tagals, or the aborigines of the Philippine Islands, have theatrical
+performances in bamboo buildings. The characters consist principally of
+fairies, demons, and other supernatural creatures; but, the musical
+part of these entertainments is said to contain much which has been
+borrowed from the Spaniards. Probably this is especially the case in
+Manilla. Besides the principal theatre, in which the actors are
+Spaniards, Manilla has two theatres of the natives. In South America we
+find, as might be expected, Spanish and Italian operas. In Lima the
+orchestra is deficient; Spanish dances, as the Bolero, Fandango, Don
+Mateo, are often performed instead of our ballets. At the theatre in
+Mexico, Spanish dances are frequently introduced between the plays. The
+Teatro de Tacon in Havana, said to be one of the finest edifices of the
+kind in the world, has singers who perform Italian operas, as in Europe.
+The female spectators sit in places separate from those of the men.
+
+There can hardly be a doubt that many operatic entertainments, which are
+now secular, had originally a sacred character. The ancient nations
+performed religious dances with pantomimic representations. Also the
+Chinese at the time of Confucius thus enhanced their sacred ceremonies.
+The Burmese, at the present day, sing and dance by the coffin of a
+deceased priest. They are Buddhists. Funeral dances are common with
+several uncivilized races. Our Christian ancestors, during the earlier
+centuries of the Middle Ages, performed sacred dances in the church. The
+Christian priests of the Abyssinians still dance at certain religious
+ceremonies. In the Cathedral of Seville, boys, from the age of twelve to
+seventeen, dressed in an old Spanish costume, annually execute a ballet
+every evening during the Ottave del Corpus. Again, sacred dances with
+recitations, dialogues, and hymns are performed in several European
+countries during Christmastide. The Mysteries, Miracle Plays, or
+musical-dramatic entertainments on biblical subjects, so popular during
+the Middle Ages, have not entirely fallen into disuse. Passion-Plays are
+still occasionally performed by the peasantry in Bavaria, in the Tyrol,
+and in Moravia. The "Mayings," or popular rejoicings with music,
+dancing, and processions, remains of which are still to be found in
+England as well as on the Continent, had probably in pagan time also a
+religious character, as they were intended to welcome the approach of
+the sunny season. Turning to America, we meet in Peru with musical
+entertainments which were introduced among the Indians by the Spanish
+monks, who accompanied Pizarro's army, and who dramatized scenes in the
+life of Christ, and had them represented to facilitate by this
+attractive means the conversion of the heathen aborigines. These plays
+are no longer performed in the larger towns of Peru, but are still kept
+up by the villagers of the Sierra. Good Friday especially is celebrated
+by them in this manner; and on Palm Sunday an image of the Saviour
+seated on an ass is paraded through the principal streets of the town or
+village.[106] In Brazil we find on Hallelujah Saturday (between Good
+Friday and Easter Sunday) the popular ceremony of burning effigies of
+Judas Iscariot, the traitor, in company with dragons, serpents and
+demons; and there are besides several other religious celebrations in
+which music is employed in combination with fire-works and dramatic
+representations.
+
+Comic scenes were not excluded from the old Mysteries of mediæval time.
+On the contrary, they appear to have been highly relished by the
+worshippers, and contributed much to the popularity of the
+entertainments. In Paris a building was erected, in the year 1313,
+principally for dramatic performances relating to the Passion of Christ
+and the Resurrection, enacted with music and dancing. Soon, attempts
+were made to vary these entertainments by the occasional introduction of
+some play founded on a myth, or on a wonderful event recorded in secular
+history, or also by the admission of profane comedies and farces.
+Although music, instrumental as well as vocal, did not constitute the
+chiefest point of attraction in these plays, it certainly contributed
+much to the impressiveness of the whole.[107] During the second half of
+the thirteenth century, Adam de la Hale wrote dramatic plays with songs,
+founded on secular subjects. These plays, called Gieux (_jeux_), might
+perhaps be called operettas, since they contained dialogues interspersed
+with songs. In fact, although our opera may be said to date from about
+the year 1600, secular plays in which music and poetry were intimately
+associated were known long before that time. The ancient Greeks used in
+their dramas the vocal music of choruses and the instrumental
+accompaniment of flutes and other instruments, in close connection with
+the poetry. The latter art was, however, the principal one, while in our
+present opera _music_ is the principal art.
+
+As regards the secular dances of the ancient Greeks, it may be observed
+that some of them were similar to the pantomimic exhibitions which are
+still relished by several nations. The Pyrrhic dance, which was executed
+according to fixed rules, to the sound of the flute, depicted a combat
+of warriors. Lord Broughton, during his stay in Albania, was struck with
+the resemblance between some of the dances of the Albanians and those of
+the ancient Greeks. He notices especially the Pyrrhic dance.[108] The
+war-dance of the Jajis, a wild and hostile tribe in the mountainous
+districts of Afghanistan, is probably quite as picturesque and exciting
+as was the Pyrrhic dance. A European eye-witness of the war-dance of the
+Jajis states that it is performed by about twelve or fifteen men placed
+in a ring before a number of spectators who are arranged in a
+semi-circle. "The performers commenced chanting a song, flourishing
+their knives overhead, and stamping on the ground to its tones; and then
+each gradually revolving, the whole body moving round together and
+maintaining the circle in which they first stood up. Whilst this was
+going on, two of the party stepped into the centre of the ring and went
+through a mimic fight, or a series of jumps, pirouettes, and other
+movements of a like nature, which appeared to be regulated in their
+rapidity by the measure of the music; for, towards the close of the
+performance the singing ceased, and the whole party appeared twirling
+and twisting about in a confused mass amidst the flashing of their drawn
+knives, their movements being timed by the rapid roll of their drums.
+It was wonderful that they did not wound each other in these intricate
+and rapid evolutions with unsheathed knives. On the conclusion of the
+dance the whole party set up a shrill and prolonged yell, which
+reverberated over the hills, and was caught up by those in the
+neighbouring heights and thus prolonged for some minutes. Whilst all
+this was going on upon the heights around our camp, several parties of
+armed Jajis ranged in columns, three or four abreast, and eight or nine
+deep, followed each other in succession round and round the skirt of our
+camp, all the time chanting an impressive and passionate war-song in a
+very peculiar sonorous tone that seemed to be affected by the acoustic
+influences of the locality, which was a deep basin enclosed for the most
+part by bare and rocky eminences and hills."[109]
+
+Not less characteristic, and equally descriptive, are the sword-dances
+of the Anazehs, in Syria, and of the warriors in Little Thibet, which
+are not unfrequently acted with too much reality, since the performers,
+having worked themselves up to a state of frenzy, are apt to forget that
+they ought only to feign fighting.
+
+Some of the sword-dances still in use in European countries represent
+scenes with poetry and music. There is, for instance,--or, at any rate,
+there was still in the eighteenth century,--an ancient sword-dance
+occasionally performed in some villages of North Germany, in which the
+principal dancer, or "The King," addresses the people in a speech.[110]
+Here may also be noticed the "Fool Play" still popular in some villages
+of Northern England, which is described as "a pageant that consists of a
+number of sword-dancers dragging a plough, with music, and with one,
+sometimes two, in very strange attire; the Bessey, in the grotesque
+habit of an old woman; and the Fool, almost covered with skins, a hairy
+cap on, and the tail of some animal hanging from his back." And the
+sword-dance performed in the North Riding of Yorkshire, from St.
+Stephen's Day till New Year's Day. "The dancers usually consist of six
+youths dressed in white ribands, attended by a fiddler, a youth with the
+name of Bessey, and also by one who personates a Doctor. They travel
+from village to village. One of the six youths acts the part of the King
+in a kind of farce which consists chiefly of singing and dancing, and
+the Bessey interferes while they are making a hexagon with their swords,
+and is killed."[111]
+
+The Cavalcade, or procession on horse-back, is supposed to have been
+originally connected with the Mysteries of the Middle Ages. It is still
+occasionally performed in Belgium, and its Flemish name is 'Ommegang.' A
+number of persons dressed in historical and fanciful costumes ride on
+horse-back and drive in carriages through the principal streets of the
+town in which the Cavalcade takes place, with the object of representing
+scenes from sacred or profane history, or allegorical subjects. The
+procession is made imposing by the splendid dresses of the principal
+characters, by the gorgeous gildings of their carriages, and the display
+of baldachins and flags. This show is supposed to have been introduced
+into the Netherlands by the Spaniards during their former possession of
+the country. At a certain religious festival, held in Malines in the
+year 1838, the entire Litany to the Virgin Mary was represented, each
+Invocation being written on a beautiful flag, carried by a beautiful and
+richly-dressed young girl, who was riding on a gorgeously-caparisoned
+horse led by men. The Invocations: "Queen of the Angels!" "Queen of the
+Patriarchs!" etc.,--were depicted by groups of characters in open
+carriages; each carriage, splendidly decorated, having the Virgin Mary
+seated on a high throne, while at her feet were placed picturesquely on
+steps the angels, patriarchs and prophets, all of whom were dressed in
+their appropriate costumes, and provided with their requisite
+attributes. Again, at a festival which was held at Brussels, in
+September, 1839, two parishes of the town arranged a grand Cavalcade,
+in which a scene was represented commemorating a political event from
+the history of Belgium. Many of the riders were dressed in mediæval
+costume, while some appeared in Oriental dresses. The sons and daughters
+of the most influential citizens generally undertake the representation
+of the principal characters in these processions. Music is, of course,
+an indispensable assistance for the solemnity of such pageants. However,
+as recitations are of secondary importance in them, or are even entirely
+omitted, the first attempts at dramatic music are less traceable in
+these remains of mediæval entertainments than they are in the rude
+amusements of savages noticed in the beginning of this survey.
+
+It has probably already occurred to the reader that the "Opera of the
+Future," aimed at by Wagner, will be in some respect a return to the
+opera in its infancy, inasmuch as it will be devoid of the various
+artistically-written forms of composition which greatly contribute to
+the clearness and impressiveness of the music, and which Mozart has
+developed in his operas to the highest degree of perfection. Much might
+be said on this subject, were here the proper place for it. Enough if
+the facts which have been noticed convince the reflecting musician that
+the contemplated innovations alluded to might as well be termed
+retrocessions. Gluck was also a reformer of dramatic music, who aimed at
+truth in its noble simplicity; but, his objection to anything artificial
+in the opera did not mislead him to disregard the artistic beauties
+dependent upon form, which ensure the impressive total effect essential
+to a true work of art.
+
+Furthermore, the examples given in the preceding pages will probably
+have convinced the reader that the origin of the opera can be traced
+more minutely in the first dramatic attempts of uncivilized races of the
+present time, than by a reference to the theatrical performance of the
+ancient nations. At any rate, the latter research does not render the
+former superfluous; they should go hand-in-hand.
+
+[84] 'Popular Customs, etc., of the South of Italy,' by Charles
+Mac Farlane, London, 1846; p. 68.
+
+[85] 'Voyage pittoresque autour du Monde, par M. Louis Choris;'
+Paris, 1822; p. 9.
+
+[86] 'Polynesian Researches,' by William Ellis; London, 1827.
+Vol. I., p. 285.
+
+[87] 'A Voyage round the World, in His Britannic Majesty's
+Sloop "Resolution," commanded by Captain James Cook, during the years
+1772-75;' by George Forster; London, 1777. Vol. I., p. 398.
+
+[88] 'An Account of the Natives of the Tonga Islands, in the
+South Pacific Ocean, compiled and arranged from the extensive
+communications of Mr. William Mariner, several years resident in those
+Islands, by John Martin;' London, 1817. Vol. II., p. 309.
+
+[89] 'An Account of a Government Mission to the Fiji Islands, in the
+years 1860-61;' by Berthold Seeman; Cambridge, 1862. p. 116.
+
+[90] 'A Second Journey through Persia, Armenia, and Asia Minor, etc.,'
+by James Morier; London, 1818. p. 104.
+
+[91] 'Travels in Georgia, Persia, Armenia, etc.,' by Sir Robert Ker
+Porter; London, 1822; Vol. II., p. 272.
+
+[92] 'Travels in Greece, Russia, etc.,' by Bayard Taylor; London, 1859;
+p. 282.
+
+[93] 'A Lady's Second Journey round the World,' by Ida Pfeiffer; London,
+1855; Vol. I., p. 211.
+
+[94] 'The Kingdom of Siam.' By Sir John Bowring. London, 1857; Vol. II.,
+p. 325.
+
+[95] 'A Voyage to Cochin-China.' By John White. London, 1824; p. 302.
+
+[96] 'An Authentic Account of an Embassy from the King of Great Britain
+to the Emperor of China,' etc. By Sir George Staunton. London, 1797;
+Vol. I., p. 344.
+
+[97] 'A Voyage to Cochin-China in the years 1792 and 1793,' by John
+Barrow. London, 1806; p. 295.
+
+[98] 'A Seaman's Narrative of his Adventures in Cochin-China,' by Edward
+Brown. London 1861; p. 221.
+
+[99] '_Náts_' are sprites corresponding to the Hindu _Dewas_ whose place
+they take in the Burman Buddhist system. They are supposed to have been
+the objects of Burman worship in pre-Buddhistic times.
+
+[100] 'A Narrative of a Mission, sent by the Governor-General of India
+to the Court of Ava, in 1855,' by Captain Henry Yule. London, 1858; p.
+368.
+
+[101] 'Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition, during the
+years 1838-42,' by Charles Wilkes; London, 1845; Vol. V.; p. 389.
+
+[102] 'Travels in Tartary, Thibet, and China, during the years,
+1844-46,' by M. Huc; Vol. II.; p. 238.
+
+[103] 'Twelve Years in China,' by a British Resident, (John Scarth),
+Edinburgh, 1860; p. 56.
+
+[104] 'An Authentic Account of an Embassy from the King of Great Britain
+to the Emperor of China, etc., taken chiefly from the papers of His
+Excellency the Earl of Macartney,' by Sir George Staunton; London, 1797.
+Vol. II.; p. 31.
+
+[105] 'Japan and the Japanese,' by Captain Golownin (of the Russian
+Navy); London, 1853. Vol. II.; p. 149.
+
+[106] 'Travels in Peru, by J. J. von Tschudi.' London, 1847; p. 377.
+
+[107] 'Wesen und Geschichte der Oper, von G. W. Fink.' Leipzig, 1838; p.
+53.
+
+[108] 'Travels in Albania, etc., by the Right Hon. Lord Broughton.'
+London, 1855; Vol. I., p. 145.
+
+[109] 'Journal of a Political Mission to Afghanistan, by H. W. Bellew.'
+London, 1862; p. 143.
+
+[110] 'Das deutsche Volk, geschildert von Eduard Duller.' Leipzig, 1847;
+p. 183.
+
+[111] 'Observations on Popular Antiquities, by John Brand, revised by
+Henry Ellis.' London, 1813; Vol. I., pp. 396, 401.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+A SHORT SURVEY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC.
+
+
+The perusal of Chronological Tables illustrating the history of music
+must appear to many readers a dry occupation. Still, it enables the
+lover of music to obtain in a short time a comprehensive and clear view
+of the gradual development of the art from the earliest period of its
+cultivation recorded in history to the present day. Perhaps a coloured
+chart contrived like the "Stream of Time," which at a glance shows the
+great events in universal history, might answer the purpose even better.
+There is no disconnection in the progress of an art, though certain
+occurrences may appear to the superficial observer as being entirely
+accidental. A musical "Stream of Time" might exhibit in various colours
+the natural connection between the several branches of the art of music,
+and their modifications conspicuous in its history.
+
+Or, this might be achieved by the representation of a tree. As in the
+genealogical tree which has been published of Johann Sebastian Bach the
+proper relation of the numerous members of his family is at once brought
+clearly before the eyes of the inquirer, so might the growth and spread
+of the different branches of the art of music be indicated, exhibiting
+distinctly their highest degree of culture, as well as their infancy and
+decay.
+
+Diagrams of this kind are, however, only suitable for a very condensed
+historical survey. More detailed information is better conveyed by means
+of chronological tables, such as Carl Czerny has compiled in his 'Umriss
+der ganzen Musik-Geschichte' ('A Sketch of the whole History of
+Music'), published at Mayence, in the year 1851. Carl Czerny, of Vienna,
+was a very industrious man, who, although he gave pianoforte lessons
+during the whole day, nevertheless found time to write above nine
+hundred compositions, not to mention his innumerable arrangements of
+operas, oratorios, symphonies, and overtures. That he could engage in
+such laborious research as the preparation of his chronological tables
+must have required is certainly surprising, especially as he was a very
+practical man with regard to money-making, and there is probably no
+musical occupation less likely to yield pecuniary advantage than is the
+compiling of chronological tables. It used to be said of Czerny that he
+was in the habit of composing while he was giving pianoforte lessons. If
+this is no false rumour, it perhaps accounts for the enormous number of
+his compositions, as well as for the slight merit of most of them. But,
+chronological tables he may have compiled in this way without detriment
+to them, since they do not require to be written with feeling, even less
+with inspiration, but merely with careful discernment, and with
+perseverance. Be this as it may, he certainly was an eminent pianoforte
+teacher, as is proved by his having instructed Liszt, Döhler, and other
+distinguished pianists. His finger-exercises, or pianoforte-studies,
+have outlived his other compositions, and his chronological tables will
+probably be used for reference long after his finger-exercises have been
+supplanted by more modern ones.
+
+As the object is to supply the lover of music with an historical survey,
+similar to that of Czerny, but on a smaller scale,--it may be useful to
+notice the plan adopted by Czerny.
+
+He has divided his work into two Sections. The first Section records the
+ancient traditions respecting the origin of music, and gives an account
+of the music of the nations before the Christian era, of the music of
+our forefathers during the Middle Ages, and of the rise of our modern
+tone-art. This Section is arranged in eighteen Periods, thus:--
+
+_First Period._--The primitive Music of the Greeks until the time of the
+Trojan War (B.C. 2000-1200). Mythic and mythic-heroic Age. Beginning of
+the public games and contests.
+
+_Second Period._--From the Trojan War until Pythagoras (B.C. 1200-584).
+Gradual development of singing associated with poetry. Invention and
+improvement of different Stringed Instruments, Wind Instruments, and
+Instruments of Percussion. Encouragement given to artists by the
+bestowal of great honours.
+
+_Third Period._--From Pythagoras until Aristoxenus of Tarentum (B.C.
+584-340). Highest development of all the Arts in Greece. The Art of
+Music founded on fixed rules.
+
+_Fourth Period._--From Aristoxenus until the Birth of Christ (B.C.
+340-A.D. 1). New Musical System. Decay of the Arts.
+
+_Fifth Period._--From the Birth of Christ until Hucbald (A.D. 1-900).
+Gradual decay of the Ancient Music. Origin of the Christian Church-song.
+
+_Sixth Period._--From Hucbald until Franco of Cologne (A.D. 900-1200).
+The first attempts in Polyphonic Harmony. Invention of Musical Notation
+and Measure of Time.
+
+_Seventh Period._--From Franco of Cologne until Dufay (A.D. 1200-1380).
+Invention and development of Counterpoint.
+
+_Eighth Period._--From Dufay until Ockeghem, or Ockenheim (A.D.
+1380-1450). The elder Netherlandish School. Developed Regular
+Counterpoint. Musical Notation fixed. Composers according to the new
+system of Harmony.
+
+_Ninth Period._--From Ockeghem until Josquin des Prés (A.D. 1450-1480).
+The newer or second Netherlandish School. Artificial Counterpoint.
+Beginning of the reputation of the Netherlandish masters. In Italy and
+Germany executive artists on the Organ, Clavichord, and other
+instruments, make their appearance.
+
+_Tenth Period._--From Josquin des Prés until Willaert (A.D. 1480-1520).
+Commencement of the flourishing, state of the Netherlandish masters,
+and their influence upon all European countries. Masters in Counterpoint
+arise in Germany. Meritorious teachers in Italy. French musicians attain
+reputation in other countries besides in France.
+
+_Eleventh Period._--From Willaert until Palestrina (A.D. 1520-1560). The
+Netherlandish masters institute Schools in Italy and develop the art of
+music with great success in that country. The Madrigal becomes the
+favourite kind of composition of the Venetian School.
+
+_Twelfth Period._--From Palestrina until Monteverde (A.D. 1560-1600).
+Commencement of the flourishing state of the Italian musical artists.
+Conclusion of the great Netherlandish epoch. Refinement of the stiff
+Netherlandish style. Romish School. Church Music of a high degree of
+perfection.
+
+_Thirteenth Period._--From Monteverde until Carissimi (A.D. 1600-1640).
+Commencement of Operatic Music. First attempts in the Recitative style,
+in the melodious song for a single voice (Monody) and in the Concertante
+style.
+
+_Fourteenth Period._--From Carissimi until Alessandro Scarlatti (A.D.
+1640-1680). Improvements in the Recitative and in the Dramatic Melody.
+Origin of the Cantata and the Oratorio. Introduction of Concertante
+Instruments to the song. Neapolitan School.
+
+_Fifteenth Period._--From Alessandro Scarlatti until Leo and Durante
+(A.D. 1680-1720). Essential improvement in the Recitative and in
+Dramatic Music. Increase of the Orchestral Instruments. Development of
+Instrumental Music. Rise of great Composers in Germany.
+
+_Sixteenth Period._--From Durante until Gluck (A.D. 1720-1760).
+Flourishing state of the Neapolitan School. Reform in Melody. The
+highest art in Counterpoint in Germany. Oratorios. German Composers
+study in Italy, and write Italian Operas.
+
+_Seventeenth Period._--From Gluck until Haydn and Mozart (A.D.
+1760-1780). Reform in the style of the Opera. Introduction of the
+Ensemble pieces and the Finales. Rise of the French Opera. Development
+of Instrumental Music.
+
+_Eighteenth Period._--From Mozart until Beethoven and Rossini (A.D.
+1780-1820). Great improvement of the Orchestra, and of Instrumental
+Music in general. Development of the German Operatic Style. Tone-artists
+of the Vienna School. Beginning of the popularity of the Pianoforte.
+Beethoven brings Instrumental Music to the highest degree of perfection.
+Flourishing state of the French Opera. With Rossini commences a new and
+effective epoch in Italian Operatic Music. Numerous Virtuosos on
+instruments. In the Opera, amalgamation of different styles. In the most
+recent time, an undecided direction.
+
+Thus much about the Eighteen Periods noticed in Section I. of Czerny's
+work. Only the first seven periods are fully treated in this Section;
+the others form the subject of Section II., which is divided into Three
+Principal Epochs, thus:--
+
+_First Principal Epoch._--From the establishment of our Theory of
+Harmony until the commencement of the Opera (A.D. 1400-1600). Separation
+of the four chief nations: 1, France (with the Netherlands); 2, Italy
+(with Spain and Portugal); 3, England; 4, Germany (with Bohemia,
+Hungary, Poland, Sweden, and Denmark).
+
+_Second Principal Epoch._--From the commencement of the Opera until the
+development of Instrumental Music and Chamber Music (A.D. 1600-1700).
+Division of the Art of Music into Church Music and Operatic Music. First
+appearance of some distinguished performers on instruments. 1, Italy
+(with Spain and Portugal); 2, France (with the Netherlands); 3, England;
+4, Germany (with Bohemia, Hungary, Poland, Sweden, and Denmark).
+
+_Third Principal Epoch._--From the development of Instrumental Music
+until the end of the Eighteenth Century (A.D. 1700-1800). Division of
+Church Music, Operatic Music, and Instrumental Music. 1, Italy (with
+Spain and Portugal); 2, France (with the Netherlands); 3, England; 4,
+Germany (with Bohemia, Hungary, Poland, Sweden, and Denmark).
+
+After these Divisions and Sub-divisions follows an
+alphabetically-arranged Register of the names of the musicians who are
+mentioned in the different Periods and Epochs. But also here we have
+Divisions and Sub-divisions, so that the Register, in fact, consists of
+six Indices, each containing the musicians of a certain epoch or a
+certain country, from A to Z. The author says that the plan of the work
+renders this arrangement necessary; but, as he does not prove his
+assertion, students using the work for reference will probably arrive at
+the conviction that one general Index, containing all the names in
+alphabetical order, would be more convenient. Another disadvantage is
+that the Indices are entirely restricted to the names of musicians, no
+reference being made to important events relating to the history of
+music. In fact, the chief aim of the work is to notice a great many
+musicians. The number of composers, theorists, and performers entered
+amounts to 1713, of whom 236 belong to the ancient Greeks and Romans,
+132 to the Middle Ages, and 1345 to European nations from A.D. 1400 to
+1800. Many of these musicians have left no mark upon the history of
+their art, and their names have justly fallen into oblivion. These might
+better have been omitted. Of what use, for instance, can it be to the
+student to be supplied with the names of the musicians who played before
+Alexander the Great on the occasion of his marriage with Roxanen, at
+Samarkand, in the year B.C. 328? Especially among the 1345 composers who
+distinguished themselves during the four centuries from A.D. 1400 to
+1800 are many who might now as well have been left at rest. What
+possible advantage can the student derive from a record of mediocre
+pianoforte composers whose productions were not held in much esteem even
+during their lifetime? On the other hand, it was prudent in the author
+not to extend his list beyond the year 1800. The distinguished musicians
+of the present century are known to readers who take an interest in the
+history of the art, and who are most likely to use the book. Anyhow, it
+would be a delicate task to admit the names of living musicians, some of
+whom may still become more celebrated than they are, while others may
+show that they really are not so clever as they at first appeared to be.
+It is impossible to assign his proper place in the history of his art to
+an artist before he is dead.
+
+Czerny has had the happy thought of placing in a column before each
+chronological table short memoranda of the events in general history of
+the time when the composers lived. Nothing can be more advisable to a
+professional musician than to make himself familiar with this column of
+facts bearing directly upon his art. There can hardly be a doubt that
+other artists,--especially painters and sculptors,--generally possess
+more historical knowledge than musicians. Perhaps their occupation
+suggests to them more forcibly the value of such information. Be this as
+it may, the music of an intelligent musician is better than that of an
+ignorant, narrow-minded one; even for this reason, musicians ought to
+study universal history, were it not on account of the intimate
+connection of the cultivation of the arts with the progress of
+civilization.
+
+Moreover, if we are exactly acquainted with the political and social
+conditions of the time in which a distinguished artist lived, we are the
+better able to appreciate his merits. Unfortunately, Czerny records the
+musicians under the date of their birth. Thus, many are mentioned in the
+century previous to that in which they flourished. Take for instance
+Handel and Sebastian Bach: both were born in the year 1685, and produced
+their great works during the first half of the eighteenth century. Now,
+if the plan of recording the musicians under the date of their birth had
+been throughout adhered to, the student might, as a general rule,
+surmise the time of their activity to have been about half a century
+later. But, of several celebrities the date of whose birth is unknown,
+Czerny gives some year in which they are known to have distinguished
+themselves, and this deviation from the plan leads to confusion in the
+chronological arrangement. True, it is impossible to determine exactly
+the year in which the musician in his lifetime exercised the greatest
+influence upon his art; but, this can be done as nearly as possible by
+adopting his fortieth or fiftieth year as that of his best period.
+Those who did not attain that age might be noticed under a date
+referring to the period when they most distinguished themselves, which
+was generally the case during the last few years of their life.
+
+Again, the mention of the musicians of each country separately has too
+little advantage to justify the inconvenience thereby occasioned to the
+student. Cherubini, like Bellini and Donizetti, is classed with the
+Italian composers; he would, however, have been more properly placed
+with the German composers. Rossini, when he wrote 'Guillaume Tell,' was
+more German than some musicians born in Germany. Lulli, the founder of
+the old French opera is certainly more properly mentioned with the
+French musicians than with the Italian. Other examples could be pointed
+out which evoke the question whether such a complicated classification
+really serves a scientific purpose.
+
+In the 'Chronology of the History of Music' offered in the following
+pages, in which Czerny's tables have been of great assistance, the aim
+has been to avoid the defects just noticed. It will be seen that only a
+brief survey of the most important events in the history of music has
+been attempted. When the student has ascertained these, he will probably
+choose to refer to some treatise on the history of music instead of a
+more extensive chronological table. But the latter may afterwards be of
+use to him inasmuch as it will assist him in recalling to his memory in
+proper order those facts with which he has become more minutely
+acquainted by reading the treatise.
+
+As some account of the mythological traditions respecting the origin of
+music has already been given in the present work,[112] there is no
+necessity to advert to them here.
+
+The recorded dates of the Greek music with which the survey commences
+must not be taken as authentic until we arrive at about the seventh
+century before the Christian era.
+
+[112] Vol. I., p. 74.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+CHRONOLOGY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC.
+
+
+     -----------------------+------+---------------------------------------
+                            | B. C.|
+     Cadmus, from           | 2000 |   Music, with other arts and sciences,
+      Phoenicia, and        |      | is introduced into Greece from Western
+      Cecrops, from         |      | Asia and Egypt.
+      Egypt, settle in      |      |
+      Greece.               |      |
+     Abraham (1900).        | 1750 |   The Jews have vocal music with
+     Joseph (1750).         |      | instrumental accompaniment (Gen.,
+     Moses (1550).          |      | Chap. xxxi., v. 26, 27).
+                            |      |
+     The oracle of          | 1500 |   Hyagnis, in Greece, improves the
+      Delphi.               |      | flute and invents the Phrygian Mode.
+                            |      |
+     Daedalus, Grecian      |      |   Marsyas, a distinguished
+      sculptor              |      | flute-player, invents a new species of
+      and architect,        |      | flute made of metal.
+      invents the sails     |      |
+      of ships, &c.         |      |   Linus ventures upon a musical
+                            |      | contest with Apollo, and is killed
+                            |      | by him.
+                            |      |
+                            |      |   "Then sang Moses and the children
+                            |      | of Israel." (Exod. xv.)
+     The Argonauts,         | 1300 |   Orpheus, lyrist, singer, poet, and
+      led by Jason,         |      | law-giver, composes hymns.
+      sail to Colchis.      |      |
+     Hercules.              |      |   Amphion, lyrist, singer, and
+     Theseus.               |      | composer, improves the Grecian lyre.
+     Triptolemus introduces |      |   Musæus, lyrist, sets music to the
+      agriculture           |      | words of the oracles.
+      into                  |      |
+      Greece.               |      |
+     Castor and Pollux,     |      |   About this time the Greeks
+      Grecian               |      | instituted most of their public games
+      heroes.               |      | in which musical contests formed part.
+                            |      |
+     Tyrus, on the          | 1250 |   Olympus of Mysia, a celebrated
+      coast of Phoenice,    |      | flutist. Daphnis of Sicily. To him is
+      founded               |      | ascribed the invention of the
+      by a colony of        |      | chalumeau, and of the bucolic poetry.
+      Sidonians.            |      |
+     Adrastus celebrates    |      |   Thamiris, singer and player on the
+      the first             |      | kithara, a species of lyre, is chosen
+      Pythian Games         |      | by the Scythians for their King on
+      in honour of          |      | account of his musical
+      Apollo.               |      | accomplishments.
+                            |      |
+     Amazons, or            | 1240 |   Euneus, a distinguished singer and
+      female warriors,      |      | kithara-player of Greece. His
+      from the              |      | descendants remain during many
+      Caucasus, invade      |      | generations the privileged
+      Greece.               |      | kithara-players at the
+                            |      | public festivities in Athens.
+                            |      |
+     Troy taken by          | 1200 |   Agias, a celebrated Greek musician
+      the Greeks            |      | about the time of the destruction of
+      (1184).               |      | Troy.
+                            |      |
+     Grecian heroes:        |      |   The invention of the Dorian Mode is
+      Menelaus,             |      | ascribed to Lamyras of Thracia; the
+      Agamemnon,            |      | invention of the Lydian Mode, to
+      Achilles,             |      | Carius; and the invention of the
+      Ulysses.              |      | Ionian Mode, to Pythermus.
+                            |      |
+     Trojan heroes:         |      |   Celmis, a priest of Creta, invents
+      Priam, Hector,        |      | (or probably improves) several
+      Paris, Æneas.         |      | instruments of percussion.
+                            |      |
+     Codrus, the last       | 1100 |   Ardalus, of Troezen, invents a new
+      King of Athens        |      | species of flute for accompanying
+      (1070). Abolition     |      | vocal music.
+      of Royalty.           |      |
+     King Saul.             |      |   The Greeks about this time possessed
+     Cheops, the            |      | various kinds of stringed instruments
+      builder of the        |      | and wind instruments, and the names
+      greatest Pyramid      |      | of several musicians are recorded who
+      in Egypt.             |      | improved the instruments, or
+                            |      | introduced innovations in the
+                            |      | construction of the popular ones.
+                            |      |
+                            | 1050 |   David, King of Judah, musician and
+                            |      | poet. Psalms.
+                            |      |
+     King Solomon           |      |   King David institutes in Jerusalem a
+      (1010-975).           |      | School for vocal and instrumental
+                            |      | music (I. Chron., Chap. xv., v. 16).
+     Dido builds the        | 1000 |   Bardus, a King of Gallia, is said to
+      city of Carthage      |      | have introduced music into Western
+      on the                |      | Europe, and to have been the first of
+      north coast of        |      | the singers known as the Bards.
+      Africa.               |      |
+     Development of         |  900 |   Homer, singer and poet, born
+      the Republics         |      | probably in Chios. Iliad and Odyssey.
+      in Greece.            |      |
+     Lycurgus reforms       |  850 |   Hesiodus, singer and poet, born in
+      the Republic of       |      | Boeotia. Simmicus, inventor of an
+      Lacedæmonia,          |      | instrument with thirty-five strings,
+      and gives laws        |      | called Simmikon or Simmicium.
+      to the Spartans.      |      | Thaletas, of Creta, musician and poet,
+                            |      | composes in Sparta, under Lycurgus,
+                            |      | the laws and war-songs for the voice.
+                            |      | Phoecinus, of Greece, sketches the
+                            |      | first musical rules.
+                            |      |
+     Rome founded by        |  800 |   Olympus, of Phrygia, flutist,
+      Romulus (754).        |      | invents the Enharmonic scale.
+                            |      |
+                            |  720 |   Archilochus, of Paros, singer, poet,
+                            |      | and instrumentalist.
+                            |      |
+                            |      |   Important improvements in the music
+                            |      | of the Greeks.
+                            |      |
+                            |  700 |   Tyrtæus, of Athens, poet, singer,
+                            |      | and trumpeter, composes war-songs for
+                            |      | Sparta against Messenia.
+                            |      |
+                            |  650 |   TERPANDER, of Lesbos, lyrist,
+                            |      | flutist, and composer. Important
+                            |      | progress in the music of the Greeks.
+                            |      |
+     Circumnavigation       |  625 |   Arion, of Lesbos, kithara-player,
+      of the coast of       |      | singer and poet, invents the
+      Africa under          |      | Dithyrambs, or hymns of Bacchus, and
+      Necho, King           |      | improves the chorus-singing. He is
+      of Egypt (615).       |      | recorded to have healed sick persons
+                            |      | by means of music. The same is also
+                            |      | recorded of Menias, a Greek musician,
+                            |      | who lived about this time.
+                            |      |
+     Nebuchadnezzar,        |  600 |   Stesichorus, of Sicily, composes
+      King of Babylon,      |      | choruses with instrumental
+      carries the           |      | accompaniment, besides airs to his
+      Jews into captivity.  |      | poems.
+                            |      |
+                            |      |   Alcæus, of Mytilene, singer, lyrist,
+                            |      | and poet.
+                            |      |
+     Solon, law-giver,      |      |   Sappho, of Mytilene, female singer,
+      in Athens.            |      | lyrist, and poetess. To her is
+                            |      | ascribed the invention of a stringed
+                            |      | instrument called Barbitos.
+                            |      |
+     The seven sages        |  570 |   The Romans, under the King Servius
+      of Greece:--Solon,    |      | Tullius, introduce trumpets and horns
+      Thales,               |      | of metal into their army.
+      Periander,            |      |
+      Cleobulus,            |      |
+      Pittacus, Bias,       |      |
+      Chilo.                |      |
+     Cyrus conquers         |  550 |   About this time was performed in
+       Lydia and dethrones  |      | Athens, under Thespis, the first
+       Croesus.             |      | tragedy with choruses set to music.
+                            |      |
+     Confucius, Chinese     |      |
+       philosopher.         |      |
+                            |      |
+     Zoroaster in           |      |
+       Persia.              |      |
+                            |      |
+     Tarquinius Superbus,   |  530 |   PYTHAGORAS, of Samos,
+       the                  |      | philosopher, studies music in Egypt,
+       last King of         |      | founds in Greece a great School of
+       Rome, is expelled.   |      | music based upon mathematical
+                            |      | principles; invents the monochord for
+     Rome becomes a         |      | measuring the sound; ascertains the
+       Republic (510).      |      | harmonious Triad, the diatonic
+                            |      | intervals, etc.
+     Cambyses conquers      |      |
+       Egypt (509).         |      |
+                            |  500 |   Lasus, of Achaia, writes treatises
+                            |      | on the theory of music.
+                            |      |
+     Battle of Marathon,    |      |   Æschylus, born at Athens about
+       in which the Greeks, |      | 525, singer and writer of Tragedies.
+       commanded by         |      |
+       Miltiades, defeat    |      |   Simonides, of Ceos, born in 557,
+       the Persians (490).  |      | died 468, lyrist and poet.
+                            |      |
+                            |      |   Pindar, born at Thebes, in Boeotia,
+     Xerxes invades         |      | about the year 520, flutist, lyrist,
+       Greece (487).        |      | poet, and composer. Many hymns, odes,
+                            |      | etc.
+                            |      |
+     Battle of Salamis      |      |   Corinna, of Tanagra, in Boeotia,
+       in which             |      | female singer and poetess. Several
+       Themistocles         |      | times gains the victory in contest
+       defeats the          |      | with Pindar at the public games at
+       Persians (480).      |      | Thebes.
+                            |      |
+     Leonidas.              |      |   Anacreon, of Teos, lyric poet and
+                            |      | musician. To him is attributed the
+     Themistocles           |      | invention of several stringed
+       banished from        |      | instruments.
+       Athens (471).        |      |
+                            |      |
+     Cimon defeats          |      |   The Greeks had about this time
+       the Persians         |      | several accomplished players on the
+       (466).               |      | kithara, flute, and other instruments,
+                            |      | who introduced new and brilliant
+                            |      | passages and embellishments into their
+                            |      | performances.
+                            |      |
+     Pericles, Greek        |  450 |   The highest degree of perfection of
+       General and          |      | the dramatic art in Greece through
+       orator.              |      | Æschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, and
+     Herodotus, historian.  |      | through the musical composer Damon,
+                            |      | the singer Agathon, etc., at Athens.
+                            |      |
+     Phidias, sculptor.     |      |   Democritus, of Abdera, philosopher,
+     Hippocrates,           |      | writes seven books on music.
+      physician.            |      |
+     Commencement           |  430 |   Lysander, of Sycion, invents a more
+      of the Peloponnesian  |      | artistic instrumental accompaniment to
+      war                   |      | vocal music.
+      between the           |      |
+      Athenians and         |      |
+      Spartans which        |      |   Alexandrides extends the compass of
+      lasts twenty-seven    |      | the Greek wind instruments.
+      years                 |      |
+      (431).                |      |
+                            |      |
+     Socrates (469-399).    |  400 |   Timotheus, of Miletus, Asia Minor
+     Alcibiades.            |      | singer, kithara-player and poet,
+                            |      | composes many works, and improves the
+                            |      | lyre.
+                            |      |
+     Brennus, Chief of      |      |   Plato, philosopher, in his works
+      the Gauls,            |      | treats also on music.
+      burns & sacks         |      |
+      Rome (390).           |      |
+     Demosthenes            |  360 |   About this time, the first dramatic
+      (384-322).            |      | performances with music in Rome.
+                            |      |
+     Diogenes (350).        |  350 |   Aristoteles, of Stagira, born in
+     Alexander, the         |      | 384, philosopher and musician. In his
+      Great, son of         |      | works much about music.
+      Philip of Macedonia   |      |
+      (333).                |      |
+     Ptolemy I., King       |  310 |   ARISTOXENUS, of Tarentum, born in
+      of Egypt, encourages  |      | 340, philosopher and musician, founds
+      the                   |      | a new School of music which is in
+      cultivation of        |      | opposition to the teaching of
+      sciences and          |      | Pythagoras, generally accepted until
+      arts in his kingdom,  |      | that time. He writes many treatises
+      & founds              |      | on music. Division of the musicians
+      a library in          |      | into Musici, or the followers of
+      Alexandria.           |      | Aristoxenus, who derive the rules of
+                            |      | music from its effect upon the
+                            |      | ear,--and Canonici, or the followers
+                            |      | of Pythagoras, who derive them from
+                            |      | mathematical laws.
+                            |      |
+     Pyrrhus, King of       |  300 |   About this period the Greeks made
+      Epirus, is defeated   |      | many improvements in the construction
+      by the                |      | of their musical instruments.
+      Romans (275).         |      |
+                            |      |   Euclides, of Alexandria, born in
+                            |      | 323, died 283, mathematician, writes
+                            |      | on the theory of music and acoustics.
+                            |      |
+     The first Punic        |  250 |   Archimedes, of Syracuse, born in
+       war (264-241).       |      | 287, died 212, mathematician, is said
+     The second Punic       |      | to have invented the hydraulic organ.
+       war (218-202).       |      |
+                            |      |
+     Scipio defeats         |      |   Ctesibius, of Alexandria, improves
+       Hannibal in          |      | the pneumatic organ and alters it into
+       Africa (202).        |      | a hydraulic organ. His son Hero still
+                            |      | further perfects the instrument and
+                            |      | describes it.
+                            |      |
+     The first Macedonian   |  200 |   Aristeas, of Greece, a
+       war (200).           |      | kithara-player, writes a treatise
+                            |      | on kithara-playing.
+     The first library      |      |
+       at Rome (167).       |      |
+                            |      |
+     Corinth and Carthage   |  150 |   Polybius, of Megalopolis in Arcadia,
+       destroyed            |      | born about the year 204, historian,
+       by the Romans        |      | writes a treatise on the influence of
+       (146). Greece        |      | music upon civilization.
+       and North            |      |
+       Africa become        |      |
+       Roman provinces.     |      |
+                            |      |
+     Civil war in Rome      |  100 |   Alypius, of Alexandria, writes on
+       (88).                |      | musical notation by means of the
+                            |      | letters of the Greek alphabet.
+     The Romans             |      |
+       under Julius         |      |
+       Cæsar invade         |      |
+       Britain (55).        |      |
+                            |      |
+     Julius Cæsar           |   50 |   Hermogenes (Marcus Tigellius),
+       assassinated in      |      | singer and instrumentalist of Greece,
+       the Senate-house     |      | settles in Rome.
+       (44).                |      |
+                            |      |
+     Cicero killed (43).    |      |
+                            |      |
+     Virgilius.             |      |
+                            |      |
+     Antonius and           |      |
+       Cleopatra defeated   |      |
+       (31).                |      |
+     Augustus, Roman        |   30 |   Diodorus Siculus, of Agyrium in
+       Emperor (30).        |      | Sicily, historian, gives some account
+                            |      | of the oldest music of the Egyptians
+     Horace.                |      | and Greeks.
+                            |      |
+     Mæcenas.               |      |
+                            |      |
+     Titus Livius,          |   10 |   Vitruvius (Pollio M.), born in
+       historian.           |      | Italy, architect, writes on musical
+                            |      | subjects.
+     Ovidius, poet.         |      |
+                            | A. D.|
+     Hermann in Germany     |    1 |   Gradual decay of the Greek Music.
+      defeats               |      |
+      Varus (9).            |      |
+     The Romans             |      |   The first Christian hymns (St.
+      under the Emperor     |      | Matthew, chap. XXVI., v. 30; St.
+      Claudius              |      | Mark, chap. XIV., v. 26; I Corinth.,
+      invade England        |      | chap. XIV., v. 15; Ephes., chap. V.,
+      (40).                 |      | v. 19; Coloss., chap. III., v. 16; St.
+     London founded         |      | James, chap. V., v. 13, etc.).
+      by the Romans         |      |
+      (49).                 |      |
+                            |   50 |   Pliny the Elder, born at Verona in
+                            |      | the year 27, died in 79. Several books
+                            |      | on music.
+                            |      |
+     Destruction  of        |   60 |   Nero, Roman Emperor from A.D. 54
+      Jerusalem by          |      | to 68, musician, singer, flutist,
+      Titus (70).           |      | lyrist. He sings and plays in public,
+     Herculaneum            |      | and is said to have maintained 5000
+      and Pompeii           |      | musicians in his pay.
+      destroyed by          |      |
+      an eruption of        |      |
+      Vesuvius (79).        |      |
+     Tacitus, historian.    |   80 |   Plutarchus, born at Chaeronea in
+     Juvenal, poet.         |      | Boeotia, about the year 40, biographer
+     Martialis, poet.       |      | and philosopher. Several musical
+     Pliny the              |      | essays.
+      Younger.              |      |
+     Trajan, Roman          |      |
+      Emperor (98).         |      |
+                            |  100 |   Ptolemaeus (Claudius) born at
+                            |      | Pelusium in Egypt, about the year 70,
+     Introduction of        |      | mathematician, geographer, astronomer,
+      Christianity into     |      | and musician. In his writings
+      Ireland by St.        |      | he endeavours to reconcile the musical
+      Patrick (110).        |      | theories of Pythagoras and
+                            |      | Aristoxenus. He reduces the fifteen
+                            |      | Modes of the Greeks to seven.
+     Fingal (Ossian) in     |  200 |
+      Scotland (200).       |      |
+     Persecutions of        |      |   From about the year 150 to 200,
+      the Christians        |      | above a dozen authors are known in
+      during the third      |      | whose works some account is given of
+      century.              |      | the music of the ancients.
+     Artaxerxes, king       |      |
+      of Persia, conquers   |      |
+      the Parthians, &      |      |
+      founds                |      |
+      the dynasty of        |      |
+      the Sassanidæ         |      |
+      (226).                |      |
+     Probus, Roman          |  250 |   The Fathers of the Church who give
+      Emperor,              |      | the first account of the sacred songs
+      causes the vine       |      | of the early Christians are
+      to be planted         |      | Tertullian, Clemens of Alexandria,
+      on the banks          |      | and Origen. Their writings date from
+      of the Rhine          |      | the first half of the third century.
+      and  the Moselle      |      | The Christian communities had already
+      (276).                |      | during the first century in their
+                            |      | religious observances, which in the
+                            |      | beginning were held secretly, hymns
+                            |      | sung alternately by a single voice
+                            |      | and a chorus in unison. The melodies
+                            |      | of the hymns were probably similar
+                            |      | to those of the Greeks. At all
+                            |      | events, the Modes in which they
+                            |      | were sung, and the notation by letters
+                            |      | of the alphabet, had been derived from
+                            |      | the Greeks.
+                            |      |
+     Constantine, Emperor,  |  330 |   Silvester I., Pope, institutes in
+      is converted          |      | Rome the first school for Church-song.
+      to Christianity,      |      |
+      and                   |      |
+      transfers the         |      |
+      seat of his empire    |      |
+      from Rome             |      |
+      to Byzantine,         |      |
+      henceforth            |      |
+      called Constantinople |      |
+      (330).                |      |
+                            |      |
+     Division of the        |  350 |   Damasus, Bishop of Rome, born at
+      Roman Empire          |      | Madrid in the year 314, introduces in
+      into Eastern          |      | Church the antiphonal singing of the
+      and Western           |      | Psalms by two choirs, and regulates
+      (364).                |      | the intoning of the Mass.
+                            |      |
+     Kingdoms formed        |      |   St. Basilius (died 379) promotes
+      by the Ostrogoths     |      | sacred song in the Eastern
+      and Visigoths.        |      | (Greek-Christian) Church, and
+                            |      | describes the Church-music of his
+     The Huns migrate       |      | time.
+      from                  |      |
+      Asia to Europe,       |      |
+      and come in           |      |
+      collision with        |      |
+      the Goths             |      |
+      (375).                |      |
+     Theodosius the         |  380 |   ST. AMBROSE, Bishop of Milan, from
+      Great, Emperor        |      | 374 to 397, born about 333 in Gallia,
+      of the Eastern        |      | died in 398. Introduces the Ambrosian
+      Empire                |      | Song of Praise (Te Deum laudamus),
+      (379).                |      | composes several hymns, and promotes
+                            |      | the singing of the Psalms, in
+                            |      | opposition to the old Greek music.
+                            |      |
+     The Visigoths, or      |  400 |   St. Augustine, Bishop of Hippo, born
+      Goths of the          |      | 354 at Tagasta, in Africa, died 430.
+      West, under           |      | In his works, writes much about music,
+      Alaric, invade        |      | and especially recommends
+      Italy (400).          |      | Psalm-singing.
+                            |      |
+     Rome is sacked         |      |   The Fathers of the Church, St.
+      and burnt by          |      | Chrysostom, Cyprian, and Hieronymus,
+      Alaric (410).         |      | with others, uphold the cultivation of
+                            |      | Church-song, which is discouraged by
+                            |      | many.
+                            |      |
+     The Anglo-Saxons       |  420 |   Macrobius writes on music according
+      arrive                |      | to the system of Pythagoras.
+      in Britain            |      |
+      (449).                |      |
+     The Anglo-Saxon        |      |
+      Heptarchy in          |      |
+      Britain (457).        |  500 |   Boethius, born 470 in Rome, died
+                            |      | 526; writes several treatises on the
+                            |      | music of the Ancients.
+                            |      |
+     Silkworms are          |  550 |   Cassiodorus (Magnus Aurelius) born
+      introduced into       |      | 480, died 575; musical author.
+      Europe from           |      |
+      China (550).          |      |
+     The Picts are          |  590 |   GREGORY THE GREAT, Pope, 590 to
+      converted to          |      | 604, collects the Christian hymns,
+      Christianity          |      | fixes the employment of them, improves
+      (565).                |      | the Singing Schools, appoints
+                            |      | Cantores, Precentors, etc. The
+     The Visigoths, or      |      | Gregorian Church-song used in place of
+      Goths of the          |      | the Ambrosian.
+      West, conquer         |      |
+      the greater           |      |
+      part of Spain         |  596 |   ST. AUGUSTINE, first Bishop of
+      (580).                |      | Canterbury, usually called the Apostle
+                            |      | of the English, introduces into
+     Foundation of the      |      | England with the Christian religion,
+      Kingdom of            |      | the Church-song.
+      Mercia by Crida       |      |
+      (582).                |      |
+     Mohammed,              |      |   Church-music contributes much to
+      founder of a          |      | the diffusion of Christianity in
+      Religion (604).       |      | heathen countries.
+                            |      |
+     The Pope in            |  600 |   St. Isidore, Archbishop of Seville,
+      Rome acknowledged     |      | in Spain, born at Carthagena about
+      as the                |      | 570, died 636. Promotes the
+      head of the           |      | improvement of Church-music, and
+      Church (607).         |      | writes treatises on music.
+     University of          |      |
+      Cambridge             |      |
+      founded (631).        |      |
+     Conquests of the       |  650 |   Jacob (Deacon), Stephan Eddi, Putta,
+      Arabs in Asia,        |      | Maban, and Acca (Bishop), were
+      as far as Hindustan.  |      | distinguished church-singers in
+     Jerusalem is           |      | England during the period from 620
+      taken by them         |      | to 700.
+      (637).                |      |
+     The Caliph Omar        |      |
+      burns the Alexandrian |      |
+      library               |      |
+      (640).                |      |   Vitalianus, Pope, from 657 to 672,
+     The Danes invade       |  660 | introduces the hydraulic organ into
+      England               |      | the Church for sounding the first
+      (660).                |      | tone of the Chorale as a guide to
+                            |      | the singers. He sends two
+     The Britons are        |      | accomplished Roman singers to
+      driven into           |      | Gallia (France) for the purpose
+      Wales (685).          |      | of improving the Church-song in
+                            |      | that country.
+                            |      |
+     Conquests of the       |  676 |   Johannes Damascenus, born at
+      Arabs in North        |      | Damascus. Introduces in Church
+      Africa (688).         |      | hymns, the melodies of which differ
+                            |      | from the old Grecian.
+                            |      |
+     The Saracens in        |  700 |   BEDA VENERABILIS, born 673, died
+      Spain (713).          |      | 735; an English Monk, to whom are
+     Glass-painting &       |      | attributed two important treatises on
+      Mosaic in Italy       |      | music.
+      (750).                |      |
+     Pepin, King of         |      |   Benedict, an English Abbot,
+      the Franks            |      | introduces chanting in choirs.
+      (752-768).            |      |
+                            |      |
+     The Danes invade       |  780 |   Alcuinus, or Albinus, an English
+      England               |      | Prelate, born 736, died 814; promotes
+      (783).                |      | Church-music.
+     Harun al-Raschid,      |      |
+      Caliph of Bagdad.     |      |
+      Flourishing           |      |
+      state of the          |      |
+      sciences with         |      |
+      the Arabs (786).      |      |
+                            |  800 |   Charlemagne, Emperor of Germany,
+                            |      | introduces the Gregorian Church-song
+     Division of the        |      | into all his dominions, and orders a
+      Monarchy of           |      | collection to be made of the popular
+      Charlemagne (843).    |      | secular songs.
+                            |      |
+                            |      |   Church organs come gradually into
+                            |      | use.
+                            |      |
+     Alfred the Great       |  850 |   Notker, a Benedictine Monk of St.
+      defeats the           |      | Gallen, in Germany, composes sacred
+      Danes in England      |      | songs called Sequentias Missales,
+      (880).                |      | which are introduced in the churches.
+                            |      |
+                            |  886 |   Friar John of St. David's, the first
+                            |      | Professor of Music at the University
+                            |      | of Oxford, appointed by Alfred the
+                            |      | Great.
+                            |      |
+     Foundation of the      |  900 |   HUCBALD, Monk of St. Amand, in
+      University of         |      | Flanders, born about 840, died 932.
+      Oxford by             |      | First attempt to accompany an air
+      Alfred the            |      | with several voices in harmony.
+      Great (900).          |      | Notation, consisting of the syllables
+                            |      | of the words placed in different
+     Foundation of          |      | positions between lines. The signs
+      the Kingdom           |      | used for the words placed in different
+      of Hungary by         |      | positions between lines. The signs
+      the Magyars           |      | used for the purpose during the
+      (about 900).          |      | three preceding centuries were
+     University of          |      | called Numæ.
+      Cambridge             |      |
+      restored (915).       |      |
+     Institution of         |      |
+      Free-Masons           |      |
+      in England            |      |
+      (924).                |      |
+                            |      |
+     The Russians,          |  950 |   St. Dunstan, Archbishop of
+      under Wladimir        |      | Canterbury, introduces organs into
+      the Great,            |      | English churches.
+      embrace Christianity  |      |
+      (988).                |      |
+     Poland becomes         | 1030 |   GUIDO OF AREZZO, a Benedictine
+      a Kingdom             |      | Monk at Pomposa, born about 990 in
+      (1000).               |      | Arezzo, died 1050. Improves the method
+                            |      | of singing in use at his time, and the
+     William of Normandy    |      | notation of Hucbald; designates the
+      invades               |      | tones by the letters of the alphabet.
+      England (1066).       |      | He is supposed to be the inventor of
+                            |      | the Solmisation of the Hexachord, or
+     The Moors in           |      | scale of six sounds, etc.
+      Spain (1091).         |      |
+     Peter the Hermit.      |      |
+      The first             |      |
+      Crusade (1095).       | 1100 |   NOTATION.--During the
+                            |      | twelfth century originated our musical
+     War between            |      | notation, the inventor of which is
+      England and           |      | unknown. The first attempts in
+      France (1113).        |      | Counterpoint led to the employment
+                            |      | of notes of different value
+     Frederick I.,          |      | (Mensural and Figural Notes).
+      called Barbarossa,    |      | However, these innovations did not
+      in Germany            |      | come into general practical use until
+      (1152).               |      | about the year 1200.
+     The Sultan Saladin     |      |
+      conquers              |      |
+      Egypt (1187).         |      |
+     Magna Charta,          | 1200 |   The most popular instruments of
+      or the Charter        |      | the Middle Ages were the Psalterium,
+      of English            |      | Harp, Rotta, Viol, Lute, Organistrum,
+      Liberty (1215).       |      | Regals, Recorder, Sackbut, Shalm, etc.
+                            |      |
+     Distinguished          | 1207 |   Contest of the Minnesänger at the
+      Troubadours and       |      | Wartburg, in Saxony.
+      Minnesänger during    |      |
+      the twelfth and       |      |   The Minnesänger, who flourished in
+      thirteenth            |      | Germany, especially during the twelfth
+      centuries:--          |      | and thirteenth centuries, were
+                            |      | identical with the Troubadours, or
+     Guillaume IX., Count   |      | singers of secular, amorous, and
+      of Poitou; Blondel,   |      | martial ditties, which they
+      with Richard Coeur    |      | accompanied with the harp, cither,
+      de Lion; Sordello     |      | guitar, or some other instrument.
+      of Mantua, Peyrols,   |      | The original home of the Troubadours
+      Bertrand de Lorm,     |      | was Provence, in the South of France,
+      Arnold of Maraviglia, |      | where they originated about the
+      Heinrich von Veldeck, |      | beginning of the eighth century.
+      Wather von der        |      | Subsequently, at the time of the
+      Vogelweide, Reimar    |      | German Minnesänger, there were also
+      der Aeltere, Reimar   |      | Troubadours in Italy, Spain and
+      der Zweter, Ulrich    |      | England. Among them were many
+      von  Lichtenstein,    |      | noblemen, and even princes.
+      Heinrich von          |      |
+      Morungen, Wolfram von |      |
+      Eschenbach, Hartmann  |      |
+      von der Aue,          |      |
+      Gottfried von         |      |
+      Strassburg, Conrad    |      |
+      von Würzburg,         |      |
+      Johann Hadlaub.       |      |
+                            |      |
+     The Kingdom            | 1220 |   FRANCO OF COLOGNE, the first
+      of Granada            |      | known musical author who treats
+      founded by the        |      | circumstantially on the new theory of
+      Moors in Spain        |      | Harmony, and who, by expounding it
+      (1238).               |      | systematically, greatly contributes to
+                            |      | its diffusion. (Forkel, Fétis, and
+     Foundation of          |      | some other musical historians,
+      the University        |      | maintain that Franco of Cologne lived
+      of Vienna             |      | during the second half of the eleventh
+      (1237).               |      | century.)
+                            |      |
+     Cimabue, Giotto,       | 1240 |   Odington (Walter), an English monk,
+      Italian painters      |      | writes on music in a manner similar to
+      (1240).               |      | that of Franco of Cologne, in Germany.
+     Termination of         |      |
+      the Crusades          |      |
+      (1248).               |      |
+     Parliament of          | 1260 |   Hieronymus von Mæhren, in France,
+      Great Britain.        |      | writes on the theory of music.
+      First assembly        |      |
+      of the Commons        | 1280 |   ADAM DE LA HALE, of Arras, in
+      as a confirmed        |      | France, writes compositions in
+      representation        |      | four-part harmony, dramatic pieces,
+      (1265).               |      | with songs, etc. He lived in Provence.
+     Venice and Genoa       |      |
+      are powerful.         |      |
+     Invention of Gunpowder | 1290 |   Ægidius, of Zamora, a Spanish monk,
+      (1292).               |      | writes on the invention of musical
+     Italian poets and      |      | instruments.
+      authors: Dante        |      |
+      Alighieri (1265-1321);|      |
+      Petrarca              |      |
+      (1304-1374);          |      |
+      Boccaccio             |      |
+      (1313-1375).          |      |
+     Disunion in the        | 1300 |   Gradual diffusion of the theory of
+      Church. Popes         |      | Harmony, especially through Marchetto
+      in Avignon            |      | di Padua, about 1310, in Italy;--and
+      (1378).               |      | through Jean de Muris, about 1325, in
+                            |      | France.
+                            |      |
+     The Turks victorious   | 1390 |   Gerson (Johannes), a French monk,
+      in Hungary            |      | born 1363, died 1429. Musical author.
+      (1396).               |      |
+                            |      |   Commencement of the period in which
+                            |      | appeared numerous sacred vocal
+                            |      | compositions, viz: Masses, Motetts
+                            |      | (English Anthems), Offertories, Hymns,
+                            |      | Psalms, Madrigals, etc. The Madrigals
+                            |      | were in the form of the Motett,
+                            |      | but often had secular words.
+                            |      | Instrumental music was still
+                            |      | insignificant.
+                            |      |
+     Masaccio, Fiesole,     | 1400 |   DUFAY (GUILLAUME), born about
+      Italian               |      | 1350 at Chimay, in Belgium, died 1432.
+      painters (1400).      |      | The first Contrapuntist, properly
+      Conquest of           |      | speaking. Purer harmony than
+      France by             |      | previously. Application in the
+      Henry V., King        |      | notation of the White notes, which had
+      of England            |      | been already invented before his time.
+      (1420).               |      | Many Church compositions.
+     Charles VII., of       |      |
+      France (1422-1461).   |      |
+                            |      |
+     Jeanne d'Arc           |      |   Binchois (Egide), born in Picardy,
+      burnt (1430).         |      | contributes to the improvement of
+     England loses all      |      | harmony and of musical notation.
+      her possessions       |      | Composes much vocal music.
+      in France, except     |      |
+      Calais                |      |
+      (about 1440).         |      |
+     Invention of           |      |
+      Printing (1440).      |      |
+                            |      |
+     Constantinople         | 1450 |   Dunstable (John), born about 1400
+      taken by the          |      | in Scotland, died 1458. Improves the
+      Turks (1453).         |      | harmony and the musical notation.
+                            |      |
+     Watches invented       | 1470 |   OCKEGHEM, or OCKENHEIM (Johann),
+      at Nürnberg           |      | born about 1430 in Hainault, Belgium;
+      (1477).               |      | died 1513. Founder of the newer
+     Inquisition in         |      | Netherlandish School, improver of
+      Spain (1480).         |      | harmony, and composer of Church music.
+                            |      |
+     Burgundy and           |      |   Obrecht, or Hobrecht (Jacob), born
+      Provence incorporated |      | about 1430 in Holland. Many
+      with France (1481).   |      | compositions for the Church.
+                            |      |
+                            |      |   Bernhard, a German residing in
+     The Medici govern      |      | Venice, is said to have invented the
+      in Florence;          |      | organ pedal.
+      flourishing           |      |
+      growth of the         |      |
+      arts & sciences       |      |
+      (1402-1537).          |      |
+     America discovered     | 1490 |   DÉPRÉS (Josquin des Prés), born
+      by Columbus           |      | about 1450 in France, died about 1521.
+      (1492).               |      | Pupil of Ockeghem. Many Masses and
+     Macchiavelli,          |      | other compositions for the Church.
+      historian (1469-1527).|      |
+                            |      |   Tinctor (Jean), born about 1450 at
+     Ludovico Ariosto,      |      | Nivelles, died about 1520. Founder of
+      poet (1474-1533).     |      | a School in Italy. Many Church
+                            |      | compositions.
+     Leonardo da            |      |
+      Vinci, painter        |      |   Gafforio (Franchino), born 1451 at
+      (1444-1519).          |      | Lodi, died 1522. Writer on the theory
+     Tiziano Vecelli,       |      | of music, and promoter of new rules
+      painter (1477-1576).  |      | of harmony.
+                            |      |
+     Rafael Sanzio,         |      |   Adam von Fulda, born about 1450 in
+      painter (1483-1520).  |      | Germany. Writes a treatise on the
+     Correggio (1494-1534). |      | newly-established theory of music, and
+     Albrecht Dürer         |      | composes music for the Church.
+      (1471-1528).          |      |
+                            |      |   Towards the end of the fifteenth
+                            |      | century Chairs of Professorship for
+     Newfoundland,          |      | music were instituted in different
+      the first British     |      | towns of Italy, especially in Milan
+      Colony in America,    |      | and Naples.
+      discovered            |      |
+      by Cabot              |      |
+      (1497).               |      |
+     Copernicus, astronomer |      |   In the beginning of the sixteenth
+      (1473-1543).          |      | century the Netherlandish music
+     Zwingli in Switzerland | 1500 | attains its highest reputation in
+      (1519).               |      | Italy (at the time of the Popes Julius
+     Gustav Wasa,           |      | II. and Leo X.), in Spain, France, and
+      King of Sweden        |      | Germany.
+      (1523).               |      |
+                            |      |   Petrucci (Ottaviano), of Fossombrone
+     Henry VIII., King      | 1502 | in Italy, invents the printing of
+      (1509-1547).          |      | musical notation with movable types.
+                            |      |
+     The highest degree     | 1520 |   WILLAERT (HADRIAN), born about
+      of perfection         |      | 1490, in Flanders, died 1563. Lived
+      of the                |      | in Rome and Venice. Founder of the
+      art of painting       |      | Venetian School. Composer of the first
+      in Italy.             |      | Masses for six and seven different
+                            |      | voices, of Masses for two and three
+                            |      | choruses, etc.
+                            |      |
+     The Netherlandish      | 1530 |   Aaron (Pietro), born about 1480 in
+      School of             |      | Florence. Contrapuntist, writer on the
+      Painting,             |      | theory of music, and composer of
+      founded by            |      | Church music.
+      Johann van            |      |
+      Eyk, about            |      |   Luther (Martin), born 1483 at
+      1350:--Floris,        |      | Eisleben, in Germany, died 1546.
+      Stradan, De           |      | Composes Chorales, and promotes
+      Vos, Spranger,        |      | congregational singing.
+      Peter & Franz         |      |
+      Porbus, Steenvyk,     |      |   Alterations in the old Church-songs
+      Vanbort,              |      | for the Reformed Church. Introduction
+      P. & J. Breughel,     |      | in German Churches of Chorales in the
+      Rubens                |      | German language.
+      (1577-1640).          |      |
+      Snyders, Momper,      |      |   Walther (Johann), born about 1490
+      David                 |      | in Saxony, died about 1555. German
+      Teniers, De           |      | Mass, many Chorales, etc.
+      Crayer, Gerhard       |      |
+      & Daniel              |      |   Senfl (Ludwig), born about 1490, at
+      Segers, Jordans,      |      | Basle in Switzerland, died about 1560.
+      Rombouts,             |      | Masses, Motetts, Chorales, etc.
+      Anton                 |      |
+      van Dyk (1598-1641).  |      |   Agricola (Martin), born 1486 in
+                            |      | Silesia, died 1556. Many vocal
+                            |      | compositions, and a treatise on
+                            |      | musical instruments.
+                            |      |
+     The Dutch School       |      |   Luscinius (Ottomar), properly
+      of Painting,          |      | Nachtigall, born 1487 at Strassburg,
+      founded by Lucas      |      | died about 1540. Treatises on music
+      of Leyden,            |      | and on the musical instruments of his
+      born 1494:--Van       |      | time.
+      Veen,                 |      |
+      Bloemart, Poelenburg, |      |   Glarean (Heinrich Lorit), born 1488
+      Wynants,              |      | in Switzerland, died 1563. Many
+      Vertange,             |      | essays on the History and Theory of
+      Hanesberge,           |      | Music.
+      etc.                  |      |
+                            |      |   Festa (Costanzo), born about 1490
+                            |      | at Rome. Many Motetts and other
+     Roman School           |      | Church music. Regarded as the
+      of Painting;          |      | precursor of Palestrina.
+      pupils of Rafael:--   |      |
+      Giulio Romano,        | 1540 |   Berchem (Jacob), called Giachetto di
+      Penni il Fattore,     |      | Mantua, born 1499 at Antwerp, died
+      Bagnacavallo, Del     |      | about 1580. Many Masses, Motetts,
+      Vaga, Caravaggio,     |      | etc.
+      Gemigniani,           |      |
+      Garofalo,             |      |   Gombert (Nicolas), born about 1500
+      etc.                  |      | in the Netherlands, died about 1570.
+                            |      | Many Masses, Motetts, and other sacred
+     Venetian School        |      | and secular compositions for four,
+      of Painting;          |      | five, and six different voices.
+      pupils of             |      |
+      Titian:--Del          |      |   Arcadelt (Jacques), born about 1500
+      Piombo, Palma         |      | in the Netherlands, died about 1570.
+      Vecchio, Lotto,       |      | Teacher in Rome. Many Masses,
+      Bordone, Pordenone,   |      | Motetts, Madrigals, etc.
+      Schiavone,            |      |
+      Bassano,              |      |   Clement (Jacques), called Clemens
+      Tintoretto,           |      | non Papa, born about 1500 in Flanders,
+      Poalo Veronese.       |      | died 1566. Masses and other sacred
+                            |      | compositions.
+     Florentine School      |      |
+      of Painting;          | 1550 |   Goudimel (Claude), born 1510 in
+      pupils of Da          |      | Flanders, died about 1572. Many
+      Vinci:--Luini,        |      | Psalms, Motetts, and other sacred
+      Salaino, Melzo,       |      | compositions, and
+      Fra Bartolomeo,       |      | also secular music. Much
+      Del Sarto,            |      | progress in Harmony. Founder of a
+      Peruzzi, Razzi,       |      | Music School in Rome.
+      Michel-Angelo.        |      |
+                            |      |
+     The Order of           |      |
+      Jesuits founded       |      |
+      by Ignaz Loyola       |      |   Morales (Christoforo), born about
+      (1540).               |      | 1510 at Seville in Spain, lived in
+                            |      | Rome. Many Masses, etc.
+     The Turks conquer      |      |
+      Tripoli               |      |
+      (1551).               |      |   Est (Michael), born about 1510 in
+                            |      | England. Many Psalms and Madrigals.
+     Death of Rabelais      |      |
+      (1553).               |      |
+                            |      |   Tallis (Thomas), born 1520 in
+     Philip II., King of    |      | England, died about 1585. Many sacred
+      Spain (1556).         |      | compositions.
+                            |      |
+     Foundation of the      |      |   Lossius (Lucas), born 1508 in
+      University of         |      | Germany, died 1582. Many Chorales, a
+      Jena (1558).          |      | treatise on music, etc.
+                            |      |
+     Holbein, painter       |      |
+      (1494-1554).          |      |
+                            |      |
+     Calais is lost to      |      |
+      England in the        |      |
+      reign of Mary         |      |
+      (1558).               |      |
+                            |      |
+     Queen Elizabeth        | 1560 |   Rore (Cyprian), called Vanrore, born
+      (1558-1603).          |      | 1516 at Malines, died 1565. Pupil of
+                            |      | Willaert, in Venice. Many sacred and
+     English authors:       |      | secular vocal compositions.
+      Spenser, poet         |      |
+      (1553-1598).          |      |   Waelrant (Hubert), born 1517 in the
+                            |      | Netherlands, died 1595. Many Church
+     Francis Bacon          |      | compositions. Improvement in the
+      (1561-1626).          |      | Solmisation.
+                            |      |
+     Shakespeare            |      |   LASSUS (ORLANDUS), properly Roland
+      (1564-1616).          |      | de Latre, born 1520 at Mons, in
+                            |      | Hainault, died 1594. A great number
+     Marlow, Green,         |      | of Church compositions of every kind,
+      Beaumont, Fletcher,   |      | of which 1572 are known.
+      Massinger:--          |      |
+      Dramatic poets        |      |   Kerle (Jacob), born about 1520 in
+      and contemporaries    |      | Flanders. Many Masses, etc.
+      of Shakespeare.       |      |
+                            |      |   Zarlino (Giuseppe), born 1519 at
+                            |      | Venice, died about 1590. Many Church
+                            |      | compositions. Great progress in
+     Calvin in Geneva       |      | Harmony. Several treatises on the
+      (1565).               |      | Theory of Music.
+                            |      |
+     Hans Sachs,            |      |   PALESTRINA (GIOVANNI PIERLUIGI DI),
+      Meistersänger         |      | born 1524 in Palestrina, died 1594.
+      (1494-1576).          |      | Reform of the Italian Church music by
+                            |      | means of purer harmony. Ennobling of
+     Tycho Brahe,           |      | the rude Netherlandish style. Many
+      Astronomer            |      | Masses, Hymns, Motetts, Litanies,
+      (1546-1601).          |      | Offertories, etc.--Palestrina's
+                            |      | celebrated Mass, known as Missa Papæ
+     The Counts Egmont      |      | Marcelli, which was performed in Rome
+      & Horn                |      | in the year 1565, had the effect of
+      beheaded at           |      | altering the opinion of many of the
+      Brussels (1568).      |      | ecclesiastics who at the Council of
+                            |      | Trent, in 1562, advocated the
+                            |      | banishment of all Figural music from
+                            |      | the Church.
+                            |      |
+     The first Puritans     | 1570 |   Faber (Heinrich), born 1525 at
+      and Presbyterians     |      | Brunswick, in Germany, died 1598.
+      (1571).               |      | Church compositions, and a treatise on
+                            |      | music.
+                            |      |
+     Massacre of St.        |      |   Lejeune (Claude), born about 1540
+      Bartholomew           |      | in the Netherlands, died about 1600.
+      (1572).               |      | Masses, Psalms, etc.
+                            |      |
+                            |      |   Nanini (Giovanni Maria), born about
+     First circumnavigation |      | 1540 at Vallerano, in Italy, died
+       of the               |      | 1607. Teacher of Counterpoint; many
+      world, by Drake       |      | Motetts for eight different voices,
+      (1577).               |      | and other Church compositions.
+                            |      |
+     North-America          | 1580 |   Morley (Thomas), born about 1540
+      English.              |      | in England, died 1604. Madrigals and
+                            |      | other vocal compositions. Instruction
+     Walter Raleigh         |      | book on music.
+      (1584).               |      |
+                            |      |   OPERA.--About the year 1580, a
+     Portugal is conquered  |      | number of professional musicians and
+      by the                |      | amateurs associated in the house of
+      Spaniards in          |      | Giovanni Bardi, Count of Vernio, at
+      1581, and remains     |      | Florence, with the object of reviving
+      a Spanish             |      | in the drama the musical declamation
+      Province until        |      | of the ancient Greeks. To this
+      1640.                 |      | association belonged the composers
+                            |      | Emilio del Cavalieri, Giacomo Peri,
+     The Netherlands        |      | Giulio Caccini, and the poet Ottavio
+      become independent    |      | Rinuccini. Their exertions resulted in
+      (1581).               |      | the production of the first Lyric
+                            |      | Opera, called 'Dafne,' the poetry of
+     The Gregorian          |      | which was by Rinuccini, and which was
+      Calendar introduced   |      | performed at Florence in the year
+      into all              |      | 1594. Soon followed the first
+      the Roman             |      | Tragic Opera, 'Euridice,' the poetry
+      Catholic States       |      | of which being by Rinuccini, and
+      of Europe             |      | the music by Peri and Caccini. The
+      (1582).               |      | next Operas were 'Il Satiro' and 'La
+                            |      | Disperazione di Filano,' both with
+     Elizabeth, Queen       |      | music by Cavalieri. Meanwhile, Orazio
+      of England,           |      | Vecchi attempted to compose a kind of
+      causes Mary,          |      | Comic Opera, entitled 'L'Anfiparnasso,
+      Queen of Scots,       |      | Commedia Armonica,' which was
+      to be beheaded        |      | performed at Modena in the year 1594.
+      at Fotheringay        |      | The songs of these operas partook of
+      Castle (1587).        |      | the character of the recitative, and
+                            |      | they were accompanied by a few
+     Defeat of the          |      | instruments.
+      Spanish Armada        |      |
+      in the                |      |
+      English Channel       |      |
+      (1588).               |      |
+                            |      |
+     Janson, of Middlebourg,| 1590 |   Gabrieli (Giovanni), born about 1550
+      invents               |      | at Venice, died 1612. Many Church
+      spectacles            |      | compositions.
+      and telescopes        |      |
+      (1590).               |      |
+                            |      |   Marenzio (Luca), born about 1550 at
+                            |      | Brescia, died 1594. Motetts,
+     Torquato Tasso         |      | Madrigals, etc.
+      (1544-1595).          |      |
+                            |      |   Bird (William), born 1546 in
+                            |      | England, died 1623. Masses, Graduales,
+                            |      | Madrigals.
+                            |      |
+     First Edition of       |      |   Weelkes (Thomas), born about 1550
+      Bacon's 'Essays'      |      | in England. Madrigals and other vocal
+      published             |      | compositions.
+      (1597).               |      |
+                            |      |   Eccard (Johann), born about 1545 in
+                            |      | Thuringia, Germany. Pupil of Orlando
+                            |      | di Lasso. Many Church songs.
+     Edict of Nantes.       |      |
+      Religious Liberty     |      |
+      (1598).               |      |   Gallus (Johann Peter), properly
+                            |      | Händl, born about 1550 at Krain, in
+                            |      | Austria, died 1591. Many sacred songs.
+                            |      |
+     Incorporation by       | 1600 |   Vittoria (Tomaso Ludovico della),
+      Royal Charter         |      | born about 1560 in Spain, died about
+      of the English        |      | 1608. Many Church compositions.
+      East India            |      |
+      Company               |      |   Dowland (John), born 1562 in
+      (1600).               |      | England, died 1615. Virtuoso on the
+                            |      | lute. Many vocal compositions.
+     Lopez de Vega,         |      |
+      dramatic poet,        |      |   Bull (John), born 1563 in England,
+      in Spain (1562-1635). |      | died 1622. Organist. Vocal
+                            |      | compositions and Organ pieces.
+     James VI. of           |      |
+      Scotland, son         |      |   Vulpius (Melchior), born about 1560
+      of Mary Stuart,       |      | in Germany, died 1616. Chorales and
+      succeeds Queen        |      | other sacred songs.
+      Elizabeth of          |      |
+      England as            |      |
+      James I. (1603).      |      |   Calvisius (Sethus), born 1556 in
+                            |      | Thuringia, Germany, died 1615. Many
+     First French           |      | Church compositions, and also
+      Colony in             |      | theoretical works.
+      Canada (1604).        |      |
+                            |      |   Schultz (Hieronymus), called
+     First permanent        |      | Prætorius, born 1560 at Hamburg, died
+      British settlement    |      | 1629. Motetts, etc.
+      in North              |      |
+      America, formed       |      |   From about 1600 to 1725, the
+      by "the               |      | celebrated Violin Makers of Cremona,
+      London Company"       |      | in Italy:--Amati, Guarneri,
+      under                 |      | Stradivari, etc.
+      charter from          |      |
+      James I. (1607).      |      |
+                            |      |
+     Bacon publishes        |      |   The most popular instruments about
+      his Advancement       |      | the year 1600 were: The lute, cither,
+      of Learning           |      | spinet, virginal, clavichord,
+      (1605).               |      | flûte-à-bec, cornet, etc.
+                            |      |
+     Guy Fawkes             | 1605 |   Viadana (Ludovico), born 1560 in
+      Gunpowder             |      | Italy, died 1625. Many Church
+      Plot (1605).          |      | compositions, and the first Church
+                            |      | concertos and Solo songs for the
+     Third recorded         |      | Church. Viadana is said to have
+      appearance of         |      | invented, in the year 1605, the
+      the comet afterwards  |      | thorough-bass, or indication of the
+      known                 |      | Harmony by marking the bass with
+      as Halley's           |      | figures; but this invention is also
+      Comet (1607).         |      | ascribed to Ottavio Catalano, born
+                            |      | about 1595 in Sicily.
+                            |      |
+     Thermometers           | 1610 |   MONTEVERDE (CLAUDIO), born 1565
+      are invented          |      | at Cremona, died 1649. Masses,
+      about this time       |      | Madrigals, and also secular songs. The
+      by Drebbel, of        |      | most important steps towards the
+      Alkmaer, Paulo        |      | development of the modern music by new
+      Sarpi, and Sanctorio. |      | licenses in the Harmony. Invention of
+                            |      | the Tremolo of the violins, etc.
+     Cervantes, author      |      |
+      of Don Quixote,       |      |
+      etc. (1547-1616).     |      |   Cerone (Dominico Pietro), born 1566
+                            |      | at Bergamo, died 1620. Many
+     English poets:--Milton,|      | theoretical treatises.
+      Dryden,               |      |
+      Butler,               |      |   Prætorius (Michael), born 1571 in
+      Otway, Prior,         |      | Thuringia, Germany, died 1621. Many
+      Cowley, Denham.       |      | Masses, Psalms, Hymns, and a musical
+                            |      | treatise.
+                            |      |
+     The telescope is       |      |   Walliser (Christoph Thomas), born
+      first applied to      |      | about 1571 at Strassburg, died 1648.
+      astronomical          |      | Church compositions, and a treatise on
+      purposes by           |      | Harmony and on the Fugue.
+      Galileo, at Padua.    |      |
+      Discoveries           |      |
+      of the satellites     | 1620 |   Frescobaldi (Gieronimo), born about
+      of Jupiter,           |      | 1580 in Italy, died 1640. Organist.
+      and the spots         |      | Many Church compositions, Madrigals,
+      in the sun (1610).    |      | Organ compositions, Fugues, Ricercari,
+                            |      | etc.
+                            |      |
+     Tea is brought         |      |   Vieira (Antonio), born about 1580 in
+      from India by         |      | Portugal, died in 1650. Many Church
+      the Dutch; it         |      | compositions for eight different
+      is introduced         |      | voices.
+      into England in       |      |
+      1666.                 |      |   Allegri (Gregorio), born about 1580
+                            |      | at Rome, died 1652. Many Church
+                            |      | compositions. The Miserere of the
+                            |      | Vatican.
+                            |      |
+     The present authorized |      |   Carissimi (Giacomo), born about 1582
+      English               |      | at Padua, died about 1673. Many
+      version of            |      | Masses, some of which are for twelve
+      the Bible is          |      | different voices, and other Church
+      published, and is     |      | compositions. Improver of the
+      called "King          |      | Recitative. The first important
+      James's Bible"        |      | Oratorios and Cantatas in Italy.
+      (1611).               |      |
+                            |      |   Kapsberger (Johann Hieronymus),
+     Settlement of          |      | born about 1575 in Germany, died 1650.
+      New York, in          |      | Lived in Italy. Church compositions,
+      North America,        |      | and Instruction books for playing the
+      by the Dutch          |      | Lute and the Guitar.
+      (1614).               |      |
+                            |      |   Gibbons (Orlando), born 1583 at
+     Emigration of          |      | Cambridge, died 1625. Many Church
+      the Puritans to       |      | compositions, Anthems, Madrigals, etc.
+      New England;          |      |
+      they found            |      |
+      New Plymouth          |      |
+      (1620).               |      |
+                            |      |
+     Charles I. succeeds    | 1627 |   Schütz (Heinrich von), called
+      James I.,             |      | Sagittarius, born 1585 in Germany,
+      King of England,      |      | died 1672. Many Motetts, Psalms, and
+      after the             |      | also Operas. In the year 1627 the
+      death of the          |      | Opera Dafne, by Rinuccini (see above,
+      latter, in 1625.      |      | date 1580), having been translated
+      Disputes between      |      | into German by Opitz, and composed
+      King                  |      | anew by Schütz, was performed in
+      Charles I. and        |      | Dresden as the first German Opera.
+      his Parliament.       |      |
+      Civil war begins      |      |   Mazzocchi (Domenico), born about
+      in 1642. Last         |      | 1590 at Castellana, in Italy.
+      general assembly      |      | Oratorios, Madrigals for five
+      of the Hanseatic      |      | different voices with instrumental
+      cities of             |      | accompaniments. Introduced signs of
+      Germany. Lübeck,      |      | expression in the notation.
+      Hamburg               |      |
+      and Bremen            |      |
+      continue united.      |      |
+                            |      |
+     Kepler, Astronomer     | 1630 |   Mazzocchi (Virgilio), brother of the
+      (1571-1630).          |      | preceding, born about 1595, died 1646.
+                            |      | Many Church compositions. The first
+     Gustavus Adolphus      |      | development of the melody in the
+      dies on               |      | present sense.
+      the battle-field      |      |
+      at Lutzen             |      |   Doni (Giovanni Battista), born 1593
+      (1632).               |      | at Florence, died 1674. Treatises on
+                            |      | the music of the ancient Greeks and on
+     Wallenstein            |      | that of his time.
+      assassinated at       |      |
+      Eyer (1634).          |      |   Jenkins (John), born 1592 in Kent,
+                            |      | England, died 1678. Virtuoso on the
+     Rubens, Vandyck,       |      | Viola da Gamba. Many compositions
+      Domenichino,          |      | for his instrument and also vocal
+      painters (1620).      |      | music.
+                            |      |
+     Ben Jonson, dramatist  |      |
+      (1620).               |      |
+                            |      |
+     Lope de Vega,          |      |   Schein (Johann Hermann), born 1586
+      Spanish writer        |      | in Germany, died 1630. Chorales,
+      (1620).               |      | Madrigals, Secular Songs, etc.
+                            |      |
+     Galileo is condemned   |      |   Scheidt (Samuel), born 1587 at
+      by the                |      | Halle, in Germany, died 1654.
+      Inquisition of        |      | Contrapuntist. Many Church
+      Rome as guilty        |      | compositions as well as pieces for the
+      of heresy for         |      | Organ and Clavichord.
+      upholding the         |      |
+      Copernican            |      |   Mersenne (Marie), born 1588 in
+      system, and           |      | France, died 1640. Treatises on
+      compelled to          |      | Harmony, Acoustics, and Musical
+      abjure it (1633).     |      | History.
+                            |      |
+     Richelieu founds       |      |
+      the French Academy    |      |
+      (1635).               |      |
+                            |      |
+     Death of Cardinal      | 1640 |   Lawes (Henry), born 1600 in England,
+      Richelieu (1642).     |      | died 1662. Psalms and Secular
+                            |      | songs.
+     Louis XIV. (styled     |      |
+      _Dieu-donné_),        |      |
+      King of France        |      |
+      (1643-1715).          |      |
+                            |      |
+     The Pendulum is        |      |   Kircher (Pater Athanasius), born
+      applied to            |      | 1602 at Fulda, in Germany, died 1680.
+      clocks by             |      | Several treatises on music.
+      Richard Harris        |      |
+      and the younger       |      |
+      Galileo               |      |
+      (1641).               |      |
+                            |      |
+     Charles I. beheaded    | 1645 |   The first Italian Opera in Paris,
+      (1649).               |      | ordered from Italy by Cardinal
+                            |      | Mazarin.
+     Oliver Cromwell,       | 1650 |   Sabattini (Galeazzo), born about
+      Protector of          |      | 1610 in Italy. Litanies, Madrigals,
+      the Commonwealth      |      | and other vocal music.
+      (1653).               |      |
+                            |      |
+     Portugal takes         |      |   Dumont (Henri), born 1610 at Liége,
+      possession of         |      | Belgium, died 1684. Masses and other
+      the Brazils           |      | Church compositions. Innovation of
+      (1654).               |      | the employment of instrumental
+                            |      | accompaniments to the Mass.
+     Calderon de la         |      |
+      Barca, dramatic       |      |   Child (William), born 1608 at
+      poet in               |      | Bristol, in England, died 1696. Psalms
+      Spain (1601-1687).    |      | and other sacred vocal music, and
+                            |      | secular songs.
+     Dutch and Flemish      |      |
+      Painters:--Eykens,    |      |   Simpson (Christopher), born about
+      Sachtleven,           |      | 1610 in England, died about 1670.
+      Rembrandt,            |      | Instruction book on the Viola da
+      Douw                  |      | Gamba, on the Theory of Music, etc.
+      Swanevelt,            |      |
+      Wouvermann,           |      |
+      Berghem, Paul         |      |
+      Potter, etc.          |      |   Hammerschmiedt (Andreas), born
+     Restoration of         |      | 1611 in Bohemia, died 1675. Many
+      Charles II.           |      | Masses and other sacred compositions.
+      (1660).               |      |
+                            |      |   Cesti (Marc-Antonio), born in 1620
+     Spain takes possession |      | at Florence, died 1681. Nine Operas.
+      of Havannah           |      | Progress in the development of
+      (1662).               |      | operatic music.
+                            |      |
+     The French, commanded  |      |   Eccles (John), born about 1620 in
+      by                    |      | England. Several Operas, songs, etc.
+      Turenne, victorious   |      |
+      upon                  |      |   Lock (Matthew), born about 1620 in
+      the Rhine             |      | England, died 1677. Sacred music and
+      (1663).               |      | dramatic compositions.
+                            |      |
+     Plague in London       |      |
+      (1665).               |      |
+                            |      |
+     Great fire of London   |      |
+      (1666).               |      |
+                            |      |
+     Flourishing state      | 1670 |   Stradella (Alessandro), born 1645 at
+      of France             |      | Naples, died 1678. An Oratorio and
+      owing to her          |      | some Operas.
+      industry & commerce   |      |
+      (1670).               |      |   Kerl (Johann Caspar von), born about
+                            |      | 1625 in Saxony, died about 1690.
+     The Turks in           |      | Masses and organ compositions.
+      Hungary invade        |      |
+      Poland                |      |   Meibom (Marcus), born 1626 in
+      (1670).               |      | Schleswig, died 1711. Many Treatises
+                            |      | on the Music of the Ancient Greeks.
+                            |      |
+     Death of Molière       | 1672 |   LULLI (GIOVANNI BATTISTA), born
+      (1673).               |      | 1633 at Florence, died 1687 at Paris.
+                            |      | Founder of the older French operatic
+     De Ruyter, the         |      | music. Composed 19 Operas and 26
+      Dutch Admiral,        |      | ballets. His first French Opera was
+      dies (1675).          |      | performed at Paris in the year 1672.
+                            |      |
+     William Penn           | 1680 |   Frohberger (Johann Jacob), born 1637
+      founds Pennsylvania   |      | at Halle, Germany, died 1695.
+      (1681).               |      | Organist. Many compositions for the
+                            |      | organ and the clavichord.
+     Vienna is besieged     |      |
+      by the                |      |   Buxtehude (Dietrich), born about
+      Turks (1683).         |      | 1640 in Germany, died 1707. Many
+                            |      | Organ compositions.
+     Death of Corneille     |      |
+      (1684).               |      |   Gasparini (Michael-Angelo), born at
+                            |      | Lucca, in Italy, during the second
+     The Huguenots          |      | half of the seventeenth century, died
+      expelled from         |      | in 1732. Many Operas. Founder of a
+      France (1685).        |      | School of Singing at Venice.
+                            |      |
+     Peter the Great,       |      |   Steffani (Agostino), called Gregoria
+      Czar of Russia        |      | Piva, born about 1650, at Venice, died
+      (from 1682 to         |      | 1730. Masses and other sacred
+      1725).                |      | compositions, Operas, vocal duets.
+                            |      |
+     William III.,          | 1690 |   Baj (Tomaso), born about 1650, at
+      Prince of             |      | Bologna, died 1714. Many sacred
+      Orange, and           |      | compositions. A Miserere for the
+      Mary (daughter        |      | Vatican, which is sometimes performed
+      of James I.) his      |      | instead of that by Allegri.
+      wife, declared        |      |
+      King and Queen        |      |   Corelli (Arcangelo), born 1653 at
+      of England            |      | Fusignano, in Italy, died 1713.
+      (1688).               |      | Violinist. Many concertos, etc.
+                            |      |
+     Charles XII. King      |      |   Blow (John), born 1648 at
+      of Sweden from        |      | Nottingham, died 1708. Many anthems,
+      1697 to 1718.         |      | psalms, etc.
+                            |      |
+     Alsace becomes         |      |   Purcell (Henry), born 1658 in
+      French (1697).        |      | London, died 1695. About 17 English
+                            |      | Operas, secular songs, anthems and
+     Death of Racine        |      | other sacred compositions.
+      (1699).               |      |
+                            |      |   Krieger (Adam), born 1646 at
+     Locke, philosopher,    |      | Nürnberg, died 1725. Operas, etc.
+      English               |      |
+      (1632-1704).          |      |
+                            |      |
+     Charles XII.,          | 1700 |   SCARLATTI (ALESSANDRO), born 1659
+      King of Sweden,       |      | at Trapani, in Sicily, died 1725.
+      at war                |      | Composed 115 Operas, 200 Masses,
+      with Denmark,         |      | several Oratorios, many sacred and
+      Poland, and           |      | secular cantatas, etc. Invention of
+      Russia. He            |      | the Recitative with orchestral
+      forces the King       |      | accompaniment; of a greater
+      of Denmark to         |      | combination of orchestral instruments
+      conclude a            |      | than hitherto; of the Da-Capo,
+      peace with him,       |      | or repetition of the theme; and of
+      and defeats the       |      | several other essential innovations.
+      Russians on the       |      |
+      banks of the          |      |   Desmarets (Henri), born 1662 at
+      Narva (1700).         |      | Paris, died 1741. About 8 Operas.
+                            |      |
+     Queen Anne             |      |
+      (1702).               |      |
+                            |      |
+     Battle of Blenheim,    |      |   Brossard (Sébastien de), born 1660,
+      or Höchstadt,         |      | probably at Strassburg, died 1730.
+      gained by             |      | Many Masses, a Dictionary of Music.
+      the Duke of           |      | Brossard's Dictionary, which was
+      Marlborough &         |      | published in 1703, is generally
+      Prince Eugene         |      | regarded as the earliest work
+      over the French       |      | of its kind. Tinctor,
+      and Bavarians         |      | however, already in the
+      (1704).               |      | fifteenth century compiled
+                            |      | a collection of the definitions
+     Gibraltar taken        |      | of the musical terms in use at his
+      by the English        |      | time; and Janowka published at Prague
+      (1707).               |      | a Musical Dictionary in Latin, two
+     Union of England       |      | years previous to the appearance of
+      and Scotland          |      | Brossard's work, which is in French.
+      by Treaty             |      |
+      (1707).               |      |   Fux (Johann Joseph), born 1660 in
+                            |      | Austria, died about 1732. Composed
+     Peter the Great        |      | 17 Operas, 26 Masses, 3 Requiems, 1
+      defeats Charles       |      | Stabat Mater, 10 Oratorios, above 170
+      XII. at Pultowa       |      | other sacred compositions; likewise,
+      (1709).               |      | instrumental pieces, a work on the
+                            |      | theory of music (Gradus ad
+                            |      | Parnassum), etc.
+                            |      |
+     Herculaneum discovered | 1710 |   Gasparini (Francesco), born about
+      (1711).               |      | 1665 at Lucca, died 1727. Many
+                            |      | Operas, Cantatas, etc. Teacher in
+     Peace of Utrecht       |      | counterpoint of Domenico Scarlatti
+      (1713).               |      | and Marcello.
+                            |      |
+     Death of Fénélon       |      |   Lotti (Antonio), born about 1665 at
+      (1715).               |      | Venice, died 1740. Nineteen Operas,
+                            |      | many church compositions and
+     Defoe, author of       |      | madrigals.
+      'Robinson Crusoe.'    |      |   Vivaldi (Antonio), born about 1670
+                            |      | at Venice, died about 1743. Twenty-six
+     Saunderson and         |      | Operas, violin concertos, and many
+      Brook Taylor, English |      | other instrumental pieces.
+      mathematicians.       |      |
+                            |      |   Bononcini (Giovanni), born about
+     Prior, Congreve,       |      | 1672 at Modena, died 1750. Composed
+      and Parnell,          |      | about 23 Operas. For a time rival of
+      English Poets.        |      | Handel in London.
+                            |      |
+     George, Elector        |      |   Couperin (François), born 1668 at
+      of Hanover,           |      | Paris, died 1733. Organist. Many organ
+      becomes King          |      | and clavecin (harpsichord)
+      of England, as        |      | compositions.
+      George I.             |      |
+      (1714).               |      |   Keiser (Reinhard), born 1673 at
+                            |      | Leipzig, died 1739. Many Operas, many
+                            |      | Oratorios and other sacred
+     Prince Eugene          |      | compositions, etc. He is said to have
+      defeats the           |      | composed 116 Operas, partly to German,
+      Turks at              |      | and partly to Italian words.
+      Peterwardein in       |      |
+      Austrian Slavonia     |      |   Pepusch (Johann Christoph), born
+      (1716).               |      | 1667 at Berlin, died 1732. Cantatas
+                            |      | and other sacred music.
+     Prince Eugene          |      |
+      defeats the           |      |   Leveridge (Richard) born 1670 in
+      Turks at Belgrade     |      | London, died 1758. Operas and songs.
+      (1717).               |      |
+                            |      |
+     Charles XII.,          | 1720 |   Caldara (Antonio), born 1678 at
+      King of Sweden,       |      | Venice, died 1763. Sixty-seven Operas,
+      is killed at          |      | many Masses and other sacred
+      the Siege of          |      | compositions.
+      Frederickshall,       |      |
+      in Norway             |      |   Astorga (Emanuale), born 1681 at
+      (1718).               |      | Palermo, Sicily, died 1736. Several
+                            |      | Operas, a Requiem and many other
+                            |      | sacred compositions.
+     English authors:       |      |
+      Pope (1688-1744);     |      |
+      Swift                 |      |   Geminiani (Francesco), born 1680 at
+      (1667-1744);          |      | Lucca, died 1762. Violinist. Many
+      Young (1684-1765);    |      | compositions for his instrument.
+      Thomson               |      |
+      (1700-1748);          |      |   Scarlatti (Domenico), son of
+      Fielding              |      | Alessandro Scarlatti, born in 1683 at
+      (1707-1754);          |      | Naples, died about 1760.
+      Johnson (1713-1784);  |      | Clavicembalist. Many compositions for
+      Goldsmith             |      | his instrument.
+      (1728-1774);          |      |
+      Sterne                |      |   Rameau (Jean Philippe), born 1683 at
+      (1713-1768);          |      | Dijon, died 1764. Composed 36 Operas,
+      Hogarth, painter      |      | many motetts and other sacred vocal
+      (1698-1764).          |      | compositions, as well as pieces for
+                            |      | the organ and for the clavecin
+     Death of the           |      | (harpsichord). Several theoretical
+      Duke of Marlborough,  |      | works. A new System of Harmony.
+      born                  |      | Progress in operatic music.
+      1650 (1722).          |      |
+                            |      |   Mattheson (Johann), born 1681 at
+     Death of Peter         |      | Hamburg, died 1764. Seven Operas, 24
+      the Great             |      | Oratorios, several other sacred
+      (1725).               |      | compositions, and a great many works
+                            |      | on the theory and history of music.
+     George II., King       |      |
+      of Great Britain,     |      |   Telemann (Georg Philipp), born 1681
+      succeeds              |      | at Magdeburg, in Germany, died 1767.
+      his father,           |      | Composed 44 Operas, many Oratorios
+      George I., who        |      | and other sacred compositions, secular
+      died, aged 68         |      | instrumental pieces, etc.
+      (1727).               |      |
+                            |      |   Heinichen (Johann David), born
+     Fahrenheit, improver   |      | 1683 in Saxony, died 1729. Operas,
+      of the                |      | sacred and secular compositions.
+      thermometer           |      | Treatise on the Theory of Music.
+      (1724).               |      |
+                            |      |
+     Réaumur, improver      |      |
+      of the                |      |
+      thermometer           |      |
+      (1731).               |      |
+                            |      |
+     The Jesuits are        |      |   Walther (Johann Gottfried), born
+      expelled from         |      | 1684 at Erfurt, died 1748. Organ
+      China (1724).         |      | compositions, chorales, and a Musical
+                            |      | Dictionary.
+     Isaac Newton           |      |
+      (1642-1727).          |      |
+                            |      |
+     Swift publishes        |      |   About this time, the first
+      his 'Gulliver's       |      | Pianofortes were constructed by
+      Travels' (1726).      |      | Christofori, in Italy, and by
+                            |      | Schröter, in Germany.
+                            |      |
+     Pope publishes         | 1730 |   Marcello (Benedetto), born 1686 at
+      his 'Essay on         |      | Venice, died 1739. Composed fifty
+      Man' (1729).          |      | Psalms, several Oratorios, Masses,
+                            |      | etc.
+                            |      |
+     Thomson publishes      |      |   Porpora (Nicolo), born 1687 at
+      his 'Seasons'         |      | Naples, died 1767. Great singing
+      (1730).               |      | teacher. Composed fifty Operas, many
+                            |      | Masses, etc.
+     Arbuthnot and Sir      |      |
+      Hans Sloane,          |      |   Tartini (Giuseppe) born 1692 at
+      English physicians    |      | Pirano, died 1770. Violinist and
+      (1730).               |      | composer. Author of a Treatise on
+                            |      | Harmony.
+                            |      |
+     Le Sage, author of     |      |   Leo (Leonardo), born 1694 at Naples,
+      'Gil Blas' (1730).    |      | died 1756. Composed forty-eight
+                            |      | Operas, several Oratorios, Masses, and
+     Jonathan Swift,        |      | other sacred music. He wrote for his
+      Dean of St.           |      | Operas larger overtures than previous
+      Patrick's, poet       |      | composers had done.
+      and miscellaneous     |      |
+      writer (1730).        |      |   Carey (Henry), born about 1690 in
+                            |      | England, died 1743. Many songs. He
+     Harrison, an           |      | is supposed to have composed in the
+      Englishman,           |      | year 1740 the English national air of
+      constructs            |      | 'God save the King.'
+      a chronometer of      |      |
+      great precision       |      |   HANDEL (GEORG FRIEDRICH), properly
+      (1735). His           |      | Händel, born 1685 at Halle, died 1759
+      fourth chronometer    |      | in London. Composed fifty-one Operas
+      is used at sea        |      | (forty-three having Italian words
+      in 1764, and he       |      | and eight having German words), twenty
+      receives a reward     |      | English Oratorios, many cantatas,
+      of £20,000.           |      | motetts, anthems, a Mass, four Te
+                            |      | Deums, concertos, instrumental
+                            |      | compositions for the organ,
+     Frederick III.,        |      | harpsichord, etc.
+      Elector of            |      |
+      Brandenburg, and      |      |   The concertos of that period
+      Duke of Prussia,      |      | consisted of orchestral pieces with or
+      in an assembly of     |      | without an organ concertante; or of
+      the states, puts      |      | violin-quintetts with double-bass;
+      a crown upon his      |      | or also of pieces for the
+      own head, and         |      | harpsichord accompanied
+      upon the head         |      | by a quartett of stringed
+      of his consort,       |      | instruments, etc.
+      and is proclaimed     |      |
+      King of Prussia,      |      |
+      by the title of       |      |
+      Frederick             |      |
+      I. (1701).            |      |
+                            |      |   During the eighteenth
+     German poets and       |      | century, most of the German
+      authors:--            |      | Opera composers of distinction
+      Elias Schlegel,       |      | wrote chiefly to Italian words.
+      Gellert, Hagedorn,    |      | Every German town in which
+      Rabener,              |      | a Sovereign resided had an
+      Rammler, Kleist,      |      | Italian Opera. The German art of
+      Weisse, Bürger,       |      | singing began to flourish
+      Hölty, Stollberg,     |      | only about the year 1760. Even
+      Voss,                 |      | Mozart wrote but two Operas to German
+      Gleim, Jacoby,        |      | words. The German composers
+      Uz, Gerstenberg,      |      | (Handel, Gluck, Hasse, Mozart, etc.)
+      Gotter,               |      | studied dramatic music in Italy.
+      Claudius, Gessner.    |      |
+                            |      |   BACH (JOHANN SEBASTIAN), born
+     Frederick William I,   |      | 1685 at Eisenach, in Germany, died
+      King of Prussia,      |      | 1750 at Leipzig. Composed several
+      son of                |      | Oratorios, many Masses, a great many
+      Frederick I.          |      | motetts, cantatas, chorales, etc.;
+      (1713).               |      | many compositions for the organ,
+                            |      | clavichord, clavicembalo
+     First attempt of       |      | (harpsichord), and for the orchestra.
+      Steam Navigation,     |      | The first book of his Preludes
+      by Jonathan           |      | and Fugues for the clavichord,
+      Hulls                 |      | entitled 'Das Wohltemperirte Clavier,'
+      (1736).               |      | dates from the year 1722, and the
+                            |      | second book from the year 1740. He
+     John Wesley,           |      | composed the Passion according to
+      founder of the        |      | St. Matthew, about the year 1728; the
+      sect of Methodists    |      | great Mass in B minor, about 1734;
+      (1730).               |      | the Art of Fugue, in the year 1748.
+                            |      |
+                            |      |   Stölzel (Gottfried Heinrich), born
+     George Whitfield,      |      | 1690 in Bohemia, died 1749. Several
+      founder of the        |      | Operas, Oratorios, Masses, and
+      sect of Calvinistic   |      | Treatises on the Theory and History of
+      Methodists,           |      | Music.
+      preaches in           |      |
+      London in the         |      |
+      open air (1738).      |      |
+                            |      |
+     The Methodist          |      |
+      Society is fully      |      |
+      established           |      |   Pergolesi (Giovanni Battista), born
+      (1740).               |      | 1710 at Jesi, died 1736. Composed 7
+                            |      | Operas, a Stabat Mater, several
+     Italian Painters of    | 1740 | Masses, offertories, etc.
+      this period:--Rotari, |      |
+      Casanova,             |      |   Durante (Francesco), born 1693 at
+      Landi,                |      | Naples, died 1755. Composed Masses
+      Grassi, Appiani,      |      | and other sacred music, secular
+      Bossi, Sabatelli,     |      | madrigals, pieces for the
+      Ermini, Alvarez,      |      | clavicembalo, etc.
+      Camoccini,            |      |
+      etc.                  |      |   Durante, was with Leo, the founder
+                            |      | of the famous Neapolitan School.
+                            |      |
+     Frederick II.,         |      |   Feo (Francesco), born 1699 at
+      King of Prussia       |      | Naples. Operas, Oratorios, Masses,
+      (from 1740 until      |      | Psalms. Feo is especially remarkable
+      1786).                |      | for being regarded as the master whom
+                            |      | Gluck particularly admired and
+     First Silesian         |      | studied.
+      war (1740-1742).      |      |
+                            |      |   Greene (Maurice), born 1698 in
+                            |      | London, died 1755. Many sacred
+     Second Silesian        |      | compositions and some English Operas.
+      war (1744-1745).      |      |
+                            |      |
+     Maria-Theresa,         |      |   Quanz (Johann Joachim), born 1697 at
+      Empress of            |      | Hanover, died 1773. Flute-player, and
+      Germany,              |      | teacher of Frederick II. of Prussia.
+      Queen of Hungary      |      | Many compositions, and an instruction
+      and Bohemia           |      | book for the Flute.
+      (1740).               |      |
+                            |      |   Graun (Carl Heinrich), born 1701 in
+     Francis I., Duke       |      | Saxony, died 1759. Composed 30 Operas,
+      of Lorraine,          |      | several Oratorios, Masses, cantatas,
+      marries               |      | etc.
+      Maria-Theresa, and is |      |
+      elected Emperor       |      |   Hasse (Johann Adolf), born 1699 at
+      of Germany            |      | Hamburg, died 1783. Composed 52
+      (1745).               |      | Operas, 11 Oratorios, several Masses,
+                            |      | a Requiem, 4 Te Deums, various other
+     During the reign       |      | sacred compositions, symphonies,
+      of Frederick II.      |      | sonatas for the clavichord, concertos,
+      or 'Frederick         |      | etc.
+      the Great,' the       |      |
+      Prussian monarchy     |      |   Galuppi (Baldassaro), born 1703 at
+      is made               |      | Venice, died 1785. Composed 55
+      to rank among         |      | Operas, several Masses, motetts, and
+      the first powers      |      | other sacred music.
+      in Europe.            |      |
+                            |      |   Sammartini (Giovanni Battista), born
+     Battle of Dettingen    |      | about 1700 at Milan, died 1775. Many
+      gained                |      | Masses and other Church music, many
+      by George II.         |      | symphonies, quartetts, trios, and
+      over the              |      | other instrumental compositions of
+      French (1743).        |      | every kind. Sammartini wrote about
+                            |      | 2,800 works, and his style is
+     The electric           |      | considered as being the precursor of
+      shock is discovered   |      | that of Joseph Haydn.
+      at Leyden             |      |
+      (1745).               |      |   From about the middle of the
+                            |      | eighteenth century, the sonata-form
+     German poets:          |      | in instrumental compositions (sonatas,
+      Salis, Matthison,     |      | symphonies, quartetts, etc.) becomes
+      Pfeffel,              |      | much developed, especially through
+      Kind, Langbein,       |      | Joseph Haydn.
+      Seume,                |      |
+      Schubert,             |      |
+      Tiedge, etc.          |      |
+                            |      |
+     Lima and Callao        |      |
+      are destroyed         |      |
+      by an earthquake      |      |
+      which                 |      |
+      buries 18,000         |      |
+      persons in the        |      |
+      ruins (1746).         |      |
+                            |      |
+     Linnæus, naturalist    | 1750 |   The flourishing period of the
+      (1750).               |      | Italian operatic music dates from
+                            |      | about the year 1700 to 1780. The most
+     The Academy of         |      | celebrated writers of libretti were
+      Sciences at           |      | Apostolo Zeno and Metastasio. The most
+      Stockholm,            |      | celebrated female singers: Faustina,
+      and the Royal         |      | Cuzzoni, Mattei, Scotti, Grassi,
+      Society at Göttingen, |      | Gabrieli, Agujari, Danci, Allegrante,
+      are founded (1750).   |      | Storace, etc. The most celebrated
+     Samuel Johnson         |      | male singers: Lovattini, Guarducci,
+      commences the         |      | Farinelli, Nicolini, Guadagni,
+      publication of        |      | Millico, Pacchiarotti, Morelli,
+      his 'Rambler'         |      | Marchesi, Salimbeni, Crescentini, etc.
+      (1750).               |      |
+                            |      |
+     Lady W. Montague,      |      |   Martini (Giovanni Battista), Padre,
+      and Lord              |      | born 1706 at Bologna, died 1784.
+      Chesterfield,         |      | Many sacred compositions, History of
+      miscellaneous         |      | Music, School of Harmony, and other
+      writers (1750).       |      | literary works on music.
+                            |      |
+     New style introduced   |      |   Perez (Davide), born 1711 at Naples,
+      into                  |      | died 1778. Composed 31 Operas.
+      England (1752).       |      |
+                            |      |   Jomelli (Nicolo), born 1714 at
+     Death of Montesquieu   |      | Aversa, died 1774. Composed 40 Operas,
+      (1755).               |      | 4 Oratorios, several Masses, Requiems,
+                            |      | etc.
+     Great earthquake       |      |
+      at Lisbon (1755).     |      |   Rousseau (Jean Jacques), born 1712
+                            |      | at Geneva, in Switzerland, died 1778.
+     Voltaire at the        |      | Author. Some French Operas. Many
+      Court of Frederick    |      | Treatises on Music. Musical
+      of Prussia            |      | Dictionary. Invention of the melodrama
+      (from 1750 until      |      | ascribed to him.
+      1753).                |      |
+                            |      |   Arne (Thomas Augustus), born 1710
+     Benjamin Franklin,     |      | in London, died 1778. Composed 23
+      in America,           |      | Operas, 3 Oratorios, and many other
+      invents the           |      | vocal pieces, etc.
+      lightning conductor   |      |
+      (1755).               |      |   Boyce (William), born 1710 in
+                            |      | England, died 1779. Organist. Several
+                            |      | dramatic compositions, an Oratorio,
+                            |      | sacred songs, many organ pieces.
+                            |      |
+     Conquest of            |      |   Bach (Friedemann), son of J. S.
+      India under           |      | Bach, born 1710 at Weimar, died
+      Colonel, afterwards   |      | 1784. Compositions for the organ,
+      Lord,                 |      | clavichord, and harpsichord.
+      Clive (1757).         |      |
+                            |      |   Bach (Carl Philipp Emanuel), son of
+     Death of General       |      | J. S. Bach, born 1713 at Weimar,
+      Wolfe at the          |      | died 1788. Oratorios, cantatas, sacred
+      Battle of Quebec      |      | songs, many compositions for the
+      (1759).               |      | clavichord. Instruction Book for
+                            |      | playing the clavichord.
+                            |      |
+     The Seven Years'       | 1760 |   Fiorillo (Ignazio), born 1715 at
+      War in Germany        |      | Naples, died 1787. Several Operas, an
+      (1756-1763).          |      | Oratorio, a Requiem, Masses.
+                            |      |
+     George III., King      |      |   Alembert (Jean-le-Rond d'), born
+      of Great Britain,     |      | 1717 in Paris, died 1783. Author of a
+      grandson of           |      | System of Composition, and of other
+      George II.            |      | theoretical works on music.
+      (1760).               |      |
+                            |      |   Marpurg (Friedrich Wilhelm), born
+     Moses Mendelssohn,     |      | 1718 in Prussia, died 1795. Organ and
+      philosopher.          |      | clavichord compositions. Treatises
+                            |      | on the Theory of Music.
+     Winckelmann,           |      |
+      antiquarian.          |      |   Mozart (Leopold), father of the
+                            |      | great Mozart, born 1719 at Augsburg,
+     Garrick, actor.        |      | died 1789. Composed 4 Operas, 12
+                            |      | Oratorios, many symphonies, and other
+     Joseph II., Emperor    |      | instrumental and vocal music. Also a
+      of Austria            |      | Violin School.
+      (1765).               |      |
+                            |      |   Gerbert (Martin), Abbot, born 1720
+     Mesmer, a German       |      | in Austria, died 1792. History of
+      physician,            |      | sacred music.
+      publishes his         |      |
+      'Theory of            |      |
+      Animal Magnetism'     |      |
+      (1766).               |      |
+                            |      |
+     Blackstone publishes   |      |   Benda (Georg), born 1721 in Bohemia,
+      his 'Commentaries     |      | died 1795. Composed 14 Operas,
+      on                    |      | some melodramas, cantatas, and
+      the Laws of           |      | instrumental music.
+      England' (1767).      |      |
+                            |      |   Kirnberger (Johann Philipp), born
+     Corsica becomes        |      | 1721 in Thuringia, Germany, died 1783.
+      French (1768).        |      | Composed fugues and other pieces
+                            |      | for the clavichord and pianoforte.
+     Napoleon Buonaparte    |      | Author of several works on the
+      born at               |      | theory of music.
+      Ajaccio, in Corsica   |      |
+      (1769).               |      |
+                            |      |
+     Death of Emanuel       | 1770 |   The Pianoforte begins to supersede
+      Swedenborg,           |      | the clavichord and clavicembalo
+      founder               |      | (English harpsichord).
+      of a new religious    |      |
+      sect                  |      |   Piccini (Nicolo), born 1728 at
+      (1772).               |      | Naples, died 1800. Composed above 130
+                            |      | Operas, several Oratorios, psalms,
+                            |      | etc.
+     Sheridan publishes     |      |
+      his first             |      |   GLUCK (CHRISTOPH WILLIBALD VON),
+      drama, 'The           |      | born 1714 at Weidenwang, Germany, died
+      Rivals' (1775).       |      | 1787. Composed 21 Operas, 8 of which
+                            |      | are to Italian words, and 13 are to
+     Pestalozzi founds      |      | French words. A De Profundis, a Ballet
+      the Reformatory       |      | entitled 'Don Juan,' some secular
+      School at             |      | songs, a few instrumental pieces, etc.
+      Neuhoff, in           |      |
+      Switzerland           |      |
+      (1775).               |      |
+                            |      |
+     Adam Smith             |      |   Sarti (Giuseppe), born 1730 at
+      publishes his         |      | Faenza, died 1802. Composed 44
+      'Wealth of            |      | Operas, and several sacred pieces.
+      Nations' (1776).      |      |
+                            |      |
+     Necker, Minister       |      |   Lolli (Antonio), born about 1730 at
+      of Finance in         |      | Bergamo, died 1802. Violinist. Many
+      France (1777).        |      | compositions for his instrument.
+                            |      |
+     The Sandwich           |      |   Majo (Francesco de), born 1745 at
+      Islands are           |      | Naples, died 1774. Composed 13 Operas,
+      discovered by         |      | many Masses, Vespers, etc.
+      Captain Cook          |      |
+      (1778).               |      |   Arteaga (Steffano), born about 1730
+                            |      | at Madrid, died 1799. Author of a
+     Death of William       |      | History of the Italian Opera.
+      Pitt, first Earl      |      |
+      of Chatham            |      |   Philidor (François André), born 1727
+      (1778).               |      | at Dreux, died 1795. Composed 22
+                            |      | Operas, of which 11 are to Italian
+     Captain Cook is        |      | words, and 11 to French words.
+      killed by the natives |      | Philidor is also celebrated as a
+      of Owyhee             |      | chess-player.
+      (1779).               |      |
+                            |      |   Monsigny (Pierre Alexandre), born
+                            |      | 1729 at St. Omer, died 1817. Composed
+     J. Priestley,          |      | 17 Operas, ballets, etc.
+      chemical philosopher  |      |
+      (1733-1804).          |      |   Gossec (François Joseph), born 1733
+                            |      | at Hainault, died 1829. Composed 28
+     Hunter, surgeon        |      | Operas, and many sacred compositions.
+      (1728-1793).          |      |
+                            |      |   Hawkins (John), born 1720 in
+     Sir W. Jones,          |      | England, died 1791. Author of a
+      orientalist           |      | History of Music.
+      (1746-1794).          |      |
+                            |      |   Burney (Charles), born 1726 at
+     Horace Walpole         |      | Shrewsbury, died 1814. Author of a
+      (1717-1797).          |      | History of Music, and some other
+                            |      | works.
+     Boswell, biographer    |      |
+      of Dr.                |      |   Abel (Carl Friedrich), born 1725 at
+      Johnson.              |      | Köthen, in Germany, died 1787 in
+                            |      | London. Viola-da-Gambist and composer.
+     Cowper, poet.          |      |
+                            |      |
+     Bacon, sculptor.       |      |
+                            |      |
+     Josiah Wedgewood,      |      |   Hiller (Johann Adam), born 1728 in
+      improver              |      | Lusatia, Germany, died 1804. Composed
+      of pottery            |      | 18 Operettas, many psalms,
+      manufacture           |      | sacred and secular songs, symphonies,
+      (1730-1795).          |      | sonatas, and musical treatises.
+                            |      |
+     Alfieri publishes      |      |
+      his first tragedy     |      |
+      'Cleopatra'           |      |
+      (1773).               |      |   HAYDN (JOSEPH), born 1732 at
+                            |      | Rohrau, in Austria, died 1809.
+     Benjamin Franklin,     |      | Composed 24 Operas (10 with German
+      American              |      | words, and 14 with Italian words), 4
+      philosopher           |      | Oratorios, 19 Masses, several Te
+      and statesman         |      | Deums, a Stabat Mater, Salve Regina,
+      (1706-1790).          |      | many motetts and other sacred music,
+                            |      | 118 symphonies, 83 quartetts, 44
+     Pope Clement           |      | sonatas, and many other instrumental
+      XIV. suppresses       |      | and vocal compositions.
+      the Order of the      |      |
+      Jesuits, founded      |      |
+      in the year           |      |
+      1540 (1773).          |      |   J. Haydn wrote in 1783 the Oratorio
+                            |      | The Seven Words, for Cadix; in 1800,
+     The Jesuits were       |      | The Creation; in 1803, The Seasons;
+      expelled from         |      | in 1791 and 1793; the twelve so-called
+      England in            |      | English symphonies, in London.
+      1604; from            |      |
+      France, in            |      |
+      1764; from            |      |   Kittel (Johann Christian), born 1732
+      Spain, in 1767.       |      | at Erfurt in Germany, died 1809.
+      The Order was         |      | Many organ compositions.
+      restored by           |      |
+      Pope Pius VII.        | 1774 |   GLUCK in Paris, from 1774 to 1779.
+      in 1814.              |      | Representations of his Operas. Reform
+                            |      | of the French dramatic music. Rivalry
+     Death of Lord          |      | between Gluck and Piccini in Paris.
+      Clive (1774).         |      | First performance of Orpheus and
+                            |      | Euridice, Vienna 1762; of Alceste,
+     The American           |      | Vienna, 1767; of Iphigenia in Aulis,
+      Colonies deny         |      | Paris, 1774; of Armida, Paris, 1777;
+      the right of the      |      | of Iphigenia in Tauris, Paris, 1779.
+      British Parliament    |      |
+      to tax                |      |
+      them (1774).          |      |
+                            |      |
+     The first battle of    |      |
+      the American          |      |   The Operas by Gluck are the noblest
+      war at Lexington      |      | musical dramas in existence. They
+      (1775).               |      | have served as models for the most
+                            |      | eminent operatic composers whose
+     Voltaire (1694-1778).  |      | works have been written subsequently
+                            |      | to those of Gluck.
+     W. Herschel,           |      |
+      astronomer            |      |
+      (1738-1822).          | 1780 |   Sacchini (Antonio Maria Giuseppe),
+                            |      | born 1735 at Naples, died 1786.
+     W. Herschel discovers  |      | Composed 50 Operas, several Oratorios,
+      the                   |      | Masses with double choruses, a
+      planet Uranus,        |      | Miserere, several other sacred
+      or Georgium           |      | compositions, sonatas, violin-trios,
+      Sidus (1781).         |      | etc.
+                            |      |
+     Mail Coaches are       |      |   Anfossi (Pasquale), born about 1736
+      first set up at       |      | at Naples, died 1797. Many Operas
+      Bristol by Mr.        |      | and sacred compositions.
+      Palmer, and are       |      |
+      soon in use all       |      |   Traetta (Tomaso), born 1738 at
+      through England       |      | Naples, died 1786. Operas and Church
+      (1784).               |      | music.
+                            |      |
+     The Crimea is          |      |   Sabbatini (Luigi Antonio), born 1739
+      given up by           |      | at Albano, died 1809. Church music
+      Turkey to             |      | and several theoretical works.
+      Russia (1784).        |      |
+                            |      |
+     The power-loom         |      |   Boccherini (Luigi), born 1740 at
+      for weaving is        |      | Lucca, died 1806. Many symphonies,
+      invented by E.        |      | quintetts, quartetts, sonatas, and
+      Cartwright            |      | other instrumental compositions.
+      (1785).               |      |
+                            |      |
+     Watt greatly           |      |   Paesiello (Giovanni), born 1741 at
+      improves the          |      | Taranto, died 1816. Composed 94
+      Steam Engine          |      | Operas, an Oratorio, a Requiem,
+      (1736-1819).          |      | many Masses, a Te Deum, and other
+                            |      | sacred music.
+     Watt's double          |      |
+      Steam Engine          |      |   Great popularity of the Operas by
+      (about 1780).         |      | Paesiello, Cimaroso, Sacchini,
+                            |      | Piccini, etc.
+     The Steam              |      |
+      Engine is             |      |   Langlé (Onorio Francesco), born
+      applied to            |      | 1741 at Monaco, died 1807. Composed
+      cotton spinning       |      | 8 Operas (with French words), and
+      (1785).               |      | wrote several theoretical works on
+                            |      | music in French.
+     Lessing (1729-1781).   |      |
+                            |      |   Grétry (André-Ernest-Modeste), born
+     The United             |      | 1741 at Liége, died 1813. Composed
+      States of             |      | 59 Operas, several Masses, motetts,
+      America declare       |      | symphonies, quartetts,
+      their                 |      | pianoforte-sonatas, etc. Also Essays
+      independence          |      | on Music.
+      (1776).               |      |
+                            |      |   Battishill (Jonathan), born 1738 in
+                            |      | London, died 1801. Many sacred vocal
+     Alliance between       |      | compositions, and some Operas.
+      France and            |      |
+      the United            |      |   Arnold (Samuel), born 1740 in
+      States (1778).        |      | London, died 1802. Composed 40
+                            |      | Operas and Operettas (with English
+     Spain and              |      | words), 7 Oratorios, etc.
+      Holland in            |      |
+      favour of the         |      |   Bach (Johann Christian), son of J.
+      United States.        |      | S. Bach, born 1735 at Leipzig, died
+      (1779).               |      | 1782 in London. Composed 15 Operas
+                            |      | (with Italian words), 18 concertos for
+     United States of       |      | the harpsichord, sonatas, trios, and
+      North America         |      | other instrumental pieces.
+      independent.          |      |
+                            |      |   Albrechtsberger (Johann Georg), born
+     Washington their       |      | 1736 in the neighbourhood of Vienna,
+      President             |      | died 1809. Composed 26 Masses, 43
+      (1783).               |      | graduales, 34 offertories, and other
+                            |      | sacred compositions, many
+     Washington             |      | organ-fugues, etc. Author of a work on
+      (1732-1799).          |      | the Theory of Music.
+                            |      |
+     Frederick-William      |      |
+      II.,                  |      |
+      King of Prussia,      |      |
+      nephew of             |      |
+      Frederick the         |      |
+      Great (1786).         |      |
+                            |      |
+     The Quakers at         |      |   Haydn (Michael), brother of Joseph
+      Philadelphia          |      | Haydn, born 1737 in Rohrau, died 1806.
+      emancipate            |      | Many Masses, Offertories, Te Deums,
+      their slaves          |      | etc.
+      (1788).               |      |
+                            |      |
+     First English          |      |   Dittersdorf (Carl Ditters von), born
+      settlement in         |      | 1739 at Vienna, died 1799. Composed
+      Australia, at         |      | 37 Operas, 41 symphonies, many
+      Botany Bay            |      | concertos and other instrumental
+      (1788).               |      | pieces.
+                            |      |
+     Invention of the       |      |   André (Johann), born 1741 at
+      balloon, and          |      | Offenbach, in Germany, died 1799.
+      ascent by             |      | Composed about 30 German Operettas.
+      Montgolfier, in       |      |
+      Paris (1783).         |      |
+                            |      |   Naumann (Johann Gottlieb), born
+     Blanchard and          |      | 1741 in Saxony, died 1801. Composed
+      Jefferies cross       |      | 26 Operas, 13 Oratorios, many Masses,
+      the English           |      | psalms, cantatas, and other vocal
+      Channel in a          |      | music, many symphonies, concertos,
+      balloon (1785).       |      | and other instrumental pieces.
+                            |      |
+     Diderot (1713-1784).   | 1784 |   Martini (Johann Paul Egydius),
+                            |      | properly Schwarzendorf, born 1741 in
+                            |      | Germany, died 1816. Composed 12
+     Buffon (1707-1788).    |      | Operas (with French words), a Requiem,
+                            |      | Masses, a Te Deum. Wrote several
+     Herschel completes     |      | theoretical works on music.
+      his great             |      |
+      forty-foot telescope, |      |   Festival in commemoration of Handel,
+      discovers             |      | in London. Mara (Gertrude Elizabeth),
+      volcanic mountains    |      | the celebrated German singer (born
+      in the                |      | 1749 at Cassel, died 1833), visits
+      moon, etc.            |      | London, and sings at the Festival.
+      (1787).               |      |
+                            |      |
+     The French             |      |   Origin of the English Musical
+      Revolution            |      | Festivals, in which the principal
+      (1789).               |      | performers are mostly foreigners.
+                            |      |
+     Death of Mirabeau      | 1790 |   Salieri (Antonio), born 1750 at
+      (1791).               |      | Legnano, died 1825. Composed 41
+                            |      | Operas, a Requiem, many
+     Royalty abolished      |      | vocal-canons, and other vocal pieces.
+      in France             |      |
+      (1792).               |      |   Zingarelli (Nicolo), born 1752 at
+                            |      | Rome, died 1837. Composed 22 Operas,
+     Louis XVI. beheaded    |      | 38 Masses with organ, 45 other Masses,
+      (1793).               |      | 4 Requiems, and many other sacred
+                            |      | compositions.
+                            |      |
+     Marat stabbed by       |      |   CLEMENTI (MUZIO), born 1752 at Rome,
+      Charlotte             |      | died 1832. Pianist and founder of
+      Corday (1793).        |      | pianoforte-playing. Composed above
+                            |      | 60 sonatas for pianoforte alone, many
+     Robespierre            |      | others with accompaniments, fugues,
+      guillotined           |      | studies (Gradus ad Parnassum),
+      (1794).               |      | symphonies. Also an instruction book
+                            |      | for the pianoforte.
+     Netherlandish          |      |
+      Painters:--           |      |
+      Van Os, Vanloo,       |      |   Clementi and Beethoven, by their
+      Van Spaendonk,        |      | compositions for the pianoforte,
+      Scheffer,             |      | especially promoted the perfecting and
+      Pienemann,            |      | the popularity of the pianoforte.
+      Hodges, Kuipers,      |      |
+      Ommegang,             |      |   Viotti (Giovanni Battista), born
+      Wonder,               |      | 1753 at Piedmont, died 1824.
+      etc.                  |      | Violinist, and founder of a new school
+                            |      | of violin-playing. Many concertos and
+     French Painters:--     |      | other instrumental compositions.
+      Joseph Vernet         |      |
+      (1714-1789),          |      |
+      Greuze, Vien,         |      |   Cimarosa (Domenico), born 1754 at
+      David, Isabey,        |      | Naples, died 1801. Composed 75
+      Drouais, Gerard,      |      | Operas, a Requiem, Masses, etc.
+      Gros, Ingres,         |      |
+      Regnauld,             |      |   Dalayrac (Nicolas), born 1753 in
+      Guerin, Horace        |      | Languedoc, France, died 1809. Composed
+      Vernet (born          |      | 56 Operas.
+      1789), etc.           |      |
+                            |      |   Shield (William), born 1754 in
+     Denmark sets the       |      | London, died 1829. Composed Operas,
+      example of            |      | canzonets, instrumental trios. Author
+      abolishing the        |      | of a Treatise on Harmony.
+      slave trade           |      |
+      (1791).               |      |   Storace (Stephan), born 1763 in
+                            |      | London, of Italian origin, died 1796.
+     France abolishes       |      | Composed 14 Operas with English words.
+      slavery in her        |      |
+      colonies (1794).      |      |   Gerber (Ernst Ludwig), born 1746 in
+                            |      | Saxony, died 1819. Author of two
+     Abolition of the       |      | biographical Dictionaries of
+      slave trade by        |      | Musicians, and of some books of
+      the English           |      | instruction on music.
+      Parliament            |      |
+      (1807).               |      |   Schulz (Johann Peter), born 1747 at
+                            |      | Lüneburg, in Germany, died 1800.
+     Vaccination is         |      | Several Operas, Oratorios, choruses,
+      introduced by Dr.     |      | etc.
+      Jenner (1796).        |      |
+                            |      |
+     Lithography is         |      |   Neefe (Christian), born 1748 in
+      invented by           |      | Saxony, died 1798. Composed 10
+      Alois Sennefelder     |      | Operas. Teacher of Beethoven, in
+      (1796).               |      | Bonn.
+                            |      |
+     Hahnemann,             |      |   Stadler (Maximilian), Abbé, born
+      founder of            |      | 1748 in Austria, died 1833. An
+      Homoeopathy           |      | Oratorio, Masses, psalms, and other
+      (1796).               |      | sacred vocal music, compositions for
+                            |      | the organ and the pianoforte.
+     In the year 1792       |      |
+      the French            |      |
+      nation adopted        |      |   Vogler (Georg Joseph), Abbé, born
+      a new Calendar        |      | 1749 at Würzburg, in Germany, died
+      founded on            |      | 1814. Composed 5 Operas, several
+      philosophical         |      | Masses, many other sacred
+      principles. It        |      | compositions, symphonies, organ
+      remained in           |      | pieces, etc. Author of several
+      use until the         |      | theoretical works on music.
+      end of the year       |      |
+      1805, when the        |      |
+      Gregorian             |      |   Forkel (Johann Nikolaus), born 1749
+      mode of calculation   |      | at Coburg, in Germany, died 1818.
+      was restored          |      | Wrote a History of Music, and several
+      at the                |      | other musical treatises.
+      instance of Napoleon. |      |
+      The                   |      |   Koch (Heinrich Christoph), born
+      public feasts or      |      | 1749 at Rudolstadt, Germany, died
+      "Sansculottides,"     |      | 1816. Instruction books on harmony,
+      fixed in              |      | and a Musical Dictionary.
+      the Revolutionary     |      |
+      Calendar,             |      |   Kauer (Ferdinand), born 1751 in
+      were dedicated        |      | Moravia, died 1831. Above 200 Operas
+      to Les Vertus,        |      | of a light and popular character.
+      Sept. 17; Le          |      |
+      Génie, Sept.          |      |
+      18; Le Travail,       |      |   Reichardt (Johann Friedrich), born
+      Sept. 19;             |      | 1752 at Königsberg, in Prussia, died
+      L'Opinion,            |      | 1814. Composed 30 Operas, some
+      Sept. 20; Les         |      | Oratorios, hymns, secular songs.
+      Recompenses,          |      | Author of several Treatises on Music,
+      Sept. 21.             |      | etc.
+                            |      |
+     Revolution in Poland:  |      |   Knecht (Justin Heinrich), born 1752
+      Kosciusko,            |      | at Bieberich, in Germany, died 1817.
+      in the beginning      |      | Masses, cantatas, and other sacred
+      successful,           |      | music, and an instruction book on
+      is later              |      | harmony.
+      defeated. Suwarrow    |      |
+      storms                |      |
+      Warsaw (1794).        |      |   Türk (Daniel Gottlieb), born 1756 in
+                            |      | Saxony, died 1813. An Oratorio,
+     The third division     |      | motetts, many pieces for the
+      of Poland between     |      | clavichord and the pianoforte, a
+      Russia,               |      | Treatise on Thorough-bass, etc.
+      Austria, and          |      |
+      Prussia (1795).       |      |
+                            |      |   MOZART (WOLFGANG AMADEUS),
+     La Place,              |      | born 1756 at Salzburg, died 1791.
+      mathematician and     |      | Composed 6 great Operas with Italian
+      astronomer (1796).    |      | words, 2 great Operas with German
+     Stereotyping invented  |      | words, 8 earlier Italian Operas, 2
+      by Ambrose            |      | German Operettas, several cantatas, a
+      Didot, of             |      | Requiem, many Masses, graduales,
+      Paris (1797).         |      | offertories, hymns, a Te Deum, and
+                            |      | other sacred compositions, about 33
+     Frederick William      |      | symphonies, 23 pianoforte concertos,
+      III., King            |      | some concertos for other instruments,
+      of Prussia            |      | 6 violin quintetts, 26 violin
+      (1797).               |      | quartetts, 31 pianoforte sonatas with
+                            |      | and without accompaniments, many other
+     Buonaparte  in         |      | instrumental compositions, many songs,
+      Egypt and             |      | etc.
+      Syria (1798).         |      |
+                            |      |
+     Buonaparte, in         |      |
+      France, is declared   |      |
+      First                 |      |
+      Consul (1799).        |      |
+                            |      |
+     The English take       | 1800 |   Mozart composed, in 1780, the Opera
+      possession of         |      | 'Idomeneo' for Munich; in 1781, 'Die
+      most of the           |      | Entführung aus dem Serail' (his first
+      French and            |      | Opera with German words) for Vienna;
+      Dutch dominions       |      | in 1785, 'Le Nozze de Figaro' for
+      in America            |      | Vienna; in 1787, 'Don Giovanni' for
+      (1803).               |      | Prague; in 1790, 'Cosi Fan Tutte' for
+                            |      | Vienna; in 1791, 'La Clemenza di Tito'
+     Napoleon, Emperor      |      | for Prague, and 'Die Zauberflöte' (his
+      of France             |      | second Opera with German words) for
+      (1804).               |      | Vienna. In the same year, 1791, he
+                            |      | wrote also his Requiem.
+     Kant, philosopher      |      |
+      (1724-1804).          |      |
+                            |      |
+     Death of Nelson        |      |
+      (1805).               |      |
+                            |      |
+     Death of Pitt          |      |   Righini (Vincenzo), born 1756 at
+      (1806).               |      | Bologna, died 1812. Composer of 20
+                            |      | Operas, several Masses and other
+     Wieland (1733-1813).   |      | sacred music.
+                            |      |
+     Napoleon arrives       |      |
+      at Elba               |      |   CHERUBINI (LUIGI), born 1760 at
+      (1814).               |      | Florence, died 1842. Composer of
+                            |      | 29 Operas, some ballets, 4 great
+     Napoleon defeated      |      | Masses, 2 Requiems, many other sacred
+      at Waterloo           |      | pieces, violin quartetts and other
+      (1815).               |      | instrumental music. Author of a
+                            |      | Treatise on Musical Composition.
+     The "Holy Alliance"    |      |
+      concluded             |      |
+      at Paris              |      |
+      (1815).               |      |
+                            |      |
+     The Jesuits expelled   |      |   Gervasoni (Carlo), born 1762 at
+      from                  |      | Milan, died 1819. Instruction books
+      Russia (1816).        |      | and historical Treatises on Music.
+                            |      |
+     The foreign            |      |
+      troops evacuate       |      |   Mayer (Simon), born 1763 in Bavaria,
+      France                |      | died 1845. From his early youth lived
+      (1818).               |      | in Italy. Composer of 77 Operas, many
+                            |      | Oratorios, Masses, psalms, and other
+     Death of Marshal       |      | sacred music.
+      Blücher,              |      |
+      aged 77 (1819).       |      |
+                            |      |
+     Captain Ross           |      |   MEHUL (ETIENNE HENRI), born 1763
+      makes a voyage        |      | at Givet, died 1817. Composed 42
+      of Discovery          |      | Operas, many hymns, cantatas, etc.
+      in the                |      |
+      Polar Sea             |      |   Lesueur (Jean François), born 1764
+      (1818).               |      | at Abbeville, died 1837. Composed 10
+                            |      | Operas, 33 Oratorios, several Masses
+     Klopstock (1724-1803). |      | and motetts.
+                            |      |
+     Herder (1744-1803).    |      |   Rouget de Lille (Claude Joseph),
+                            |      | born 1760 at Lons-le-Saulnier, died
+     Winsor, a German,      |      | 1836. Composer of romances, and of
+      obtains in            |      | the Marseillaise.
+      England a patent      |      |
+      as the inventor       |      |
+      of gas                |      |   Attwood (Thomas), born 1767 in
+      for the purpose       |      | England. Many Operas and sacred
+      of illumination.      |      | compositions.
+      He makes his          |      |
+      first experiment      |      |   Winter (Peter von), born 1755 at
+      at the Lyceum         |      | Mannheim in Germany, died 1825.
+      in the                |      | Above 30 Operas, many Ballets,
+      Strand (1804).        |      | Oratorios, Masses, motetts, hymns,
+                            |      | cantatas, etc.
+     Schiller (1759-1805).  |      |
+                            |      |
+     Schiller's 'The        |      |   Pleyel (Jgnaz), born 1757 near
+      Robbers' appeared     |      | Vienna, died 1831. Composed 29
+      in 1781;              |      | symphonies, many violin-quartetts,
+      Don Carlos,           |      | pianoforte-sonatas, etc.
+      about 1785;           |      |
+      Wallenstein,          |      |   Preindl (Joseph), born 1758 in
+      1799; Maria           |      | Austria, died 1823. Many Masses, a
+      Stuart, 1800;         |      | Requiem, and other church music.
+      William Tell,         |      | Instruction books for thorough-bass,
+      1804.                 |      | for singing, etc.
+                            |      |
+     Painters:--David,      |      |
+      Fuseli, G. F.         |      |   Zelter (Carl Friedrich), born 1758
+      Morland, Stothard,    |      | in Berlin, died 1832. Many vocal
+      Benjamin              |      | compositions, and some literary
+      West, Northcote,      |      | productions. Zelter founded, in 1808,
+      etc.                  |      | the first German Liedertafel, or
+                            |      | society of male singers. Similar
+     Actors:--J. P.         |      | societies have subsequently become
+      Kemble, Mrs.          |      | popular in Germany and other
+      Siddons, Talma.       |      | countries.
+                            |      |
+     First meeting of       |      |
+      the Imperial          |      |
+      Parliament of         |      |   Zumsteeg (Johann Rudolph), born
+      Great Britain         |      | 1760 at Sachsenflur, in Germany, died
+      and Ireland           |      | 1802. Composed 8 Operas, many
+      (1801).               |      | ballads, and other vocal music.
+                            |      |
+     Jefferson, President   |      |
+      of the                |      |   Dussek (Johann Ludwig), born 1761
+      United States         |      | in Bohemia, died 1812. Pianist and
+      (1801).               |      | composer for his instrument. Wrote
+     Institution of the     |      | 13 concertos, 53 sonatas, several
+      Legion of             |      | piano-forte-quartetts, etc. Also an
+      Honour in             |      | Opera.
+      France (1802).        |      |
+                            |      |   Kunzen (Friedrich), born 1761 at
+     Men of Science         |      | Lübeck, died 1817. Composed 9 Operas
+      born about this       |      | (8 of which are with Danish words, and
+      time:--               |      | one is with German words), 3
+                            |      | Oratorios, several cantatas, and other
+     Sir D. Brewster,       |      | sacred music.
+      philosopher,          |      |
+      born 1781.            |      |   Gyrowetz (Adalbert), born 1763 in
+                            |      | Bohemia, died 1850. Above 30 Operas,
+     G. B. Airy, astronomer,|      | many Ballets and Entr'actes, sacred
+      born                  |      | vocal music, many symphonies,
+      1801.                 |      | quartetts, pianoforte compositions,
+                            |      | songs, etc.
+     Baron Liebig,          |      |
+      chemist, born         |      |   Steibelt (Daniel), born about 1764
+      1803.                 |      | at Berlin, died 1823. Pianist.
+                            |      | Composed 6 pianoforte concertos, 46
+     R. Owen, comparative   |      | solo sonatas and many other
+      anatomist,            |      | compositions for the pianoforte,
+      born 1804.            |      | studies for the pianoforte, and an
+                            |      | instruction book for that instrument;
+     Brassey, engineer,     |      | also 4 Operas.
+      born 1805.            |      |
+                            |      |
+     Lesseps, French        |      |
+      engineer, born        |      |
+      1806.                 |      |
+                            |      |
+     J. Stuart Mill,        |      |
+      philosopher,          |      |
+      born 1807.            |      |
+                            |      |
+     Longfellow,            |      |
+      American poet,        |      |
+      born 1807.            |      |
+                            |      |
+     Lyon Playfair,         | 1810 |   Paer (Ferdinando), born 1771 at
+      chemist, born         |      | Parma, died 1839. Composer of 51
+      1819.                 |      | Operas, 11 cantatas, and other vocal
+                            |      | music.
+     J. Tyndal, chemist,    |      |
+      born 1820.            |      |   Berton (Henri Montan), born 1767
+                            |      | in Paris, died 1844. About 50 Operas,
+     Death of Sheridan      |      | several Oratorios, cantatas, and
+      (1816).               |      | Treatises on the Theory of Music.
+                            |      |
+                            |      |   Baillot (Pierre), born 1771 at
+     Iffland, German        |      | Passy, died 1842. Violinist. Concertos
+      actor and dramatic    |      | and other compositions for the violin,
+      writer                |      | an instruction book for the violin,
+      (1759-1814).          |      | etc.
+                            |      |
+                            |      |   Choron (Alexandre Etienne), born
+     Thorwaldsen,           |      | 1772 at Caën, died 1834. Many
+      Danish sculptor       |      | theoretical works. A Musical
+      (1770-1844).          |      | Dictionary.
+                            |      |
+                            |      |   Catel (Charles Simon), born 1773 at
+     Béranger, French       |      | L'Aigle, died 1830. Composed 10
+      poet (1780-1857).     |      | Operas, many instrumental and vocal
+                            |      | pieces. Author of a Treatise on
+     Arago, French          |      | Harmony, etc.
+      Savant (1786-1835).   |      |
+                            |      |   Rode (Pierre), born 1774 at
+     C. Babbage,            |      | Bordeaux, died 1830. Violinist. Many
+      philosophical         |      | concertos, quartetts, and other
+      mechanist             |      | compositions.
+      (1792-1871).          |      |
+                            |      |   Cramer (John Baptiste), born 1771 at
+     Sir Charles Lyell,     |      | Mannheim, in Germany, but living from
+      geologist             |      | early childhood in England, died 1858.
+      (1797-1875).          |      | Pianist. Pianoforte studies, 105 solo
+                            |      | sonatas, and 7 concertos for the
+     Statesmen born         |      | pianoforte. Also a pianoforte school,
+      about this time:      |      | etc.
+      Gladstone born        |      |
+      1809.                 |      |   Weigl (Joseph), born 1766 at
+                            |      | Eisenstadt, in Hungary, died 1846.
+                            |      | About 30 Operas, 14 ballets, 21
+     Baron Beust,           |      | Oratorios and cantatas, 10 Masses, and
+      born 1809.            |      | other sacred music.
+                            |      |
+     Bismarck-Schönhausen,  |      |   Weber (Bernhard Anselm), born 1766
+      born 1813.            |      | at Mannheim, died 1821. Several
+                            |      | Operas, melodramas, and Entr'actes.
+     Count Cavour,          |      |
+      born 1810.            |      |   Romberg (Andreas), born 1767 in
+                            |      | Vechte, near Münster, in Germany, died
+     Cobden, born 1804.     |      | 1821. Composed 7 Operas, a Te Deum,
+                            |      | psalms and other sacred compositions,
+     John Bright, born      |      | many symphonies and other instrumental
+      1811.                 |      | music, secular songs, etc.
+                            |      |
+                            |      |   Romberg (Bernhard), brother of
+     Sculptors born         |      | Andreas Romberg, born 1770 near
+      about this time:--    |      | Münster in Germany, died 1841.
+                            |      | Violoncellist. Composed 3 Operas, many
+     Marochetti, born       |      | concertos and other pieces for the
+      1805.                 |      | violoncello, quartetts, etc.
+                            |      |
+                            |      |   Müller (Wenzel), born 1767 in
+     Kiss, born 1802.       |      | Moravia, died 1835. Above 200 Operas
+                            |      | of a light popular character,
+     Powers, born 1805.     |      | pantomimes, etc.
+                            |      |
+                            |      |   Nägeli (Johann Georg), born 1773
+     The Jesuits are        |      | near Zurich, in Switzerland, died
+      expelled from         |      | 1836. Promoter of popular singing
+      Prussia (1817).       |      | societies, composer of vocal music,
+                            |      | and author of instruction books on
+     The Mahratta           |      | singing, etc.
+      war in Hindustan.     |      |
+                            |      |
+     Steam applied to       |      |
+      printing in the       |      |
+      _Times_ office        |      |
+      (1814).               |      |
+                            |      |
+     The Marquess of        |      |
+      Hastings renders      |      |
+      British               |      |
+      influence universal   |      |
+      in India (1817).      |      |
+                            |      |
+     The Island of          |      |
+      Singapore is formed   |      |
+      into a British        |      |   BEETHOVEN (LUDWIG VAN), born
+      settlement by Sir     |      | 1770 at Bonn, died 1827. An Opera,
+      Stamford Raffles      |      | 2 dramas with music, a melodrama,
+      (1818).               |      | several single dramatic choruses and
+     Reunion of the         |      | songs, an Oratorio, 2 Masses, 9
+      Lutheran and          |      | symphonies, 11 overtures, a septett, 7
+      other reformed        |      | concertos for pianoforte, a violin
+      forms of worship      |      | concerto, 2 violin quintetts, 17
+      in several            |      | violin quartetts, 5 violin trios, 35
+      parts of Germany      |      | solo sonatas for the pianoforte, 10
+      (1818).               |      | sonatas for pianoforte and violin, 6
+                            |      | sonatas for pianoforte and
+     Voyage to the          |      | violoncello, 7 trios for pianoforte,
+      Polar Sea by          |      | violin, and violoncello, a pianoforte
+      Parry (1819).         |      | quintett, a great many other
+                            |      | pianoforte compositions, cantatas,
+     Parry undertakes       |      | songs with pianoforte accompaniment,
+      another voyage        |      | etc.
+      to reach              |      |
+      the North Pole        |      |   In 1793 Beethoven came to Vienna as
+      (1820).               |      | Virtuoso on the pianoforte, and
+                            |      | distinguished himself by his
+                            |      | improvisations; in 1795 he published
+     George IV., King       |      | his first important work, the three
+      of Great              |      | pianoforte trios, Op. 1; in 1799
+      Britain, son of       |      | appeared his first symphony; in 1804
+      George III.           |      | his Opera 'Leonore' (Fidelio); in 1809
+      (1820).               |      | his symphony in C Minor and his
+                            |      | pastoral symphony; in 1814 his A Major
+     Guizot, French         |      | symphony; in 1818 his ninth symphony.
+      statesman and         |      |
+      historian             |      |   Reicha (Anton), born 1770 at Prague,
+      (1787-1874).          |      | died 1836. Four Operas, symphonies,
+                            |      | quartetts, sonatas, etc., and several
+     Revolution  in         |      | Treatises on Harmony and Composition.
+      Spain; King           |      |
+      Ferdinand VII.        |      |   Tomaschek (Johann Wenzel), born
+      swears to the         |      | 1774 in Bohemia, died 1850. An Opera,
+      constitution of       |      | several cantatas, a Requiem, a Te
+      the Cortes (1820).    |      | Deum, Masses, and other sacred
+                            |      | compositions, secular songs,
+     Mexico separates       |      | symphonies, quartetts, pianoforte
+      from Spain            |      | pieces.
+      (1820).               |      |
+                            |      |   Kiesewetter (Raphael Georg), born
+                            |      | 1773 in Moravia, died 1850. Many
+     Insurrection  in       |      | dissertations relating to the history
+      Portugal (1820).      |      | of music.
+                            |      |
+                            |      |   Weyse (Christoph Ernst Friedrich),
+     Revolution  in         |      | born 1774 at Altona, in Germany, died
+      the  Brazils;         |      | 1842. Several Operas with Danish
+      King John VI.         |      | words, symphonies, sonatas and other
+      returns to Portugal,  |      | instrumental pieces. He lived in
+      and his               |      | Copenhagen.
+      son, Dom Pedro,       |      |
+      is made               |      |
+      Regent of the         |      |
+      Brazils (1820).       |      |
+                            |      |
+     Peru declares herself  |      |
+      independent (1820).   |      |
+                            |      |
+                            | 1820 |   Baini (Giuseppe), Abbate, born 1775
+     Napoleon dies at       |      | at Rome, died 1844. Many sacred
+      St. Helena            |      | compositions and historical Treatises
+      (1821).               |      | on Music. Author of the 'Life of
+                            |      | Palestrina.'
+     Union of the           |      |
+      Greeks in one         |      |   Generali (Pietro), born 1783 in
+      confederate           |      | Piedmont, died 1832. About 50 Operas.
+      state (1822).         |      |
+                            |      |   Paganini (Nicolo), born 1784 at
+     Dr. T. Young,          |      | Genoa, died 1840. Violinist. Concertos
+      natural               |      | and other compositions for his
+      philosopher, and      |      | instrument.
+      discoverer of         |      |
+      the hieroglyphic      |      |   Spontini (Gasparo), born 1784 at
+      alphabet.             |      | Rome, died 1851. Composer of about
+                            |      | 26 Operas.
+                            |      |
+     Sir Humphry            |      |   Isouard (Nicolo), born 1775 in
+      Davy, chemist,        |      | Malta, died 1818. Composed 42 Operas,
+      inventor of the       |      | several Masses, cantatas, etc.
+      safety-lamp,          |      |
+      etc.                  |      |   Boieldieu (François Adrien), born
+                            |      | 1775 at Rouen, died 1834. Composed
+     Macadam, improver      |      | 23 Operas.
+      of                    |      |
+      roads.                |      |   Lafont (Charles Philippe), born 1781
+                            |      | in Paris, died 1839. Violinist. Many
+     Francis Douce,         |      | compositions for the violin, and many
+      antiquarian.          |      | romances.
+                            |      |
+     Cuvier, naturalist.    |      |   Onslow (Georges), born 1784 at
+                            |      | Clermont, in France, died 1852.
+     Channing               |      | Composed 3 Operas, several symphonies,
+      (Unitarian            |      | many violin quintetts, quartetts,
+      Preacher), Sir        |      | trios, 2 pianoforte sextetts, and
+      R. Phillips, W.       |      | other pianoforte music.
+      Hazlitt,              |      |
+      Charles               |      |   Auber (Daniel François Esprit), born
+      Lamb, miscellaneous   |      | 1782 at Caën, in France, died 1871.
+      writers.              |      | Above 30 Operas.
+                            |      |
+     P. B. Shelley,         |      |   Fétis (François Joseph), born 1784
+      James Hogg            |      | at Mons, in Belgium, died 1872.
+      (the "Ettrick         |      | Dictionary of Musicians, historical
+      Shepherd"),           |      | Treatises on Music, etc.
+      Reginald              |      |
+      Heber, Robert         |      |   Castil-Blaze (François Henri
+      Southey, Sir          |      | Joseph), born 1784 at Cavaillon, in
+      Walter Scott,         |      | France, died 1857. Several Treatises
+      poets.                |      | on Music, a Musical Dictionary, etc.
+                            |      |
+     Charles X., King       |      |   Bishop (Henry Rowley), born 1782
+      of France             |      | in London, died 1855. Composed 63
+      (1824).               |      | Operas and other dramatic pieces,
+                            |      | songs, etc.
+                            |      |
+     Burmese war.           |      |   Field (John), born 1782 at Dublin,
+      Capture of            |      | died 1837 at Moscow. Pianist. Pupil
+      Rangoon by            |      | of Clementi. Pianoforte concertos,
+      the British           |      | notturnos, etc.
+      (1824).               |      |
+                            |      |   Hummel (Johann Nepomuk), born
+     Denham and             |      | 1778 at Pressburg, died 1837. Pianist.
+      Clapperton's          |      | Composed 5 Operas, several ballets, 2
+      exploring             |      | cantatas, many pianoforte concertos,
+      expedition to         |      | trios, sonatas, 2 pianoforte septetts,
+      Central Africa        |      | etc. Also a pianoforte school.
+      (1824).               |      |
+                            |      |   Neukomm (Sigismund), born 1778 at
+     Bowdich, on an         |      | Salzburg, died 1858. Pupil of J.
+      expedition to         |      | Haydn. Composed 10 Operas, many
+      explore the           |      | cantatas, 7 Oratorios, 15 Masses, many
+      interior of Africa,   |      | psalms, symphonies, quartetts,
+      died at               |      | sonatas, etc.
+      the mouth of          |      |
+      the Gambia            |      |   Logier (Johann Bernhard), born 1777
+      (1824).               |      | at Kaiserslautern, in Germany, died
+                            |      | 1846. A new method of teaching the
+                            |      | pianoforte and the Theory of Music.
+     Death of Lord          |      |
+      Byron (1824).         |      |   Diabelli (Anton), born 1781, near
+                            |      | Salzburg, died 1858. Many Masses
+     Nicholas I., Emperor   |      | and other Church music, pianoforte
+      of Russia             |      | compositions and songs.
+      (1825).               |      |
+                            |      |   Kreutzer (Conradin), born 1782 at
+     Death of John          |      | Möskirch, in Germany, died 1849.
+      VI., King of          |      | Composed 24 Operas, an Oratorio,
+      Portugal (1826).      |      | several Masses and other Church
+                            |      | music, many instrumental pieces and
+     Don Pedro I.,          |      | songs.
+      Emperor of            |      |
+      Brazil, son of        |      |   Spohr (Louis), born 1784 at
+      John VI.,             |      | Brunswick, in Germany, died 1859.
+      renounces the         |      | Violinist. Composed 8 Operas, several
+      Portuguese            |      | Oratorios, psalms, and other sacred
+      crown in favour       |      | music, symphonies, many violin
+      of his daughter,      |      | quartetts, quintetts, concertos,
+      Maria da Gloria,      |      | and other compositions for the violin,
+      aged seven            |      | etc. Also a violin school.
+      years. The Infanta    |      |
+      Isabella              |      |   Ries (Ferdinand), born 1784 at
+      governs as Regent     |      | Bonn, died 1838. Pupil of Beethoven.
+      till the              |      | Pianist. Composed 2 Operas, some
+      year 1828             |      | sacred and secular vocal music,
+      (1826).               |      | pianoforte concertos, quartetts,
+                            |      | trios, sonatas, etc.
+     Canova, Sculptor       |      |
+     ( 1757-1822).          |      |
+                            |      |
+     Charles X. expelled    |      |
+      from                  |      |
+      France, retires       |      |
+      to England in         |      |
+      the year 1830.        |      |
+                            |      |
+     Jean Paul, Friedrich   |      |   Kalkbrenner (Friedrich), born 1784
+      Richter               |      | at Cassel, in Germany, died 1849.
+      (1763-1825).          |      | Pianist. Many pianoforte compositions,
+                            |      | and a pianoforte school.
+                            |      |
+     First Steam Voyage     |      |   Kuhlau (Friedrich), born 1786 at
+      to India,             |      | Uelzen, in Germany, died 1832, in
+      by Captain            |      | Denmark. Composed 5 Operas with
+      Johnston in the       |      | Danish words, and many compositions
+      'Enterprise'          |      | for the flute, the pianoforte, and for
+      (1825).               |      | other instruments.
+                            |      |
+     Athens, besieged       |      |   WEBER (CARL MARIA VON), born
+      by the Turks,         |      | 1786 at Eutin, in Germany, died 1826,
+      is forced to          |      | in London. Composed 8 Operas, several
+      surrender (1826).     |      | dramatic scenes, Masses, hymns,
+                            |      | overtures, pianoforte concertos,
+     Russia at war          |      | clarionet concertos, pianoforte
+      with Persia           |      | sonatas, songs, etc.
+      (1827).               |      |
+                            |      |   In 1821, first performance of 'Der
+     Russia makes           |      | Freischütz' at Berlin; in 1823,
+      peace with            |      | 'Euryanthe' at Vienna; in 1826,
+      Persia and            |      | 'Oberon' in London.
+      increases her         |      |
+      possessions in        |      |   Fesca (Friedrich Ernst), born 1789
+      the south             |      | at Magdeburg, died 1826. Some Operas,
+      (1828).               |      | many psalms and other sacred music,
+                            |      | symphonies, quintetts, many quartetts,
+     Russia at war          |      | etc.
+      with Turkey           |      |
+      (1828).               |      |   Schneider (Johann Christian
+                            |      | Friedrich), born 1786 in Saxony, died
+     The Turks are          |      | 1858. About 9 Oratorios, several
+      conquered by          |      | Masses, hymns, cantatas, instrumental
+      the Russian           |      | compositions, songs, etc.
+      General Diebitch      |      |
+      (1829).               |      |   SCHUBERT (FRANZ), born 1797 in
+                            |      | Vienna, died 1828. Several Operas,
+     Turkey acknowledges    |      | Masses and other Church music,
+      the independence      |      | symphonies, quartetts, trios, and
+      of                    |      | other instrumental pieces, sonatas,
+      Greece (1829).        |      | fantasias, etc. for the pianoforte, a
+                            |      | great many songs with pianoforte
+                            |      | accompaniment.
+                            |      |
+     Charles X., King       | 1830 |   Carafa (Michele), born 1785 at
+      of France, deposed    |      | Naples, died 1872. About 30 Operas.
+      (1830).               |      |
+                            |      |
+     Göthe (1749-1832).     |      |   ROSSINI (GIOACHINO ANTONIO), born
+                            |      | 1792 at Pesaro, died 1868. About 40
+     William IV., King      |      | Operas, a Stabat Mater, some other
+      of Great Britain,     |      | sacred vocal music, several secular
+      brother of            |      | cantatas, orchestral pieces, etc.
+      George IV.            |      |
+      (1830).               |      |   Bellini (Vincenzo), born 1802 at
+                            |      | Catania, in Sicily, died 1835.
+     Louis-Phillipe,        |      | Composed 10 Operas, some sacred music,
+      King of France        |      | symphonies, overtures, etc.
+      (1830).               |      |
+                            |      |   Herold (Louis), born 1791 in Paris,
+     Cholera Morbus,        |      | died 1833. Composed 16 Operas and
+      its first appearance  |      | several ballets.
+      in England            |      |
+      (1831).               |      |   Lindpaintner (Peter Joseph), born
+                            |      | 1791 at Coblenz, died 1856. About 25
+     Death of Sir           |      | Operas, 9 ballets, Oratorios, Masses,
+      Walter Scott (1832).  |      | motetts, symphonies, etc.
+                            |      |
+     Slavery abolished      |      |   Mayseder (Joseph), born 1789 in
+      throughout the        |      | Vienna, died 1863. Many compositions
+      British Colonies      |      | for violin, quintetts, quartetts,
+      (1834).               |      | pianoforte trios, sonatas, etc.; also
+                            |      | a Mass.
+                            |      |
+     Wilhelm von            |      |   Moscheles (Ignaz), born 1794 at
+      Humboldt, philologist |      | Prague, died 1870. Pianist. Many
+      (1767-1835).          |      | pianoforte compositions; also some
+                            |      | symphonies, etc.
+     Alexander von          |      |
+      Humboldt, naturalist  |      |   Klein (Bernhard), born 1794 at
+      (1769-1859).          |      | Cologne, died 1832. About 3 Operas,
+                            |      | 4 Oratorios, a Stabat Mater, and other
+     Edmund Kean,           |      | sacred music.
+      English actor         |      |
+      (1787-1833).          |      |
+                            |      |   Meyerbeer (Jacob), born 1794 in
+     The first great        |      | Berlin, died 1864. Composed 16 Operas,
+      English railway       |      | an Oratorio, a Stabat Mater, a Te
+      by steam              |      | Deum, a Miserere, many psalms and
+      engines is the        |      | other sacred music, secular songs,
+      Liverpool and         |      | etc.
+      Manchester Railway,   |      |   Czerny (Carl), born 1791 in Vienna,
+      opened in 1830.       |      | died 1857. Many Pianoforte pieces;
+                            |      | also Masses, Te Deums, and other
+     Queen Victoria born    |      | sacred music; theoretical works.
+      in 1819, ascends the  |      |
+      throne (1837).        |      |
+                            |      |
+     Marriage of            | 1840 |   Hauptmann (Moritz), born 1794 at
+      Queen Victoria        |      | Dresden, died 1868. Several sacred
+      with Prince Albert    |      | compositions, quartetts, sonatas,
+      of Saxe-Coburg        |      | secular songs, and theoretical works.
+      (1840).               |      |
+                            |      |   Pacini (Giovanni), born 1796 at
+                            |      | Syracuse, died 1867. Composed 34
+                            |      | Operas.
+                            |      |
+     Prince of Wales        |      |   Donizetti (Gaetano), born 1797 at
+      born (1841).          |      | Bergamo, died 1848. Above 70 Operas,
+                            |      | a Miserere, and other sacred music,
+     Frederick William      |      | many romances and other songs.
+      IV., King             |      |
+      of Prussia            |      |
+      (1840).               |      |
+                            |      |   Mercadante (Saverio), born 1797 at
+     Pius IX., Pope         |      | Altamura, in Italy, died 1870. Above
+      (1846).               |      | 30 Operas.
+                            |      |
+     G. C. Prichard,        |      |   Panseron (Auguste), born 1796 in
+      English ethnologist   |      | Paris, died 1859. Some Operas, a
+      (1786-1848).          |      | Requiem, 3 Masses, other sacred music,
+                            |      | many romances, an instruction book
+     Revolution in          |      | on singing, etc.
+      France (1848).        |      |
+                            |      |   Halévy (Jacques), born 1799 in
+     The Monarchy           |      | Paris, died 1862. Above 20 Operas.
+      abolished in          |      |
+      France.               |      |   Marschner (Heinrich), born 1795 at
+                            |      | Zittau, in Saxony, died 1861. Many
+     Louis-Phillipe,        |      | Operas, Masses, secular songs, etc.
+      King of France,       |      |
+      deposed (1848).       |      |   Reissiger (Carl), born 1789 near
+      He dies in            |      | Wittemberg, in Germany, died 1859.
+      exile, in England     |      | Ten Operas, many Masses, symphonies,
+      (1850).               |      | quartetts, pianoforte trios, songs,
+                            |      | etc.
+                            |      |
+     New Republic in        |      |   Marx (Adolph Bernhard), born 1799
+      France. Louis         |      | at Halle, died 1866. Two Oratorios and
+      Napoleon              |      | some other compositions; a work on
+      Charles Buonaparte    |      | musical composition, and several other
+      (son of               |      | treatises on music.
+      Louis Buonaparte,     |      |
+      for a                 |      |   Lvoff (Alexis), born 1799 at Reval,
+      short time King       |      | died 1870. Violinist. Composer of the
+      of Holland, and       |      | Russian National Hymn, and of other
+      nephew of Napoleon    |      | music.
+      I.) is                |      |
+      elected President     |      |   Löwe (Johann Carl), born 1796 near
+      of the Republic       |      | Halle, died 1869. Many ballads and
+      (1848).               |      | other songs, also several Operas,
+                            |      | Oratorios, and pianoforte
+                            |      | compositions.
+                            |      |
+     Botta & Layard         | 1850 |   Beriot (Charles Auguste de), born
+      excavate the          |      | 1802, at Louvain, died 1870.
+      Assyrian              |      | Violinist. Concertos and other
+      mounds (about         |      | compositions for the violin. A violin
+      1840-1850).           |      | school.
+                            |      |
+                            |      |   Berlioz (Hector), born 1803, at La
+     Death of Wordsworth    |      | Côte Saint-André, in France, died
+      (1850).               |      | 1869. Requiem, symphonies, overtures,
+                            |      | other orchestral works with and
+     Great Exhibition       |      | without vocal music. A Treatise on
+      in London             |      | Instrumentation, and many Musical
+      projected by          |      | Essays.
+      Prince Albert         |      |
+      (1851).               |      |
+                            |      |
+     Death of the Duke      |      |   Mendelssohn-Bartholdy (Felix), born
+      of Wellington         |      | 1809 at Hamburg, died 1847. Composed
+      (1852).               |      | two Oratorios, other sacred
+                            |      | compositions, 2 Operas, other dramatic
+     The Prince President   |      | music, symphonies, overtures, ottett,
+      of the                |      | quintetts, quartetts, etc., organ
+      French Republic       |      | compositions, pianoforte concertos,
+      is declared           |      | sonatas, etc., 'Songs without Words'
+      Emperor of the        |      | for the pianoforte, secular songs for
+      French and assumes    |      | a single voice, and for several
+      the title             |      | voices, etc.
+      of Napoleon           |      |
+      III. (1852).          |      |
+                            |      |
+     Historians:--Thos.     |      |   Chopin (Frederic François), born
+      Carlyle,              |      | 1810 near Warsaw, died 1849, in Paris.
+      Macaulay, Guizot,     |      | Pianist. Many pianoforte compositions,
+      Thiers, Rotteck,      |      | studies, etc.
+      etc.                  |      |
+                            |      |
+     Painters: Rosa         |      |   Schumann (Robert), born 1810 at
+      Bonheur,              |      | Zwickau, in Saxony, died 1856. Operas,
+      Cooper, Landseer,     |      | symphonies, quartetts, etc. Pianoforte
+      Millais,              |      | compositions, songs. Essays on
+      W. von Kaulbach,      |      | Music.
+      etc.                  |      |
+                            |      |   Thalberg (Sigismund), born 1812 at
+     Novelists: Chas.       |      | Geneva, died 1871. Pianist.
+      Dickens, W.           |      | Compositions for the pianoforte,
+      M. Thackeray,         |      | mostly on themes of other composers.
+      Lytton Bulwer,        |      | Also two Operas, etc.
+      George Eliot,         |      |
+      (Mrs. Lewis),         |      |   Bennett (William Sterndale), born
+      Victor Hugo,          |      | 1816 at Sheffield, died 1875. Some
+      Alexandre Dumas,      |      | sacred compositions, overtures,
+      etc.                  |      | pianoforte music, songs, etc.
+                            |      |
+     Michael Faraday,       |      |
+      chemist.              |      |
+                            |      |
+     Charles Darwin,        |      |   During the first half of the present
+      philosopher           |      | century great progress in the
+      and naturalist.       |      | construction of musical instruments,
+                            |      | especially of wind instruments.
+     Helmholtz, German      |      |
+      philosopher           |      |   Innumerable celebrated pianists,
+      and writer            |      | violinists, flutists, etc.
+      on acoustics.         |      |
+      Important discoveries.|      |   Celebrated female singers: Catalani,
+                            |      | Malibran, Grisi, Persiani, Pasta,
+     Alfred Tennyson,       |      | Pauline Viardot, Henriette Sontag,
+      Poet Laureate.        |      | Sophie Löwe, etc.
+                            |      |
+     Livingstone,           |      |   Celebrated male singers: Lablache,
+      African traveller.    |      | Rubini, Tamburini, Braham, Wild,
+                            |      | etc.
+     Bismarck, German       |      |
+      statesman.            |      |   Monster Concerts.
+                            |      |
+     Moltke, German         |      |   Attempt of a reform of the Opera.
+      General.              |      |
+                            |      |
+     Great progress in      |      |   There are among our living musicians
+      sciences relating     |      | so many celebrated ones that it would
+      to natural            |      | really be difficult to make a
+      philosophy, and       |      | satisfactory selection of them for
+      in practical          |      | incorporation into a concise
+      arts. Gradual         |      | Chronology. Fortunately, the plan
+      dying out of          |      | adopted in the compilation, as
+      many old              |      | previously explained, renders this
+      superstitions and     |      | delicate task unnecessary.
+      prejudices.           |      |
+      However, in           |      |   As standard works on the history of
+      some countries        |      | music, easily accessible, may be
+      attempts to return    |      | recommended the treatises by Forkel,
+      to a Mediæval         |      | Kiesewetter, Bellermann, Ambros,
+      state of              |      | Burney, Hawkins, Fétis, and
+      civilization.         |      | Coussemaker.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+THE MUSICAL SCALES IN USE AT THE PRESENT DAY.
+
+
+In 'An Introduction to the Study of National Music' (London, 1866) I
+have endeavoured to give some account of the musical scales of different
+nations. The subject requires, however, fuller investigation than the
+aim of that book would permit. The 'Introduction to the Study of
+National Music' is intended to acquaint the student with the facts
+respecting the music of foreign nations and tribes which have been
+transmitted to us by travellers and through other sources. It can
+therefore scarcely claim more than to be a collection of materials which
+will prove useful for the erection of an edifice called the Science of
+National Music, as soon as the necessary additional materials have been
+obtained, without which it would be premature to design in detail the
+plan of the edifice, and to determine precisely its dimensions and
+internal divisions. The acquisition of useful materials will probably be
+promoted by the step recently taken by the British Association for the
+Advancement of Science.[113] There can be no greater mistake in such
+pursuits than to form a theory before the examples which are to serve as
+illustrations have been most carefully examined and verified. It is by
+no means easy to commit to notation a popular tune of a foreign country
+which possesses peculiarities with which we are unfamiliar. Even
+musicians who have had experience in writing down national songs which
+they happen to hear, find this difficult. How unreliable, therefore,
+must be the notations of many travellers who know but little of music!
+Still, the student of National Music, by careful attention and
+comparison, is gradually enabled to discern what is genuine, and
+valuable for his purpose. He knows that if there prevails a certain
+peculiarity in the scale on which the tunes collected are founded, the
+cause may be owing to want of musical experience in the person who wrote
+the tunes down, or to an individual whim of the performer by whom they
+were sung or played to the writer of the notation. But, supposing the
+student examines several collections of popular tunes from the same
+country, the collections having been formed by different persons
+independently of each other, and he finds all exhibiting the same
+peculiarity, he has no reason to doubt that it really exists in the
+music of that country. Nothing gives to the popular music of a country a
+more distinctive feature than the order of intervals on which it is
+founded; when the scale has been clearly ascertained, such other
+characteristics as the music possesses are generally soon discerned with
+sufficient exactness to be definable by the experienced musical
+inquirer.
+
+The notations of musical scales of uncivilized nations emanating from
+European travellers who have heard the people sing, are certainly to be
+received with caution. Of this kind of communication is, for instance,
+the notation of the vocal effusions progressing in demi-semitones of the
+Marquesas Islanders at their cannibal feasts, written down by Councillor
+Tilesius, and published in the Allgemeine Musikalische Zeitung, Leipzig,
+1805; or the notation of songs of the New Zealanders containing smaller
+intervals than semitones, which Mr. Davies has written down, and which
+Sir George Grey has published in his 'Polynesian Mythology of the New
+Zealand Race' (London, 1855). It is, however, often possible to
+ascertain the musical scale of a nation with exactness by examining the
+musical instruments appertaining to the nation. Thus, for instance, the
+Chinese close some of the finger-holes of their flutes by sticking
+pieces of bladder over them, in order to ensure the pentatonic scale;
+the Javanese construct instruments of percussion with sonorous slabs of
+metal or wood, arranged in conformity with the pentatonic scale; the
+Arabs, and most Mohammedan nations who have cultivated their music
+after the system of the Arabs, possess wind-instruments of the oboe kind
+on which the finger-holes are placed in accordance with the division of
+seventeen intervals in the compass of an octave; and also several
+stringed instruments of the Arabs, which are supplied with frets made of
+gut wound round the neck or finger-board, exhibit the same order of
+intervals; again, certain stringed instruments of the Hindus contain a
+number of little bridges, stuck with wax beneath the strings so as to
+produce, on a string being pressed down on the bridges successively,
+twenty-two intervals in the compass of the octave. Other instruments
+have marks on the sound-board as a guide to the performer where he has
+to press down the strings in exact conformity with the established
+scale.
+
+What we observe with different nations of the present day, respecting
+the diversity of musical scales, might evidently also have been observed
+in ancient time. The Greeks had several kinds of scales, the popularity
+of which changed at different periods. So also had our forefathers
+during the Middle Ages. There is no necessity to refer to the Tetrachord
+of the ancient Greeks and the Hexachord of Guido Aretinus for evidences
+of the mutability of taste in these matters, since it can be observed
+sufficiently by referring to the music of nations around us. However,
+the so-called Modes of our old ecclesiastical music require here, at any
+rate, a passing notice.
+
+Some theorists maintain that our diatonic major scale is alone a true
+scale, and that any other regular succession of tones in which the two
+semitones of the diatonic scale occur upon other intervals than 3-4 and
+7-8 is, properly speaking, a Mode. According to this doctrine, which was
+evidently suggested by the ecclesiastical Modes, our minor scale must be
+called a Mode, and the scales with steps exceeding a whole-tone, of
+which some examples will presently be given, are Imperfect Modes. It is
+unnecessary to refute such pedantic definitions; suffice it to remember
+that they exist.
+
+Again, the diatonic major scale is regarded by many musicians as the
+natural order of intervals on which the compositions must be founded
+whenever the art of music has attained to a high degree of development,
+and which will therefore be universally adopted in the course of time.
+They form this opinion especially from the laws of Acoustics, since the
+intervals constituting the diatonic major scale are those which as
+harmonics stand in the most simple relation to the fundamental tone
+produced by a vibrating body. Here, however, it must be observed that
+the intervals of our diatonic scale are not all of them precisely the
+same as those harmonics, but are "tempered;" since, did we tune them
+pure, as nature gives them, we could not use our system of harmony as it
+has been developed by our classical composers.
+
+Moreover, if the diatonic major scale is thus suggested by nature, the
+minor scale with its flat third must be more artificial, and less likely
+to be universally adopted. Howbeit, the minor scale is especially
+popular, not only with several uncivilized races, but also with several
+who have cultivated the art of music to a high degree. Some of our most
+eminent composers have written perhaps more beautiful music in minor
+than in major keys.
+
+Besides, certain deviations from the diatonic major scale, which we meet
+with in the music of foreign nations, possess a particular charm, which
+we are sure to appreciate more and more as we gradually become familiar
+with them. This, for instance, is the case with the Superfluous Second
+introduced as an essential interval of the scale. Many of our musicians
+regard such intervals as whimsical deviations, which ought not to be
+liked because they do not well agree with the rules laid down in our
+treatises on the theory of music. To such learned Professors the scale
+of the Arabs, with its seventeen intervals in the compass of an octave,
+instead of twelve semitones, as in our own system, is of course a
+flagrant misconception--not to speak of the twenty-two demi-semitones of
+the Hindus, which ought to be twenty-four. Those nations have musical
+systems very different from ours, for which their order of intervals is
+well suited. Our rules of harmony and forms of composition are unknown
+to them; still, their popular legends and traditions clearly prove that
+they appreciate the beauty and power of music not less keenly than we
+do; and they demonstrate the superiority of their scales with the same
+confidence as any of our theorists are capable of displaying.
+
+Could we trace our diatonic Major Scale in the songs of birds and in the
+euphonious cries of certain quadrupeds, we should have a more cogent
+reason for regarding it as the most natural scale than is afforded by a
+comparison of the vibrations required for the production of its several
+intervals. The songs of various birds have been written down in
+notation, from which it would appear that these feathered songsters
+possess an innate feeling for the diatonic major scale; but,
+unfortunately, unless the melodious phrases, or passages, thus noted
+down are distinguished by some remarkable rhythmical peculiarity, they
+are seldom easily recognizable when they are played on a musical
+instrument. There may be among the numerous birds a few which in their
+natural song, untaught and uninfluenced in any way by man, emit a small
+series of tones strictly diatonic; but no such musicians are to be found
+among our own birds, although we have in Europe the finest singing birds
+in existence. The nightingale, it is true, produces occasionally a
+succession of tones which nearly corresponds with the diatonic Major
+Scale in descending, and which might possibly be mistaken for it by a
+listener charmed by the exquisite purity and sweetness of the tones
+which he does not investigate with the ear of a pianoforte-tuner. Even
+the two melodious sounds of the cuckoo cannot be properly written down
+in notation; nor can they be rendered on the pianoforte, because they do
+not exactly constitute a Major Third, for which they are generally
+taken, and still less a Minor Third. A certain ape of the Gibbon family
+is said to produce exactly the chromatic scale through an entire octave
+in ascending and descending. Darwin, who in his work on 'The Expression
+of the Emotions in Man and Animals' (London, 1872; p. 87) mentions the
+astonishing musical skill of this ape, remarks that some quadrupeds of a
+much lower class than monkeys, namely Rodents, "are able to produce
+correct musical tones," and he refers the reader to an account of a
+"singing Hesperomys" [a mouse] by the Rev. S. Lockwood, in the
+'American Naturalist,' Vol. V., December, 1871; p. 761. Notwithstanding
+the great authority of Darwin, the musical inquirer will probably desire
+to ascertain for himself whether the "correct musical tones" are exactly
+in conformity with our diatonic and chromatic intervals. However, even
+if this should be the case in a few instances, it can only be regarded
+as quite exceptional.
+
+During the present century, our musical composers have so frequently
+employed in the diatonic major scale the Minor Sixth instead of the
+Major Sixth, that some theorists--among them Moritz Hauptmann--notice
+this order of intervals as a new and characteristic scale, and desire to
+have it as such generally acknowledged by musicians. A. Krauss, a
+teacher of music in Florence, has recently published a pamphlet,
+entitled 'Les Quatre Gammes diatoniques de la Tonalité moderne,' in
+which he designates this new scale with the name 'La Gamme semimajeur'
+(The Half-major Scale,) which is at any rate better than that suggested
+by Moritz Hauptmann, in his 'Die Natur der Harmonik and der Metrik,'
+which is 'Die Moll-Dur-Tonart' (the Minor-Major-Key, or scale).
+
+We possess then, according to these theorists, now four diatonic scales,
+namely:--
+
+[Music: 1. THE MAJOR SCALE.]
+
+[Music: 2. THE HALF-MAJOR SCALE.]
+
+Or also with minor seventh in descending:
+
+[Music: 3. THE MINOR SCALE.]
+
+[Music: 4. THE HALF-MINOR SCALE.]
+
+The Half-Minor Scale contains the Minor Third, while its other intervals
+are identical with those of the Major Scale. This is the case in
+descending, where the seventh and sixth are lowered, as well as in
+ascending.
+
+Furthermore, we have the Chromatic Scale, a regular progression in
+semitones, which is much used by modern composers; and the Enharmonic
+Scale, which may be said to exist only in notation, since it is not
+executable on most of our musical instruments, but which is likely to
+become important in the music of a future period when our instruments
+have been brought to the degree of perfection which permits the most
+delicate modifications in pitch by the performer, and which is at
+present almost alone obtainable on instruments of the violin kind.
+
+[Music: 5. THE CHROMATIC SCALE.]
+
+[Music: 6. THE ENHARMONIC SCALE.]
+
+Furthermore, we find at the present day the following scales in use
+among foreign nations:--
+
+[Music: 7. THE MINOR SCALE WITH TWO SUPERFLUOUS SECONDS.]
+
+If the lover of music is acquainted with the popular songs and
+dance-tunes of the Wallachians, or with the wild and plaintive airs
+played by the gipsy bands in Hungary, he need not be told that the Minor
+Scale with two Superfluous Seconds is capable of producing melodies
+extremely beautiful and impressive. Indeed, it would be impossible to
+point out more charming and stirring effects than those which
+characterise the music founded on this scale.
+
+[Music: 8. THE PENTATONIC SCALE.]
+
+The Pentatonic Scale was in ancient times apparently more universally in
+use than it is at present. It is still popular in China, in Malaysia,
+and in some other Eastern districts. Traces of it are found in the
+popular tunes of some European nations, especially in those of the
+Celtic races. Its charming effect is known to most of our musicians
+through some of the Scotch and Irish melodies. Also among the Javanese
+tunes, which have been brought to Europe by travellers, and which are
+generally strictly pentatonic, some specimens are very melodious and
+impressive.
+
+[Music: 9. THE DIATONIC SCALE WITH MINOR SEVENTH.]
+
+The Diatonic Scale with Minor Seventh is likewise an Eastern scale.
+Among European nations, the Servians especially have popular tunes which
+are founded on this scale. The Servian tunes frequently end with the
+interval of the Fifth instead of the First or the Octave. As the leading
+tone of our diatonic order of intervals--the Major Seventh--is wanting,
+our common cadence, or the usual harmonious treatment of the conclusion
+of a melody to which our ear has become so much accustomed that any
+other appears often unsatisfactory, cannot be applied to those tunes.
+Nevertheless, they will be found beautiful by inquirers who are able to
+dismiss prejudice and to enter into the spirit of the music. Although
+the scale with Minor Seventh bears a strong resemblance to one of our
+antiquated Church Modes, called Myxo-Lydian, it is in some respects of a
+very different stamp, since its characteristic features would become
+veiled if it were harmonised like that Church Mode.
+
+In addition to the nine scales which have been enumerated, some others
+could be pointed out which are popular in European countries; but, as
+they resemble more or less those which have been given above, and as
+they may be regarded as modifications, it will suffice here to refer to
+them only briefly. There are, for instance, in the Irish tunes many of a
+pentatonic character in which one of the two semitones of the diatonic
+scale is extant, and the scale of which therefore consists of six
+intervals, either thus
+
+[Music: C, D, E, F, G, A, C], or thus [Music: C, D, E, G, A, B, C]
+
+We also meet with a pentatonic order of intervals in which the Third is
+flat like in our diatonic minor scale.
+
+Again, some nations which have the diatonic order of intervals deviate
+slightly from it by habitually intoning some particular interval in a
+higher or lower pitch than it occurs in our tempered system. For
+instance, careful observers have noticed that the Swiss peasants in
+singing their popular airs are naturally inclined to intone the interval
+of the Fourth sharper than it sounds on the pianoforte. Thus, in C-major
+it is raised so as to give almost the impression of _F sharp_. This
+peculiarity is supposed to have arisen from the Alphorn, a favourite
+instrument of the Swiss, on which the interval of the Fourth, like on a
+trumpet, is higher than it is in our Diatonic Scale. No doubt many
+peculiarities of this kind are traceable to the construction of certain
+popular instruments. This is perhaps more frequently observable among
+uncivilized nations than with Europeans. Professor Lichtenstein, who,
+during his travels in South Africa, in the beginning of the present
+century, investigated the music of the Hottentots, asserts that these
+people sing the interval of the Third slightly lower than the Major
+Third, but not so low as the Minor Third; and the Fifth and Minor
+Seventh likewise lower than in our intonation. He found that the same
+deviations from our intervals exist on the _Gorah_, a favourite stringed
+instrument of the Hottentots.
+
+Other peculiarities of the kind are more difficult to explain. In the
+Italian popular songs of the peasantry, for instance, we not
+unfrequently meet with the Minor Second, where to an ear accustomed to
+our Minor Scale it appears like a whimsical substitution for the Major
+Second. It occurs, however, only occasionally. When it is used, the
+scale is as follows; the Seventh being Major in ascending, and Minor in
+descending:--
+
+[Music]
+
+In some instances such peculiarities have evidently been derived, as has
+already been stated, from the series of tones produced on a popular
+instrument. But there are many instances in which the tones yielded by
+the instrument have been purposely adopted in the construction of the
+instrument from the previously existing popular scale of the vocal
+music. Thus, it may possibly be that, as some inquirers maintain, the
+pentatonic character of certain Irish airs has its origin in the
+primitive scale of the ancient rural bagpipe of Celtic races, or, as
+others believe, in the simple construction of the ancient Irish
+harp;--on the other hand, the Chinese and Javanese, as we have seen,
+contrive in the construction of their instruments to obtain the
+pentatonic scale on which their vocal music is usually founded.
+
+Those theorists who regard our diatonic major scale as the most perfect
+one, which ultimately must be universally accepted as the only true one,
+will probably not admit that under certain circumstances the sounding of
+one or other of its intervals a little "out of tune" may actually
+increase the beauty of a musical performance. Such is, however,
+unquestionably the case. To note a curious instance in proof of the
+correctness of this assertion as afforded by the clavichord, a
+contemporary of the harpsichord and predecessor of the pianoforte:--The
+strings of the clavichord are not sounded by being twanged with quills,
+as is the case in the harpsichord, but are vibrated by means of iron
+pins, called tangents, which press under the strings when the keys are
+struck. The pressure of the tangent lasts as long as the key to which
+the tangent is attached is held down. The deeper the performer presses
+the key down with his finger, the stronger is the pressure of the
+tangent against the string, and the more the string is raised by it.
+The raising of the string has the effect of slightly raising the pitch
+of its tone. The performer, therefore, has it in his power to modify in
+some degree the pitch of a tone, and by this means to distinguish any
+tone to which he desires to give emphasis, or to render prominent in
+expressing a melody, or in executing a passage with delicacy. The
+aptness of the clavichord for yielding to these deviations from the
+intonation of the intervals in which it is tuned, combined with its
+aptness for producing with great delicacy different degrees of loudness,
+constitute the principal charms of the instrument, and sufficiently
+account for the love which our old classical composers,--Handel, Bach,
+etc.,--bore for the clavichord.
+
+A musical instrument containing all conceivable perfections for
+performance, we do not yet possess. Such an instrument would be required
+to yield not only Whole-Tones and Semitones, but likewise
+Demi-semitones, Semidemi-semitones,--in short, every modification of an
+interval which the performer desires. It must have the greatest compass
+obtainable in tones. All its tones must be of equal power, sonorousness
+and beauty. The sustaining, the increasing and decreasing in loudness,
+must be possible with each tone separately, at the option of the
+performer, even in harmonious combinations. Likewise the difference in
+manner of expression, such as legato, staccato, etc., must be thus
+obtainable. The greatest possible difference in the quality of sound
+(_timbre_) must be at the command of the performer for any tone which he
+wishes to be thus affected. The instrument must permit the simultaneous
+sounding of as many of its tones as the performer desires, whatever
+their distance from each other may be, and this must be achievable by
+him with about the same facility as he requires for the production of a
+single tone. The instrument must be playable by only one performer; it
+must not present any extraordinary difficulty to musicians to play it
+well; and it must permit being easily kept in tune. Perhaps the organ
+approaches the nearest to this perfection, but is still far from it. The
+violin and the violoncello are in some respects ahead of all--at any
+rate, as regards delicacy of expression.
+
+But, fascinating though it may be to depict such a nearly perfect
+musical instrument of the Future, the real substitutes of our present
+contrivances, a century or two hence, will probably be very different
+from our ideal, especially if we found our speculation on the impression
+that our Tonal System is the only right one, and that our diatonic major
+scale will be as everlasting as a mathematical truth, or as the axiom
+that two and two are four.
+
+Indeed, the mutability of the musical taste of man appears to be
+unlimited, and it is certainly possible that our children's children may
+find decidedly objectionable some rule of musical composition which is
+now thought highly satisfactory. Did not our ancestors at the time of
+Hucbald relish consecutive Fifths and Octaves as an harmonious
+accompaniment to a melody? A Chinese Mandarin, on hearing a French
+Jesuit, at Pekin, play on a clavecin some _Suites de Pièces_ of a
+celebrated French composer, endeavoured to convince the performer that
+the Chinese music was the only true music "because," he said, "it
+appeals to the heart, while yours makes only noise." When Villoteau,
+during his residence in Egypt, investigated the Arabic music, his Arab
+music-master at Cairo endeavoured to convince him that the division of
+the Octave into seventeen intervals was more natural and tasteful than
+the European division into twelve chromatic intervals. A Nubian
+musician, on hearing Mr. Lane play the pianoforte, remarked: "Your
+instrument is very much out of tune, and jumps very much." He evidently
+missed the accustomed small intervals connecting the whole-tones in his
+own music. Livingstone, in his 'Missionary Travels in South Africa,'
+relates that on a certain occasion when an English missionary sang a
+hymn to an assembly of Bechuana Kafirs, "the effect on the risible
+faculties of the audience was such that the tears actually ran down
+their cheeks;" and the same may have happened to the missionary when he
+heard the Kafirs sing.
+
+Many more examples from nations in different stages of civilization
+could be cited evidencing the remarkable variety and instability of
+musical taste. Much of our own music, which about a century ago was
+greatly admired, appears now unimpressive; and great masters who
+introduce important innovations are sure at first not to be understood
+by the majority of musical people.
+
+Instead of regarding our Tonal System as exhibiting the highest degree
+of perfection attainable, and of repudiating musical conceptions which
+reveal another foundation, as our musicians are apt to do, it would be
+more wise in them to study the various systems on which the music of
+different nations is founded, to acquaint themselves especially with the
+characteristics of the various scales, and, by adopting them on proper
+occasions, to produce new effects more refreshing than the hackneyed
+phrases and modulations which usually pervade their works.
+
+[Illustration: FINIS.]
+
+[113] See above, Vol. I., p. 23.
+
+NOVELLO, EWER & CO., PRINTERS, 69 & 70, DEAN STREET, SOHO.
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Notes
+
+Apparent printer's errors have been retained, unless stated below.
+
+"_" surrounding text represents italics.
+
+Punctuation, capitalization, accents and formatting markup have been
+made consistent in the text. This excludes the footnotes due to several
+inconsistencies.
+
+Page 2, "Giques" changed to "Gigues". ('Pièces de Clavecin, en deux
+Volumes, consistant des Ouvertures, Preludes, Fugues, Allemandes,
+Courentes, Sarabandes, Gigues et Aires, composées par J. Mattheson,
+Secr.--London, printed for J. D. Fletcher.')
+
+Page 6, "I I" changed to "I". (I am sure if he reads this he will laugh
+in his sleeve, for outwardly he seldom laughs.)
+
+Page 58, "Quartett for 2 Violins, 2 Tenors, and Violoncello". Although
+the instruments described constitute a quintett, this is how it appears
+in the original.
+
+Page 132, "unusally" changed to "unusually". (There remained now nothing
+for him to do but to take up his jacket and make the best of his way
+home. But the jacket felt so unusually heavy;)
+
+Page 141, "ecstacy" changed to "ecstasy". (After he had been a while in
+this state of reflection, he heard heavenly strains of music, and on
+looking up he saw a little bird which sang with a voice so enchantingly
+melodious that he arose in ecstasy.
+
+Page 151, "semicircle" changed to "semi-circle" for consistency.
+(Sometimes they form a semi-circle, assume a bending position, and sing
+in a subdued tone of voice a soft air;)
+
+Page 158, "Odeinna" changed to "Oodeinna" for consistency. (The
+following scenes are from a drama commemorating an episode from the life
+of Oodeinna, King of Kauthambi, a country in India.)
+
+Page 174, "develope" changed to "develop". (The Netherlandish masters
+institute Schools in Italy and develop the art of music with great
+success in that country.)
+
+Page 185, "Trojan" changed to "Trajan". (Trajan, Roman Emperor (98).)
+
+Page 204, "Christofali" changed to "Christofori". (About this time, the
+first Pianofortes were constructed by Christofori, in Italy, and by
+Schröter, in Germany.)
+
+Page 206, "harpischord" changed to "harpsichord". (many compositions for
+the organ, clavichord, clavicembalo (harpsichord), and for the
+orchestra.)
+
+Page 219, "Manheim" changed to "Mannheim". (Weber (Bernhard Anselm),
+born 1766 at Mannheim, died 1821.)
+
+Footnote 15, "Crysander" changed to "Chrysander" for consistency. (See
+G. F. Händel, von F. Chrysander, Leipzig, 1858, Vol. I., p. 139.)
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Musical Myths and Facts, Volume II (of
+2), by Carl Engel
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 40384 ***