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diff --git a/40371-8.txt b/40371-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 2c3a39d..0000000 --- a/40371-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,3862 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's Britain in the Middle Ages, by Florence L. Bowman - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Britain in the Middle Ages - A History for Beginners - -Author: Florence L. Bowman - -Release Date: July 29, 2012 [EBook #40371] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BRITAIN IN THE MIDDLE AGES *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - -BRITAIN IN THE MIDDLE AGES - -A HISTORY FOR BEGINNERS - - -CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS - -C. F. CLAY, Manager - -LONDON: FETTER LANE, E. C. 4 - - -NEW YORK: G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS - -BOMBAY } -CALCUTTA } MACMILLAN AND CO., LTD. -MADRAS } - -TORONTO: J. M. DENT AND SONS, LTD. -TOKYO: MARUZEN-KABUSHIKI-KAISHA - -All Rights Reserved - - - [Illustration: THE ARMING OF A KNIGHT] - - - - -BRITAIN IN THE MIDDLE AGES - -A HISTORY FOR BEGINNERS - - -BY - -FLORENCE L. BOWMAN, M.Ed. - -FINAL HONOUR SCHOOL OF MODERN HISTORY, OXFORD -LECTURER IN EDUCATION, HOMERTON COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE - - -CAMBRIDGE -AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS -1920 - -_First Edition_ 1919 -_Second Edition_ 1920 - - - - -PREFACE - - -Since, in the early stages of school work, it is more important to -present, as vividly as possible, some of the fundamental historic ideas -than to give any outline of events, it is hoped that this collection of -stories, told from the chronicles, may provoke readers to discussion -and further inquiry. - -Questions have been included in the appendix, some suggesting handwork, -both as a means of presentation in lessons and for illustrative -purposes. - -Considerable use has been made of literature as historic evidence. -Stories like those of the Knights of the Round Table often leave us -with a clearer impression of the spirit of the times than any historic -record. Many books of the kind are now easily accessible and could be -read side by side with the text. Collections of pictures, such as the -Bayeux Tapestry, published by the Victoria and Albert Museum, and -Foucquet's _Chroniques de France_, offer valuable opportunities -for some research on the child's part. - - F. L. BOWMAN. - - HOMERTON COLLEGE - _December_, 1918 - - - - -CONTENTS - - -CHAP. PAGE - - I. BEFORE THE COMING OF THE ROMANS 1 - - II. THE ROMANS 3 - - III. THE SAXONS 6 - - IV. THE SAXON VILLAGE 9 - - V. THE COMING OF CHRISTIANITY 15 - - VI. ALFRED AND THE DANES 20 - - VII. THE BATTLE OF HASTINGS 27 - - VIII. NORMAN KINGS 31 - - IX. NORMAN BARONS 34 - - X. NORMAN PRELATES 39 - - XI. NORMAN BUILDERS 44 - - XII. KNIGHTHOOD 47 - - XIII. THE KNIGHTS OF THE ROUND TABLE 52 - - XIV. THE CONQUEST OF IRELAND 57 - - XV. THE COMING OF THE FRIARS 61 - - XVI. THE THIRD CRUSADE 64 - - XVII. THE LOSS OF NORMANDY. THE SIGNING OF - THE GREAT CHARTER 69 - -XVIII. THE FIRST PARLIAMENT 71 - - XIX. THE CONQUEST OF WALES 74 - - XX. THE WAR WITH SCOTLAND 76 - - XXI. THE WAR WITH FRANCE 79 - - XXII. THE WAR WITH FRANCE (_continued_) 83 - -XXIII. THE BLACK DEATH AND THE PEASANTS' REVOLT 85 - - XXIV. THE WAR WITH FRANCE (_continued_) 89 - - XXV. NEW WORLDS 95 - -SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY 100 - -BIBLIOGRAPHY 102 - -DATES 103 - -TIME CHART 104 - - - - -ILLUSTRATIONS - - -THE ARMING OF A KNIGHT FRONTISPIECE - -From John Duke of Bedford's _Book of Hours_ -(15th century). In the British Museum - - - TO FACE PAGE - -THE ABBEY OF CITEAUX 18 - -From Viollet-le-duc, D_ictionnaire raisonné de -l'architecture française_ - - -A SERVICE IN THE CHAPEL 19 - -From the _Miracles de Notre Dame_, collected -by Miélot, Canon of S. Peter's at Lille, and -finished on 10 April, 1456. In the Bibliothèque -Nationale, Paris - -By arrangement with MM. Catala Frères, Paris - - -HAROLD DEFEATS AND KILLS TOSTIG AND THE KING -OF NORWAY AT STAMFORD BRIDGE 30 - -From the _Life of Edward the Confessor_ -(about 1260). In the University Library, Cambridge - - -A BATTLE IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY 31 - -By Jean Foucquet, from the _Grandes chroniques -de France_ (middle of the 15th century). In the -Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris - -By arrangement with MM. Catala Frères, Paris - - -ARCHITECT AND BUILDERS 44 - -From a Bible written at Lille, about 1270. In the -library of Mr S. C. Cockerell - - -BUILDING A CHURCH IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY 44 - -By Jean Foucquet, from the _Grandes chroniques -de France_ (middle of the 15th century). In the -Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris - -By arrangement with MM. Catala Frères, Paris - - -THE BUILDING OF THE TEMPLE OF JERUSALEM 45 - -From the _Antiquités Judaïques_, by Jean -Foucquet (middle of the 15th century) - -By kind permission of MM. Plon-Nourrit et Cie, -Paris - - -A SIEGE 46 - -From Viollet-le-duc, _Dictionnaire raisonné de -l'architecture française_ - - -GATEWAY AND DRAWBRIDGE 47 - -From Viollet-le-duc, _Dictionnaire raisonné de -l'architecture française_ - - -A COURT OF JUSTICE, 1458. DUKE OF ALENÇON CONDEMNED -FOR TREASON BY CHARLES VII, KING OF FRANCE 72 - -By Jean Foucquet. From _Le Boccace de Munich_. In -the Royal Library at Munich. - -The King is seated on his throne, and below him -the princes, and on his right the Chancellor of -France with bands of gold on his shoulder. -Sentence is being read by one of the officers of -the law. On the King's left the lords of the -Church are seated and below are the chief officers -of the realm. Outside the barrier is the royal -guard - - -THE PARLIAMENT OF EDWARD I 73 - -The Archbishops of Canterbury and York are seated -just below Alexander King of Scotland, and -Llewelyn Prince of Wales. The two behind are -supposed to be the Pope's ambassadors. There are -19 mitred Abbots, 8 Bishops and 20 Peers present. -The Chancellor and Judges are seated on the -woolsacks. - -From Pinkerton, _Iconographia Scotica_. Probably -drawn in the 16th century - - -PREPARING THE FEAST 88 - -From the _Luttrell Psalter_ (14th century). -In the British Museum - - -THE FEAST 89 - -From the _Luttrell Psalter_ (14th century). -In the British Museum - - -A CHRISTIAN OF CONSTANTINOPLE BORROWING MONEY -FROM A JEW AND PLEDGING HIS CRUCIFIX 96 - -From the _Miracles de Notre Dame_, collected -by Jean Miélot, and finished on 10 April, 1456. -In the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris - -By arrangement with MM. Catala Frères, Paris - - -MIÉLOT IN HIS STUDY 97 - -From the _Miracles de Notre Dame_, collected -by Jean Miélot, and finished on 10 April, 1456. -In the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris - -By arrangement with MM. Catala Frères, Paris - - -A PRINTING PRESS 97 - -A mark of Josse Badius Ascensius. From _De -Sacramentis_ of Thomas Waldensis, 1521. In -the University Library, Cambridge - - -THE TWELVE MONTHS AT END - -From _Les très riches heures de Jean de France, -Duc le Berry_, chiefly the work of Pol de -Limbourg, painted between 1412 and 1416 and now -in the Musée Condé, Chantilly - -By kind permission of MM. Plon-Nourrit et Cie, Paris - - - - -CHAPTER I - -BEFORE THE COMING OF THE ROMANS - - -The world is very old, and it has taken a long time to discover much of -the ancient story of Britain. Scholars have found out many things -because they are able now to read the signs on the rocks and under the -soil. From the tools left behind, from the remains of dwellings and -from treasures found in graves, we have learned about the ways of men -in times before history was written down. - -Once, it seems, Britain was a hot land. Great forests grew up -everywhere. Strange wild creatures roamed about, and there were -monsters in the waters. - -Once, too, it was a very cold land, and the snow lay in the valleys and -ice-glaciers came sliding down the mountains, making great river beds -as they passed. - -As it grew warmer, the ice melted and disappeared. The ice fields left -pools of water behind them, the lakes that you find in the country -still. The rivers, too, brimming over, flowed swiftly to the sea. -Mighty rivers they must have been, broader and deeper than they are -now. - -When men came, they made their homes in the caves and in underground -dwellings, and later they built mud huts. They hunted for their food, -learned to weave clothes from the grasses, to make weapons from stone -and to strike fire from the rocks. This is a very long story and we -know little about it. - -Of the Britons who dwelt here, we know something from those who had -heard of them and wrote about them. Round about their villages, they -made wattle-fences to keep away their enemies and the wild beasts that -came out of the forests in winter nights. - -They were shepherds and had many herds of sheep and cattle, and they -grew a little corn. Sometimes, travellers from far-off lands came to -visit them, to exchange their eastern coins for grain and skins. - -The Britons loved beautiful things. They made cunning designs on their -shields and helmets and with dainty tracings they ornamented their pots -and jugs. They wove linen in fine patterns and knew how to make dyes. -They were fond of music and told stories to one another of dragons and -heroes and the great dreams of men. - -When their chief died, they raised a mound over his grave; sometimes, -too, great pillars of stone. They carried presents of corn and meat and -fruit to put upon the grave, because they thought he might need them on -his long journey. In some parts of the country, there are pillars of -stone set up in circles. It is thought that perhaps the Britons used -these as temples, praying and making their offerings under the sky, in -sunshine and starshine. - -The Romans said that the Britons loved riding wild horses, which they -had tamed, and they were so skilful that however fast they galloped, -the rider could make the horse stand quite still at any moment. They -sometimes rode in chariots and drove furiously. When they went into -battle they armed their chariots with sharp knives and cut the enemy -down on both sides. But they did not use their chariots often, for they -would rather tend flocks in the fields than go to war. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -THE ROMANS - - -The best soldiers in the world were the Romans, who came from the great -city of Rome, far away in Italy. Everybody had heard of their mighty -deeds, for they had conquered nearly every land except Britain, and to -them Britain seemed to be in the farthest corner of the world, just on -the edge, a land, no doubt, of dragons and strange wild people. Now the -Romans had heard that there was meat and corn in plenty in the land, -that there were tin mines, and tin was very useful for mixing with -copper to make armour. So they invaded Britain. - -The great Roman army moved very slowly through the land, for there were -few roads. Sometimes the soldiers had to cut down trees to make their -way through the forests, sometimes they had to cross the dismal -fenlands, sometimes to make a bridge over a flooded river, or to wade -knee-deep through the swamps. As they marched, they had to fight with -the Britons. - -The Scots had heard of their coming and were safely hiding in their -fastnesses when the Romans reached the Borderland. Then the Romans -built a great wall from sea to sea between the two countries, Scotland -and Britain, a wall that must have taken several years to build even if -they had thousands of men to build it. It was made of the finest stone, -which they seem to have carried many miles across the country. It was -nine feet wide and eighteen feet high and the turrets were placed so -near together that the sentinels could call to one another and so send -a message quickly. Below the wall, on the enemy's side, they dug a deep -ditch, often having to make it through the hard limestone rock. Every -mile, they built a spacious fort for the soldiers to rest in, well -defended and quite close to the wall. Every four miles, there was a -station, sometimes a small town, surrounded by a wide wall, too, where -perhaps the chief officers lived. From station to station, from east to -west, ran the great road, for the traffic of the army. Up to the gates -of the stations, too, came the new Roman roads from the south, for the -army sometimes had to call for help from other places and needed food -and many things from the south. It must have been a stern duty to keep -watch in the bleak winter months, and the soldiers seem to have had few -comforts. The remains of this great wall still lie from Wallsend to the -west coast. - -At the cross-roads, by the great rivers, the Romans built their towns -and camps all over Britain, just like those they had known in Italy. -Every town was surrounded by a great wall, whence the soldiers could -keep a look-out for the enemy, and nobody could enter the place except -through the gates between sunrise and sunset. Outside the town, they -sometimes built an amphitheatre, where games and wild beast fights were -held on holidays. - -The houses of the chief officers were built like those in sunny Italy. -The most interesting room in the house was the bath-room, with a large -tank, like a swimming bath, in the floor and a furnace to keep a good -supply of hot water. The floor was paved with beautiful coloured tiles -and scenes were painted on the walls. This room was very important, -because the Roman often received his guests there and sometimes invited -them to share in the ceremony of the bath. The garden was often lovely, -there were orchards and smooth lawns and closely clipped hedges of box -and yew, sometimes cut into fantastic shapes like birds and beasts. -There were brightly coloured flowers, which had been brought from -Italy--geraniums, roses and orchids. Then, there was the summer house, -whose walls were made of tall trees growing close together, and inside -were couches and rugs and sometimes even a little lake in the centre, -where jellies and fruits were to be seen floating in beautiful dishes, -to keep them cool and fresh, as though the summer in Britain were very -hot. - -There was much work to be done. The Roman officer had to visit the -camps, driving in his chariot or carried in his litter by his slaves. -He had to see that the road-making went on well, for the Romans made -fine roads through Britain from north to south, to the east and to the -west. He had to look after the building of the factories, where the -wool was made into cloth and dyed in the famous purple dye, and if he -lived in the south west, the tin mines in Cornwall had to be -supervised. Sometimes, he had even to take the long and difficult -journey to Rome. The Britons looked on at this new life with great fear -and wonder, and soon they learned to make better houses, to raise -better crops and to live in the towns. - -When, three hundred years later, all the Romans were called to their -own land to protect it against a strong enemy, the Britons were worse -off than ever they had been before. Not only did the Scots come over -the wall to burn and steal, but a new and a stronger enemy came over -the seas from Denmark and Germany to seize the treasure that the Romans -had left unguarded. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -THE SAXONS - - -These sea robbers were the Angles and the Saxons, and Britain became -Angleland or England. They were fine men, tall and strong, with long -fair hair and blue eyes. The Britons gazed in wonder as boat after boat -glided into the bays. Graceful, brightly coloured boats they were, with -forty oars on each side and a magnificent sail, sometimes made of silk, -embroidered with a dragon or a serpent, the gift of a great prince may -be. Every sailor, as he stepped ashore, became a soldier, armed himself -with his shield which he took from the vessel's side, and a sword, the -best in the world, dearer to him than all other treasures, made by the -chief, or by a famous blacksmith. - -The Britons marked the chief long before he landed, for he stood at the -prow or gave orders. His corselet was of beaten gold or bronze, his -helmet too. If indeed he were a great champion, he carried on his -helmet a pair of eagle's wings, or a cock's comb, as the reward of his -bravery and skill in battle. All these men had been soldiers since they -were twelve years old. They had learned "to run, to ride, to swim, to -wrestle and to leap," so it is no wonder that the Britons fled before -them in terror. Some fell into the hands of these stern warriors and -became their servants, but those who lived in peace in the mountains of -the west were called "Welsh," i.e. "foreigners," by all who heard of -them afterwards. The Scots vanished into their fastnesses and the -Saxons became lords of Britain. - -The Saxons loved fighting and hunting, but when the hunt and the fight -were over they came back to their spacious halls, where they hung up -their swords and trophies and gathered round the banquet table or sat -by the fire, making rhymes and listening to the tales and songs of the -gleemen. While the mead cup was being passed round, they heard the -songs about the gods and the great heroes of old, and sometimes they -liked to think that Odin took a seat amongst them and told his tale. -Odin, the one-eyed father of all the gods, crept in with a scarlet -cloak wrapped round him, feasted with them, and, at dawn, the doors of -the hall opened mysteriously, a great wind blew, and he was gone. - -They had many stories about the gods and Valhalla, the home of the -spirits, whither every good soldier hoped to journey at the end of his -life. Thor was the great god of thunder; you could see his red beard, -when the Northern light shone in the winter sky. Sometimes he drove by -in his chariot with the sound of a storm, the lightning was the flash -of his eye, and the thunder his mighty hammer striking the rocks as he -passed. - -The most beloved of the gods of the northmen was Baldur, the god of -Spring. Once, he had a dream that a great cloud passed over him, and -his mother, in sorrow, summoned all the things upon the earth to -promise never to hurt her son. Everything promised, the mountains and -the trees and the rocks and the rivers, everything except the little -mistletoe, which grew at the palace gate and was so small that nobody -thought it could do any harm. But Loki, the god of mischief, Baldur's -brother, guided the hand of blind Hödur and so killed Baldur with an -arrow made from the mistletoe. - -Odin was very angry when he heard the news and mounted his war horse to -ride to Valhalla, to fetch Baldur from the home of the spirits. But the -old witch, who sat at the gates, would not let Baldur return to the -earth until she heard that everything on the earth was weeping for him. -Everything did weep, except Loki and the little mistletoe. So the witch -allows Baldur to come back for three months every year, and then the -earth puts on her freshest green, the flowers blossom, the corn ripens, -and gods and men rejoice. Thus, the Saxons showed how much they loved -the sunshine and the warmth and the south winds that come in the summer -time. - -When a hero died, the Saxons sent him on his journey to Valhalla, with -food enough to last a week and with all his treasures, his sword and -helmet, his hunting trophies and his most loved things. They liked best -of all to send him on his boat across the unknown seas. They towed it -to the harbour mouth, set fire to it, when the sun was going down, -shouting as they watched it drift away, "Odin, receive thy Champion." -They fancied Odin sat in the far North with all the gods waiting to -welcome a brave man and to give him a seat of honour in his hall. For -the Saxons thought a brave soldier the noblest of all men. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -THE SAXON VILLAGE - - -Though the Saxons loved fighting, they soon learned to love peace and -to rule their kingdoms well. They divided the spoil amongst themselves -and the chiefs rewarded their soldiers with lands. They built their -villages as near the streams as they could, so that they might get -water easily. They built them near the woods, if possible, so that they -could get timber to build their houses and fuel for the winter; but not -so near that an enemy could spring on them suddenly without a warning, -or the packs of hungry wolves come prowling round in the long, dark -nights. Any stranger who came in sight of the village must blow his -horn three times loudly, else the Saxons killed him, for they feared -anyone they did not know. - -The soldiers who settled in the village were freemen, and they shared -in the harvest of the soil. Only half the land was ploughed for seed -and the other half was left fallow or idle for a year. In the ploughed -land, they planted wheat or rye one year and barley next time, after a -year's rest. Sometimes they divided the land and planted wheat in one -half in October and barley in the other in March. When the ploughing -was done, they were all very careful to throw up a little heap of earth -to make a ridge between the strips in each field, so that each freeman -might know his own strip in the wheat field and in the barley field -too. He made bread from the wheat or rye and a drink from the barley, -and if there were any to spare he would exchange it for some of the -things he wanted very much, honey perhaps, for everybody needed that -when there was no sugar. - -Beyond the ploughed lands, there was a piece of common ground, where -all the freemen turned out their geese and cows and sheep and pigs, -though the pigs liked the woods better, for there they could find -acorns and hazel nuts. - -There was a hayfield, too, and, when spring came, a fence was put all -round it and it was carefully divided into strips, so that everyone had -a share of the hay. The "hayward" was a busy man, for it was his duty -to keep the woods, corn and meadows. In haytime, he looked after the -mowers. In August, he was to be seen, rod in hand, in the cornfields, -watching early and late, so that no beasts strayed and trampled down -the corn. - -When Lammastide came, all the freemen kept holiday for joy that harvest -time had come. - -Now, there was sure to be one man who had more treasure than the -others, and oxen perhaps for the plough. It was very hard work trying -to plough the fields with less than eight, so the other freemen were -glad to borrow the oxen sometimes. But the chief, the rich man, made a -bargain, that those who borrowed his oxen should pay him by doing three -days' work a week for him in his fields, for they had no money. So, in -time, he became lord over them. - -Then he made a mill where all the corn should be ground into flour and -every man who brought a sackful must pay so many handfuls of flour to -the miller for his trouble. Not every village had a mill, so it -sometimes happened that men travelled far to make a bargain with the -miller, for they found it slow work to grind their own corn between the -grindstones at home. - -From an old writing[1] that we have still, we can find out many things -about the peasants, for they tell how they spend their time. The -ploughman says: "I work hard. I go out at daybreak driving the oxen to -the field and I yoke them to the plough. Be it never so stark winter I -dare not linger at home for awe of my lord, but having yoked my oxen -and fastened share and coulter, every day I must plough a full acre or -more. I have a boy driving the oxen with a goad-iron, who is hoarse -with cold and shouting. And I do more also. I have to fill the bins of -the oxen with hay, and water them and take out their litter. Mighty -hard work it is, for I am not free." The shepherd says: "In the first -morning I drive my sheep to their pasture and stand over them in heat -and in cold, with my dogs, lest the wolves swallow them up; and I lead -them back to their folds and milk them twice a day, and their folds I -move, and I make cheese and butter and I am true to my lord." - - [1] Ælfric's _Dialogues_. - -The oxherd says: "When the ploughman unyokes the oxen, I lead them to -pasture and all night I stand over them waking against thieves; and -then again in the early morning I betake them, well-filled and watered, -to the ploughman." - -The King's hunter says: "I braid me nets and set them in fit places and -set my hounds to follow up the wild game, till they come unsuspecting -to the net and are caught therein, and I slay them in the net. With -swift hounds I hunt down wild game. I take harts and boars and bucks -and roes and sometimes wild hares. I give the King what I take because -I am his hunter. He clothes me well and feeds me and sometimes gives me -a horse or an arm-ring that I may pursue my craft merrily." - -The fisherman says: "I go on board my boat and cast my net into the -river and cast my angle and baits and what they catch I take. I cast -the unclean fish away and take the clean for meat. The citizens buy my -fish. I cannot catch as many as I could sell, eels and pike, minnows -and trout and lampreys. Sometimes I fish in the sea, but seldom, for it -is a far row for me to the sea. I catch there herring and salmon, -porpoises and sturgeon and crabs, mussels, periwinkles, sea-cockles, -plaice and fluke and lobsters and many of the like. It is a perilous -thing to catch a whale. It is pleasanter for me to go to the river with -my boat than to go with many boats whale-hunting." - -The fowler says: "In many ways I trick the birds--sometimes with nets, -with snares, with lime, with whistling, with a hawk, with traps. My -hawks feed themselves and me in winter, and in Lent I let them fly off -to the woods and I catch me young birds in harvest and tame them. But -many feed the tamed ones the summer over, that they have them ready -again." - -The merchant says: "I go aboard my ships with my goods, and go over sea -and sell my things and buy precious things which are not produced in -this country and bring them hither to you, brocade and silk, precious -gems and gold, various raiment and dye-stuffs, wine and oil, ivory, and -brass and bronze, copper and tin, sulphur and glass and the like. And I -wish to sell them dearer here than I buy them there, that I may get -some profit wherewith I may feed myself and my wife and my sons." - -While all the village people were busy at their work in the fields, -they must have peace and order in the land. Every week, the lord and -the freemen met together under the great oak tree to talk about -business. If they heard of any evil deed done near their village, the -lord rode out at the head of all the men who could ride or run, to find -the evil doer, and they searched for miles, shouting "Hi! Hi!" and if -they passed through any village, they summoned every freeman to follow -in the chase. When the thief was found, he was brought back to his own -village, and if he could not find any who would stand by him as "oath -helpers," then none would listen to his tale. They said that only the -great god could judge, so they prayed that Odin would send a sign. -Sometimes, they bound the prisoner hand and foot and threw him into the -village pond; if he floated they said, "He is not guilty." Sometimes, -they burned the prisoner with hot irons or made him thrust his hand -into boiling water; then the wounds were bound up; and if, after three -days, they were healed and there was no scar, they said, "He is not -guilty." But this did not happen often. - -Sometimes, if the man had a bad character, they branded him on the -forehead with the sign of a wolf's head and took him to the forest, -where he had to live all the rest of his life, for no one would have an -outlaw in a village. If a man were afraid of being made an outlaw, he -must find a great lord and ask him to protect him. If the man promised -to work for a lord or gave him a present of fish or corn or honey every -year he could find a lord. If it should happen that he were caught by -the Hue and Cry, on that day the word of his lord in his favour was -worth more than the words of six freemen against him. So most people -worked for a lord. - -As time went on, the King began to call the lords and freemen together -to ask them about a great war, or to make some new laws. They did not -like going very much, for travelling was troublesome and dangerous. So -the King usually asked only his cup-bearer and chamberlain and the -great men of his court for advice. - - - - -CHAPTER V - -THE COMING OF CHRISTIANITY - - -Some there were who had heard of Christ in the old days, but a band of -monks landing on the coast of Kent brought the news again to this -country. Pope Gregory had sent Augustine from Rome to tell the Saxons -about Christ, for he was sorry that they loved Odin and Thor, and did -not know any other god. Ethelbert, the King of Kent, had a Christian -wife, and he was very anxious to know what these strangers had to say -about the new God. But he was afraid that they might know how to work -charms and to call out wicked spirits, so he let Augustine and his -monks preach to the people out of doors, for he thought that they could -not harm any one in the open air. When the Roman monks preached, many -people became Christians, but the old Saxon poets sang sorrowful -stories of Odin's anger, and how the gods had left the world for ever -because the people were not faithful. Bede tells a story of how the old -wise men of Northumbria met together to decide whether they would give -up the old gods for Christ or not, and as they sat in solemn silence, -thinking of this great thing, an old man rose and said, "The present -life of man, O King, seems to me like the swift flight of a sparrow, -who on a wintry night darts into the hall, as we sit at supper. He -flies from the storms of wind and rain outside, and for a brief space -abides in the warmth and light, and then vanishes again into the -darkness whence he came. So is the life of man, for we know not whence -we came nor whither we go. Therefore if this stranger can tell us -anything more certain, we should hearken gladly to him." Thus, they -became Christians. They built churches in their villages; first of -wood, then of stone. - -Many Christian teachers then came to England and built homes or -monasteries, wherever they went, first of rough timber, then of stone. -They made clearings in the forests and drained the fenlands, and the -people followed and built houses for themselves near the monasteries, -for they found that they could learn many things from the monks. The -sick, the poor, the tired and the old were always welcome, and -travellers too were glad to rest there, for there were no inns in those -days. - -The monks were ruled by an abbot, and the nuns, who lived in other -houses, by an abbess. They took a vow of poverty and thought that they -served God best by giving their time to prayer and praise. - -They loved their monastery, and, as the centuries went by, they made it -more and more beautiful. The people gave rich offerings and builders -came from foreign lands, skilled in stonework and other arts. Carvings -were made for the church, pictures were painted on the walls, and -flowers and trees were brought from the Holy Land to plant in the -gardens. In this way came the cedar trees and the juniper, and certain -plants that now grow wild in parts of the country like the poisonous -hellebore, the grape hyacinth and the little fritillary or snake's -head. Great men brought gifts of frankincense and myrrh, to be burned -in the church on holy days, or jewels for the altar, and silk from the -east for hangings, but the greatest treasure of all was the "relic." -People would travel many miles to see this, for those who saw it could -be healed of their sickness or forgiven for their sins. There were many -curious relics. There were little bits of wood, that men believed -belonged to the real cross, on which Christ was crucified, and thorns, -which were said to have come from His crown. S. Louis, King of France, -built the beautiful Sainte Chapelle in Paris, where he might keep the -crown of thorns, which the Crusaders brought from Palestine. - -The monastery was usually built round a square garden or lawn. On one -side was the church, on another the hall and large kitchens and -pantries, for there were often visitors, some of high estate, and they -must be royally feasted. In the Rule of S. Benedict it was written, -"Let all guests who come to the monastery be entertained like Christ -Himself; because He will say, 'I was a stranger and ye took me in'." -The guest-house must stand apart "so that the guests, who are never -wanting in a monastery, may not disquiet the brethren by their untimely -arrivals." Anyone could claim a lodging for two nights, and in a few -monasteries there was stabling provided for as many as three hundred -horses. - -There was a long dormitory where the monks slept. It was the custom for -them to get up at midnight to make a procession into the church by the -night stairs. There they said matins and lauds (the last three psalms), -and then returned to the dormitory to sleep if it were winter until -daybreak, if summer till sunrise. Only those who had worked hard in the -fields all day were excused. They dressed by the light of the wicks set -in oil in little bowls at either end of the dormitory. - -In the cloisters were troughs for washing before meals, filled with -water by taps; and above were little cupboards for towels. - -Some monasteries had a library, for they were quite rich in books. Then -there was a writing room, where the scribes were busy making beautiful -copies of the precious books, some skilled in writing, others in -painting and illuminating. When the writing was done, the artist -brought his colours to make the capital letters and the little pictures -in the text. There was music to be copied too, and the accounts of the -Abbey must be kept neatly. Sometimes a chronicle was made of great -events that happened. It is from such books as these that we have -learned much about the story of the country. - - [Illustration: THE ABBEY OF CITEAUX - - A. Round this court, stables and barns. H. Guest houses and abbot's - quarters. N. The Church. I. The kitchen. K. The dining hall. M. The - dormitories. P. Cells of the scribes. R. The hospital.] - - [Illustration: A SERVICE IN THE CHAPEL] - -The monks led peaceful lives in days when most men were busy about war. - -The monks divided the hours between sunrise and sunset into twelve -equal parts, so it happened that the hour in winter was twenty minutes -shorter than in summer. Every three hours, there was a service in -church, prime at the first, terce at the third, sext at the sixth and -none at the ninth. After prime, on summer mornings, the monks were -summoned by the Abbot to the chapter house and there each man received -his task. The latest business was talked about and plans were made for -the coming guests. Then each monk went to his business, some to the -gate to give food to the poor and help to the sick, some to work in the -orchard and garden, to spin or to weave, though in some monasteries -this kind of work was done for the brethren. They had their first meal -at midday in the hall in silence. While they ate, one of their number, -who had already had his meal, would read to them from a book of sermons -or the Lives of the Saints. After grace, the Miserere (Psalm 51) was -sung through the cloister. In summer, they would rest in the afternoon, -in the dormitory or perhaps in the cloister, on the sunny south side, -where they could read or think or pray. In winter, they worked at this -time, because their nights were long. Vespers was read at sunset, then -came supper. Compline ended the day, but it sometimes happened that -they lingered in the warming-house to chat with one another, but this -was against rules. - -Kings and princes found out what wise counsellors these men were and -brought them to the courts to help them govern, though this was against -the rules of the monastic orders. - -Then, in those days, Abbots began to ride forth like princes, -monasteries were full of treasure and monks forsook the humbler ways of -life they had once followed. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -ALFRED AND THE DANES - - -After the Saxons had been in England many years, when their weapons had -grown rusty and they had almost forgotten how to fight, bands of Danes -came sailing over the North Sea to plunder the land. "God Almighty sent -forth these fierce and cruel people like swarms of bees," says the -chronicler. First, they carried away the beautiful things from the -monasteries and churches, and then they came to live here. They drove -the Saxons from their houses or built new villages by the side of the -old ones. We know that they must have settled in Yorkshire and -Lincolnshire, in Westmorland and Cumberland, because they gave Danish -names to many places, such as Grimsby (Grim's town), Whitby, Appleby. -In those days, the Danes grew very bold. "Ships came from the west -ready for war with grinning heads and carven beaks," runs the legend, -"the golden war banner" shining in the bows. They tried to conquer the -west and south, as well as the north and east. In the land of the West -Saxons, many battles were fought, and still the little band of hungry, -worn-out soldiers stood at bay. - -It was at this time that Alfred was made King and, like his father and -brothers, was soon defeated and driven into Athelney, a little island -in the west in the midst of a great swamp. There, he spent the winter -drilling his soldiers and making plans to drive away the Danes in the -spring time. A story is told of how he went into the Danish camp as a -bard. He carried a harp, and while the mead cup was handed round, he -sang the old sagas. When the feast was done and the chess board was -brought out, the captains talked about the war, as they played their -favourite game. So Alfred heard their plans. - -The Danes were surprised when the spring came, for Alfred drove them -out of his kingdom and made them promise never to come into the land of -the West Saxons again. - -But he did not try to drive them out of England, for he knew that it -would be many years before his people would be strong enough, perhaps -not until his own children were grown up. So he worked hard all his -life to make his people good soldiers and thoughtful men, in order -that, when the time came, they could drive the enemy across the seas -and rule over the whole land in their stead. - -"Formerly," said the King, "foreigners sought wisdom and learning in -this land, now we should have to get them from abroad if we would have -them." Alfred found his nobles careless and idle, they loved hunting -and feasting and thought very little about ruling a kingdom or leading -an army. They were too old to learn, but the king made up his mind that -their children should grow up good soldiers and wise rulers. So he made -a school at his court for these boys. There they learned the art of war -and many other things too. - -They read the history of their own country from Bede's Book, that had -been kept at York. This book was written in Latin, so the King had to -have it translated for them. He had heard of the fame of a great -writer, Asser, who lived in South Wales. Messages were sent to him to -ask him to come to Alfred's court to write the history of the reign. -Asser did not wish to leave his beautiful home, but in the end, he -promised to stay for six months every year; that is why we know so much -about this great King. - -Alfred turned into English some beautiful old Latin books that taught -men how to rule well, and in the margins he himself wrote what he -thought wise counsel. Two of these books had been written by Pope -Gregory who sent Augustine to England, and at the beginning of one of -them there are these words, "Alfred, King, turned each word of me into -English and sent me to his writers, north and south, and bade them make -more such copies that he might send them to the bishops." - -Alfred loved reading and he wrote down all the wise sayings that he -found. Asser tells the story of how the King came to do this. - -"When we were one day sitting together in the royal chamber and were -holding converse upon divers topics, as our wont was, it chanced that I -repeated to him a quotation from a certain book. And when he had -listened attentively to this with all his ears, and had carefully -pondered it in the deep of his mind, suddenly he showed me a little -book which he carried constantly in the fold of his cloak. In it were -written the Daily Course and certain psalms and some prayers, which he -had read in his youth, and he commanded that I should write that -quotation in the same little book. And when he urged me to write that -as quickly as possible, I said to him, 'Are you willing that I should -write the quotation apart by itself on a small leaf? For we know not -that at some time we shall not find some other such quotation or more -than one, which will please you: and if it should so turn out -unexpectedly we shall rejoice that we have kept this apart from the -rest.' - -"And when he heard this, he said 'Your counsel is good.' And I, hearing -this and being glad, made ready a book of several leaves, in haste, and -at the beginning of it I wrote that quotation according to his command. -And on the same day, by his order, I wrote in the same book no less -than three other quotations pleasing to him, as I had foretold." - -"This book he used to call his handbook, because with the utmost care -he kept it at his hand day and night and in it he found, as he said, no -small comfort." - -Alfred desired to hear of other lands, but there were hardly any maps -in those days and no books of geography. Great travellers were welcomed -at his court, for, when he was very young, he had paid a visit to Rome -and had seen a little of foreign lands. Othere, the famous seaman, who -had sailed in the Arctic regions, came to tell his stories of the -frozen seas that men could walk upon and of the strange midnights when -the sun shone as bright as by day. Othere spoke of whales and walruses -and he brought their tusks of fine ivory to show the King. Wulfstan -came, too, and he had travelled in Prussia and brought stories of a -land rich in honey and fish. - -Travellers came from the hot lands, from India and the far east. They -brought presents of tiger skins and spices, of rich silks and jewels. -They told stories of wonderful deserts, of the high snowy mountains and -thick jungles, that they had passed on their long journey. The King -delighted to read of elephants and lions and of "the beast we call -lynx" that men said could see through trees and even stones. - -"Or what shall I say," says the chronicler, "concerning the daily -intercourse with the nations which dwell from the shores of Italy unto -the uttermost bounds of Ireland? for I have seen and read letters and -gifts sent to Alfred by Elias, patriarch of Jerusalem." - -In this way the West Saxon folk heard of great, unknown countries and -peoples, and the sons of the nobles learned not only "to run, to ride, -to swim and to make runes or rhymes," but to be great rulers and -adventurers as their forefathers had been. - -Alfred was a very busy King, for not only had he to receive ambassadors -and counsellors, but he had to ride through the land, seeing justice -done, and restoring the ruined churches and monasteries. He taught the -workers in gold and artificers of all kinds, "to build houses majestic -and good, beyond all that had been built before. What shall I say of -the cities and towns which he restored, and of the others which he -built, where before there had never been any? Or of the work in gold -and silver, incomparably made under his directions? Or of the halls and -royal chambers wonderfully made of stone and wood by his command? Or of -the royal residences built of stone, moved from their former positions -and most beautifully set up in more fitting places by the King's -command?" - -The King gave many gifts to the craftsmen whom he had gathered from all -lands, men skilled "in every earthly work," and he gave a portion "to -the wayfaring men who came to him from every nation, lying near and -far, and who sought from him wealth, and even to those who sought it -not." - -There were no clocks in those days and the King was much troubled, "for -he had promised to give up to God half his services." "He could not -equally distinguish the length of the hours by night, on account of the -darkness: and oftentimes of the day, on account of storms and clouds." -"After long reflection on these things he at length, by a useful and -shrewd invention, commanded his chaplain to supply wax in sufficient -quantities." "He caused the chaplain to make six candles of equal -length, so that each candle might have twelve divisions marked upon it. -These candles burned for twenty-four hours, a night and a day. But -sometimes, from the violence of the wind, which blew through the doors -and windows of the chambers or the canvas of the tents, they burned out -before their time. The King then considered by what means he might shut -out the wind; and so he ordered a lantern which was closed up, by the -King's command, by a door made of horn. By this means, six candles -lasted twenty-four hours, and when they went out others were lighted." - -Thus the King left behind him as he wished "a memory in good works," -and, after him, his son and daughter drove the Danes eastward beyond -Watling Street. - -The northmen came back with the strong King Cnut, who conquered the -whole country. Now Cnut was a great king before he took England, for he -ruled Sweden and Denmark and was lord over Norway. When he was crowned -King of England, he began to love this kingdom more than all his lands, -and he made his home in London. He wanted to be a real English King, so -he looked for the old laws of Alfred the Great and told the English -people that he would rule as Alfred had done. - -The King had a fine army of tall, strong soldiers, but he sent nearly -all of them back to their own land and kept only three thousand -house-companions for a body guard. The English people knew that he -trusted them, for he could not have kept the land in order with so few -soldiers, if the people had hated him. For seventeen years, there was a -great peace in the land and ships could pass to and fro, carrying -"skins, silks, costly gems and gold, besides garments, wine, oil, -ivory, with brass and copper, and tin and silver and glass and such -like." - -When Cnut's two sons had reigned in the land, then the Saxons once more -had a Saxon King. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -THE BATTLE OF HASTINGS - - -Edward the Confessor, the Saxon prince, had taken refuge in Normandy in -the days when the Danish Kings ruled in England. There he learned to -speak Norman French and to love Norman ways. When the Saxons chose him -to be king, he brought some of his Norman friends to court with him. He -was a man "full of grace and devoted to the service of God." He left -the rule of his kingdom to three Saxon Earls, Siward the Stout, a man -who struck terror to the hearts of the Scots, Leofric of the Marsh -land, "wise in the things of God and men," and Godwin of Wessex. - -There was much trouble because there were no heirs to the throne, and -the Norman chroniclers say that the King promised his crown to William, -Duke of Normandy. The Saxons did not know this, and if they had they -would not have crowned him; so they chose Harold, son of Godwin and -brother of the Queen, to rule after Edward the Confessor. They chose -Harold for he was a man after their own heart, strong and fearless, -like the heroes of old. Harold had two elder brothers, but they were -cruel and lawless and the people feared them. - -The Normans told a story of how Harold had been wrecked on the coast of -Normandy, two years before this, and was taken before the Duke as a -prisoner. The Duke would not let him go until he had sworn, with his -hand upon the holy relics, that he would never claim the Saxon crown. - -When Edward died, Harold forgot this oath and the people crowned him -with much rejoicing. When the news reached the Duke of Normandy "he was -in his park of Quévilly, near Rouen, with many knights and squires, -going forth to the chase." He had in his hand the bow, ready strung and -bent for the arrow. The messenger greeted him and took him aside to -tell him. Then the Duke was very angry. "Oft he tied his mantle and oft -he untied it again and he spoke to no man, neither dare any man speak -to him." Then he bade his men cut down the trees in the great forests -and build him ships to take his soldiers to England. When they were -ready, there arose a great storm and for many weeks he waited by the -sea shore for a fair wind and a good tide. Tostig, too, Harold's -brother, became very jealous and asked for a half of the kingdom. And -because Harold would not listen, Tostig went to Norway, to beg the -great King Hadrada to call out his men and ships and sail for England. -So the Northmen sailed up the river Humber and took York. Then, Harold -and his soldiers marched to the North to fight against Tostig. When he -had pitched his camp, he sent word to Tostig, "King Harold, thy -brother, sends thee greeting, saying that thou shalt have the whole of -Northumbria or even the third of his kingdom, if thou wilt make peace -with him." "But," said Tostig, "what shall be given to the King of -Norway for his trouble?" - -"Seven feet of English ground," was the answer, "or as much more as is -needful, seeing that he is taller than other men." Then said the Earl, -"Go now and tell King Harold to get ready for battle, for never shall -the Northmen say that Tostig left Hadrada, King of Norway, to join the -enemy." And when Harold departed, the King of Norway asked who it was -that had spoken so well. "That," said Tostig, "was my brother Harold." -When Hadrada heard this he said, "That English king was a little man, -but he stood strong in his stirrups." A great fight there was, and -Hadrada fought fiercely, but he was killed by an arrow. When the sun -set, the Northmen turned and fled, for Tostig, too, lay dead upon the -field. That night there was a great feast in the Saxon camp. - -As they held wassail, a messenger came riding into the camp, breathless -with haste, for he had rested not day nor night in the long ride to the -North. He shouted to those who stood by, "The Normans--the Normans are -come--they have landed at Hastings--Thy land, O King, they will wrest -from thee, if thou canst not defend it well." That night, the Saxons -broke up their camp and hurried towards London. The wise men begged -Harold to burn the land, that the enemy might starve, but Harold would -not, for he said, "How can I do harm to my own people?" So they rode -off to meet the Duke near Hastings. - -Now Harold chose his battle-field very wisely, a rising ground, for -most of his soldiers were on foot and many of the Normans were on -horse-back and the King knew that it was hard riding up hill. So Harold -stood under the Golden Dragon of Wessex watching the enemy below. In -the front of the Normans rode their minstrel, throwing his sword into -the air and catching it again, as he sang of the brave deeds of those -knights of old, Roland and Oliver. Fierce was the onslaught, and soon -the Normans turned to flee. Then were the Saxons so eager for the spoil -that they came down from their high ground to chase the enemy. When the -Duke saw this, he wheeled his men in battle array and the fight began -again fiercer than ever. Then the Duke ordered a great shower of arrows -to be shot up into the air, so that when they fell, they pierced many a -good soldier. And Harold fell, shot through the eye by an arrow. Still, -the Saxons fought on, for they held it shame to escape alive from the -fields whereon their leader lay slain. That night, William pitched his -tent where the King's banner had waved. Then came Gyda the mother of -Harold to beg Harold's body from the Duke. But he gave orders that it -should be buried by the seashore, "Harold guarded the cliffs when he -was alive, let him guard them, now that he is dead," said William. - -So the King's mother and his brothers hid in the rocky west, in -Tintagel, for fear of the Duke's anger. - -Then did William march slowly to London, burning and harrying the land, -and all men feared him. - - [Illustration: HAROLD DEFEATS AND KILLS TOSTIG AND THE KING OF NORWAY - AT STAMFORD BRIDGE] - - [Illustration: A BATTLE IN THE 15TH CENTURY] - -There is a piece of "tapestry" still kept at Bayeux in France, showing -how England was conquered. It was probably made later than the reign of -William and perhaps was intended to go round the walls of the choir of -Bayeux Cathedral, for it has been measured and found to be of the right -length. Though it is old and torn and faded, we have been able to learn -many things from it[2]. - - [2] There is a copy in Reading Museum. See _Guide to Bayeux - Tapestry_, published by Textile Department, Victoria and - Albert Museum. - -There were few histories written in those days, for the Normans were -too busy fighting for their new lands and the English were too -sorrowful to tell their story. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -THE NORMAN KINGS - - -The strong men of the north had not bowed to William the Conqueror on -the field of Hastings, and when they heard that he was crowned, they -armed themselves against him. The King marched towards the north -slowly, burning and harrying the land as he passed, and his path was -marked by flaming villages and hayricks. - -When he came into Yorkshire, he laid waste the land, and for nine years -not an acre was tilled beyond the Humber, and "dens of wild beasts and -of robbers, to the great terror of the traveller, alone were to be -seen." - -The Saxons fled; some died of hunger by the wayside, some sold -themselves as slaves, and a few hid themselves in the Fens, a great -stretch of water and marsh land, in the east, dotted here and there -with islands and sometimes crossed in winter on sledges. There Hereward -the Wake built his camp in the swamps of Ely and there all true men -gathered round him. He was bold and hardy and even William said of him, -"if there had been in England three such men as he, they would have -driven out the Normans." - -The King gave orders that a causeway should be built across the Fens -and he besieged the Saxons in Ely, and some said that Hereward was -betrayed. But William pardoned him and sent him to Normandy to command -his army. Many stories are told of his adventures. It was said that he -was slain one day as he slept in an orchard, for there were many in the -King's court who envied him. - -The Conqueror was a wise king, and he desired to know what manner of -kingdom he had conquered. "He held a great council and very deep speech -with his wise men about this land, how it was peopled and by what men." - -So he sent his clerks to every shire and commanded them to write down -on a great roll all that they could find out about the country. They -were to ask of the lord and of the freemen in the villages and of the -monks in the monasteries these questions: How much land have you? Who -gave you that land? What services do you owe the King for it? Have you -paid them? How many people dwell upon your land? How many soldiers must -you lend to the King if need be? How many cattle have you? Have you a -mill? (if they had, they owed every third penny to the King). Have you -a fish pond? (fish was a great luxury). - -The lords and the monks were unwilling to answer, for they knew they -must pay to the King all that was due. "So narrowly did the King make -them seek out all this that there was not a single yard of land -(shameful it is to tell, though he thought it no shame to do) nor one -ox, nor one cow, nor one swine left out, that was not set down in his -rolls, and all these rolls were afterwards brought to him." These -records are called Domesday Book. The Kings, when they desired to get -money or soldiers from the great lords and monks, turned to the -Domesday Book. - -When the book was brought to the King, he summoned the lords and -freemen to come to do him "homage." These men came and they placed -their hands between the King's hands and, kneeling before him, they -promised to be the King's men and to follow him in time of need. "Hear, -my lord," said the baron, "I become liege man of yours for life and -limb ... and I will keep faith and loyalty to you for life and death, -God help me." - -William I made great peace in the land, and, as he was dying, he called -his three sons to him, and to Robert, the eldest, he gave Normandy and -to William Rufus, England. Then Henry turned sorrowfully to his father, -"And what, my father, do you give to me?" The King replied, "I bequeath -£500 to you from my treasury." Then said Henry, "What shall I do with -this money, having no corner of the earth I can call my own?" But his -father replied, "My son, be content with your lot and trust heaven, -Robert will have Normandy and William England. But you also in your -turn will rule over the lands which are mine and you will be greater -and richer than either of your brothers." - -Rufus ruled over England thirteen years, and he was hated by the -people. Robert gave Normandy to his brother for a sum of money; and -thus Henry, when Rufus was dead, became Duke of Normandy and King of -England. He married a Saxon lady and "there was great awe of him in the -land, he made peace for man and beast." - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -THE NORMAN BARONS - - -The Norman barons who came to England with William the Conqueror were -much disappointed, for they had hoped to share the kingdom with him and -to be great lords. But William had not given them as much land as they -desired, and he had made Domesday Book so that they should render to -him due service and payment in return for his gifts. The barons had not -always paid that which they owed; and Henry I made a rule that all -should come to his Court three times a year, to Winchester at the feast -of Easter, to Westminster at Whitsuntide and to Gloucester at -Mid-winter, when he wore his crown, and then they should do homage and -pay their taxes. - -To this court came the officers of the household, and the King -appointed a Bishop to receive the money and priests to keep the -accounts, since there were few among the nobles or citizens who could -read, write and add figures. The money was counted out on a chequered -table, and so the court came to be called the Exchequer. - -The barons could not easily cheat the King; for, when their money had -been counted out upon the table, some of it was melted on the furnace, -lest it should contain base metal, and it was weighed in the balances, -lest the coins should have been clipped. Then Domesday Book was -searched and the priests read out what sum was due to the King from -this lord. - -When the Chancellor was satisfied, a tally was handed to the baron. -This was a willow or hazel stick, shaped something like the blade of a -knife, about an inch thick. Notches were cut in it to show the amount -paid and the halfpennies were marked by small holes. The tally was then -split down the middle through the notches, and the baron took one half -so that he might show it to the Chancellor when he came to court to pay -again, and the Chancellor kept the other half to prove that the baron -was not cheating. Thus the King kept his barons in order and there was -peace in the land. - -Now Henry I had an only son, and to him he gave a ship, "a better one -than which there did not seem to be in the fleet," but as he was -sailing from Normandy to England, it struck upon a rock and all -perished, save only a butcher, who was found in the morning clinging to -a plank. - -When the King heard the news, he was in great distress; for no woman -had yet ruled in England and his daughter Matilda was married to a -French Count, whom all the Normans hated for his fierce temper and -overbearing ways. The King, nevertheless, made them swear to put her on -the throne, but, when he died, the barons chose her cousin, Stephen, -for "he was a mild man, soft and good, and did no justice." - -Stephen quarrelled with the Chancellor and closed the Court of -Exchequer where the barons had paid their dues, and he let the barons -build castles and coin their own money. When he was in need of -soldiers, he hired foreign ruffians, and because he could not pay them, -he let them loose upon the land to plunder: thus he "undid all his -cousins had done." - -"The barons forswore themselves and broke their troth, for every -nobleman made him a castle and held it against the King and filled the -land full of castles. They put the wretched country folk to sore toil -with their castle-building; and, when the castles were made, they -filled them with devils and evil men. Then they took all those that -they deemed had any goods, both by night and day, men and women alike, -and put them in prison to get their gold and silver, and tortured them -with tortures unspeakable. Many thousands they slew with hunger. I -cannot nor may not tell all the horrors and all the tortures that they -laid on wretched men in the land. And this lasted nineteen winters, -while Stephen was King, and ever it was worse and worse. - -"They laid taxes on the villages continually, and, when the wretched -folk had no more to give them, they robbed and burned all the villages, -so that thou mightest easily fare a whole day's journey and shouldst -never find a man living in a village nor a land tilled. Then was corn -dear, and flesh and cheese, and there was none in the land. - -"If two or three men came riding to a village, all the village folk -fled before them, deeming them to be robbers. Wheresoever men tilled, -the earth bore no corn, for the land was fordone with such deeds, and -they said openly that Christ and His Saints slept. Such, and more than -we can say, we suffered nineteen winters for our sins." Then Stephen -made a treaty with Matilda's son Henry and promised him the crown of -England; for Henry was already a great prince, holding more lands than -the monarch of France. Moreover, he was valiant in battle, strong in -the Council chamber and never weary. The French King said of him, -"Henry is now in England, now in Ireland, now in Normandy, he may be -rather said to fly than go by horse or boat." - -Henry II could ride all night and, if need were, sleep in the saddle. -"His legs were bruised and livid with riding." "He was given beyond -measure to the pleasures of hunting; and he would start off the first -thing in the morning on a fleet horse and now traversing the woodland -glades, now plunging into the forest itself, now crossing the ridges of -the hills, would in this manner pass day after day in unwearied -exertion; and when, in the evening, he reached home, he was rarely seen -to sit down whether before or after supper. In spite of all the fatigue -he had undergone, he would keep the whole court standing." - -This tireless ruler, before he became King, had restored order in -England, for he commanded the hired soldiers to be gone immediately, -and they went as they had come like a flight of locusts. He destroyed -more than a thousand castles, and those that were well built he kept -for himself. "All folk loved him, for he did good justice." - -He opened the Court of Exchequer, so that the Barons were forced to pay -all they owed Stephen for the nineteen years of his reign. He visited -all the courts of justice in the land, and no man durst do evil, for -none knew where the King might be. He appointed judges to travel round -the country and to sit at Westminster and hear complaints, for many had -sought the King in vain, so swiftly did he travel from place to place. -Thus the barons were made to fear the King and rule justly. - - - - -CHAPTER X - -NORMAN PRELATES - - -There came one day, to the Abbey of Bec in Normandy, a great scholar -named Lanfranc. The Abbot was building an oven, "working at it with his -own hands. Lanfranc came up and said, 'God save you.' 'God bless you,' -said the Abbot Herlwin. 'Are you a Lombard?' 'I am,' said Lanfranc. -'What do you want?' 'I want to become a monk.' Then the Abbot bade a -monk named Roger, who was doing his work apart, to show Lanfranc the -book of S. Benedict's Rule; which he read and answered that, with God's -help, he would gladly observe it. Then the Abbot, hearing this and -knowing who he was and from whence he came, granted him what he -desired. And he, falling down at the mouth of the oven, kissed -Herlwin's feet." - -The fame of the Abbey of Bec spread far and wide. "Under Lanfranc," -said the chronicler, "the Normans first fathomed the art of letters; -for under the six dukes of Normandy, scarce anyone among the Normans -had applied to studies, nor was there any teacher found, till God, the -Provider of all things, brought Lanfranc to Normandy." - -He was William the Conqueror's friend and counsellor and brought the -Church into much honour when he became Archbishop of Canterbury. - -Among the strangers, who came to Bec, was Anselm. He had long desired -to be a monk and had travelled over the Alps from Italy to join the -order. When he was young, he used "to listen gladly to his mother, and -having heard from her that there is one God in Heaven above, ruling all -things, he imagined that Heaven rested on the mountains, that the -palace of God was there and that the way to it was up the mountains." -Before he was fifteen, he had written to a certain Abbot asking him to -make him a monk, but he would not, when he heard that Anselm had not -spoken to his father about it. - -Anselm was a scholar, too, and men counted it a great thing to have -been taught by him. "He behaved so that all men loved him as their dear -father." If any were sick, he nursed them; if any angry, he sought them -out. It was said that even the King, Rufus, so harsh and terrible to -all others, in his presence became gentle and gracious. - -When he was Abbot of Bec, he gave so much to the poor that the monks -were often in need of bread themselves. Many came to seek his advice, -"whole days he would spend in giving counsel" and his nights in -correcting the books that had been copied out. - -When Lanfranc died, William Rufus brought the kingdom into much trouble -and sorrow, by closing churches, taking their money and refusing to -choose an Archbishop. It happened that the King fell ill and messengers -were sent to Anselm begging him to see the King and show him the way to -health. Anselm was stern and bade the King confess his sins, and those -who stood round urged him to make Anselm Archbishop. When the King's -choice was told him, Anselm trembled and turned pale. "Consider I am -old and unfit for work, how can I bear the charge of all this church? I -am a monk and I can honestly say I have shunned all worldly business. -Do not entangle me in what I have never loved and am not fit for." The -Archbishop of Canterbury was a great officer, for he anointed the King -when he was crowned, he held many lands and must protect the Church -against the King if need be, for the Church was rich and the King poor. - -The bishops and barons would not listen and they dragged him back to -the King, shouting, "A pastoral staff, a pastoral staff." When they had -found one, the King pressed it into his hand, though he held his fist -clenched, and the crowd shouted, "Long live the Bishop." The Archbishop -soon after asked for a council, for the King was still robbing the -Church and "the Christian religion had well-nigh perished in many men." -Rufus was angry, "What good would come of this matter for you?" - -"If not for me, at least, I hope, for God and for you." - -"Enough, talk no more of it to me." - -The Archbishop begged the King not to rob the Abbeys and the King -answered, "What are the abbeys to you? Are they not mine? Go to! you do -what you like with your farms and am I not to do what I like with my -Abbeys?" - -"They are not yours to waste and destroy and use for your wars." - -The King said, "Your predecessor would not have dared to speak thus to -my father. I will do nothing for you." - -Then Anselm departed with speed and left him to his will. - -"Yesterday," said the King, "I hated him much, to-day still more; -to-morrow and ever after, he may be sure I shall hate him with more -bitter hatred. As Father and Archbishop I will never hold him more; his -blessing and prayers I utterly abhor and refuse." - -Anselm asked leave to go to Rome, for the Archbishop must wear the -white stole, woven from the wool of the sheep of S. Agnes in Rome and -blessed by the Pope "the Father of all Christian people." - -"From which Pope?" said the King, for there were two at this time. - -"From Urban." - -"Urban," said the King, "I have not acknowledged. By my customs, and by -the customs of my father, no man may acknowledge a Pope in England -without my leave. To challenge my power in this is as much as to -deprive me of my crown." - -Anselm, seeing that in no way could he bring the King to have respect -for the Church, went to Rome to seek the Pope's help. He said to the -bishops and barons, "Since you, the Shepherds of the Christian people, -and you, who are called chiefs of the nation, refuse your counsel to -me, your chief, except according to the will of one man, I will go to -the chief shepherd and prince of all." - -The Pope honoured Anselm by giving him the chief seat among the -Cardinals, but he kept him waiting at the Court, for he feared to -offend all other kings and tyrants. - -It was the custom to read the laws of the Church once a year in S. -Peter's Church in Rome, and there was gathered there a great crowd of -pilgrims from many countries. The Bishop of Lucca, a man of great -stature and loud voice, was chosen to read the laws. When he had got a -little way, his eyes kindled and he called out, "One is sitting among -us from the ends of the earth in modest silence, still and meek. But -his silence is a loud cry. The deeper and gentler his humility and -patience, the higher it rises before God, the more it should kindle us. -This one man, this one man, I say, has come here in his cruel -afflictions and wrongs to ask for your judgment. And this is his second -year and what help has he found? If you do not all know whom I mean, it -is Anselm, Archbishop of England," and he broke his staff and threw it -on the ground. - -"Brother, enough, enough," said the Pope, "good order shall be taken -about this." - -"There is good need, for otherwise the thing will not pass with Him who -judges justly." - -Anselm left Rome, for he knew the Pope could not help. With much -patience and meekness, Anselm contended yet again with Henry I for the -rights of the Church. Becket, too, Archbishop of Canterbury, the King's -friend and servant, defended it once again in the days of Henry -II--even with his life. - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -NORMAN BUILDERS - - -The Normans were soldiers and rulers and great builders too. With the -white stone, which they found in their own land, they built magnificent -cathedrals, abbeys and churches, for they were cunning craftsmen and -dreamers. - -The Cathedral was vast and grand, with its stately pillars and roof so -lofty that it was lost in dim shadows. The master mason, who planned -it, took great joy in building and often travelled far to see the works -of other men. There are pictures of him with his cap on his head, the -sign that he was a master, and his compass in his hand. - -All the years of his life, the ironmaster laboured to cast a beautiful -peal of bells. One old man died of joy on the day that his bells were -first rung, for they were almost perfect. - -The Normans, who came to England, did not forget their art. They built -Ely Cathedral in the midst of the Fens, and Durham, overlooking the -river. "You might see churches rise in every village and monasteries in -the towns and cities, built after a style unknown before," says William -of Malmesbury. - -At first, they built of the rough stone found in the quarries worked by -the Romans in other days. Woods were cut down to give fuel for the -lime-kilns, and machines were devised for lifting blocks of stone, -roads and even waterways were made for this great traffic. - - [Illustration: ARCHITECT AND BUILDERS] - - [Illustration: BUILDING A CHURCH IN THE 15TH CENTURY] - - [Illustration: IMAGINARY PICTURE OF THE BUILDING OF THE TEMPLE OF - JERUSALEM, SHOWING GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE] - -So much work was there for the masons that there were not skilled -craftsmen enough in the land to do all that was needed. As the years -went by and the people gave to the Church of their riches, more new -buildings were made and yet more decoration was used. Organs were built -and stained glass of lovely hues was put in the windows, orange and -blue and red, colours so rich they seemed almost to have caught and -held the sunlight. - -A monk, who was also an artist, wrote "Man's eye knoweth not whereon to -gaze; if he look up at the vaults, they are as mantles embroidered with -spring flowers; if he regard the walls, there is a manner of paradise; -if he consider the light streaming through the windows, he marvelleth -at the priceless beauty of the glass and at the variety of this most -precious work." - -So full of riches were these buildings that S. Bernard, and other -preachers too, called to the monks to remember their vows of poverty -and to return to humbler dwellings like those they had once built where -they might worship God. - -Round the Saxon earthworks, the Normans built strong walls that they -might hold them against foreign foe or angry neighbour. By the rivers -and on high rocks, they made great keeps or towers, first of timber, -later of stone, where they could withdraw if pressed by foes. The stone -walls were often 13 feet thick and round about there was a deep moat. -The doorway was of stout oak barred with iron. Over this, they would -drop the portcullis, a single grate of iron, worked from a chamber -above by cords and chains round a windlass. Across the moat, they flung -a drawbridge, which could be raised at pleasure. There were only a few -rooms in the keep, storerooms below and chambers in the two stories -above, for the Norman lord only sought shelter there in times of siege. -In such a tower, he was safe enough if he had plenty of food and a -well, secure from the enemy. - -Sometimes the Normans built strong walls and another moat round about -the keep, and towers where they kept watch by night and day, looking -towards the four quarters of heaven lest an enemy should surprise them. - -Much later, when the lord brought his family and soldiers to live in -the castle, they made it still larger. Storerooms and stables were -built round the courtyard and above these were the chambers of the lord -and his followers. Here was a fine larder and a kitchen where the ox -and wild boar were roasted whole and the mead was brewed and brown -bread baked. - -There was a great hall where everyone dined and where the servants -slept at night. The floor was strewn with rushes, for there were no -carpets until the days of Queen Eleanor, and then they were hung on the -damp cold walls or put on the tables. Down the centre of the room ran a -long table, sometimes fixed to the floor, sometimes on trestles, with -wooden benches on either side, covered with osier matting. Under the -table, the dogs gathered to gnaw the bones that were flung to them. For -the meat was carried round on a spit and each man helped himself with a -knife from his girdle. - - [Illustration: A SIEGE] - - [Illustration: GATEWAY AND DRAWBRIDGE] - -So strong were these castles that, though the enemy used a ram, it was -almost impossible to make a breach in the walls. If they brought -scaling ladders, it was difficult to climb when the moat ran below and -the archers shot from the ramparts. If they mined beneath the rock, the -defenders could make a counter-mine. The besiegers could bring -catapults to hurl heavy stones upon the walls, and siege towers to -shoot their arrows high. These attacks were usually in vain, for the -garrison of a castle only surrendered when there was famine. - -These were days of great strife and turmoil, and strong was the King in -whose reign it was said that "a man might travel through his realm with -his bosom full of gold, unhurt." - - - - -CHAPTER XII - -KNIGHTHOOD - - -In such troublous times when there was great fear abroad, when men -feared the King, feared their neighbours and feared all foreigners, it -seemed to them necessary that every lord should be trained to war. Yet -they learned, too, to honour the courteous, gentle, generous knight, -sworn to help the weak, and if need be to fight for the faith of -Christ. - -Every knight served his lord for many years before he was deemed worthy -of knighthood. At seven years old he became a page, attending his lord -and lady in hall and bower. From the chaplain and the ladies he heard -of gentleness and courtesy and love. In the field, he was taught by the -squires to cast a spear, bear a shield, and march with measured tread. -With falconer and huntsman, he sought the mysteries of wood and river. - -Then he became a squire, carving and serving in hall, offering the -first cup of mead to his lord and the guests, carrying ewer and basin -for them to wash after the meal. Upon him fell the duty of clearing the -hall for dancing and minstrelsy and setting the tables for chess and -draughts. - -In the field, he learned to ride a war-horse and to practise warlike -exercises. Armed with a lance he tilted at the quintain, a shield bound -to a pole or spear fastened in the ground. After the Crusades, the -figure of a Saracen, armed at all points and brandishing a wooden -sabre, was set up instead of the shield. If the squire could not strike -it in the centre of face or breast, it revolved rapidly and struck him -in the back. Then there was the pel, a post or tree stump, six feet -high. This he struck at certain points, marked as face and breast and -legs, covering himself at the same time with a shield. He must learn -also to scale walls, to swim, to bear heat, cold, hunger and fatigue. - -If he were a "squire of the body" he bore the shield and armour of his -lord in battle, cased and secured him in it and assisted him to mount -his war-horse. To him fell the honour of defending the banner and -securing the prisoners. If his lord were unhorsed, he must raise him -and give him a new mount; if wounded, he must bear him to a place of -safety. Froissart tells the story of a knight who fought as long as his -breath served him and "at last at the end of the battle, his four -squires took him and brought him out of the field and laid him under a -hedgeside for to refresh him, and they unarmed him and bound up his -wounds as well as they could." - -The squire did not fight unless his lord was sore pressed, but he kept -a careful watch, as did the son of the King of France, at Poitiers, -standing by his father in the mêlée, though he was but fifteen, -shouting "Guard thyself on thy right, father. Guard thyself on thy -left, father," till he was taken prisoner. - -A squire might be dubbed a knight on the battle-field in reward for -bravery, or at the age of twenty-one he became a knight if he so -desired, and this was the manner of his knighting, though often some of -these ceremonies were left out. In the evening, he was placed in the -care of "two squires of honour, grave and well seen in courtship and -nurture and also in the feats of chivalry." A barber then attended and -shaved him and cut his hair. After this he was led by the squires into -his chamber where a bath was prepared, hung within and without with -linen, and covered with rich cloths. While he was in the bath, "two -ancient and grave knights attended on him, to instruct and counsel him -touching the order and feats of chivalry." When this had been done, -they poured some of the water of the bath over his shoulders, signing -the left shoulder with the Cross. He was then taken from the bath and -put into a plain bed without hangings, and there he remained until his -body was dry. Then the two squires arrayed him in linen and a white -shirt, and over that "a robe of russet with long sleeves, having a hood -thereto like unto that of a hermit." In this way, knights of the order -of the Bath were made. - -Then the "two ancient and grave knights" returned and led him to the -chapel, the squires going before them "sporting and dancing, the -minstrels making melody." And when they had been served with wines and -spices they went away, leaving only the young squire, his companions, -the priest, the chandler and the watch who kept the vigil of arms till -sunrise. At daybreak he confessed to the priest, heard matins, took -part in the service of the Mass, offering a taper and a piece of money -stuck in the taper as near the lighted end as possible, the taper to -the honour of God, the money to the honour of the person who made him a -knight. - -Afterwards he was taken back to his chamber and remained in bed until -the knights, squires and minstrels went to him and roused him. The -knights then dressed him, mounted their horses and rode to the hall or -the church where the new knight was to receive knighthood. His future -squire rode before him, bareheaded, carrying his sword by the point of -the scabbard with his spurs hanging from the hilt. If they rode to the -hall, the lord there delivered the right spur "to the most noble and -gentle knight" present and directed him to fasten it on the squire's -right heel. The knight, kneeling, placed the squire's foot on his knee, -fixed the spur and signed him with the Cross. In the same way, the left -spur was fixed by another knight. And he, who was to create the new -knight, took the sword and girded him with it, and then embracing him, -lifted his right hand and smote him on the neck or shoulder, saying "Be -thou a good knight." - -When this was done they all went to the chapel with much music, and -there the sword was sprinkled with holy water by the priest who gave it -to the knight, saying "Receive thy sword and use it in thine own -defence and that of the Holy Church of God and to the confusion of the -enemies of the Cross of Christ and for the Christian faith." - -"Be thou a knight who lovest peace, firm, faithful and a true servant -of God." Then girt with his sword the new knight arose, drew it from -its sheath and waved it twice mightily over his left arm and put it -back in the scabbard. Sometimes it happened as he came from the chapel, -that the master cook awaited him at the door, and claimed his spurs as -a fee, saying, "If thou do anything contrary to the order of chivalry -(which God forbid) I shall hack the spurs from thy heels." - -Some rode forth to protect "the good peace of the Lord their God" and -some to break it. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII - -THE KNIGHTS OF THE ROUND TABLE - - -If we want to know about the ways of men in those days, we must read -some of their tales. Many stories were sung and told of knightly deeds -and adventures. There are a number that have come down to us about a -great king, Arthur, and his knights, called the Knights of the Round -Table. These are recorded in that "noble and joyous book" _Le Morte -Darthur_, which Caxton printed. - -We do not know where this King lived nor are we sure where his kingdom -lay. The English story-teller says he lived in Wales, but the French -people say he lived in their land. When he was crowned King, those who -loved him took a vow to follow him wherever he went. He chose twelve -knights who promised to help the weak and suffering and to release men -from their enemies. These were the Knights of the Round Table and they -rode out into all the world to seek adventure. - -There was the good knight Sir Tristram, "the best chaser of the world -and the noblest blower of an horn of all manner of measures, for, as -books report, of Sir Tristram came all the good terms of hunting and -all the sizes and measures of blowing of an horn; and of him we had -first all the terms of hawking and which were beast of chase and which -were vermins and all the blasts that belonged to all manner of games." - -There, too, was the beloved Knight Launcelot, "the courteoust Knight -that ever bare shield, the kindest man that ever struck with sword, the -goodliest person that ever came among press of knights, the meekest man -and the gentlest that ever ate in hall among ladies, the sternest -knight to mortal foe that ever put spear in rest." - -King Arthur had a beautiful sword and he came by it in this way. -Merlin, the magician, led him down to the shores of a great lake, and -as they gazed upon the dark waters an arm "clothed in white samite" -came forth, holding the sword Excalibur. "With that they saw a damsel -going upon the lake. What damosel is that? said Arthur. That is the -Lady of the Lake, said Merlin; and within that lake is a rock and -therein is as fair a place as any on earth, and richly beseen; and this -damosel will come to you anon and then speak ye fair to her that she -will give you that sword. Anon withal came the damosel unto Arthur and -saluted him and he her again. Damosel, said Arthur, what sword is that, -that yonder the arm holdeth above the water? I would it were mine for I -have no sword. Sir Arthur, King, said the damosel, that sword is mine, -and if ye will give me a gift when I ask it you, ye shall have it. By -my faith, said Arthur, I will give you what gift ye will ask. Well! -said the damosel, go ye into yonder barge and row yourself to the sword -and take it and the scabbard with you and I will ask my gift in time. -So Sir Arthur and Merlin alit and tied their horses to two trees, and -so they went into the ship, and when they came to the sword that the -hand held, Sir Arthur took it up by the handles and took it with him, -and the arm and the hand went under water." - -Then Merlin built the King a beautiful palace at Camelot and there they -brought the Queen Guinevere. Now some of Arthur's knights went in -search of the Holy Grail, a mysterious cup, that had disappeared -because men were evil. They thought that if they could find it and -bring it back to the earth again, there would be no more sorrow nor -pain. - -One day, there came in to the court an old man, clothed all in white, -and there was no Knight that knew from whence he came. And with him, -both on foot, he brought a young Knight, in red arms, without a sword -or shield, save a scabbard hanging by his side. "Sir," said the old man -to King Arthur, "I bring you here a young Knight." Then the old man -made the young man un-arm him, and he was in a coat of red sandal and -bare a mantle upon his shoulders that was furred with fine ermine, and -put that upon him, and the old man said unto the young Knight, "Sir, -follow after." And so he brought him unto the Siege Perilous. Now this -was a seat at the Round Table, covered with a cloth, and no man durst -sit in it, for Merlin had said that only he who should see the Holy -Grail might sit therein without harm. "The old man removed the cloth -and found letters written 'This is the siege of Sir Galahad the Good -Knight'." "Sir," said the old man, "wit ye well, this place is yours." -Then all the Knights of the Round Table marvelled greatly of Sir -Galahad that he durst sit in that Siege Perilous." - -Then Sir Galahad took his seat in the Siege Perilous. "Then anon they -heard cracking and crying of thunder, that they thought the place -should fall. In the midst of this blast entered a sunbeam more clearer -by seven times than ever they saw day and all they were alighted of the -grace of the Holy Ghost. Then began every knight to behold other and -either saw other, by their seeming, fairer than ever they saw afore. -There was no Knight might speak one word a great while and so they -looked every man on other as they had been dumb. Then there entered -into the hall the Holy Grail covered with white samite, but there was -none might see it, nor who bare it. And there was all the hall -fulfilled with good odours and every knight had such meats and drinks -as he best loved in this world. And when the Holy Grail had been borne -through the hall, then the Holy Vessel departed suddenly that they wist -not where it became; then had they all breath to speak." - -Then all the Knights of the Round Table arose and set forth in search -of the Holy Grail, and through the world they wandered doing deeds of -might and valour as they passed. But the Holy Grail never came back to -the earth again, for not all the Knights were pure. Then King Arthur -grew old and weary and was wounded unto death in battle. "Therefore, -said Arthur unto Sir Bedivere, take thou Excalibur, my good sword, and -go with it to yonder water side, and when thou comest there I charge -thee throw my sword in that water and come again and tell me what thou -there seest. My lord, said Bedivere, your commandment shall be done, -and lightly bring you word again. So Sir Bedivere departed and by the -way he beheld that noble sword, that the pommel and the haft was all of -precious stones; and then he said to himself: if I throw this rich -sword in the water, thereof shall never come good but harm and loss. -And then Sir Bedivere hid Excalibur under a tree. And so, as soon as -might, he came again unto the King and said he had been at the water -and had thrown the sword in the water. What saw thou there? said the -King. Sir, he said, I saw nothing but waves and winds. That is untruly -said of thee, said the King, therefore go thou lightly again and do my -commandment, as thou art to me dear, spare not, but throw it in. Then -Sir Bedivere returned again and took the sword in his hand, and then -him thought sin and shame to throw away that noble sword and so again -he hid the sword and returned again and told to the King that he had -been in at the water and done his commandment. What saw thou there? -said the King. Sir, he said, I saw nothing but the waters wappe (lap) -and waves wanne (ebb). Ah traitor untrue, said King Arthur, now hast -thou betrayed me twice. Who would have weened that, thou that hast been -to me so dear? and thou that art named a noble Knight would betray me -for the richness of the sword. But now go again lightly, for thy long -tarrying putteth me in great jeopardy of my life, for I have taken -cold. And but if thou do now as I bid thee, if ever I may see thee, I -shall slay thee with mine own hands; for thou wouldst for my rich sword -see me dead. Then Sir Bedivere departed, and went to the sword and -lightly took it up and went to the water side; and there he bound the -girdle about the hilts and then threw the sword as far into the water, -as he might; and there came an arm and an hand above the water and met -it and caught it and so shook it thrice and brandished and then -vanished away the hand with the sword in the water. So Bedivere came -again to the King and told him what he saw." - -Then came the three Queens and took Arthur in their hands and bore him -to the barge. They floated out across the seas towards the west and -there was the sound as of a city rejoicing at the return of a hero. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV - -THE CONQUEST OF IRELAND - - -Away to the west lay the beautiful country of Ireland. It was known in -all the world for its riches, and the ships of many lands were seen in -its havens. For the rivers and seas were full of fish, the pastures -gave abundant food to the flocks and herds. "Dark was the shadow of the -corn in their fields" of which "great plenty was sent over-seas," and -rich was the harvest of their orchards. Merchants came laden with -spices, figs, pepper and ginger, with wine and carpets and many things -from the east to offer in exchange for their wealth. - -It was the home of craftsmen, skilful in all manner of handiwork. They -made the beautiful book of Kells, "the great Gospel of Columkill, the -chief relic of the western world on account of its unequalled cover." -So wonderful was their work in illuminating and lettering that an -English writer who saw one of their books in 1185 said that it must -have been done by angels, not men. - -Gold and silver were found in the land, and of these their goldsmiths -wrought delicate ornaments. Their blacksmiths too were famed for fine -armour and good weapons. - -They were weavers, and their cloth was sold in England; "white and -green, and russet and red," for they had the secret of making lovely -dyes. Of the reign of a good King it was said, "In his time, there was -abundance of dye-stuff." Kings and Queens in far-off lands were anxious -to buy their cloth for trimming mantles and gowns. The Irish made linen -too, both fine and coarse, and leather gloves, shoes and belts. - -The people of Ireland were given to hospitality and were courteous in -their ways. They loved rich clothes and beautiful things, and in their -stories and songs you may still read of the fine golden goblets and -beakers of horn from which they quaffed their ale, of the dress of -cloth of gold that the lady donned when she entertained the poets, of -the crimson velvet mantle bordered with black velvet that the chieftain -wore on feast-days. Of their wide hanging linen sleeves, an Englishman -wrote "30 yards are little enough for one of them." - -They were singers and makers of song like the Saxon people. They loved -the harp and delighted in the old stories, such as you may still read, -of the hero Cuculain and Deirdri of the Sorrows, of Patrick and the -saints. - -William Rufus looking towards this rich country had said: "For the -conquest of that land, I will gather together all the ships of my -kingdom and will make them a bridge to cross over." But the King had no -leisure to set sail for Ireland. - -In the days of Henry II, it befell that Dermot, King of Leinster, -carried off the wife of O'Ruarc, the one-eyed, Prince of Meath, who was -"heart-struck both by his shame and by his loss." Then he gathered his -men together and marched against Dermot, "a man tall of stature and -stout of frame, a soldier whose heart was in the fray and held valiant -among his own nation. From often shouting his battle-cry, his voice had -become hoarse. A man who liked better to be feared by all than loved by -any." So his followers left him and Dermot sought refuge in Bristol. - -One of his men, who was sorry at his departure, wrote in the margin of -the Book of Leinster, where you may still see them, these words: "O -Mary! It is a great deed that has been done in Erin on this day; -Dermot, King of Leinster and of the Foreigners, to have been banished -by the men of Erin over the sea East-wards! Uch, Uch, O Lord! What -shall I do?" - -Now Dermot asked help of the Normans in England, saying: - - Whoever shall wish for land or pence, - Horses, trappings or chargers, - Gold or silver, I shall give them - A very ample pay. - Whoever may wish for soil or sod - Richly shall I enfeoff them. - -The Normans were glad of the promises of gold and of land and willingly -set sail for Ireland. Strongbow, Earl of Pembroke, was their leader, "a -man with reddish hair, freckled skin, grey eyes and tall of stature," -strong in battle and of much wisdom. - -The King of Leinster gave him Eva, his daughter, in marriage. Then did -the Kings submit to Dermot, for there was much bloodshed and he "made -Ireland a trembling sod." When the King died, Strongbow succeeded him, -and Henry II, when he heard the news, was not willing that his barons -should be lords in a new land. Therefore, he too set sail for Ireland -that they might do him homage. And all the lords and chiefs came, for -they feared him. - -Then the Norman barons built castles and married Irish ladies, and they -no more desired to return to England, for Ireland was a country -abounding in treasure. - -"The old chieftains of Erin prospered under these princely English -lords, who were the chief rulers and who had given up their surliness -for good manners, their stubbornness for sweet-mildness and their -perverseness for hospitality." - -So Ireland prospered, but it is not easy to find out its ancient -history, for many of the old books have been lost or burnt and some -have been used as though they were of no account. "By long lying shut -and unused," says one writer, hundreds of years ago, "I could hardly -read," and "by taylors being suffered to cut the leaves of the books in -long pieces to make their measure" many pages are missing. - - - - -CHAPTER XV - -THE COMING OF THE FRIARS - - -About this time, Francis, the son of a merchant, was born in Italy in -the town of Assisi. When he grew up his parents were very proud of him -and gave him much money, for he dressed gaily, feasted often and led -the young men of fashion. - -Then it chanced that he fell ill and, as he lay upon his bed, he -thought of the sick and the poor, of the rich monks and the idle -priests, and he made up his mind when he grew well to live as Christ -lived among men. - -He left his father and mother, to their great sorrow. He gave all he -had to the poor and dwelt near a ruined chapel beyond the city gates. -There he busied himself in rebuilding the chapel, and when he came -amongst men it was with a cheerful countenance and a merry heart to do -them service. - -Though many laughed at him, some desired to become his followers, "and -those who took upon themselves that life gave away to the poor all that -they chanced to have. And they were content with one tunic patched as -they required, within and without, together with a girdle and -breeches." - -In the heat of the day, on the dusty roads, S. Francis and his -companions trudged along, singing songs of joy and cheering those whom -they chanced to meet. At night, they sometimes lay out-of-doors, -singing praises all the while of "Sister moon and the stars bright and -precious and comely" and watching for the rising of the sun, "that doth -illumine us with the dawning of day." - -For food, they laboured or begged, and of that which was left they gave -to the poor. One day, when they had done their begging, they met -together to eat in a place without the city, where was a fine fountain -and hard by a fine broad stone, upon which each set the alms that he -had begged. - -And S. Francis, seeing that Brother Masseo's pieces of bread were more -and finer and larger than his own, rejoiced with great joy and said, -"Brother Masseo, we are not worthy of such vast treasures," and when he -repeated many times these words, Brother Masseo made answer, - -"Father, how can one speak of treasure, where is such poverty and lack -of all things whereof we are in need? Here is not cloth, nor knife, nor -plate, nor porringer, nor house, nor table, nor man-servant nor -maid-servant." - -Quoth S. Francis, "And this it is that I account vast treasure, wherein -is no thing at all prepared by human hands but whatsoever we have is -given by God, as doth appear in the bread that we have broken, in the -table of stone so fine and in the fount so clear; wherefore I will that -we pray unto God that He make us love with all our heart the treasure -of holy poverty, which is so noble that thereunto did God Himself -become a servitor." - -Of his courtesy and love towards all creatures on the earth, many -stories are told. "And as with great fervour, he was going on the way, -he lifted up his eyes and beheld some trees hard by the road, whereon -sat a great company of birds well-nigh without number, whereat S. -Francis marvelled and said to his companions, 'Ye shall wait for me -here upon the way and I will go to preach unto my little sisters the -birds.'" - -"And he went into the field and began to preach unto the birds that -were on the ground and immediately those that were on the trees flew -down to him and they all of them remained still and quiet together -until S. Francis made an end of preaching." - -It was a great surprise even to his followers that so many should seek -him. Quoth Brother Masseo, "I say, why doth all the world come after -thee and why is it seen that all men long to see thee and hear thee and -obey thee? Thou art not a man comely of form, thou art not of much -wisdom, thou art not noble of birth, whence comes it then that it is -after thee the whole world doth run?" - -And as his companions increased in number, he made a journey to Rome to -desire the Pope to bless their Order. There is a story which may not be -true that when the Pope saw his untrimmed hair and beard and read the -rules, which seemed too hard for any man to keep, he made answer, "Go, -brother, go to the pigs, for you are more like them than men, and read -to them the rules you have drawn up." - -Then Francis humbly bowed his head and went away and coming to a field -where there were pigs, he rolled in the mud with them. Then he returned -to the Pope and said, "My lord, I have done as you commanded, grant me -now, I beseech you, my petition." The Pope was astonished at his -humility and, repenting of his own harshness, he granted the prayer. - -Thus was the order of the Grey Brothers or Friars[3] founded. Soon the -little Brothers of S. Francis were scattered over the world and many -joined them in England. They had no possessions, and they travelled -from place to place preaching to the people and tending the sick and -the lepers, of whom there were many in sore need. - - [3] French _Frères_, Latin _Fratres_. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI - -THE THIRD CRUSADE - - -In the time of William Rufus, Peter the Hermit travelled from country -to country calling all Christian men to follow him to Palestine; for -the holy places where Christ and His disciples had lived had fallen -into the hands of fierce men, the Mohammedans. The pilgrims had been -tortured and forbidden to enter Jerusalem, and their number was great, -for men of all nations went sometimes in sorrow and carrying rich gifts -to make their prayers at the tomb of Christ where, it was said, many -wonders were done. Those who had sinned much sought forgiveness, those -who were sick desired health and others came to pray for friends and -patrons. - -Therefore the preacher asked of the rich that they should give all that -they had, and of the strong and valiant that they should fight for the -banner of the Cross. - -And many set out for the war--peasants and princes, French, Italian, -English and Austrian--to rescue the land that some held dearer than -their own. In that great company was Robert of Normandy, who had sold -his dominions to his brother that he might go. - -The way was long and perilous, through forests, over mountains, by -strange towns and across the treacherous sea, and many died of hunger -or of fever on the journey. Twice did the Christian armies march to -Jerusalem, yet though they took the city, they could not keep it. Then -Richard of the Lion-heart, son of Henry II, planned to join the Third -Crusade, for he was a great soldier and loved war. - -The King begged money from everyone for his journey. He invited his -barons to join him and bring their best men, and from those who would -not come he asked large sums of money, promising to pray for them when -he reached Jerusalem. - -He seized the treasure of the Jews, for they were a people who worked -hard and spent little. The Jews were much hated, and when the news went -abroad that the King had taken their money, the English thought to do -him service by killing them; but the King was angry, for he had only -wanted their money. - -Then Richard sold the chief offices in his court to those who could pay -well, caring little how they ruled while he was away. When he had -gathered treasure enough, he set out with the boldest of his barons, -and John, his brother, was left to govern England. - -After many adventures, he arrived at Acre, and there he found the -French King and the Austrians and others surrounding the city. Then -Richard besieged it and took it and the great army made him their -leader, for they admired his prowess. The French King was much angered -and returned home, and the Austrian Duke was envious and led his troops -back to their own land. But Richard marched towards Jerusalem. Over the -burning desert went the soldiers in their armour, so heavy that if a -man fell from his horse, he would be stifled to death unless a comrade -were near to raise him; and the horses found it heavy work in the -shifting sand. At the rear of the army rode the Knights Hospitallers, -who had made vows to succour the wounded and those who fell by the way, -and for this service they were held in high esteem. - -The enemy watched in hiding to cut off the stragglers by the way. -Mounted on swift Arab steeds and clothed in light garments, they moved -rapidly, and the poisoned arrow was a deadly weapon. When the tired -soldiers came in sight of Jaffa, it was the season of oranges and the -time of vintage was at hand, so there they made a camp. - -Much refreshed they marched within twelve miles of Jerusalem, but the -weather was bad and their tents were torn up and whirled away. The -horses perished of cold and the stores were spoiled and their armour -grew rusty and many fell ill from long sojourn in this land. There, -too, Richard received a letter telling him that his brother John was -plotting to take away his inheritance and that the King of France -intended to make war on Normandy. - -Reluctantly he turned his back upon the Holy City, for he had desired -above measure to take it. When one of the knights would have pointed it -out to him in the camp, he snapped the switch he held in his hand and -cast his surcoat over his head, praying with tears, "O Lord God, suffer -not mine eyes to behold Thy Holy City, since Thou wilt not suffer me to -deliver it out of the hands of Thine enemies." - -Now the Mohammedans held Richard in great awe. When the officers -returned to their master after a battle, he asked them mockingly -whether they were bringing Richard in chains and they answered, "Know, -O King, for a surety that this Richard of whom you inquire is not like -other men. In all time, no such soldier has been seen or heard of; no -warrior so stout, so valiant or so skilled; his onset is terrible, it -is death to encounter him, his deeds are more than human." - -Then Richard made a truce with the valiant Saladin, the ruler of the -Mohammedans, and this was to last three years and three months and -three days and three hours, and once again pilgrims were allowed to -visit the tomb of Christ. Now the King dared not return through France -for fear of the French monarch, therefore he pretended he was a rich -merchant, and hiring two ships he sailed for Austria, hoping to make -his way through that land in disguise. But the Duke of Austria hated -him almost as much as did the French King. - -One evening, Richard sent his page into a city for food, and by mistake -he carried the King's gloves in his belt and on them was embroidered -the golden lion of England. And the lord of the castle happening to be -in the market place saw these and gave orders to follow. Then Richard -was captured and cast into a donjon to await the Duke's pleasure. The -Duke demanded a ransom for the King so large that he thought the -English could not pay it. But Eleanor, the King's mother, rested not -till she had raised the money, and the English paid gladly. - -When the Crusaders returned to their own lands they spoke of the -strange things they had seen and of the courage of Christian soldiers -of many nations. Then also the people began to desire spices and silks -from the East more than ever before, and they must often have longed -for oranges, figs, grapes and dates, such as these adventurers -described. - - - - -CHAPTER XVII - -THE LOSS OF NORMANDY. THE SIGNING OF THE CHARTER - - -By the river Seine, on a high rock, Richard built a fine castle to -guard Normandy. When the King of France heard of its building, he said, -"If its walls were of iron I would take it," and Richard replied, "If -its walls were of butter I would hold it," and he named it Château -Gaillard, Saucy Castle. When Richard died, his brother John did not -trouble to keep many soldiers there, and the King of France was glad, -for he desired it greatly. - -Eleanor, the King's mother, gathered soldiers for her son, and though -she was very old she did her best to save Normandy. Yet Saucy Castle -fell and the Norman barons would not fight for John. So Normandy was -lost and the barons had to choose between their French lands and their -English lands. Many, who were fierce and turbulent, went to live in -Normandy, and those who had learned to love their new country stayed in -England. Though they still spoke French they served England well and -tried to make the King rule more justly. - -Now the people of England had been proud of Normandy and they were -angry with John because he had lost it. In his days, too, there was a -great quarrel between the King and the Pope, and the priests were -forbidden to hold any services in England, and for five years the -churches and monasteries were closed, the dead were buried without -prayer in the ditches and highways, and no one could marry in church. - -"The images of saints were taken down and veiled; the frequent tinkle -of the convent bell no longer told the serf at the plough how the weary -hours were passing or guided the traveller through the forest to a -shelter for the night." The people grew afraid, and they hated the -King, who was the cause of much evil. - -Yet John did not care, and he would not receive the new Archbishop whom -the Pope had sent. Then the Pope banished the King from the Church and -declared him an outlaw, whose life any man might take, and still the -King had no fear. At last, the Pope offered the English crown to the -French King and John knew that the French King was a dangerous enemy, -therefore he promised to do whatever the Pope wished. - -So the new Archbishop, Stephen Langton, was received by the King. Soon -he began to talk with the barons of the wrongs that the King did daily -in the land, and they searched for the old charter that Henry I had -given his people. Then they drew up the Great Charter, asking the King -to grant them justice. - -John met the barons and the Archbishop in a meadow near Windsor, called -Runnymede. When he saw the charter he said, "These articles are pure -foolishness! Why do they not ask me for the Kingdom at once? I will -never give them such freedom as would make me a slave." But looking -round at the fierce barons there, unwillingly he set his seal to it. - -Thus the King promised that no freeman should be imprisoned without a -trial by his equals, that no one should be fined so heavily that he -could not pay or that he had to give up the tools by which he earned -his daily bread. He promised too that he would not take money from his -people without asking the advice of his council and that he would let -the merchants come and go freely in the land. - -In London, you may still see the old charter signed by the barons who -were present, and bearing the King's seal, and when you are able to -read it, you can find out what other promises the King made that day. - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII - -THE LAWS OF EDWARD I AND THE FIRST PARLIAMENT - - -IN the days of Henry III, the barons had become powerful, and his son -Edward I remembered the days of Stephen and how the great lords had -destroyed "the good peace" of the realm, and he wisely framed the laws -against them. - -Now the King had grown poor and the barons had grown rich. They did not -care to pay their taxes, so they pretended to give their lands to the -Church. These lands were then "in the dead hand" because the Church -held them for ever and owed nothing to the King. Yet all the time, the -priests took their share and the lands were still held by the barons, -free of all dues to the King. So the King forbade any man to give lands -to the Church without his permission. - -Again, many had taken lands which did not belong to them and seized the -King's dues in the courts and no one had made inquiries since Domesday -Book was written. The King sent round his messengers to ask by what -right they held their lands and courts, and the barons were angry. One -man drew out his sword and defied the King, saying, "My ancestors came -over with William and won the lands with their sword, and with the -sword I will keep them." The King made other laws and the barons feared -him. - -Edward desired that the people in the towns should prosper, for he -hoped to get money from the traders. Much complaint was made that the -roads were in danger from lurking bands of robbers and the cities too -were unguarded. The merchants suffered most, for their mule packs, -carrying merchandise, had to be strongly guarded. So the King gave -orders concerning the watch and ward and bade the townsmen search out -the evil doers or pay heavy fines for every crime done in their -boundaries. - -The gates of the towns were to be shut from sunset to sunrise and the -trees and undergrowth were to be cut down for a distance of 200 feet on -either side of the highway, lest they gave shelter to men with evil -intent. - - [Illustration: A COURT OF JUSTICE IN THE 15TH CENTURY - - Duke of Alençon condemned for treason by Charles VII, King of - France, 1458 - - The figure of the artist is to be seen inside the barrier, turning - from the scene as though he were not interested] - - [Illustration: THE PARLIAMENT OF EDWARD I - - This picture probably dates from the 16th century] - -Then the King planned to take not only from the richest of the nobles -and the priests but also from the treasure chests of the citizens. When -he was about to make war and desired money, he sent out a letter asking -not only the bishops and barons to meet him but two knights from every -shire and two citizens from every city and two burgesses from every -borough. - -The new comers were at first flattered to sit with the great barons, -but soon they found it very troublesome, for the King asked for much -money, the journey to the meeting place was often long and dangerous -and the King would take no excuses for absence. Then the members began -to find fault with the King and to ask how he spent the money, and they -made even the strong man Edward sign again the Great Charter. - -There is an old picture of one of these parliaments and in it the -artist has drawn, not only the two Archbishops seated on either side of -the King but also the King of Scotland and the Prince of Wales, but -this no doubt he did to show the power of Edward I over these princes, -for they never really were in Parliament. The judges sat on the four -woolsacks which faced one another. On the right of the King sat the -Archbishops, Bishops and Abbots; on the left, the great lords; and -opposite him the Commons stood. - - - - -CHAPTER XIX - -THE CONQUEST OF WALES - - -In the old days, the Britons had fled before the Northmen, who came -conquering from the east-ward; but those who dwelt in the mountain -fastnesses of the west had been secure from Saxon and Norman foes. -Their country was called Wales or the land of the foreigner, by all who -heard of it. Between England and Wales lay the borderland or Marches as -the Normans named it, and there the troublesome Norman barons had been -given lands by the King to keep them far from the court and busy with -their wild neighbours. - -When Edward ruled in England, Llewelyn, "towering above the rest of -men, with his long red lance, and red helmet of battle, crested with a -fierce wolf," was Prince of Snowdon. The bards sang of his fame and -prophesied that he should rule from sea to sea. "Men spoke of the -return of King Arthur, they whispered that the Northmen should be -driven back to their fatherland" and the nation waited in expectation. - -Llewelyn desired to marry the daughter of one of the Lords of the -Marches and to find friends among those barons. Edward, fearing this, -captured the bride on her way to Wales and summoned the prince to -London to do homage for his lands; but he would not come. - -"We dare not submit to Edward," said the Welsh, "nor will we suffer our -prince to do so, nor do homage to strangers whose tongue, ways and laws -we know nought of." - -So the King raised an army and marched into their country by way of the -old Roman road along the north coast. His army marched untroubled with -heavy stores and baggage, for Edward was a great soldier and had -planned that his fleet should attend him, sailing in sight of the -coast, till they reached the island of Anglesey, the granary of the -Welsh. - -As he marched, he gave orders to build strong castles. Builders and -architects were as busy as soldiers and there was great rivalry amongst -them. Some boasted of the number of towers, some of their size, some of -the speed at which they were able to build. The fine castle of Conway -was made from the stones of a stronghold close by. Carnarvon and -Beaumaris were built to guard the island of Anglesey, and Caerphilly -looked towards the lands of the South Welsh. - -Llewelyn, hidden in the wilds of Snowdon, hoped ever that the King -would risk a march into these unknown paths, but he waited in vain. -Then Llewelyn fought on the coast road, but with dismay he saw himself -cut off on all sides but one, and, looking towards the south, he knew -it to be his only way of escape, and that was the land of his enemies. -There, it is said, he died, by the treachery of the South Welsh, as he -stood upon the bank of a river, but the South Welsh say that he was -slain in battle by his enemies, the English. - -Then Edward summoned the Welsh to meet him at Carnarvon Castle, where -he promised they should do homage to a new Welsh Prince, whom he would -choose. When the day came, he showed to them his eldest son, who had -just been born at Carnarvon, and they paid homage. - -Among the laws which he made, he bade the Welsh speak English, but to -this day they can speak in their own tongue. "My people," said the -Welsh chieftain, "may be weakened by your might and even in great part -destroyed, but unless the wrath of God be on the side of its foe it -will not perish utterly, nor deem I that other race or other tongue -will answer for this corner of the world before the Judge of all at the -last day save this people and the tongue of Wales." - - - - -CHAPTER XX - -THE WAR WITH SCOTLAND - - -The old King of Scotland, dying, left his kingdom to his little -granddaughter, the Maid of Norway, who was only seven years old. Edward -planned to marry her to his son the Prince of Wales and so make England -and Scotland one kingdom. He sent a ship to bring her from Norway in -the winter and he stored it with good things, with toys and sweetmeats -for the voyage. - -The weather was stormy and Margaret died on the voyage. There was much -woe in Scotland and trouble in the English King's mind. Many Scottish -nobles claimed the crown and they asked Edward to choose amongst them. -It was a difficult matter but Edward was trusted, for all men praised -him as the Lion of Justice. - -He chose Balliol to rule over them, but this man proved himself of no -wisdom and little counsel and his rivals Bruce and the Red Comyn were -more powerful than he. - -Balliol thought to win favour of the Scots by defying the English King. -Edward then harried the land and carried off the Stone of Destiny from -Scone. This stone was said to be Jacob's Pillow and had been brought to -Ireland long ago and thence into Scotland. On it, all the Kings of -Scotland had sat to be crowned and it was put in Westminster Abbey, -where it still lies underneath the coronation chair. English barons -were sent to rule Scotland but they were not so wise as Edward and -there was bitterness among the people. - -In their distress, they found a leader in William Wallace, who drilled -them to fight on foot against the foreigner, for they were too poor to -buy horses and ride into battle in costly armour. On the field, they -stood close together, shoulder to shoulder, awaiting the onslaught of -the knights, and then they fought with spear and battle-axe. - -The English soldiers were taken by surprise, for they had never heard -of such a strange army nor seen such steady ranks of men. Edward, -however, was a thoughtful general, and he soon learned to use his Welsh -archers to trouble the Scots and break their lines. Yet when they were -driven from the field, he found he could not rule in Scotland as he had -done in Wales, for it was a barren land and the Scots were a hardy -people. - -Now there was a great feud between Bruce and the Red Comyn. One day -when the two met, they entered a church to talk and Bruce killed his -foe on the steps of the high altar and, rushing out, he cried to his -men, "I doubt I have slain the Red Comyn." "Ye doubt? I make certain," -cried one of his followers as he pushed his way into the church. - -The people of Scotland were angry for this sin in their hero, but they -could not do without him, for Wallace had been caught and hanged as a -traitor. So they crowned the Bruce in the old city of Scone, and the -golden circlet was placed upon his head by the Countess of Buchan, -whose husband was with the invader. - -Many stories are told of these times and of the high courage of the -Scots, for there were great perils in this strife and there was hunger -and cold and faithlessness. - -Hearing of the deeds of this man, who had once paid vows to him, -Edward, now an old man, led his armies northward again. There on the -Borderland he died, leaving this charge to his son, that he should rest -neither day nor night till he was prince of Scotland also. - -Yet the young King turned his face towards London to make ready for his -coronation and wedding. Then the Bruce became indeed King of Scotland, -and seven years afterwards, when it was too late, the English King -marched with his men to the field of Bannockburn. There he was defeated -and from the shame of that day he could never escape. - -The Scots harried the north of England for many a year. They rode on -swift ponies, carrying only a tin platter and a bag of oatmeal for -food, drinking from the streams and eating flesh when they could catch -wild deer or mountain sheep or the fat oxen in the pastures. It was a -hard matter to find this army, for they rode hither and thither -silently, surely and swiftly. Thus was Scotland separated from England -for many a generation. - - - - -CHAPTER XXI - -THE WAR WITH FRANCE - - -In the days of "the courteous knight" and King, Edward III, a great war -was waged with France, for the English merchants complained bitterly -that the French had troubled them as they passed bearing wool to the -great markets. So bold had the French become that they had harried the -Isle of Wight and burned many villages along the southern shore. - -As the King passed over seas to make war, he came in sight of the -harbour of Sluys, "and when he saw so great a number of ships that -their masts seemed to be like a great wood, he demanded of the master -of his ship what people he thought they were." - -He answered and said, "Sir, I think they be men laid here by the French -King, and they have done great displeasure in England, burnt your town -of South Hampton and taken your great ship, Christopher." "Ah," quoth -the King, "I have long desired to fight with the Frenchmen, and now -shall I fight with some of them by the grace of God and S. George." - -The battle began with the sound of trumpets and drums and other kinds -of music and "it endured from the morning till noon, for their enemies -were four to one and all good men of the sea." But the English fought -so valiantly that they obtained the victory and Edward received the -title of Lord of the Seas. - -Some years later, Edward led his men into France to take Paris, but he -found that a great army was drawn up to defend the city and that the -bridges over the rivers had been destroyed. Many of his soldiers fell -sick, so he hastened towards Calais. Then the French King gave chase. - -On the hill of Crécy, Edward III drew up his men to await the enemy. -While they were waiting, a great thunderstorm burst over the land, and -the King gave orders that the archers should cover their bows with -their cloaks lest the heavy rain should spoil them. But the French -King, in his haste, urged his men forward, and, wet and weary, they -came in sight of their foe. - -When the French King saw the hosts on the hill, "he hated them" and -bade the Italian crossbowmen, whom he had hired, begin the attack. They -said their strings were slack and they could not fight that day, but he -called them cowards and bade them fall on. - -As they advanced into battle, the sun shone in their faces, and when -they drew near "the Italians made a great leap and cry to abash the -English but they stood still and stirred not for all that. And a second -time, they made another leap and a dreadful cry and stepped forward a -little but the Englishmen removed not one foot. Again they leapt and -cried and went forward till they came within shot, then the English -archers stepped forward one pace and let fly their arrows so hotly and -so thick that it seemed snow. When the Italians felt the arrows -piercing through their heads, arms and breasts, many of them cast down -their cross-bows and cut their strings and ran back discomfited." - -When the French King saw them fleeing, he said, "Slay those rascals, -for they will hinder us and block up our path for nothing." Then the -men-at-arms dashed in among them and killed a great number and still -"the English kept shooting wherever they saw the thickest press and the -sharp arrows ran into the men-at-arms and into their horses and many -fell among the Italians and when they were down they could not get up -again, for the press was so thick that one overthrew the other." - -It was in this battle that gunpowder was first used, but the cannon was -only fired once an hour, and then it frightened those who stood by more -than the enemy. - -The Prince of Wales, who was but sixteen years old, was hard-pressed by -the horsemen of France, and the Knights under his banner sent a -messenger to his father, the King, who was watching the battle from a -windmill on the hill. - -"Is my son dead or hurt or felled to the ground?" asked Edward. - -"No sir, but hardly pressed." - -"Then go back to them that sent you and tell them to send to me no more -whatever betide as long as my son is alive, and bid them let him win -his spurs, for, please God, I wish this day and the honour thereof to -be his and those that are with him." And they that heard it were -greatly encouraged. - -The old King of Bohemia, fighting for the French, was led into battle -by four of his comrades, for he was dim of sight. There he fell -fighting, and his crest of three black feathers, with the motto, "Ich -Dien," "I serve," was taken by the Prince and has been worn by his -successors ever since. - -The French King was wounded and his soldiers scattered in dismay. Then -the English made great fires and lighted up torches and candles, for it -was very dark. And the King came down to the field and said to his son: - -"Fair son, God give you good perseverance, ye are my good son, thus ye -have acquitted you nobly; ye are worthy to keep a realm." The prince -inclined himself to the earth, honouring his father. - - - - -CHAPTER XXII - -THE WAR WITH FRANCE (_continued_) - - -Calais was the great port of Northern France. It was a strong town and -the King besieged it. For eleven months it held out against him. The -King was sore displeased that he should tarry so long before its gates, -and when the citizens desired to make peace he demanded that six -burgesses, bare headed, bare footed, in their shirts, with halters -about their necks and with the keys of the castle and town in their -hands, should give themselves as a ransom for the inhabitants. - -The bell in the market place was sounded and the people assembled. When -they heard this "they began to weep and make much sorrow." At last the -richest burgess of all the town, called Eustace of Saint Pierre, rose -up and said openly, "Sirs, great and small, great mischief it should be -to suffer such people as be in this town to die by famine or otherwise, -wherefore to save them, I will be the first to put my life in -jeopardy." - -Then another honest burgess rose and said: "I will keep company with my -gossip Eustace," and so the six offered themselves and went and -apparelled them as the King desired. - -When they were brought into the camp, they begged for mercy, "then all -the earls and barons and others that were there wept for pity. The King -looked felly (cruelly) on them, for greatly he hated the people of -Calais for the great damages and displeasures they had done him on the -sea before." - -Then he commanded their heads to be stricken off. Every man requested -the King for mercy but he would hear no one on their behalf. - -"They of Calais have caused many of my men to be slain, wherefore shall -they die like-wise." - -Then the Queen kneeled down and sore weeping said, "Ah, gentle sir, -since I passed the sea in great peril, I have desired nothing of you, -therefore now I humbly require you in honour of the Son of the Virgin -Mary, and for the love of me, that ye will take mercy on these six -burgesses." - -The King beheld the Queen and stood still in a study a space and then -said: "Ah dame, I would ye had been now in some other place, ye make -such request to me that I cannot deny you. Wherefore I give them to you -and do your pleasure with them." - -"Then the Queen caused them to be brought into her chamber and made -their halters to be taken from their necks and caused them to be new -clothed and gave them dinner at their leisure and then gave them each -some gold and made them to be brought out of the host in safeguard and -set at their liberty." - -This is the story told by Froissart, who attended on the Queen, and -thus did Calais fall into the hands of the English, and over its -portals the conquerors inscribed the proud boast, - - Then shall the Frenchmen Calais win - When iron and lead like cork shall swim. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIII - -THE BLACK DEATH, AND THE PEASANTS' REVOLT - - -In those days, the great men of the land were rich and they dressed -gaily in silk and fur, gorgeous were their jewels, and their scabbards -were decked with beauteous workmanship. From their bridles jangled the -merry bells, as they followed their hounds to the hunt. - -The court too was magnificent. The King gave bounteous feasts and there -were many dishes set before the guests. - -"There came in at the first course, before the King's self, - - Boars' heads on broad dishes of burnished silver, - Flesh of fat harts with noble furmenty, - And peacocks and plovers on platters of gold, - Herons and swans in chargers of silver, - And tarts of Turkey full pleasant to taste. - Next hams of wild-boar with brawn beglazed, - Barnacle-geese and bitterns in embossed dishes, - Venison in pasties, so comely to view, - Jellies that glittered and gladdened the eye. - Then cranes and curlews craftily roasted, - Conies in clear sauce coloured so bright, - Pheasants in their feathers on the flashing silver, - With gay galantines and dainties galore. - There were claret and Crete wine in clear silver fountains - Rhenish wine and Rochelle and wine from Mount Rose - All in flagons of fine gold; and on the fair cupboard - Stood store of gilt goblets glorious of hue, - Sixty of one set, with jewels on their sides. - -When the banquet was over the guests washed their hands in rosewater -and partook of wine and spices in another chamber. - -But the poor were much oppressed. Their fare was very simple, a loaf of -beans and bran, an oaten cake with cheese or curds and cream, and -sometimes perhaps parsley and leeks or cherries and apples in their -season. - -Of the poor ploughman, the poet sang, - - His coat of the cloth that is named carry-marry, - His hood full of holes, with the hair sticking through them; - His clumsy knobbed shoes cobbled over so thickly, - Though his toes started out as he trod on the ground, - His hose hanging over each side of his hoggers, - All plashed in the puddles as he followed the plough; - Two miserable mittens made out of old rags, - The fingers worn out and the filth clotted on them, - He, wading in mud, almost up to his ankles, - And before him four oxen, so weary and feeble, - One could reckon their ribs, so rueful were they. - His wife walked beside him, with a long ox goad, - In a clouted coat cut short to the knee, - Wrapped in a winnowing sheet to keep out the weather, - Her bare feet on the bleak ice bled as she went. - At one end of the acre, in a crumb-bowl so small, - A little babe lay, lapped up in rags, - And twins two years old tumbled beside it, - All singing one song that was sorrowful hearing, - For they all cried one cry, a sad note of care. - -A year after the siege of Calais, a great sorrow befell all men, for a -little ship coming out of the east brought a terrible plague, called -the Black Death. And the wind blew the plague from the south to the -north, and as it passed, the towns were left desolate, for the rich -escaped into the woods and many of the poor died. In Bristol, "the -living were scarce able to bury the dead and the grass grew several -inches high in Broad Street and High Street." - -When the wind reached the border of Scotland, it changed and blew from -the north-west and down the eastern coast of England it sped, slaying -thousands by the way. When it was gone, the lords could find but few to -gather in the harvest and those that were left demanded high wages. -Many landowners turned their fields into pastureland. For one shepherd -and his dog could look after many sheep and there were merchants in -Calais ready to buy English wool. - -In vain did the lords beg the King to forbid the labourer to ask for -hire. If a man fled from his lord's land, whereon he was born, he -should be branded with the letter F for fugitive, but still the -peasants got away and offered themselves for hire in other places and -those for whom they laboured were glad to have them. - -The peasants had many grievances. The wars with France had cost much -money and the taxes were heavy. There were few who gave thought to the -labourer and his troubles, for the monks had become idle and rich, and -the friars had forgotten their vows and the priests their duties. - -Among the people, there was a band of sturdy men, who had learned to -read and who took ideas of freedom from the Bible. They preached that -the peasants should take up arms against the King and his lords, for -they said, "they are clothed in velvet and warm in their furs and their -ermine, while we are covered with rags. They have wine and spices and -fine bread and we oat cake and straw and water to drink. They have -leisure and fine houses, we have pain and labour, the wind and the rain -in the fields. Yet it is of us and our toil that these men hold their -state," and the people said - - When Adam delved and Eve span - Who was then the gentleman? - -So the peasants planned to march to London to seek the new King, the -boy Richard II, who was but fifteen years old, and "armed with clubs, -rusty swords and axes, with old bows, reddened by the smoke of the -chimney corner and old arrows with only one feather," they came to the -city, only to find that the gates were shut. - -Then they threatened to burn and slay, and the citizens in their fear -said, "Why do we not let these good people enter into the city? They -are our fellows and what they do is for us." So the gates of the city -were opened and the peasants sat down in the houses to eat and drink -and afterwards they burned the dwellings of foreigners and great lords -and slew many. - -The King was left alone in the Tower, for the courtiers had fled, and -desiring to speak with the rebels, he rode out to an open space beyond -the city where they were gathered, and there he entered in among them -and said to them sweetly, "Ah, ye good people, I am your King. What -lack ye? What will ye say?" - -Such as understood him answered, "We will that ye make us free for -ever, ourselves, our heirs and our lands." - - [Illustration: PREPARING THE FEAST] - - [Illustration: THE FEAST] - -"Sirs," said the King, "I am well agreed thereto; withdraw you home -into your houses and into such villages as ye came from and leave -behind you of every village two or three and I shall cause writings to -be made and seal them with my seal, the which they shall have with -them, containing everything that ye demand." They said, "It is well -said, we desire no better," and so they returned to their own homes. - -The King could not keep his promise to the peasants, for the lords were -stronger than he, yet not long after this time we find the peasants -more free and labouring for hire. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIV - -THE WAR WITH FRANCE (_continued_) - - -When Henry V was crowned King, he desired much to revive the glories of -Crécy and so he summoned his nobles to war. Then he built a great fleet -to carry them to France, cutting down the oak trees in the Forest of -Epping for that purpose. - -He was much loved by all his soldiers, "for in wrestling, leaping and -running, no man could compare with him. In casting of great iron bars -and heavy stones, he excelled all men, never shrinking at cold, nor -slothful for heat; and when he most laboured, his head commonly -uncovered; no more weariness of light armour than a light coat, very -valiantly abiding at need both hunger and thirst, so manful of mind as -never to seem to quinch at a wound or to smart at the pain." - -When he came into the realm of France, he laid siege to the strong city -of Harfleur. It was summer time and many of the soldiers fell sick. -Though the town was captured, Henry could but turn his back on Paris -and march homeward on the old road to Calais, as his great-grandfather -Edward III had done in like case. - -"The English were brought into some distress in this journey, by reason -of their victuals in manner spent and no hope to get more: for the -enemies had destroyed all the corn before they came. Rest could they -none take, for their enemies with alarms did ever so infest them; daily -it rained and nightly it freezed; of fuel there was great scarcity; -money enough, but wares for their relief to bestow it on had they none. -Yet, in this great necessity, the poor people of the country were not -spoiled nor anything taken of them without payment, nor any offence -done by Englishmen." - -In the French camp, there was much strife and discontent, yet when the -news of the English King's distress reached them, and they sent after -him their herald to demand ransom, the King answered with scorn. So -Mountjoy, King-at-arms, was sent to the King of England to defy him as -the enemy of France and to tell him that he should shortly have battle. -King Henry advisedly answered, "Mine intent is to do as it pleaseth -God. I will not seek your master at this time, but if he or his seek me -I will meet them, God willing." When he had thus answered the herald, -he gave him a princely reward and licence to depart. - -Then the French, coming to the field of Agincourt, and seeing how small -an army stood before them, sent the herald once again to seek a ransom. -Henry answered that he would never pay such ransom. "When the messenger -was come back to the French host, the men of war put on their helmets -and caused their trumpets to blow to the battle." - -As the English soldiers looked at the great host before them, there -were some who sighed for the thousands lying idle in England. Henry, -hearing them, answered, "I would not have a single man more. If God -give us the victory it will be plain that we owe it to His grace. If -not, the fewer we are, the less the loss for England." "What time is it -now?" he asked. "The bells are ringing prime [six o'clock], my lord," -answered the Bishop. "Now it is good time," said the King. "England -prayeth for us, let us be of good cheer. Banners advance!" - -Then these Frenchmen came pricking down, as they would have over-ridden -all our company. But God and our archers made them soon to stumble, for -our archers shot never arrow amiss that did not pierce and bring to -ground horse and man. And our King fought like a man, with his own -hands. So were the French put to rout, though they indeed had been -strong in their pride. - -Then the King passed into England and "in this passage the seas were so -rough and troublous" that two ships were driven ashore, and the French -prisoners said they would rather fight in another battle than cross the -seas again. As they came in sight of the shore, the townsmen of Dover -came out to meet them, wading waist-deep in the water, so great was -their joy at the news. Bonfires were lit and bells were rung and money -was freely given to the soldier King. - -"The mayor of London and aldermen, apparelled in orient grained -scarlet, and four hundred commoners, clad in beautiful mulberry cloth, -well-mounted and trimly horsed, with rich collars and great chains met -the King on Blackheath, rejoicing at his return, and the clergy of -London, with rich crosses, sumptuous copes and massy censors, received -him at S. Thomas of Waterways [on the Old Kent Road] with solemn -procession." - -It was not long before he set out again to win back Normandy, lost by -John long ago. He laid siege to its chief city, where there was much -suffering, of which the King had pity. - - Of the people to tell the truth - It was a sight of mickle ruth; - Much of the folk that was therein - They were but bones and the bare skin - With hollow eyes and face a-peak, - They scarce had strength to breathe or speak. - -When the city surrendered, the King, "clothed in black damask, mounted -on a black horse, with a squire behind him, bearing a fox-brush on a -spear, for a banner, rode to the minster to give thanks for his -victory." - -Then Henry marched on towards Paris, for "he had such knowledge in -ordering and guiding an army with such a gift to encourage his people -that the Frenchmen had constant opinion he would never be vanquished in -battle." The Dauphin of France was idle and the old French King ill, so -it befell that Henry married the French Princess and ruled Northern -France. - -To the sorrow of all men he died soon after, and his son when he grew -up had many troubles; for in those days, a soldier was held more in -honour than a poet and a dreamer. - -Some years after Henry's death, Joan of Arc appeared to rescue her land -from the enemy, for there was no hope either in the Dauphin who should -have been its King or among the French lords who had lost their honour. - -Joan described how it happened to her in these words, "At the age of -thirteen, I had a voice from God to guide me, and the first time I was -very frightened; this voice came at the hour of noon in summer time, in -my father's garden; it was on a fast day, I heard the voice on the -right side where the church is. I saw at the time a great light." - -Then the Archangel Michael addressed her desiring that she should "have -pity on the fair realm of France." She answered him, "Messire, I am but -a poor maiden; I know not how to ride to the wars or to lead -men-at-arms." But the voices were ever in her ear. - -When her friends desired her not to go, she answered them, "I had far -rather rest and spin by my mother's side; for this is no work of my -choosing, but I must go and do it, for my Lord wills it." "And who is -your Lord?" they asked. "He is God," she said. - -When she had come with much danger and trouble to the place where the -Dauphin lay, she desired to see him, but those that stood round mocked -her. - -Coming into the presence, she said, "Gentle Dauphin, my name is Jeanne -the Maid. The Heavenly King sends me to tell you that you shall be -anointed and crowned in the town of Reims and you shall be lieutenant -of the Heavenly King, who is the King of France." - -After many weary days, the Dauphin considered her message and he gave -to her some of his armed men that she might prove that God was on her -side. He bade her go to get back the good city of Orleans, which was in -dire need by reason of the great armies of the English encamped round -about it. - -Then was the might of the maid proved, for no sooner had her standard -touched the walls of the city than the town was saved. Soldiers, who -had scoffed or stood aside, now joined her. Thus was she able to march -through the land in triumph to the city of Reims, where it was the -custom to crown the Kings of France, and in the host there marched the -Dauphin. - -In that city, she crowned the King, and the English fell back at the -terror of her name. Then kneeling before the King, she said, "O gentle -King, the pleasure of God is done, would it were His pleasure that I -might go and keep sheep once more with my sisters and my brothers. They -would be rejoiced to see me again." - -The King dared not let her go, yet she had many enemies, for the lords -of France did not care to think that she had led their armies. To their -bitter shame, they made little effort to save her from the English and -she was burnt as a witch. From that day, the English gradually lost all -France save Calais. - -So the victories of Henry V were of no avail and there was much poverty -in England and murmuring against the rulers. - - - - -CHAPTER XXV - -NEW WORLDS - - -The barons came back from France. They were practised in the art of war -and they turned their homes into strong forts and their servants into -soldiers. Of these, they found many who were well versed in arms and -ready to fight. They gave them food and lodging for their services and -liveries to distinguish them from the followers of their neighbours and -they no longer fought for the King but each for his own gain. - -The squires in the manors and the merchants in the towns stood in awe -of these unruly subjects of the realm, but against them there was no -remedy, and every man was forced to choose out a lord to protect him. - -Of the long wars which these men waged, fighting for the rival princes -of York and Lancaster, for the white and the red rose, and of the havoc -that they wrought in the land, there are many stories. - -Though the barons made war on one another, the citizens held their -markets and fairs and worked with skill in their trades. Foreigners -desired to buy, and they were anxious for peace with a country that -could give them the finest wool. More ships were built to cross the -narrow seas, and they were free to come and go, since England watched -them from her two eyes, Calais and Dover. - -The merchants began to use more of their own good wool and many skilled -craftsmen were needed for cloth making. First the wool was sorted and -the coarse taken from the fine, then it was dyed, orange, red, green, -russet made from madder, or blue from woad, a flower, which grew -abundantly in France. The carder came next and the spinster spun it -into long threads on her distaff. - - The weaver next doth warp and weave the chain, - Whilst Puss, his cat, stands mewing for a skein. - -The cloth was cleaned and thickened by the walkers, who trampled it in -a trough of water and stretched it upon tenters to dry. Then came the -rower who beat it with teazles to find out all the loose fibres and the -shearman stood by with shears to cut off the knots and ends when they -appeared. Before it was sold, the drawer must mend any holes or bad -places in it: - - The drawer last that many faults doth hide, - (Whom merchant nor the weaver can abide) - Yet is he one in most clothes, stops more holes - Than there be stairs to the top of S. Paul's. - - [Illustration: A CHRISTIAN OF CONSTANTINOPLE BORROWING MONEY FROM A - JEW AND PLEDGING HIS CRUCIFIX] - - [Illustration: MIÉLOT IN HIS STUDY] - - [Illustration: A PRINTING PRESS] - -They worked as a rule from five in the morning till seven at night in -summer and from dawn till dusk in winter, with half an hour for -breakfast, and an hour and a half for dinner and a sleep on hot days. -There was a holiday for every festival of the Church. - -Of Jack of Newbury's workshop we read, - - Within one room being large and long - There stood two hundred looms full strong; - Two hundred men, the truth is so, - Wrought in these looms all in a row. - By every one a pretty boy - Sate making quils with mickle joy, - And in another place hard by - An hundred women merrily - Were carding hard, with joyful cheer, - Who singing sate with voices clear. - And in a chamber close beside - Two hundred maidens did abide, - In petticoats of stammel red, - And milk-white kerchers on their head. - -Those who worked in one trade bound themselves together into a gild, -and often lived in one quarter of the city to protect one another; -those who desired to become members must serve seven years' -apprenticeship. To guard their honour, the masters made a strict rule -that no work should be sent to market until it had been inspected and -found well done. - -If a man fell ill, he received help from the gild. When the feast days -came round and all made holiday, the elders of the gild provided a -banquet and pastimes, and sometimes they welcomed the players who acted -stories from the Bible and old legends. There was dancing and feasting -and much merriment. - -So the citizens became more important than great barons and soldiers, -for they brought trade to the country and riches to the King's -Exchequer. - -A new world, too, was opening to the people, the world of books. With -care the monks had copied down the old stories and histories, but there -were few who could procure them to read. - -The printing press was brought to England by Caxton. He was an English -merchant, trading in the city of Bruges. It was his custom to spend his -spare time in reading Latin and French stories. He translated the story -of Troy into English, and the Duchess of Burgundy and her courtiers -liked it so much that they asked him to write several copies. He says -that his pen was so much worn, his hand so weary and his eyes so dim -that he thought it worth while to learn the art of printing from those -who could teach him. - -Then he brought a press to London, and out of his shop he hung a sign -"Books bought here good cheap." Only the rich could buy, for books were -very dear. He printed the stories of King Arthur and also the Golden -Legend, or Lives of the Saints, Reynard the Fox and many another tale. -That the poorer folk might also read, he printed a few sheets of poems -and fables. Among them was a book of good teachings for children. In -this he bade them, - - Arise early - Serve God devoutly - The world busily - Go thy way sadly [seriously] - Answer demurely - Go to thy meat appetently - And arise temperately. - - And to thy soup [suppers] soberly - And to thy bed merrily - And be there jocundly - And sleep soundly. - -It was at this time that scholars were beginning to read the old -writings of the Greeks, and there were many other books, too, that they -desired to have printed. - -Then also men were moved to seek what lay beyond the ocean in the far -west. They were in search of a new way to India, for India seemed to -them the treasure house of the world. Out of the east came gold and -silver and spices and silk, but the way was by mountain and desert and -many a dangerous place. Few had ventured far across the uncharted seas -that stretched away towards the setting sun, for their ships were small -and much at the mercy of the winds. It was necessary, too, to put into -shore to get fresh stores of water when rain failed. A sailor wrote of -their sufferings from thirst on one of these voyages, "The hail-stones -we gathered up and ate more pleasantly than if they had been the -sweetest comfits in the world. The rain-drops were so carefully saved, -that, as near as we could manage it, not one was lost in all our ship. -Some hung up sheets, tied with cords by the four corners and a weight -in the middle, that the water might run down thither, and so be -received into some vessel set or hung underneath.... Some lapped with -their tongues the boards under their feet, the sides, rails and masts -of the ship. He who obtained a can of water by these means was spoken -of, sued to, and envied as a rich man." - -It was with a good compass and stout heart that Columbus and his men -set sail to find India, and to their great joy they saw, after many -months, "a little stick loaded with dog roses" floating in the sea, a -sign that they were near land. - -The natives, pointing to the setting sun, told them to seek gold in the -great lands that lay beyond. Columbus thought he had found India, but -it was America. To these lands adventurers came to seek for treasure -and soon to find a new home. - - - - -SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY - - - 1. Find out from the pictures in the Saxon Calendar: - - (_a_) the occupations of the Saxons, - (_b_) the instruments they used in farming, - (_c_) the kind of dress they wore. - - (See Traill and Mann, _Social England_.) - - 2. Plan and build a Saxon village (in a sand tray or with clay, etc.). - - 3. Write down what you think the miller and the goose boy would say in -the dialogue. - - 4. Describe a Saxon Hall. (Read descriptions in Beowulf and Ivanhoe.) - - 5. Look at some old manuscripts, if you can, and make some illuminated -letters. - - 6. Build a monastery in cardboard, paper or clay. - - 7. Cut out in paper some figures of Saxons and make a procession on -their way to Church to keep a festival. - - 8. Write the story of Alfred's messenger arriving at the monastery to -borrow the chronicle for the King's use. - - 9. Make a piece of tapestry showing a scene from the history of the -Normans. - -10. What can you discover about the Normans from the pictures of the -Bayeux Tapestry? - -11. Find out about Hereward the Wake. - -12. Build a castle and defend it. - -13. Find out some more stories of S. Francis of Assisi. - -14. Find out as many Norman French words in English as you can. - -15. Read the tales of Robin Hood. - -16. Cut out of paper some figures of soldiers and make a picture by -pasting them on a large sheet, showing them landing in England after -the victory at Crécy. - -17. Find out about a tournament and make the lists. (See Scott's -_Ivanhoe_.) - -18. If there are any old buildings where you live, find out when they -were built and who used them. - -19. Make a subject-index to the book and arrange it in alphabetical -order. - -20. Make a date chart and illustrate it with pictures. - - - - -BIBLIOGRAPHY - - -_Social England_ (illustrated). Vols. I. and II. Ed. Traill and Mann -(Cassell). - -_Anglo-Saxon Chronicle._ (_Everyman's Library._ Dent.) - -_The Chronicles of Froissart._ (Globe Edition. Macmillan.) - -_Grandes Chroniques de France._ Foucquet. Bibliothèque Nationale, -Berthaud Frères. 5 fr. - -_Alfred the Great._ B. A. Lees. (_Heroes of the Nations._ Putnam.) - -_St Anselm._ R. W. Church. (Macmillan.) - -_English Monasteries._ A. H. Thompson. (_Cambridge Manuals._) - -_English Monastic Life._ F. A. Gasquet. (_Antiquary's Books._ Methuen.) - -_The Chronicle of Jocelind of Brakelond._ (_King's Classics._ Chatto -and Windus.) - -_Chivalry._ F. W. Cornish. (Fisher Unwin.) - -_The Making of Ireland and its Undoing, 1200-1600._ Mrs J. R. Green. -(Macmillan.) - -_Mediaeval Art._ W. R. Lethaby. (Duckworth.) - -_Wayfaring Life in the Middle Ages._ J. J. Jusserand. (Fisher Unwin.) - -_Mediaeval England._ M. Bateson. (_The Story of the Nations._ Fisher -Unwin.) - -_Social Life in England from the Conquest to the Reformation._ G. G. -Coulton. (Cambridge University Press.) - -_Bibliography of Mediaeval History, 400-1500._ Leaflet 44. Historical -Association. - -* _A Picture Book of British History._ Vol. I, to 1485. 190 -illustrations. Ed. S. C. Roberts. (Cambridge University Press.) - -* _Guide to Bayeux Tapestry._ Victoria and Albert Museum. Department -of Textiles. 6_d._ - -* _Oxford Supplementary Histories._ (Source books. Henry Frowde and -Hodder & Stoughton.) - -* _Old Stories from British History._ York Powell. (Longmans.) - -* _Heroes of Asgard._ Keary. (_Everyman's Library._) - -* _Beowulf._ C. Thomson. (Marshall.) - -* _The little flowers of S. Francis._ (_Everyman's Library._) - -* _The Knights of the Round Table._ Malory. (Blackie.) - -* _Stories of Robin Hood._ (_Told to the Children_ Series. Jack.) - -* _A History of Everyday Things in England._ Vol. I. M. and C. H. B. -Quennell. (Batsford.) - - * _Suitable for Children._ - - - - -DATES - - - B.C. 55 The Romans first landed in Britain. - A.D. 410 Saxons began to settle in Britain. - 410 Romans left Britain. - 597 S. Augustine landed. - 787 Danes invaded England. - 871-901 Alfred reigned. - 1017-1035 Cnut reigned. - 1066 Battle of Hastings. - 1070 Lanfranc became Archbishop of Canterbury. - 1086 Domesday Book. - 1093 Anselm became Archbishop of Canterbury. - 1096 The First Crusade. - 1107 The Exchequer was founded. - 1162 Becket became Archbishop of Canterbury. - 1169 Strongbow landed in Ireland. - 1147 The Second Crusade. - 1189 The Third Crusade. - 1204 The Loss of Normandy. - 1215 The Great Charter. - 1283 Conquest of Wales. - 1295 The Model Parliament. - 1295 War with Scotland began. - 1346 Battle of Crécy. - 1346 The Siege of Calais. - 1347 The Black Death. - 1381 The Peasants' Revolt. - 1415 The Battle of Agincourt. - 1429 Joan of Arc took Orleans. - 1476 Caxton set up a printing-press. - 1455-1485 The Wars of the Roses. - 1492 Columbus discovered America. - - - - -_Time Chart_ - - B.C. | | B.C. | - _4000_| _Egyptian Calendar fixed_ |_1000_| (_as below_) - -- | | -- | - -- | | _900_| - -- | | -- | - -- | | _800_| - -- | | -- | - -- | | _700_| - -- | | -- | - -- | | _600_| - -- | | -- | - -- | | _500_| - -- | | -- | - -- | | _400_| - -- | | -- | - -- | | _300_| - -- | | -- | - -- | | _200_| - -- | | -- | - -- | | _100_| - -- | | -- | _Romans landed in Britain_ - _3000_| _Babylon founded_ | .....| BIRTH OF CHRIST - -- | | A.D.| - -- | | 100 | - -- | | -- | - -- | | 200 | - -- | | -- | - -- | | 300 | - -- | | -- | - -- | | 400 | - -- | | -- |Saxons invaded Britain - -- | _Hebrews enter Palestine_ | 500 | - -- | | -- |Augustine landed in - | | | Britain - -- | | 600 | - -- | | -- | - -- | | 700 | - -- | | -- | - -- | | 800 | - -- | | -- | - -- | | 900 | - -- | | -- | - _2000_| | 1000 | - -- | | -- | William the Norman invaded - | | | Britain - -- | | 1100 | - -- | | -- | - -- | | 1200 | - -- | | -- | - -- | | 1300 | - -- | | -- | - -- | | 1400 | - -- | | -- | Columbus discovered - | | | America - -- | | 1500 | - -- | | -- | - -- | | -- | - -- | | -- | - -- | | -- | - -- | | -- | - -- | | -- | - -- | | -- | - -- | | 1900 | - -- | | -- | - _1000_| | -- | - -[Scale 1 inch to 500 years] - - - - -THE TWELVE MONTHS - - -In the following pages twelve pictures are reproduced from a _Book of -Hours_ of the 15th century. All except "Feeding pigs in November" -were painted by Pol de Limbourg for the Duke of Berri. - -Each of them shows a typical occupation of the season and most of them -have a famous castle in the background. - - A FEAST IN JANUARY - A FARM IN FEBRUARY - PLOUGHING AND VINE-LOPPING IN MARCH - A BETROTHAL IN APRIL - THE FIRST OF MAY - HAYMAKING IN JUNE - HARVESTING AND SHEEP-SHEARING IN JULY - HAWKING AND SWIMMING IN AUGUST - THE VINTAGE IN SEPTEMBER - SOWING SEEDS IN OCTOBER - FEEDING PIGS IN NOVEMBER - HUNTING BOAR IN DECEMBER - - [Illustration: A FEAST IN JANUARY - - Showing the Duke of Berri seated at table, with a tapestry in the - background] - - [Illustration: A FARM IN FEBRUARY] - - [Illustration: PLOUGHING AND VINE-LOPPING IN MARCH - - In the background, the castle of Lusignan on the Vienne, the - favourite residence of the Duke of Berri] - - [Illustration: A BETROTHAL IN APRIL - - In the background, the Castle of Dourdan, belonging to the Duke of - Berri] - - [Illustration: THE FIRST OF MAY - - In the background, the Towers of Riom, the capital of the Duchy of - Auvergne, belonging to the Duke of Berri] - - [Illustration: HAYMAKING IN JUNE - - In the background, the Towers of Paris, showing the Sainte - Chapelle, the Conciergerie and the postern gate on the Seine] - - [Illustration: HARVESTING AND SHEEP-SHEARING IN JULY - - In the background, the Castle of Poitiers, rebuilt by the Duke of - Berri] - - [Illustration: HAWKING AND SWIMMING IN AUGUST - - In the background, the Castle of Étampes, acquired by the Duke of - Berri] - - [Illustration: THE VINTAGE IN SEPTEMBER - - In the background, the Castle of Saumur, in a district noted for - its vineyards] - - [Illustration: SOWING SEEDS IN OCTOBER - - In the background, the River Seine and the old Louvre - - Note the scarecrow with a bow in his hands] - - [Illustration: FEEDING PIGS IN NOVEMBER - - This picture is by another artist at the end of the 15th century] - - [Illustration: HUNTING BOARS IN DECEMBER - - In the background, the Castle of Vincennes - - This picture was borrowed from an Italian artist] - - - CAMBRIDGE: PRINTED BY - J.B. PEACE, M.A., - AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS - - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's Britain in the Middle Ages, by Florence L. Bowman - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BRITAIN IN THE MIDDLE AGES *** - -***** This file should be named 40371-8.txt or 40371-8.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/0/3/7/40371/ - -Produced by Chris Curnow and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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