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diff --git a/40376.txt b/40376.txt deleted file mode 100644 index af80b31..0000000 --- a/40376.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,3264 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Cork: Its Origin and Industrial Uses, by -Gilbert E. Stecher - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: Cork: Its Origin and Industrial Uses - -Author: Gilbert E. Stecher - -Release Date: October 24, 2012 [EBook #40376] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CORK: ITS ORIGIN AND *** - - - - -Chris Curnow, Fred Salzer and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - - +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ - | TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES | - | | - | * Where the original work uses text in italics or bold face, this | - | e-text uses _text_ and =text=, respectively. Small caps in the | - | original work are represented here in all capitals. Subscripts | - | are represented as _{subscript}. | - | * Ditto marks are left double quotes in the original work and | - | have been retained. | - | * Footnotes have been renumbered and moved to directly below | - | the paragraph to which they belong. | - | * Greek characters have been transcribed as [Greek: suphar]. | - | * Diacritical characters removed, × replaced by x, æ replaced by | - | ae. | - | | - | More Transcriber's Notes will be found at the end of this text. | - +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ - - - - - [Illustration: GATHERING CORKWOOD] - - - CORK: - Its Origin and Industrial Uses - - BY - GILBERT E. STECHER - - _Illustrated_ - - - [Illustration] - - - NEW YORK - D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY - 25 PARK PLACE - 1914 - - - COPYRIGHT, 1914, BY - D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY - - - - -PREFACE - - -This monograph is not an attempt to put before the reading public a -scientific exposition of the merits and qualities of the Quercus Suber -or Quercus Liber (Linnaeus), and carry it up into the heights of -learning where none but the learned may go; but to set forth in as -concise a manner as possible, the plain story of the corkwood stopper so -well known to all. The corkwood as seen in the stopper and in many other -articles of trade, has long been of service to man, and remained -unnoticed in journals of science, but for a word here and there--and in -trying to acquaint myself with its generalities, found it most difficult -to get even these. This rather impressed me as being singular, a -material so largely used and so little to its credit, in literature, -that I pressed my investigations only to find that the farther I -searched the less I found. - -The few facts gleaned were of interest, and it occurred to me to put -them together in some readable form, for future reference. But as I -reflected upon the unsuccessful attempt to get information, which was -made in behalf of my studies, I promptly decided to go into the subject -deep enough to cover all the facts and the result is this -monograph--Quercus Suber-- - -It is presented with the hope that it will help others who seek a -knowledge of corkwood and is only intended as a resume of a very -interesting subject. I have endeavored to give credit to those to whom -it is due and offer my results as a tribute to a material that stands in -a class worthy of the scientists' as well as the commercialists' esteem. - - G. E. STECHER. - June 15, 1914. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - PAGE - Quercus Suber (Cork) 3 - - Quercus Liber (Linnaeus) 5 - - Cork 7 - - Origin 9 - _Including the territory of growth and - attempts to transplant the seed._ - - The Tree and Growth 12 - - Diseases 16 - - Stripping 17 - - Botany and Chemistry 22 - _Including compression diagram._ - - Uses and Application 39 - - Substitutes 53 - - Manufacture 55 - Raw stock. - Sorting. - Stopper making. - Cork Disc making. - Waste utilization. - - Extent of the Manufacturing Industry 71 - - Appendix 76 - - - - - CORK: - Its Origin and Industrial Uses - - - - -QUERCUS SUBER-- - -"CORK" - - -The material of which this monograph treats has become of double -interest because of its shrouded mystery, which has never been pierced -to the extent of giving the world a complete and comprehensive story. -The mysticism does not encompass its utility and general uses nor its -native land, as these are well known, but is more associated with its -character, composition and chemical makeup. - -Its uses may be traced far back into the misty past that is dim to us, -but from the faint scroll of history looms up in the mind's eye as an -epoch that we may have been glad to know, and although the references -are few, by carefully analyzing them we may glean somewhat of its -lineage. - -The arcana attending it have been revealed to a few, who no doubt, -through curiosity, have endeavored to penetrate its obscurity, but -unfortunately have not written extensively upon the subject, instead -leaving a meager memorandum of their findings. The years of its use have -given very little knowledge of it to us, the reason perhaps being the -lack of competition and therefore no necessity for a close scrutiny to -find additional qualities to recommend it above others. And an -additional mystery is that it has been in use for so many years and so -little said about it. Its latent qualities have mystified those who have -handled it for years, and from them we can learn very little; so it will -be of interest to peruse practically all that has been written, -incorporated in this treatise, with the addition of the latest -investigations upon the subject. To present this in a form which will -give credit to the small but authoritative references and place them in -their proper order, together with other recent data, was no small task, -and in presenting the total matter in concise style meant the weeding -out of all extraneous language or superfluous description. - -In considering this material, it may be well to start with a few -precursory remarks as to the etymology of the words by which it has been -designated in the past and is now known, as by so doing it will convey a -better understanding of the material to follow. - - -QUERCUS LIBER (Linnaeus) - -The above name is the true one of the material under discussion and is -derived from the Latin. Quercus; Italian or esculent oak sacred to -Jupiter. Liber; binding or surrounding; hence surrounding of the oak or -bark of the oak, sacred to Jupiter. - - -"QUERCUS SUBER" - -This, its definite name, undoubtedly conveyed some particular meaning to -the ancients, but research fails to reveal any definition of the word -"Suber."[1] "The word is so far a puzzle to philologists. Forcellini in -his great dictionary of Latin says that it is perhaps connected with the -Greek word ([Greek: suphar] = suphar), which means 'an old wrinkled -skin, as, for instance, the cast-off skin of a snake.' If this -derivation be sound, the Romans, in using the word, thought at the -outset primarily of the rough bark of the tree and then of the tree as a -whole. Forcellini quotes also an opinion of Isidorus Hispalensis upon -the longer form of 'Suber,' i.e., Suberies, to the effect that this form -is derived from 'sus' (swine) and 'edo' (eat) because swine eat the -acorns. But this is a purely popular etymology. I find too that Scaliger -derived it from the verb 'Subio' 'to come up from below' because cork -will not stay down in water. Vanicek, in his Etymologisches Worterbuch, -classes 'Suber' among the dunkel words, and in the new and most -elaborate Historische Grammatic of Stolz the word is not mentioned at -all in the treatment of roots. Even Otto Keller in his work on -Etymologies has nothing to say about it." - - [1] Letter from Prof. Nelson G. McCrea of Columbia University, June - 12, 1910, to writer. - - - - -"CORK" - - -This name is as much of a mystery as the word "Suber" and its origin can -only be guesswork. In the opinion of the writer it is the broadening of -the first syllable of the word "Quercus" and has no bearing upon its -usage, composition or lineage. Some dictionaries give other derivations, -such as the mutilation of the Spanish "Corcho" or the French "Calk," and -others that it is taken from the Latin Cortex,[2] meaning the outer -shell or husk, the external part, but they do not present any convincing -argument. - - [2] According to "Spanish Dictionary" of Lopes et Bensley; Cortex: "La - Parte exterior del Arbol." Arbol in botany meaning "a tree." - -The meaning of the word "cork" as applied to-day is derived from the -Arabic "Kalafa," to stop the seams of ships; the Latin "Stipo," to -suppress; the French, "Calfeutrer," to stop. But these do not bear upon -the origin of the word "cork," as in all probability the word was coined -independent of these sources, but as we apply the word to a definite -act, that of "stopping," the definition as given above is applicable, -although the proper name would be "stopper," regardless of what material -it is made. It is therefore plain that the word "cork" is a Latin -phonetic abbreviation, for it appears to be the only logical root for -the word. - -The cork tree is called "Alcornoque" in Castilian language; Surn in -Castalan; Sobreiro, Gallician; Suvi y Sioure in provincialism; Chene -Liege in French; Keonge fernam or only fernam, in Argeline; Kork-baum or -Korkeiche in German; and, as before stated, cork in English.[3] - - [3] Consul Schenck's Report. - - - - -ORIGIN - - -The study of its origin leads us to that romantic part of the world -bordering the Mediterranean Sea from which we have already received so -much in all branches. The cork-producing country practically covering -the whole of Portugal sweeping toward the East through the southern -districts known as Andalusia and Estremadura, thence northeast, -embracing thousands of acres of forests in Catalonia. Spain and Portugal -dividing honors among the nations in the annual yield of raw material, -with perhaps the advantage leaning slightly to the latter.[4] This being -partly due to increased area, no doubt, as the geographical situation is -the same but with the irrigation feature slightly in favor of Spain, as -through the corkwood country flows the Guadalquivir River in addition to -the three which also pass through Portugal, consisting of the Douro, -Tagus and Guadiana in the west, and the Ebro in the Gerona district. - - [4] Armstrong Cork Co.'s pamphlet. - -Tunis and Algeria[5] rank next in importance with Southern France, -including Corsica following closely. Italy (Tuscany) too with the help -of Sardinia and Sicily continuing to be quite a factor in meeting the -demand for the crude material, while across the Strait of Gibraltar the -sun-scorched forests of Morocco at El-araish are as yet undeveloped, -although rapidly being pressed into service. - - [5] There are large forests of cork on the French Colony of Algeria, - particularly on an estate granted by the Emperor Napoleon III to - M. le duc de Montebello.--H. G. GLASSPOOLE. - -The geographical formation of Portugal is extremely favorable for the -rearing of cork trees, every evidence of this characteristic being well -marked by the densely thick groups of cork trees to be seen in certain -regions, especially in the Valley of the Tagus and the Sierra de -Portalegre provinces of Alemtejo and Algarve, which are the chief -bearing centers of this country,[6] the area devoted to their -cultivation being approximately 366,000 hectares. - - [6] Chambers Journal. - -In Spain it is found in the Provinces of Gerona, Caceres, Andalusia, -Huelvas, Seville, Cadiz, Ciudad Real, Malaga, Cordoba and Toledo in the -order named. - -According to a calculation made by the administration of forests the -extent of cork forests in Spain is about 255,000 hectares,[7] viz. -80,000 in the Province of Gerona, 54,000 in Huelvas, 32,500 in Caceres, -28,000 in Seville, 20,000 in Cadiz, 11,500 in Ciudad Real and 9500 in -Cordoba. The remainder is distributed between ten other provinces.[8] - - [7] One hectare = 2.471 acres. - - [8] Consul Schenck's Report. - -In the Province of Gerona is included a large territory stretching -northward towards the Pyrenees to the Valley of the Muge and Ter. In -France, according to Consul Goldschmidt of Nantes, the cork-producing -territory is divided as follows: Var, 280 acres; Lot-et-Garonne, 27 -acres; Landes, 32 acres; Corsica, 40 acres; making about 379 acres in -all. - -This resume of the cork-producing countries of Europe will convey some -idea of the extent of the forests, and will also show the climate sort -by the tree; for it is proven that it flourishes best in an altitude of -1600 to 3000 feet, in an average mean temperature of 55 deg. Fahrenheit; -and at points beyond 45 deg. north latitude its successful propagation -is doubtful. - -The Mediterranean Basin is particularly suitable for the rearing of -corkwood, and although many attempts have been made to transplant the -seed, the results have proven fatal. - -Notable among these attempts being the American ambition to introduce -the tree in the United States. Portuguese acorns were brought to Wayne -County, Mississippi, and planted in 1859; the result, as far as the -growth was concerned, was splendid; but after a wait of eleven years, -the final crop was not a commercial success. Another attempt was made in -1872, in southern California, but with no better outcome than the first, -in which some of the trees attained to a height of thirteen feet (3.965 -meters) and the stem, to a diameter of eleven inches (2.794 decimeters), -including the cork, which attained a thickness of one inch (2.540 -centimeters). This evidently rapid growth would infer that the American -zone was all that could be desired for the favorable rearing of cork -trees; but strange to say this was not the case. Although the growth of -the tree had been exceptionally strong, the quality of its salient -product turned out to be of an inferior character. The cork generally -improves with the age of the tree; in this instance, however, even after -years of maturity the cork harvest did not improve to any great extent, -and indeed is still of a second-rate quality.[9] And Consul S. C. Reat, -writing from Tamsui, recently reports the efforts of the Japanese -Government to plant cork trees in Formosa and the Ogasawara Isles, in -the endeavor to supply small corks to the Japanese merchants, the result -of which, is yet to be learned. - - [9] _Chambers Journal._ - - -THE TREE AND GROWTH - -Many botanists consider the cork oak of Europe as belonging to two -species, one chiefly characterized by annual fructification and the -persistence of the leaves for two or three years (Quercus Suber, -Linnaeus); the other by biennial fructification and annual persistence -of the leaves (Quercus Occidentalis, Gay).[10] - - [10] _Garden and Forest_, Vol. VIII, 52. - -In the French departments of the Landes and Gironde the Quercus -Occidentalis forms extensive woods, as also in Spain, Algeria and -in some parts of Italy, while the Quercus Suber is a native of the -Atlantic side of France and Portugal, where this tree grows to the -greatest perfection, and to which countries we are indebted for the -major part of our supply. The cork tree bears a general resemblance to -the broad-leaved kind of (Quercus Ilex, Holm) or evergreen oak, of which -species some authors consider it only a variety; but when full grown it -forms a much handsomer tree. - -"In the localities to the north the cork is better than those exposed to -the south. It grows and develops in ground of very little depth, and -sometimes in ground, in appearance very stony. It is seldom found in -calcareous soil, preferring always a soil of feldspar, and like the -chestnut flourishes best in a sandy one."[11] - - [11] Consul Schenck's Report. - -The cork-oak attains a height of from six to eighteen meters, at times -reaching fifty meters[12] and measures as much as 1.22 meters in -diameter.[13] Its branches are covered with small evergreen leaves, -which are rather spongy and velvety to the touch, have a glossy -appearance and a saw-tooth edge, measuring about three to five -centimeters[14] long and one and one-half to two wide. The roots are -strong and spread considerably, and frequently are to be seen on the -surface of the ground. The flowers or blossoms make their appearance in -May; the fruit ripens in the fall or winter, from September to January, -and falling from the tree as soon as ripe. Three qualities of acorns are -to be observed according to their time of ripening and are called, -"brevas primerizas de San Miguel," which ripen in September; the second -or middling "Martinencas," which ripen in October and November; and -finally the "tardias O palo-Meras," which ripen in December and January. -These acorns form one of the forest's chief sources of revenue, since -fed to swine, they give a peculiarly piquant flavor to the meat, Spanish -mountain hams being noted for their excellence.[15] - - [12] Meter = 3.28 feet. - - [13] In a cork-wood of Montenegro (municipal district of Quart, - Province of Gerona) the property of D. Romulo Bosch, and near the - place called La Mina, we measured in August, 1877, a tree that - was 4.95 meters in circumference, breast high, and the trunk of - the tree five meters high, calculating its age between one - hundred and fifty and two hundred years old. Consul Schenck's - Report, 1890. - - [14] Centimeter = .3937 inch. - - [15] Consul Schenck's Report, 1890. Authority M. Fee. - -In the following paragraphs I will quote principally from Consul -Schenck's Report, 1890, relating to the growing and procuring of the -bark for shipment, with interpolated sentences and slight changes, made -necessary by other data at hand. The most common practice is to -cultivate this plant by sowing, which is frequently done, above all, in -ground somewhat manured, making alternate furrows with vines. Up to -their twentieth or twenty-fifth year the ground is cultivated as if it -were a vineyard, rooting up at that age the vines on account of -producing less fruit, and also on account of the cork trees being pretty -well grown up and no longer requiring the shelter of the vines. At the -end of even one year it is difficult to transplant the cork tree on -account of the length of the roots, principally the central one, and if -the trees are put out with the intention of transplanting they are -generally sewn in a false ground bottom made artificially at a certain -depth with layers of stones or bricks. French silviculturists recommend -about 110 to 120 trees to the hectare (2.471 acres). - -The cork tree gives but little shade, which contributes greatly in -causing the soil to become dry. To avoid all these inconveniences, which -are highly unfavorable to the good production of cork, it is requisite -that young plants grow up with sufficient foliage, so that the branches -touch each other, and even overreach, till they are about twenty-five -years old. It may be convenient, if there is not sufficient foliage from -the cork trees themselves, to introduce secondary species, such as the -elm tree, ash and pine, known as (pi meli), these being depended upon to -supply the requisite coolness and manure to the ground. If the soil is -poor, the cork is thin but of fine quality and very appropriate to make -the best stoppers. If, on the contrary, it is rich, the cork is thick -but spongy. Consequently it is requisite to treat the cork tree in such -a manner that whilst the cork grows thick it will at the same time be -fine in texture. This is of course an agricultural problem and may -differ from year to year in the necessary details. - - - - -DISEASES - - -The cork tree has in no wise escaped from disease and infections; on the -contrary it has its full allotted share which worries the growers more -than the acquiring of a perfect texture, and unless great care is taken -will greatly reduce the value of a crop. The larva of the Coroebus -undatus (corch) attacks the interior of the cork, penetrating frequently -into the tree itself, which causes an undervaluation in the quality of -the cork, and, moreover, these perforations unite so closely and in such -a manner even in the trunk of the tree that in peeling off the cork, -part of the skin of the trunk itself comes off, causing much damage to -the tree. - -The larva of the Cerambyx cerdo, as well as the ant, Formica rufa L. -hormigas, destroys the fine cork with their numerous borings and -galleries. Jaspered (Jasperado) is the name by which is known one of the -defects of the cork which reduces it greatly in value and as far as -can be learned comes from the tree itself. The porosity of cork is -greatly increased by the presence of cork-meal, resulting from the -disintegration of the Sclerenchyma, or stone cells, which penetrate -the cork fiber and falling to a powder facilitate the entrance of -infection.[16] - - [16] _Scientific American_, 1906. - - - - -STRIPPING - - -[17] The corkwood or cork of commerce is the external part or "periderm" -of the cork-oak; and when it has attained a diameter of approximately -12.7 centimeters or the tree measures forty centimeters in circumference -according to the Spanish governmental regulations, which the tree does -usually by the time it is twenty years old, the bark may be removed. The -stripping generally takes place during July and August, and it is a -process which demands skill and care, if injury to the bark is to be -avoided. In Algeria the French strippers sometimes use crescent-shaped -saws, but under the usual Spanish method a hatchet, with a long handle, -is the only implement employed. The bark is cut clear through, around -the base of the tree, and a similar incision is made around the trunk, -just below the spring of the main branches; the two incisions are then -connected by one or two longitudinal cuts, following, so far as -possible, the deepest of the natural cracks in the bark. Inserting the -wedge-shaped handle, the tree's covering is then pried off. The larger -branches are stripped in the same manner, yielding, generally, a finer -grade of cork than that of the trunk. The thickness of the bark ranges -from 1.27 centimeters to 6.85 centimeters, while the yield also varies -greatly from twenty to 75 kilograms[18] per tree, depending upon its -size and age. After the first stripping the tree is left in the -juvenescent state to regenerate, and great care must be taken in the -stripping not to injure the inner skin or epidermis at any stage of the -process, for the life of the tree depends upon its proper preservation, -for if injured at any point, growth there ceases and the spot remains -forever afterward scarred and uncovered. It is also necessary to avoid -stripping during the prevalence of a sirocco, which would dry the inner -skin too rapidly and therefore exclude all further formation of cork. - - [17] Armstrong Cork Co.'s pamphlet. - - [18] Kilogram = 2.205 pounds. - -The Capgrand-Mothe system, which, as known, consists of dressing the -trunk with the same cork just removed, and leaving it so dressed for a -couple of months, has not met with approval, as being impracticable on a -large scale. After the stripping, the phellogen, the seat of the growing -processes, undertakes at once the formation of a new covering of finer -texture, and each year this, the real skin, with its life-giving sap, -forms two layers of cells, one within, increasing the diameter of the -trunk, the other without, adding thickness to the sheathing of bark. -After eight or ten years this sheathing is removed, and while more -valuable than the first stripping, it is not as fine in quality as that -of the third and subsequent strippings, which follow at regular -intervals of about nine years. At the age of about forty years the oak -begins to yield its best bark, continuing productive as a rule for -almost a century.[19] The cork of the first barking is called -Corcho-Bornio, Borniza or virgin, and is so coarse, rough, and dense in -texture that it is of little commercial value. The second barking is -called "pelas," or secondary cork, and this and subsequent barkings -constitute the cork of commerce. As the bark is removed it is gathered -up in piles (rusque) and left for a few days to dry. Having been -weighed, it is next carried either in wagons or on the backs of burros -to the boiling station, where it is stacked and allowed to season for a -few weeks. It is then ready for the boiling process. The outside of the -bark in its natural state is, as may well be imagined, rough and woody, -owing to exposure to the weather. After boiling this useless outer -coating is readily scraped off, thereby reducing the weight of the -material almost twenty per cent. The boiling process also serves to -remove the tannic acid, increases the volume and elasticity of the bark, -renders it soft and pliable and flattens it out for convenient packing. -After being roughly sorted as to quality and thickness, the bark is then -ready for its first long journey, and as the forests are generally -located in hilly or even mountainous country, the faithful burro must -again be called into service. Truly the Spaniards' best friend, though -the worst treated of all, these patient little animals present a most -grotesque appearance when loaded from head to hind quarters with a huge -mass of the light bark. Down from the hills they go in trains of thirty, -forty or even a hundred, threading the rocky bridle paths in single file -and wending their way through the narrow streets of quaint villages -where traces of Moorish occupancy may still be seen, to the nearest -railway station. The corkwood is there freighted to the various sea-port -warehouses in Spain and Portugal, Seville, Spain being perhaps the -largest depository and user of raw material.[20] This historic city, -situated on the banks of the Guadalquivir, presents a very animated -sight in the summer months, and plays a very important part in the cork -industry, for besides the numerous warehouses for storing and shipping -there are factories for the manipulation of cork and its conversion into -the many useful forms in which it has proven of value. Before shipping, -the bales are opened, the edges of the bark trimmed and the bark then -sorted into the various grades of quality and thickness again. The -importance of this last mentioned operation cannot be overemphasized, as -the whole problem of the successful and economical manufacture of corks -center about it. After sorting it is ready to be rebaled for shipment, -this generally being done by placing the large, flat pieces called -planks or tables, at the bottom of the bales, and above them the small -pieces which are covered in turn with larger sections; then the whole -mass being subjected to pressure to render it compact, afterward being -bound up securely with steel hoops or wires. Each bale carefully marked -indicating the grade or quality, loaded directly into ocean-going -steamers and shipped to the ports of the world. - - [19] Mr. Lamey, the author of a study upon cork in Algeria, published - some interesting tables in this work regarding the annual - increase and the mean thickness of cork. According to him - cork-bark should not be removed before it has attained a - thickness of 2.032 cm., and the formation of new cork has been - well explained by Mr. Mathieu in his "Forestry Flora." - - [20] Armstrong Cork Co.'s pamphlet. - -From this meager description we at least can learn what "corkwood" is, -the limited sphere of its growth, the constant care necessary to insure -a successful harvest or gathering, the peculiarities of the tree, its -longevity and the general mode of preparing the bark for shipment; the -narration in no wise doing justice to this most interesting material, in -its natural state, for its growing is a fascinating tale in itself; but -for the purpose of this writing the foregoing has been deemed sufficient -to convey an understanding of it. - -As we have now seen how this wonderful material grows, its haunts and -dwellings, we will look at it more closely and see what it really is, -how this particular formation comes about and its peculiarities. - - - - -BOTANY AND CHEMISTRY - - -In considering "cork" for the purpose of ascertaining its -characteristics, texture and composition we will, instead of analyzing -the material after it has reached the market, look at it from the -standpoint of botany and learn of its formation upon the tree, from -which it is procured. It appears that the word "cork"[21] in botany -signifies a growth peculiar to all plants and pertaining to none in -particular, being described as "a peculiar tissue in the higher plants -forming the division of the bark (which name is sometimes restricted to -the dead tissues lying outside the cork); consisting of closely packed -air-cells nearly impervious to air and water and protects the underlying -tissues."[22] Again, "It is produced by the activity and division of -certain merismatic cells known as phellogen or cork cambium which are -situated immediately within the epidermal covering of the young growth. -As the cork cells grow older, their protoplasmic contents disappear and -are replaced by air. In order that this formation may be clearly -understood, I will quote from a paragraph entitled "Cork and Epidermal -Formations Produced by It" contained in "A Text Book on Botany," by -Sacks. - - [21] See "Etymology of Word" in preceding chapter. - - [22] "New English Dictionary," Murray. - -"When succulent organs of the higher plants, no longer in the bud -condition, are injured, the wound generally becomes closed up by cork -tissue, i.e., new cells arise near the wounded surface by repeated -division of those which are yet sound, and these forming a firm skin -separate the inner tissue from the outer injured layers of cells. The -walls of this tissue offer the strongest resistance to the most various -agencies, similar to the cuticular layers of the epidermis in their -physical behavior, flexible and elastic, permeable only with difficulty -by air and water, they for the most part soon lose their contents and -become filled with air. They are arranged in rows lying at right angles -to the surface or parallelopipedal form, and form a close tissue without -intercellular spaces. These are the general distinguishing features of -cork tissue. It is formed not only on wounded surfaces, but arises in -much greater mass where succulent organs require an effectual protection -(e.g., potato tubers) or where the epidermis is unable to keep up with -the increase of circumference where growth in thickness continues for a -long period. In these cases the cork tissue is formed even before the -destruction of the epidermis, and when this splits under the action of -the weather and falls off, the new envelope formed by the cork is -already present. The cork tissue is the result of repeated bipartitions -of the cells by partition walls, rarely in the epidermis cells -themselves, more often in the subjacent tissue. The partition walls lie -parallel to the surface of the organ, divisions also taking place in a -vertical direction, by which the number of the rows of cells is -increased. From the two newly formed thin-walled cells of each radial -row one remains thin walled and rich in protoplasm, and in a condition -capable of division; the other becomes transformed into a permanent cork -cell. Thus arises, usually parallel to the surface of the organ, a layer -of cells capable of division, which continues to form new cork cells, -the cork cambium or layer of phellogen. In general this is the innermost -layer of the whole cork tissue, so that the production of cork advances -outwardly and new layers of cork are constantly formed out of the -phellogen on the inner surface of those already in existence. When in -this manner a continuous layer of cork arises, steadily increasing from -the inside, it is termed "periderm." As the epidermis is at first -replaced by the periderm, so in turn is this replaced by cork (the dead -tissue). The development and configuration of the cork cells may change -periodically during the formation of periderm. Alternate layers of -narrow, thick-walled and broad, thin-walled cork cells are formed; the -periderm then appearing stratified, like wood, showing annual rings as -in the periderm of the Quercus Suber, Betula Alba, etc." - -Mr. Sacks, as a botanist, has clearly set forth the explanation of the -formation of the periderm of the Quercus Suber in the foregoing, and -although the story of the life producing this formation would be an -acceptable sequel to this explanation, it would in no wise assist in the -ultimate findings, and therefore it is dispensed with. Mr. William -Anderson, in a paper read at the Royal Institution of Great Britain in -1886, has the following to say on cork formation, which is very -interesting: "In considering the properties of most substances, our -search for the cause of their properties is baffled by our imperfect -powers and the feeble instruments we possess for investigating molecular -structure. With cork, happily, this is not the case; an examination of -its structure is easy and perfectly explains the cause of its peculiar -and valuable properties. All plants are built up of minute cells of -various forms and dimensions. Their walls or sides are composed chiefly -of a substance called cellulose, frequently associated with lignine, or -woody matter, and with cork, which last is a nitrogenous substance found -in many portions of plants, but is especially developed in the outer -cork of exogenous trees, that is, belonging to an order, the stems of -which grow by the addition of layers of fresh cellulose tissue outside -the woody part and inside the bark. Between the bark and the wood is -interposed a thin fibrous layer, which in some trees is very much -developed. The corky part of the bark which is outside is composed of -closed cells, exclusively, so built together that no connection of a -tubular nature runs up and down the tree, although horizontal passages -radiating toward the woody parts of the tree are numerous. In the woody -part of the tree, on the contrary, and in the inner bark, vertical -passages or tubes exist, while a connection is kept up with the pith of -the tree by means of medullary rays. In one species of tree, known as -the cork-oak, this is strongly developed." It appears that Mr. Anderson -enlivened his lecture by microscopic projections, for he goes on to say: -"First I project on the screen a microscopic section of the wood of the -cork tree. It is taken in a horizontal plane, and I ask you to notice -the diversity of the structure and especially the presence of large -tubes or pipes. I next exhibit a section taken in the same plane of the -corky portion of the bark. You see the whole substance is made up of -minute many-sided cells about 1/750 of an inch in diameter and about -twice as long, the long way being disposed radically to the trunk. The -walls of the cells are extremely thin and yet they are wonderfully -impervious to liquids. Looked at by reflected light, bands of silvery -light alternate with bands of comparative darkness, showing that the -cells are built on end to end in regular order. The vertical section -next exhibited shows a cross section of the cells like a minute -honeycomb. In some specimens large crystals are found. These could not -be distinguished from the detached elementary spindle-shaped cells, of -which woody fiber is made up, were it not for the powerful means of -analysis we have in polarized light. I need hardly explain that light -passed through a Nicol's prism becomes polarized, that is to say, the -vibrations of the luminiferous ether are all reduced to vibrations in -one plane and consequently if a second prism be interposed and placed at -right angles to the first, the light will be unable to get through; but -if we introduce between the crossed Nicol a substance capable of turning -the plane of vibration again, then a certain light will pass. I have now -projected on the screen the feeble light emerging from the crossed -Nicol. I introduce the microscopic preparation of cork cells between -them, and you see the crystals glowing with many colored lights on a -dark ground. Minute though these cells are, they are very numerous and -hard, and it is partly to them that is due the extraordinary rapidity -with which cork blunts the cutting instruments used in shaping it." In -his research or experimentations Mr. Anderson was most deeply impressed -with the elasticity of cork, and has the following to say upon his -findings: "It would seem difficult to discover any new properties in a -substance so familiar as cork, and yet it possesses qualities which -distinguish it from all other solid or liquid bodies, namely, its power -of altering its volume in a very marked degree in consequence of change -of pressure. All liquids and solids are capable of cubical compression -or extension, but to a very small extent; thus water is reduced in -volume by only .00005 part by the pressure of one atmosphere. Liquid -carbonic acid yields to pressure much more than any other fluid, but -still the rate is very small. Solid substances, with the exception of -cork, offer equally obstinate resistance to change of bulk; even India -rubber, which most people would suppose capable of very considerable -change of volume, we find it really very rigid. Metals, when subjected -to pressure which exceed their elastic limits so that they are -permanently deformed, as in forging or wire drawing, remain practically -unchanged in volume per unit of weight. Not so with cork, its elasticity -has not only a very considerable range, but it is very persistent. Thus -in the better kind of corks used in bottling champagne and other -effervescing wines, you are familiar with the extent to which the corks -expand the instant they escape from the bottles. I have measured this -expansion and find it to amount to an increase of volume of seventy-five -per cent; even after the corks have been kept in a state of compression -in the bottles for ten years.[23] When cork is subjected to pressure, -either in one direction or from every direction, a certain amount of -permanent deformation or permanent set takes place. This property is -common to all solid elastic substances when strained beyond their -elastic limits, but with cork the limits are comparatively low." To take -advantage of the peculiar properties of cork in mechanical applications -it is necessary to determine accurately the law of its resistance to -compression, and for this purpose Mr. Anderson instituted a series of -experiments of this kind. Into a strong iron vessel of five and one -half gallons' capacity he introduced a quantity of cork and filled the -interstices with water, carefully getting out all the air. He then -proceeded to pump in water until definite pressures up to one thousand -pounds per square inch had been reached, and at every one hundred pounds -the weight of the water pumped in was determined. In this way, after -many repetitions, he obtained the decrease of volume due to any given -increase of pressure. The observations have been plotted into the form -of a curve which is discernible on the accompanying diagram. - - [23] Showing a permanent set of 12.5 per cent. - -[Illustration: VOLUME OF CORK] - -The base line represents a cylinder containing one cubic foot of cork -divided by the vertical lines into ten parts; the black horizontal -lines, according to the scale on the left-hand side, represent the -pressures in pounds per square inch which were necessary to compress the -cork to the corresponding volume. Thus to reduce the volume to one half, -required a pressure of two hundred and fifty pounds per square inch. At -sixteen hundred pounds per square inch the volume was reduced to -forty-four per cent, the yielding then becoming very little, showing -that the solid parts of the cells had come together and formed a solid, -compact mass, thus corroborating Mr. Ogston's determination that the -gaseous part of cork constitutes about fifty-three per cent of its bulk. - -In further study it has been found that no matter what compression is -used, providing there is no disintegration, the corkwood will retain -just that slight spongy character that so marks its growth. - -In analyzing this solid matter, Ure found by treating it with nitric -acid the yielding was: - - White fibrous matter (cellulose). 0.18 parts - Resin ........................... 14.72 " - Oxalic acid ..................... 16.00 " - Suberic acid .................... 14.4 " - ----------- - 45.30 parts - -Chevruel in an analysis of corkwood states that he found the following -constitutents, but he does not give percentages: - - Cerin, a soft fragrant resin. - Yellow and red coloring matter. - Quercitannic acid. - Gallic acid. - A brown nitrogenous substance. - Salts of vegetable acids. - Calcium. - Water. - Suberic acid. - Suberin (cellulose). - -I am inclined to think that Chevruel selected a poor grade of cork, full -of stone cells and Jasperado, as his findings include much that would -indicate that was the case. - -In further defining the various substances which go to make up the body -of corkwood the one that is most impressive is that substance that is -peculiar to cork itself, the others being readily known, but suberic -acid is the one of interest, and this is described by Fownes as a -product of the oxidation of cork by nitric acid; is a white crystalline -powder, sparingly soluble in cold water, fusible and volatile by heat, -the chemical formula given being (C_{4}H_{14}O_{4}). Suberic acid is -also described as a dibasic acid which forms small granular crystals -very soluble in boiling water, alcohol and ether. It fuses at 300 -degrees Fahrenheit and sublimes in acidular crystals. It is also -produced when nitric acid acts on stearic, margaric or oleic acid. The -chemical analysis is given as (C_{8}H_{14}O_{4}) and I am inclined to -believe it is the truer one, as it is much later than Fownes'. - -This suberic acid has been further broken up to ascertain its -fundamental characteristics and it was found to partake of the two -compounds suberone and suberate. - -Suberone (C_{14}H_{24}O_{2}) being regarded as the ketone of suberic -acid, an aromatic liquid compound obtained when suberic acid is -distilled with an excess of lime.[24] Also described as a colorless oil -with an odor of peppermint and a boiling point of 179 to 181 degrees -Centigrade, chemical formula, Suberone--Cycloheptanone-- - - CH_{2} . CH_{2} . CH_{2} - / - CO - \ - CH_{2} . CH_{2} . CH_{2} - - [24] "Standard Dictionary." - -Suberate (C_{8}H_{12}M_{2}O_{4}) is known as the salt of suberic acid -having a metal cast,[25] and Suberin or cellulose[26]--is that portion -remaining after nitration and is chemically expressed by the formula -(C_{6}H_{10}O_{5}). Dr. Robert K. Duncan, Prof. of Industrial Chemistry -in the University of Kansas, informs us that this material is the -commonest of common things[27] and when dry, forms one third of all the -vegetable matter in the world. This mysterious substance is the -structural basis of the wood, but with all its prominence and use, we -know nothing more about it than that which is expressed in the formula. - - [25] "Watt's Dictionary" ("M" signifying metal). - - [26] "Century Dictionary." - - [27] _Review of Reviews_, September, 1906. - -The presence of this cellulose is only a natural fact, as the greater -part of plant life is cellulose; nor is the list of elements that go to -make up the solid matter so strange and unaccountable, but the quality -that makes it a wonderful growth and so popular above its fellows is its -lightness--this is its commendable feature and it is light indeed. - -Ure puts the specific gravity at .24 and this is concurred in by -Brisbane. - - -TEST OF CORKWOOD FOR ASCERTAINING THE POSSIBLE PRESENCE OF AN ESSENTIAL -OIL, BY STEAM DISTILLATION - -Two tests were made on this material to ascertain the presence of an -essential oil. The first showed the presence of an oily film, -resplendent in colorings, opalescent, variegated and beautiful, but -odorless and of such small quantity that it may safely be said "No Oil." - -The second proved the same as the first, and although the strong odor of -cork or suberic acid was present, no oil appeared. - -The results of these tests indicate that there is no essential oil in -corkwood obtainable by steam distillation. - -TEST NO. 1 - -4-4-1913. - -A copper still, supported on two trunnions, fitted with a dome and -goose-neck, which terminated in a tin coil (water cooled), and with a -perforated bottom through which the steam passed, was used. - -This measured two inches in diameter and two inches high, from the -perforated plate to the top of the pot, the dome being about one foot -higher. - -Into this still was placed 41 pounds of corkwood, as it comes from the -cutters and punchers (scrap pieces), no preliminary washing or preparing -being done; this 41 pounds filled the pot or the still. - -All things made tight, using an asbestos packing, the steam was turned -on at 70 pounds and run for one hour. - -TEST NO. 2 - -4-15-1913. - -Same still used as in Test No. 1, thirty pounds of a clean, good grade -Granulated Cork, of a fineness to pass a 1/16" mesh, was put into the -still--this half filling same. - -Steam turned on at 70 pounds and run for one hour. - -Tests made at A. J. Crombie & Co., Brooklyn, N. Y. - - * * * * * - -Anderson, Ure, Chevruel, Fownes, Watts, Brisbane, men of science; to -these we are indebted for the little that is known of corkwood, and -although perhaps much more could be said by elaboration, it will suffice -to record the facts in this monograph for the purpose involved. - -But to the data assembled may be added much in commentation, for the -material becomes more interesting the more it is studied, and most -naturally excites comparison with other materials and substitutes, as -well as calling forth a discussion as to the dangers involved by its -presence in the places where, by skill of hand and machinery, it is -transformed into the many commercial forms, noted in this article. We -comment upon its growth, which is truly wonderful and all-absorbing in -its many interesting phases; it takes us to the romance of the East and -the enchantment of the Moorish occupation; through which these forests -of cork-producing trees passed and yet remain to furnish the present -generation. We comment upon its lightness and buoyancy, due to the -presence of air and excess of hydrogen, known to be lighter than air; -and the small percentage of other matter which, being of less -importance, make its other quality so renowned as to make it the most -wonderful growth of its kind. Its imperviousness to water and other -liquids have given us moments of reflection, upon this phenomenon, but -now known to be because of the cellulose composing the cell walls and -which, when the substance is under compression, practically is all that -remains, except for the small quantity of resin, etc., to resist the -passage of liquids or gases. But heretofore when these commentations -have reached the burning point, its physical nature was entirely -eliminated from the conjecturing and the important part neglected, that -as the cork contained fifty-three per cent of air, heat of 450 degrees -expands to the point of explosion, the contents of those cells nearest -the surface, which giving up their oxygen feed the flames and in their -passage help to disintegrate the cell walls and make them more easily -ignited. Thus causing a rapid burning, flash fire which, in its fury, -Pluto could not rival, only racing over the surface of the cork, burning -but slightly, yet helped by other conditions, resulting in a fire -destructive and fierce. This rapid burning leaves the outer surface of -the cork charred and flaky and causes a discoloration beneath it -attributed to the dissolving of the resins, etc. Of course where there -is a large quantity of corkwood the extent of the burning must -necessarily be greater and the depth of the char increased. But it -appears that the first flash burning produces a sort of protection coat -of carbon around the remaining unburned portions which a subsequent -flame penetrates with difficulty.[28] - - [28] In the making of insulation material, the carbonization of the - cork is accomplished without destruction of fibre and stands a - high flame test. - -A simple experiment to show this depth of burning, and one that is easy -to do, is the flash and flame test which was found of interest. - -Two pieces of cork were taken, having the following measurements--8/16" -x 7/16" x 11/16"--and the first piece held so that the flame of a gas -jet would cause a flash over its surface; then the second piece is taken -and held within the flame for a minute. - -It will be found that the corkwood has expanded and the dimensions -increased to the following: - - Flash Flame - 8/16" x 13/16" x 11/16" 10/16" x 14/16" x 11/16" - -showing the effects of the heat upon the tissue and contents of the -cells. - -Now in scraping these samples clean of all char the dimensions will -return to the following: - - Flash Flame - 6/16" x 11/16" x 11/16" 8/16" x 10/16" x 11/16" - -clearly setting forth the fact that the char is comparatively light in -both cases, ranging from 1/8" to 1/4". - -To this cause is ascribed the burnability of cork having by careful -observation and experiment, extending over a period of two years, -studied the results of numerous fires in premises where cork was being -worked and also conducted heat applications on various grades of -cork[29] resulting in the foregoing findings.[30] Thus it is found that -cork contains sufficient air to supply any fire in it and precludes the -necessity of free access to any outside supply which makes it a material -worthy to be watched. To its many qualities of great service to man, -giving him a material which from the ages past, till now, has proven of -such value, must be added this one, no less important than others, which -heretofore have been its commendable features. - - [29] Using ordinary glass (armoured) thermometer for ascertaining - degrees. - - [30] One thousand degrees Fahrenheit, causing no greater combustion - than the lower degree, other than the increased burning of - remaining substance after the flash, due to the higher - temperature. - -Rather than attend the "cork" through the many passages of commerce and -manufacture, it is deemed propitious to deviate a little from a natural -course, i.e., from the growing to manufacture and rather advance to a -knowledge of the many uses to which this material is put and its -application to the innumerable arts, and then take up the manufacture. - - - - -USES AND APPLICATION - - -Mr. H. G. Glasspoole,[31] writing regarding the uses of cork by the -ancients, states: "The cork-tree, and the application of its bark to -useful purposes, was well known to the Egyptians, Greeks and Romans. The -former used this material in the construction of the coffins for their -dead. Theophrastus, the Greek philosopher, who wrote on botany four -centuries B.C., mentions this tree among the oaks, under the name of -'Phellus' in Book Two of his 'Historia Plantarum,' and stated that it -was a native of the Pyrenees, having a thick fleshy bark which must be -stripped off every three years to prevent it from perishing. He adds -that it was so light as never to sink in water, and on that account -might be used for many purposes." It is the opinion of the writer that -the attention of the ancients was undoubtedly called to this particular -bark by its buoyancy, and as their fisheries were extensive its -usefulness became readily apparent to float nets, etc., or to use -even in the construction of their boats, and its sponginess and -water-repellent properties not escaping their notice, it became a most -likely material for stoppers of casks or amphorae as noted by Horace in -Ode iii, 8: "Corticem adstrictum pice dimovebit amphorae." Pliny, in his -"Natural History," XVI, 18, describes the tree under the name of Suber -and relates everything said by Theophrastus of Phellus. From his account -we learn that the Roman fishermen used it as floats to their nets and -fishing tackle, and as buoys to their anchors. The use of these buoys in -saving life appears to have been well known to the ancients, for Lucian, -Epist. i, 17, mentions that when two men, one of whom had fallen into -the sea, and another who jumped after to afford him assistance, both -were saved by means of an anchor buoy. The use of this substance in -assisting swimmers was not unknown to the Romans, for Plutarch in his -Life of Camillus, who flourished in Rome 400 B.C., gives an account of -its use by a messenger, sent to the Capitol, then besieged by the Gauls: -"Pontius Cominius having dressed himself in mean attire under which he -concealed some pieces of cork. He could not pass the river by the -bridge, therefore took off his clothes, which he fastened upon his head, -and having laid himself upon the pieces of cork swam over and reached -the city." The use of cork as stoppers was entirely unknown to the -Romans, but instances of its being employed may be seen in Cato's "De Re -Rustica," Cap. 120, but this did not happen frequently or more would be -said of it. - - [31] _Scientific American Supplement._ - -The convivial customs of those days had no connection with the bottle, -glass bottles being of a much later invention. Instead of having -champagne or hock to be liberated from the bottle by the corkscrew at -their feasts, the guests filled their drinking cups of gold, silver, -crystal or beechwood from a two-handled amphora, a kind of earthenware -pitcher, in which their choice wines used to be kept. The mouths of -these vessels were stopped with wood and covered with a mastic, composed -of pitch, chalk and oil to prevent air spoiling the wine or evaporation -taking place. Columella, who wrote one of the earliest works on -agriculture, gives directions for preparing this cement. - -The employment of cork for stoppers of bottles appears to have come into -use about the seventeenth century, when glass bottles, of which no -mention is made before the fifteenth century, began to be generally -introduced. Before that period apothecaries used stoppers of wax, which -were not only much more expensive but far more troublesome. In 1553, -when C. Stephanus wrote his "Praedium Rusticum," cork stoppers appear to -have been very little known in France, for he states that this material -was used principally for soles in that country. It is not known when -cork and corks began to be generally used, but in that very amusing and -instructive diary of Mr. Samuel Pepys the following entry is found: "14 -July 1666" After having written to the Duke of York for money for the -fleet, I went down Thames Street and there agreed for four or five tons -of cork to be sent to the fleet, being a new device to make barricados -with instead of junts (old cable)," but he does not inform us how the -material answered.[32] - - [32] I have subsequently learned that this proved a failure. - -In Evelyn's time (1664) cork was much used by old persons for -linings to the soles of their shoes, whence the German name for it, -"Pantoffelholtz" or slipper wood. The Venetian dames, Evelyn says, used -it for their choppings or high-heeled shoes to make them appear taller -than nature intended they should be. The poor of Spain lay planks of -cork by their bedside to tread on instead of carpets. Sometimes they -line the inside of their houses, built with stone, with this bark, which -renders them very warm and corrects the moisture of the air. Loudon -relates that in the celebrated convent at Cintra, Portugal, several -articles of furniture are made of this tree. Virgin cork, or the first -bark of the tree, is now very much used for window flower boxes, -grottoes, etc., while the subsequent grades are used for small -architectural and geognostic models. Cork was formerly employed in -medicine even as far back as the time of Pliny, as he tells us that the -bark of the cork tree, pulverized and taken in warm water, arrests -hemorrhage at the mouth and nostrils, and the ashes of it taken in warm -wine are highly extolled as a cure for spitting blood (see Pliny, "Nat. -Hist." b. 124). In modern time powdered cork has been applied as a -styptic and hung about the necks of nurses. It was thought to possess -the power of stopping the secretion of milk. Burnt cork mixed with sugar -of lead has been used as an application to piles. See Pereira's "Materia -Medica." - -Ground cork and India rubber formed the basis of Kamptulicon, the soft -unresounding material which covered the floor of the reading rooms of -the British Museum." In further describing the many uses to which cork -is applied, reference is made to the resume of Mr. Good in "La Nature," -which is incorporated with a few slight changes. - -"The various applications of cork that we are now going to pass in -review are worthy of description, as each of such applications has its -_raison d'etre_ in one or more of the physical or chemical properties of -cork bark. The manufacture of stoppers utilizes, in the first place, the -impermeability of the bark, and, in the second, the latter's elasticity -and imputrescibility, the remarkable lightness playing no role therein. - -Before entering upon a study of the industrial applications of cork, in -grouping them according to the various qualities of this product, we -must return to the "male" cork, derived from the first barking of the -tree. It has been said, because of its slight elasticity and numerous -fissures, this product has but little commercial value, and shall have -mentioned its principal application when we have stated that it is used -in the decoration of parks and gardens. An endeavor has been made, but -without success, to manufacture from it, mills for decorticating rice. - -Certain parts of it can be converted into small stoppers. In the country -where it is produced, it is used for making water conduits, beehives and -shelves on which to preserve objects from dampness. Mixed with a mortar -of clay, the Kabyles use it for the walls of their dwellings, and also, -in lieu of tiles, as a roofing material for their primitive habitations. -It is used also by fishermen as floats for their nets. - -These various applications were known to the Greeks and Romans, as shown -by the works of Theophrastus and Pliny. The latter says of the cork-oak: -"Nothing is utilized but its bark, which is very thick, and which is -renewed in measure as it is removed. This bark is often used for the -buoys of anchors and ships and of fishermen's nets, for the bungs of -casks, and for women's winter foot gear. The Greeks called the cork-oak -the 'bark tree'.... Cork bark is used as a covering for roofs." ("Hist. -Nat.," xvi, 18.) As for the chips, they can be used as an isolating -material to prevent freezing. Reduced to fragments, they furnish an -excellent material for covering circus rings. - -Let us return to "female" cork, which is much better adapted for being -worked, and the grain of which is much more homogeneous. In this form -cork bark constitutes a very bad conductor of heat and sound, and -renders valuable services in the industries as a material for -preventing the cooling of steam pipes and generators, and preventing -the melting of ice in ice houses, or the heating of apparatus for -producing cold. - -It is the basis of a certain number of cements, and coatings for -preventing the escape of heat, which are applied to pipes, steam domes, -hot water reservoirs, etc., and upon the composition of which we shall -not dwell here. As for jacketing with cork alone; the first method -consists in placing narrow strips of cork, whose edges touch each other, -along steam pipes and cylinders, and fastening them by means of wire. A -pipe thus jacketed is tangent internally to all these strips, and a -section of the whole shows a circle inscribed in a polygon. In the -second system thin strips of cork, fastened to canvas with India rubber -cement, are wound around the pipe spirally. Finally, a third method of -jacketing consists in the use of two half cylinders that exactly fit the -exterior of the steam pipe. These cylinders, which can be made of any -desired length, are made of powdered cork and starch, and are covered -with a spirally wound strip of calico, which may be coated with tar or -any suitable kind of paint. Each of these systems permits of obtaining a -great saving in fuel. - -As cork is likewise a very bad conductor of sound, it is successfully -used on the doors of consulting rooms, and for making floors for -hospitals, etc. Finally, in the manufacture of certain stringed -instruments, it is used to prevent a loss of sound. - -The slight density of cork, as compared with water, and its -impermeability to liquids, make it an excellent float, capable not only -of remaining on the surface, but also of supporting quite heavy bodies -thereon. We shall be content to mention the annular cork float used in -night lamps, the square block in which bath thermometers are fixed, and -the fisherman's dobber. - -It is cork, too, that is used by preference in the manufacture of -swimming and life-saving apparatus, to which inventors have devoted much -thought. Very many vessels are provided with cork mattresses, which, in -cases of shipwreck, render the greatest services. For example, the ship -_Constant_, which sailed from Anvers for Brazil in 1845, was wrecked on -the night of October 12th, at twelve miles from St. Thanes, but, thanks -to the cork life preservers and mattresses that she had on board, not -one of the crew was lost. As for life-saving buoys, properly so called, -they consist of several cork planks which are given an annular form, and -are provided with free ropes that are knotted here and there so that -they may be easily grasped. From the stern of every vessel a buoy of -this kind is suspended by a rope that may be at once cut when the cry of -"A man overboard!" is heard. These buoys are usually covered with canvas -coated with a paint that serves to preserve it. It is also possible to -save a person who has fallen into the water at a certain distance from a -wharf by means of floats. This device consists of a piece of rattan -provided with points around which molten lead has been poured, and the -whole is then surrounded with cork in chips, and covered externally with -canvas and a network to protect the affair against wear. - -Fenders are canvas bags that are filled with cork and are placed along -the sides of ships or along docks in order to deaden the shock in case -of a collision. Such are the principal uses rendered to navigation by -cork. - -It has already been seen, by the extract from Pliny, that Roman ladies -preserved their feet from cold by means of cork soles. Such a use of -cork is still in vogue. In addition to these soles, which are flat, -there are others that have nothing to do with hygiene, and are merely -connected with fashion. Such are the Louis Quatorze talonettes, designed -to increase the stature without exaggerating the heel of the shoe. -Female dancers wear linings of this kind in their shoes, which, as well -known, have flat soles. A thin sheet of cork enclosed in the sole of the -shoe would, we think, prove very useful to troops on a march during bad -weather. - -Cork is not only useful as an application to foot gear, but also renders -great service in head gear, and, in the form of helmets, has preserved a -large number of soldiers from death by sunstroke in tropical countries. -We find it again, in the form of very thin sheets, in the interior of -beaver hats, where it is used as a protection against heat. It is also -used in these same hats as a sweat band, in lieu of leather. In ladies' -toilets, the cork serves to make the carcasses of the birds that -decorate their head gear. Manufacturers of dress trimmings use cork -molds, which they cover with silk or cotton, for ornamenting cloaks, -etc. The lightness of cork can alone explain the great size of these -balls, olives, etc., some of which are larger than a hen's egg. - -A few years ago, a Paris house sold cork cravats, and we have recently -seen, exposed in a show case, some children's costumes, in which the -sailor's collar was of thin sheet cork decorated with colored designs. -Although cork gowns have not yet appeared, we have waterproofs composed -of thin sheet cork cemented between two pieces of silk. These cloaks -have the advantage over those made of rubber of not allowing air to pass -through them. - -There is also a curious application of cork in the manufacture of a -fabric that renders those who are clothed with it insubmergible. - -We can mention but few of the many applications of cork, new ones of -which are being discovered every day, so shall confine ourselves to -recalling the services rendered by this valuable product in surgical -prosthesis and for the use of naturalists, etc. In domestic life, it is -used for bath steps, and for making rolling pins for crushing almonds -without absorbing the oils as wood would do. Thin sheets of it are used -for making fancy labels for wines. The ease with which it may be cut, -turned and worked causes it to be employed in the manufacture of small -objects, such as rural landscapes and the reproductions of monuments, -some of which are genuine works of art. We may likewise mention, among -objects made of cork, cases of various forms for sending bottles by -mail, spools for allowing of the cheap carriage of silk, the -old-fashioned inkstand, the thick penholder for preventing writer's -cramp, the cigar holder and many fancy objects that would take too long -to enumerate. There is perhaps no calling that does not have to make -more or less use of cork. Polishers of gold have used it from time -immemorial, in the form of narrow strips, for rubbing their work with -rouge. The wheels with which crystals are polished are faced with it, -and watchmaker's lens mounted in cork, the lightness of which prevents -the muscles of the face from tiring. - -In the industries, driving pulleys are now beginning to be provided with -cork in order to secure an adhesion of the belting. In carpenter shops -these bands of cork are now advantageously replacing rubber ones for -covering the pulleys over which the band saw runs. The stoppers of -nursing bottles are now being replaced by hygienic ones of cork, which, -being very cheap, can be changed as soon as the presence of ferments is -suspected. Cork is likewise employed in the manufacture of children's -toys; it serves, for example, for fixing the wig on dolls' heads. Is it -necessary to recall the cork of pop-guns and pistols, and the cork -battledores and shuttlecocks used for playing with indoors? These few -data will serve to show that but few products are capable of so many -diverse applications as cork is; and the question may be asked whether -it would be possible to substitute anything else for it, in case the -supply should become exhausted. - -The manufacture of stoppers and of the various objects that we have just -enumerated furnishes a considerable quantity of chips, which along with -the waste derived from the collecting of the material, and with old, -second-hand corks, constitutes the crude material destined to supply -certain important industries, which, for the sake of completeness, must -be mentioned. - -We have first the cork powder industry, which manufactures powders of -various degrees of fineness. The coarsest powder is used for packing -fragile objects, on account of its elasticity, coupled with its -lightness, which permits of a great saving in freight charges. - -The finest powder forms, "liegine" or "suberine," whose balsamic -properties are well known to hygienists, and which may be used as a -substitute for lycopodium, starch and fecula as an application to the -skin of babes. Under the name of "zifa powder," an insect powder has -been made composed of cork and phenol. Fire lighters have likewise been -made from cork powder; but this and the last named application have not -amounted to much. - -We cannot enter into much detail in regard to the manufacture of -linoleum, notwithstanding the interest that it presents. The manufacture -began in Scotland, and is tending to settle in our own country. Linoleum -is made by intimately mixing cork powder with oxidized linseed oil. The -paste thus prepared is spread over canvas if the intention is to -manufacture carpets, but over paper if it is desired to make hangings. -The color of linoleum, which is the same as that of cork, only a shade -darker, can be enlivened by colored designs. When applied to damp walls, -linoleum is capable of receiving oil paintings of a more stable nature -than those executed upon wood, which warps, or upon other building -materials, which crack, such as plaster, for example. It can also be -used for decorated ceilings for public halls, cafes, etc.; and when such -ceilings become black through smoke and dust, they can be washed. - -As a carpet, linoleum renders flooring perfectly insonorous. It converts -damp and unhealthy apartments into healthy and warm places of -habitation. Used in kitchens and offices, it has the advantage of not -being spotted by fatty matters. It has been generally adopted in our -naval and merchant ships, where the use of it has given a great setback -to the oil cloth industry. - -A new decorative product, "lino-burgau," obtained by embossing linoleum, -possesses the iridescent reflections of nacre, due to the application of -colored varnish along with a bronzing of certain parts. Notwithstanding -its expensive nature, we believe that there is a great future in store -for it. - -The manufacture of agglomerates of cork is becoming very widespread in -France. We have already mentioned the use of artificial cork for -jacketing steam pipes, and we have stated that this product is obtained -by mixing cork powder and starch under pressure. This dried paste can be -given the most diverse forms, and be made of any thickness. Another -substance, called brick paste, is obtained by mixing the coarsest cork -powder with milk of lime, and, after compression and drying, -constitutes, under the form of bricks and slabs, an excellent material -for the construction of party walls, for covering damp walls and sloping -roofs. - -In the cellars of breweries, these bricks diminish the melting of the -ice. In gunpowder works, they prevent the caking of the powder through -dampness, and, in case of an explosion, their friability and lightness -lessen the importance of the catastrophe. They are also used as a -foundation for flooring in order to destroy its disagreeable -sonorousness. In the spinning mills of Alsace and the west of France, -they have given excellent results, both as regards their resistance to -the passage of sound, heat and cold, and their cheapness. - -Cork chips and waste, when distilled, furnish an illuminating gas that -burns with more brilliancy than that made from coal, and does not, like -the latter, give off sulphureous emanations that tarnish frames and -other gilded objects. The city of Nerac was lighted with cork gas for a -certain length of time, but the use of it had to be given up on account -of the difficulty of storing the chips, which, with but little weight, -took up an enormous space. This gas, in view of its slight density and -its purity, would prove an excellent one for the inflation of balloons. - -Finally, cork parings and waste, properly carbonized, produce Spanish or -cork black, one of the most beautiful and durable blacks known in -painting." - -The recent uses for corkwood are, as a float in the carburetter of an -automobile, the cork insert in the periphery of a pulley,[33] cork paper -for cigarette tips, a wadding for shot-gun cartridges, cork-coated -fabric for balloons, as a filling for automobile tires, as a disk in the -non-refillable bottle, for the making of casks and barrels in which to -store wine, and the ground cork wood for shipping fruit, etc. in, to -prevent spoiling. - - [33] See Lawrence Whitcomb's article in _Industrial Engineering_, - September, 1910. - - -SUBSTITUTES - -Of course, no matter what the substance, a substitute is always sought -for, and this has been the case with cork, but with very unfruitful -results. "A primitive material used for bottle stoppers consisted of the -roots of liquorice; the spongy substance of another tree called -'Spondies Lutea,' which abounds throughout the marshy regions of South -America and there called 'Monbia,' was also used in the same way, as -also a product called 'Myssa,' which contains some of the elements of -cork.[34] Another substitute is mentioned in Henley's "Twentieth Century -Receipts" as follows: Wood pulp three parts; cornstarch pith one part; -gelatin one part; glycerine one part; water four parts; 20 per cent -solution formic aldehyde; and still another in the "Handyman's 'Inquire -Within,'" by Haslock, called "Phellosene," a French invention consisting -of powdered cork mixed with a solution of nitro-cellulose in acetone: -compressed and dried. The wood of Anona palustris growing in the West -Indies, and called the alligator's apple, is used by the negroes to stop -their jugs and calabashes also, and a Mr. Brockedon invented a -substitute as noted in "Knight's Cyclopedia," the core of which was -cotton twisted into strands, wound with flax and the whole covered with -India rubber. Cork's competitor in buoyancy, "balsa wood," is in no wise -constituted to take its place, although 20 per cent lighter; as it is a -fibrous growth and hygroscopic, requiring a coat of water-proofing -solution before it can be used even for life-preservers; rubber, its -close second, in the manufacture of stoppers is not to be compared with -it, and although there have been many patent devices for sealing -bottles, such as the porcelain stopper, crimped metal stoppers, etc., -the cork stopper still reigns as the best of them all. - - [34] _Chambers Journal._ - - - - -MANUFACTURE - - -In describing the manner and process of converting the corkwood into the -various commercial forms, no attempt will be made to give a scientific -exposition of all the details, as being inconsistent with the character -of this monograph, nor will any other processes be described than the -ones in which the material being worked, is cork. This may exclude much -of interest to the reader, but the intent of this little work is purely -a corkwood exposition, and the desire to keep it so must prevail. - - CORK-WOOD - /|\ - / | \ - / | \ - / | \ - / | \ - / | \ - / | \ - / | \ - / | VIRGIN-CORK WOOD - / | / - / | / - / | / - /{OF | / - STOPPERS {STANDARD | / - |{SIZE | / - | | / - | |/ - | /| - | / | - | / | - | / CORK DISKS - WASTE / | - | / WASTE - | / / - | / /|\ - | / / | \ - | / / | \ - | / / | \ - |/ / \ \ - CORK BOARD \ \ - \ \CORK DISKS - /\ - / \ - / \ - /\ \GRANULATED PACKING - / \ MATERIAL - / \ - / \ - CORK \ - FLOUR \ - | \ - | \SPANISH BLACK - | - NOVELTIES - -In taking up the processes of manipulation we naturally start from the -beginning, but the beginning in this case has a peculiar significance as -relating to the whole, for it is apparent to utilize corkwood to the -fullest extent its qualities must be studied and the best, used first, -so that the beginning of the corkwood industry is peculiar in this fact, -that it takes the best part and leaves but scrap, which must be studied -carefully to realize the value lost in the first process; therefore, in -the manufacture of one article of corkwood it is necessary to make -provision for the scrap created, and this is a characteristic of all -such establishments. - - -RAW STOCK - -The baled cork, as received, is our first consideration, for its bulk, -being out of all proportion to its value, attracts the attention at -once. - -As in all business where the raw stock is conveyed from a distance and -there is a possibility of delay in shipments, a large stock must -necessarily be kept on hand, and this feature is very pronounced in and -about a "cork factory." Great piles appear in the open or within large -sheds, covering much space, and sometimes in the factory itself. - -This stock is carefully watched and care taken to keep it large enough -to supply all needs for a long time as a shortage in raw material would -not only mean no work, but the loss of business, due to the inability to -supply first-grade material, for this is the prime factor, the various -other grades being compelled to await a favorable market. Appended is a -diagram that will give some idea of the utilization of corkwood. - -The corkwood bale as received, measures as a general rule 2' x 2'7" x 4' -and is securely strapped with iron bands about one inch in width and a -thickness of 1/16" to 1/32", and the weight depending upon the quality -of corkwood ranging from 150 pounds to 200 pounds per bale. - - -SORTING - -The first operation, that is, the first thing done with the corkwood, is -the sorting. This is becoming more important as the uses of cork -increase, as various grades can be used for so many particular things -now, without the necessity of being called a by-product; but the -principal divisions are: superfine, fine, common and coarse. - -These of course are now extended to many classes, and is resulting in -careful scrutiny of the shipments and stock, the sorter becoming an -expert, and an increasing factor in the business. His knowledge not only -including the grades of corkwood, but the uses to which the various -grades may be put so that waste is avoided and the full value gotten out -of all. - - -CORK STOPPER MAKING - -After the sorting, the slabs are placed in steam boxes and subjected to -a steam bath, which it is claimed softens the material and also prepares -it for the scraper, who cleans and removes the dirt and callous or -"raspa" accumulated in its mountain home. This scraping is done either -by hand or machine, the handwork being done with a short handle, curved -bladed knife called a "doladera," raspador or raspeta: a workman being -able to scrape from two to three metric quintals of cork in a day, or -ten hours. The scraper machine being a vertical steel shaft carrying -several knives placed at a very slight helix and making about 1400 -revolutions per minute and will scrape from ten to twelve metric -quintals[35] per day or ten hours. Cutting the slabs into strips or -fillets (tiras o'rebanadas) is the next step. These strips, the width of -which is equal to the length of the cork to be cut, as the cutting is -done across and not with the grain, were formerly cut by hand with a -knife having a flat surface and curved edge called "cuchilla de -rebanar," but now replaced by the circular knife, which operates the -same as a rip-saw. From here the strips go to the stopper-makers' -punches or blocking machines. This machine has a rotating tubular die -with sharpened edges of the diameter of the cork to be cut, made to -revolve about two thousand revolutions per minute, the operator having a -foot lever attachment which permits him to thrust the die through the -strips of cork as he holds it against a resisting piece parallel with -the operating plane of the die. Thus, he can punch out many thousands of -corks a day, the noise of the punches being a very characteristic sound -in all such establishments. The operator, of course, must use care to -avoid defective spots in the bark, and also to cut the corks out as -closely together as possible so as to reduce waste to a minimum. For it -is here that the cork manufacturer seems to lay his particular lament. -If he could but make his corks the sizes most in demand, ship them and -thereby do a business that would clearly figure up the year's work, and -perhaps keep a surplus on hand for unexpected orders. But this he cannot -do, for almost every cork he cuts there is enough waste material to make -three or four smaller sizes, and this he fain would discard if it were -not for the possible profit there is in it; and consequently in almost -every cork factory will be found a large surplus stock of all sizes, and -the owner anxiously hoping that some one will take them off his hands. - - [35] The metric quintal is used officially in Spain, which is equal - to 220.36 pounds, the Catalon quintal equaling 91.71 pounds. - -The stoppers which come from these machines are round with parallel -sides. If tapered corks are desired, larger at the upper end than at the -lower, the cylindrical or straight pieces must be passed through another -machine which handles them deftly, holding them against the edge of -another circular knife; seemingly motionless, the only outward -indication of the speed with which the keen blade is revolving being a -delicate shaving which curls upward for an instant, and then is drawn -away by air suction to the waste bin, where this material is all -collected and used in various, useful ways as will be shown later. In -cutting the corks, although care is exercised, many will be imperfect -and defective, and in order to utilize them they are cut into smaller -sizes by men who sit at low tables and deftly handle the sharp-edged -knife, which with one stroke reduces the cork to the size that it can -fill, using a scale which is apparently standard with all cork dealers. - -The general standard of corks or stoppers, known as the United States -standard, is as follows: - -SCALE OF DIAMETER OF STOPPERS - -_United States Standard, showing Diameter at Large End_ - - No. 0 3/8 inch No. 1 7/8 inch. - " 2 1/2 " " 3 9/16 " - " 4 5/8 " " 5 11/16 " - " 6 3/4 " " 7 13/16 " - " 8 7/8 " " 9 15/16 " - " 10 1 " " 11 1-1/16 " - " 12 1-1/8 " " 13 1-3/16 " - " 14 1-1/4 " " 15 1-5/16 " - " 16 1-3/8 " " 17 1-7/16 " - " 18 1-1/2 " " 19 1-9/16 " - " 20 1-5/8 " " 24 1-7/8 " - " 22 1-3/4 " " 26 2 " - -Length is generally designated as short, regular, extra long, and the -shape as tapered, or straight. - -This classification of necessity applies to the trade and gives a size -for almost any character of work there is, though another general -classification that is used principally abroad, is as follows:-- - - Thick corks having more than 31 millimeters[36] in diameter. - Ordinary or commercial, from 25 to 31 millimeters. - Bastard corks, from 23 to 25 millimeters. - Thin corks, having less than 23 millimeters. - - [36] Millimeter = .0394 inch. - -These classes of sizes are of course divided again and again by the -manufacturers. To this size classification must be added a quality -distinction, and this generally takes the same as before described, in -sorting the cork-board, grading down from the best which is tawny or -pink in color, with a fine texture, free from cracks, stone cells, or -other blemishes. - -As has been stated, the punch is now employed in most corkwood -establishments, but there are still a few who do the work by hand and -maintain that the best results are obtained in this manner. - -Hand-cut corks or stoppers are used mostly for the high-class wine trade -and are a little more expensive than machine cut. There is also a hand -machine for shaping corks, which consists of a knife, the blade of which -is placed horizontally, joined generally to a piece of wood, to which a -back and forward movement is given similar to that of a carpenter's -plane. In moving, the knife turns the square cork, or whatever shape it -may be, by a series of belt attachments, and takes off a strip of cork -(palilla) more or less thick, according to the distance from the axis of -the cork and the edge of the blade; the principle being the same in the -power machine, if these are parallel the resulting cork will be -cylindrical, and if not, it becomes conical. - -The standard size stopper is the prime use to which corkwood has been -put, and in the making of it the best material is used; this material -coming in varying thicknesses, it sometimes is difficult to secure -enough for making "champagnes," so some manufacturers produce a stopper -that answers the requirements by fastening two pieces of thin superfine -corkwood together with a rubber cement made by dissolving pure Para -rubber in disulphide of carbon, which makes a very good binder and not -lessening the quality service to any appreciable degree. - -After the corks are cut, the ends are not always as even and as smooth -as desired, so they are taken to a sandpaper wheel which revolves very -rapidly in an upright position, and against this the corks are held for -a few seconds until the surface becomes smooth and straight, the dust -created being collected and used in various ways. (See "Waste -Utilization.") - - -CORK-DISK MAKING - -(See "Waste Utilization") - -Since the Crown Seal stopper, for beer bottles particularly, has come -into vogue, there has been a great demand for cork disks which form the -medium for air tightness and this has given the cork-worker an -opportunity to utilize a grade of corkwood that usually had but little -commercial value, that is, a thin bark. - -It may be well to state here for the uninitiated that the Crown Seal is -made up of a tin cap, corrugated on the lapped edge, for gripping the -top of the bottle, a corkwood disk and a water-proof paper between the -disk and cap, a very ingenious device. - -As you have already read in a previous chapter that corks are cut -vertical parallel, or, to state more clearly, the axis of the stopper -must be parallel with the axis of the tree that furnished the bark; and -the desired direction is easily recognizable by the colored striae due -to the annual layers of suberous substance that are observed in the -direction of its axis, this rule being followed because cork is found to -be more impervious to liquids if cut in this manner. It will be readily -seen that if disks are cut horizontally parallel, that is, the annual -layers running at right angles to the axis of the disk, this grade of -cork can be utilized to great advantage. The mode of cutting is by a -horizontal revolving blade, which slices the cork to the desired -thickness, usually a quarter of an inch, and then it follows the usual -course of punching, etc. From these operations a great deal of waste -accumulates, and this would be a great loss if methods were not devised -for its utilization. Many firms work up this waste on the premises, but -most of it is shipped out and its conversion forms a separate part of -the corkwood industry, which will be described later. We might say now -that the cork is made, for it has been cut and shaped into the desired -commercial size; and all that remains is to sort them and ship them -away. But if commerce desires sizes and quality, it has also exacted -many other requirements of a cork before it is acceptable and we will -now take up the further manipulation of cork before it leaves the -factory. Naturally, this corkwood, coming such a distance and being -handled by so many in the general processes just described, gets more or -less dirty, and aside from that perhaps in the growing the tissue has -not remained as white as is desired, so before the cork can leave the -factory it has to be washed or cleaned. And in this washing I will not -say that there is not an attempt to improve the looks of the corks in -order to get a better price. Now this washing or bleaching is carried on -in the simplest manner and is just soaking the corks in water and a -chemical and then placing them in a centrifugal spinner, which is -nothing more than a perforated receptacle made to revolve within an iron -jacket, which is connected to a drain, naturally forcing the material -against the periphery and thereby causing the excess water and acid to -pass out through the perforations, this system becoming quite common in -cork factories to-day, greatly facilitating the drying, which is done -mostly by the atmosphere. This is all there is to the mechanical part, -but curiosity prompts us to inquire what chemicals are used to clean the -corks, so I have ascertained the principal ones, but of course every -manufacturer will have his own way of doing this part of the work, -although the principle remains the same. An old way was to wash them in -water containing chloride of tin or oxalic acid and then subjecting them -to the fumes of burning sulphur, but the sulphur bleach has been -discontinued. Bioxalate of potash has also been used in solution, as -also chloride of lime, ammonia and sulphuric acid. Another way is to -wash in a 10 per cent solution of hydrochloric acid and then immerse in -a solution of sodium hyposulphate and hydrochloric acid, finally washing -with a solution of soda and water. All of these produce the desired -effect when mere cleaning and bleaching is all that is required: but in -the poorer grade of cork, mostly a thick cork that has been jaspered or -contains micro-organisms, a system of treatment with formol or methylal, -ethyl alcohol or spirit wine and formaldehyde and impregnating with -casein has been used. These bleaches are applied to regular stoppers and -disks alike, but in addition to this the disks are given a bath of hot -paraffin, or glycerine and paraffin, which improves their resistance and -retards discoloration. This generally being done in a steam-jacketed -kettle, or tumbling barrel, and then placed in a centrifugal to remove -the excess of water and paraffin. - -In some factories, and when the customer requests it, the name is -branded upon the stopper by irons heated by gas, gasolene or in a coal -fire, automatic gas heated machines being most general. - -In the foregoing it has been shown how the stopper and disk are made, -and although there are many different manufacturers of corkwood -stoppers, it will be found that the _modus operandi_ just described is -followed generally, with perhaps a variation in the details. The waste -material, "recortes" as stated is collected and used in various ways, -but either in conjunction with other materials or alone in a granulated -or powdered state. - -The following chapter will enumerate the three principal uses of waste -corkwood, and as these cover the fundamentals of the other uses it will -not be necessary to describe them, e.g., linoleum, made by mixing -cork-flour and linseed oil. - - - - -WASTE UTILIZATION - - -In giving the processes of the methods used in the conversion of the -corkwood waste and virgin corkwood, which is classed as waste, it will -not be possible to go too far into the details, as most of them are -secret, and in justice to those who use them a resume is all that will -be incorporated in this monograph. But this will give a good idea and -understanding of the utilization, which is all that is intended. As in -the first processes of corkwood manipulation the best is taken first; -so, in the department of waste utilization, a process is now used -whereby the best scrap is made into cork disks for the Crown seal as -described, and serves its purpose well. - -This scrap is taken and granulated in an iron rotary cutter mill, to a -degree of fineness that will pass a 1/8" mesh, it is then screened and -mixed with a secret binder that has a wonderful holding quality; it is -then dried by steam and pressed into sheets by hydraulic presses, dried -again, and then stamped out in the usual manner. There is no waste to -this process as the unused portions go back to the grinders again and -through the usual process. - -Granulated cork is made by grinding the waste in ordinary metal roller, -cage or bur mills, and then screening same for the various degrees of -fineness; if cork-flour is desired, a tube mill may be used. - -These two uses are generally confined to the best scrap, but there still -remains a large quantity which has a great value. A portion of this is -made into Spanish black by carbonizing same in a closed iron kettle, or -retort, and then grinding same in a regulation ball mill, until the -desired fineness is obtained; this process producing a very fine black. - -The above uses in no degree exhaust the amount of scrap corkwood that -leaves the various factories here and abroad, nor is its usefulness -expended, for there is one use to which cork scrap is being put that -bids fair to rival the stopper industry in importance, and that is in -the form of cork-board for insulating purposes. - -The processes for the making of cork-board differ in many ways, widely -divergent in principle. The corkwood waste and virgin cork are broken up -and chipped in an ordinary iron mill as a preliminary to all processes; -in one, claimed to be the best, this chipped material is poured into -iron molds the desired shape of the slab, subjected to heavy pressure -and run into an oven kept at about 800 to 900 degrees Fahrenheit. This -oven, being a low brick type, resembling a lear and heated by coal -fires, the slab molds being drawn through on an endless chain, which -runs at a speed to keep the cork in just long enough, for the resin in -same to exude and bind the little particles together; the cork is also -charred in this process, thereby converting it into a carbonized -cellulose which makes it an excellent material for insulation. -Steam-heated hydraulic presses are also used for making small tile, -etc., being the same principle as above, without the charring. - -The other process involves the use of tar, pitch or asphaltum, as a -binder for the cork particles, and in one, the cork is mixed with a clay -before being mixed with the asphaltum. The binder being heated in steam -jacketed kettles, and in one it is mixed in the proportion of one to -four, while in the other it is forced into the mass under pressure and -then drawn out again by vacuum, both mixtures being poured into molds of -the desired shape of the slab or in large molds, to be cut up after, and -subjected to heavy pressure, the sawing being done by an ordinary -rip-saw, cutting the block into any desired thickness of slab. - -The above described processes do not include all of the various -manipulations of corkwood, for there are innumerable things as stated -under the "Uses" for which there is a necessity of mechanical operation, -in their making; but the general processes are as stated and will cover -most all. - - - - -EXTENT OF THE MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY - - -The cork stopper industry had its permanent origin in Spain, in the -Province of Gerona, town of Llacostera, towards the latter part of 1750 -and was contemporaneous with the inception of the glass bottle, although -corkwood was used many years before as a stopper for amphora, etc., as -noted in a previous chapter. - -The trade flourished there until wars and schisms rent the country and -drove the industry to the mountains. There it slumbered and struggled -for many years until the peace was restored and the people assured that -the dangers were passed. Its revival was not very sudden, but slowly and -surely it grew, and won itself a place in the trade life of Spain and -finally became a necessity, so much so, that it began to attract -attention and other countries sought to secure the secret. About 1828 -the French agents at Catalonia found enough information to warrant them -returning to France and there set up for themselves, the rivalry between -the two becoming very keen, causing much excitement among the Spanish -manufacturers; for up to that time they monopolized the trade and had a -nice time of it. This lasted until 1849, when the trade assumed such -proportions that both had all they could attend to and more. This -insured a steady increase of the trade, and before long it assumed -proportions that has surpassed the dreams of its founders. The industry -spread until the raw material began to show a shortage due to the heavy -demands made upon it. More frequent cuttings were compulsory to supply -the market, and in consequence the grade became poorer. - -The realization of this caused the Spanish Government to step in and -protect the forests as a national necessity, and the result was the -passing of laws to govern the cutting of corkwood from the trees. But -the trade kept on growing in other countries and the raw stock was in -great demand. - -The result of the heavy exportation of corkwood again caused some -notable alarm among the manufacturers and trades-workers in Spain -and Portugal, but principally in the former, as most of the largest -factories are located in its cities; so that the principal -representatives of the cork industry convened at Madrid in December of -1911, at which convention resolutions were passed to urge upon the -Government the necessity of imposing an export tax or duty on corkwood -ranging from five to fifty gold pesetas ($.0965 to $9.65) per 100 kilos -(220 pounds). By so doing it was thought to remedy the shortage in the -home market. - -The competition between the foreign and Spanish buyers for the raw -corkwood output was largely in favor of the foreigner in 1911, owing to -the unprotective export duties, and the result has been that the once -flourishing national industry is now very badly handicapped for want of -working material. - -So simultaneously with the tariff revision, which went into effect on -January 1, 1912, an endeavor was made to put in force the increase on -export corkwood, but owing to the efforts of the American cork -manufacturers, who have a great influence over the Spanish cork -industry, the proposed increase did not meet with the desired success. - -In the attempt to restrict the importation of raw material the Spaniards -have failed, for its usefulness makes the demand too great and the -foreigners have invaded the Iberian Peninsula and are now buying up even -the raw stock on the trees. The corkwood markets are no longer confined -to two or three, but extend round the world, the principal ones being: -London, Paris, Rheims, Epernay, Maguncia, Dresden, New York, Pittsburgh, -San Francisco, Buenos Ayres, Calcutta, Sydney, Melbourne and Yeddo. So -it will be seen that a great demand is being made upon the forests, -which must be cultivated for increased growth and production or an early -investigation made for the growing of the trees in other countries. - -Of course the industry remains very strong throughout Spain and -Portugal, and particularly in the Andalusia District of Spain, where the -manufacturing establishments play an important part in converting the -corkwood into useful articles of commerce. The Spanish yield of raw -material has remained slightly behind Portugal, but this does not affect -the former's influence in the trade. (See Appendix.) - -It is inevitable that the greatest bulk of the trade should center -around the countries in which the raw material is grown, for the -greatest advantage is thus gained by those, so fortunate in their -location. - -But the spread of the corkwood's fame has aroused others to action, and -it appears as though the monopoly will suffer because of that fame. The -demand grows daily, and the rapid growth of the American trade bids fair -to being a very close rival to the long-established European -manufactures at least. - -The waste is rapidly assuming great importance and to this the newer -entrant in the business is turning all his energy. The doctrine of -conservation and utilization has been heeded by the corkwood industry -and the waste is no longer such, rather standing as a cork product -second only to the stopper, when the fact is considered that the grower -or farmer receives about $58 per ton for raw corkwood and the waste -sells from $22 to $32 per ton; its value is apparent. - -A notable feature of the shipments from Spain is the waste and shavings, -which doubled from 1906 to 1910, viz.: - - 1906 -- 14,624 tons - 1907 -- 17,557 " - 1908 -- 12,201 " - 1909 -- 20,198 " - 1910 -- 29,257 " - -The uses to which corkwood may be put are unlimited, and as has been -seen the uses already known are sufficient, in themselves, to make it a -very important commodity. And yet when we speak of uses it is only those -that have developed by reason of the corkwood's own peculiarity that -makes it the subject of discussion, and not the great number that it has -been adapted to, for perhaps its utility will have no end, and in my -estimation its particular qualities are but little appreciated. Of -course its application as a stopper is ideal for that purpose, but it -appears most certain that this wonderful growth is designed to be of -greater service to man than the mere function of filling the neck of a -bottle. Chemically, I think it has possibilities; the ancients found it -useful in Materia Medica, and there may still be a use in this line. At -any rate, it is the most wonderful bark of its kind, its service has -been a long one, and its benefits, even as a stopper, have been many. A -wonderful material truly, and of interest, so full that it seems I have -failed to do it justice in these few words presented in my endeavor to -describe the Quercus Suber of Linnaeus. - - - - -APPENDIX - - -For those who may be interested in a few statistics of the trade is -appended the following figures relating to the Spanish and American -industry: - -SPANISH INDUSTRY, 1912 - -There were 892 factories throughout Spain in 1912, in 107 towns and -cities, divided as follows: - - Seville District 305 in 48 towns - Barcelona District 507 in 31 " - Other Districts 80 in 28 " - -These factories employ approximately 40,000 people in the various -branches of the industry at an average daily wage of 67 cents. - -The raw material yield for 1912 is reported as: 7800 short tons, valued -at $57.90 per ton to the grower, or $4,516,200. - -It will also be of interest to show a few comparisons of values, for -various years, in shipments to foreign parts, viz.: - - 1909 - =============================+==============+============= - Description | Pounds | Value - -----------------------------+--------------+------------- - Cork in sheets ............. | 11,009,939 | $405,366 - Cork squares ............... | 1,180,489 | 265,610 - Corks ...................... | 11,960,760 | 4,870,948 - Cork shavings .............. | 66,435,426 | 363,563 - Other manufactured cork .... | 864,820 | 40,656 - | ----------- | ---------- - Total .................... | 91,451,434 | $5,946,143 - | | - =============================+==============+============= - - 1910 - =============================+==============+============= - Description | Pounds | Value - -----------------------------+--------------+------------- - Cork in sheets ............. | 16,798,492 | $618,489 - Cork squares ............... | 2,055,865 | 462,472 - Corks ...................... | 14,924,052 | 6,105,294 - Cork shavings .............. | 64,367,448 | 526,642 - Other manufactured cork .... | 1,190,789 | 57,382 - | ----------- | ---------- - Total .................... | 99,336,646 | $7,770,279 - Corrected figures showing | | - totals as ................ | 109,336,646 | $7,942,677 - | | - =============================+==============+============= - - 1911 - =============================+==============+============= - Description | Pounds | Value - -----------------------------+--------------+------------- - Cork in sheets ............. | 21,564,347 | $741,029 - Cork squares ............... | 2,076,881 | 467,298 - Corks ...................... | 17,817,037 | 7,288,787 - Cork waste ................. | 73,510,473 | 591,468 - Cork, manufactured in | | - other forms .............. | 1,828,030 | 89,723 - | ----------- | ---------- - Total .................... | 116,796,768 | $9,178,305 - | | - =============================+==============+============= - - 1912 - =============================+==============+============= - Description | Pounds | Value - -----------------------------+--------------+------------- - Corkwood ................... | 17,928,000 | $528,810 - Cork squares ............... | 1,492,000 | 356,229 - Corks mfrd.} | | {7,864,299 - Cork waste } ............... | 100,396,000 | { 754,848 - Other mfrs.................. | 1,166,000 | 49,783 - | ----------- | ---------- - | 120,982,000 | $9,553,969 - | | - =============================+==============+============= - -The following is a comparison of the first six months of 1909, 1910 -and 1911. - - 1909 - =============================+==========+============ - Articles | Tons | Value - -----------------------------+----------+------------ - Corkwood ................... | 1,686 | $158,644 - Cork squares ............... | 262 | 129,646 - Corks ...................... | 2,624 | 2,361,620 - Cork waste and shavings .... | 9,589 | 172,604 - Cork, other manufactures ... | 211 | 25,987 - | | - =============================+==========+============ - - 1910 - =============================+==========+============ - Articles | Tons | Value - -----------------------------+----------+------------ - Corkwood ................... | 3,157 | $255,718 - Cork squares ............... | 485 | 240,057 - Corks ...................... | 3,629 | 3,265,760 - Cork waste and shavings .... | 13,935 | 205,822 - Cork, other manufactures ... | 251 | 27,133 - | | - =============================+==========+============ - - 1911 - =============================+==========+============ - Articles | Tons | Value - -----------------------------+----------+------------ - Corkwood ................... | 5,129 | $415,432 - Cork squares ............... | 442 | 218,755 - Corks ...................... | 4,057 | 3,669,075 - Cork waste and shavings .... | 18,143 | 326,573 - Cork, other manufactures ... | 248 | 32,657 - | | - =============================+==========+============ - -The statistics showing the shipments to various countries are for 1909: - - ==============+========+=====+======+======+=====+======== - | | | |Cork |Cork | - | | | |Waste | in | - Countries |Corkwood|Cork |Corks | and |Other| Total - | |Sqs. | |Shav. |Forms| - --------------+--------+-----+------+------+-----+-------- - | Tons |Tons | Tons | Tons |Tons | Tons - United States | 2,065 | -- | 158 | 7,594| 280 | 10,097 - Great Britain | 842 | 4 |1,094 | 7,539| 38 | 9,518 - Germany ......| 5 | 18 | 715 | 4,555| -- | 5,293 - France .......| 1,256 | 276 |2,044 | 189| 56 | 3,821 - Italy ........| 6 | 79 | 435 | 11| -- | 532 - Belgium ......| 164 | -- | 136 | 215| 11 | 526 - Russia .......| 463 | -- | 1 | --| -- | 464 - Aust-Hungary | -- | 30 | 346 | --| -- | 376 - Argentina ....| 164 | 123 | 57 | --| -- | 344 - Other ........| 40 | 7 | 426 | 95| 9 | 575 - +--------+-----+------+------+-----+-------- - Total ........| 5,005 | 537 |5,412 |20,198| 394 | 31,546 - | | | | | | - ==============+========+=====+======+======+=====+======== - - -AMERICAN INDUSTRY - -In 1899, there were 62 factories in the United States of varying sizes -and located in the following states: New York (Brooklyn), Pennsylvania, -New Jersey, Illinois, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Wisconsin and Ohio. -Employing 2340 wage earners. Importing a raw stock of $2,404,000, and -making products valued at $4,392,000. - -In 1904, the factories decreased to 50 in number, the wage earners -increased to 2895, the imported raw material to $2,459,197 and the -products to $4,490,952. - -In 1909, the factories increasing again to 62 in number, the wage -earners to 3142, the imported raw material to $3,435,000 and the -products to $5,940,000: corks selling from 3 cents to 40 cents per -pound. - -This of course does not appear to be a very extensive business, but the -nature of the commodity will readily convince that the money figures are -not at all in comparison to the bulk of corkwood, for it would really -seem that if the trade should increase to an amount sufficient to vie -with other prominent ones, the ships would be at loss how to stow the -other freight. The imports of corkwood into this country and the -exports, for comparison, may be seen in the following tables: - -IMPORTS - - January | Seven Months ending January - | - 1912 1913 | 1911 1912 1913 - | - Corkwood, Free: | - $450,082 $367,884 | $2,265,373 $1,849,550 $1,707,164 - Corks mfrd., Dutiable: | - $181,252 130,580 | 1,380,109 1,137,504 1,180,816 - | - -EXPORTS - - | Seven Months ending - January | January - | - 1912 1913 | 1912 1913 - | - Corkwood, Free: $1,518 $1,195 | $19,795 $22,393 - Corks mfrd., Dutiable: 209 1,086 | 3,078 2,170 - | - -And the periods ending December, 1913 will be of interest also. - -IMPORTS - - December | Twelve Months ending December - | - 1912 1913 | 1911 1912 1913 - | - Corkwood, Free: | - $300,253 $468,937 | $3,819,651 $3,182,131 $3,616,177 - Corks mfrd., Dutiable: | - $164,711 194,457 | 2,070,672 2,440,399 2,370,527 - | - -EXPORTS - - |Twelve Months ending - December | December - | - 1912 1913 | 1912 1913 - | - Corkwood, Free: $2,960 -- | $34,404 $25,091 - Corks mfrd., Dutiable: -- $8,335 | 5,552 5,392 - | - - - - -A SELECTED LIST OF BOOKS ON CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY - -_Published by_ - -D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY -25 Park Place New York - - - =American Institute of Chemical Engineers.= Transactions. 8vo. cloth. - Issued annually. Vol. I., 1908, to Vol. VI., 1913, now ready. each, - =net, $6.00= - - =Annual Reports on the Progress of Chemistry.= Issued annually by the - Chemical Society. 8vo. cloth. Vol. I., 1904, to Vol. X., 1913, now - ready. each, =net, $2.00= - - =ASCH, W., and ASCH, D. The Silicates in Chemistry and Commerce.= - Including the exposition of a hexite and pentite theory and of a - stereo-chemical theory of general application. Translated, with - critical notes and additions, by Alfred B. Searle. Illus. 6-3/4 x - 10. cloth. 476 pp. =net, $6.00= - - =ASHLEY, R. H. Chemical Calculations.= Illustrated. 5-1/4 x 7-1/2. - cloth. 286 pp. =net, $1.50= - - =BAILEY, R. O. The Brewer's Analyst.= Illustrated. 8vo. cloth. 423 pp. - =net, $5.00= - - =BARKER, A. F., and MIDGLEY, E. 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C. - Wright. 43 illustrations. 8vo. cloth. 476 pp. =net, $5.00= - - =BEVERIDGE, JAMES. Papermaker's Pocketbook.= Specially compiled for - paper mill operatives, engineers, chemists and office officials. - _Second and Enlarged Edition._ Illus. 12mo. cloth. 211 pp. - =net, $4.00= - - =BIRCHMORE, W. H. The Interpretation of Gas Analyses.= Illustrated. - 12mo. cloth. 75 pp. =net, $1.25= - - =BLASDALE, W. C. Principles of Quantitative Analysis.= An - introductory course. 70 illus. 5-1/4 x 7-1/2. cloth. 404 pp. - =net, $2.50= - - =BLUCHER, H. Modern Industrial Chemistry.= Translated by J. P. - Millington. Illus. 8vo. cloth. 795 pp. =net, $7.50= - - =BLYTH, A. W. 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H. Lubricating Oils, Fats and Greases.= Their origin, - preparation, properties, uses, and analysis. _Third Edition, revised - and enlarged_, by Henry Leask. 74 illus. 8vo. cloth. 405 p. - =net, $4.00= - - =HURST, G. H., and SIMMONS, W. H. Textile Soaps and Oils.= _Second - Edition, revised and partly rewritten._ 11 illustrations. 5-1/2 x - 8-3/4. 204 pp. =net, $3.00= - - =HYDE, FREDERIC S. Solvents, Oils, Gums, Waxes and Allied Substances.= - 5-1/4 x 8-1/2 cloth. 182 pp. =net, $2.00= - - =INGLE, HERBERT. Manual of Agricultural Chemistry.= Illustrated. 8vo. - cloth. 388 pp. =net, $3.00= - - =JOHNSTON, J. F. W. Elements of Agricultural Chemistry.= Revised and - rewritten by Charles A. Cameron and C. M. Aikman. _Nineteenth - Edition._ Illustrated. 12mo. cloth. 502 pp. =$2.60= - - =JONES, HARRY C. A New Era in Chemistry.= Some of the more important - developments in general chemistry during the last quarter of a - century. Illustrated. 12mo. cloth. 336 pp. =net, $2.00= - - =KEMBLE, W. F., and UNDERHILL, C. R. The Periodic Law and the Hydrogen - Spectrum.= Illustrated. 8vo. paper. 16 pp. =net, $0.50= - - =KERSHAW, J. B. C. Fuel, Water, and Gas Analysis, for Steam Users.= 50 - ill. 8vo. cloth. 178 pp. =net, $2.50= - - =---- Electro-Thermal Methods of Iron and Steel Production.= With - an introduction by Dr. J. A. Fleming, F.R.S. 50 tables, 92 - illustrations. 5-1/2 x 8-1/4. cloth. 262 pp. =net, $3.00= - - =KNOX, JOSEPH. Physico-chemical Calculations.= 12mo. cloth. 196 pp. - =net, $1.00= - - =----Fixation of Atmospheric Nitrogen.= Illustrated. 5 x 7-1/2. cloth. - 120 pp. (Van Nostrand's Chemical Monographs.) =net, $0.75= - - =KOLLER, T. Cosmetics.= A handbook of the manufacture, employment and - testing of all cosmetic materials and cosmetic specialties. - Translated from the German by Charles Salter. 8vo. cloth. 262 pp. - =net, $2.50= - - =---- Utilization of Waste Products.= A treatise on the rational - utilization, recovery and treatment of waste products of all kinds. - _Second Revised and Enlarged Edition._ 22 illustrations. 5-3/4 x - 8-3/4. cloth. 336 pp. =net, $3.00= - - =KREMANN, R. The Application of Physico-chemical Theory to Technical - Processes and Manufacturing Methods.= Authorized translation by - Harold E. Potts, M.Sc. 35 diagrams. 8vo. cloth. 215 pp. =net, $2.50= - - =KRETSCHMAR, KARL. Yarn and Warp Sizing in All Its Branches.= - Translated from the German by C. Salter. 122 illus. 8vo. cloth. - 192 pp. =net, $4.00= - - =LAMBORN, L. L. Modern Soaps, Candles and Glycerin.= 224 - illustrations. 8vo. cloth. 700 pp. =net, $7.50= - - =---- Cotton Seed Products.= 79 illus. 8vo. cloth. 253 pp. - =net, $3.00= - - =LASSAR-COHN. Introduction to Modern Scientific Chemistry.= In the - form of popular lectures suited for University Extension students - and general readers. Translated from the _Second German Edition_ by - M. M. Pattison Muir. Illus. 12mo. cloth. 356 pp. =$2.00= - - =LETTS, E. A. Some Fundamental Problems in Chemistry: Old and New.= 44 - illustrations. 8vo. cloth. 236 pp. =net, $2.00= - - =LUNGE, GEORGE. Technical Methods of Chemical Analysis.= Translated - from the _Second German Edition_ by Charles A. Keane, with the - collaboration of eminent experts. Complete in three volumes. Six - parts. 448 illustrations. 6-1/2 x 9-1/2. cloth. 3494 pp. - =net, $48.00= - Vol. I. (in two parts). 201 illustrations. 6-1/2 x 9-1/2. cloth. - 1024 pp. =net, $15.00= - Vol. II. (in two parts). 149 illustrations. 6-1/2 x 9-1/2. cloth. - 1294 pp. =net, $18.00= - Vol. III. (in two parts). 98 illustrations. 6-1/2 x 9-1/2. cloth. - 1174 pp. =net, $18.00= - - =---- Technical Chemists' Handbook.= Tables and methods of analysis - for manufacturers of inorganic chemical products. Illus. 12mo. - leather. 276 pp. =net, $3.50= - - =---- Coal, Tar and Ammonia.= _Fourth and Enlarged Edition._ In two - volumes, not sold separately. 305 illustrations. 8vo. cloth. 1210 - pp. =net, $15.00= - - =---- The Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid and Alkali.= A theoretical and - practical treatise. - Vol. I. Sulphuric Acid. _Fourth Edition, enlarged._ In three parts, - not sold separately. 543 illustrations. 8vo. cloth. 1665 pp. - =net, $18.00= - Vol. II. Sulphate of Soda, Hydrochloric Acid, Leblanc Soda. _Third - Edition, much enlarged._ In two parts, not sold separately. 335 - illustrations. 8vo. cloth. 1044 pp. =net, $15.00= - Vol. III. Ammonia Soda. Various Processes of Alkali-making, and the - Chlorine Industry. 181 illustrations. 8vo. cloth. 784 pp. - =net, $10.00= - Vol. IV. Electrolytical Methods. In Press. - - =---- Technical Gas Analysis.= 143 illustrations. 6 x 9. cloth. 422 - pp. =net, $4.00= - - =McINTOSH, JOHN G. The Manufacture of Varnish and Kindred Industries.= - Illus. 8vo. cloth. In 3 volumes. - Vol. I. Oil Crushing, Refining and Boiling; Manufacture of Linoleum; - Printing and Lithographic Inks; India Rubber Substitutes. 29 illus. - 160 pp. =net, $3.50= - Vol. II. Varnish Materials and Oil Varnish Making. 66 illus. 216 pp. - =net, $4.00= - Vol. III. Spirit Varnishes and Varnish Materials. 64 illus. 492 pp. - =net, $4.50= - - =MARTIN, G. Triumphs and Wonders of Modern Chemistry.= A popular - treatise on modern chemistry and its marvels written in - non-technical language. 76 illustrations. 12mo. cloth. 358 pp. - =net, $2.00= - - =MELICK, CHARLES W. Dairy Laboratory Guide.= 52 illustrations. 12mo. - cloth. 135 pp. =net, $1.25= - - =MERCK, E. Chemical Reagents: Their Purity and Tests.= _Second - Edition, revised._ 6 x 9. cloth. 210 pp. =$1.00= - - =MIERZINSKI, S. The Waterproofing of Fabrics.= Translated from the - German by A. Morris and H. Robson. _Second Edition, revised and - enlarged._ 29 illustrations. 5 x 7-1/2. 140 pp. =net, $2.50= - - =MITCHELL, C. A. Mineral and Aerated Waters.= 111 illustrations. 8vo. - cloth. 244 pp. =net, $3.00= - - =MITCHELL, C. A., and PRIDEAUX, R. M. Fibres Used in Textile and - Allied Industries.= 66 illustrations. 8vo. cloth. 208 pp. - =net, $3.00= - - =MUNBY, A. E. Introduction to the Chemistry and Physics of Building - Materials.= Illus. 8vo. cloth. 365 pp. (Van Nostrand's Westminster - Series.) =net, $2.00= - - =MURRAY, J. A. Soils and Manures.= 33 illustrations. 8vo. cloth. 367 - pp. (Van Nostrand's Westminster Series.) =net, $2.00= - - =NAQUET, A. 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Textbook of Elementary Chemistry.= - 77 illustrations. 4-3/4 x 7. cloth. 342 pp. =net, $1.00= - - =PLATTNER'S Manual of Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis with the - Blowpipe.= _Eighth Edition, revised._ Translated by Henry B. - Cornwall, assisted by John H. Caswell, from the _Sixth German - Edition_, by Friedrich Kolbeck. 87 ill. 8vo. cloth. 463 pp. - =net, $4.00= - - =POLLEYN, F. Dressings and Finishings for Textile Fabrics and Their - Application.= Translated from the _Third German Edition_ by Chas. - Salter. 60 illustrations. 8vo. cloth. 279 pp. =net, $3.00= - - =POPE, F. G. Modern Research in Organic Chemistry.= 261 diagrams. - 12mo. cloth. 336 pp. =net, $2.25= - - =PORRITT, B. D. The Chemistry of Rubber.= 5 x 7-1/2. cloth. 100 pp. - (Van Nostrand's Chemical Monographs.) =net, $0.75= - - =POTTS, HAROLD E. Chemistry of the Rubber Industry.= 8vo. cloth. 163 - pp. =net, $2.00= - - =PRESCOTT, A. B. 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Paper Mill Chemist.= 67 illustrations. 82 tables. - 16mo. cloth. 280 pp. =net, $2.50= - - =SUDBOROUGH, J. J., and JAMES, J. C. Practical Organic Chemistry.= 92 - illustrations. 12mo. cloth. 394 pp. =net, $2.00= - - =TERRY, H. L. India Rubber and Its Manufacture.= 18 illustrations. - 8vo. cloth. 303 pp. (Van Nostrand's Westminster Series.) - =net, $2.00= - - =TITHERLEY, A. W. Laboratory Course of Organic Chemistry, Including - Qualitative Organic Analysis.= Illustrated. 8vo. cloth. 235 pp. - =net, $2.00= - - =TOCH, M. Chemistry and Technology of Mixed Paints.= _New Edition._ - In Preparation. - - =TOCH, M. Materials for Permanent Painting.= A manual for - manufacturers, art dealers, artists, and collectors. With - full-page plates. Illustrated. 12mo. cloth. 208 pp. =net, $2.00= - - =TUCKER, J. H. A Manual of Sugar Analysis.= _Sixth Edition._ 43 - illustrations. 8vo. cloth. 353 pp. =$3.50= - - =UNDERWOOD, N., and SULLIVAN, T. V. Chemistry and Technology of - Printing Inks.= 9 illustrations. 6 x 9. cloth. 145 pp. =net, $3.00= - - =VAN NOSTRAND'S Chemical Annual.= Edited by John C. Olsen and Alfred - Melhado. A handbook of useful data for analytical manufacturing - and investigating chemists and chemical students. _Third Issue, - enlarged._ 5 x 7-1/2. leather. 683 pp. =net, $2.50= - - =VINCENT, C. Ammonia and Its Compounds.= Their manufacture and uses. - Translated from the French by M. J. Salter. 32 ill. 8vo. cloth. - 113 pp. =net, $2.00= - - =VON GEORGIEVICS, G. Chemical Technology of Textile Fibres.= - Translated from the German by Charles Salter. 47 illustrations. - 8vo. cloth. 320 pp. =net, $4.50= - - =---- Chemistry of Dyestuffs.= Translated from the _Second German - Edition_ by Charles Salter. 8vo. cloth. 412 pp. =net, $4.50= - - =VOSMAER, A. Ozone, Its Manufacture and Uses.= In Press. - - =WADMORE, J. M. Elementary Chemical Theory.= Illus. 12mo. cloth. - 286 pp. =net, $1.50= - - =WALKER, JAMES. 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With a chapter on gun cotton, - smokeless powder and explosive cellulose nitrates. Illustrated. - 8vo. cloth. Two volumes. 1239 pp. =net, $10.00= - - =---- Technology of Cellulose Esters.= A theoretical and practical - treatise on the origin, history, chemistry, manufacture, technical - application and analysis of the products of acylation and alkylation - of normal and modified cellulose, including nitrocellulose, - celluloid, pyroxylin, collodion, celloidin, gun-cotton, - acetycellulose and viscose, as applied to technology, pharmacy, - microscopy, medicine, photography and the warlike and peaceful arts. - _In ten volumes._ 600 ill., 12 plates, containing upwards of 110,000 - patent and literature references to the work of 12,000 different - investigators. _An Exhaustive Treatise._ 4000 pp. - Vol. VIII. =Carbohydrate Carboxylates= (=Cellulose Acetate=). - Illustrated. 6-1/2 x 9-1/2. 515 pp. =net, $5.00= - (Other _volumes_ to follow at short intervals.) - - =WREN, HENRY. Organometallic Compounds of Zinc and Magnesium.= 5 x - 7-1/2. cloth. 108 pp. (Van Nostrand's Chemical Monographs.) - =net, $0.75= - - - - - +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ - | TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES | - | | - | * Page numbers referenced herein are those in the original work | - | and are for information. Actual location may be found by | - | searching for the relevant text. | - | * Contents: "Quercus Liber" appears in Contents as a chapter but | - | is typeset in the original work (page 5) as a section. The | - | original work formatting has been retained. | - | * Contents: "The Tree and Growth" appears in Contents as a | - | chapter but is typeset in the original work (page 12) as a | - | section. The original work formatting has been retained. | - | * Contents: "Substitutes" appears in Contents as a chapter but | - | is typeset in the original work (page 53) as a section. The | - | original work formatting has been retained. | - | * Contents: "Waste utilization" appears in Contents as a section | - | but is typeset in the original work (page 68) as a chapter. The | - | original work formatting has been retained. | - | * Page 5: Vanicek may be misspelled. | - | * Page 6: Grammatic may be misspelled. | - | * Page 32, molecular structure diagram: The right-hand CH_{2} | - | groups should be connected. | - | * Footnote 21: "Etymology of Word" is not found in the original | - | work. The chapter in Contents entitled "Quercus Liber (Linnaeus)"| - | et seq. gives the etymology. | - | * Unmatched quotation marks have been retained. The original work | - | text is shown below in curly brackets, { }, for clarity. | - | * Page 22: The closing quotation mark for {Again, "It is | - | produced} was not found. | - | * Page 41: The quotation mark at {July 1666" After} is | - | apparently used to set off the date from the diary entry. The | - | closing quotation mark for the diary entry is at {junts (old | - | cable)," but}. | - | * Page 43: The opening quotation mark for {the British Museum."} | - | was not found. | - | * Page 43: The closing quotation mark for {"The various | - | applications} is possibly at {blacks known in painting."} | - | on page 53. Otherwise, both quotation marks are likely | - | unmatched. | - | * Page 53: The closing quotation mark for {results. "A | - | primitive material} was not found definitively but possibly | - | could be located immediately after {the elements of cork.} | - | on page 54. | - | * This work has been preserved as in the original, including | - | archaic and inconsistent spelling, punctuation and grammar, | - | except as noted below. | - | * Changes made to the main text: | - | * Preface: '(Linneus)' changed to '(Linnaeus)'. | - | * Page 5: 'Etymologische Worterbuch' changed to 'Etymologisches | - | Worterbuch'. | - | * Page 8: 'korkeiche' changed to 'Korkeiche'. | - | * Page 11: 'Farenheit' changed to 'Fahrenheit'. | - | * Page 16: 'tree iself, which' changed to 'tree itself, which'. | - | * Page 32: 'Cyclohaptanone' changed to 'Cycloheptanone'. | - | * Page 36: '7/16' changed to '7/16"'. | - | * Page 54: 'actetone' changed to 'acetone'. | - | * Page 55: The cork manufacturing chart moved from within | - | the paragraph to immediately below the paragraph. | - | * Page 69: 'insultaing' changed to 'insulating'. | - | * Page 75: The table for waste and shavings changed from two | - | columns to one column. | - | * Footnote 25: '"m" signifying metal' changed to '"M" | - | signifying metal'. | - | * Changes made to "A SELECTED LIST OF BOOKS ON CHEMISTRY AND | - | CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY" | - | * Page 4, Church's Laboratory Guide: 'cloth,' changed to | - | 'cloth.' | - | * Page 10, Olsen: 'cloth.,' changed to 'cloth.' | - | | - +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Cork: Its Origin and Industrial Uses, by -Gilbert E. 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