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You may copy it, give it away or re-use + it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License <a href= + "#pglicense" class="tei tei-ref">included with this eBook</a> or + online at <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/license" class= + "tei tei-xref">http://www.gutenberg.org/license</a></p> + </div> + <pre class="pre tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> +Title: The Freedom of Science + +Author: Joseph Donat + +Release Date: July 26, 2012 [Ebook #40342] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FREEDOM OF SCIENCE*** +</pre> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"></div> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.73em"><span style= + "font-size: 173%">The Freedom of Science</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">By</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.44em"><span style= + "font-size: 144%">Joseph Donat, S.J., D.D.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">Professor Innsbruck + University</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">New York</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">Joseph F. Wagner</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">1914</p> + </div> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Contents</span></h1> + + <ul class="tei tei-index tei-index-toc"> + <li><a href="#toc1">Imprimatur.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc3">Author's Preface To The English + Edition.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc5">Translator's Note.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc7">First Section. The Freedom of Science and its + Philosophical Basis.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc9">Chapter I. Science And + Freedom.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc11">Chapter II. Two Views + Of The World And Their Freedom.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc13">Chapter III. + Subjectivism And Its Freedom.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc15">Second Section. Freedom of Research and + Faith.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc17">Chapter I. Research + And Faith In General.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc19">Chapter II. The + Authority Of Faith And The Free Exercise Of Research.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc21">Chapter III. + Unprepossession Of Research.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc23">Chapter IV. + Accusations And Objections.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc25">Chapter V. The + Witnesses of the Incompatibility Of Science And Faith.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc27">Third Section. The Liberal Freedom of + Research.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc29">Chapter I. Free From + The Yoke Of The Supernatural.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc31">Chapter II. The + Unscientific Method.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc33">Chapter III. The + Bitter Fruit.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc35">Fourth Section. Freedom of Teaching.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc37">Chapter I. Freedom Of + Teaching And Ethics.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc39">Chapter II. Freedom + Of Teaching And The State.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc41">Fifth Section. Theology.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc43">Chapter I. Theology + And Science.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc45">Chapter II. Theology + And University.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc47">Index.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc49">Footnotes</a></li> + </ul> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-body" style= + "margin-bottom: 6.00em; margin-top: 6.00em"> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagei">[pg i]</span><a name="Pgi" id="Pgi" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc1" id="toc1"></a> <a name="pdf2" id="pdf2"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Imprimatur.</span></h1> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Nihil Obstat + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + REMIGIUS LAFORT, D.D. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Censor</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Imprimatur + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + JOHN CARDINAL FARLEY + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Archbishop of New York</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">New + York</span></span>, January 22, 1914.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Copyright, 1914, + by Joseph F. Wagner, New York</span></span></p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="pageiii">[pg iii]</span><a name= + "Pgiii" id="Pgiii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc3" id="toc3"></a> <a name="pdf4" id="pdf4"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Author's Preface To The English + Edition.</span></h1> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The present work + has already secured many friends in German Europe. An invitation has + now been extended for its reception among the English-speaking + countries, with the object that there, too, it may seek readers and + friends, and communicate to them its thoughts—the ideas it has to + convey and to interpret. While wishing it heartfelt success and good + fortune on its journey, the Author desires it to convey his greetings + to its new readers.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This book has + issued from the throes of dissension and strife, seeing the light at + a time when, in Austria and Germany, the bitter forces of opposition, + that range themselves about the shibboleth <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Freedom of + Science</span></em>, were seen engaging in a combat of fiercer + intensity than ever. Yet, notwithstanding, this Child of Strife has + learned the language of Peace only. It speaks the language of an + impartial objectivity which endeavours, in a spirit of unimpassioned, + though earnest, calm, to range itself over the burning questions of + the day—over those great <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Weltanschauung</span></span> questions, that + stand in such close relation with the compendious motto: <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Freedom of + Science</span></em>. Yes, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Freedom</span></em> and <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Science</span></em> + serve, in our age and on both sides of the Atlantic, as + trumpet-calls, to summon together—often indeed to pit in deadly + combat—the rival forces of opposition. They are catch-words that tend + to hold at fever-pitch the intellectual life of modern + civilization—agents as they are of such mighty and far-reaching + influences. On the one hand, Science, whence the moving and leading + ideas of the time take shape and form to go forth in turn and subject + to their sway the intellect of man; on the other, Freedom—that + Freedom of sovereign emancipation, <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "pageiv">[pg iv]</span><a name="Pgiv" id="Pgiv" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> that Christian Freedom of well-ordered + self-development, which determine the actions, the strivings of the + human spirit, even as they control imperceptibly the march of + Science. While the present volume is connected with this chain of + profound problems, it becomes, of itself, a representation of the + intellectual life of our day, with its far-reaching philosophical + questions, its forces of struggle and opposition, its dangers, and + deep-seated evils.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Author has a + lively recollection of an expression which he heard a few years ago, + in a conversation with an American professor, then journeying in + Europe. <span class="tei tei-q">“Here, they talk of + tolerance,”</span> he observed, <span class="tei tei-q">“while in + America we put it into practice.”</span> The catch-word <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Freedom of + Science</span></em> will not, therefore, in <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">every</span></em> + quarter of the world, serve as a call to arms, causing the opposing + columns to engage in mutual conflict, as is the case in many portions + of Europe. But certain it is that everywhere alike—in the new world + of America, as well as in the old world of Europe—the human spirit + has its attention engaged with the same identical questions—those + topics of nerve-straining interest that sway and surge about this + same catch-word like so many opposing forces. Everywhere we shall + have those tense oppositions between sovereign Humanity and + Christianity, between Knowledge and Faith, between Law and Freedom; + everywhere those questions on the Rights and Obligations of Science, + on Catholic Thought, and on Catholic Doctrinal Beliefs and + Duties.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">May it fall to the + lot of this book to be able to communicate to many a reader, + interested in such topics, words of enlightenment and explanation—to + some for the strengthening of their convictions, to others for the + correction, perhaps, of their erroneous views. At home, while winning + the sympathy of many readers, it has not failed to encounter also + antagonism. This was to be expected. The resolute championing of the + principles of the Christian view of the world, as well as many a + candid expression of views touching the intellectual impoverishment + and the ever-shifting position of unshackled Freethinking, must + necessarily arouse such antagonism. May the present volume + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagev">[pg v]</span><a name="Pgv" id= + "Pgv" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> meet on the other side of the + Atlantic with a large share of that tolerance which is put into + actual practice there, and is there not merely an empty phrase on the + lips of men! May it contribute something to the better and fuller + understanding of the saying of that great English scientist, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">William Thomson</span></span>: + <span class="tei tei-q">“Do not be afraid of being free-thinkers! If + you think strongly enough, you will be forced by science to the + belief in God, which is the foundation of all religion.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Finally, I may be + allowed to express my sincere thanks to the publisher for undertaking + the work of this translation.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">May it accomplish + much good.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">J. Donat.</p> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">University Innsbruck,</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">Christmas, 1913.</span></span> + </div> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagevi">[pg vi]</span><a name="Pgvi" + id="Pgvi" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc5" id="toc5"></a> <a name="pdf6" id="pdf6"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Translator's Note.</span></h1> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The German + original is replete with references to works especially in the German + language, the author having with great care quoted title and page + whenever referring to an author. Since many of these references are + of value only to those familiar with the German, they have been + abbreviated or omitted in this English version, whenever they would + seem to needlessly encumber its pages.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Those desirous of + verifying quotations will be enabled to do so in all instances by a + reference to the German original.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page001">[pg 001]</span><a name= + "Pg001" id="Pg001" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc7" id="toc7"></a> <a name="pdf8" id="pdf8"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">First Section. The Freedom of Science + and its Philosophical Basis.</span></h1><span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page003">[pg 003]</span><a name="Pg003" id="Pg003" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc9" id="toc9"></a> <a name="pdf10" id="pdf10"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">Chapter I. Science And + Freedom.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If a question is + destined to agitate and divide for considerable length of time the + minds of men, it must undoubtedly have its root deep in the entire + intellectual life of the times; it must be anchored in profound + philosophical thought, in theories of life. From this source it + derives its power of captivating the minds. All this applies to the + question of the Freedom of Science. If, then, we desire a thorough + understanding of this question, we must first of all seek and + examine its deeper lying philosophical basis; we must trace the + threads which so closely unite it to the intellectual life and + effort of the times.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But before we + begin our study, let us remember a rule of the great orator and + philosopher of ancient Rome; a rule only too often forgotten in our + times: <span class="tei tei-q">“Every philosophical discussion, of + anything whatsoever, should begin with a definition, in order to + make clear what the discussion is about”</span> (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cicero</span></span>, + De Officiis, I, 2). If we would form a judgment as to the demand of + science for freedom, as to the justification of this demand, as to + its compatibility or incompatibility with the duty of faith, the + first question that naturally arises is: What is the purport of + this demand, what does it mean? Only after we have clearly + circumscribed this demand can we approach its philosophical + presumptions and test its basis.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What, then, do + we understand by Science, and what freedom may be granted to + it?</p> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">Science.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When a man of + Northern or Central Europe hears of science, his thoughts + generally turn to the universities and their teachers. + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page004">[pg 004]</span><a name= + "Pg004" id="Pg004" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> To him the + university is the home of science, there its numerous branches + dwell in good fellowship, there hundreds of men have consecrated + themselves to its service. In those parts of Europe it is + customary for men of science to be university professors. Of what + university is he? is asked. Celebrated scientists, like + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Helmholtz</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Liebig</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hertz</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kirchhoff</span></span>; philosophers, like + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kant</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Fichte</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Schelling</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hegel</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Herbart</span></span>; great philologists, + historians, and so on, were university professors.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For all that, + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">science</span></em> and <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">university</span></em> are not necessarily + inseparable things. The university needs science, but science + does not absolutely need the university. Science was in the world + before the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the time when France + and Italy built their first universities; and also since then + science has been enriched by the achievements of many a genius + who never occupied a university chair. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Pythagoras</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Aristotle</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">St. + Augustine</span></span> belonged to no universities; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Copernicus</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Newton</span></span>, and <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kepler</span></span> never taught in the + higher schools. In the countries of Western Europe and America + the man of science and the university professor are to this day + not so much identical in person. Therefore, if the freedom of + science applies <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">principally</span></em> to the higher + schools and their teachers, this is not its exclusive + application. Science and university are not identical terms.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What, then, is + science?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At the sound + of this magic word there arises in the minds of many the image of + a superhuman being: open on his lap lies the book of wisdom in + which all mysteries are solved; in his hand is the flaming torch + which enlightens the path down into the lowest depths of + research, dispelling all darkness. This, in the minds of many, is + what science means. The mere appeal to this infallible being + suffices to settle all problems, to silence every contradiction; + woe to him who dares open his profane mouth to utter an If or a + But!</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Were this + science, there would be no dispute. We should have to admit that + there could be no limit set to the freedom of this being; he must + share the privileges of divine Intelligence, for no command to + keep silent can be imposed on Infallible Truth; there can be no + amendment. But, alas! in the world <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page005">[pg 005]</span><a name="Pg005" id="Pg005" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> of reality this personified Science is + nowhere to be found, it exists solely in the realm of rhetoric + and poetry. Science, as it exists among men, has its seat, after + all, nowhere else than in the human mind. It is, indeed, nothing + else but <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">the well-ordered summary of knowledge and of + the research for the causes of things</span></em>. Natural + science is the summary of knowledge and research in the realm of + natural phenomena, arranged in an orderly way, as a text-book + will give it; that is, an investigation of phenomena and their + causes. A mere description of natural phenomena, without any + explanation, or reference of them to the laws of nature, would + indeed be teaching about nature, but not natural science. + Similarly, the science of history is the well-ordered summary of + knowledge and research in the domain of human events, derived + from their sources, with the statement of facts according to + cause and effect.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And not all + this knowledge is certain, and free from doubt. The modern + conception of science, as we now have it—the ancients had a much + narrower conception—includes certain as well as uncertain + knowledge, results and hypotheses, and even the activity of + research, together with its methods. Astronomy was thus in + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ptolemy's</span></span> time the summary of + what was then known with more or less certainty about the stars; + included in this, as is well known, was the opinion that the sun + circles around the earth. And the philosophy of <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Aristotle</span></span> embraced his + philosophical ideas about God, the world and man; hence many + errors. Further, when speaking of science in general, we mean the + whole number of the individual sciences. It is the freedom of + science in this sense that we have to investigate here. The + individual sciences are distinguished one from another + principally by the subjects of which they treat. Astronomy is + distinguished from palæontology and philosophy by the fact that + it treats of the stars, not of fossils, or of the fundamental + truths of reason.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From this + brief analysis of concepts it is clear that science and + scientific research are not superhuman beings, but an activity or + condition of the human mind, distinguished from the ordinary + thought of the individual only by system and method, and, + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page006">[pg 006]</span><a name= + "Pg006" id="Pg006" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> commonly, by + greater thoroughness and by the united effort of many. <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">It is subject to + all the limitations of the human mind.</span></em></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What follows + from this? Two things. Let us at once make a brief reference to + both of them, because in our discussion they are of the greatest + importance.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Since, then, + science is an activity of the human mind, it must, like it, + always and everywhere be <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">subject to the Truth</span></em> and + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">subject + to God</span></em>. Subject to the Truth: whenever science comes + in contact with it, it must reverently bow to the truth. And + subject to God: if God is the Creator of man and of his spiritual + and bodily activity, He is also the master of his whole being, + and man is subject to Him in all his activity and development, + therefore in his intellectual life, and in his artistic and + scientific pursuits. Everything is and remains the activity of + the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">creature</span></em>. As gravitation rules + the entire planet and its material activity, attracts it towards + the sun and makes it circle around it, so does the law of + dependence on God rule the whole life of the creature. Man cannot + therefore, even in his scientific research, ignore his Creator, + cannot emancipate himself from His authority; and if God has + given a revelation and demands faith, the man of science, too, + must believe. There cannot be an emancipated, free, science in + this sense.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Another + consequence is this: since science is an activity of the human + mind, it shares all its <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">imperfections and weaknesses</span></em>. It + is truly flesh of its flesh. The fruit cannot be more perfect + than the tree that produces it, nor the flower better than the + plant on which it blossomed. Now, as the human mind is throughout + limited in its nature, so is it also in its research. It is not + given to man to soar aloft on eagle wings to the heights of + knowledge, thence to gaze upon truth with unerring intuition; the + ascent must be slow, with constant dangers of stumbling, even of + falling headlong. To these dangers must be added his latent likes + and dislikes, which imperceptibly guide his thought, especially + in forming opinions on questions of the world and of life, which + the human heart cannot view with indifference: they influence his + thought. Hence ignorance, darkness, and error, everywhere + accompany the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page007">[pg + 007]</span><a name="Pg007" id="Pg007" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + investigator individually, and science as a whole, all the more + the loftier the questions that present themselves.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Already the philosopher of the dim past gave + expression to the complaint, that our reason is no more capable + of knowing the divine than the eyes of the owl are of seeing in + broad daylight. It is</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Aristotle</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">who so complains. And the + great</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Newton</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + in the evening of his life, thus estimates the worth of his + knowledge:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">What the + world may think about my labour, I do not know; I feel like a + child that plays on the strand of the sea: now and then I may + perhaps find a pebble or shell more beautiful than those of my + playmates, while the boundless ocean lies ever before me with + its undiscovered treasures</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(apud</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">O. + Zoeckler</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, Gottes + Zeugen im Reich der Natur (1906), 173). The same sorrowful + plaint is heard from all serious investigators, especially + those in the domain of the natural sciences, who should have + more reason than others to be proud of their + achievements.</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">However + great the amount of human knowledge may seem to the + multitude,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">writes the well-known + chemist</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Schoenbein</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">the most + experienced scientist feels the incompleteness and patchwork of + it, and realizes that man so far has been able to learn but + infinitely little of what nature is, and of what can be + known.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">The more + exact the investigation,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">says the geologist</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Quenstedt</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">so much + the more obscure is its beginning. Indeed, the deeper we think + to have understood the single parts, the further the original + plan of the Creator seems to escape us</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(cf.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Kneller</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + Das Christentum und die Vertreter der neueren + Naturwissenschaften (1904), 208, 281).</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Although science,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">so we are assured by another modern + savant,</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">has + brought to light many a treasure, still, compared with what we + do not yet know, it is as a drop to the ocean. In all our + knowledge there will always be the danger of + error.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">We are probably not very far in + advance of the time of</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Albrecht von + Haller</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, who + said:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">We, all + of us, err, only each errs in a different way. Every passage + that has been illuminated by science is surrounded by dense + darkness; beyond the visible lies the + invisible.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">And Prof.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">J. Reinke</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">continues:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">As early as the day of</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Socrates</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + the beginning of philosophy was to know that we know nothing; + the end of philosophy, to know that we must believe: such is + the inevitable fate of human wisdom</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(Naturwissenschaft und Religion, in Natur und + Kultur IV (1907), 418, 425. Printed also separately). Some + years ago Sir</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">W. + Ramsay</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, a noted + scientist, concluded a discourse on his scientific labour with + the words:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">When a + man has reached the middle of his life, he begins to believe + that the longer he lives the less he knows! This is my excuse + for having molested you for an hour with my + ignorance</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(Einige Betrachtungen ueber das + periodische Gesetz der Elemente. Vortrag auf der 75. + Versammlung Deutscher Naturforscher und Ærzte zu Cassel + (1903)).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">If science, then, can only with difficulty + lift from visible nature the veils that hide the truth—and even + this is often beyond its power—no wonder it is confronted with + still greater obstacles when it approaches the truths that are + beyond visible nature. Moreover, it is an old truth that here + it is led not by reason only, but also, and even more + energetically,</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page008">[pg + 008]</span><a name="Pg008" id="Pg008" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">by + self-interest.</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Most + men,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">says</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Cicero</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">are + swayed in their judgments by either love or hatred, likes or + dislikes</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(De Oratore, II, 42).</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If this is the + nature of human science, its adepts would be badly deceiving + themselves, if, in the pride of learning, they would reject every + correction, even proudly pushing aside the hand of God that + reaches down into the darkness of man's intellectual life to + offer its guidance. He who realizes that he is in danger of + losing his way in the dark, will not reject a reliable guide; and + he who fears to stumble will not refuse a helping hand. + Self-knowledge is the sister of wisdom, and the mother of + modesty.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">Freedom.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Such, then, is + science: not the goddess that emanated from the head of immortal + Jove, but the offspring of the puny mind of man, bone of his bone + and flesh of his flesh. And this science cries for freedom. It + would be free and act freely; it urges its claim in the name of + truth, which must not be slighted; in the name of the progress of + civilization, which must not be hindered.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Freedom</span></em> clearly means nothing + less than to be untrammeled and free from restraint, from fetter + and check, in action, thought, and desire. The prisoner is free + when his chains drop off, a people is free when it has cast off + the yoke of serfdom, the eagle is free and can spread out its + wings in lofty flight when not bound down to the earth. Science, + therefore, should be free in its activity from bond, fetter, and + restraint. Does this mean it must be free from <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">all</span></em> + restraint and law? Should the historian be given the right to + make <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Solon</span></span> a member of the French + Academy, or of the heroes of Troy mediæval knights? Should the + scientist be given the right to break every rule of logic, to + ignore all progress, and perhaps in his capriciousness return to + the four elements of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Aristotle</span></span>, or the astronomical + chart of primitive ages? Nobody demands this. No, science must be + bound by the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">truth</span></em>. Freedom indeed should not + mean lawlessness. Science remains bound by the general laws of + logic, and by positive facts. Truth is the irremovable barrier + set in restraint <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page009">[pg + 009]</span><a name="Pg009" id="Pg009" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + of the freedom of everything, even of scientific thought. The + freedom of science therefore can only be freedom from <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">unreasonable</span></em> restraint and + fetters; from such that hinder it unreasonably in its inquiry + after the truth, and in the communication of the results of its + investigation. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">It should be free, not from the internal + bondage of truth, but from the restraint by external + authority</span></em>, the restraint which would hinder it, in an + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">improper way</span></em>, from approaching + those questions, and using those methods, that lead to the + discovery of truth, and from acknowledging the results it has + found to be true; or which would unlawfully keep it from making + known, for the benefit of others, the results of its + investigation. It should be free from any unjust restriction, + imposed by state or Church, by popular opinion, by party spirit, + by hampering protectorate, or servility of any kind.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From any + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">unjust</span></em> restriction, we said. For + this is clear: if under certain circumstances there might be + warrant for a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">just</span></em> restriction by external + authority, such a restriction could not be refused in the name of + freedom. So long, then, as we understand by freedom a <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">lawful</span></em> freedom, there cannot be + included in this the freedom from <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">every</span></em> + external authority, but only from <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">unlawful</span></em> interference. There is, + then, the question whether there may be a legitimate restraint, + imposed by external authority, which man must not evade, and what + the nature of such restraint may be.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We must, + moreover, take into consideration two elements, which are + distinguished in the above definitions, both belonging to the + modern idea of scientific freedom. We will call them <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">freedom of + research</span></em>, and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">freedom of teaching</span></em>. The + investigator and the scientist claim the one; the teacher, the + other. Searching after truth, and communicating the truth found, + are, as is known, the principal occupations of science. The + scientist should first of all be an investigator. He should not + be content to appropriate to himself the knowledge of others, he + should also make his own additions to knowledge. He is also + commonly a teacher, by word of mouth, as at the university, or by + his writing, in his literary activity. Research, as such, imparts + directly a certain knowledge only to the investigator; + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page010">[pg 010]</span><a name= + "Pg010" id="Pg010" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> it is of a private + nature and as such does not reach beyond him. But by teaching, + his ideas are communicated to others, and then begin to influence + their thought, will, and action, often very strongly. Teaching is + a social factor; with it are bound up the weal and woe of others. + Suppose a man of influence conceives in his study the idea that + monogamy is an infringement upon the universal rights of man; + should he be given without any ado the right of disseminating, by + teaching, the imagined results of his investigation, to the + confusion of men, and with serious danger to the peace of + society?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We shall + therefore have to distinguish between freedom of research and + freedom of teaching. The neglect of this distinction causes not a + little confusion; thus, if one complains of his convictions being + trammeled or his liberty of conscience being violated, when he is + hindered from immediately proclaiming whatever he calls his + convictions. Private opinion, and the public propaganda of this + opinion, are evidently very different things. It may be that an + opinion seems to me the right one, but, in spite of that, public + dissemination of it may, always or under certain circumstances, + mean danger to my fellow-men. If I am for this reason prevented + from publishing it, I am not thereby hindered from giving it my + own private assent. It is, moreover, quite clear that the + state—we disregard here religious authority—cannot at all + directly restrict research, which is something personal. It can + only impose restrictions on the communication of one's ideas by + teaching them to others, which is a social function.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">From these few remarks will be + followed the impropriety of the following, or similar, + observations:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">The + fostering of science and its teaching are not separate functions + ... to insinuate a twofold function of freedom, viz., that of the + savant and that of the teacher, would be to dissolve the unity of + the moral personality</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">W. + Kahl</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + Bekenntnissgebundenheit und Lehrfreiheit (1897), 22). It is not + at all double-dealing if some one does not publicly proclaim + one's private knowledge. Is it double-dealing, is it a violation + of</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">the unity + of the moral personality,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">if + one is, and must be, silent about official secrets? And if one + does not tell, and is not allowed to tell, official secrets, if + one prevents an anarchist from spreading his revolutionary ideas, + is this a violation of the unity of the moral personality? It is + true that</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">to deny + one's convictions is a violation of one of the most indubitable + principles of moral</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page011"> + [pg 011]</span><a name="Pg011" id="Pg011" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a><span style= + "font-size: 90%">conduct</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">K. v. + Amira</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, Die Stellung + des akademischen Lehrers zur Freiheit in Forschung und Lehre. + Beilage der Muenchener Neuesten Nachrichten. 9. Juli, 1908). + But it is logically incorrect to conclude therefrom that the + freedom of teaching should not be restricted. To keep silence + is not denying one's convictions. Later on, when speaking of + freedom in teaching, we shall return to this thought and deal + with it more thoroughly.</span> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">So far there + can be no serious diversity of opinion. Freedom from unjust + restraint is demanded, and rightly demanded, for science. The + very object of science requires it. In scientific research man's + power of discernment should freely develop; his inclination + towards truth should exert itself; and by communication of + acquired knowledge mankind should advance in mental and material + culture.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The bud bursts + forth and freely unfolds its splendour; the butterfly grows + unhindered in beauty; the tree, too, wants freedom, in order to + develop its boughs and branches according to its nature, and if + you try to bind and tie it, it resists as much as it can. Just so + is freedom needful for the development of the noblest aspirations + of human nature, for its progress in knowledge. Every friend of + humanity, every one who loves his own kind, must be in sympathy + with its progress. Who will not rejoice to see the mind of man + happily trace the laws of nature, laid down by the Spirit of God + in the stillness of eternity when as yet there was no creature to + heed, the laws He then placed in nature in order that the + reasonable creature might discern the marks of his Creator? Who + would not rejoice to see man, diligently following the facts of + history and studying the works of literature and art, find + therein the ideas of God reflected, as the rays of the sun in the + trembling drop of dew, and, finally, trying to solve the + difficult problems of life? To this end has the Creator enkindled + in the mind of man a spark of His own intelligence; to this end + has He put in him a desire to inquire and learn, a desire which + has exerted itself most in the noblest of men. Man is destined to + find his ultimate gratification in beholding the Eternal Truth + and Beauty, a vision which will be the completion of human + science and culture, the highest perfection of created life. Thus + man's noble desire for knowledge and truth must develop, it must + be able to <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page012">[pg + 012]</span><a name="Pg012" id="Pg012" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + produce leaves and blossoms. For this he needs freedom, free air, + and free light.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If science is + to attain its high purpose, it must have freedom also to impart + the knowledge acquired. It should indeed further the progress of + mankind. By its discovery it should enhance the beauty of human + life, should enrich the treasure of human knowledge, should + promote education and morality, to the honour of the Creator. For + this end, too, freedom is necessary: freedom to impart newly + acquired knowledge, else there would be no pleasure in work, + stagnation rather than progress.</p> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page013">[pg 013]</span><a name= + "Pg013" id="Pg013" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc11" id="toc11"></a> <a name="pdf12" id="pdf12"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">Chapter II. Two Views Of The World + And Their Freedom.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There can, then, + be no difference of opinion on this matter among sober-minded men: + science must be free from all unjust hindrances and restraint. But + we have not yet finished. We have not even proceeded very far on + our way. The further question at once presents itself: Which are + those unjust hindrances and restraints that scientific research and + teaching may reject? May there not perhaps be such which it must + respect? There is little meaning in the cry: Freedom! Freedom! This + attractive word, which always finds an enthusiastic echo in man, + may easily prove a misleading catchword, and become a dangerous + weapon of the thoughtless and the unscrupulous.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The question is + not, whether our science, or, to speak more generally, our + intellectual life, must be free—of that there can be no doubt. No + life can spring up and thrive without due freedom. The question is: + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">What sort + of freedom?</span></em> how can it be more precisely defined? We + all, indeed, demand freedom for the citizen; but what kind of + freedom? He should be free from the fetters of tyranny and + despotism. Do we also demand that he be free from the laws of the + state? By no means! On the contrary, he must be subject to these, + for the very reason that he is a citizen and not the inhabitant of + an uncivilized world. We demand freedom for the artist; he should + not be bound by the tyranny of fashion. Do we also demand that he + be exempt from the laws of beauty and art? Not at all. He must + subject himself to these if he means to be an artist and not a + quack. That would not be true freedom, but lawlessness and license, + the privilege of barbarism. Freedom therefore is a very ambiguous + word.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There are + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">two kinds + of freedom</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">lawful</span></em> and <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">unlawful</span></em>: the latter is freedom + from just laws, the former from unjust laws.</p><span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page014">[pg 014]</span><a name="Pg014" id="Pg014" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We ask again, + what is that lawful freedom which man may claim for his scientific + activity? In other words, what are the restraints which he may + reject as unjust, and as enslaving the mind?—Here the ways part. + Here, too, our question goes deeper, and touches something which + moves men's minds very powerfully. Two different views of the + world, two opposite conceptions of man and his thought, come here + in collision.</p> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">The Christian View of the World and + its Freedom.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On the one + hand there is the Christian view of the world: it is essentially + also the one which appears self-evident to every unbiassed mind. + In this view man is a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">creature, limited in every way, therefore in + many ways dependent upon</span></em> external rules, forces, and + authorities. To God alone is it reserved to be infinite, and, + therefore, to possess in Himself all perfection, goodness, and + truth; for which reason there is nothing above Him on which He + could be dependent. This is not the case with man. As a creature + man is subject to his Creator. The latter is master over man's + life and therefore at the same time its ultimate aim. For this + reason religion is of obligation to man, that is, he must honour + God as He demands it; if God requires faith in a revelation, if + He established a Church and duly authorized it to guide us, we + must submit to it. In the same way the intellect of man is bound + by the laws of objective truth, which is not of his making, but + presents itself to him as a norm: he must always be subject to it + whether he wishes or not. Man is, finally, a factor in social + life; he lives in the family, state, and Church, in the great + society of mankind; upon them he is dependent for his education + and development. And society requires that man be subject to a + ruling authority, that in many things his own interests be + subordinated to the welfare of the community.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This is the + order that God has established and wishes observed. Hence all + human authority is a participation in God's supreme government. + Thus it comes about that limits may be set to the scientist's + free expression of his views, if the interest of the community + require it.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page015">[pg + 015]</span><a name="Pg015" id="Pg015" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Man is, + nevertheless, free. But his freedom does not mean complete + independence; nor freedom from all restraint, but only from those + external restraints which are opposed to his nature and position, + which hinder his legitimate development and activity. He + possesses freedom, but only such a freedom as is his due, by + which he can unfold and develop his physical and mental powers. + To keep his place of subordination to, and dependence on, these + higher authorities and powers of truth and order, tends not to + injure but to improve his being, not to dwarf but to develop his + personality; for they are sources of life to him, they impart to + his existence order and harmony, they raise him above himself and + his own littleness, they free him from the prison of his own + narrowness and selfishness, from the chains of his unruly + desires. If a man emancipates himself from these bonds, which he + ought to bear, he has freedom of course, but an unnatural + freedom, which will be harmful and perhaps ruinous to him.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Take the tree, + for instance. It should have freedom for its natural growth. If + you force it to creep along the ground instead of growing upward, + if you deny it air and light, you infringe on the freedom it + should have. Still it cannot have absolute freedom, for it is + dependent on the ground from which it derives its nourishment, + dependent on the laws of light and atmosphere and gravitation, on + the laws of season; it must adapt itself to climate and soil. It + may not say to the light: Away with you!—a stunted growth and + deformity would be the result of such emancipation. It may not + say to the ground: Away with you!—a sad but quick death would be + its fate. It has its freedom, and in this freedom it grows and + thrives. If it desires greater freedom, it would be an unnatural + one, and it would tend, not to its development, but to its + destruction.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Such is the + Christian view of man and his thought. Here, then, there is but + one question to solve: Are the external restraints imposed on me + in my investigation and teaching against my nature; against the + right of my mind to truth; against my position in human society? + If so, then I reject them, because they mean serfdom, not duty; + unjust bonds, not natural restraint. But if not, then I do not + refuse them <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page016">[pg + 016]</span><a name="Pg016" id="Pg016" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + my submission. Freedom I want, but only the freedom of man.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Here we pause. + Suffice it at present to have formulated the question; we shall + return to this topic later and discuss it at greater length.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">The Modern Idea of + Freedom.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Christian + view of man and his freedom, which to past ages appeared + self-evident, has grown obscure to many minds, and given place to + another, a more modern view.<a id="noteref_1" name="noteref_1" + href="#note_1"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For the modern + man, freedom, especially freedom of intellectual life, means + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">independence from external ties, from all + authority</span></em>, or, to express it positively, absolute + right of self-determination, <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">autonomy</span></em>. + He does not recognize any law or rule which he has not imposed + upon himself. In civil life, of course, it is a principle that + man must submit to external, legal restraint in many things that + do not directly concern his own person, but only so far as is + necessary in order that others, too, may enjoy the same freedom; + but also here every citizen must be able to share in the + legislation, according to the rules of constitutional or + republican government. But he must be free from every external + restraint in whatever touches the core of his personality, his + feeling, desire, thought, and the expression of his thought.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It should now + be clear, from what has been said, what is meant by <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">freedom of + science</span></em>. It means independence from every external + authority and restraint in research and teaching, the unhindered + development and assertion of one's own intellectual personality. + Man must let himself be directed only by his own judgment and his + instinct for the truth, or his personal need, without heeding + dogmas, Church laws, tradition, or any other external norm + whatsoever. This is particularly true in the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">domain of + philosophy and religion</span></em>, in questions regarding the + world and life, and in fundamental social questions. <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page017">[pg 017]</span><a name="Pg017" id= + "Pg017" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> This is principally, and + almost exclusively, the field in which an authoritative influence + of the Church, or state, or society in general, is to be feared. + Hence the importance of the question of the freedom of science in + this field.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This is also + the manner in which the advocates of modern freedom of science + unanimously describe it.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">For the academic teacher, says</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">G. + Kaufmann</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, there + are</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%"> + “</span><span style="font-size: 90%">strictly speaking only the + barriers drawn by his own instinct for the truth. It is in this + sense that we demand freedom of science to-day for the + university teacher. The freedom of the scientist and of the + academic teacher must not be limited by patented truth, nor by + faint-hearted consideration</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(Die Lehrfreiheit an den deutschen + Universitaeten im neunzehnten Jahrhundert (1898), 36). The + first resolution proposed at the</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Second Conference of + German University Teachers</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">, at Jena, in September, 1908, was + this:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">The + purpose of scientific research, and the communication of its + results, demand that it be independent of every consideration + foreign to scientific method itself.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">Of this resolution we have from another source + the following explanation:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Therefore, it should be independent especially + of tradition and the prejudices of the masses, independent of + authority and social bodies, independent of party + interest.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(This was the addition to the + thesis as originally formulated by Prof.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">von + Amira</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">. Beilage der + Muenchener Neuesten Nachrichten, July 9, 1908.) And + Prof.</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">F. Paulsen</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">writes:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">No thought can be commanded or forbidden the + academic teacher or his audience</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(Die deutschen Universitaeten und das + Universitaets-studium, 1902, 288).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">A. Harnack</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">likewise teaches that</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">In regard + to research and knowledge there must be unlimited + freedom,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">especially in matters of religion. + Here</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">man must + fully understand his own innermost being; the soul must + recognize its own needs and the indicated way to their + satisfaction. This it can do only when it is entirely + free.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">The fear + that thereby the door to serious error is thrown open should + not in the least deter it, for the most serious error of all is + the opinion that man should not enjoy perfect freedom in the + determination of his state</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">(Neue Freie Presse, 7 Juni, 1908).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The same demands are made by free-thinkers, + who are always and everywhere in favor of free science. + The</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">International Congress of + Free-thinkers</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, held + at Rome in June, 1904, thus defines free-thought:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Since + free-thought cannot concede to any authority whatever the right + to oppose human reason, or even to supersede it, it demands + that its advocates reject directly not only any compulsory + belief, but also every authority that tries to enforce its + dogmas, even though such an authority be based on revelation, + or though it command obedience to dogmas or a-priori principles + of philosophy, or to the decisions of public authority or the + vote of a majority.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">—We shall have frequent occasion to speak of + this freedom in these pages.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Hence it is + easily seen that this view differs from the one we considered + before. Freedom from <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">all</span></em> external restraint + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page018">[pg 018]</span><a name= + "Pg018" id="Pg018" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> has superseded + freedom from <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">unjust</span></em> restraint. The + presumption has found acceptance that every interference by + authority is unjust, a violation of the natural rights of man and + his thought. On what is this presumption based? In other words: + What are the philosophical premises of modern freedom of science? + We shall be occupied with this question now for some time. For + only after we have attentively considered it, can we gain an + intelligent idea of the nature of this freedom, of its methods, + and of the justice of its claims. Advocates of this view not + infrequently think they have exhausted its meaning when they have + protested against ecclesiastical encroachments, when they have + held forth against Syllabus and Index. Of the deeper thoughts it + contains they have scarcely any idea.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">The Humanitarian View of the + World.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We may + distinguish a twofold basis for this view, a general and a + particular one. The latter, which is connected with the former, + is subjectivism in thought. The former, the more <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">general</span></em>, at the same time the + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">real + basis of the modern freedom of science</span></em>, is that + particular view of man and his position in the world, which we + may call the theory of humanitarianism. We are familiar with this + word—it has its history. The word of itself conveys a good + meaning: it means human nature and dignity, thought and desire + worthy of man, nobility of culture. During the Renaissance the + so-called <span class="tei tei-q">“humanists”</span> identified + culture with knowledge of the ancient classical literature. Many + of them, however, added to the admiration of classical literature + also preference for pagan tastes, to the contempt of the + Christian spirit. Since that time the word <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">humanitarian</span></em> has never lost its + unchristian sense; it has ever been made the motto of men who + emancipated themselves from God and Christianity. Hence it is + extensively the motto of our times.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It has changed + the position of man. It has forgotten that man is a created, + limited, even a fallen being, withal destined for eternal + existence. To it man is everything; man left to himself and to + his life in this world, severed from God and his <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page019">[pg 019]</span><a name="Pg019" id= + "Pg019" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> eternal destiny, an + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">absolute, purely worldly being</span></em>. + No longer does he look up to Heaven, no longer does he get from + above his laws, his hope for help, and strength, and eternal + life. He is his own and only end: he and his earthly happiness + and advancement. In himself alone he sees the source of his + strength, in himself he finds his law, to himself alone is he + responsible, the inherited corruption of his nature he has + forgotten. What God once was to our fathers—the end and rule of + their life—that now is Man to their sons. The anthropocentric has + succeeded the theocentric view of the world. <span lang="la" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Diis extinctis successit + humanitas</span></span> (Man has succeeded the fallen gods). + <span class="tei tei-q">“Out of the corrupted nations and + decaying religions let there arise a more beautiful + humanity!”</span> is the radical cry of this humanitarian + religion.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When in 1892 + the battle for a new school law was raging in Prussia, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Caprivi</span></span>, the Chancellor of the + Empire, said: <span class="tei tei-q">“It is here question of a + contrast between Christianity and atheism. Essential to man is + his relation to God.”</span> Scarcely had these words been + uttered when a champion of modern thought, Prof. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Fr. + Jodl</span></span>, took up his pen and wrote: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“No sharper contrast with the convictions of the + modern world is imaginable than that expressed by the words of + the imperial Chancellor, <span class="tei tei-q">‘essential to + man is his relation to God.’</span> To this sentence, which might + be expected in a speech of Cromwell, or in a papal encyclical, + rather than from a statesman of modern Germany, liberalism must + with all possible emphasis oppose this other sentence: What + determines the real worth of a man, is, first and last, his + relation to humanity”</span> (Moral, Religion und Schule, 1892, + 14f.). <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">Diis extinctis successit + humanitas</span></span>. We shall not deny that the modern spirit + is a complicated structure: but neither can any one deny that its + chief characteristic is the humanitarian view, with its + emancipation from God, its decided emphasis of the things of this + world, and its boundless overestimation of man.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">An attentive + observer of these days, should he chance to come from an old, + Catholic town, and saunter with observant eye through one of our + great modern cities, particularly a Protestant one, would behold + a vivid realization of this modern view <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page020">[pg 020]</span><a name="Pg020" id="Pg020" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> of the world. The most prominent feature of + the Catholic town of old was the House of God. It towered high + above the city, its spires reached heavenward; the houses of the + faithful clung around the House of God like chicks about the + mother hen. The mere sight told the beholder that here dwelt a + people whose thoughts were directed towards the other world; over + their lives ruled the sacred peace of eternity.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But here all + is different. Here the most prominent feature is no longer the + House of God; worldly edifices have usurped its place; railroad + depots, barracks, city-hall and court-house dominate the city. + The state house bears no longer on its front the Christian motto, + <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">Nisi Dominus + custodierit</span></span> (<span class="tei tei-q">“Unless the + Lord keep the city he watcheth in vain that keepeth it”</span>). + It would be considered a degradation should the state base its + existence upon religion. Should, then, the observer enter the + legislature he would learn the modern principles of state wisdom. + The state as such has no relation to religion; the principle is + the separation of state and Church. In the public squares he + beholds mighty monuments, erected, not to religious heroes and + leaders, as perhaps of old, but to great men of the world, + champions of national progress. At their feet lie wreaths of + homage. They have brought modern humanity to its full stature, + maturity, and self-consciousness. Here it is Man who is standing + everywhere in the foreground. <span class="tei tei-q">“It is + I,”</span> says he, <span class="tei tei-q">“that lives here. + Here I have pitched my tent, from this earth come all my joys, + and this sun is shining upon my sorrows.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Our observer, + wandering about, finds everywhere magnificent state-schools, + scientific institutes, splendid colleges and universities. In + years gone by a cross or a word of divine wisdom was probably + found here somewhere. It is seen no more. Often it would seem + that we can almost hear the words: <span class="tei tei-q">“We + will not have this One rule over us.”</span> Here a new race is + being reared, which no longer follows blindly the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“old tradition,”</span> it believes in its own self + and its own reason: culture and science take the place of the old + religion. He finds but few churches; and where found they are + mostly overshadowed by great palaces, and—mostly empty. The + modern man passes them by. He has no longer any understanding + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page021">[pg 021]</span><a name= + "Pg021" id="Pg021" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> for the truths of + the Christian religion. It fails to satisfy him because it does + not appeal to modern ways of thinking and feeling, because it + does not symbolize the humanitarian creed. His desire is no + longer for Heaven; his aspirations are earthward. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The life beyond concerns me little: my joys come + from this world.”</span> Contemplating modern civilization he + exclaims, with the king of Babylon: <span class="tei tei-q">“Is + not this the great Babylon, which I have built to be the seat of + the kingdom, by the strength of my power, and in the glory of my + excellence?”</span> (Dan. iv. 27). The doctrine of a nature + corrupted by original sin, of a darkened intellect that needs + divine revelation, of a weakened will that needs strength from + above, of sin that demands atonement,—all this has become + meaningless to him, it offends his higher sentiments, his human + dignity. He has no longer any understanding for a Saviour of the + world, in whom alone salvation is to be sought, much less for a + Cross. This sign of redemption, as a certain herald of modern + thought remarked, weighs like a mountain upon the mind of our + day. He has no longer any understanding for the saving + institution of the Church, by whom he should be led: she is to + him an institution of intellectual serfdom. He makes his own + religion, free from dogma, just as his individuality desires, + just as he <span class="tei tei-q">“lives”</span> it.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Should our + observer, while visiting the Protestant city, make a final visit + to its university, he will find there the thoughts, which + hitherto he had but vaguely felt, clothed in scientific language. + There they meet his gaze, defined sharply on the pedestal of + Research as the Modern Philosophy, protected, often exclusively + privileged, by the state license of teaching. It is the modern + scientific view of the world, the only one that men of modern + times may hold. From here it is to find its way to wider + circles.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Man,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">we + are told by a pupil of</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Feuerbach</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + in accord with his master's teaching,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">man is man's god. And only by the enthronement + of this human god can the super-human and ultra-human God be + made superfluous. What Christianity was and claimed to be in + times gone by, that now is claimed by + humanity.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">The being + which man in religion and theology reveres,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">continues</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Jodl</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">with</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Feuerbach</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">is his + own being, the essence of his own desires and ideals. If + you</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page022">[pg + 022]</span><a name="Pg022" id="Pg022" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">eliminate + from this conception all that is mere fancy and contrary to the + laws of nature, what is left is a cultural ideal of + civilization, a refined humanity, which will become a reality + by its own independent strength and labour</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Ludwig + Feuerbach</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, 1904, 111 + f., 194).</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">The + greatest achievement of modern times,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">says another panegyrist of emancipated + humanity,</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">is the + deliverance from the traditional bondage of a direct + revelation.... Neither revelation nor redemption approach man + from without; he is bound rather to struggle for his perfection + by his own strength. What he knows about God, nature, and his + own self, is of his own doing. He is in reality</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style="font-size: 90%">the + measure of all things, of those that are, and why they are; of + those that are not, and why they are not.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">’</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">Of + his dignity as an image of God, he has therefore not lost + anything; on the contrary, he has come nearer to his + resemblance to God, his highest end, by his consciousness of + being self-existent and of having the destiny to produce + everything of himself; from a receptive being he has become a + spontaneous one; he has at last come to a clear knowledge of + his own real importance and destiny</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Spicker</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + Der Kampf zweier Weltanschauungen, 1898, 134).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Hence</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">not to make man religious,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">to quote again the above-mentioned exponent of + modern wisdom of life,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">but to educate, to promote culture among all + classes and professions, this is the task of the present + time.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Religion + cannot therefore be the watchword of a progressive humanity; + neither the religion of the past nor the religion that is to be + looked for in the future, but ethics</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Jodl</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + ibid., 108, 112). Ethics, to be sure, the fundamental + principles of which are not the commandments of God, by the + keeping of which we are to reach our eternal happiness, but + human laws, which are observed for the sake of man.</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Morality + and religion,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">we are told,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">shall no longer give us a narrow ladder on + which we, each one for himself, climb to the heights of the + other world; we are vaulting a majestic dome above this earth + under which the generations come and go, succeeding each other + in continuous procession.... The day will come when the rays of + thought which are now dawning upon the highest and freest + mountain-tops will bring the light of noonday down to + mankind.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Woe to us, if from these high + mountain-tops, where the bare rocks no longer take life and + fecundity from the heavens, the sad desert of estrangement from + God should extend into the fresh green of the + valleys!</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The central ideas of the humanitarian view of + the world appear again, though under different form, among + Freemasons and free-thinkers, agitators for free religion and + free schools. It is well known that Freemasonry has + emblazoned</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">humanity</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">upon its standard.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">One word of the highest + meaning,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">so wrote an official authority + some years ago,</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">contains + in itself the principle, the purpose, and the whole tenor of + Freemasonry, this word is humanity. Humanity is indeed + everything to us.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">What is humanity? It is all, and only that, + which is human</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(Freiburger Ritual, 24.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Pachtler</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + Der Goetze der Humanitaet, 1875, 249 f.).</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">That which is essentially human is the + sublime, divine, and the only Christian + ideal,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">adds another authority, addressing + the aspirant to Freemasonry.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Leave behind you in the world your different + church-formulas when you enter our temple, but let there always + be with you the sense for what is holy in</span> <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page023">[pg 023]</span><a name="Pg023" id= + "Pg023" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style= + "font-size: 90%">man, the religion which alone makes us + happy</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(Latomia, 1868, p. 167,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Pachtler</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + 248). As early as 1823 the</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Zeitschrift fuer + Freimauerei</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">wrote:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">We should + be accused of idolatry should we personify the idea of humanity + in the way in which the Divinity is usually personified. This + is indeed our reason for withholding from the eyes of profane + persons the humanitarian cult, till the time has come when, + from east to west, from noon to midnight, its high ideal will + be pondered and its cult propagated + everywhere</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(</span><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Pachtler</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + 255).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The time has already come when</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">the rays + of thought that dawned upon the + mountain-tops</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">are descending into the valley. + The Twenty-second Convention of German Free-religionists, at + Goerlitz, at the end of May, 1907, passed this + resolution:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">The + Convention sees one of its chief tasks in the alliance of all + anti-clericals and free-thinkers, and tries by united effort to + obtain this common end and interest by promoting culture, + liberty of mind, and humanitarianism.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">There was, moreover, taken up for discussion + the thesis:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Free-religionists reject the teaching that + declares man lost by original sin, unable to raise himself of + his own strength and reason, that directs him to revelation, + redemption, and grace from above.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This view of + the world finds its most characteristic expression in <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">pantheism</span></em>, which, though + expressed in various and often fantastic forms, is eminently the + religion of modern man. From this gloomy depth of autotheism the + apotheosis of man and his earthly life, the modern consciousness + of freedom, draws its strength and determination.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To find this + modern view of man expressed in the language of consistent + radicalism, let us hear <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Fr. Nietzsche</span></span>, the most modern + of all philosophers. His ideal is the transcendental man, who + knows that God is dead, that now there is no bar to stepping + forth in unrestricted freedom to superhuman greatness and + independence. To this <span class="tei tei-q">“masterman,”</span> + who deems himself superior to others, everything is licit that + serves his egotism and will, everything that will promote his + interest to the disadvantage of the rabble; probity is cowardice! + <span class="tei tei-q">“But now this god is dead. Ye superior + men, this god was your greatest danger.”</span> Thus spoke + Zarathustra. <span class="tei tei-q">“Only since this god is + buried do you begin to rise. Now at length the great Noon is in + its zenith. Now the superior man becomes master. Onward and + upward, then, ye superior men! At last the mountain of man's + future is in travail. God is dead; let the superior man arise and + live.”</span> (Also sprach Zarathustra, W. W. VI, 418.) And, in + the consciousness that the Christian <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page024">[pg 024]</span><a name="Pg024" id="Pg024" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> religion condemns this self-exaltation, he + breaks out in this blasphemous charge: <span class="tei tei-q">“I + call Christianity the one great curse, the one great internal + corruption.... I call it the one immortal, disgraceful, blot on + mankind”</span> (Antichrist, W. W. VIII, 313). This is + independent humanity in the cloak of fanaticism. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Nietzsche</span></span> has carried the + modern view of the world to its final consequences; the + autonomous man has developed into the god-like superman who + carries into effect the behest: Ye shall be as gods; his code of + ethics is that of the autocrat who is above the notions of good + and bad.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And + <span class="tei tei-q">“let no one deceive himself,”</span> + writes an intelligent observer of the times, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the spirit of our time is attuned to <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Nietzsche's</span></span> idea.”</span> + Consciously or unconsciously this sentiment dominates more minds + than many a man learned in the wisdom of the schools may dream + of. Did <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Nietzsche</span></span> create this spirit? + Certainly not: he grew out of it, he has only given it a + philosophical setting. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Nietzsche</span></span> would never have + caused that tremendous sensation, never have gathered around him + his enthusiastic followers, had not the soil been prepared. As it + was, he appeared to <span class="tei tei-q">“his”</span> men as + the Messiah <span class="tei tei-q">“in the fulness of + time.”</span> He, too, in his own way <span class= + "tei tei-q">“loosened the tongue of the dumb and opened the eyes + of the blind.”</span> The veiled anti-Christian spirit, the + unconscious religious and ethical nihilism, which no one before + dared profess openly, though it was hatching in the minds, now + had found its <span class="tei tei-q">“master,”</span> its + <span class="tei tei-q">“scientific system”</span> (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Von + Grotthuss</span></span>, Tuermer, VII, 1905, 79). It is, asserts + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Wundt</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the new ideal of free personality, dependent on + precarious moods and chance influences, that has found in + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Nietzsche's</span></span> philosophy a + fantastic expression”</span> (Ethik, ed. 3. 1905, p. 522).</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">The Autonomous Man.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Now we have a + clearer idea of modern freedom. It is known as autonomism. The + individual wants to be a law to himself, his own court of last + appeal; he wants to develop his personality, feeling, desires, + and thought, independently of all authority. Too long, it is + said, have man's aspirations been directed upward, away from + things, of this world, to a supernatural world. <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page025">[pg 025]</span><a name="Pg025" id= + "Pg025" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Religion and Church seek to + determine his thought and desire, to subject him to dogma. Too + long has he clung like a child to the apron-strings of authority. + Man has at last awoken to self-consciousness and to a sense of + his own dignity, after a period of estrangement, so to say, from + himself; he has become himself again, as the poet sang when the + century of the <span class="tei tei-q">“illuminati”</span> was + closing:</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">How + beautiful, with palm of victory,</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">O man, thou standest at the + century's close,</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">The mightiest son thy Time has + given birth,</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">By reason free, by law and + precept strong,</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Alike in meekness great and + treasure rich,</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">So long + unknown concealed within thy breast.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + </div> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Yes, man has + discovered the treasure that long lay hidden in his breast, the + seed and bud that longed to burst forth into life and blossom. + Now the motto is: Independent self-development; no more + restraint, but living out one's personality. The eagle is not + given wings to be bound down upon the earth; nor does the bud + come forth never to unfold. Full freedom, therefore, too, for + everything human! And modern man leaps to the fatal conclusion: + therefore all interference of external authority is unjust, is + force, constraint upon my being; the same error that boys fall + into when life begins to tingle with its fulness of strength. + Being ignorant of their nature, they feel any kind of dependence + a chain; only themselves, their judgments and desires, are law. + Just so modern man, in his deplorable want of self-knowledge, + fails to see how he is cutting himself off from the source and + support of life; how he is pulling himself out by the roots from + the soil whence he derives his strength; how, left to his own + littleness, he withers away; how, abandoned to his own diseased + nature, he condemns himself to intellectual decay.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Autonomism, + individualism, independent personality—these have become the + ideals that permeate the man of this age, and influence the + thought of thousands without their knowing it.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The well-known, Protestant, theologian,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">A. + Sabatier</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + writes:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">It is not + difficult to find the common principle to which all the + expressions and tendencies of the spirit of modern times can be + reduced in any field</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page026">[pg 026]</span><a name="Pg026" id="Pg026" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">whatever. One + word expresses it—the word,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">autonomy.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">’</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">By + autonomy I understand the firm confidence, which the mind of man + has attained in his present stage of development, that he + contains in himself his own rule of life and norm of thought, and + that he harbours the ardent desire of realizing himself by + obeying his own law</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">(La + Religion de la Culture moderne, 10).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Modern times,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">writes</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">R. + Eucken</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">have + changed the position of the human subject ... it has become to + them the centre of his life and the ultimate end of his + endeavours</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(Zeitschrift fuer Philosophie und + philosophische Kritik, 112 (1898), 165 s.). Still clearer are + the following words of</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">G. + Spicker</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Man + depended formerly either on nature or on revelation, or on both + at once; now it is just the opposite: man is in every way, + theoretically as well as practically, an autonomist. If + anything can denote clearly the characteristic difference + between the modern and the old scholastic view, it is this + absolute, subjective, standpoint.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">As we in principle do not intend to depend on + any objectivity or authority, there is nothing left but the + autonomy of the subject</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(Der Kampf zweier Weltanschauungen (1898), + 143, 145).</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A noted + apostle of modern freedom exclaims enthusiastically:</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">This after all is freedom: an unconditional + appreciation of human greatness, no matter how it asserts itself. + This greatest happiness, as</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Goethe</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">called it, the humanists have + restored to us. Henceforth we must with all our strength retain + it. Whoever wants to rob us of it, even should he descend from + heaven, is our deadliest enemy.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">H. St. + Chamberlain.</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">)</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is true, of + course, that man should strive for perfection of self in every + respect; for the harmonious development of all the faculties and + good inclinations of his own being, and, in this sense, for a + nobler humanity; he should also develop and assert his own + peculiar disposition and originality, so far as they are in + order, and thus promote a healthy individualism. But all this he + should do within the moral bonds of his created and limited + nature, being convinced that only by keeping within the right + limits of his being can he develop his ability and personality + harmoniously; he dare not reach out, in reckless venture after + independence, to free himself from God and his eternal end, and + from the yoke of truth; he dare not transform the divine + sovereignty into the distorted image of created autotheism.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He who + professes a Christian view of the world, can see in such a view + of man and his freedom only an utter misunderstanding of human + nature and an overthrow of the right <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page027">[pg 027]</span><a name="Pg027" id="Pg027" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> order of things. This overthrow, again, can + only produce calamity, interior and exterior disorder. Woe to the + planet that feels its orbit a tyrannical restraint, and leaves it + to move in sovereign freedom through the universe! It will move + along free, and free will it go to ruin. Woe to the speeding + train that leaves its track; it will speed on free, but + invariably dash itself to pieces! A nature that abandons the + prescribed safeguards can only degenerate into a wild sprout. We + shall see how these principles have actually become in modern + intellectual life the principles of negation and intellectual + degeneration.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">St. + Augustine</span></span> states the history of mankind in the + following, thoughtful words: <span class="tei tei-q">“A twofold + love divides mankind into the City of the World and the City of + God. Man's self-love and his self-exaltation pushed to the + contempt of God constitute the City of the World; but the love of + God pushed to contempt of self is the foundation of the City of + God.”</span> (<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">Fecerunt itaque civitates + duas amores duo, terrenam scilicet amor sui usque ad contemptum + Dei, coelestem vero amor Dei usque ad contemptum + sui.</span></span> De civ. Dei XIV, 28.) Thus <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">St. + Augustine</span></span>, while contemplating the time when the + war between heathenism and Christianity was raging. The same + spectacle is presented to our own eyes to-day, probably more + thoroughly than ever before in history.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">The Period of Man's + Emancipation.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The modern + view of man and his freedom has shaped itself gradually in recent + times; the present is ever the child of the past. The most + important factor in this development was undoubtedly the + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Reformation</span></em>. It emancipated man + in the most important affair, religious life, from the authority + of the Church, and made him independent. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“All have the right to try and to judge what is right + and wrong in belief,”</span> so <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Luther</span></span> told the Christian + nobility of the German nation; <span class="tei tei-q">“everybody + shall according to his believing mind interpret the Scriptures, + it is the duty of every believing Christian to espouse the faith, + to understand and defend it, and to condemn all errors.”</span> + Protestantism means even to the modern man <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the thinking <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page028">[pg 028]</span><a name="Pg028" id="Pg028" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> mind's break with authority, a protest + against being fettered by anything positive, the mind's return to + itself from self-alienation”</span> (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Schwegler</span></span>, Geschichte der + Philosophie (1887), 167): <span class="tei tei-q">“it puts out of + joint the Christian Church organization, and overturns its + supernatural foundation, quite against its will, but with an + actual, and ever more plainly visible, effect”</span> + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">E. + Troeltsch</span></span>, Die Bedeutung des Protestantismus fuer + die Entstehung der modernen Welt (1906), 29).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The first step + towards full autonomy was taken with energy; the emancipation + from external authority then progressed rapidly in the domain of + politics, sociology, economy, and especially of religion, to the + very elimination of everything supernatural. There came the + English individualism of the seventeenth century. The liberty of + <span class="tei tei-q">“individual conviction,”</span> termed + also <span class="tei tei-q">“tolerance,”</span> in the sense of + rejecting every authoritative interference in the sanctuary of + man's thought and feeling, was extolled; of course at first only + as the privilege of those who were intellectually superior. Soon + the Deism of a <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Herbert of Cherbury</span></span> and + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Locke</span></span> was reached; it was the + religion of natural reason, with belief in God and the obligation + to moral action. Whatever is added by positive religions, and + therefore by the Christian religion, is superfluous; hence not + dogma, but freedom! <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Locke</span></span>, indeed, denied to + atheists state toleration; but <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">J. + Toland</span></span> already advised full freedom of thought, + even to the tolerance of atheism. In the year 1717 <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Freemasonry</span></em> came into existence + in England. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Adam Smith</span></span> originated the idea + of a liberal political economy which frees the individual from + all bond, even in the economic field. The views prevailing in + England then exert great influence in France. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Rousseau</span></span> and <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Voltaire</span></span> appear.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In France and + Germany the enlightenment of the eighteenth century makes rapid + strides in the direction of emancipation. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The enlightenment of the eighteenth century,”</span> + writes <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">H. Heltner</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“not only resumes the prematurely interrupted work of + the sixteenth century, the Reformation, but carries it on + independently, and in its own way. The thoughts and demands of + the <span class="tei tei-q">‘enlightened’</span> are bolder and + more aggressive, more unscrupulous and daring.... With + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Luther</span></span> the idea of revelation + remained <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page029">[pg + 029]</span><a name="Pg029" id="Pg029" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + intact; the new method of thought rejects the idea of a divine + revelation, and bases all religious knowledge on merely human + thought and sentiment.... It is only the free, entirely + independent thought that decides in truth and justice, moral and + political rights and duties. Reason has regained its self-glory; + man comes to his senses again”</span> (Literaturgeschichte des + 18. Jahrhunderts II (1894), 553). <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kant</span></span> + gave it a philosophical setting.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Then the + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">French + Revolution</span></em> breaks into fierce blaze, writing on the + skies of Europe with flaming letters the ideas of emancipated + humanity; the adherents to the old religion are sent to the + guillotine. On August 27, 1789, the proclamation of the + <span class="tei tei-q">“rights of man”</span> is made. + <span class="tei tei-q">“The principles of 1789,”</span> as they + are now called, henceforth dominate the nineteenth century. The + system which adopted these principles called itself, and still + calls itself, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Liberalism</span></em>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Liberalism as + a principle—we are speaking of the principles of liberalism, not + of its adherents, who for the most part do not carry out these + principles in their consequences, and occasionally do not even + grasp them completely—tried to accomplish man's utter + emancipation from all external and superior authority. It sought + to accomplish this in the political field, by instituting + constitutional, and, wherever possible, a republican form of + government; in the field of economy, by granting freedom to + labour and possession, to capital and commerce; but especially in + the field of morals and religion, by emancipating thought and + science, and the entire life of man,—school, marriage, + state,—from every religious influence and direction, and in this + sense it aimed at humanizing the whole life of man. This is its + purpose. To achieve this, it aims at establishing itself in the + state, by gaining political power through the aid of compulsory + laws, of course against all principles of freedom; it tries to + attain this by compulsory state-education, by obligatory civil + marriage, and so on. At first there appeared only a moderate + liberalism, which gradually gave place to a more radical + tendency, striving more directly and openly toward the + enfeeblement and, if possible, the destruction of the Christian + view of the world and its chief representative, <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page030">[pg 030]</span><a name="Pg030" id= + "Pg030" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the Church. In 1848 the + well-known materialist <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">K. Vogt</span></span> said at the national + assembly in Frankfort: <span class="tei tei-q">“Every church is + opposed to a free development of mankind, in that it demands + faith above all. Every church is an obstacle in the way of man's + free intellectual development, and since I am for such + intellectual development of man, I am against every + church”</span> (cf. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Rothenbuecher</span></span>, Trennung von + Staat und Kirche (1908), 106).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the field + of economics, every one can see how liberalism has failed. In + some countries people were ashamed to retain its name any longer. + It suddenly disappeared from public life, and gave place to its + translation,—free thought. This shows that nobody cares to boast + of its success. All barriers of safety had been removed in a + night; crises, confusion, and the serious danger of the social + question were the consequence. In the field of actual economics + it became clear that the principle of unlimited freedom could not + be carried out, because it was utterly ruinous, and it really + means a complete misunderstanding of human nature. Therefore + liberalism has disappeared from this field, leaving to others to + solve the problem it created, and to heal the wounds it + inflicted. It is otherwise in the field of theoretical economics. + Here it still strives to dominate, often more thoroughly than + before, no matter what name it may assume. The consequences do + not appear so gross to the eyes as they would in the tangible + sphere of sociology. Especially science it wants to hold in + subjection to its principles of freedom in undiminished + severity.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">That freedom + which is identified with absolute independence from all + authority, especially in the intellectual sphere, we shall here + know as Liberal freedom, in contradistinction to Christian + freedom, which is satisfied with independence from unjust + restraint.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the + foregoing discussion it has been shown how deeply the liberal + idea of freedom is imbedded in the unchristian philosophical view + of the world. The inevitable result is a freedom of science which + considers every authoritative interference in research and + teaching as an encroachment upon the rights of free development + in man's personality, especially in the sphere of philosophy and + religion. Moreover, the humanitarian view <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page031">[pg 031]</span><a name="Pg031" id= + "Pg031" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of the world, insisting on + the independence of man and his earthly life, naturally demands + the exclusion of God and the other world, it orders the rejection + of <span class="tei tei-q">“dualism”</span> as unscientific, and + the adoption of the monistic view in its stead; an autonomous + science can hardly be reconciled with a superior, restricting + authority. Later on we shall demonstrate that the main law of + modern science is that the supernatural is inadmissible. + Furthermore, since science is not a superhuman being, but has its + seat in the intellect of man, subject to the psychology of man, + every one who knows the heart of man will suspect from the outset + that man cannot stop at merely ignoring, but will often proceed + to combat and explain away faith, the Church, and all authority + that might be considered an oppressor of the truth. This undue + love of liberty will of itself become a struggle for freedom + against the oppressor. How far this is actually the case we shall + have occasion to discuss later on.</p> + + <div class="tei tei-tb"> + <hr style="width: 50%" /> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We have heard + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Nietzsche's</span></span> haughty and proud + boast. Shortly after the philosopher had penned these words he + was stricken (1889) with permanent, incurable insanity, with + which he was afflicted till his death in 1900. The <span class= + "tei tei-q">“transcendental man”</span> was dethroned. The + strength of the Titan was shattered. He that said with + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Prometheus</span></span>, I am not a god, + still I am in strength the equal of any of them, received the + ironical answer, <span class="tei tei-q">“Behold he has become as + one of us”</span> (Gen. iii. 22). He that cursed Christian + charity towards the poor and suffering, was now cast helpless + upon charity. His grave at Roecken, the place also of his birth, + is a sign of warning to the modern world.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To the + believing Christian a different grave opens on Easter day. From + it comes the risen God-man; in His hand the banner of immortal + victory. It points the way to true human greatness, to a superior + humanity according to the will of God. Man longs for perfection; + he longs to go beyond the narrow limits of his present condition. + But modern man wants to rise to greatness by his own strength, + without help from above; he would rise with giant bounds, without + law. In his weakness he falls; error and scepticism and the loss + of morality are the bitter fruit. Another way is pointed + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page032">[pg 032]</span><a name= + "Pg032" id="Pg032" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> out by the great + Friend of Man. Humanity is to be led on the way of progress by + the hand of God, by faith in God, supported by His grace; thus + man shall participate in God's nature, shall one day attain his + highest perfection in eternal life, far beyond the limits of his + present condition. <span class="tei tei-q">“I am the way, the + truth, and the life.”</span></p> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page033">[pg 033]</span><a name= + "Pg033" id="Pg033" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc13" id="toc13"></a> <a name="pdf14" id="pdf14"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">Chapter III. Subjectivism And Its + Freedom.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The tendency of + the modern intellect to independence in its own peculiar sphere of + thinking and knowing, cannot fail to work itself out energetically. + In this sphere it leads naturally to that view of human reasoning + called subjectivism: the thinking or reasoning subject is its own + law, the autonomous creator and guide of its thought. Herein lies + the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">essential presumption</span></em>, the very + core, of the liberal freedom of science. Wherever we turn we meet + subjectivism with its autonomous rejection of all authority, its + arbitrary separation of knowledge from faith, its agnosticism, its + relativity to truth as the moving factor of, and the ostensible + warrant for, this freedom, especially in the sphere which it + considers peculiarly its own, philosophy and religion. Only when we + look closer into its philosophical premises will it be possible to + form a judgment of the <span class="tei tei-q">“scientific + method”</span> it employs in this, its peculiar sphere, and of the + justice of its claim to be the sole administrator of man's ideal + possessions, and to be altogether <span class= + "tei tei-q">“independent of every view not conforming to this + scientific method.”</span> Before considering subjectivism let us + by way of preface set down a few considerations on the nature of + human, intellectual perception.</p> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">Objectivism and + Subjectivism.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It always has + been, and still is, the firm conviction of unbiassed men,—a + conviction which irresistibly forces itself upon us,—that in our + intellectual perception and thought we grasp an <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">objective, + exterior order of things, an existence distinct from our + thought</span></em>; of this objective reality we reproduce an + image in our minds, and thus grasp it intellectually. <span lang= + "la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cognitio est similitudo rei</span></span>, + says the old school; that is, Knowledge is <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page034">[pg 034]</span><a name="Pg034" id= + "Pg034" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the reproduction of an + objective reality, which thus becomes the criterion of cognition. + The reproduction is a counterpart of the original. In this + perfect resemblance of our cognition to the objective reality + there has ever been recognized the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">truth</span></em> + of knowledge.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When the + thinking mind has arrived at the mathematical truth that the + circumference of a circle is the product of the diameter + multiplied by <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ludolph's</span></span> number, it + knows—unless indeed it has lost its natural candour—that it has + not of itself produced this result of reasoning, but that it has + recognized in it an objective reality of truth, distinct from its + own thought, and has reproduced that truth in itself. And because + this reproduction corresponds to the reality, it is called true + cognition. Similarly, when the intellect expresses the general + law of causality, namely, everything that happens has a cause, + the intellect is again convinced that it has not of itself + produced this result of reasoning, but has only reproduced it by + assimilating to itself an objective truth which is necessarily so + and cannot be otherwise, and which the mind must assimilate if it + wants to think aright. This is true not only when the mind is + dealing with concrete things, but also when it would give + expression to general principles, as in the present instance; + these, too, are not subjective projections, but are independent + of the thinking subject, and are eternal laws.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This view of + the nature of human cognition and thought has gradually undergone + an essential change, not indeed with those outside the influence + of philosophical speculation, but with the representatives of + modern philosophy, and those subject to its influence. + Objectivism has been superseded by subjectivism. Its principle is + this: cognition, imagination, and thought are not the + intellectual apprehension of an objective world existing + independent of us, of which we reproduce in ourselves a + counterpart. No, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">the mind creates its own results of reason + and cognition</span></em>; the objects before us are the + creatures of the imagining subject. At the utmost, we can but say + that our reasoning is the manner in which a hidden exterior world + appears to us. This manner must necessarily conform to the + peculiarity of the subject, to his faculties and stage of + development; but the exterior <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page035">[pg 035]</span><a name="Pg035" id="Pg035" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> world as it is in itself we can never + apprehend. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Descartes</span></span>, starting with the + premise that consciousness is the beginning of all certainty, was + the first modern philosopher to enter upon the way of + subjectivism. He was followed by <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Locke</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Berkeley</span></span>, and <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kant</span></span>. + It is due to them that in the modern theory of cognition the + fundamental principle of idealistic subjectivism, no matter how + difficult and unreasonable it may appear to an ordinary thinker, + has obtained so many advocates who, nevertheless, cannot adhere + to it, but contradict it at every step.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The world,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Schopenhauer</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">is convinced,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">is the projection of my idea.... No truth is + more certain, more independent of all others, less in need of + proof, than this, that all there is to be known, hence the whole + world, is an object only in relation to a subject, a vision of + the beholder; in a word, the projection of my own idea. Hence the + subject is the bearer of the world</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung, I, §§ + 1-2).</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">It is + evidently true that knowledge cannot go beyond our consciousness, + and hence the existence of things outside of our sphere of + consciousness must, to say the least, remain + problematical</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">(Der + Gegenstand der Erkenntniss, 1892, p. 2). In like manner</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">O. Liebmann</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">says:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">We can never go beyond our individual sphere of + ideas (projection of our ideas), even though we apprehend what is + independent of us, still the absolute reality of it is known to + us only as our own idea</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(Zur Analysis der Wirklichkeit, 1900, p. 28). + Therefore</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">the + contrast between</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">I</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">’</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">and + the world,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">says</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">E. + Mach</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">between + feeling or apprehension and the reality, falls + away</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(Die Analysis der Empfindungen, 2d + ed., 1900, p. 9). And a disciple of</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Mach</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">says:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">It is important to hold fast to the idea that + a self-existent, divine Truth, independent of the subject, + objectively binding, enthroned, so to say, above men and gods, + is meaningless.... Such a Truth is nonsense</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">H. + Kleinpeter</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + Kantstudien, VIII, 1903, p. 314).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">None of these representatives of worldly + wisdom are able to fulfil the first duty of the wise + man:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Live + according to what you teach.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">Even the sceptic</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Hume</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">has to admit that in the common + affairs of life he feels himself compelled of necessity to talk + and act like other people.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Subjectivism + is really nothing but <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">scepticism</span></em>, for it eliminates + the knowableness of objective truth. But it is a masked—if you + will, a reformed—scepticism. Cognition is given another purpose; + its task is not at all, so it is said, to reproduce or assimilate + a world distinct from itself, but to create its own contents. The + very nature of cognition is reversed.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page036">[pg 036]</span><a name= + "Pg036" id="Pg036" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">The Autonomy of Reason.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kant</span></span>, the herald of a new era + in philosophy, who gave to this gradually maturing subjectivism + its scientific form and basis. At the same time he gave + prominence to that element of subjectivism which seems to give + justification to freedom of thought, to wit, autonomism, the + creative power of the intellect which makes its own laws. + Independence of reason and free thought have become catchwords + since <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kant's</span></span> time. They are a + precious ingredient of the autonomy of modern man.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When the + flaming blaze of the French Revolution was reddening the skies of + Europe, and inaugurating the restoration of the rights of man, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kant</span></span> was sitting in his study + at Königsberg, his heart beating strongly in sympathy with the + Revolution, for he saw in it a hopeful turn of the times. An old + man of nearly seventy, he followed the events with most + passionate interest. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Varnhagen</span></span> records in his + Memoirs, based on the stories of <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Staegemann</span></span>, that, when the + proclamation of the Republic was announced in the newspapers, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kant</span></span>, with tears in his eyes, + said to some friends: <span class="tei tei-q">“Now can I say with + Simeon, <span class="tei tei-q">‘Now dost Thou, O Lord, dismiss + Thy servant in peace, because mine eyes have seen Thy + Salvation’</span> ”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">H. Hettner</span></span>, + Literaturgeschichte des 18. Jahrh. III, 4th ed., 3, 2, 1894, p. + 38). While on the other side of the Rhine the Jacobins were doing + their bloody work of political liberation, the German + philosopher, the herald of a new era and an ardent admirer of + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Rousseau</span></span>, sat in his study + labouring for man's intellectual liberation. To give man the + right of autonomous self-determination in action and thought was + the work of his life. Autonomy was indeed to him <span class= + "tei tei-q">“ <span class="tei tei-q">‘the source’</span> of all + dignity of man and of every rational nature”</span> (Grundlegung + zur Metaphysik der Sitten, II). And hence it was that his ardent + followers beheld in him <span class="tei tei-q">“the first + perfect model of a really free German, one who had purged himself + from every trace of Roman absolutism, dogmatism, and + anti-individualism”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">H. St. Chamberlain</span></span>, Die + Grundlagen des 19. Jahrh., 8th ed., 1907, II, 1127).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In his + <span class="tei tei-q">“Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der + Sitten”</span> (The Foundation of the Metaphysics of Ethics) and + <span class="tei tei-q">“Kritik der praktischen <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page037">[pg 037]</span><a name="Pg037" id= + "Pg037" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Vernunft”</span> (Critique of + Practical Reason) <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kant</span></span> sought to establish + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">autonomy in moral life</span></em> and + action. Man himself, his practical reason, is the ultimate + foundation of all moral obligation; did man lead a good life out + of obedience to God it would be a heteronomy unworthy of the name + of <span class="tei tei-q">“moral.”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The autonomy of the will,”</span> he teaches, + <span class="tei tei-q">“is the sole principle of all moral laws + and the duties allied to them; all arbitrary heteronomy, on the + contrary, far from having any binding force, is contrary to the + principle of morality of the will”</span> (Kritik der prakt. + Vern., Elementarlehre, I, 1, 4. Lehrsatz). Or, as amplified by a + faithful interpreter of the master: <span class="tei tei-q">“In + the moral world the individual should be not only a member but + also a ruler; he is a member of the moral order when he obeys its + law; he is its ruler when he enacts the law.... The distinction + between autonomy and heteronomy separates true from false ethics, + the system of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kant</span></span> from all other systems. + All moral systems, except that of <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kant</span></span>, + are based on the principles of heteronomy; they can have no + other. And critical philosophy was the first to grasp the + principle of autonomy”</span> (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kuno + Fischer</span></span>, Geschichte der neuen Philosophie, IV, 2d + ed., 1869, p. 114 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">seq.</span></span>). <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kant's</span></span> just man no longer + prays <span class="tei tei-q">“Thy will be done”</span>; he + identifies the law with himself. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Nietzsche's</span></span> transcendental man + is seen in the background.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Autonomy of + thought</span></em> is the result of the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Critique of Pure Reason,”</span> and in spite of its + inconsistency of expression, its involved sentences, its + extremely tiresome style, it is and will long continue to be the + text-book of modern philosophy. According to <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kant</span></span> + our cognition consists in our fashioning the substance of our + perceptions and reasoning after innate, purely subjective, views + and conceptions. Time and place, and especially the abstract + notions of existence and non-existence, necessity, causality, + substance, have no truth independent of our thought; they are but + forms and patterns according to which we are forced to picture + the world. Their first matter is supplied by sense experience, + such as sound, colour, feeling; but these, too, according to + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kant</span></span>, are not objective. + Nothing then remains to our cognition that is not purely + subjective, having existence in ourselves alone. Our cognition is + no longer <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page038">[pg + 038]</span><a name="Pg038" id="Pg038" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + a reproduction, but a creation of its object; our thought is no + longer subject to an external truth that may be forced upon it. + <span class="tei tei-q">“Hitherto,”</span> says <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kant</span></span>, + <span class="tei tei-q">“it has been generally supposed that our + cognition must be governed by objects.... Let us see if we cannot + make better headway in the province of metaphysics by supposing + that objects must be governed by our cognition”</span> (Kritik + der Reinen Vernunft, Vorrede zur zweiten Ausgabe).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This is, + indeed, nothing but a complete falsification of human cognition. + It is evident to an unbiassed mind that there must be a reason + for everything, not because I so think, but I think so because + such is the fact; that the multiplication table is right, not + because I think so, but I must multiply according to it simply + because it is right. My thought is subject to objective truth. + But <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kant's</span></span> autonomy means + emancipation from objective truth, and hence, though <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kant</span></span> + himself held fast to the unchangeable laws of thinking and + acting, he energetically opened the way for subjectivism with all + its consequences. This was <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kant's</span></span> doing, and history + credits him with it. It was one of those events which have made + men famous: the giving to the ideas and sentiments of a period + their scientific formula, and thereby also their apparent + justification.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Schiller</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">wrote in 1805 to</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">W. von + Humboldt</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">The + profound fundamental ideas of ideal philosophy remain an + enduring treasure, and for this reason alone one should think + himself fortunate for having lived at the present time.... + Finally, we are both idealists, and should be ashamed to have + it said of us that things made us and not we the + things.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Fr. Paulsen</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">gives expression to the opinion of + many when he says:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Kant</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">gives to the intellect the + self-determination that is essential to it, and the position in + the world which it deserves. He has raised the intellect's + creative power to a position of honour: the essence of the + intellect is freedom</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(Immanuel Kant, 1898, p. 386).</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">The + autonomy of reason ... we cannot give up</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Kant</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + Der Philosoph des Protestantismus, in Philosophia militans, 2d + ed., 1901, p. 51).</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">It is + indeed the offspring of Protestantism.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">To me it is beyond doubt,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Paulsen</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">continues,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">that the fundamental tendency of primitive + Protestantism has here been carried out in all + clearness</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(Ibid. 43).</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Luther</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + too, found in the heart of the individual the unfailing source + of truth. For that reason</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Kant</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">has been called the philosopher of + Protestantism.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Hence the well-known historian,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">J. + Scherr</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, may not be + wrong when he calls the philosophy of</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Kant</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">the + foundation of granite whereon is built the freedom of the + German intellect.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page039">[pg + 039]</span><a name="Pg039" id="Pg039" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Now, indeed, + we easily understand the demand for freedom of thought. It is + unintelligible how an external authority, a divine revelation or + infallible Church, could have ever approached man, assured him of + the truth of its teaching, and laid upon him in consequence of + this testimony the obligation of accepting it as true. + <span class="tei tei-q">“An external authority,”</span> we are + assured, <span class="tei tei-q">“be it ever so great, will never + succeed in arousing in us a sense of obligation; its laws, be + they ever so lofty and earnest, will be deemed arbitrary, simply + because they come from without”</span> (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sabatier</span></span>, La Religion et la + Culture moderne, apud <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Fonsegrive</span></span>, Die Stellung der + Katholiken gegenueber der Wissenschaft, Deutsch von <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Schieser</span></span> (1903), 10). Man + accepts only what he himself has produced, what is congenial to + his individuality, what is in harmony with his personal + intellectual life. In the place of truth steps <span class= + "tei tei-q">“personal conviction,”</span> the shaping of one's + views and ideals; in the place of unselfish submission to the + truth steps the <span class="tei tei-q">“development of one's + intellectual individuality,”</span> the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“evolution of one's intellectual personality”</span>; + in a word, free-thought. Exterior authority can no longer impose + an obligation. <span class="tei tei-q">“Is there on + earth,”</span> asks <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Paulsen</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“an instance where authority can decide for us in + matters of belief and thought?”</span> And he answers: + <span class="tei tei-q">“There is none; there cannot be on this + earth an infallible teaching authority.”</span> And why not? + <span class="tei tei-q">“Philosophy and science must refuse to + recognize such an authority.... If I could believe all that the + Church or the Pope teaches, this one thing I could never believe, + that they are infallible; it would include a resolution, once for + all, to renounce my own judgment regarding whatever they declare + true or false, good or bad; it would be the utter renunciation of + the use of my reason and conscience.”</span> (Ibid. 51-53. We + shall often cite the testimony of <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Paulsen</span></span> for the purpose of + illustrating modern thought, partly because he is no longer + living, partly because he is quite an outspoken representative of + the modern view of the world, though generally regarded as + moderate. Moreover, he is without doubt one of the most widely + read of the modern German philosophers.)</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The + demonstration of all this is quite unique. Here it is in brief: + Were there an infallible authority, one which necessarily + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page040">[pg 040]</span><a name= + "Pg040" id="Pg040" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> taught the truth, + then thought and science would be irrevocably subjected to this + authority: that will not do; therefore there is no such + authority. Or thus: Were there an infallible teaching, then we + should have to accept it without contradiction: that is + impossible; therefore there is no infallibility. Hence it is + clear, the protest against an infallible authority, even though + divine,—for the argument holds good also in regard to such an + authority,—is not based on the impossibility of teaching the + truth, for the authority is supposed to be infallible, but on + man's refusal to be taught. And this refusal is made in + accordance with that sovereign freedom of thought which is the + natural offspring of subjectivism; the principal renunciation is + based on its denial of objective truth. <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">It is the + rejection of the truth.</span></em></p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">In advanced progress,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Paulsen</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">continues,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">the individual is also separating himself from + the intellectual mass of the people in order to enjoy a separate + mental existence.... The individual is beginning to have his own + ideas about things; he is no longer satisfied with the common + opinions and notions about the world and life which have been + dealt out to him by religion and mythology: all philosophy begins + with freeing the individual from common + notions.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">If the + individual ideals of a personality, gifted with extraordinary + power of mind and will, happen to come in conflict with the + objective morality of the time, then there results one of those + struggles which cause the dramatic crises of history. They who + thus struggled were the real heroes of mankind. They rose against + the conventional and indifferent ideals which had grown obsolete, + against untrue appearances, against the salt that had lost its + savour; they preached a new truth, pointed out new aspirations + and ideals which breathed a new strength into life and raised it + to a higher plane</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(System der Ethik, 8th ed., 1906, I, 372 + f.).</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Truly + encouraging words for the modern agitator and reformer. To summon + the courage to rise above the level of the masses, to feel within + himself the centre of gravity, and to fashion his thoughts + regardless of the whole world, this is nothing less than the + beginning of philosophy and wisdom. And should he feel himself + strong-minded he may simply change all moral and religious values + which do not square with his individual judgments. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“To remain faithful to one's own self,”</span> we are + told again, <span class="tei tei-q">“that is the essence of this + ideal bravery. No one can possess this virtue who does not feel + within himself the centre <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page041">[pg 041]</span><a name="Pg041" id="Pg041" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> about which life gravitates; whoever + pursues exterior things as his ultimate end cannot penetrate to + interior freedom. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Spinoza</span></span>, by life and teaching, + is a great preacher of this freedom”</span> (Ibid. II, p. 27). + Self-consciousness as arrogant as that of a pantheist like + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Spinoza</span></span>, who indeed did not + pursue <span class="tei tei-q">“exterior things as the ultimate + end,”</span> nor God either; the self-consciousness in which man + feels himself the centre about which world and life revolve; the + will which now directs thought on its way,—these are the + life-nerves of autonomous free-thought.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">In fact, inclination and will, not objective + truth, are the measure and norm of free-thought. This</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Paulsen</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">again expresses with astonishing + candour. According to him, intelligence is after all nothing else + than a transformation of the will, this doctrine is rooted in the + more modern voluntaristic monism, and is akin to subjectivism. If + our cognition itself forms its object, then the real concept of + cognition has been lost to us, and in its place we have the will + determining the action even of the intellect.</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Paulsen</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">says emphatically,</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Intelligence is an instrument of the will in + the service of preservation of life.... Perhaps it can be said + that even the elementary formations of thought, the logical and + metaphysical forms of reality, are already codetermined by the + will. If the forms of abstract thought are at all the result of + biological evolution, then this must be accepted: they are + formations and conceptions of reality, which have proved + effective and life-preserving, and have therefore attained + their object. The principle of identity is in reality not a + mere statement, not an indicative, but an imperative: A is A; + that is, what I have put down as A shall be A and remain A.... + If this be so, if thought and cognition be determined + fundamentally by the will, then it is altogether unintelligible + how it might finally turn against the will, and force upon it a + view against its will</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Kant's</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Verhaeltniss zur Metaphysik, 1900, + p. 31 f.).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">We have to do here with a confusion of ideas + possible only when correct reasoning has sunk to a surprisingly + low level. To think with the will, to draw conclusions with + intention, is degenerate thinking. But now we understand better + what is meant by autonomy of thought. It gives man license to + disregard by shallow reasoning everything that clashes with his + own will.</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">What I + have put down as A shall be A and remain A!</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is now + clear that subjectivism and autonomism in thinking are rooted in + the positive disregard of objective truth, in the refusal of an + unconditional subjection to it; they mean <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">emancipation from + the truth</span></em>. Here we have the most striking and + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">deepest + difference</span></em> between modern subjectivistic and + Christian objective thought. The latter adheres to the old + conviction that our thoughts do not make the truth, but are + subject <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page042">[pg + 042]</span><a name="Pg042" id="Pg042" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + to an objective order of things as a norm. For this reason + autonomous freedom and subjective caprice, a manner of reasoning + that would approach truth as a lawgiver, and even change it + according to time and circumstance, are unintelligible in the + Christian objective thought. This thought submits unselfishly to + truth wherever met, be it without a divine revelation or with it, + if the revelation be but vouched for. And the reward of this + unselfishness is the preservation of the truth.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But + subjectivism, with its freedom, leads inevitably to the loss of + the truth; it is scepticism in principle, in fact, if my thoughts + are not a counterpart of an objective world, but only a + subjectively produced image; not knowledge of an external + reality, but only a figment of the imagination, a projection, + then I can have no assurance that they are more than an empty + dream.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">The Modern Separation of Knowledge + and Faith.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of course it + would be too much to expect that subjectivism in modern thought + and scientific work should go to the very limit, viz., to + disregard all reasoning, to advance at will any theory whatever, + to silence disagreeable critics by merely referring to one's + autonomy in thinking, and denying that any one can attain to + absolute truth. Errors in empirical speculation never prosper as + others do; the power of natural evidence asserts itself at every + step, and tears down the artificial cobwebs of apparently + scientific scepticism. It asserts itself less strongly where the + opposing power of natural evidence is weaker, than is the case in + matters of actual sense-experience. Here indeed one sees the + objective reality before him, which he cannot fashion according + to his caprice. The astronomer has no thought of creating his own + starry sky, nor does the archæologist wish to create out of his + own mind the history of ancient nations. They both desire to know + and to reveal the reality. But in the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">suprasensible + sphere</span></em>, in dealing with questions of the whence and + whither of human life, where there is question of religion and + morals, there autonomy and scepticism assert themselves as though + they were <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page043">[pg + 043]</span><a name="Pg043" id="Pg043" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + in their own country, there the free-thinker steps in, boasting + of his independence and taking for his motto the axiom of ancient + sophistry: the measure of all things is man.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Here at the + same time the natural product of subjectivism, sceptic + agnosticism, has full sway. In such matters, we are told, there + is no certain truth; nothing can be proved, nothing refuted: they + are all matters of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">faith</span></em>—not faith, of course, in + the Catholic sense. The latter is the acceptance by reason of + recognized divine testimony, hence an act of the intellect. The + modern so-called faith, on the contrary, is not an act of the + intellect, but is supposed to be a vague <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">feeling</span></em>, a want, a longing and + striving after the divine in one's innermost soul, which divine + is then to be grasped by the soul in some mysterious way as + something immediately present in it. This feeling is said to + emerge from the subconsciousness of the soul, and to raise in the + mind those images and symbols which we encounter in the doctrines + of the various religions, varying according to times and men. + They are only the symbols for that unutterable experience of the + divine, which can be as little expressed by definitions and + tenets as sounds can by colour. It is a conviction of the ideal + and divine, but different from the conviction of reason; it is an + inner, actual experience. Hence there can no longer be absolute + religious truth, no unchangeable dogmas, which would have to be + adhered to forever. In religion, in views of the world and life, + the free feeling of the human subject holds sway, a feeling that + experiences and weaves together those thoughts and ideals that + are in accord with his individuality. This is the modern + doctrine.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The dark + mysticism of the ancient East and the agnosticism of modern times + here join hands. This modern method of separating knowledge and + faith is, as we all know, a prominent feature of modern thought. + Knowledge, that is, cognition by reason, is said to exist only in + the domain of the natural sciences and history. Of what may be + beyond these we can have no true knowledge. Here, too, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kant</span></span> has led the way; for the + important result of his criticism is his incessant injunction: we + can have true knowledge only of empiric objects, never of things + lying beyond the experience of the senses; our ideas are + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page044">[pg 044]</span><a name= + "Pg044" id="Pg044" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> merely subjective + constructions of the reason which obtain weight and meaning only + by applying them to objects of sense experiment. Hence God, + immortality, freedom, and the like, remain forever outside the + field of our theoretical or cognitive reason. Nevertheless + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kant</span></span> did not like to drop + these truths. Hence he constructed for himself a conviction of + another kind. The <span class="tei tei-q">“practical + reason”</span> is to guide man's action in accomplishing the task + in which her more timid sister, theoretical reason, failed. And + it does it, too. It simply <span class= + "tei tei-q">“postulates”</span> these truths; they are its + <span class="tei tei-q">“<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">postulates</span></em>,”</span> since + without them moral life and moral order, which it is bound to + recognize, would be impossible. No one knows, of course, whether + this be truth, but it ought to be truth. <span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Stat pro ratione voluntas.</span></span> The + Gordian knot is cut. <span class="tei tei-q">“It is so,”</span> + the will now cries from the depths of the soul, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“I believe it”</span>; while the intellect stands + hesitatingly by protesting <span class="tei tei-q">“I don't know + whether it is so or not.”</span> Doubt and conviction embrace + each other; Yes and No meet peacefully. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“I had to suspend knowledge,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kant</span></span> + suggests, <span class="tei tei-q">“in order to make room for + faith”</span> (Kritik der reinen Vernunft, 2. Vorrede). + <span class="tei tei-q">“It is an exigency of pure practical + reason based on duty,”</span> he further comments on his + postulate, <span class="tei tei-q">“to make something the highest + good, the object of my will, in order to further it with all my + power. Herein, however, I have to assume its possibility, and + therefore its conditions, viz., God, freedom, and immortality, + because I cannot prove them by speculative reason, nor yet + disprove them.”</span> Thus <span class="tei tei-q">“the just man + may say I wish that there be a God; I insist upon it, I will not + have my faith taken from me”</span> (Kritik der prakt. Vernunft, + 1. Teil, 2. Buch, 2 VIII).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Others have + followed the lead of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kant</span></span>. For philosophers, + Protestant theologians, and modernists, he has become the pilot + in whom they trust.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Kant's</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">critical + philosophy,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">says</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Paulsen</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">gives to + knowledge what belongs to it—the entire world of phenomena, for + the freest investigation; on the other hand, it gives to faith + its eternal right, viz., the interpretation of life and the + world according to their value</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">(Immanuel Kant, 1898, 6).</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Faith does not simply rest upon proofs, but + upon practical necessity</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">;</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">it does + not come from the intellect, but from the heart and + will</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(Einleitung in die Philosophie, + 10th ed.,</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page045">[pg + 045]</span><a name="Pg045" id="Pg045" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">1903, 271, + 269).</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Religion + is not a science, hence it cannot be proved nor + disproved.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Therefore + man's view of the world does not depend on the intellect, but + solely on his will.... The ultimate and highest truths, truths + by which man lives and for which he dies, have not their source + in scientific knowledge, but come from the heart and from the + individual will.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">In a similar strain</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">R. + Falkenberg</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">writes:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The views of the world growing out of the + chronology of the human race, as the blossoms of a general + process of civilization, are not so much thoughts as rhythms of + thinking, not theories but views, saturated with + appreciations.... Not only optimism and pessimism, determinism + and doctrine of freedom, but also pantheism and individualism, + idealism and materialism, even rationalism and sensualism, have + their roots ultimately in the affections, and even while + working with the tools of reason remain for the most part + matters of faith, sentiment, and resolve</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(Geschichte der neuen Philosophie, 5th ed., + 1905, p. 3).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">You may look up any books or magazines of + modern philosophy or Protestant theology, and you will find in + all of them</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">that + faith is a kind of conviction for which there is no need of + proof</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(</span><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">H. + Luedemann</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, Prot. + Monatshefte IX, 1903, 367). This emotional faith has been + introduced into Protestant theology especially by</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Schleiermacher</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">. + It is also this view of the more recent philosophy that the + modernists have adopted. They themselves confess:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The</span> <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">modernists</span></em> + <span style="font-size: 90%">in accord with modern psychology + distinguish clearly between knowledge and faith. The + intellectual processes which lead to them appear to the + modernists altogether foreign to and independent of one + another. This is one of our fundamental + principles</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(Programma dei Modernisti (1908), + 121).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Religious instruction for children will then + have to become altogether different. The demand is already made + for</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">a recast + of thought from the sphere of the intellect into the sphere of + affection.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Away, so they clamour, away with + the dogmas of creation, of Christ as the Son of God, of His + miracles, as taught in the old schools! For all these are + religious ideas. Pupils of the higher grades should be + told</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">the plain + truth about the degree of historicity in elementary religious + principles.... The fundamental idea of religion can neither be + created nor destroyed by teaching, it has its seat in + sentiment, like—excuse the term—an insane + idea</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(</span><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Fr. + Niebergall</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + Christliche Welt, 1909, p. 43).</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This dualism + of <span class="tei tei-q">“faith”</span> and knowledge is as + untenable as it is common. It is a psychological <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">impossibility</span></em> as well as a sad + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">degradation of religion</span></em>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">How can I + seriously believe, and seriously hold for true, a view of the + world of which I do not know whether it be really true, when the + intellect unceasingly whispers in my ear: it is all imagination! + As long as faith is a conviction so long must it be an activity + of the intellect. With my feeling and will I may indeed + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page046">[pg 046]</span><a name= + "Pg046" id="Pg046" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> wish that + something be true; but to wish simply that there be a God is not + to be convinced that there actually is a God. By merely longing + and desiring I can be as little convinced as I can make progress + in virtue by the use of my feet, or repent of sins by a + toothache. It is μετάβασις εἰς ἄλλο γένος. A dualism of this + kind, between head and heart, doubt and belief, between the No of + the mind and the Yes of the heart, is a process incompatible with + logic and psychology. How could such a dualism be maintained for + any length of time? It may perhaps last longer in one in whom a + vivid imagination has dimmed the clearness of intellect; but + where the intellectual life is clear, reason will very soon + emancipate itself from a deceptive imagination. One may go on + dreaming of ideal images, but as soon as the intellect awakens + they vanish. Hallucinations are taken for real while the mind is + affected, but they pass away the moment it sees clearly.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Kant</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">himself, the father of modern + agnostic mysticism, has made it quite clear that his postulates + of faith concerning the existence of God and the immortality of + the soul, have never taken in him the place of earnest + conviction. Thus in the first place</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Kant</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">holds that there are no duties + towards God, since He is merely a creature of our mind.</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Since this + idea proceeds entirely from ourselves, and is a product of ours, + we have here before us a postulated being towards whom we cannot + have an obligation; for its reality would have to be proved first + by experience (or revealed)</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">; + but</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%"> + “</span><span style="font-size: 90%">to have religion is a duty + man owes to himself.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">Again, he dislikes an oath, he asks whether an + oath be possible and binding, since we swear only on condition + that there is a God (without, however, stipulating it, as + did</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Protagoras</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">). + And he thinks that</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">in fact + all oaths taken honestly and discreetly have been taken in no + other sense</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(Metaphysik der Sitten, II, § 18, + Beschluss).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Prayer</span></em> + <span style="font-size: 90%">he dislikes still more.</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Prayer,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">he says,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">as an internal form of cult, and therefore + considered as a means of grace, is a superstitious delusion + (feticism).... A hearty wish to please God in all our actions, + that is, a disposition present in all our actions to perform + them as if in the service of God, is a spirit of prayer that + can and ought to be our perpetual guide.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">By this desire, the spirit of prayer, man + seeks to influence only himself; by prayer, since man expresses + himself in words, hence outwardly, he seeks to influence God. + In the former sense a prayer can be made with all sincerity, + though man does not pretend to assert the existence of God + fully established; in the latter form, as an address, he + assumes this highest Being as personally present, or at least + pretends that he is convinced of its presence, in the belief + that even if it should not be so it can do him no harm, + on</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page047">[pg + 047]</span><a name="Pg047" id="Pg047" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">the contrary + it may win him favour; hence in the latter form of actual + prayer we shall not find the sincerity as perfect as in the + former. The truth of this last remark any one will find + confirmed when he imagines to himself a pious and well-meaning + man, but rather backward in regard to such advanced religious + ideas, surprised by another man while, I will not say praying + aloud, but only in an attitude of prayer; any one will expect, + without my saying so, that that man will be confused, as if he + were in a condition of which he ought to be ashamed. But why + this? A man caught talking aloud to himself raises at once the + suspicion that his mind is slightly deranged; and not + altogether wrongly, because one would seem out of mind if found + all alone making gestures as though he had somebody else before + him; that, however, is the case in the example + given</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(Religion innerhalb der Grenzen + der blossen Vernunft, 4. Stueck, 2, § 4, Allgemeine Anmerkung). + Thus it happens that in his opinion those who have advanced in + perfection cease to pray.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Nor does it seem that</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Kant</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">is serious about his postulate of + the</span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">immortality</span></em> + <span style="font-size: 90%">of the soul. Asked by</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Lacharpe</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">what he thought of the soul, he + did not answer at first, but remarked, when the question was + repeated:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">We must + not make too much boast of it</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">H. + Hettner</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, Literat. + Gesch. des 18. Jahrh., III, 4. ed., 3, p. 26. From</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Varnhausen's</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">Denkwuerdigkeiten).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Thousands have with</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Kant</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">destroyed their religious + conviction by a boastful scepticism, and, like him, finally + given it up to replace its lack by artificial + autosuggestions.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And is not the + religious life of man thereby made completely valueless? The + highest truths on which the mind of man lives, and which from the + first stage of his existence not only interested but deeply + stirred him, become fiction, pictures of the fancy, suggestions + of an effeminate mind, that cannot make a lasting impression on + stronger minds. And how can the products of autosuggestion give + comfort and strength in hours of need and trial? It is true they + do not impose any obligations. Every one is free to form his own + notions of life; they are not to be taken seriously anyway, + whether they be this or that; they are all equally true and + equally false. Buddhism is just as true as Christianity, + Materialism as true as Spiritualism, Mohammedanism as true as + Quakerism, the wisdom of the Saints as true as the philosophy of + the worldly. <span class="tei tei-q">“The most beautiful flower + is growing on the same soil (that of the emotions) with the + rankest weed”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hegel</span></span>). The decision rests + with sentiments which admit of no arguing. Thus all is made over + to scepticism, to that constant doubting which degrades + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page048">[pg 048]</span><a name= + "Pg048" id="Pg048" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and unnerves the + higher life of modern times, to that <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">modern + agnosticism</span></em> which, though bearing the distinction of + aristocratic reserve, is in reality dulness and poverty of + intellect; not a perfection of the human intellect, but a hideous + disease, all the more dangerous because difficult to cure. It is + the neurasthenia of the intellect of which the physical + neurasthenia of our generation is the counterpart.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The + distinguishing mark between man and the lower animals has ever + been held to be that the former could knowingly step beyond the + sphere of the senses, into that world of which his intellect is a + part. The conviction has always prevailed that man by means of + his own valid laws of thought, for instance, the principle of + causality, could safely ascend from the visible world to an + invisible one. Thus also the physician concludes the interior + cause of the disease from the exterior symptoms, the physicist + thus comes to the knowledge of the existence of atoms and ions + which he has never seen, and the astronomer calculates with + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Leverrier</span></span> the existence and + location of stars which no eye has yet detected.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">One thing has + certainly been established: a <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">free + sentiment</span></em> can now assert itself with sovereignty in + the most important spheres of intellectual life, without any + barriers of stationary truths and immovable Christian dogmas; one + is now free to fashion his religion and ideals to suit the + <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">individuum + ineffabile</span></span>. The latter asks no longer what religion + demands of him, but rather how religion can serve his purposes. + <span class="tei tei-q">“For the gods,”</span> it is said, + <span class="tei tei-q">“which we now acknowledge, are those we + need, which we can use, whose demands confirm and strengthen our + own personal demands and those of our fellow-men.... We apply + thereby only the principle of elimination of everything + unsuitable to man, and of the survival of the fittest, to our own + religious convictions”</span>; <span class="tei tei-q">“we turn + to that religion which best suits our own individuality”</span> + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">W. + James</span></span>). Arrogant doubt can now undermine all + fundamental truths of Christian faith until they crumble to + pieces; beside it rises the free genius of the new religion, on + whose emblem the name of God is no longer emblazoned, but the + glittering seal of an independent humanity.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page049">[pg 049]</span><a name= + "Pg049" id="Pg049" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">Relative Truth.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Freedom of + thought appears still more justified when we take a further step + which brings us to the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">consequence of subjectivism</span></em>; + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span>, when we advance so far + as to assert that there are no unchangeable and in this sense no + absolute truths, but only temporary, changeable, relative truths. + And modern thought does profess this: there is no absolute truth, + no <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">religio et philosophia + perennis</span></span>; different principles and views are + justified and even necessary for different times and even + classes. This removes another barrier to freedom of thought, + viz., allegiance to generally accepted truths and to the + convictions of bygone ages.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The + logicalness of this further step can hardly be denied. If the + human intellect, independent of the laws of objective truth, + fashions its own object and truth, especially in things above the + senses, why can it not form for itself, at different periods and + in different stages of life, a different religion and another + view of the world? Cannot the human subject pass through + different phases? He indeed changes his costume and style of + architecture; why not also his thoughts? Every product of thought + would then be the right one for the time, but would be untenable + for a further stage of his intellectual genesis and growth, and + would have to be replaced by a new one. The nature of + subjectivistic thought is no longer an obstacle to this. Besides, + we have the modern idea of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">evolution</span></em>, already predominant + in all fields: the world, the species of plants and animals, man + himself with his whole life, his language, right, family, all of + them the products of a perpetual evolution, everything constantly + changing. Why not also his religion, morality, and view of the + world? They are only reflexes of a temporary state of + civilization. Hence also here motion and change, evolution into + new shapes!</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Therefore, so + it is said, we have now broken definitely with the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“dogmatic method of reasoning”</span> of the belief + in revelation, and of scholastic philosophy which adhered to + absolute truth. They are replaced by the historical-genetical + reasoning of the <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">saeculum + historicum</span></span> which <span class="tei tei-q">“has + discarded absolute truth: there are only relative, no eternal + truths”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Paulsen</span></span>, Immanuel <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page050">[pg 050]</span><a name="Pg050" id= + "Pg050" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Kant, 1898, 389). We are + further assured that <span class="tei tei-q">“this treatment of + the history of thought prevails in the scientific world; the + Catholic Church alone has not adopted it. She still clings to + dogmatic reasoning, and that is natural to her; she is sure that + she is in possession of the absolute truth”</span> (Idem, + Philosophia militans, 2d ed., 1901, 5). Outside of this Church + every period of time is free to construct its own theories, which + will eventually go with it as they came with it.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We meet this + relative truth, and all the indefinable hazy notions identified + with it, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">in all spheres</span></em>.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The modern history of philosophy and religion + concedes to every system and religion the right to their historic + position: they are necessary phases of evolution. The notion of + immutable problems and truths by which any system of thought + would have to be measured has been lost.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The appearance and rejection of a + system,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">says</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">J. + E. Erdmann</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">is a + necessity of world-history. The former was demanded by the + character of the time which the system reflected, the latter + again is demanded by the fact that the time has + changed</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(Grundriss der Geschichte der + Philosophie, 3rd, I, 1878, 4). And Professor</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Eucken</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">says:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Despite + all its advantages, such a view and construction of life is not + a definite truth, it remains an attempt, a problem that always + causes new discord among minds</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(Grundlinien einer neuen Lebensanschauung, + 1907, 2).</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Thus, if + according to</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Hegel</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">the coming into being constitutes + the truth of being, the ideals and aims also must share in the + mobility, and truth becomes a child of the times + (</span><span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">veritas + temporis filia</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">). + That apparently subjects life to a full-blown relativism, but + such a relativism has lost all its terror by the deterioration + of the older method of reasoning. For agreement with existing + truth is no longer its chief object.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(Geistige Stroemungen der Gegenwart, 1904, p. + 197). The new theory of knowledge assures us quite + generally:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">It is a + vain attempt to single out certain lasting primitive forms of + consciousness, acknowledged constant elements of the mind, to + retain them. Every</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">a-priori</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">’</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">principle which is thus maintained as an + unalienable dowry of thought, as a necessary result of its + psychological and physiological</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">disposition,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">’</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">will prove an obstacle of which the progress + of science will steer clear sooner or later</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">E. + Cassirer</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, Das + Erkenntnissproblem in der Philosophie und Wissenschaft der + neueren Zeit, 1906, 6).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">That this relativism is also laying hand, more + and more firmly, upon modern ethics is well known. One often + gets the conviction that, as</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">E. + Westermark</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">teaches,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">there is no absolute standard of + morality,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">that</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">there are no general + truths,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">that all + moral values,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">as Prof.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">R. Broda</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">writes,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">are relative and varying with every people, + every civilization, every society, every free + person</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(Dokumente des Fortschritts, 1908, + 362).</span></p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page051">[pg + 051]</span><a name="Pg051" id="Pg051" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus modern + subjectivism has lost all sense for definite rules of thought; in + its frantic rush for freedom and in its confused excitement it + seeks to upset all barriers. Now, of course, we may disregard + convictions thousands of years old, by simply observing that they + suited former ages but not the present; that they perhaps suit + the uneducated but not the educated. Henceforth one may also + reject the dogmas of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Christianity</span></em> by merely pointing + out that they were at one time of importance, but are not suited + to the modern man. That is an idea readily grasped, one which has + already become quite general with those who are mentally tired of + Christianity. What is demanded is a further evolution also of the + Christian religion, a continuous cultivation of freer, higher + forms, an undogmatic Christianity without duty to believe, + without a Church: nothing else, in the end, but a veiled + humanitarian religion.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">It will be difficult for coming generations to + understand,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">says</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Paulsen</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + in the same sense,</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">how our + time could cling in religious instruction with such peace of + mind to a system which, having originated several centuries ago + under entirely different conditions of intellectual life, + stands in striking contrast to facts and ideas accepted by our + time everywhere outside the schools.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">Hence a revision of the fundamental truths of + Christianity is needed. Away with everything supernatural and + miraculous, obedience to faith, original sin, redemption: all + this sounds strange to the modern man.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">So there remains but one way: to adapt the + doctrine of the Church to the theories and views of our + times</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(System der Ethik, 8th ed., 1906, + II, pp. 247, 250). And</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Eucken</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">says similarly:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">We can + adopt the doctrinal system of the Church only by retiring from + the present back to the past</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(Zeitschr. fuer Philosophie u. Phil. Kritik + 112, 1898, 165). Therefore we demand evolution of the Christian + religion!</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Let us + not blindly follow antiquated doctrines disposed of by + science,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">we are exhorted.</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Let there + be no fear lest our belief in God and true piety suffer by it! + Let us remember that everything earthly is in continual motion, + carried along by the rushing river of life.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">Onward, therefore, to advancement! ... + cheerfully avowing the watchword:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">evolution of religion</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">(</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Fr. + Delitzsch</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, Zweiter + Vortrag ueber Babel u. Bibel, 45. thousand, 1904, + 42).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Modern Protestant theology has achieved a + great deal in this direction; its evolution has progressed to a + complete disintegration of Christianity, by adapting it to + modern ideas so thoroughly that there is not a single thought + left which this Christianity, reduced to meaningless words, + might not accept.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This is the + relativism of the present subjectivistic reasoning and its + consequences.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page052">[pg + 052]</span><a name="Pg052" id="Pg052" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Now, it is + true that there is room for a certain relativity and evolution in + the field of thought and truth. There is a relative truth in the + sense that our knowledge of it is never exhaustive. Even the + eternal truths of the Christian religion we always know only + imperfectly, and we ought to perfect our knowledge continually; + established facts of history can also be known, if studied, in + greater detail. Thus there is progress and evolution. But from + this we may not conclude that there can be no fixed truths at + all. In the astronomy of to-day one can surely have the + conviction that the fundamental truths of <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Copernicus's</span></span> System of the + Universe must remain an unchangeable truth, and that the time + will never come when we shall go back to the obsolete doctrines + of old <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ptolemy</span></span>, who made the sun + revolve around the earth. Is astronomy therefore excluded from + progress and evolution? It is moreover true that the individual + as well as the community pass through an intellectual evolution + in the sense that they gradually increase their knowledge and + correct their errors, that literature and the schools gradually + enhance the energy and wealth of our ideas and thoughts.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But a + progressive change of the laws of thought, to the effect that we + must now hold to a proposition which at another time we should + naturally reject as untenable, can be maintained only upon the + supposition that the thought of evolution has driven all others + out of the intellect. It would be absurd to hold that the same + view could be true at one time and false at another, that the + same views about the world and life could be right to-day and + wrong to-morrow, to be accepted to-day and rejected to-morrow. A + view is either true or false. If true, it is always true and + warranted. Or was old <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Thales</span></span> right when he declared + the world to consist of water; were <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Plato</span></span> + and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Aristotle</span></span> right in maintaining + that it consisted of ideas, or forms, with real existences; was + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Fichte</span></span> and his time right with + his Ego, and are finally <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Schopenhauer</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Wundt</span></span>, and <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Paulsen</span></span> right in claiming the + world to be the work of the will? Were our heroic ancestors + right, as the theories of evolution claim, in holding that trees + are inhabited by ghosts; were then the Greeks right with their + idea of a host of gods dwelling in the Olympus; and later + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page053">[pg 053]</span><a name= + "Pg053" id="Pg053" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> on, was the + civilized world right in holding that there is but one God, a + personal one; and, after that, are many others of to-day right + when they tell us that the world, and nature itself, is god? + These are conclusions that threaten confusion to the human brain. + And yet they are the logical consequences of <span class= + "tei tei-q">“relative truth,”</span> and any one reluctant to + accept these consequences would prove thereby that he has never + realized what absurdities are marketed as relative truth.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Or shall we + give it up, as entirely impossible, to judge of the truth or + falseness of doctrines and views? Are we to value them only so + far as they are adapted to a period, and as moulding and + benefiting that period? This opinion indeed is held. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The values of science and philosophy,”</span> says + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Paulsen</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“of our arts and poetry, consist in what they give + us; whether a distant future will still use them is very + questionable. Scholastic philosophy has passed away; we use it no + longer; that is, however, no proof against its value; if it has + made the generations living in the latter half of the Middle Ages + more intelligent and wise ... then it has done all that could + rightfully be expected of it: having served its purpose, it may + be laid with the dead: there is no philosophy of enduring + value.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“Whatever new ideas a + people produces from its own inner nature will be beneficial to + it. Nature may be confidently expected to produce here and + everywhere at the right time what is proper and necessary”</span> + (System der Ethik, 8th ed., 1906, I, 339, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">seq.</span></span>, + II, 241).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We have here a + very deplorable misconception of the real value of truth, + degrading it to suit passing interests and to promote them. This + also is in conformity with subjectivism. But what could be + answered to the straight question: suppose the opinions which + some prefer to call <span class="tei tei-q">“false”</span> are + more useful and valuable than <span class= + "tei tei-q">“truth”</span>? None but <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Nietzsche</span></span> had the courage to + say that <span class="tei tei-q">“the falsity of a judgment is + not yet a sufficient prejudice against it; here our new speech + will perhaps sound strangest. The question is: How far is that + judgment life-promoting, life-sustaining, preservative, even + creative of species, and we are inclined, on principle, to say + that the falsest judgments are to us the most + indispensable”</span> (Jenseits <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page054">[pg 054]</span><a name="Pg054" id="Pg054" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> von Gut und Boese, I, 4, W. W. VII, 12.) + The view that doctrines and opinions become especially or + exclusively true and valuable by their usefulness for practical + life, has become in our times the principle of pragmatism.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What others + thought out only half way, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Nietzsche</span></span> reasons out to the + end.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">To what lengths this contempt of objective truth + may lead a man of such an honest character as</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Paulsen</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + is learned from his advice to the modern Protestant preacher + who can no longer believe what he has to preach to his orthodox + congregation: he may speak just as suits his congregation, + orthodox as well as unorthodox, according to the principles of + relative truth.</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Let us + assume,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">he says,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">that his congregation is of a remote country + village, where not the slightest report of the happenings in + theology and literature has penetrated, where the names + of</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Strauss</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">and</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Renan</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">are as little heard as those + of</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Kant</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">and</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Schleiermacher</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">. + Here the Bible is still taken to be the literal Word of God, + transmitted to us by holy men commissioned to do it. In this + case the preacher may speak without scruple of that book in the + same way as his present hearers are used to. Would he thus be + saying what is wrong? What is meant by saying the Bible is the + Word of God? The same preacher, if transferred to other + surroundings where he has to address readers of</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Strauss</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">and</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Kant</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + may change his manner of speaking without changing his view or + without violating the truth one way or the other. He would be + speaking to them from their own point of view.... Again, should + the same preacher publish his philosophical scientific + research, he could speak of Holy Scripture in an entirely + different way....</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">And he adds:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Some have taken exception to this + opinion.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Surely not without + reason!</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">A justification of this counsel was attempted + in these words:</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Just as the electric incandescent light and + the tallow-candle may exist side by side, and as each of them + may serve its purpose in its proper place, so there exist also + side by side various physical and metaphysical ideas and + fundamental notions: the scientist and the philosopher and the + old grandmother in her cottage on the remote mountain-side, + cannot think of the world in the same way</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(Ethik II, 240-244). But the argument, if it + should prove anything, must be formulated thus:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">As the + incandescent light can at the same time be a tallow-candle, + just so can two different and opposite views about one and the + same thing be at the same time both right.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus, thanks + to the science of modern subjectivism, every fixed and + unchangeable truth, especially in the sphere of philosophy and + religion, is removed, and with it also every barrier to freedom + of thought in science as well as elsewhere. The human + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page055">[pg 055]</span><a name= + "Pg055" id="Pg055" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> intellect in its + autonomous self-consciousness may not only reject those truths + which are proposed by revelation or the Church; it may not only + experience its views of religion and the world by giving free + activity to its feelings, it also knows that to be no longer + satisfied with the old truths means to be progressive.</p> + + <div class="tei tei-tb"> + <hr style="width: 50%" /> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Above we have + sketched the deeper-lying thoughts on which the liberal freedom + of science is based; it is the humanitarian view of the world + with its emancipation of man, and autonomous scepticism in + thought, joined to that sceptical disregard of truth which once + the representative of expiring pagan antiquity comprised in the + words: <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">Quid est + veritas?</span></span> Now we also understand better the liberal + science which often claims the privilege of being <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the”</span> science, and which only too often likes + to put down as unwarranted and inferior every other science that + does not pursue its investigations in the same way. We understand + its methods of thought in philosophy and religion, for which it + claims an exclusive privilege; we can also form a judgment of its + claim to be the leader of humanity in place of faith.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">No doubt there + are many who are flirting with this freedom without accepting its + principles entirely. They do not reason out the thing to the end, + they argue against the invasion of the Church into the field of + science, and point to <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span>; they denounce Index + and Syllabus, and then believe they have therewith exhausted the + meaning of freedom of science. That the real matter in question + is a view of the world diametrically opposed to the Christian + view, that a changed theory of cognition is underlying it, is by + many but insufficiently realized.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This freedom + is not acceptable to one who professes the Christian view of the + world. He will not offer any feeble apology to the eulogist of + this freedom, as, for instance: Indeed you are quite right about + your freedom, but please remember that I, too, as a faithful + Christian am entitled to profess freedom. No; the answer can only + be: Freedom, yes; but <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">this</span></em> freedom, no. A wholly + different view of the world separates me from it. I see in it not + freedom but rebellion, not the <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page056">[pg 056]</span><a name="Pg056" id="Pg056" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> rights of man but upheaval, not a real boon + of mankind but real danger.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The principle + of liberalism has in the field of social economy already done + enough to wreck man's welfare. It has here proved its + incompetence as a factor of civilization. That in science also, + where it is active in the field of philosophy and religion, + liberalism is the principle of overthrowing true science, without + any appreciation for truth and human nature, that it is a + principle of intellectual pauperism and decay, that it despoils + man of his greatest treasures, inherited from better + centuries—this we shall prove conclusively.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is + difficult to say how long the high tide of liberalism will sweep + over the fields of modern intellectual life before it subsides. + One thing, however, is certain, that just so long it will remain + a danger to Christian civilization, and to the intellectual life + of mankind.</p> + </div> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page057">[pg 057]</span><a name= + "Pg057" id="Pg057" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc15" id="toc15"></a> <a name="pdf16" id="pdf16"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Second Section. Freedom of Research and + Faith.</span></h1><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page059">[pg + 059]</span><a name="Pg059" id="Pg059" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc17" id="toc17"></a> <a name="pdf18" id="pdf18"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">Chapter I. Research And Faith In + General.</span></h2> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">Introduction.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When the youth + growing to maturity begins to feel the development of his own + strength, it may happen that he finds his dependence on home + unbearably trying. Perhaps he will say, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Father, give me the portion of substance that + falleth to me,”</span> and then depart into a strange + country.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The men of + Europe have for centuries lived in the Christian religion as in + their fathers' house, and have fared well. But to many children + of our time the old homestead has become too confining. Modern + man, we are told, has at last come to his senses. He wants to + develop his personality, thoughts, and sentiments freely, + independently of every authority. He turns his back on his + father's house. His parting words are the accusation: The old + Church <span class="tei tei-q">“opposes the modern principles of + free individuality, the right to drain the cup of one's own + reason and personal life, and it sets itself against the whole of + modern feeling, investigation, and activity”</span> (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Th. + Ziegler</span></span>, Gesch. der Ethik, II, 2d ed., 1892, p. + 589).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We are already + acquainted with this freedom. We approach now the main question: + What is the true relation of the freedom, which man may rightly + claim for his scientific activity and reason, to external laws + and regulations? Is man really justified to reject them all on + the plea that they degrade his intellect and are an obstacle to + his development, or does this rejection but manifest an error + into which his desire of freedom has decoyed him? This is the + question, it will be remembered, that we reached soon in the + beginning of our investigation. We have already found the + categorical answer—an emphatic rejection of such justification; + we also traced the hypotheses on <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page060">[pg 060]</span><a name="Pg060" id="Pg060" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> which the answer rests. We now return to + the question to discuss it in principle. We begin with the + freedom of scientific <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">research</span></em>, in order to take up + afterwards the freedom in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">teaching</span></em>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What are those + external powers that may interrupt or caution the scientist in + his investigations and problems? Here we do not yet consider the + scientist as a teacher, communicating to the public the result of + his investigation, his ideas and views, from the university chair + to his scientific audience, or to a wider circle of hearers by + means of publications; we here regard him in his private study + only, in the pursuit of which he perhaps encounters new + questions, and new solutions suggest themselves to him. What + freedom can he and must he enjoy here? This private freedom must + evidently be judged from a point of view other than that from + which the freedom in teaching should be judged. With the latter, + the interests of his contemporaries must be taken into account, + and the question must be considered, whether they suffer by such + teaching. The freedom of the scientist is greater than that of + the teacher. Moreover, research is the principal and most + important activity of science: nothing, surely, is taught that + has not been previously investigated. If, therefore, research is + in any way restricted, so also is teaching; but not <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">vice + versa</span></span>. Are there, then, exterior authorities that + may restrain research and reasoning, and what are they?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">One who lives + in the Christian world knows at once of what authority to think. + It is not the state. The state cannot directly influence the + private work of the student: if it may exert its influence + directly upon anything, it is only upon freedom in teaching. No, + the authority to think of is the authority of the faith, revealed + religion and its guardian, the Church.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of course, + this is not the only authority. Even if a revelation from heaven + had not been given us, yet those <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">general + convictions of mankind</span></em>, common to all nations and + times, of the immutability of the laws of thought and morality, + of the existence of a supramundane God, of the retribution for + moral conduct to be made in the world to come, of the sanctity of + state-authority, of the necessity of private property, and + others, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page061">[pg + 061]</span><a name="Pg061" id="Pg061" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + would ever remain most revered utterances of truth. No one would + be allowed to contradict this avowal of all mankind, relying on + his own reasoning, which he calls science, and give the lie to + the reasoning of all other men, in order to make his own reason + the sole measure of truth.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But for the + present let us pass over the natural authority of mankind, of its + convictions and traditions. It is surpassed and replaced by the + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">authority of faith</span></em> which belongs + to <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">our + Christian religion</span></em>. The latter comes to us claiming + to possess the only true view of the world, and laying upon us + the obligation of accepting it. It has even the courage to put + its anathema upon propositions which the scientist may call + science; it dares write out a list of the propositions which it + condemns as untenable. Against this authority the protest is + raised: Where is freedom of research, if one cannot even indulge + in his own ideas, if the intellect is to be cropped and fettered? + What is to become of frank, unprejudiced investigation, if I am + from the outset bound to certain propositions, if from the outset + the result at which I must arrive is already determined? It is + intellectual bondage that the man of faith is languishing in. + Thus reads the indictment; thus sounds the battle-cry. Is the + indictment justified? Can and shall science take faith as a guide + in many instances without detriment to its own innate freedom? + And where, and when?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">First, the + more general question: Is freedom of research compatible with the + duty to believe, or do they exclude each other in principle?</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">What Faith is Not.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What, then, is + faith, and what does the duty to believe demand of us?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Here we meet + at once with a false proposition which the opponents of the + Christian faith will not abandon. To them faith is always a blind + assent, in giving which one does not ask, nor dare ask, whether + the proposition be true—<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">a belief without personal + conviction</span></em>. According to them the believer holds + himself <span class="tei tei-q">“captive to the teaching of his + Church. He cannot reflect personally, but follows blindly the + lead of authority and <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page062">[pg + 062]</span><a name="Pg062" id="Pg062" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + force of habit.”</span> Thus <span class="tei tei-q">“Catholicism + is the religion of bondage”</span> (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">W. + Wundt</span></span>, Ethik, 3d ed., 1903, II, 255, 254). To them + it is but an <span class="tei tei-q">“uncritical submission to + the existing authority, uninfluenced either by the testimony of + the senses or the reflection of the intellect”</span> + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">K. + Menger</span></span>, Neue Freie Presse, 24 Nov., 1907). The + campaign for liberal science is denouncing those who <span class= + "tei tei-q">“even to-day dare to demand blind faith,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-q">“without proof or criticism,”</span> + faith in the <span class="tei tei-q">“word of the Popes and men + pretending to be interpreters and emissaries of God, men who have + proved their incompetence and inability by the physical and + religious coercion to which they have subjected mankind”</span> + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">T. G. + Masaryk</span></span>, V boji o nábozenstvi, The Battle for + Religion, 1904, p. 10, 23).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To be sure, if + the Christian faith were such, it would be intellectual slavery. + If I am compelled to believe something of which I cannot know the + truth, this is coercion, and conflicts with the nature of the + intellect and its right to truth. Infidelity would then be + liberation. But faith is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">not</span></em> that.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As a rule this + view is based on a presumption, which has already been + extensively discussed, viz., that faith and religion have nothing + at all to do with intellectual activity, but are merely the + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">product + of the heart</span></em>, a sentimental, freely acting notion; + for, of metaphysical objects no human intellect can form a + certain conviction. It is subjectivism that leads to this view. + According to it the subject creates its own world of thought, + free in action and feeling, not indeed everywhere,—in the sphere + of sense-experience the evidence of the concrete is too + great,—but at least in the sphere of metaphysical truth.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Such modes of + expression find their way also into Catholic literature and + language; even here we meet with the assertion that religion is a + matter of the heart, and for that very reason has nothing to do + with science. On the whole it is a remarkable fact that among + believing men many expressions are current that have been coined + in the mint of modern philosophy, and have there received a + special significance. They are used without real knowledge of + their origin and purposed meaning; but the words do not fail to + colour their ideas, and to create imperceptibly a strange train + of thought.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page063">[pg + 063]</span><a name="Pg063" id="Pg063" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">One who is of + the opinion that religion and views of the world are but + sentiment and feeling, which change with one's personality and + individuality, can, of course, no longer understand a dogmatic + Christianity and the obligation to hold fast to clearly defined + dogmas as unchangeable truth. I can hold dogmas and doctrinal + decisions to be unquestionably true only when I can <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">convince myself + of their credibility</span></em> by the judgment of my reason. If + I cannot do that, and am still bound to believe them, without the + least doubt, then such obedience is compulsory repression of the + reason. Then it would indeed be necessary for the Church, as + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kant</span></span> says, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“to instil into its flock a pious dread of the least + deviation from certain articles of faith based on history, and a + dread of all investigation, to such a degree that they dare not + let a doubt rise, even in thought, against the articles proposed + for their belief, because this would be tantamount to lending an + ear to the evil spirit”</span> (Religion innerhalb der Grenzen + der blossen Vernunft, 3. Stueck, 2. Abtlg.). Fixed dogmas may + then at the very most, according to the great master of modern + thought, be of pedagogic value to a minor, until he be grown to + maturity. But to more advanced minds must be unconditionally + conceded the freedom to construct dogmas as they think best, + viz., as symbols and images for the subjective thought they + underlie. This also, as is well known, is an article of + Modernism, which here again follows in the steps of <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kant</span></span>.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Ecclesiastical faith,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">says</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Kant</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">may be + useful as a vehicle to minors who can grasp a purely rational + religion only through symbols, until in the course of time, + owing to the general enlightenment, they can with the consent + of everybody exchange the form of degrading means of coercion + for an ecclesiastical form suitable to the dignity of a moral + religion—that of free faith.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The membranes,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">he says in another place,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">in which the embryo first shaped itself into + man must be cast off, if he is to see the light of day. The + apron-strings of sacred tradition with its appendages, viz., + the statutes and observances which at one time did good + service, can gradually be dispensed with; they may even become + a harmful hindrance when one is growing to + manhood.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of course, to + him who takes the position of <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kant's</span></span> <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dualism of belief + and rational judgment</span></em>, freedom from every authority + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page064">[pg 064]</span><a name= + "Pg064" id="Pg064" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> in matters of + faith, and in this sense tolerance, will appear to be + self-evident. Whatever has nothing to do with knowledge, but is + merely the personal result of an inner, subjective experience, + cannot be offered by external authority as matter for + instruction. The sole standard for this belief is the autonomous + subject and its own needs. In this sense <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Harnack</span></span> tells us: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The kernel of one's being is to be grasped in its + own depths and the soul is merely to recognize its own needs and + the road traced out for their gratification. This can only be + done with the fullest freedom. Any restraint here is tantamount + to the destruction of the problem; any submission to the teaching + of others ... is treason to one's own religion”</span> + (Religioeser Glaube und freie Forschung. Neue Freie Presse, 7. + Juni, 1908). To have one's religion determined by any authority, + even a divine one, would be treason to the sovereignty of + man!</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Viewed from + this standpoint, the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">reconciliation between faith and + science</span></em> is no longer a problem. And they congratulate + themselves on the solution of this vexing question. Now, they + say, deliverance from an oppressive misery has been found, now + the peace sought for so long is restored. A fair division has + been made: two worlds, the world of the senses, and the world + above sense experience. One belongs to science, where it now + rules supreme; the other belongs to faith, where it can move + freely, undisturbed by, and even unapproachable to science. Just + as the stars in the sky are inaccessible to the custodian of + civil order,—he can neither support them nor hinder them, nor + pull them down,—just so the realm of faith is inaccessible to + science: peace reigns everywhere.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Cheered on by this treaty of peace,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Paulsen</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">writes:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Thus critical philosophy has solved the old + problem of the relation of knowledge to faith.</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Kant</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">is convinced that by properly + setting the limits he has succeeded in laying the foundation + for real and enduring peace between them. In fact, upon this in + the first place will rest the importance and vitality of his + philosophy. It gives to knowledge, on the one hand, what + belongs to it for unlimited research, the whole world of + phenomena; on the other hand it gives to faith its eternal + right, the interpretation of life and the world from the + view-point of values. There can be no doubt that herein lies + the cause of the great impression made by</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Kant</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">upon his time; he appeared as the + liberator from unbearable suspense</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(Immanuel Kant, 1898, 6).</span></p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page065">[pg + 065]</span><a name="Pg065" id="Pg065" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To a critical + observer, such peace-making is utterly incomprehensible. They + probably did not consider that in this way <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">religion and + faith</span></em> were not liberated, but <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">dispossessed</span></em>; not brought to a + place of safety, but transferred from the realm of reality into + the realm of fancy. Similarly an aggressive ruler might address a + neighbouring prince thus: We cannot agree any longer, let us make + peace: you retain all your titles, and I shall see to your decent + support, but you will have to lay down your crown and sovereignty + and leave the country—in this way we can have peace. Religion, + once the greatest power in the life of man, for the sake of which + man made sacrifices and even laid down his life, has now become a + matter of sterile devotion; it may, moreover, no longer claim + power and importance; it is now reduced to a poetic feeling, with + which one can fill up intellectual vacancies. No longer is man + here for religion's sake; religion is here for man's sake. A + buttonhole flower, a poetic perfume to sprinkle over his person. + For he does not want to give up religion entirely. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“We are the less inclined to give up religion + forthwith, since we are prone to consider a religious disposition + as a prerogative of human nature, even as its noblest + title.”</span> Thus <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">D. F. Strauss</span></span>, when he asked + of those who sympathized with his opinions, Have we still + religion? (Der alte u. neue Glaube, II, n. 33). Of course + religion has now become something quite different; it has been + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">consigned to deep + degradation</span></em>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To be sure, + feeling is of great importance in religion. Dissatisfaction with + the things of this earth, man's longing for something higher, for + the Infinite, his craving for immortality, for aid and + consolation—are all naturally seeking for religious truths. If + these are known, they in turn arouse fear and hope, love and + gratitude; they become a source of happiness and inspiration. But + these feelings have no meaning unless we are certain that there + exists something corresponding to them; much less could they of + themselves be a conviction, just as little as hunger could + convince us that we have food and drink. If one cannot perceive + that there is a God, a Providence, a life beyond, then religion + sinks to the level of a hazy feeling, without reason and truth, + which must appear foolish to men who think,—as <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page066">[pg 066]</span><a name="Pg066" id= + "Pg066" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> <span class="tei tei-q">“the + great phantasmagoria of the human mind, which we call + religion”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Jodl</span></span>, Gedanken über Reform + Katholizismus, 1902, 12),—which departs from the sphere of + rational intellectual life, and which many have even begun to + contemplate from the view-point of psychopathology. It is only + due to the after-effect of a more religious past that religion is + suffered to lead still a life of pretence: moral support in + struggles it can give no more, nor comfort in dark hours, much + less may it presume to guide man's thought. It stands far below + science.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Despair of the + possibility of knowing higher truths is confronting us, the + disease of deteriorating times and intellectually decaying + nations. But just as Christianity, once in youthful vigour, went + to the rescue of an old World dying of scepticism, just as the + Catholic Church has ever upheld the rights of reason, especially + against Protestantism, which from its beginning has torn asunder + faith and knowledge: so the Catholic Church stands to this day + unaffected by the doubting tendency of our times, upholding the + rights of reason. It also upholds faith. But its faith has + nothing to do with modern agnosticism.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">What Faith Is.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What, then, + according to Catholic doctrine, is faith and the duty to + believe?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Let us briefly + recall to mind the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">fundamental tenets</span></em> of the + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Christian religion</span></em>. It tells us + that even in the Old Testament, but more especially in the New, + through His Incarnate Son, God has revealed to man all those + religious and moral truths which are necessary and sufficient for + the attainment of his supernatural end. Some of them are truths + which reason by itself could not discover; others it could + discover, but only by great labour. And this divine revelation + demands belief. Belief is natural to man. The child believes its + parents, the judge believes the witnesses, the ruler believes his + counsellors. God wished to meet man in this way, and to give him + certainty in regard to the highest truths.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But revelation + was to be an heritage of mankind, it was to be transmitted and + laid unadulterated before all generations. For <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page067">[pg 067]</span><a name="Pg067" id= + "Pg067" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> this reason it could not be + left unprotected to the vicissitudes of time, or the arbitrary + interpretation of the individual. It would have utterly failed in + its purpose of transmitting sure knowledge of certain truth,—the + history of Protestantism proves this,—had it been given merely + with the injunction: Receive what I have committed to your + keeping, and do with it what you please. No, it had to be made + secure against subjective, arbitrary choice.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To this end + Christ established an international organization, the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Church</span></em>, and committed to it His + Gospel as a means of grace, together with the right and sacred + duty to teach it to all men in His Name, to keep inviolate the + heirloom of revelation, defending it against all error. + <span class="tei tei-q">“Going, therefore, teach ye all + nations”</span> (Matt. xxviii. 19), was His command. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Go ye into the whole world and preach the Gospel to + every creature; he that believeth and is baptized shall be saved, + but he that believeth not shall be condemned”</span> (Mark xvi. + 15). <span class="tei tei-q">“He that heareth you, heareth Me, + and he that despiseth you, despiseth Me”</span> (Luke x. 16). + <span class="tei tei-q">“Behold, I am with you all days, even to + the consummation of the world”</span> (Matt. xxviii. 20). He gave + His divine aid to the Church, in order that she might <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">infallibly</span></em> keep His doctrine to + the very end of time.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus the + divine revelation and the Church approach all men with the duty + to believe: <span class="tei tei-q">“he that believeth shall be + saved,”</span> God gravely commands; <span class="tei tei-q">“and + if he will not hear the Church, let him be to thee as the heathen + and publican”</span> (Matt. xviii. 17). They lay their teachings + before the human intellect, bidding it retain them as indubitable + truth, upon their infallible testimony, yet only after convincing + itself that God has really spoken, and that this Church is the + true one, which cannot err. And only after having convinced + itself of the credibility of the proposed teaching is it obliged + to believe. Hence, according to the Christian mind, faith is the + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">reasonable conviction of the truth of what + is proposed for belief, by reason of an acknowledged infallible + testimony</span></em>.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The Catholic dogma we find explained in the + definition of the Vatican Council, which had to expose so many + errors that are liable in our days to confuse the faithful in + their notions of faith and Church.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">This</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page068">[pg 068]</span><a name="Pg068" id="Pg068" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a><span style= + "font-size: 90%">faith,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">says the Vatican Council (Sess. III, chap. + 3),</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%"> + “</span><span style="font-size: 90%">which is the beginning of + human salvation, the Catholic Church teaches to be a + supernatural virtue, by which, through the inspiration and + co-operation of the grace of God, we believe to be true what He + has revealed, not on account of the intrinsic truth of it, + perceived by the natural light of reason, but on the authority + of God who gives the revelation, who can neither deceive nor be + deceived.... Nevertheless, in order that the service of our + belief might be in accord with reason (</span><span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">a reasonable service</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">’</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">) + God willed to unite to the internal helps of the Holy Ghost + external proofs of His revelation, to wit, external works + divine, especially miracles and prophecies, which, clearly + demonstrating God's omnipotence and infinite knowledge, are + most certain signs of divine revelation and are suited to the + intelligence of all.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">The Council adds expressly the canon:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">If any + one say that divine revelation cannot be made credible by + exterior signs, and that men ought therefore to be moved to + belief solely by their interior experience or individual + inspiration, let him be anathema.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">We + have here stated the Catholic dogma as unanimously taught by + all Christian centuries, by all Fathers and + theologians.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Hence, the act + of faith by which I believe that the Son of God became man, that + I shall rise from the dead, is first of all a <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">judgment of the + reason</span></em>, not an act of the will, or a feeling of the + heart. It is, moreover, a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">certain</span></em> rational judgment upon + weighty reasons, not, indeed, such which I draw from intellectual + knowledge, but those which rest upon the infallible testimony of + God. The act of faith agrees therefore with assent to historic + truth in that it is of the same kind of knowledge, but upon the + authority of infallible testimony. Just as I believe that + Alexander once marched victoriously through Asia, because there + is sure testimony to that effect, so I believe that I shall rise + from the dead, because God has revealed it. The difference being + that in the former case we have only human testimony, whereas in + the latter God Himself speaks. Thus, according to Catholic + teaching, faith and knowledge may be distinct from each other, + but in a sense quite different from that of the representatives + of modern, sentimental faith. The latter understand knowledge, in + this connection, to be any judgment of the reason based upon + evidence, and they deny that faith is such; but to a Catholic, + faith, too, is a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">judgment of the reason</span></em>, and in + this sense true knowledge; only it is not knowledge in the more + common sense of a cognition derived from one's own mental + activity <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">without</span></em> the external means of + authority.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As we have + heard from the Vatican Council, it is the recognized <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page069">[pg 069]</span><a name="Pg069" id= + "Pg069" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> fact of divine revelation + which bestows upon the matter of faith its certainty in reason. + Hence the knowledge of this fact must precede faith itself. But + the knowledge must be certain, not merely a belief, for it is the + very presupposition of belief, but a knowledge, derived from the + intellect, which may at any time be traced back to scientific + proofs if there is the requisite philosophical training. So long + as man is not certain that God has spoken, he cannot have faith + according to the Catholic view. One of the sentences condemned by + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Innocent XI.</span></span>, to say nothing + of other ecclesiastical testimonies, is this: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The assent of supernatural faith, useful for + salvation, can exist with merely probable information of the fact + of revelation, even with the fear that God has not + spoken.”</span> And very recently there has been condemned also + the proposition: <span class="tei tei-q">“The assent of faith + ultimately rests upon a sum of probabilities”</span> (Decretum + Lamentabile, July 3, 1907. Sent. 25).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It cannot be + our task here to show at length how the Christian arrives at this + certain knowledge. Our present purpose is only to state the + Catholic concept of faith. We have already heard the Vatican + Council refer to miracles and prophecies. To most of the faithful + the chief fact that offers them this security is the wonderful + phenomenon of the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Catholic Church</span></em> itself, which + proposes to them the doctrines of faith as divine revelation.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Thus again the Vatican Council defines + clearly:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">To enable + us to do our duty in embracing the true faith and remaining in it + steadfastly, God has through His incarnate Son established the + Church and set plain marks upon His institution, in order that it + may be recognized by all as the guardian and interpreter of + revelation. For only the Catholic Church possesses all those + arrangements, so various and wonderful, made by God in order to + demonstrate publicly the credibility of Christianity. Indeed the + Church of itself, because of its wonderful propagation, its + pre-eminent sanctity and inexhaustible fecundity in everything + good, its Catholic unity and invincible duration, is a grand + permanent proof of its credibility and irrefutable testimony in + behalf of its divine mission. Thus, like a 'standard unto the + nations,' it invites those to come to it who have not yet + believed, and assures its children that the faith they profess + rests upon a most firm foundation.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The Catholic looks with pride upon his Church: + she has stood all the trials of history. He sees her endure, + though within harassed by heresies and endangered by various + unworthiness and incapacity of her priests, and attacked + incessantly from without by irreconcilable enemies,</span> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page070">[pg 070]</span><a name= + "Pg070" id="Pg070" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style= + "font-size: 90%">yet prevailing victoriously through the + centuries, blessing, converting nations and beloved by them; + while by her side worldly kingdoms, supported by armies and + weapons, go down into the grave of human instability. The most + wonderful fact in the world's history, contrary to all laws of + natural, historical events,—here a higher hand is plainly + thrust into human history; it is the fulfilment of the divine + promise:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">I am with + you all days, even to the consummation of the + world.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">The gates + of hell shall not prevail against it.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">He sees the Saints, who have lived in this + Church and have become saints through her, those superhuman + heroes of virtue, who far surpass the laws of human + capacity.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">In the most widely different states of life in + the Church he sees virtue grow in the degree in which one + submits to her guidance. He witnesses the remarkable spectacle, + that everything noble and good is attracted by the Church, and + their contrary repelled. He sees the miracles which never cease + in her midst. Finally he beholds her admirable unity and + vigorous faith; she alone holding firm to her teaching, not + compromising with any error; she alone holding fearlessly aloft + the principle of divine authority, and thus becoming a beacon + to many who are seeking a safe shelter from spiritual ruin. In + addition we finally have that harmony and grandeur of the + truths of faith, and—perhaps not in the last place—that calm + and peace of mind, produced in the faithful soul by a life led + according to this faith, by prayer and the reception of the + Sacraments. This is a clear proof that where the Spirit of God + breathes there cannot be the seat of untruth.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These are + sufficient proofs to produce even in the uneducated, and in + children, true and reasonable certainty, provided they have had + sufficient instruction in religion. It must, however, be + emphasized that this conviction produced by faith need <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">not first be + gained by scientific investigation</span></em> of the motives of + faith, or by minute or extensive theological studies. A wrong + notion of human knowledge frequently leads to the opinion that + there is no true certainty at all unless it is the result of + scientific study—a presumption on which is based the claim of + freedom of science to disregard any conviction, be it ever so + sacred, and the claim that it is reserved to science alone to + attain the sure possession of the truth. Later on we shall dwell + more at length upon this important point. Let it suffice here to + remark that the intellect can attain real certainty even without + scientific research; most of our convictions, which we all hold + unhesitatingly as true, are of this kind. They constitute a + belief that is based upon the real knowledge of the reason, which + knowledge is not, however, so clear and distinct that it could be + demonstrated easily in scientific form.</p><span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page071">[pg 071]</span><a name="Pg071" id= + "Pg071" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The certainty + of faith, therefore, is based upon the knowledge that God Himself + vouches for the truth of the teachings of faith. This relieves + the faithful from the necessity of obtaining by his own + reflection an insight into the intrinsic reasons of the why and + the wherefore of the proposed truth, and to examine in each + instance the correctness of the thing. He knows that God has + revealed it, that His infallible Church vouches for it; hence it + is credible and true; that suffices for him, just as trustworthy + evidence suffices for the historian concerning facts which he + himself has not observed.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Let no one say + that faith is a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">blind belief</span></em> and blind + obedience, and that dogmatic Christianity, or, to use another + phrase, <span class="tei tei-q">“the religion of the law, demands + first of all obedience: it is true it would like, besides that, + an interior assent for its thoughts and commandments, but where + this is lacking the law itself furnishes the ways and means to + compensate the lack of this internal assent, if only obedience is + there”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">A. Harnack</span></span>, Religioeser Glaube + u. freie Forschung. Neue Freie Presse, June 7, 1908). Nor let any + one say that free research has <span class="tei tei-q">“at least + this advantage over dogma, that its claims can be proved, which + is not true of the other's claims”</span> (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">J. H. van't + Hoff</span></span>, ibid., Dec. 29, 1907). These are + misrepresentations.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There is no + obedience to faith which is not <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">internal assent + and conviction</span></em>, and there is no clinging to dogmas + which is not based on motives of faith, or which could not at any + time be subjected to scientific investigation. If the term + <span class="tei tei-q">“blindness of belief”</span> were + intended to express only that the believer holds the revealed + doctrine to be true, not because he has discovered its truth by + his own reasoning, but on the authority of God, then we might + suffer the misleading word. But it is utterly false in the sense + that the believer has no conviction at all. Even though others + have it not, the faithful Catholic, the believing Christian, has + it, and it is personal conviction. He has convinced himself that + God has spoken, and of the credibility and hence the truth of the + revealed doctrine, by his own reason, and this is why he + assents.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Still greater is the misrepresentation of the + real motive of faith, if it is held to be the opinion of the Pope + or of Roman Prelates.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Wundt</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page072">[pg 072]</span><a name= + "Pg072" id="Pg072" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style= + "font-size: 90%">thus misstates the Catholic position:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Not every + one can acquire knowledge. But any one can believe. The + enlightened leaders of the Church, and the Church herself first + of all, have knowledge, and by dint of authority determine what + is to be believed</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(Ethik, 3d ed., 1903, I, p. 342). According to + the popular scientific propaganda of unbelief, we have to deal + in the Church merely with</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">ignorant monks, Asiatic patriarchs, and + similar dignitaries, some very superstitious, who, for + instance, assembled in the third century and decided</span> + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">by vote</span></em> + <span style="font-size: 90%">that the Gospel is the word of + God; we have to deal with men who have proved their incapacity + and incompetence</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Masaryk</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + Im Kampfe um die Religion, 1904, pp. 22-23).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Any one who shares such ideas about the + supernaturalness of the Catholic Church has, of course, + forfeited his claim to understand Catholic life and faith. The + Catholic believes in his Church, not on any account of Asiatic + patriarchs and superstitious dignitaries, but because she is + led by the Holy Ghost, and the Pope must believe the same as + the humblest of the faithful: neither the Pope himself relies + upon his own judgment, nor does the Catholic who trusts in the + word of the Pope.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">We add a few remarks which may further + illustrate the action of faith.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The knowledge of the fact of revelation, hence + of the credibility of the truths revealed, is certain, as shown + above. Nevertheless,</span> <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">it does not + compel</span></em> <span style="font-size: 90%">reason to + assent. Under ordinary circumstances it would be impossible to + think of one's own existence, of the elementary laws of + mathematics, without being constrained by the evidence to give + direct internal assent. But insight into the truth of a thing + is not always of this high degree of clearness. In such cases + it is an empirical law of the mind that reason discerns of + itself the</span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">logical</span></em> + <span style="font-size: 90%">necessity, that is, if it desires + to proceed according to the merits of the case, without, + however, acting under</span> <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">physical</span></em> + <span style="font-size: 90%">constraint. There remains then the + determination, the command of the will. This is generally true + of many judgments about natural things, but especially true of + belief. The knowledge of the fact of revelation is true and + certain, though it might be still clearer. The truths offered + by divine revelation are too deep for us to comprehend them + fully; they imply questions and difficulties for us to ponder. + We feel the physical possibility of pondering these + difficulties, although we see at the same time that the + difficulty is exploded by the certainty of the fact of + revelation; but we remain</span> <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">free</span></em> + <span style="font-size: 90%">in giving our assent.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Herein lies the possibility of</span> + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">meritorious</span></em> + <span style="font-size: 90%">faith, the possibility of the + creature rendering to God the free tribute of his free + submission. At the same time it opens the possibility of + turning voluntarily to doubts, and of submitting to them more + and more, till the mind becomes clouded and ensnared by error. + Thus, since faith depends on free will, the will is strictly + commanded to impel the intellect to assent and cling to faith + and to put aside doubts. God has revealed the truths of faith + that they may be firmly believed.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Hence faith is a product of the will also, and + may become part and parcel of the sentimental life. Firmly + believed, revealed truths engender in man love and gratitude, + fear and hope. And being beautiful and comforting,</span> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page073">[pg 073]</span><a name= + "Pg073" id="Pg073" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style= + "font-size: 90%">they are embraced fervently by the heart, and + become objects of desire, sources of comfort and happiness. + Nevertheless they are in themselves, and remain, rational + judgments, based upon insight and knowledge; just as the fond + recollections of home are and remain acts of cognition, though + our affections are twined round those reminiscences like + wreaths of evergreen.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">What has just been said illustrates also + another point,—the</span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">relation of faith to + grace</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">. The Vatican + Council says:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Faith is + a supernatural virtue by which, through the inspiration and + co-operation of the grace of God, we believe to be true what He + has revealed.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">Faith is called a gift of God, a work of + grace. But this must not mislead us to think that it is a + mystical process, taking place in the human mind, indeed, but + not moving along the natural course of human cognition, but + along quite a different course: perhaps an immediate mystical + grasp of the revealed truth, while natural intelligence stands + aside, not understanding it. This would be returning to our + starting point,—making faith anything but a judgment of the + reason. It is a common doctrine of theology that the process of + faith differs nothing in kind from the natural process of human + intellect in its apprehension of the truth. It is belief on + grounds recognized as sufficient motives for assent.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">What then does grace do? Two things. First, it + elevates the act of the soul in the process of believing to a + higher sphere. Just as sanctifying grace elevates the soul + itself to a supernatural sphere, permitting it to partake of + the nature of God, so does the grace of faith raise the acts of + the soul to the supernatural order. The</span> <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">kind</span></em> + <span style="font-size: 90%">of cognition, however, remains the + same: just as a ring does not alter its form by being golden + instead of silver.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">In the second place, grace is</span> + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">assistance</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">: + it enlightens the intellect that it may be able to see more + clearly, not giving to motives of faith an importance which + they have not of themselves, but helping the intellect to see + them as they are; removing the troubles and dangers of doubt + which beset the mind, so that it may retain that calmness which + generally accompanies the possession of the truth. The pledge + of this assistance is given the Christian at baptism and with + each increase of sanctifying grace. But the actual effect of + grace depends on many conditions. If one omits prayer and + neglects religious duties, deafens one's ear to the word of + God, incurs knowingly unnecessary dangers to faith, forsakes + the path of virtue, then grace may withdraw to a considerable + extent; doubts become stronger, intellectual darkness and + confusion increase, and man goes on apace towards + infidelity.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">This is the Catholic doctrine concerning + faith.</span></p> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">Faith and Reason.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But to return + to our question: In what relation do faith and the duty to + believe stand to freedom of research? We said that freedom of + research consists in exemption from all unjust external + restraint, that is, from those external hindrances to the + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page074">[pg 074]</span><a name= + "Pg074" id="Pg074" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> action of the + human intellect which prevent it from attaining its natural end. + Now what is this natural end? The answer will make clear what + restraint and laws must be respected by the human mind, and which + may be rightly rejected.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On the + coat-of-arms of Harvard University is written the beautiful word + <span class="tei tei-q">“Truth.”</span> Upon the human mind, too, + is inscribed the word <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Veritati</span></span>—<em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">for the + truth</span></em>. The human mind exists for the sake of truth; + for the truth it reasons and searches; it is its natural object, + as sound is the object of the human ear, and light and colour the + object of the eye. And truth attracts the mind strongly. The + child wants the truth, and tries to get it by its many questions; + the historian wants the truth, and tries to get it by his + incessant searching and collecting. <span class="tei tei-q">“I + can hardly resist my craving,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">William von + Humboldt</span></span> confesses, <span class="tei tei-q">“to see + and know and examine as much as possible: after all, man seems to + be here only for the purpose of appropriating to himself, making + his own property, the property of his intellect, all that + surrounds him—and life is short. When I depart this life I should + like to leave behind me as little as possible unexperienced by + me”</span> (apud <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">O. Willmann</span></span>, Didaktik als + Bildungslehre, 3d ed., II, 1903, p. 7). The great physicist, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">W. + Thomson</span></span>, a few years ago closed a life of + eighty-three years—he died in December, 1907—devoted to the last + to unabated search for the truth. It is true not all are called + to labour in this field like <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">W. + Thomson</span></span>. But every one who has capability may and + should help to promote the noble work. Only they are excluded who + do not want to look for the truth, or who are even ready, for + external considerations, to pass off falsehood for the truth, + unproved for established results. <span class="tei tei-q">“I know + of nothing,”</span> says the ancient sage, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Plato</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“that is more worthy of the human mind than + truth”</span> (Rep. VI, p. 483 c.). And so the poet <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Pindar</span></span> sings: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Queen Truth, the mother of sublime + Virtue.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If this is the + aim of the human mind and its science, there is but one freedom + of research, the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">freedom for the truth</span></em>, the right + not to be hampered in searching for the truth, not to be forced + to hold as true what has not been previously vouched for to the + intellect as true; in a word, the freedom to wear but one + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page075">[pg 075]</span><a name= + "Pg075" id="Pg075" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> chain, the golden + chain of the truth. Hence, if the scientist should be compelled + by party interest, or public opinion, to pursue a course in + science which he cannot acknowledge as the right one; if the + younger scientist should feel constrained to conform the results + of his research to the pleasure of his older colleagues or of men + of name, against his own better judgment, then he would be + deprived of his rightful freedom of searching for the truth, and + of deciding for himself when he has found it. But there is one + sort of freedom the scientist should never claim—<em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">freedom against + the truth</span></em>, freedom to ignore the truth, to emancipate + himself from the truth. He is bound to accept every truth, + sufficiently proved, even religious dogmas, miracles too, + provided they are authenticated. Not freedom, but truth, is the + purpose of research: emancipation from the truth is degeneration + of the intellect, destruction of science.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What, then, + does the duty to believe require of the faithful Christian? He is + required, first of all, to assure himself of the certain + credibility of those truths which he is required to believe, and + here authentic proofs are offered him. On his perception of the + credibility of these truths, he ought to assent to and accept + God's testimony. Hence there should be no coercion to believe + without interior conviction, no obstacle put in the way of + recognizing the truth. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Where, then, is here any opposition to the + lawful freedom of research</span></em>, to the right of unimpeded + search for the truth? How is reason hindered in its search for + the truth when truth is offered it by an infallible authority? We + have here no opposition to the laws of reason, but due honour to + its sacred rights; no bondage, but elevation and enrichment, + completion and crowning of its thought, for the highest truth has + been communicated to the reason that it may be of one mind with + that Infinite Wisdom which has shaped reason for the truth, and + from which it obtains its light as the planet from the sun around + which it revolves.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Therefore, it + cannot be said that <span class="tei tei-q">“the Catholic + resolves to believe as true what the Church teaches in the + Apostles' Creed, but were he offered anything else as Church + doctrine he would accept it as well. Hence these doctrines do not + express his own personal opinions, they are something extraneous + to him.”</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page076">[pg + 076]</span><a name="Pg076" id="Pg076" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">W. + Herrmann</span></span>, Roemische u. evangelische Sittlichkeit, + 3d ed., 1903, p. 3). No, what the Catholic, what any true + Christian, believes by faith, that is his innermost conviction, + as it is the firm conviction of the historian that what he has + drawn from reliable sources is true.—But what if the contrary + were offered him? Well, this assumption is absurd; and why? + Because God and His Church are infallible, and an infallible + authority cannot speak the truth and its contrary at the same + time. Much less than a reliable historical witness can testify to + the truth and its contrary at the same time.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This same + conviction gives to the faithful Christian the firm assurance + that no certain result of human research will ever come in + conflict with his faith, just as the mathematician does not fear + that his principle will ever be contradicted by any further work. + Truth can never contradict truth. <span class="tei tei-q">“Thus + we believe and thus we teach and herein lies our + salvation.”</span> It is the very old conviction of the faithful + Christian <span class="tei tei-q">“that philosophy, that is, the + study of wisdom, and religion are not different things.”</span> + <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">Non aliam esse + philosophiam, i.e., sapientiae studium et aliam + religionem</span></span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Augustinus</span></span>, De Vera Religione, + 5). It is precisely this that enables the believing scientist to + devote himself with great freedom and impartiality to research in + every field, and to acknowledge any certified result without fear + of ever having to stop before a definite conclusion.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Such is the + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">peace + between faith and science</span></em> according to Christian + principles. They are not torn apart, but join hands peacefully, + like truth with truth, like two certain convictions, only gained + in different ways. Similar is the peace and harmony between the + results of various sciences, as physics and astronomy, geology + and biology, which results, though arrived at by different + methods, are still not opposed to each other, because they are + both true.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The authority + of faith, however, must be <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">infallible</span></em>; the authority of a + scientist, a school or the state, can never approach us with an + absolute obligation to believe it, because it cannot vouch for + the truth. To the Catholic his Church proves itself infallible; + hence everything is here logically consequent. Protestant Church + authorities have not infallibility, nor do they <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page077">[pg 077]</span><a name="Pg077" id= + "Pg077" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> claim it. Hence their + precepts are seen more and more opposed. Hence to the Protestant + the firm attachment of the Catholic to his Church must ever + remain unintelligible, and it is regrettable that Catholics take + instruction from Protestants about their relation to their + Church.<a id="noteref_2" name="noteref_2" href= + "#note_2"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">2</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We must go a + step further. If there is a divine revelation or an infallible + Church—we speak only hypothetically—then no man and <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">no scientific + research can claim the right</span></em> to contradict this + revelation and Church. Scientific research is not the + hypostatized activity of a superhuman genius, of a god-like + intelligence. No, it is the activity of a human intellect, and + the latter is subject to God and truth everywhere. There can be + no freedom to oppose the truth; no privilege not to be bound to + the truth but rather to have the right to construct one's views + autonomously.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But here lies + the deeper reason why to-day thousands to whom <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kant's</span></span> <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">autonomism in + thought</span></em> has become the nerve of their intellectual + life, will have nothing to do with guidance by <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page078">[pg 078]</span><a name="Pg078" id= + "Pg078" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> revelation and Church. They + can no longer understand that their reason should accept the + truth from an external authority, not, indeed, because they would + not find the truth, but because they would lose their + independence.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">It was</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Sabatier</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">who maintained that</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">an external + authority, no matter how great one may think it to be, does not + suffice to arouse in us any sense of + obligation.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">And</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"> + <span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Th. + Lipps</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">says on this + further:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">If + obedience is taken in its narrower sense, that is, of + determination by the will of another, then no obedience is + moral.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">In brief, + obedience is immoral—not as a fact but as a feeling, betokening + an unfree, slavish mind</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(Die ethiseben Grundfragen, 2d ed., 1905, p. + 119). And</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">W. Herrmann</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">assures us.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">We would deem it a sin if we dared treat a + proposition as true of which the ideas are not our own. If we + should find such a proposition in the Bible, then we may + perhaps resolve to wait and see whether its truth cannot be + brought home to us after we have obtained a clearer and + stronger insight of ourselves. But from the resolution to take + that proposition as true without more ado, we could not promise + ourselves anything beneficial.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is for the + sovereign subject himself to decide whether the ideas offered are + compatible with the rest of his notions. A truth offered from + without is acceptable to the subject only when, and because, he + can produce of himself at the same time what is offered; but he + cannot accept the obligation of <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">submitting</span></em> to that truth in + obedience to faith. <span class="tei tei-q">“There is no + infallible teaching authority on earth, nor can there be any. + Philosophy and science would have to contradict themselves to + acknowledge it,”</span> says another champion of <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kant's</span></span> freedom (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Paulsen</span></span>, Philosophia militans, + 2d ed., p. 52). Hence the reason why there cannot be any + infallible authority is, not because it does not offer the truth, + but because the human intellect must not be chained down.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Now, this is + no longer true freedom, but rebellion against the sacred right + that truth has over the intellect. It is rebellion against the + supreme authority of God, who can oblige man to embrace His + revelation with that reason which He Himself has bestowed upon + man. It is a misconception of the human mind, for it is by no + means the source of truth and absolute knowledge, but weak and in + need of supplement. Many truths it cannot by itself find at all, + while in the quest for others it needs safe guidance lest it lose + its way. If it refuses to be supplemented <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page079">[pg 079]</span><a name="Pg079" id= + "Pg079" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and guided from above, it + demands the freedom of the weak vine allowed to break loose from + the needed support of the tree, the freedom of the planet allowed + to deviate from its orbit to be hopelessly wrecked in the + universe. The barrenness and disintegration in the ideal life of + our own unchristian age, are clear testimony that freedom is not + only lawlessness but a sin against one's own nature.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Or, do they + seek to save themselves by asserting that a divine revelation and + the founding of an infallible Church are <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">impossible</span></em>? Very well, then, let + them prove it. On this the question hinges. If they can prove it + to us, that very moment we shall cease to be faithful Catholics, + and Christianity will have been the most stupendous lie in + history. But if the reverse is the case, then all declamations in + the name of free research fall to the ground.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This + impossibility, however, could only be proved by the aid of a + presumption. This presumption is <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">atheism</span></em>, which denies the + existence of a personal God, or at least doubts it. If it is + admitted that there is a personal God, then it is self-evident + that He can give a revelation, and found an infallible Church, + and can oblige all to believe. But herewith collapses also the + liberal principle that, in reasoning, one may reject an external + authority. Hence the principle of liberal freedom in science can + only then be taken seriously, when one advances to atheism. Then, + of course, they will say with <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Nietzsche</span></span>: God is dead; long + live the transcendental man!</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Our assertions + are proved by experience. At the end of the eighteenth century + the enlightenment began by excluding all revelation; but it was + desired to retain the rational truth of God's existence. Since + then, liberal science has been aiming at atheism in philosophy, + whether open or masked. And if we follow up the career of men who + have left their faith, we shall soon find that if they do not + seek peace in the sheltering harbour of thoughtlessness, they + have reached the terminal station of atheism. There is no + stopping on this incline.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Since it is + the express fundamental principle of the liberal freedom of + research, that science is not bound to any external authority, it + is evident that it is nothing else but the refusal <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page080">[pg 080]</span><a name="Pg080" id= + "Pg080" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> to submit to God's authority, + hence, also, to submit to truth if it appears as revelation. For, + either it is admitted that if there is a divine revelation, we + have to give it our assent—and in this event liberal freedom of + science would have to be abandoned,—or this liberal freedom is + adopted in real earnest—then it must be admitted that it is + tantamount to <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">radical apostasy and defection from the + truth</span></em>. If a man wishes to be a faithful Christian and + at the same time to uphold the liberal freedom of science, then + he has never made clear to himself what he wishes.</p> + + <div class="tei tei-tb"> + <hr style="width: 50%" /> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span lang= + "la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ecce ancilla Domini.</span></span> Thus + spoke the Mother of the Lord, when she heard the message that she + was to receive the Word of the eternal Father in her bosom. This + word of humility and submission was the condition under which she + could receive in herself the eternal Wisdom of the Father.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Behold, the + Handmaid of the Lord! This word of humility and submission to God + must also be spoken by the creature's intelligence, if it desires + by faith to share in God's truth. Without humility of mind a + faithful attachment to God is impossible; pride and arrogance + lead to desertion of God, faith, and truth. <span lang="la" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Multum errant, quoniam superbi + sunt</span></span>, says <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Augustine</span></span> of the erring + companions of his youth. Only if there is humility does God's + wisdom cross the threshold of the creature's mind, only if there + is humility can it be said of man: <span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Et verbum caro factum est et habitat in + nobis, plenum gratiae et veritatis</span></span>.</p> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page081">[pg 081]</span><a name= + "Pg081" id="Pg081" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc19" id="toc19"></a> <a name="pdf20" id="pdf20"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">Chapter II. The Authority Of Faith + And The Free Exercise Of Research.</span></h2> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">Preliminary Remarks.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We must not + stop at what we have just said in general about the relation + between the freedom of research and the obligation to believe. We + must go further into detail, in order to give a more exact + explanation of how and where the authority of faith clashes with + research and restrains it. Is it true that the believing + scientist cannot move freely in his research, that there are + barriers on all sides which he may not overstep? Is it true that + the Church may prescribe for the Catholic scientist what he is + allowed to defend and approve, what he ought to refute and + reprove, suppress or advocate, so that his eyes must ever be + turned towards Rome, to inquire and ascertain what might there be + approved? And what a chain of proscriptions of free thinking is + attached to the name of Rome! Index, Syllabus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span>—link after link is + added to this chain of miserable slavery!</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We shall say + something more about this chain later on. First we must consider + the principal question: Where and how do faith and science come + in contact? And what we are going to say we shall condense into + four points. Thus freedom of science will be more precisely + defined; it will be shown what freedom revelation, and especially + the guardian of revelation, the Church, offers to science: there + can be no doubt that its natural freedom of exercise must be left + to science intact.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We shall deal + in the first place with the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">profane sciences</span></em>, and, at least + for the present, leave aside the discussion of theology, since it + is clear that theology, being the science of faith, must assume a + peculiar position in regard to the authority <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page082">[pg 082]</span><a name="Pg082" id= + "Pg082" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of faith: theology, moreover, + is a special mark for attack; accordingly we shall deal with it + particularly later on. However, the principles to be cited, being + of a general nature, refer also to the science of faith, and for + this reason we shall have occasion to refer to them.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">1. Authority of Faith and Private + Authority.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We often meet + with the most inconceivable notions. We are told quite seriously + that the Church teaches, and that the Catholic has therefore to + believe, that the earth is a flat disc surrounded by the sea, as + the ancients believed; above it is a vault, below it hell-fire; + that the earth stands still and the sun and stars revolve about + it, just as <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ptolemy</span></span> of Egypt taught; that + God created the whole world just as it is now in exactly six days + of twenty-four hours each; that He made the sun and moon, just as + they are now illuminating the skies; that the strata, just as + they now look when bared by the geologist's hammer, even the + coal-fields and petrified saurians and fossils—all were made, + just as they now are, well nigh six thousand years ago. The + Scriptures teach this, the Fathers of old and the theologians + believe this: and that is where the Catholic must get his + science. And then they are astonished, and consider dogma + retreating before science, when they see other notions + prevailing, when they see Catholic scientists defend without + prejudice the evolution of the solar system, and even the system + of the whole universe, from some primitive matter, or assume an + organic evolution, as far as science supports it (cf. + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Braun</span></span>, Ueber Kosmologie u. + Standpunkt christlich. Wiss., 2d ed., 1906, etc.). They would be + still more astonished perhaps to learn that similar ideas had + long ago been proposed by <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">St. Augustine</span></span> and <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">St. + Thomas</span></span> (cf. Summa c. G. l. 3, c. 77; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Knabenbauer</span></span>, in Stimmen a. M. + Laach xiii, 75 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">seq.</span></span>).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A distinction + must be made between the teaching of the Church and the private + views of individuals, schools, or periods. Only the teaching of + the Church is the obligatory standard of Christian and Catholic + thought, not the opinion of individuals. Hence not everything + that Catholic savants have held to be true belongs to the + teaching of the Church. Only when theologians unanimously declare + something to be contained in the <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page083">[pg 083]</span><a name="Pg083" id="Pg083" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> deposit of revealed truth, or the teaching + of the Church,—only then is their teaching authoritative; not + because it is the teaching of theologians, but because it is + contained in revelation or the teaching of the Church. Else the + maxim holds good: <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">Tantum valet + auctoritas, quantum argumenta</span></span>. Nor is all that + which a former age found in Holy Scripture, therefore to be + believed as revealed truth, to the exclusion of all other + interpretations.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The foregoing + may be elucidated by the examples given above. When Holy Writ + describes in figurative language and Oriental, demonstrative + style, how God created the heaven and earth, the sun and moon, + the sea and its contents, it means to teach us religious truths: + that God is the First Cause of everything, and hence that the sun + and moon, for instance, are not uncreated deities, as the + Egyptian believed them to be. The narrative need not be taken in + a literal sense, as if God immediately formed everything in the + exact condition as it now appears to us; it may be interpreted in + the sense that God let the present condition of things gradually + grow out of the forces and materials and plan of nature He + created, the result of a lengthy evolution. When our Lord tells + us in the gospel that His Father in heaven feeds the birds of the + air and clothes the grass of the field, we know that this is to + be understood as a mediate action of God, which He exercises + through the instinct of animals and through natural forces which + He created for the purpose. Now when former ages, reading the + narrative of Genesis, generally understood an immediate creation + of the world, because the knowledge of nature at the time did not + admit of any other interpretation, it is by no means necessary to + conclude from it that every other interpretation must be rejected + as against the Bible, or that the Church herself has prescribed + this literal interpretation as the only correct one. As is known, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">St. + Augustine</span></span>, the greatest Father of the Church, had + another very liberal explanation of the Genesis narrative, and + the Church has never censured him. (He taught that the whole + world had been created at one time, and that the six days of the + Mosaic narrative were the logical divisions of an account of the + various orders of creatures.) And now the interpretations vary + greatly. The passages in Scripture, <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page084">[pg 084]</span><a name="Pg084" id="Pg084" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> in which, according to popular modes of + expression, the sun is said to rise and set and revolve about the + earth, the latter standing in the centre of the world—these, too, + were interpreted literally in the days of the Fathers: there was + no cause for interpreting them otherwise; but it was only due to + defective knowledge of nature at the time. These temporary errors + remained till corrected by research in the field of the natural + sciences: had the discoveries been made sooner, the errors, too, + would have disappeared sooner.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Church + knows, and the holy Fathers knew, that it is not the purpose of + Holy Writ to teach profane sciences, but to instruct in faith and + morals; if it speaks of other matters, it is but occasionally, + and then in the idiom of common life, which is not the same as + the scientific language of the specialist. Indeed, the Bible does + not intend to give scientific instruction in such matters, nor + could it have done so at a time when men were not ripe for such + enlightenment.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Thus</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">St. + Augustine</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">insists + that the Spirit of God who spoke through the authors of + Scripture did not intend to instruct men in matters which do + not serve for salvation, and hence he objects to the Scriptures + being taken literally in regard to such matters, because the + Bible adapts itself to man's manner of speech: a distinction is + to be made between letter and sense (</span><span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Multi multum disputant de iis rebus, quae + majore prudentia nostri auctores omiserunt, ad beatam vitam non + profuturas discentibus ... Breviter dicendum est, ... Spiritum + Dei, qui per ipsos loquebatur, noluisse ita docere homines + nulli saluti profuturas,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">De Gen. ad lit., II, 9, n. 20. Cf. De Gen. + contra Manich. 1, 5, n. 3; 11, n. 17). He further cautions + Bible students against putting their own interpretation upon + obscure passages and then claiming it to be dogma, because one + may easily go astray and thus make the Scriptures appear + ridiculous.</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">In rebus + obscuris atque a nostris oculis remotissimis, si qua inde + scripta etiam divina legerimus, quae possint salva fide, qua + imbuimur, alias atque alias parere sententias, in nullam earum + nos praecipiti affirmatione proiciamus, ut si forte, + diligentius discussa veritas eam recte labefactaverit, + corruamus, non pro sententia divinarum scripturarum sed pro + nosctra ita dimicantes, ut eam velimus scripturarum esse, quae + nostra est</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(De genesi ad lit. I, 18 n. + 37).</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Plerumque + accidit, ut aliquid de terra, de coelo, de ceteris mundi huius + elementis ... etiam non christianus ita noverit, ut certissima + ratione et experientia teneat. Turpe est autem nimis et + perniciosum ac maxime cavendum, ut christianus de his rebus + quasi secundum christianas literas loquentem ita delirare + quilibet infidelis audiat, ut, quemadmodum dicitur, toto coelo + errare conspiciens, risum tenere vix possit</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(Ibid. I, 19 n. 39). Cf. also I, 21.</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">St. Thomas of + Aquin</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">also expresses + himself</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page085">[pg + 085]</span><a name="Pg085" id="Pg085" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">in this + sense:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Multum + autem nocet, talia, quae ad pietatis doctrinam non spectant, + vel asserere vel negare, quasi pertinentia ad sacram doctrinam + ... Unde mihi videtur tutius esse, ut haec, quae philosophi + communius senserunt et nostrae fidei non repugnant, neque sic + esse asserenda ut dogmata fidei, licet aliquando sub nomine + philosophorum introducantur, neque sic esse neganda tamquam + fidei contraria, ne sapientibus huius mundi contemnendi + doctrinam fidei occasio praebeatur</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">(Opusc. X. ad Jo. Vercel. Proem.).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The doctrine of the</span> <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Church</span></em> + <span style="font-size: 90%">concurs with this, as laid down in + numerous documents, many of them quoting the above-mentioned + words of</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">St. + Augustine</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">. It also + insists that the interpretation of the Fathers be only taken as + a standard of the Church's explanation of the meaning of + Scripture when they are unanimous on the meaning of a passage + relating to faith and morals; but not to other things (cf. + Encycl. Providentissimus, Denz. 10 ed., n. 1947, 1944; Conc. + Trid., sess. IV., Conc. Vat. sess. III., c. 2, Denz. nn. 786, + 1788).</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Now if one + simply opens Holy Scripture, takes up some passage at random, + explains it in its most literal sense, and then insists that this + is the evident meaning, and goes on to assert with the same + insistence that this is the interpretation of the Church, and a + part of the faith of Catholics in regard to the natural sciences, + then of course it is very easy to make out contradictions between + faith and science: but such efforts cannot claim to be + scientific. It is not necessary to know theology and the + principles of Catholic exegesis; but it is not proper that those + who are ignorant of these matters pass judgment on them, not even + in the name of objective research.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Hence we may easily see what we should think of + a writer who asserts that the examination of the + Christian-Catholic idea of the world leads to the following + results:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">The Books + of Moses, inspired by divine revelation, are the golden key to + the understanding of the whole history of creation. Other + Scriptural passages of the Old and New Testaments, the writings + of the Fathers, etc., are to be considered as supplementary to + these. According to these authorities the earth is a flat disc, + surrounded by the sea. Above it arches the firmament of heaven, + with its great lights for day and night. Below it are purgatory + and hell. All this is not the gradual outgrowth of lengthy + evolution, but was created by God out of nothing in a few days, + about six thousand years ago, of which four thousand are reckoned + before Christ and two thousand after Christ. Although modern + science has long since established that the Biblical narrative is + of no worth, nothing but an imperfect reproduction of older + myths, the Catholic Church continues to teach it literally to + this very day, spreading it broadcast by thousands and thousands + of catechisms, and insisting on it being learned as a part of + religious instruction in all schools, and</span> <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page086">[pg 086]</span><a name="Pg086" id= + "Pg086" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style= + "font-size: 90%">to be accepted as the revealed + truth</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(</span><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">L. + Wahrmund</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, Katholische + Weltanschauung und freie Wissenschaft, 1908, p. 14. The + scientific value of this work has been considered by</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">L. + Fonck</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, Katholische + Weltansch).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Clericalism,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">we are told,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">stands on a rigidly fixed view of the world, + corresponding in part to the childhood of mankind, to the + dawning of civilization.... Philosophy, built upon the results + of progress, since it is unceasingly forcing its way ahead, + cannot remain in accord with the notions belonging to a remote + past, partly to Babylonian and Egyptian civilization, partly to + the thought of nomadic times.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">It is then pointed out how this view of the + world on which clericalism, that is, the Catholic Church, is + based, has already been overthrown in many instances.</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">The + geocentric position, the doctrine of our earth being the centre + and man the ultimate aim of the universe, must needs be + abandoned by the world of scientists, in view of the new system + of Copernicus; the doctrine also of the earth being a disc must + be abandoned in consequence of the voyage of Columbus, and + subsequent discoveries, which make it certain that the earth is + a globe</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(Prof.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">K. + Menger</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, Die + Eroberung der Universitaeten. Neue Freie Presse, Nov. 24, + 1907). It is surprising what little knowledge suffices to + warrant writing about theological matters in the name of</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">objective + research.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">These passages, in regard to their scientific + contents and manner, recall vividly an American work that + appeared some time ago, and reached many editions. It is + entitled,</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">A History + of the Conflict Between Religion and + Science,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">by</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">J. W. + Draper</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">. The book was + answered by a competent authority,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">De + Smedt</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, S. J.,</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">L'Eglise + et la Science,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">1877.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">It seems</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Draper's</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">arguments have since become a + pattern for many. He, too, maintains that Holy Writ has always + been declared by the Church and the Fathers to be a source of + profane science. This, he states, is true especially of</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">St. + Augustine</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">. We + read:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">The book + of Genesis ... also in a philosophical point of view became the + grand authority of Patristic science. Astronomy, geology, + geography, anthropology, chronology, and indeed all the various + departments of human knowledge, were made to conform to it.... + The doctrines of</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">St. + Augustine</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">have had + the effect of thus placing theology in antagonism with + science....</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">No one + did more than this Father to bring science and religion into + antagonism; it was mainly he who diverted the Bible from its + true office—a guide to purity of life—and placed it in the + perilous position of being the arbiter of human + knowledge....</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">What, then, is that sacred, that revealed + science, declared by the Fathers to be the sum of all + knowledge?... As to the earth, it affirmed that it is a flat + surface, over which the sky is spread like a dome. In this the + sun and moon and stars move, so that they may give light by day + and by night to man.... Above the sky or firmament is heaven; + in the dark and fiery space beneath the earth is + hell....</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(pp. 57-63).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">By reading again what we said above, + especially the urgent admonitions of</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">St. + Augustine</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">not to + look upon the Scriptures as a text-book of profane science, one + will be able to appreciate the scientific quality of the book + in question.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The fancy of this writer has distorted + Christianity and the Church into a monster that has nothing + more important to do than to tread</span> <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page087">[pg 087]</span><a name="Pg087" id= + "Pg087" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style= + "font-size: 90%">down and crush science and civilization. A few + examples will suffice to show how he proves the</span> + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">contradictions between + faith and science</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">. The + Christian religion teaches that man is subject to death as a + penalty for original sin: prior to that sin death had no power + over Adam and Eve. It is claimed that this is a contradiction + of science. But how? Long before Adam, thousands of animals and + plants had died, the author asserts.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The doctrine declared to be orthodox by + ecclesiastical authority is overthrown by the unquestionable + discoveries of modern science. Long before a human being had + appeared on earth millions of individuals, nay, more, thousands + of species and even genera had died</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(p. 57). The author has completely missed the + point. The matter in question is not the death of animals and + plants, but the death of man. The infallibility of the Pope is + refuted by the fact that he failed to foresee the result of the + war between France and Germany.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Notwithstanding his infallibility, which + implies omniscience, His Holiness did not foresee the issue of + the Franco-Prussian war</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(p. 352, also p. 362).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">How high his historical statements are to be + rated is shown by the assertion that</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Cyril of + Alexandria</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">had much + to do with the introduction of the worship of the Virgin Mary + (p. 55); that auricular confession was introduced by the Fourth + Lateran Council in 1215 (p. 208). He asks when the idea + originated that the Pentateuch was written by Moses under + divine inspiration, and he finds that</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">not until after the second century [of the + Christian era] was there any such extravagant demand on human + credulity</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(p. 220). It would seem incredible + that any one could write such stuff.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The author says in his preface:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">I had + also devoted much attention to the experimental investigation + of natural phenomena, and had published many well-known memoirs + on such subjects. And perhaps no one can give himself to these + pursuits, and spend a large part of his life in the public + teaching of science, without partaking of that love of + impartiality and truth which philosophy + incites</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(VIII-IX). We do not care to argue + with the author about his experience in experimental research, + nor about his love for the truth, but he himself has shown + superabundantly that they have not sufficed to keep him clear + from scientific shallowness and the grossest blunders. + Nevertheless, it seems that his scientific ability obtained for + him in the consideration of many the weight of an + authority.</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Haeckel</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + in his</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Weltraetsel,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">refers repeatedly to the book, and + recommends</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">its + truthful statements and excellent discussion</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">to his readers (Weltraetsel, 17. Kap., + Wissenschaft u. Christentum).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Such is the fashion in which contradictions + between faith and science, and the Church's hostility towards + scientific research, are proved.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The result is + that we must distinguish clearly between dogmas of faith and + private opinions or interpretations. Of course it may frequently + happen, and has happened, that the Christian savant is too + timorous, and looks askance at the discoveries of science, and + even thinks he ought to resist them, <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page088">[pg 088]</span><a name="Pg088" id="Pg088" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> because he is afraid that religious truth + might be opposed by them. Nor can it be said that this timidity + is altogether without excuse, for there was hardly one scientific + discovery of the nineteenth century that was not immediately + grasped and exploited by eager enemies of the Christian religion. + Too often has science been made the menial of infidelity, and the + assertion has been untiringly repeated that science and faith + cannot agree. No wonder, then, that timid souls become + suspicious, that they are prone to resist the whole theory of + evolution in a lump, instead of trying to distinguish between + what is of scientific value in it, and what is misused for the + purpose of denying creation.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Nevertheless, + such narrow-mindedness is strongly to be censured. It has often + caused the reproach, that Catholics lack the freedom to admit + scientific discoveries. They forget the wise admonition of the + prince of mediæval theologians, that it were advisable, in regard + to scientific views which have nothing to do with religion, + neither to set them down as truths of faith, nor either to reject + them as contrary to faith lest occasion be given to think + contemptuously of the faith. As long as men are and men think, + narrow-mindedness will never be lacking. Hence if the believing + scientist wants to know whether he is running counter to faith in + any particular, he has to ascertain from theological text-books + what the Church declares to belong to faith, what explanation of + Holy Scripture is unconditionally binding, and not what is the + individual opinion of theologians, much less what some pious + nurse is telling the little ones.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This is the + first rule concerning the relation between faith and science: it + states what the scientist is <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">not</span></em> + tied down to.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">2. Science Retains its Method of + Research.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But when and + how may the scientist be restricted? Here we come to the second + point: the directions which faith may give to the profane + sciences are in themselves not of a positive but of a <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">negative + kind</span></em>; revelation and Church cannot tell the scientist + what he is to assert or defend in the field of the profane + sciences, but only what propositions he must <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">avoid</span></em>. Thus <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page089">[pg 089]</span><a name="Pg089" id= + "Pg089" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> every science is left free to + pursue its own method of research. It is not difficult to + understand this.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Faith draws + from divine revelation; profane sciences, as such, do not draw + from divine revelation, but only from experience and reason. + Philosophy would cease to be philosophy and become theology did + it demonstrate the immortality of the soul by revelation. The + anthropologist would cease to be an anthropologist and become a + theologian if he would attempt to prove the common origin of + mankind by Holy Scripture.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In other + words, the profane sciences are distinguished from faith and + theology by their formal object, by the end they have in view, by + the scientific method with which they handle their subject. + Theology, of course, uses revelation extensively; and in this it + differs from the other sciences. Hence faith cannot command the + anthropologist to defend also in profane science the common + origin of the human race from Adam and Eve, because it is held to + be a revealed truth. He must say: I believe as a Christian that + this is true, established by divine revelation, and no science + will ever prove the contrary; but whether I can positively defend + this fact as resulting from anthropology, depends on my ability + to corroborate it by the methods of this science, that is by the + testimony of profane history. And just as little could the + historian be required to obtain historical results of which he + cannot produce the evidence according to his method.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Therefore + faith can only tell the profane scientist that he must not assert + anything which is held by faith to be erroneous; that it is false + to say there is nothing but force and matter, that the human soul + ends in death, or that the various families of the human race + have not a common origin. As soon as the scientist knows by faith + that a thing is false, he is bound to refrain from asserting it: + bound in the first place by the duty to believe, but also by the + principles of his own science, which is to find not error, but + truth, which forbids to assert what has been proved to be + erroneous. Perhaps his own means will not enable him to prove the + truth independently of revelation; then from the standpoint of + his science he must say, <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">Non + liquet.</span></span></p><span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page090">[pg 090]</span><a name="Pg090" id="Pg090" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The position of the Catholic Church agrees with + these principles. She knows, and emphasizes that science has its + own method, and hence a natural right and freedom to proceed in + its own field according to its method. The Church rejects but one + kind of freedom, viz., the freedom to propound a doctrine proved + by faith to be erroneous.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The Church by no means forbids these disciplines + to use in their own field their own principles and + method,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">declares the Vatican Council.</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">But, while + acknowledging this lawful freedom, the Church takes care to + prevent them from taking up errors in opposition to divine + teaching, or from creating confusion by transgressing their + limits and invading the realm of faith</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(Vat. sess. III, ch. 4. Cf. also the letter + of</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Pius + IX</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">.,</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Gravissimas,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">of + Dec. 11, 1862, to the Archbishop of Munich, Denz. n. 1666,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">seq.</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">)</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These few + remarks show the lack of intelligence in the charge that + <span class="tei tei-q">“Catholic philosophy starts from dogmas + and revelation,”</span> or that the Church would dictate to + scientists everything they should teach; that, according to its + principles it could claim the right <span class="tei tei-q">“to + impose upon a physicist of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Zeppelin's</span></span> era the task of + proving the Ascension of Christ or the Assumption of Mary by + aërostatic rules.”</span> This is simply gross ignorance or + misrepresentation.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">3. Restraint Only in the Province + of Revelation.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In what + matters may faith and the Church be a guide to research in this + negative sense? In all fields, or only some? Evidently only in + their own sphere. But to the sphere of faith belongs only what is + contained in divine revelation, viz., the truths of <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">religion and + morality</span></em>, as laid down in Scripture and tradition, + the truths of God and His work of salvation, of man and his way + to his eternal destiny, of the means of grace, and of the Church. + Whatever lies outside of that sphere does not belong to the + province of faith. This is true also of the teaching authority of + the Church. The purpose of the Church is to guard faithfully the + treasure of divine revelation and to transmit it in an + authoritative manner to mankind: hence her authority in teaching + is confined to what is contained in revelation, and what is + necessary for an efficient custody and transmission of it to + mankind. Hence she may declare certain truths as revealed, she + may reject opposing errors, she may condemn books offensive to + faith, she may approve or reject systems <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page091">[pg 091]</span><a name="Pg091" id="Pg091" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> of ethics. But she cannot set up wholly new + religious truths or revelations. <span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Depositum custodi</span></span>—this is the + purpose of the Church. Still less are matters of an entirely + profane nature subject to the teaching authority of the Church. + Profane sciences can therefore receive direction from faith only + in those matters which at the same time belong to the province of + faith.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What follows + from this? It follows that <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">almost all the profane sciences are + incapable of being instructed or restricted by faith</span></em>, + because their province lies outside that of faith, and does not + come in touch with it: they are left to themselves to correct + their errors. When the astronomer in his observatory watches the + movements of the planets, and bases thereon his mathematical + calculations, when the physicist or chemist in his laboratory + observes the laws of nature or makes new discoveries, when the + pathologist studies the symptoms of diseases in organisms, no + warning voice interrupts their work of study. Of course when they + deny the creation, the possibility of miracles, then they + conflict with faith; but then they have ceased to be naturalists, + they have become philosophers. When the botanist or zoölogist in + his laboratory is studying plants and animals and collecting his + specimens, when the palæontologist is excavating and examining + his fossils, they enjoy perfect freedom: all this has nothing + directly to do with faith. And there is no warning sign set up + for the geographer or geologist when settling the orographical or + hydrographical conditions of countries or measuring geological + strata; no danger signal disturbs the linguist in establishing + the grammar of unknown languages, nor the archæologist or the + historian, when they discover new documents or decipher + inscriptions. Nor does anybody interrupt the mathematician in his + calculations.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What + unnecessary worry, then, for the representatives of mathematics, + geology, palæontology, and chemistry to write burning protests + against the fetters of dogma in the interest of their scientific + activity! And it is superfluous worry for professors of the + technical arts to get excited by imagining that electricity and + steam must be treated according to ecclesiastical precepts. Nor + is there need of emphasizing the statement that <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page092">[pg 092]</span><a name="Pg092" id= + "Pg092" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> there cannot be a Catholic + chemistry, geography, or mathematics—it is self-evident.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Hence almost + the entire province of the profane sciences, which are the pride + of our age and occupy the foremost position in our universities, + with their laboratories, institutes and observatories and + meteorological stations, are free and perfectly undisturbed by + faith. If accordingly any one should be of the opinion that the + Christian-minded scientist were hindered in his scientific + research, he would have to consider him an unhampered + investigator at least in this vast field.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Most in touch + with faith comes <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">philosophy</span></em>. Not in the vast + field of logic, of empirical psychology, in questions concerning + the essence of bodies and their forces, in matters of mere + history of philosophy; but in questions of views of the world and + life, in metaphysics and ethics, it does. These, the highest + questions, bearing on the direction and pursuit of human life, + matters that most occupy the human mind, are at the same time + subjects of revelation; God Himself has deigned to teach the + truth in these matters, to make them safe for all time against + the error of the mind of man. Here philosophers encounter + danger-signals. They hear, what their reason even tells them, + that it is erroneous to think there is no world of spirits, no + God above nature, no immortality, no life hereafter, no + providence. Nor could one say that philosophy is the loser by + being kept from error which endangers human life. Nowhere are + errors so apt to occur as in questions which are outside the + sphere of immediate experience; nowhere are self-deceptions more + common than there, where disposition and character continually + influence the mind.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">A modern representative of philosophy,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">E. + Adickes</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, writes as + follows:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">In the + course of this history (of metaphysics) there have been given + long since all the principal answers that are at all possible to + all metaphysical questions. The building up of metaphysical + systems can and will proceed, nevertheless, and their + multiplicity will remain.... Of course, progress will not be + gained thereby: results will not gain in certainty, + contradictions and mysteries do not + diminish.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">If the greatest of the ancient Greek natural + scientists, physicians, and geographers should rise again they + would be amazed at the progress made in their sciences; like + beginners they would sit at the feet of teachers of our day, + they would lack the most elementary ideas; they</span> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page093">[pg 093]</span><a name= + "Pg093" id="Pg093" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style= + "font-size: 90%">would first have to learn what every + grammar-school boy knows, and much of what they once considered + achievements would be disclosed to them as deception or mere + hypothesis. On the other hand a</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Plato</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + an</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Aristotle</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + a</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Zeno</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">or</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Epicurus</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + might readily take part in our discussions about God and the + soul, about virtue and immortality. And they could safely use + their old weapons, the keenness of which has suffered but + little from the rust of time and the attacks of opponents. They + would be astonished at the little progress made, so that now, + after two thousand years, the same answers are given to the + same questions.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">(Charakter und Weltanschauung, 1905, p. + 24).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">A science which must make such a confession + has no reason to reject with haughty self-confidence the + intimations of a divine revelation.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">science of + history</span></em> again has not the duty of praising everything + that has happened within the Catholic Church or else to repress + it; no, only the truth is desired. But it must not start out with + the assumption that God's influence in the world, a divine + revelation, miracles, and a supernatural guidance of the Church, + are impossible; nor must it attempt to construe history according + to that assumption. Hence it must not undertake to explain the + religion of the Jewish nation, or the origin of Christianity, by + unconditionally ignoring everything supernatural, and attempting + to eliminate it by prejudiced research and by means of natural + factors, whether they be called Babylonic myths or Greek + philosophy or anything else; it must not impugn the credibility + of the Gospel, claiming that reports of miracles must be false; + it must not write the history of the Church and deliberately + ignore its supernatural character, as if it were the violent + struggle of a federation of priests for universal rule. Assured + results undoubtedly are arrived at in history less frequently + than in other sciences; it offers full play to suppositions, + hypotheses, constructive fancy, the influence of ideas inculcated + by education and personal views of the world, especially when + summing up facts. Hence here more than anywhere else must moral + character and unselfish love of the truth stand higher than the + desire for freedom.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">history of + religion</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">anthropology</span></em> must be forbidden + to assume that the human mind is but a product of animal + evolution, that therefore religion and morality, family and state + life, reason and language, and the entire intellectual and social + life have necessarily evolved from the first stages <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page094">[pg 094]</span><a name="Pg094" id= + "Pg094" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of animal life. If we add + that <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">jurisprudence</span></em> in its highest + principles comes in touch with faith, and that it also must not + dispute the divine right of the Church, we have mentioned the + most important sciences and instances in which the investigator + must take faith into consideration.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We now + understand in what sense we may rightly speak of a <span class= + "tei tei-q">“<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Christian philosophy and + science</span></em>”</span> or of a <span class= + "tei tei-q">“<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Catholic science of + history</span></em>.”</span> Surely not in this sense that + philosophy and history have to draw their results from Holy + Scripture or from the dogmatical decisions of the Church; nor in + the sense that they have to make positive defence for everything + that the Church finds it necessary to prescribe. The sense is + merely this: they guide themselves by faith, as we said above, by + refraining from propositions and presumptions proved by faith to + be false. In a large measure this is also the meaning of the + often-misrepresented term, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Catholic University</span></em>. In the + reverse sense we may speak of a liberal science. It is that + science which in the field of philosophy and religion guides + itself by the principles of liberalism and the principle of + liberal freedom and the rejection of faith. But to speak of a + Catholic, Protestant, Liberal chemistry or mathematics, has no + sense at all, because these disciplines, like most other profane + sciences, have no direct connection with Catholicism, + Protestantism, or Liberalism.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">That we have stated correctly the</span> + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">attitude of the Catholic + Church</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">is evidenced by + more than one official document. In the decree of the Holy Office + of July 3, 1907, the so-called Syllabus of</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Pius + X.</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, the following (5.) + proposition is condemned:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Inasmuch as the treasure of faith contains only + revealed truths, it does not behoove the Church under any + consideration to pass judgment on the assertions made by human + sciences.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Similarly was the proposition (14), + likewise condemned in the Syllabus of</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Pius + IX.</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Philosophy + must be pursued without any regard to supernatural + revelation.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">These condemnations stirred up anger:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Now,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">it was said,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">the Church wants to subject the whole of human + knowledge to her judgment: this is unbearable + insolence.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">But what follows from these + condemnations? The opposite truth asserted in them is this: the + Church in one respect must pass judgment on the assertions made + by human science, namely, in so far as they come in conflict + with the doctrines of faith. The only freedom rejected by the + Council is the freedom to contradict revealed truth: it must + not be held</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">that + human science may be pursued with freedom, that its assertions + can be considered true and</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page095">[pg 095]</span><a name="Pg095" id="Pg095" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">must not be + rejected by the Church even if they contradict a revealed + doctrine.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(sess. III, ch. 4, can. 2). The + Church does not want to judge on matters of profane science; + but she claims the right, due to her as guardian appointed for + the preservation of the pure faith, to raise her warning voice + when, for instance, natural science transgresses its limits and + trespasses on the province of religion by denying the creation + of the world. It is but self-defence against an attack upon her + inviolable domain. But she does not claim the authority to sit + in judgment upon the results of astro-physics, upon the + atom-hypothesis, or its opposite; or on the acceptance of a + theory about ions or earthquakes.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Another + question may be touched upon: Is the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Catholic + historian</span></em> free to proceed steadily in the search + after historic truth, even where he discovers facts which do not + reflect honour on his Church? And where it is a question of + uncertain, private revelation, of doubtfulness of relics and + other sacred objects exposed for public worship, may he proceed + undisturbed with his critical research, or is he restrained by + ecclesiastical authority?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Should the + Catholic meet with dark passages in the history of his Church, + then every well-meaning observer will demand that he display in + the treatment of such matters a pious forbearance for his Church. + His respect for her will dictate this. Unsparing criticism and + hunting for blemishes and shadows must be excluded. But he cannot + on this account be bound to pass by the unpleasant facts he may + meet in his researches, or to cloak or deny them against his + better knowledge. He knows that the divinity of his Church shows + itself to best advantage just because, notwithstanding many + weaknesses and faults, past and present, she passes unvanquished + and imperishable through all storms,—a token of the supernatural + origin of her strength and power of endurance.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was this + very thought that moved <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Leo XIII.</span></span> to open the Vatican + Archives for freest research to friend and enemy,—the clearest + proof that could possibly be given that the Church does not fear + historical truth. In his letter of admonition, of August 18, + 1883, urging the fostering of historiography, the same Pope gives + the following rules for the Catholic scientist: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The first law of history is that it must not say + anything false; the second, that it must not be afraid of saying + the truth, lest a suspicion of partiality and unfairness + arise.”</span> An excellent example of <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page096">[pg 096]</span><a name="Pg096" id="Pg096" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the application of these rules is found in + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">L. v. + Pastor's</span></span> <span class="tei tei-q">“History of the + Popes,”</span> especially in what he says about <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Alexander + VI.</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Leo X.</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In his + historical investigation of private revelations, such as those of + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">St. + Gertrude</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">St. Mechtild</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bl. Juliana of + Liège</span></span>, or of relics and objects of veneration, the + historian is likewise not restricted by Church-direction. Having + merely the task of preserving the treasure of the faith received + from Christ and the Apostles, the Church in her function as + Teacher never vouches for the divine origin of new, private + revelations, nor for the accuracy of pious traditions of another + kind. True, she decides authoritatively whether private + revelations contain anything against faith and morals, but she + decides nothing more. If she accepts such revelations or + traditions as genuine, she claims for the facts in question only + that human faith which corresponds to their historical proof.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">This is clearly stated by the recent + encyclical</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Pascendi</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">In + judging of pious traditions, the following must be kept in + mind: the Church employs such prudence in treating of these + matters that she does not allow such traditions to be written + about except with great precaution and only after making the + declarations required by</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Urban + VIII.</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">; and even + then, after this has been properly done, the Church by no means + asserts the truth of the private revelation or of the + tradition, but merely permits them to be believed, provided + there be sufficient human reasons. It was in this sense that + the Sacred Congregation of Rites declared thirty-one years + ago:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style="font-size: 90%">These + apparitions are neither approved nor condemned by the Holy See; + it merely permits them to be believed in a natural way, + provided the tradition on which they rest be corroborated by + credible testimonies and documents.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">’</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Whoever follows this maxim is safe. The + veneration of such things is always conditional, it is only + relative, and on the condition that the tradition be true. In + so far only is the veneration absolute as it relates to the + Saint to whom the veneration is paid. The same applies to the + veneration of relics.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Benedict + XIV.</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">says of private + revelations:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Praedictis revelationibus etsi</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">approbatis</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + non debere nec posse a nobis adhiberi assensum fidei + catholicae, sed tantum fidei humanae juxta regulas prudentiae, + juxta quas praedictae revelationes sunt probabiles et pie + credibiles.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">De Serv. Dei beatificatione, III, + c. ult. n. 15).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Hence the historian is free to investigate + such traditions critically, provided, of course, that he does + not violate the reverence due to sacred things.</span></p> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page097">[pg 097]</span><a name= + "Pg097" id="Pg097" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">4. Infallible and Non-Infallible + Teachings.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Now to + consider a last point. Does it not rest entirely with the + pleasure of ecclesiastical authority, as would seem from what has + been said above, to suppress at any time the results, or at least + the hypotheses, of scientific research by pointing to putative + truths of faith presumed to be in opposition? Then, of course, + the scientist would be at the mercy of a zealous ecclesiastical + authority. Or will it perhaps be said that this authority is + infallible in its every decision? Think of <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span>, of the interdict + against the Copernican view of the world, and you will be able + fully to appreciate the danger alluded to!</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We shall later + on return to the famous case of <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span>. For the present we + only call attention to a distinction which must not be + overlooked, the distinction between infallible teachings and + those that are not infallible.<a id="noteref_3" name="noteref_3" + href="#note_3"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">3</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">According to + Catholic teaching, the universal teaching body of the Church, + when declaring unanimously to be an object of faith something + relating to faith and morals, is endowed with <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">infallibility</span></em>, and also when in + its daily practice of the faith it unanimously professes a + doctrine to be a truth of faith. This infallibility is also + possessed by the Pope alone when, acting in his capacity as + Supreme Teacher of the Church in matters of faith and morals, he + intends to give a permanent decision for the whole Church (ex + cathedra).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Besides these + infallible teachings there are also <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">non-infallible</span></em> teachings, and + they are the more frequent. Such are, first of all, the ordinary + doctrinal utterances of the Pope himself in his regular + supervision of the teaching of doctrine: these instructions and + declarations are of a lower kind than those peremptory + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page098">[pg 098]</span><a name= + "Pg098" id="Pg098" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> ones that are + pronounced ex cathedra: he is infallible only in the utterance of + these ultimate, supreme decisions, the chief bulwark, as it were, + erected against the floods of error. Decisions ex cathedra are + very rare. Encyclical letters, too, are, as a rule, not + infallible. It is self-evident that the theological opinions and + statements of the Pope as a private person, not as Supreme Head + of the Church, do not belong here at all. They have no official + character and are in no way binding.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among + decisions that are not infallible are further included, in + various degrees, the doctrinal utterances of Bishops, of + particular synods, and especially those of the Roman + Congregations. The latter are bodies of Cardinals, delegated by + the Head of the Church, as highest Papal boards, to co-operate + with him in the various offices of administration. Of these, the + Congregation of the Holy Office and that of the Index may also + render decisions on doctrinal questions. Although the + Congregations act by virtue of their delegation from the Pope, + and publish their decrees with his consent, the decisions are not + decisions of the Pope himself, but remain decisions of the + Cardinals. Much less can the infallibility of the Pope pass over + to them: it is his personal prerogative, the aid of the Holy + Ghost is promised to him, and protects his judgments under + certain conditions against error.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the + Catholic owes submission also to the non-infallible teachings; + and not only an outer submission, a reverent silence, that + offends not either verbally or in writing against the decision + rendered, but he owes also his inner assent. But it cannot be + that unconditional inner assent which he owes to the infallible + decision, for this he holds to be irrevocably certain; nor is his + assent to non-infallible decisions a real act of faith. He is not + given any unconditional guarantee of the truth. An error is, of + course, most unlikely, but not absolutely impossible. Hence the + faithful Catholic should always be ready to accept such decisions + in as far as they are warranted by recognized truth. This applies + to all kinds of doctrinal teaching, but of course in different + ways, corresponding to the degree of authority,—for instance, + Papal decisions are of higher authority than those of the + Congregations,—yet it applies also to the <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page099">[pg 099]</span><a name="Pg099" id= + "Pg099" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> doctrinal decisions of the + Congregations, because they are the ordinary teaching organs of + the Church.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">When the Congregation of the Index, 1857, had + forbidden the works of</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Guenther</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">and many thought they could evade + the decision,</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Pius + IX.</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">wrote, June 15, to + the Archbishop of Cologne:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The decree is so far-reaching that nobody may + think himself free not to hold what we have + confirmed.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Similar was what the Pope had + written to the Archbishop of Mecheln after the condemnation of + the ontological errors of</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Ubagh</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">. + The Motu proprio of</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Pius + X.</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">of November 8, + 1907, speaks similarly of the obligation of submission to the + decisions of the Papal Biblical Commission relating to + doctrines, and to the decrees of Congregations when approved by + the Pope. (Cf. also the Syllabus of Pius IX., sent. + 22.)</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Theologians agree that this requisite internal + assent is not the same as irrevocable assent. This was also + declared by</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Pius IX.</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">in his letter to the Archbishop of + Munich-Freising, saying that this inner submission is by no + means faith; and no theologian will ascribe infallibility to a + mere congregational decree. (See on this point:</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">e.g.</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Grisar</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + Galileistudien, 1882, 171</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">seq.</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Cr.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Pesch</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + Theol. Zeitfragen, Erste Folge, 1900, III.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Egger</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + Streiflichter ueber die freiere Bibelforschung, + 1889.)</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">It would be erroneous to think that only in + recent times, after the embarrassment caused by the + regrettable</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">decision the subtle distinction + had been invented that congregational decisions are not binding + on Catholics with absolute force. This was taught by + theologians long before the</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">case caused any excitement. In + this sense the celebrated writer on Moral Theology,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Lacroix</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + said:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">The + declarations of none of these Congregations are infallible.... + No infallibility is promised to the Congregation in so far as + it is viewed as separate from the Pope</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(Theologia Moralis, 1729, I, n. 215).</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Raccioli</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + soon after the</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">trial, wrote:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The Holy Congregation of Cardinals as separate + from the Pope cannot give to any proposition the proper + authority of faith.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">And he adds:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">There being extant no decision of the Pope, or + of a Council directed and confirmed by him, the proposition of + the sun moving and the earth standing still cannot on the + strength of a congregational decree be considered a truth that + must be believed</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">(Almagestum novum, 1651, I, 52).</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The obligation + to give interior assent also to an authority not infallible, + cannot seem strange if this authority offers a guarantee for the + truth commensurate to the assent demanded. We certainly ask of a + child to receive the instruction from his parent and teacher with + internal assent, so far as the latter does not run counter to its + instinct for the truth, else the education of the child and the + needful influence over its intellectual life would be impossible. + Upon the Church has been bestowed by her divine Founder the task + of guiding the faithful <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page100">[pg + 100]</span><a name="Pg100" id="Pg100" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + authoritatively in the educational matters committed to the + Church, and not only in their youth but throughout their lives. + This guidance in religion and morality would be impossible if the + faithful could constantly deny their internal assent to the + instruction of the Church, which is given generally in a form + that is not infallible. The full power of the Church to teach + with authority implies a corresponding duty of the faithful to + assent to her teachings as far as this is possible. Does not the + scientific specialist think himself obliged to accept a + proposition on the strength of a certain authority, even if the + latter's infallibility is not established? He reads in his + scientific periodical and finds in it the report of special + researches made by a colleague. He cannot examine them over + again, yet he accepts them because of the reliability of his + colleague, in which he sees the guarantee of truth. Likewise, + only more so, does the Catholic owe it to his sense of truth to + impose upon himself an assent even where the representatives of + the teaching authority of the Church are not endowed in their + decision with the gift of infallibility. For he knows that even + in such teachings the Church is commonly under the guidance of + the Holy Ghost, who will seldom tolerate error. He is promised to + the teaching Church for the safe guidance of the faithful; these + declarations are, however, the ordinary doctrinal utterances of + that ecclesiastical office. And the Holy Ghost cannot permit that + the teaching authority should by a wrong decision forfeit the + confidence it enjoys.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Moreover, this + authority ranks very high even when looked at from a purely human + standpoint. Those who are invested with it are mostly men of + great learning, competent to give such doctrinal decisions by + virtue of their experience and position, and learned advisers are + at their side. They are guided by the tradition and wisdom of a + universal Church, which measures its history by thousands of + years: the decisions, too, are for the most part but the + application or repetition of previous doctrinal utterances. + Besides, there is the hesitating caution which advances to a + decision only after long deliberations, and in undemonstrated + matters usually refrains from decision; a caution which has + increased still more in recent times, since so <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page101">[pg 101]</span><a name="Pg101" id= + "Pg101" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> many subtle questions have + arisen on the boundaries of science and faith. It is also known + that many inquisitive eyes are constantly turned on Rome, and a + single wrong decision might entail most disagreeable consequences + for friend and foe. The pressure must be very great before a + much-disputed question is taken up at all.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of course it + is by no means impossible that difficulties may pile up in such a + way that an error may really be made. History knows of such a + case. But the very fact that the one case of <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span> is always quoted, and, + therefore, that in the long history of the Congregations this is + considered to be almost the only case of importance, is a proof + how carefully the Congregations proceed, and that supernatural + aid is granted them. An institution which in the course of its + long existence had to reply to innumerable questions and against + which only one wrong decision of importance can be pointed out, + must necessarily be an exemplary institution. An institution so + free from human error must surely be guided by the Holy Ghost. + Compare with this the many cases in which science has had to + correct itself, had to abandon its long-championed propositions + as untenable.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus, in a + given case, the decision is not difficult for the Catholic. On + one side stand the representatives of a science which has erred, + very often, incomparably more frequently than the ecclesiastical + teaching authority, and which lacks the special aid of God. On + the other side is the ecclesiastical authority, which has almost + never erred, and which enjoys special divine aid; moreover, it + examines into its questions with greater caution and care, + because it has more to lose. In addition it is almost invariably + able to point to a large number, and frequently the majority, of + savants who indorse its decisions, because these mostly concern + disputed questions not yet scientifically determined. Hence the + Catholic will find no difficulty in presuming that the decision + is in accord with the truth; the more so because, as a rule, he + himself is unable to examine scientifically both sides of the + question.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Should any + one, nevertheless, be clearly convinced, by substantial and valid + reasons, that there has been prejudgment, then he would not be + any longer obliged to give it his interior <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page102">[pg 102]</span><a name="Pg102" id= + "Pg102" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> assent: truth before all + else. It would be easy, too, by presenting reliable information + to an authoritative quarter, to secure the triumph of the truth. + However, in this case a man must be ever on his guard against the + tendency to overrate his own arguments. In excitement he easily + thinks himself to be certainly in the right, but when considering + the matter quietly before God and his conscience, he will rarely + come to the conclusion that it would be wise to set his judgment + above the decision. In the case of <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span> the decision of the + Congregation was by no means opposed by a clear conviction of the + truth of the opposite.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Take, for instance, a more recent decision of + the Congregation, forbidding craniotomy. It has often been + denounced. The question was submitted to the Congregation of the + Holy Office whether it were permissible to teach that craniotomy + is allowable in case the mother cannot give birth to the child, + and that both will have to die unless the child be killed and + removed by a surgical operation. The Congregation answered twice + in the negative, in May and August, 1889. Neither craniotomy, nor + any operation implying the direct murder of the child or mother + can be taught to be permissible. The reason on which the answers + were based is that the direct murder of an innocent person in + order to save human life is never allowable; and this applies to + the murder of a child, which has as much right to its life as any + other person. In the case of craniotomy we have the direct murder + of the child. We, too, shall have to admit, if we judge according + to the objective morality of the action, that the Congregation is + in the right; though it may seem hard to let both mother and + child die rather than take a life directly, we shall have to + admit that it is more in accord with the sanctity of the moral + law than the opposite, though the latter may seem preferable to + medical practice. Viewed in the interest of truth and the purity + of the moral law, it is gratifying to know that there is a court + courageous enough to uphold this law always and everywhere, even + when it becomes hard.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">So much about + assenting to doctrinal decisions that are not infallible.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In regard to + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">infallible</span></em> decisions, the + Catholic knows that there are certain truths which no result of + science can contradict. To these decisions he owes unconditional + submission, and he gives it with conviction: he knows the + promise, <span class="tei tei-q">“I am with you always, even unto + the consummation of the world.”</span> New decisions of this kind + are very rare. When the dogma of the Infallibility of the Pope + was proclaimed in 1870, the fear <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page103">[pg 103]</span><a name="Pg103" id="Pg103" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> was frequently expressed that the Head of + the Roman Church would hasten to make the fullest use of this + prerogative, by erecting theological barriers at all nooks and + corners in the realm of thought. The fear did not come true; it + was unfounded.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">A Protestant scientist wrote recently:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Those who + thought</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Doellinger's</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">prediction + of a prolific crop of dogmas would come true were disappointed. + There has been no new dogma pronounced since 1870, although + there were many pious opinions that certain circles would have + been only too glad to see confirmed. On looking calmly at the + dogma of infallibility it is seen that it was, after all, not + so bad as had been feared during the first + excitement</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(</span><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">K. + Holl</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, Modernismus, + 1908, p. 9, Religionsgesch. Volksbuecher, IV, 7, + Heft).</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We may get a + good idea of the precaution taken prior to the proclamation of an + infallible decision by perusing the History of the Vatican + Council, published by <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Granderath</span></span>, in three volumes. + He describes the proceedings with conscientious objectiveness. He + shows how minutely all questions had been previously studied, + with all the available means of scientific investigation, and how + minutely and freely they were discussed by the most venerable + representatives of the Catholic world.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Cardinal + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Gibbons</span></span>, Archbishop of + Baltimore, gave his impressions of the Vatican Council as + follows:</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“I happened to be the youngest Bishop that attended + the Council of the Vatican, and, while my youth and inexperience + imposed on me a discreet silence among my elders, I do not + remember to have missed a single session, and I was an attentive + listener at all the debates.... I think I am not exaggerating + when I say that the Council of the Vatican has been excelled by + few, if any, deliberative assemblies, civil or ecclesiastical, + that have ever met, whether we consider the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">maturity</span></em> of years of its + members, their <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">learning</span></em>, their <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">experience</span></em> and <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">piety</span></em>, or the widespread + influence of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Decrees</span></span> that they framed for + the spiritual and moral welfare of the Christian + Republic.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“The youngest Bishop in the Council was thirty-six + years old. Fully three-fourths of the Prelates ranged between + fifty-six and ninety years. The great majority, therefore, had + grown gray in the service of their Divine Master. Several Fathers + of the Church, bent with age, might be seen passing through St. + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page104">[pg 104]</span><a name= + "Pg104" id="Pg104" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Peter's Basilica + to the council chamber every morning, leaning with one hand on + their staff, the other resting on the shoulder of their + secretary. One or two blind Bishops could be observed, guided by + their servants, as they advanced to their posts with tottering + steps, determined to aid the Church in their declining years by + the wisdom of their counsel, as they had consecrated to her their + vigorous manhood by their Apostolic labours.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“But to the gravity of years the members of the + Council generally united profound and varied + learning....</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“They were men, too, of world-wide experience and + close observation. Each Bishop brought with him an intimate + knowledge of the history of his country and of the religious, + moral, social, and political condition of the people among whom + he lived. One could learn more from an hour's interview with this + living encyclopædia of divines, who were a world in miniature, + than from a week's study of books.... The most ample liberty of + discussion prevailed in the Council. This freedom the Holy Father + pledged at the opening of the synod, and the pledge was + religiously kept. I can safely say that neither in the British + House of Commons, nor in the French Chambers, nor in the German + Reichstag, nor in our American Congress, would a wider liberty of + debate be tolerated than was granted in the Vatican Council. The + presiding Cardinal exhibited a courtesy of manner and a + forbearance even in the heat of debate that was worthy of all + praise. I do not think that he called a speaker to order more + than a dozen times during the eighty-nine sessions, and then only + in deference to the dissenting murmurs or demands of some + Bishops. A Prelate representing the smallest diocese had the same + rights that were accorded to the highest dignitary in the + Chamber. There was no limit prescribed as to the length of the + speeches. We may judge of the wide scope of discussion from the + single fact that the debate on the Infallibility of the Pope + lasted two months, occupying twenty-five sessions, and was + participated in by one hundred and twenty-five Prelates, not + counting one hundred others who handed in written observations. + No stone was left unturned, no text of Sacred Scripture, no + passage in the writings of the Fathers, no page of Ecclesiastical + History bearing on the subject, escaped the <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page105">[pg 105]</span><a name="Pg105" id= + "Pg105" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> vigilant investigations of + the Bishops, so that the whole truth of God might be brought to + light....</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“The most important debate in the Council was that on + the Infallibility of the Pope. It may be proper to observe here + that the discussion was rather on the expediency or opportuneness + of defining the dogma than on the intrinsic truth of the doctrine + itself. The number of Prelates who questioned the claim of Papal + Infallibility could be counted on the fingers of a single hand. + Many of the speakers, indeed, impugned the dogma, not because + they did not personally accept it, but with the view of pointing + out the difficulties with which the teaching body of the Church + would have to contend in vindicating it before the world. I have + listened in the council chamber to far more subtle, more + plausible, and more searching objections against this prerogative + of the Pope than I have ever read or heard from the pen or tongue + of the most learned and formidable Protestant assailant”</span> + (North American Review, April, 1894).</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">Obedience of Faith and Freedom of + Action.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In looking + back at what has been said, we see the justice of the question: + where is here any real injury to lawful freedom in thought and + scientific research? In most of the profane sciences the + scientist receives no directions from the authority of faith; he + is altogether free, as long as he keeps within his province. In + some matters he is given a list of errors to beware of: these are + in the first place the great questions concerning views of the + world and life, of which, after all, it is very difficult to + obtain scientific knowledge. But here he knows, through the + conviction he has of the truth of his faith, that he is offered + the truth free from error and prejudice.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is true, + adhering to a religious authority implies restraint. But it is + only the restraint of truth. Truth does not lose its claim upon + the mind because it is offered to the latter by a supernatural + authority; much less does the Creator lose the right to the + tribute of homage of his rational creature; and this tribute is + rendered by voluntary submission to the revealed <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page106">[pg 106]</span><a name="Pg106" id= + "Pg106" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> truth. Upon the Church, + however, has been laid the task of preserving unadulterated the + legacy of her Founder from generation to generation. She is + responsible before God and history for the faithful presentation + of the most sacred inheritance of mankind. Therefore the Church + must raise her voice when the puny thoughts of men, called + science and progress, rise against the saving truth to disparage, + to falsify, to annihilate it. <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">It is not science + the Church opposes, but error</span></em>; not truth, but the + emancipation of the human mind from God's authority, an + emancipation that is trying to hide its real self under the guise + of scientific truth.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“The Church,”</span> says the Vatican Council (Sess. + III, ch. 4), <span class="tei tei-q">“having received with her + apostolic office to teach, the obligation of preserving the + legacy of the faith, has also the God-given right and duty to + condemn what is falsely called science, 'lest any one be cheated + by philosophy and vain deceit.'”</span> That the denial of the + faith is flippantly called science does not alter the case. What + determines the attitude of the Church is not eagerness to rule, + not a propensity to apply force to the mind, but loyalty to her + vocation. If it is disagreeable for any superior to have to + correct those under him, then it requires an heroic strength and + courage to cry out time and again to the whole world and its + leading minds, <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">Errastis</span></span>, you + have erred! It requires heroism to reject, to oppose and condemn, + time and again, propositions sailing under the flag of progress, + light and enlightenment, in spite of the protest of those + concerned, who denounce whatever opposes them as darkness and + retrogression. How much easier it would be to fawn upon the pet + ideas of the age, Neo-protestantism and Modernism, and thus to + gain their approval, than to hear repeatedly the distressing + words, <span class="tei tei-q">“We will not have her to rule over + us—<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">crucifige, + crucifige</span></span>!”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But why not + let <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">science correct itself</span></em>? Why + these violent condemnations and indictments? Science, by virtue + of its instinct for the truth will by itself find the way back, + when it has gone on the wrong track; only be patient. Science has + in itself the cure for all its defects. Has it not already all by + itself overcome numerous errors in the course of the centuries? + Indeed, were there nothing at stake but scientific theories they + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page107">[pg 107]</span><a name= + "Pg107" id="Pg107" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> might be readily + left to themselves: the loss to mankind would not be great. But + here there are more important issues at stake. The protection of + the faith, of truths of the vastest importance for Christian life + and the souls of men. And it is the duty of the Church to protect + her charges from going astray, from dangers to salvation. How + many thousands of them would suffer harm before it would please + science to correct its heresies! It often takes a long time to + pull down the idols placed upon pedestals, and then it may be + only to erect another idol. How long will it take modern + philosophy to agree that the will of man is free, that there is a + substantial immortal soul, that a Creator of the world dwells + above the heavens? Is the Church to wait till the men of science + make up their minds to desist from denying the existence of a + personal God, and to bow before the Creator of heaven and earth? + Should she meanwhile look on calmly how such ruinous doctrines + are pervading and penetrating society deeper and deeper? Souls + cannot wait thus to suffer shipwreck. Finally, the duty to + believe remains the same for all, for the scientist, too—he is + not free to delay his assent until he has exhausted all his + antagonistic scientific experiments.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To be sure, + the scientist is restricted in so far as he is not allowed to + pursue any and every hypothesis, regardless of the immutable + truth; he may no longer follow every scientific fashion. But is + this a real detriment to the human intellect and science? Has not + every science to bear <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">restraint from other sciences</span></em> at + all times? The adherent of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Darwin's</span></span> theory of natural + selection needs a billion years for his slow evolution; but the + geologist tells him that neither the formation of the earth's + surface nor the strata or sub-strata have taken so long in + formation—he corrects him. When the philosopher, drawing the + logical deductions from his materialistic views of the world, + assumes that the first living being sprang from lifeless matter, + the naturalist informs him that this is contradicted by + facts—there never has been a case of spontaneous generation. The + naturalist is corrected by the better experiment of men of his + profession, the scientific author is corrected by his critic. + Hence if a man submits to the guidance of other men of his + profession, if one science accepts direction from another + science, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page108">[pg + 108]</span><a name="Pg108" id="Pg108" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + without any one seeing any injury to freedom therein, why, then, + should it be mental oppression for God's infallible wisdom to + call out through His Church to the fallible human mind: this is + error, I declare it so? When the guide-post points out to the + traveller that he is on the wrong way, will the wanderer + indignantly resent the correction as an interference with his + freedom of action? Is the railing along the steep precipice, to + guard against falling down, an interference with liberty? Is the + lighthouse, warning the sailor of cliffs and shoals, any + interference with his freedom?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Generally + those who oppose the Christian and Catholic duty to believe use + the following argument: Where there is restraint and dependence + there is no freedom; the Christian, and especially the Catholic, + is restrained and dependent; hence he is not free: consequently + he has no true science, because there can be no true science + without freedom. In the same way it may be argued: The civilized + nation is restrained in various ways by the civil order, + therefore it is not free. The careful writer of scientific works + is tied down on all sides by the rules of logic, by the dictates + of good style, by scientific usages: hence he is not free.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Let us not + lose sight of the question. It cannot be denied that the man who + does not bother about faith has a greater outer freedom than the + man who does. We speak purposely of outer freedom. It is quite + another question, where real internal freedom exists, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span>, freedom from the fetters + of one's own inclinations and prejudices,—in the religiously + disciplined mind, or in the other. Here we speak of inner + freedom. Obviously it is greater in the former. The deer in the + forest is freer in his movements than the cautious + mountain-climber, who keeps to marked roads and paths, so as to + journey safely, yet the latter is not without freedom. Nor will + any one deny that the Australian bushman enjoys a greater outer + freedom than the civilized white, restrained by laws, by rules + and regulations, by standards of decency. And the busy writer of + many things and everything, who in his writing never pays any + attention to logic, to scientific form, to style and tact, has + more freedom than one who strictly conforms to all + these.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page109">[pg + 109]</span><a name="Pg109" id="Pg109" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Every + civilization, culture, and education implies restriction of + freedom</span></em>, and the more the rejection of dependence and + laws increases the nearer we approach the state of uncultured and + barbarous nations. The same applies to intellectual culture. The + higher it is, the more learning and mental culture a man has, the + greater the number of truths, principles, and intellectual + standards he carries within him. By these he is bound if he wants + to advance into the higher spheres of intellectuality. And the + more the intellect rejects laws and standards the more + unregulated and dull its intellectual life will become. The more + one knows the more strictly is he bound to truth in every + respect; the less one knows the freer he is to commit errors. + This is no advantage, it is the privilege of the ignorant and + untrained mind. The believer is bound by religious truth in the + same way as one who knows the truth is bound by it, while one who + is ignorant of it is not.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is + certainly not impossible for the obedience of faith to create + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">intellectual conflict</span></em>. There may + be cases when scientific views look probable to the scientist, + while they contradict a doctrine of faith or an ecclesiastical + decision. The roads may even cross more radically. It may happen + that his views and books are condemned, forbidden by the + Church.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If the + conflicting doctrine should be an <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">infallible</span></em> one, the decision of + the believing scientist is soon reached. He knows now what to + think of his hypothesis, that it is not true progress but + aberration, and consistency with his own conviction moves him to + desist. Thus the philosophical errors of modern times are opposed + almost throughout to infallible dogmas, for the most part + fundamental doctrines of the Christian religion. This is also the + legal right under which revelation and the Church approach the + scientist with the demand not to permit his views to go contrary + to faith, because there can never be a contradiction between + faith and reason. <span class="tei tei-q">“There can never be a + contradiction between faith and reason,”</span> the Vatican + Council teaches; <span class="tei tei-q">“the apparent conflict + is due either to the doctrine not being understood and + interpreted in the sense of the Church, or to erroneous opinions + that are mistaken for conclusions of reason”</span> (Conc. Vat. + sess. III, cp. 4). If the Catholic <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page110">[pg 110]</span><a name="Pg110" id="Pg110" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> finds his position opposed to <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">non-infallible</span></em> decisions, then + he will re-examine his views in unselfish impartiality before + God. If he must calmly tell himself that his arguments are not so + weighty as to be able to stand up before so high an authority, + guided by the Holy Ghost, then he will forego the gratification + of holding fast to his own opinions, and will remind himself that + true wisdom knows the fallibility of the human mind, and is ever + ready to take advice from a divinely guided authority. Perhaps he + will recall the words of the great <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">St. + Augustine</span></span>: <span class="tei tei-q">“Better bow + before an incomprehensible but saving symbol than entangle one's + neck in the meshes of error”</span> (De doctr. Christ. III, 13). + This Christian self-denial surpasses in beauty even science + itself, and sheds upon it a greater splendour.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The great</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Fénelon</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + proceeding to his pulpit in the cathedral of Cambrai, on + Annunciation day in 1699, was handed by his brother the Roman + brief condemning twenty-three propositions of</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Fénelon's</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Maximes + des Saints.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">The Bishop took the writing, + calmly ascended the pulpit and announced it forthwith, and + preached a sermon on the submission due to ecclesiastical + superiors, at which the whole congregation was greatly moved. A + few days later he announced in an episcopal letter to his + diocese his submission,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">simple, absolute, and without a shadow of + reservation.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">By + this deed, an heroic act of obedience,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Fénelon</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">is placed higher in history than + by his brilliant works, than by the honour of having been the + illustrious tutor of the Dauphin of France.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Antonio + Rosmini-Serbati</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">in + August, 1849, received official notice of the condemnation of + two of his works by the Congregation of the Index. He + immediately sent in his submission:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">With the sentiments of a true and obedient son + of the Apostolic See, that I have always been by the grace of + God and wish ever to be, and have ever acknowledged myself, I + now declare clearly and sincerely, without reservation, my + submission, in the most complete manner, to the condemnation of + my writings.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Both the condemnation and the + submission were soon made the target of attack by the Liberal + press.</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Rosmini</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">replied in an admirable open + letter:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">To my + great sorrow I have seen several articles in different + newspapers which dare criticize the Holy Congregation of the + Index for condemning my writings. Inasmuch as I have submitted + to the decree of the said Congregation with all sincerity, and + with full interior and exterior obedience as becomes a true son + of the Church, every one will easily understand how much I + regret these articles and disapprove of them. Yet I deem it not + superfluous to declare expressly that I reject those articles + entirely and that I do not accept the praise for me which they + offer. With regard to other newspaper writers, who are + censuring me and even insulting me for having done what it was + my duty to do, in submitting to the condemnation, as though I + had committed a crime, I can only say that I greatly pity them, + and that they would fill me with</span> <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page111">[pg 111]</span><a name="Pg111" id= + "Pg111" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style= + "font-size: 90%">contempt could I deem it permissible to + despise any one</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(apud</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">J. + Hilgers</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, Der Index + der verbotenen Buecher, 1904, 413).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">A</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Fénelon</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">or a</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Rosmini</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + bowing with the humility of the Christian savant to the + judgment of their Church, have thereby forfeited nothing of + their intellectual fame in the eyes of earnest critics, but, on + the contrary, have greatly increased the respect for their + noble character.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Even should + the future prove as scientifically correct that which the + believing scientist does not as yet clearly see, that he was + scientifically in the right, no considerable damage would result + to science. Providence, which guides human affairs, will protect + science for its noble modesty in submitting meanwhile to an + authority appointed by God. As a matter of fact, science cannot + be shown ever to have suffered any real loss by such submission, + not even in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span> case, as we shall see + further on. On the other hand, countless are the errors and + injuries which have befallen human thought and belief, and which + the Church has warded off from those who yielded to her guidance. + Of course the submission may become difficult if a man clings to + his views, or has already publicly proclaimed them. Then, indeed, + a bitter struggle may ensue. A number of scientists have failed + to stand the test and have left to posterity the ill-fated name + of apostates. The Church regrets such cases; but the deposit of + faith is too precious to be endangered for the sake of any + individual.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For this + reason the Church is and must be <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">conservative</span></em>; for this reason + she may have to warn against the dissemination of propositions + which may not in themselves be false, but fraught with danger for + the time being. She cannot take part in any hasty effort to make + experiments, risking everything inherited in order to try + something new.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">During the nineteenth century the United States + was repeatedly the scene of communistic experiments. Daring + adventurers assembled people and founded settlements on + communistic principles, private property being abolished. In + 1824</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Robert Owen</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">founded a colony in Indiana, which + soon grew to nine hundred members, living in the fashion of + atheistic communism. In 1825 the colony adopted its first + constitution, which within the following year suffered six + complete revisions. In June of the second year the last members + of the colony ate their farewell dinner together. The experiment + had come to a speedy termination. A Frenchman,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Etienne + Cabet</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, founded, in + 1848, a new colony in Texas, called Icaria. Soon it numbered + 500 members. Each family had its small</span> <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page112">[pg 112]</span><a name="Pg112" id= + "Pg112" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style= + "font-size: 90%">homestead. Children were educated by the + community. Amusement was provided for by a band and a theatre; + a library supplied more intellectual wants. But soon it all + fell into decay.</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Cabet</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">departed and died. In 1895 the + newspapers reported the dissolution of the last remnant of the + colony. Such is the fate of experiments.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Daring adventurers may undertake them. The + lecturer at college, too, will be readily pardoned for his + eagerness to take up the cudgel in defence of what is new in + his profane science: he may easily correct himself. But the + Teacher of the Centuries and of the Nations, in the sphere of + religion and morals, has not the right to experiment. Here, + where mistakes may entail the direst consequences, the rule + must be: slowly onward, to keep the whole from ruin. + Cardinal</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Benedict + Gaetani</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, later + Pope</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Boniface + VIII.</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, once praised + Rome for having</span> <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">pedes non plumeos sed + plumbeos</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">—not winged + feet, but leaden heels.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Sentiments of + the kind just set forth are of course possible only in + conjunction with the belief in a revelation and in the + supernatural character of the Church, where the interests of + faith come first, and must be unconditionally preserved. He who + lacks this conviction, he to whom the Church is but a human + institution, founded in the course of time, tending perhaps to + oppose truth and science for fear they might endanger the + submission of minds—to such a one the Catholic's confident + devotion to his Church, and consciousness of unimpaired freedom + at the same time, will be unintelligible; and the inflexibility + of the Church in defending the faith will pass his comprehension. + And woe to the Church when her position toward science is being + tried before this court: only harsh denunciations are to be + expected where the judge does not understand the matter he + undertakes to decide.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Nor do we + attempt to bridge the chasm that separates the two views of the + world which we here again encounter, the one, which rejects the + supernatural world, the other, the view of the believing + Christian. We have but endeavoured to show that <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">faith does not + restrain the mental freedom of one who is convinced of the truth + of his faith</span></em>. Submission to the authority of faith is + the consequence of his conviction. This is the question to be + decided: Either there is a revelation and a Church founded by + God, or there is not. If such there be, or if it is only + possible, then modern freedom of thought, with its demand of + exemption from all authority, is against reason and morality. If + there is not, then this should be proved. It can <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page113">[pg 113]</span><a name="Pg113" id= + "Pg113" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> be done consistently only by + acknowledging atheism. For if there is a personal God, then He + can give a revelation and found a Church, and demand submission + from all. Since the days of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Celsus</span></span> to this day the attempt + to demonstrate that the convictions of a faithful Christian are + unjustifiable has proved futile.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">Obedience of Faith and Injury to + Science.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">While all this + is true, yet one may not share this conviction, nor rise to the + certainty that there is a supernatural world whence the Son of + God descended to teach man and to found an infallible Church. + Still, to be fair, he must admit that no real danger to freedom + of research and progress of science results from submission to + faith, as shown above.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the first + place it must be admitted that the assertion is still unproved, + that a positive result of research has ever come in hopeless + conflict with a dogma of faith; hence that science has been + prevented from accepting this result. No such case can be found. + The condemnation of the Copernican view of the world will be + considered presently; we pass over the fact that at the time of + its condemnation it was not a positive result of science: the + main point is that the condemnation was not an irrevocable dogma + of faith, but only the decision of a Congregation, which was + withdrawn as soon as the truth was clearly demonstrated. Besides, + science has suffered no injury from that decision.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In general, + where there is real contradiction between science and faith, the + matters in question are invariably <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">hypotheses</span></em>. Is it more than an + hypothesis, and a very doubtful hypothesis at that, that the + world and God are identical, that there is an eternal, uncreated + course of the world, that miracles are impossible? That what is + said about the natural origin of Christianity, the origin of the + Jewish religion from Babylonian myths, the origin of all + religions from fear, fancy, or deception, is it anything more + than hypothetical? The false systems of knowledge, subjectivism, + and agnosticism—are they more than hypotheses? Ask their + originators and champions; they will admit it themselves; and if + they will not admit it, others will <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page114">[pg 114]</span><a name="Pg114" id="Pg114" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> tell them that their propositions are not + only hypotheses, but often quite untenable. There is hardly a + single hypothesis which has not its vehement opponents. That the + serious conflict between dogma and science is waged only in this + field could be proved by abundant examples. Besides, is it not + the philosophical axiom of modern freedom of thought, that in the + sphere of philosophy and religion there is no certain knowledge, + but only supposition?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Can hypotheses + claim to rank as assured results of research which should be + universally accepted? Why should it not be allowed to contradict + them, to oppose them with other suppositions? Is it not in the + interest of science that this be done, that they be subjected to + sharp criticism, lest they gradually be given out for positive + results? Is it not a shameful trifling with the truth, when a + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Haeckel</span></span> deceives wide circles + by pretending that most frivolous hypotheses are established + results of science? Is it not misleading when modern science + treats the rejection of a supernatural order as an established + principle?</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">And how often the hypotheses of profane sciences + change!</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Laymen are + astonished,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">says</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">H. + Poincaré</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">that so + many scientific theories are perishable. They see them thrive for + a few years, to be abandoned one after the other; they see wrecks + heaped upon wrecks; they foresee that theories now fashionable + will after a short while be forgotten, and they conclude that + these theories are absolute fallacy. They call it the bankruptcy + of science</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(Wissenschaft u. Hypothese, German + by</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">F. + Lindemann</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, 2d ed., + 1906, 161). The conclusion is certainly unjustified, but the fact + itself remains. Is it then a loss to science when faith opposes + in the field of religion these variations of opinion with fixed + dogmas?</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Or are these perhaps of less worth, or less + certain than their contraries? Is the dogma of the existence of + God of less value than atheism? Is the conviction of the + existence of a world of spirits less substantial than the + philosophy of materialistic monism? Is the doctrine of the + origin of the human soul from the creating hand of God found + inferior to the notion that the soul has developed from the + lower stages of animal life? Should the holy teaching of + Christianity, doctrines believed by the best periods in the + world's history, believed in and professed by minds like those + of an</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Augustine</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + a</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Thomas</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + and a</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Leibnitz</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">; + doctrines that since their appearance on earth have always + attracted the noble and good, and repelled chiefly the base and + immoral; doctrines that still wait for their first + unobjectionable refutation—should such doctrines be less sure + than the innumerable, ever-changing suggestions of unregulated + thought, apparently directed by an aversion to everything + supernatural?</span></p> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page115">[pg 115]</span><a name= + "Pg115" id="Pg115" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">Erravimus.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Yet another + fact may be pointed out. It is an undeniable fact that science, + after straying for some time, is not unfrequently <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">compelled to + return to what is taught by faith and the Church</span></em>, + thus confirming the truth of the faith. Frequently the new theory + has come on like a tornado, sweeping all minds before it. But the + tempest was soon spent, the minds recovered their balance and the + hasty misjudgment was recognized.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Not long ago, when materialism revelled in its + orgies, especially in Germany, when</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Vogt</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Buechner</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + and</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Moleschott</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">were writing their books, and + science with</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Du + Bois-Reymond</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">was + hunting</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Laplace's</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">theory in the evolution of the + world, the Syllabus, undaunted, put its anathema upon the (58.) + proposition:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">No other + forces are acknowledged but those of matter.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">The summer-night's dream came to an end, and + people rubbed their eyes and saw the reality they had lost a + while. The materialism of the 60's and 70's has been discarded + by the scientific world, and finds a shelter only in the + circles of unschooled infidelity.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">J. + Reinke</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, in the name + of biology, bears testimony in the words:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">In my opinion materialism has been disposed of + in biology; if, nevertheless, a number of biologists still + stand by its colours, this tenacity may be explained + psychologically; for, in the apt words of</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Du + Bois-Reymond</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, in the + domain of ideas a man does not willingly and easily forsake the + highway of thought which his entire mental training has opened + up</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(Einleitung in die theoretische + Biologie, 1901, 52).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">A few decades ago a number of scientists + declared it impossible that the different races could have + descended from one pair of ancestors, as taught by faith: the + difference between the various families being too great and + radical, it was said; the difference being rather of species + than of race. Moreover, there was announced the discovery of + people without religion, without notions of morality and family + life; of tribes incapable of civilization and culture; it was + asserted in the early days of</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Darwin</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">enthusiasm that there had been + discovered a race of men that clearly belonged to the species + ape. Assertions of this kind have gradually ceased. Now the + different human races are considered to belong to the same + species, and their common parentage is considered possible from + the view-point of the theory of evolution. The + anthropologist</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Ranke</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">expresses his opinion thus:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">We find + the bodily differences perfectly connected by intermediate + forms, graded to a nicety, and the summary of the differences + appears to point to but one species.... This is the prevalent + opinion of all independent research of anatomically schooled + anthropologists</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(Der Mensch, 2d ed., II, 1894, 261). Ethnology + denies the existence of nations or tribes without religion + (</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Ratzel</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + Voelkerkunde, I, 1885, 31).</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Peschel</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">says:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The statement that any nation or tribe has + ever been found anywhere on</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page116">[pg 116]</span><a name="Pg116" id="Pg116" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">earth without + notions and suggestions of religion can be denied + emphatically</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">(</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">O. + Peschel</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + Voelkerkunde, 6th ed., 1885, 273).</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The more recent ethnology knows of no tribes + without morality, nor does history record + any</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(</span><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">W. + Schneider</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, Die + Naturvoelker, 1886, II, 348).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Until a short time ago it was believed that + the derivation of man's life from inferior stages of animal + life would not be difficult to prove; but at present, while + many still adhere to the theory that man has developed from the + brute, the conviction is steadily gaining ground that it cannot + be scientifically proved and that it becomes more and more + difficult to disprove man's higher origin. Unable to withstand + the force of facts, one hypothesis gives place to another: what + had to be found could not be found, living or extinct links + between the brute and man refused to appear anywhere, and those + which people thought they had found, turned out to be + unsuitable.</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Kohlbrugge</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">concludes his criticism of the + recent theories of the evolution of the body of man from lower + animals with the confession:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The above summary is enough to convince + everybody that we do not know anything distinct about the great + problem of evolution; we have not yet seen its face. All must + be done over again</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(Die Morpholog. Abstammung des Menschen, 1908, + 88).</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Virchow</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">said at the anthropological + congress of Vienna, 1889:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">When we met at Innsbruck twenty years ago + Darwinism had just finished its first triumphal march through + the world, and my friend</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Vogt</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">became its ardent champion. We + have searched in vain for the missing link connecting man + directly with the ape.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">What has become of those anatomic-morphologic + links between man and beast, the</span> <span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">pithecanthropus + erectus</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, the man dug + out at Neandertal, Spy, Schipka, La Naulette, and Krapina, and + shown with great confidence to the world? What has become of + the prehistoric man, said to belong to the glacial period of + Europe, and to have ranked far below the present man?</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">J. Kohlmann</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">writes:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">I wish to state that I thoroughly adhere to + the theory of evolution, but my own experience has led me to + the result that man has not changed his racial characteristics + since the glacial period. He appears on the soil of Europe + physically complete, and there is no ape-man to be + found</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(apud</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Ranke</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + Ibid. 480). Prof.</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Branco</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + director of the Palæontological Institute of Berlin, + says:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Palæontology tells us nothing about the + missing link. This science knows of no ancestors of + man</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(at the 5th international + Zoological Congress, 1901,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Wasmann</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + Die mod. Biolog. 3, p. 488). And the palæontologist</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Zittel</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">says:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The missing link between man and ape, though a + postulate of the theory of evolution, has not been + found</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">(</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Ranke</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + l. c. 504).</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">E. Grosse</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">concludes his studies on evolution + with the significant words:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">I began this book with the intention of + writing a history of the evolution of the family, and I finish + it convinced that at present the writing of that history is + impossible for me or for anybody else</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(Die Formen der Familie, 1896, + Vorwort).</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Ranke</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">is perfectly right in saying + that</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">it + behoves the dignity of science to confess that it knows nothing + of the origin of man</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(Thuermer V, 1902, I. Heft).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">A century ago or so, ridicule was heaped in + the name of science on the description in the Bible of the last + day:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">The stars + shall fall,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">and the + powers of heaven shall be moved,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">the elements shall be</span> <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page117">[pg 117]</span><a name="Pg117" id= + "Pg117" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style= + "font-size: 90%">melted with heat, and the earth shall be burnt + up</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(Matt. xxiv. 29</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">seq.</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">; + Luke xxi. 25</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">seq.</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">; + Mark xiii. 24</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">seq.</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">; + 2 Pet. iii. 10). Then the assertion that stones could fall from + the skies caused a smile, but now science has come to the + general knowledge that this is not only possible, but perhaps + really will be the end of all things, if once our earth on its + journey through unknown spaces of the universe should collide + with a comet or get into a cosmic cloud of large meteors. (Cf. + the graphic description in</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">K. + Braun</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, Ueber + Kosmogonie, 3d ed., 1905, p. 381</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">seq.</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">)</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">An example of another kind: It is not so long + since Protestant, liberal Bible-criticism and its history of + early Christian literature, in the endeavour to remove + everything supernatural from the beginning of Christianity, + regarded the New Testament and the oldest Christian documents + as unreliable testimony, even forgeries, and for this reason + placed the date of their origin as late as possible. But now + they have to retrace their steps.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">A. Harnack</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">writes:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">There was a period—the general public is still + living in it—when the New Testament and the oldest Christian + literature were thought to be but a tissue of lies and + forgeries. This time has passed. For science it was an episode + in which much was learned of which much must be forgotten. The + result of subsequent research over-reaches in a</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">reactionary</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">’</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">effect what might be termed the central + position of modern criticism. The oldest literature of the + Church is in the main and in most details true and reliable, + that is, from the literary and historical point of view.... I + am not afraid to use the word</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">retrogressive</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">’</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">—for we should call a spade a spade—the + criticism of the sources of the earliest Christianity is beyond + doubt moving retrogressively towards + tradition</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(Chronologie der Alt-Christ. + Literatur I, 1897, VIII). In a more recent work the same savant + writes:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">During + the years from 30 to 70 all originated in Palestine, or, + better, in Jerusalem, what later on was developed. This + knowledge is steadily gaining and replacing the former</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">critical</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">’</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">opinion that the fundamental development had + extended over a period of about a hundred + years</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">(Lukas der Arzt, 1906, Vorwort). This + retrogression is continued still farther in his later + work,</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Neue + Untersuchungen zur Apostolgesch. u. zur Abfassungszeit der + synopt. Evang., 1911,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">in which</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Harnack</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">draws very near to the Catholic + view regarding the date of writing of the Acts of the Apostles, + as also regarding</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">St. Paul's</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">attitude towards Judaism and + Christian-Judaism, and departs from the modern Protestant view + (cf. pp. 28-47, 79</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">seq.</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + 86, 93</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">seq.</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">).</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Protestant authorities on + church-history,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">he says elsewhere,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">no longer take offence at the proposition that + the main elements of Catholicism go back to the Apostolic era, + and not only peripherically</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(Theol. Literar. Zeitung, 1905, + 52).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">In a speech, much commented on, which he made + at his university January 12, 1907, Prof.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Harnack</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + discussing the religious question in Germany, called attention + to the fact that there has been quite a marked return to the + Catholic standpoint:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">From the study of Church history we find that + we all have become different from what our fathers were, + whether we may like it or not. Study has shown that we are + separated from our fathers by a long course of development; + that we do not understand their ideas and words at all, much + less do we use them in the sense they used + them.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">He then draws out the + comparison</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page118">[pg + 118]</span><a name="Pg118" id="Pg118" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">more + particularly:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Flacius</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">and the older Protestants denied + that</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Peter</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">had ever been in Rome at all. Now + we know that his having been there is a fact well evidenced in + history.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">The motto of the older Protestants + was that the Scriptures are the sole source of + revelation.</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">But now, + and for a long time past, Protestant savants have realized that + the Scriptures could not be separated from tradition, and that + the collecting of the New Testament Scriptures was a part of + tradition.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Protestants of the sixteenth century taught + justification by faith alone, without works. In the absence of + confessional controversy, no evangelical Christian would now + find fault with the teaching which declares only such faith to + be of any worth which shows itself by the love of God and of + the neighbour</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(Protestantismus u. Katholizismus in + Deutschland, Preussisch. Jahrbücher 127. Bd., 1907, 301</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">seq.</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">).</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Many similar + instances of science confessing Erravimus in regard to the + Christian or Catholic position could be cited. They are an + admonition to be modest, not to overrate the value of a + scientific proposition, and not, with supreme confidence and + infallibility, to brand it as an offence against the human + intellect to let one's self be guided by the principles of + faith.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Moreover, it + has often happened that science emphatically and sneeringly + rejected propositions, and called them false and absurd, which + to-day are considered elementary.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Newton</span></span>, in 1687, had correctly + explained the revolution of the moon around the earth, and of the + planets around the sun, as the co-operation of gravitation and + inertia, and thence concluded also the elliptic form of the + orbits of planets previously discovered by <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kepler</span></span>. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Leibnitz</span></span> rejected this theory, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Huygens</span></span> called it absurd, and + the Academy of Paris as late as 1730 still favoured the theory of + revolution of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Descartes</span></span>; it was only about + the year 1740 that it was generally accepted. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Huygens</span></span>, himself, had formed + in 1690 his theory about light-waves. For a long time it was + misunderstood. Only in 1800, or somewhat later, it received its + merited acknowledgment, but noted physicists like <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Biot</span></span> + and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Brewster</span></span> rejected it still for + some time and held to the theory of emission. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Even in the intellectual world the law of inertia + holds good”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Rosenberger</span></span>, Gesch. der + Physik, III, 1887, 139).</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The great discoverer</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Galvani</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">complained of being attacked from + two opposite sides, by the scientists and by the ignorant:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Both make + fun of me. They call me the dancing master of frogs. Yet I know I + have discovered one of the greatest forces of + nature.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page119">[pg + 119]</span><a name="Pg119" id="Pg119" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Benjamin Franklin</span></span> explained + the lightning-rod to the Royal Academy of Sciences, he was + ridiculed as a dreamer. The same happened to <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Young</span></span> + with his theory of the undulation of light. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The Edinburgh Review”</span> proposed to the public + to put <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Thomas Grey</span></span> in a strait-jacket + when he presented his plan for railroads. Sir <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Humphry + Davy</span></span> laughed at the idea of illuminating the city + of London by gas. The French Academy of Sciences actually sneered + at the physicist <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Arago</span></span> when he proposed a + resolution to merely open a discussion of the idea of an electric + telegraph (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Wallace</span></span>, Die wissensch. + Ansicht des Uebernatuerlichen, 102 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">seq.</span></span>).</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Until about a hundred years ago scientists + almost universally thought it impossible for a stone to fall from + the skies—not to mention a rain of stones. Of the big meteor that + fell at Agram in 1751 the learned Vienna professor,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Stuetz</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + wrote in 1790 as follows:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">That iron had fallen from the skies may have + been believed in Germany in 1751 even by its enlightened minds, + owing to the uncertainty then prevailing in regard to physics + and natural history. In our times, however, it were + unpardonable to consider similar fairy tales even + probable.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Some museums threw away their collections of + meteors, fearing they would appear ridiculous by keeping them. + In that very year, 1790, a meteor fell near the city of Juillac + in France, and the mayor of the town sent a report of it to the + French Academy of Sciences, signed by three hundred + eye-witnesses. But the wise men of the academy knew better. + Referee</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Bertholon</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">said:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">It is a pity for a town to have so foolish a + mayor,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">and added:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">It is sad to see the whole municipality + certifying by affidavit to a folk-saga that can only be pitied. + What more can I say of an affidavit like that? Comment is + self-evident to a philosophically trained mind who reads this + authentic testimonial about an evidently false fact, about a + physically impossible phenomenon.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">A. + Deluc</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, in other + respects a sober-minded man, and a scientist, even remarked + that should a stone like that fall before his feet, then he + would have to admit that he had seen it, but nevertheless would + not believe it.</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Vaudin</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">remarked:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Better to deny such incredible things than to + have to try to explain them.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">Thus taught the French Academy of that time + (apud</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Braun</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + Ueber Kosmogonie, 3d ed., 1905, 378</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">seq.</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">). + And now science is teaching the contrary. Everybody knows that + such falling meteors are not only possible, but that they fall + about seven hundred times a year on our earth.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Do not these + examples bear a striking resemblance to the attitude of many of + the representatives of modern science towards facts and truths of + our faith?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This has not + been said with a view of detracting from the <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page120">[pg 120]</span><a name="Pg120" id= + "Pg120" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> reputation of science. Not at + all. It has fallen to the lot of man to be subject to error. The + above was said to recall that fact. Science is not so infallible + as to be able to claim the right to ignore, in religious and + ethical questions, faith and the Church, and even to usurp the + place of the faith given by God, in order to lead its disciples + upon the new paths of a delivered mankind.</p> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page121">[pg 121]</span><a name= + "Pg121" id="Pg121" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc21" id="toc21"></a> <a name="pdf22" id="pdf22"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">Chapter III. Unprepossession Of + Research.</span></h2> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">What It Is.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the year + 1901 a case, insignificant in itself, caused great excitement in + and even beyond the scientific world. What had happened? At the + University of Strassburg, in a territory for the most part + Catholic, no less than one-third of the students were Catholic, + yet of the seventy-two professors sixty-one were Protestant, six + Israelites and but four Catholics (according to the report of the + Secretary of State, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Koeller</span></span>, in the 115th session + of the Reichstag, January 11, 1901). The government resolved, in + view of the state of affairs, to give more consideration, when + appointing professors, to the Catholic members of the university. + Even the non-Catholic members of the Bundesrat desired it. A + vacancy occurring in the faculty of history, the government, + besides appointing the Protestant professor proposed by the + faculty of philosophy, decided to create a new chair to be filled + by a Catholic.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The + appointment of a Catholic professor of history was regarded as + seriously endangering science. The storm broke. The venerable + historian, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Th. Mommsen</span></span>, who had been a + champion of liberty in the revolution of 1848, promptly gave the + alarm. In the Munich <span class="tei tei-q">“Neueste + Nachrichten”</span> there appeared over his signature an article + that created a general sensation. <span class="tei tei-q">“German + university circles,”</span> he said, in his solemn protest, + <span class="tei tei-q">“are pervaded by a feeling of + degradation. Our vital nerve is unprejudiced research; research + that does not find what it seeks and expects to find, owing to + purposes, considerations, and restraints that serve other, + practical ends extraneous to science—but finds what logically and + historically appears to the conscientious scientist the right + thing, truthfulness. The appointment of a college teacher whose + freedom is restricted by barriers <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page122">[pg 122]</span><a name="Pg122" id="Pg122" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> is laying the axe to the root of German + science. The call to a chair of history, or philosophy, of one + who must be a Catholic or a Protestant, and who must serve this + or that confession, is tantamount to compelling him to set bounds + to his work whenever the results might be awkward for a religious + dogma.”</span> And he concludes with a ringing appeal for the + solidarity of the representatives of science: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Perhaps I am not deceived in the hope of having + given expression to the sentiments of our colleagues.”</span> + This statement of the famous scientist, conceived in the temper + of his days of '48, was soon softened, if not neutralized, by a + subsequent statement from his pen. But the spark had already + started the fire. From most universities there came letters of + approval and praise of his courageous stand, in behalf of the + honour of the universities and of German science. On the other + hand, some gave vent to their regret of his hot-spurred action. + Since then the song of unprejudiced science has been sung in + countless variations and keys, ending as a rule with the chorus: + Hence the believing, especially Catholics, cannot be true + scientists. For this was the central idea of <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mommsen's</span></span> protest, and in that + sense it had been understood.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For the sake + of clearness we shall condense the substance of the thought into + a brief form: The vital nerve of science, the condition under + which alone it can exist, is unprepossession, that is, a + straightforward honesty that knows of no other consideration than + to aim at the truth for its own sake. The believer, the Catholic, + cannot be unprepossessed, because he must pay regard to dogmas + and Church-doctrine and precept. Therefore he is wanting in the + most essential requisite of true science. Hence college + professors of a Catholic conviction are anomalous: they have no + right to claim a chair in the home of unprepossessed science. For + reasons of expediency it may be advisable to appoint some of + them, but they cannot be regarded as sterling scientists. + Catholic theology, building upon faith, is not science in the + true sense of the word, and deserves no place in a university. A + Catholic university, a home of scientific research built upon a + Catholic foundation, is something like a squared circle. It may + be that Catholic scientists, too, have their achievements, but + they cannot be <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page123">[pg + 123]</span><a name="Pg123" id="Pg123" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + expected to be possessed of that unflinching pursuit of the truth + which must be part of the man of science.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These are + thoughts which have petrified in the minds of many into + self-evident principles, with all the obstinacy of intolerance. + It is not difficult to recognize in it the old reproach we have + already dealt with, it is here in a slightly different form. The + believing scientist is not free to search for the truth, being + tied down by his duty to believe. Science, however, must be free. + Hence the believer cannot properly pursue science.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Freedom of + science and science unprepossessed are related terms and are + often used synonymously. Therefore, in putting the probe to the + often-repeated demand for unprepossession, we shall meet with + ideas similar to those we have already discussed, only in a + slightly different shape.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What, then, is + that unprepossession which science must avow? Can the Catholic, + the believing scientist, possess it? Unprepossessed + research—<span class="tei tei-q">“I don't like the + expression,”</span> says a representative of free-thought, + <span class="tei tei-q">“because it is a product of that + shortcoming which has already done great damage to free-thought + in its struggle with the powers of the past”</span> (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Jodl</span></span>). Hence we have reason to + fear that the confidence with which this word is used is greater + than the clearness of thought it represents.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What is meant + by saying that science must be <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">unprepossessed</span></em>? Undoubtedly it + means that science should make no presuppositions, it must enter + upon its work free from prejudice and presumption. And what is + presumption? Evidently something presumed, upon which the + research is to rest the level and rule of its direction: the + supposition being taken for granted, without express proof. What + I have expressly proved in my process of thought is no longer a + supposition to the structure of thought, but a part of that + structure.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Is the + scientist, however, to allow no presumption at all? That would be + impossible. When making his calculations the mathematician + presupposes the correctness of the multiplication table. Or is he + first to prove that twice three are six? He could not do it, + because it is immediately self-evident. In his optical + experiments in the laboratory, in drawing inferences as + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page124">[pg 124]</span><a name= + "Pg124" id="Pg124" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> to the nature of + light from different indications, the physicist presupposes that + senses are able to observe the facts correctly, that everything + has its respective reason, that nothing can be and not be, at the + same time, under the same conditions. Can he or must he try first + to prove it? He must presume it because it is beyond a doubt, and + because it cannot be proved at all, at least all of it cannot. + The astronomer, too, makes unhesitating use of the formulas of + mathematics without examining them anew; every natural scientist + calmly presupposes the correctness of the results established by + his predecessors and goes on building upon those results: he may + do so because he cannot with reason doubt them. Hence + presumptions are common; they may be made when we are convinced + of their truth; they must be made because not everything can be + proved. Much cannot be proved because it is immediately + self-evident, as, for instance, the ability to recognize the true + or the elementary principles of reasoning; many other things + cannot always be proved minutely, because not every scientist + cares to begin with the egg of Leda. He that wants to build a + house builds upon a given base; if he will not accept it, if he + desires to dig up the fundament to the very bottom, in order to + lay it anew, he will be digging forever, but the house will never + be built.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Hence to say + that science must be unprepossessed cannot mean that it must not + make any presupposition. What, therefore, does it mean? Simply + this: <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Science must not presume anything to be true + which is false, nor anything as proved which is still uncertain + and unproved</span></em>. Whatever the scientist knows to be + certain he may take as such, presuming it as the foundation and + direction of further work; and what he knows to be probable he + may suppose to be probable.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In so doing he + in no way offends against the ideal that should be ever-present + to his mind—the truth, because he merely allows himself to be + guided by the truth, recognized as such. And the sequence of + truth cannot but be truth, the sequence of certainty cannot but + be certainty. But should he presuppose to be true what is false + and unproved, and the uncertain to be certain, then he would + offend against truth, against the aim of every + science.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page125">[pg + 125]</span><a name="Pg125" id="Pg125" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Hence if the critic of the Bible presupposes + miracles and prophecies to be impossible, inferring therefrom + that many narratives in Holy Writ cannot be authentic, but must + be legends of a later period, he is making arbitrary + presuppositions, he is not an unprepossessed scientist. Likewise, + if an historian presupposing God's supernatural providence over + the world to be impossible, and, in building upon this basis, + comes to the conclusion that the Christian religion grew from + purely natural factors, from Oriental notions and myths, from + Greek philosophy and Roman forms of government, he again makes + unproved suppositions. If the natural philosopher assumes that + there cannot be a personal Creator, and infers from it that the + world is of itself and eternal, he has forfeited the claim of + being an unprepossessed scientist, and by making in any way his + own pet ideas the basis of his research he is violating the + demands of unprepossession; the results he arrives at are not + scientific results, but the speculations of an + amateur.</span></p> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">Unprepossession and Religious + Conviction.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Is it possible + for the Christian scientist who adheres to his faith, to be + unprepossessed, as demanded by science? According to all that has + been said hitherto about the relation of science to faith, the + answer can be only in the affirmative. The believing Christian + and Catholic looks upon the doctrines of faith taught him by + revelation and the Church as an <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">established + truth</span></em>. What to me is true and certain I can take for + the true and certain basis and standard of my thought. This is + demanded by unprepossession—nothing more.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Considering + the immense extent of the sciences, the profane sciences will but + seldom, and in but few matters, have occasion to presuppose + truths of faith in the above-mentioned way; and only in a + negative form at that. We have previously shown that the profane + sciences must never take truths of faith for a positive basis to + build upon; they must regard the doctrines of revelation only in + so far as it is not allowed to teach anything in contradiction to + them. And with this demand they will meet in rare instances only, + because, if not overstepping their province, they will very + seldom come in touch with faith (cf. pp. 88-96). When + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kepler</span></span> was studying his + planetary orbits, and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Newton</span></span> discovered the law of + gravitation, both worked independent of the Christian view of the + world which they both professed; it was in no way a necessary + presupposition to their research. When <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Scheiner</span></span> discovered the + sun-spots, and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Secchi</span></span> classified <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page126">[pg 126]</span><a name="Pg126" id= + "Pg126" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the spectra of the stars, + they were not doing so as Jesuits nor as Catholics; as + Mohammedans or atheists they might have made the same + discoveries. Steam engines and railways, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Volta's</span></span> electricity, + cathode-rays and X-rays, all discoveries that the nineteenth + century can boast of, do not depend directly on any special view + of the world.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And if the + believing scientist does take his faith for a guide in some + matters, when in all his researches in the history of the + Christian religion and the Church he presupposes that God's + miraculous interference is not impossible, because the contrary + would offend not only against his faith, but also against his + common sense; when in pondering the ultimate reasons of all + things he allows himself to be influenced by the idea that + atheism is false, or at least not proved—for that there is a God + both his faith and his reason tell him—then these presumptions + are by no means inadmissible. The naturalist, too, presupposing + certain results of science to be true, takes care not to get into + conflict with them, and he will soon correct himself should he + arrive at different results. If a mathematician should arrive at + results conflicting with other proved results, he would infer + therefrom that his calculation was faulty; why, then, cannot the + Christian now and then be led by the truths of his faith, of + which he is certain, without by doing so offending against the + spirit of scientific truthfulness?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Or may he not + do so just because they are <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">religious</span></em> truths, vouched for by + a supernatural authority? As a fact many of them are established + also by the testimony of reason. This is shown by the examples + just mentioned. However, the question is not how a truth is + vouched for, but whether it be a truth or not. If the scientist + is assured that something is unquestionably true, then he owes it + to the spirit of truthfulness to accept it. In doing so he will + in no way be unfaithful to his scientific method; the truths of + faith are to him not a source of proofs for the results of his + profane science, but only hints, calling his attention to the + fact that certain propositions are not proved, that they are even + false.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Much less is in historical questions the + Catholic obliged to defend or praise everything of advantage to + his Church, whether true or not. Hence</span> <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page127">[pg 127]</span><a name="Pg127" id= + "Pg127" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Mommsen</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">is grossly mistaken when he states + in his letter of protest mentioned above:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The appointment of a historian or philosopher, + who must be a Catholic or a Protestant and who must serve his + confession, evidently means nothing else but to prohibit the + Protestant historian from presenting the powerful mental + structure of the papacy in its full light, and the Catholic + historian from appreciating the profound thought and the + tremendous importance of heresy and + Protestantism.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">The Catholic is only bound to the + truth.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Or are the + Christian truths of faith perhaps regrettable errors, hence + presumptions that should not be made? If so, demonstrate it. + Hitherto such demonstration has not succeeded. So long as the + creed of the believing Christian cannot be refuted convincingly, + he has the right to cling to it in the name of truth.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Or can we not + have reasonable certainty at all in religious matters? Are they + the undemonstrable things of an uncontrollable sentiment? To be + sure, this is asserted often enough, explicitly or by + insinuation. If this were true, then of course duty of faith and + true unprepossession could not go together; one would be + regarding as the truth things of which one cannot be convinced. + But this is also an unproved assumption: it is the duality of + subjectivism and agnosticism, the fundamental presumption of + liberal freedom of science, which we have already sufficiently + exposed.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">However, let + us assume again the position of those who do not feel themselves + personally convinced of the truth of the Christian dogmatic + faith, or of the Catholic Church. But the Catholic is <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">firmly + convinced</span></em> thereof and, if need be, will make + sacrifices for this conviction, as millions have done. Hence, can + any one forbid him to think and judge according to his + conviction? Would they who differ from his opinion for this very + reason force him to think against his own conviction? Would not + that indeed be <span class="tei tei-q">“seduction to sin against + the Holy Ghost”</span>? If the jurist or historian has formed the + conviction that <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mommsen</span></span> is on historical + questions concerning Roman law an authority, who may be followed + without scruple, and he does so without re-examining the + particular points, will this be looked upon as an offence against + unprepossession? If, then, the Catholic is certain that he may + safely trust to revelation <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page128">[pg 128]</span><a name="Pg128" id="Pg128" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> and the Church—and there is no authority on + earth of more venerable standing, even if viewed from a purely + natural point—will he alone be accused of mental blindness and + lack of freedom?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Or may the + scientist have <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">no view of the world</span></em> at all, + because he might be influenced thereby in certain directions? The + champions of this demand will surely not admit that they have not + a definite view of the world. By no means! We know very well that + just those who are most vehement in urging unprepossessed science + have a very pronounced notion of the world, we know also that + they are resolutely propagating that notion. Yet nothing is said + against a scientist who is a monist, or who starts from + agnosticism. It seems they intend to exclude one view only, the + positive religious view. Yet not even this one wholly. No one + finds the Jew who adheres to his religion unfit for scientific + research. Of course not. Protestants, too, find favour: according + to the statutes of some German universities Protestants only may + be professors there. Neither <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mommsen</span></span> + nor any other herald of unprepossession deems it necessary to + defend science against these institutions and usages. It is plain + what is meant by the popular cry for science unprepossessed: The + man of science may be anything, sceptic or atheist, pagan or + Hottentot, only he must not be a faithful Catholic. Is this fair? + Is this the spirit of truth and justice with which they claim to + be filled?</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">What has just been said about the Catholic being + excluded, could easily be exemplified by a lengthy list of facts. + But we shall pass them over. We shall note one utterance only, + from the pen of a non-Catholic writer. The renowned + pedagogue,</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Fr. W. + Foerster</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, says in the + preface to the second edition of his book on</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Sexual + Ethics and Sexual Pedagogy</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Special + exception has been taken to the catholicizing tendency of my + book, and not infrequently the author has without further ado + been made out an orthodox Catholic. For many years past I have + been in a position to gain interesting information concerning + the incredible bias of many champions of unprepossessed + research. To them it is an a-priori dogma that everything + represented by the Catholic Church is nonsense, superstition, + bigotry. They are past comprehending how an unprejudiced man, + simply by concrete experience, unprepossessed research and + serious pondering in the field of pedagogy, could be brought to + affirm that certain notions of the Roman Catholic Church are + the unavoidable consequence of a penetrating knowledge</span> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page129">[pg 129]</span><a name= + "Pg129" id="Pg129" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style= + "font-size: 90%">of soul and life. This cannot be admitted by + the non-Catholic: for him the truth must cease where the + Catholic faith begins; he dares not assent to anything, else he + will no longer be taken for a reputable scientific + man.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The bluster + about unprepossession proceeds from <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">shallowness and + dishonesty</span></em>. The most varied presumptions, that have + nothing to do with science and the pursuit of the truth, may pass + without notice; only when Christian and Catholic religious + convictions, resting upon divine authority, are encountered, then + tolerance gives way to excitement, a hue and cry is raised, the + gate is shut, and entrance to the scientific world denied.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Philosophers arise, and each philosophizes + according to his manner.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Fichte</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">says:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">What philosophy to choose depends on the kind of + a man one is.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">The historian enters. It is reported + that</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Treitschke</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">said:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">If I cannot write history from my own + view-point, with my own judgment, then I had rather be a + soapmaker.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">According to trustworthy testimony, + the well-known Protestant historian,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Giesebrecht</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + used to preface his lectures in Munich with the words:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">I am a + Prussian and a Protestant: I shall lecture + accordingly</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(Hochschulnachrichten, 1901, 2, p. + 30). Even here there are no objections in the name of + Unprepossession.</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Science,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">says</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Harnack</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">will tear + off the mask of the hypocrite or plagiarist and throw him out + of the temple, but the queerest suppositions it must let pass + if they go by the name of convictions, and if those who harbour + them are trying to demonstrate them by scientific + means.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Therefore the convictions, or, to speak + with</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Harnack</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + the</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">prejudices,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">of + the Catholic</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">certainly + deserve as much consideration and patience as the velleities, + idiosyncrasies, and blind dogmas which we have to meet and + refute in the struggle between intellects</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(Internationale Wochenschrift, 1908, + 259</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">seq.</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">).</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Science + has been restricted,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">the same authority also admits,</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">at all + times; our progeny will find even modern science in many ways + not ruled by pure reason only</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(Dogmengesch. III, 3d ed., 1907, + 326).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">And what is to be said of those more serious + suppositions, unproved and unprovable, which guide modern + science wherever it meets philosophical-religious questions? + That truly dogmatic rejection of everything supernatural and + transcendental, that obstinate ignoration of a personal God, + the rejection of any creative act, of any miracle, of any + revelation,—a presupposition directly raised to a scientific + principle: the principle of causality. Later on we shall make + an excursion into various fields of science, and we shall show + clearly how this presumption is stamped upon entire branches of + science. Those solemn assurances of persevering unselfishness + in desiring nothing but the truth; the confidence with which + they claim a monopoly of the instinct for the truth, all this + will appear in quite a strange light, the twilight of + dishonesty,</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page130">[pg + 130]</span><a name="Pg130" id="Pg130" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">when we + examine the documents and records of liberal science itself. We + shall see sufficiently how truthful the self-confession of a + modern champion of liberal science really is:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">The + recently coined expression,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">science unprepossessed,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">’</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">I + do not like, because it is a product of that shortcoming which + has already done so much damage to free thought in its struggle + with the powers of the past—because that word is not entirely + honest. None of us sits down to his work + unprepossessed</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">(</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">F. + Jodl</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, Neue Freie + Presse, November 26, 1907). Here we shall touch upon only one + more question.</span></p> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">The Duty to Believe and Scientific + Demonstration.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But cannot the + believing Christian submit to scientific investigation the + doctrine of faith itself, which he must without doubt hold to be + true? This must surely be allowed if he is to convince himself + scientifically of the truth of it. Indeed, this is allowed. He + may critically examine everything to the very bottom, even the + existence of God, the rationality of his own mind. But how can + he, if no doubt is permissible? To examine means to search + doubtingly; it means to call the matter in question—this, too, is + right. It is, on the one hand, a doctrine of the Catholic Church + that they who have received faith through the ministry of the + Church, that is, they that have been made familiar with the + essential subjects of the faith and the motives of their + credibility by proper religious instruction, must not doubt their + faith. They have no reasonable excuse for doubting because they + are assured of the truth of the faith. We have discussed this + point before.<a id="noteref_4" name="noteref_4" href= + "#note_4"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">4</span></span></a></p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">As a matter of course only voluntary doubts are + excluded, doubts by which one assents deliberately and wilfully + to the judgment that perhaps not all may be true that is proposed + for our belief. Involuntary</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page131">[pg 131]</span><a name="Pg131" id="Pg131" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">doubts are + neither excluded nor sinful. These are apparent + counter-arguments, objections, difficulties against the faith, + which occur to the mind without getting its conscious approval. + They are not unlikely, because the cognition of the credibility + of Christian truths, while it is certain, is yet lacking in that + obvious clearness which would render obscurity and + counter-argument impossible; the assent to faith is free. Doubts + of this kind are apt to molest the mind and buzz round it like + bothersome insects, but they are not sinful because they do not + set aside the assent to faith any more than the cloud that + intervenes between us and the sun can extinguish its light. The + assent to faith is withdrawn only when the will with clear + consideration approves of the judgment that the doubt may be + right.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">But what about doubts which one cannot solve? + Would we not owe it to truth and probity to withhold assent to + faith for a while?</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The answer lies in the distinction of a + twofold solution of difficulties. It is by no means necessary, + nor even possible, to solve directly all objections; it + suffices to solve them indirectly, that is, by recognizing them + as void; since faith is certain, whatever is contrary to it + must be false. If one is convinced by clear proofs of the + innocence of a defendant he will not be swayed in his + assurance, no matter how much circumstantial evidence be + offered against the defendant. He may not be able to account + directly for one or the other remarkable coincidence of + circumstances, but all the arguments of the other side are to + him refuted, because to him the defendant's innocence is a + certainty. Thus the faithful Christian may hear it solemnly + proclaimed as a scientifically established fact that miracles + are impossible, because they would be tantamount to God making + correction on His own work, because they would imply a + self-contradiction, or they would be against the law of + preservation of energy; he hears of atrocities in the history + of the Church, of the Inquisition, of the Church being an enemy + of civilization—he knows not what to say: but one thing he + knows, that there must be an answer, because he knows, + enlightened by faith, that his belief cannot be false. Nowhere + is it demanded that all objections be directly answered, in + order that the conviction be true. If I, with the whole world, + am convinced that I am able to recognize the truth, must I + therefore carefully disentangle all the cobwebs ever spun about + the truth by brooding philosophical brains? If I am in the + house, safe from the rain, must I, in order to keep dry, go out + and catch every drop of rain that is falling? Such doubts may + indeed harass the untrained mind, may even confuse it. This is + the juncture where grace comes in, the pledge of which has been + received at baptism, bringing enlightenment, peace, assurance; + then we learn from others and from ourselves that faith is also + a grace.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Nevertheless a + scientific examination of the foundations and truths of faith is + allowed and wholesome. Nearly all the theological works written + by Catholics since the days of <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Justin</span></span> and <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Augustine</span></span> are nothing but + examinations of this kind. At every examination one proceeds with + doubt and question. This is <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page132">[pg 132]</span><a name="Pg132" id="Pg132" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> admitted; but this doubt must be merely a + methodical one, not a serious one, nor need it be serious. These + two kinds of doubt must be clearly distinguished. In case of a + serious doubt I look upon the matter as really dubious, and + withhold my assent. I am not yet convinced of its truth. This + kind of a doubt is not allowed in matters of faith and it is the + only one that is forbidden. In case of a methodical doubt I + proceed as convinced of a truth, but I do not yet see the reasons + plainly, and would like to be fully conscious of them. Evidently + there is no need of casting aside the convictions I have hitherto + held, and of beginning to think that the matter is by no means + positively established.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For instance, + I am convinced that a complicated order must be the work of + intellect; however, I would like to find the proof of it. Hence I + proceed as if the truth were yet to be found. But it would + evidently be absurd to think in the meantime that such admirable + order could be the result of blind accident. Or, I am convinced + that there must be a source for every event: I desire to find the + demonstration of it. In the meantime shall I think it possible + for another Nova Persei to be produced in the sky without any + cause? Or, investigating to see whether I am capable of + recognizing the truth, shall I seriously become a sceptic till I + am convinced that I ought not to be such? As soon as I really + doubt that I can recognize anything at all as true, obviously I + cannot proceed any further. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kant</span></span> begins his <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Critique of Pure Reason”</span> with this doubt, and + many imitate him, but only by evident inconsistency are they able + to continue their researches by means of reason. Scientific + examination does not consist in repudiating a certainty held + hitherto, in order to arrive at it anew; it consists in bringing + to one's clear consciousness the reasons for that certainty, and + in trying to formulate those reasons precisely. To investigate + the light it is evidently not necessary first to extinguish + it.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus the + believing Christian may most certainly probe into his religious + conviction without interfering with his adherence, and by doing + so proceed unprepossessed in the fullest sense, for + unprepossession does not mean the rooting up of all certainty. At + the threshold of wisdom does not sit Scepticism.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page133">[pg 133]</span><a name= + "Pg133" id="Pg133" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">What Unprepossession is + Not.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the + deeper, modern meaning of unprepossession is precisely the right + to doubt seriously everything, especially the truths of the + Christian faith; this is the freedom demanded. Scepticism, the + stamp of our time.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Many a + misconception may have contributed to the definition of this + unprepossession. For instance, overlooking the important + difference between methodical doubt and serious doubt.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Then there is + the erroneous opinion that we should and could proceed everywhere + in the same way as in the natural sciences. Almost parallel with + the progress in the natural sciences grew the doubt of the + correctness of the ancient physical and astronomical notion of + the world; piece after piece crumbled away under the hand of + research; new truths were discovered. In just admiration of these + results it was concluded that all provinces of human cognition + should be <span class="tei tei-q">“researched”</span> in the same + way, not excepting religion and theories of the world; here, too, + science should cast a radical doubt upon everything and discover + truth—as if here we had to deal with matters similar to astronomy + and physics, in the state they were centuries ago; as if all + mankind was still ignorant of the truth and science had to + discover it.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This right to + doubt is claimed especially in the higher questions of religion. + Certain cognition by reason is, after all, impossible here, such + is the presumption, and therefore, first of all, it is the right + and duty of man, as soon as he has attained his intellectual + maturity, to shape by doubt his views of the world to the + satisfaction of his mind and heart, to win them by a struggle; + nor is this true only in the case of the single individual, but + also of entire generations. To see problems everywhere, not to + have any convictions, this is taken to be true + unprepossession.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Man must learn,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">so + we are told,</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">that there + is no absolute miracle, not even in the domain of the religious + life, which supernaturally offers truth at a point or by an + institution, but that every man and every era as witnessed by the + authority of history must conquer truth by themselves</span> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page134">[pg 134]</span><a name= + "Pg134" id="Pg134" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style= + "font-size: 90%">for their own sake and at their own + risk</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(</span><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">E. + Troeltsch</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + Internationale Wochensch. 1908, 26). Thus the mind of man cannot + slake its thirst for positive truth at the divine fountain of + revelation, but only by search and research. Such is the cheerful + message of this science.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Amid grave crises,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">we + are told again,</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">a new + concept of science has forced its way to the front since the + beginning of the eighteenth century and conquered the + universities.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Science is + not a finished system, but a research to be forever under + examination</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(</span><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">A. + Harnack</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, Die Aufgabe + der theol. Facultaeten, 1901, 17).</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Research + without ever arriving at the sure possession of the truth, this + is now the meaning of science, especially of philosophy. Hence + there cannot be a philosophy conclusive and immutable, and any + point which seems established may at any time be revised + according to new perceptions. <span class="tei tei-q">“There is + no question that may not be asked; none which in the abstract + could not just as well be denied as affirmed. In this sense + philosophy is unprepossessed”</span> (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Paulsen</span></span>, Die deutschen + Universitaeten, 1902, 304 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">seq.</span></span>). The highest achievement + it declares itself capable of, is not to point out the truth to + its disciples, for it does not know the truth itself, but only + this: <span class="tei tei-q">“We expect, or at least we should + expect, that during the years of study the mind give itself + earnestly to philosophy, and strive for a firm grasp of ideas. + The great pathfinders in world thought, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Plato</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Aristotle</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Spinoza</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kant</span></span>, + and whoever may be ranked with them, remain the living teachers + of philosophy.”</span> Thus we hold those great intellectual + achievements, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Plato's</span></span> doctrine and ideas, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Spinoza's</span></span> atheistic pantheism, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Aristotle's</span></span> objectivism and + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kant's</span></span> subjectivism, with + other views of the world of most variegated patterns, all + contradicting and excluding one another, all dubious, none sure. + What would be said of an astronomy that could do nothing better + than fix the telescope on the different stars and then tell its + disciples: Now look for what you please, ideas of <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ptolemy</span></span> or <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Copernicus</span></span>; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Aristotle's</span></span> theory of the + spheres or <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Newton's</span></span> theory of gravity; + each has its points, but of none can it be said it is certain! + Such an astronomy would probably be left to its deserved + fate.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the most + important points of religion mankind has ever, even in pagan + times, recognized the truth, albeit imperfectly. This is evinced + by the conviction that there exists a personal <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page135">[pg 135]</span><a name="Pg135" id= + "Pg135" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> God and a hereafter; + convictions which can be proved historically. God's revelation + has provided those who desire to believe with a fuller knowledge + of the truth: heaven and earth will pass away, but these words + will not pass away. But what is already in our safe possession + cannot be once more discovered by research. What has already been + found is no longer an object of research. Mankind's lot would be + a sad one indeed were this unprepossessed science in the right; + if in the most important questions of life it were condemned + forever to tantalizing doubt. God's providence has ordained + matters more kindly for humanity.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On the other + hand, it is a poor science that has nothing to offer but an + eternal query for the truth. A poor science, that with + self-consciousness promises enlightenment and what not, but + finally can give nothing but ceaseless doubt instead of truth, + tormenting darkness instead of cheerful light. Why, then, + research where nothing can be found? Why raise searching eyes to + the sky when the stars do not show themselves? What kind of + progress is this when science does nothing further than dig + forever at the foundation? The great <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">St. + Augustine</span></span> has long also passed judgment on this + kind of science: <span class="tei tei-q">“Such doubting is + abhorred by the City of God as false wisdom, because among the + things which we grasp with our intellect and reason there is a + knowledge, limited, it is true, because the soul is weighed down + by a perishable body, as the Apostle says: <span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">ex parte scimus</span></span>—but which has + full certainty”</span> (De Civitate Dei, XIX, 18).</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">An Erroneous + Supposition.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The errors + just dealt with, and the demand that scientific research must + doubt everything, is based on a supposition often stated + expressly as a principle, and which appears quite plausible even + to a mind not trained in philosophy. It says: There is but one + certainty, the scientific certainty; the certain possession of + the truth can be obtained only by scientific research. To rid the + world of error, we are told, <span class="tei tei-q">“there is + but one way, viz., scientific work. Only science and scientific + truth are able to dispose of error”</span> (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Th. + Lipps</span></span>, Allgemeine Zeitung, Muenchen, <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page136">[pg 136]</span><a name="Pg136" id= + "Pg136" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> August 4, 1908). <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Truth is scientific truth, based on criticism, hence + the religion of modern man must also rest on critical truth.... + There is no other authority but science”</span> (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Masaryk</span></span>, Kampf um die + Religion, 13).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This sort of + speech we hear from the college chair as the slogan for education + and enlightenment: any one deficient in science or in education + belongs more or less to the unthinking mass who have no + convictions of their own, but submit blindly to impressions and + authority.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Such unclarified conceptions, with their + inferences, are even met with where they would not be expected, + for instance, we read:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">What the average individual needed was a good + shepherd, a shepherd's devotion and love, that uplifts and + urges onward; it was authority, Church-ministry and care of + souls, that was needed. The Church is an organized pastorate, + for the average individual likes to go with the flock. The + chosen are they who feel within themselves the great question + of truth as the care of their heart and task of their life, who + experience its tremendous tension, and who are struggling to + the end with the intellectual battles provoked by this question + of truth. The average people,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + the many, the great majority, need something steady to which + they can cling—persons and teachers, laws and + practice.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">And why this uncharitable + distinction between people belonging to the flock and the + chosen ones, as if the Church and its ecclesiastical functions + were only appointed for the former? Particularly because</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">without + methodical scientific work man cannot attain to the + truth</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(</span><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">H. + Schell</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, Christus, + 1900, 125, 64).</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus science + may summon everything before its forum, no one having a right to + interfere; in the superiority bestowed by the right of autocracy + it may sweep aside everything that is opposed to it, no matter by + what authority. Hence science must be free to jolt everything, + free to question the truth of everything, which it has not itself + examined and approved. This is the fundamental supposition of + modern freedom of science; also a fatal error, betraying a woeful + ignorance of the construction of the human intellect, in spite of + all its pretentiousness. As a rule we have a true certainty in + most matters, particularly in philosophical-religious + convictions, a certainty not gained by scientific studies; by aid + of the latter we may explain or strengthen that certainty, but we + are not free to upset it.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We cannot + avoid examining this point a little closer. There is a twofold + certainty, one, which we shall call the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">natural</span></em> certainty, <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page137">[pg 137]</span><a name="Pg137" id= + "Pg137" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> is a firm conviction based on + positive knowledge, but without a clear reflexive consciousness + of the grounds on which the conviction is actually resting. + Reason recognizes these grounds, but the recognition is not + distinct enough for reason to become conscious of them, to be + able to state them accurately and in scientific formulas. + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">scientific</span></em> certainty is a firm + conviction, with a clear consciousness of the grounds, hence it + can easily account for them. Natural certainty is the usual one + in human life; scientific certainty is the privilege of but a + few, and even they have it in but very few things.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Everybody has a positive intellectual certainty + that a complicated order cannot be the result of accident, and + that for every event there must be a cause, though not every one + will be able readily to demonstrate the truth of his certainty. + But if the philosopher should look for the proof, he would do so + in no other way than by reflecting upon his natural and direct + knowledge, and by trying to become conscious of what he has thus + directly found out. To illustrate by a few examples: We are all + convinced of the existence of an exterior world, and any one who + is not an idealist will call this conviction a reasonable + certainty, and yet only a few will be able to answer the subtle + questions of a sceptic. This certainty again is a natural but not + a scientific one. How difficult it is here also for reason to + attain scientific certainty, how easy it is to go astray in these + researches, is proved by the errors of idealism so + incomprehensible to the untrained natural mind. Let us ask, + finally, any one: Why must we say:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Cæsar</span></em> + <span style="font-size: 90%">defeated</span> <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + Pompey</span></em><span style= + "font-size: 90%">,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">but not</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Cæsar</span></em> + <span style="font-size: 90%">defeated of</span> <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Pompey</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">? + He will tell us this is nonsense; maybe he will add that the + genitive has another meaning. But should I ask further how the + meaning of the genitive differs from that of the accusative, as + both cases seem to have often the same meaning, I shall get no + answer. There is a certitude, but only a natural one. Even if I + should ask modern students of the psychology and history of + languages, like</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Wundt</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Paul</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + or whatever their names may be, I should not get a satisfactory + answer either. The whole logic of language, with its subtle + forms and moods of expression—how difficult for scientific + research! And yet the mind of even a child penetrates it, and + not only a European child, but the Patagonian and negro child, + who is able to master by its intellectual power complex + languages, with four numbers, many moods, fourteen tenses, + etc.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">These examples will suffice, though volumes of + them could be written. They show us clearly a twofold + certainty. The difference between the natural and scientific + certainty is not that the former is a blind conviction formed + at random, but only that one is not clearly conscious of the + reasons on which it rests, whereas this is the case in + scientific certitude. We see further the untrained power of the + intellect manifest itself in natural knowledge and certainty; + for this purpose it is primarily created; philosophical thought + is difficult for it, and many</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page138">[pg 138]</span><a name="Pg138" id="Pg138" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">have no + talent at all for it. It is also unfailing in apprehending + directly things pertaining to human life. Here the mind is free + of that morbid scepticism of which it too easily becomes a prey + when it begins to investigate and probe scientifically. What it + there sees with certainty cannot always be found here + distinctly, and thus the mind begins to doubt things it was + hitherto sure of, and which often remain instinctively certain + to the mind despite its artificial doubts. Now we can also + understand why philosophers so often have doubts which to the + untrained look absurd, and why philosophers differ in their + opinions on most important things, whereas mankind guided by + its natural certitude is unanimous in them.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This certainty + is destined to be the reliable guide of man through life. It + precedes science, and can even exist without it. Long before + there was a science of art and of jurisprudence the Babylonians + and Egyptians had built their monuments, and <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Solon</span></span> + and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Lycurgus</span></span> had given their wise + laws. And long before philosophers were disputing about the moral + laws, men had the right view in regard to virtue and vice (cf. + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cicero</span></span>, De Oratore, I, 32). + The same certitude is also destined to guide man in the more + important questions, in the questions of religion and morality. + The Creator of human nature and its destiny, who implanted + instinct in the animal to guide it unconsciously in the + necessities of life, has also given to man the necessary light to + perceive with certainty truths without which it would be + impossible to live a life worthy of man.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is just + this natural knowledge and certitude that gives man certainty of + divine revelation, after God vouchsafed to give it to mankind for + its unfailing guidance and help. For revelation was not only + intended for theologians, Bible critics, philosophers, and + Church-historians, but for all. And God has taken care, as He had + to do, that man has ample evidence that God has spoken, and that + the Church is the authorized Guardian of this revelation, even + without critical research in history and philosophy. We have + elsewhere briefly stated this evidence in the words of the + Vatican Council.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">This evidence is seen in the invincible + stability of the Church and its unity of faith, the incontestable + miracles never ceasing within it, the grand figures of its Saints + and Martyrs, virtue in the various classes, a virtue increasing + in proportion to the influence the Church exerts, the spectacle + that everything truly noble is attracted by the Christian faith + and the contrary repulsed. In addition the intrinsic grandeur and + harmony</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page139">[pg + 139]</span><a name="Pg139" id="Pg139" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">of the truths + of faith, above all the unique figure of Christ, with His + wonderful life and sufferings, also the calm and peace of mind + effected in the soul of the faithful by living and thinking in + this faith; all these tell him that here the spirit of God is + breathing, the spirit of truth. The natural light of his + intellect, further illuminated by grace, suffices to give him a + true intellectual certainty of his faith, based upon these + motives and similar ones, even without scientific studies. The + calmness of the mind that holds fast to this faith, the + compunction and unrest which follow defection from the faith, + both so characteristic of Catholics, prove that their minds + embrace the truth in their faith.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Hence it betrays little philosophical + knowledge of the peculiarity of man's intellectual life, if + infidelity approaches an inexperienced, believing student, + perhaps even an uneducated labourer, with the express assurance + that his faith hitherto has been but a blind belief, an + unintelligent following of the lead of a foreign authority, + with the distinct admonition to turn his back on the faith of + his childhood.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">What has been said above makes it clear why a + Catholic is not permitted to have a serious doubt about his + faith under the pretext that he ought first to form a certain + conviction all for himself by scientific investigation. He has + it already, if we presuppose sufficient instruction and normal + conditions; he may raise his natural certitude to a scientific + one by study if he has the time and talent for it, but he must + not condition his assent upon the success of his scientific + investigations. He has certitude; he has no right to demand + scientific knowledge as a necessary condition, because it is + not required for certitude, and also because it lies altogether + outside of the conditions of human life. It would amount simply + to shaking off the yoke of truth. The Church teaches as + follows:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">If any + one says that the condition of the faithful and of those who + have not yet come to the only true faith is equal, so that + Catholics can have a just cause for suspending their assent and + calling in question the faith which they have received by the + ministry of the Church until they have completed the scientific + demonstration of the credibility and truth of it, let him be + anathema.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">How high this + wisdom rises above the limited thought of a science that imagines + itself alone to be wise! Sad indeed would be the lot of mankind + could it attain to certain truth in the most important questions + of life only by lengthy scientific investigations. The + overwhelming majority of mankind would be forever excluded from + the certain knowledge that there is a God, an eternity, liberty, + that there are immutable moral laws and truths, on the value of + which depends the woe and weal of humanity.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Behold the wisdom of the world that is put + before us:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">In order to + arrive at a definite conclusion by our own philosophical + reasoning (on the existence of God and the possibility of + miracles) what a multitude of things must be + presupposed!</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Thus we are informed in a + philosophical novel of modern times which aims at proving the + incompatibility of</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page140"> + [pg 140]</span><a name="Pg140" id="Pg140" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">the Catholic + duty to believe with the freedom of the intellect [Katholische + Studenten, by</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">A. Friedwald</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(nom de plume). An explanation of + the ideas contained in it is given by the Academia 18, 1905-6, + December and March. The ideas found in the novel are also + advanced by</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">A. + Messer</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, Einführung + in die Erkenntnistheorie, 1909, p. 158</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">seq.</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">]. + And Prof.</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Rhodius</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + who put the ideas of the novel in formulas, teaches:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">The + question whether our knowledge could penetrate beyond what we + know by our experience and even our senses, is answered, as you + know, in the negative by a noted philosophical school. Hence, + before attacking those metaphysical questions regarding the + existence of God and His relations to the world, we must first + try to have definite views as to the essence of human + knowledge, of its criterion, its scope, and of the degrees of + its certainty. But these preliminary questions of theoretic + knowledge, how difficult and perplexing they are! You probably + have not the faintest idea into what a mass of individual + problems the main questions must be dissected, nor what a + multitude of heterogeneous views are struggling here against + one another</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(p. 181).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Consider how shortsighted a wisdom is + manifested by these words. Is it seriously intended to summon + the peasant from his plough, the old grandmother from behind + the stove, and lead them into the lecture rooms of the + university in order that they might there listen to lectures on + phenomenalism, and positivism, and realism, and criticism, + until their heads are swimming? Or else can they not hope to + arrive at the truth? Do they seriously think that the truth + asked for by every man, the truth in the most vital questions + of mankind, is the exclusive privilege of a few college + professors? And how very few. More than twenty-four hundred + years have elapsed since the days of</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Pythagoras</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + and yet modern philosophy still stands before the first + preliminary question in all knowledge, whether a man can know + what the eye does not see.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Many views are at variance + there.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">If this be the only way for + mankind to reach certain truth, then we are indeed in a pitiful + plight!</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">We esteem philosophy and its subtle questions, + and we heartily wish our Catholic young men in college to + obtain a more thorough philosophical training. But if, involved + in theories, one will lose his insight into the world and human + life to such a degree as to make of the</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">wisdom of the world</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">an isolated narrow speculation which boasts of + being alone able to discover the higher truths, while withering + in neurasthenic doubt—such wisdom should be left to its + deserved fate, sterility.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Or should it be possible to the ideal of + Protestantism—and therefore also of the modern spirit—to + console mankind by pointing out that the knowledge of the + question which concerns us most deeply,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">the knowledge of God and the knowledge of + good, remains but a leading idea and problem, though we are + confident of advancing nearer to its + solution</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">? + Is thus mankind to be eternally without light in the most + important questions and problems? Every little plant and animal + is equipped by nature with everything it needs—and man alone to + be a failure? The young shoots of the tree strive to bring + forth blossoms and fruit, and succeed; the bird flies off in + the fall in quest of a new home, and finds it; hunger and + thirst demand food and get it; only the</span> <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page141">[pg 141]</span><a name="Pg141" id= + "Pg141" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style= + "font-size: 90%">aim of the human mind shall never be + fulfilled—he alone shall ever pine without + hope!—</span><span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Dicentes + se esse sapientes stulti facti sunt.</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">What a difference between such principles and + the grand thoughts of Christianity! A difference like that + between peace and eternal restless doubt, like that between + man's dignity and man's degradation, between man's + short-sightedness and the wisdom of God.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Hence the + result of our discussion is: independent of science mankind has + its positive convictions, independent of science it finds here + rest and gratification in its longing for truth. Scientific study + and research are for the purpose of setting these truths in a + brighter light, of defending the patrimony of mankind. But the + fosterer of science must not claim the freedom to ignore these + positive convictions in himself and in others, to endanger the + patrimony of mankind by doubts and attacks instead of protecting + it, much less must he condemn the human mind to the eternal + labour of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sisyphus</span></span>, to the eternal + rolling of a huge stone which, recoiling, must always be lifted + anew.</p> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page142">[pg 142]</span><a name= + "Pg142" id="Pg142" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc23" id="toc23"></a> <a name="pdf24" id="pdf24"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">Chapter IV. Accusations And + Objections.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among the + notable facts in history one stands out prominently, it is more + remarkable than any other, and evokes serious thought. It is the + fact that the Christian religion, especially its foremost + representative, the Catholic Church, concerning which every + unbiassed critic is bound to admit that none has made more nations + moral, happy and great than this Church; that nowhere else has + virtue and holiness flourished more than in her; that no one else + has laboured more for truth and purity of morals; that nevertheless + there is not, and never was, an institution which has more enemies, + which has been more persecuted, than the Catholic Church. This fact + will suggest to every serious-minded critic the question, whether + we have not here focussed that tremendous struggle, which truth and + justice have ever waged in the bosom of mankind against error and + passions—an image of the struggle raging in every human breast. The + Church recognizes in this fact the fulfilment of the prophecy of + her Founder: <span class="tei tei-q">“And ye shall be hated by all + men for my name's sake”</span> (Luke xxi. 17). And the Church may + add, that in her alone this prophecy is being fulfilled.</p> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">The Enemy of Progress.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In her journey + through the centuries the Church has had to listen to many + accusations because she, the keeper of the truth entrusted to her + care, has refused to respond to the demand to accept + unconditionally the ideals devised by existing fashions. + <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">Cantavimus vobis et non + saltastis</span></span> (we have piped to you and you have not + danced). Therefore the Church has been called reactionary; the + heretics of the first centuries of Christianity denounced her as + the enemy of the higher gnosis; a later period <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page143">[pg 143]</span><a name="Pg143" id= + "Pg143" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> denounced her as an enemy of + the genuine humanism, in the eighteenth century she was denounced + as the enemy of enlightenment, to-day she is denounced as the + enemy of progress. Again the Church is accused before the + judicial bar of the children of the age. They desire to eat + plentifully from the tree of knowledge, but the Church, they say, + prevents them. They wish to climb the heights of human + perfection, to ascend higher than any preceding generation, but + the Church holds them back. She will keep them in the fetters of + her guardianship. And with a keen, searching eye the smart + children of our age have looked the old Church over, taking + notice of everything, anxious to put her in the wrong.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Their charges + do not fail to make an impression, even on the Church herself. + She wishes to justify herself before the plaintiffs, and still + more before her own children who trust in her. Thus she has not + hesitated in declaring loudly on most solemn occasions that + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">she is + not an enemy of noble science</span></em> and of human progress, + and with great earnest she takes exception to this charge.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">No wonder, one + might say, that the Church makes such assurances. It is time for + her to realize that unless she can clear herself from it this + accusation will be her moral ruin at a time when the banner of + progress is held aloft, and when even the Catholic world shares + in that progress. True, but let us not forget this: if there is + anything characteristic of the Catholic Church it is her + frankness and honesty. She is not afraid to proclaim her + doctrines and judgments before the whole world; she leaves her + Index and Syllabus open for inspection, openly avowing that she + is the irreconcilable enemy of that emancipated freedom + proclaimed by modern liberalism as the ideal of the age. It is + the honesty which she inherited from her Founder, who told the + truth to friend and enemy, to His disciples and to the Scribes, + to <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Nicodemus</span></span>, that lonely night, + and to <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Caiaphas</span></span>. With the same + straightforwardness the Church declares that she feels not enmity + but sympathy toward civilization. A fair-minded critic will admit + here again that the Church is in earnest. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Far from opposing the fostering of human arts and + sciences, the Church is supporting and promoting them in + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page144">[pg 144]</span><a name= + "Pg144" id="Pg144" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> various + ways,”</span> declares the Vatican Council. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The Church does not underrate nor despise their + advantages for human life: on the contrary, it avows that they, + coming as they do from God, the Master of the sciences, also lead + to God by aid of His grace, when properly used”</span> (Sess. + III, c. 4). The Church has put this accusation on the list of + errors of the age condemned by <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Pius + X.</span></span> (Sent. 57). She feels the charge as an + injury.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">The Testimony of + History.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Nevertheless, + in anti-ecclesiastical circles it is taken very often for an + established fact that the Roman Church has ever tried her best to + hamper the progress of science, or has suppressed it, or at least + scowled at it. How could it be otherwise? they say. How could she + favour the progress made in enlightening reason or in advancing + human knowledge? Must she not fear for its intellectual sway over + men whom she keeps under the yoke of faith? Must she not fear + that they might awaken from the slumber in which they were held + prisoners by the suggestive force of her authority, held to be + transcendental; that they might awaken to find out the truth for + themselves? And what is the use of science? He that believes will + be saved: hence faith suffices. If we wish to hear the accusation + in the language of militant science, here it is: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Outside the monastic institutions no attempt at + intellectual advancement was made (in the Middle Ages), indeed, + so far as the laity were concerned, the influence of the Church + was directed to an opposite result, for the maxim universally + received was, that <span class="tei tei-q">‘ignorance is the + mother of devotion’</span> ”</span> (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">J. W. + Draper</span></span>, History of the Conflict between Religion + and Science).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This is the + train of thought and the result of anti-ecclesiastical a-priorism + and its historical research. Are the plain facts of history in + accord with it? The first and immediate task of the Church is + certainly not to disseminate science: her task, first of all, + lies in the province of morals and religion. But as she is the + highest power of morality and religion, she stands in the midst + of mankind's intellectual life, and cannot but come in contact + with its other endeavours, owing to the close unity <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page145">[pg 145]</span><a name="Pg145" id= + "Pg145" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of that life. Hence, let us + ask history, not about everything it might tell us in this + respect, but about one thing only.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We do not wish + to show how the Church, headed by the Papacy, has become the + mother of Western civilization and culture. Nor shall we + enumerate the merits of the Church in art, nor point out the + alertness she has certainly shown, in her walk through the + centuries, by taking up the intellectual achievements of the time + and assimilating them with her moral and religious treasure of + faith, withal preserved unchanged. The old Church had done this + with the treasures of ancient learning and science; <span class= + "tei tei-q">“this spirit of Christianity proved itself by the + facility with which Christian thinkers gathered the truth + contained in the systems of old philosophy, and, even before + that, by assimilating those old truths into Christian thought, + the beginning of which had already been made in the New + Testament. They were appropriated, without hesitating experiment, + without wavering, and were given their place in a higher + order”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">O. Willmann</span></span>, Gesch. des + Idealismus, 2d ed., II, 1907, 67). This, she unceasingly + continues to do, as proved by the high standard of Catholic life + and Catholic science at the present, a fact not even disputed by + opponents. We point only incidentally to <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">the foundation + and the fostering of primary schools</span></em> by the Church. + It is an historical fact that public education began to thrive + only with the freer unfolding of the Church.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The first elementary schools were those of the + monasteries. Later on there were established after their pattern + the cathedral and chapter schools, then the parish schools. Still + later there came the town and village schools—all of + ecclesiastical origin, or at least under the direction of the + Church and in close connection with her. As early as 774 we find + an ecclesiastical school law, to the effect that each Bishop + should found an ecclesiastical school in his episcopal town and + appoint a competent teacher to instruct</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">according to the tradition of the + Romans.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Eugene II.</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">ordained in 826 anew that efficient + teachers should be provided for the cathedral schools wherever + needed, who were</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">to lecture + on the sciences and the liberal arts with + zeal.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">All + Bishops should have the liberal arts taught at their + churches,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">was a resolution of the Council held in Rome + in 1079 by</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Gregory + VII.</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">We read in the + acts of the Lateran Synod of 1179:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Inasmuch as it behooves the Church, like a + loving mother, to see to it that poor children who cannot count + upon the support of their parents should not lack opportunity + of learning to read and make progress, there should at every + cathedral church be given an adequate prebend to the + teacher—who</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page146">[pg + 146]</span><a name="Pg146" id="Pg146" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">is to teach + the clerics of this church and the poor pupils + gratuitously</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(</span><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">E. + Michael</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, Gesch. des + Deutschen Volkes II, 1899, 370). School education flourished + more and more; in the thirteenth century it was in full bloom. + In Germany even many unimportant places, market towns, + boroughs, and villages had their schools at that time. In + Mayence and its immediate neighbourhood there were, in the + twelfth and thirteenth centuries, seven chapter schools; at + Muenster at least four schools; the clerical schools at Erfurt + had an attendance of no less than 1,000 pupils. About the year + 1400 the diocese of Prague alone had 460 schools. In the middle + Rhine district, about the year 1500, many counties had an + elementary school for every radius of two leagues; even rural + communities with 500 to 600 inhabitants, like Weisenau near + Mainz, and Michaelstadt in Odenwald, did not lack schools. + (</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">J. + Janssen</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, Gesch. des + Deutschen Volkes, 15th ed., 1890, 26; cf. Michael, 1. c. 402, + 417-419;</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Palacky</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + Gesch. v. Boehmen, III, 1, p. 186). Even in far-off + Transylvania there was, as early as the fourteenth century, no + village without a church and a school (</span><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">K. Th. + Becker</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, Die + Volksschule der Siebenbuerger Sachsen, 1894, y; Michael, 430). + There is no doubt that this flourishing state of schools was + due in the first place to the stimulus, support, and unselfish + effort of the Church.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But we will + not dwell longer on this subject. We wish, however, to point out + more plainly something more closely related to our subject, viz., + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">the + attitude of the Church towards the universities</span></em>, at a + time when the most prominent nurseries of science were first + coming into existence and beginning to flourish, when they began + to exert their influence upon the civilization of Europe. Here, + in the first place, it should become clear whether it be true + that the Church has ever looked upon the progress of science with + suspicion or even suppressed it. History teaches, in this + instance again, that no one has shown more interest, more + devotion, more readiness, to make sacrifices in promoting the + establishment and growth of the university, than the Church.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When, in the + twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the thirst for knowledge, + stronger than at any time in history, made itself felt in the + Christian countries of Europe, there were erected in the + universities great international homes of science, so as to + gratify the deeply felt need of education. And thousands hastened + to these places to acquire the knowledge of the period, + overcoming all difficulties, then much greater than now. A recent + writer remarks about this not without reason: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The academic instruction met on part of the + thronging <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page147">[pg + 147]</span><a name="Pg147" id="Pg147" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + thousands with a psychic disposition more favourable than at any + other time. In a way it was here a case of first love”</span> + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">W. + Muench</span></span>, Zukunftspaedagogik, 1908, 337). At the + universities of the Middle Ages there were taught theology, + ecclesiastical and civil law, the liberal arts, and medicine. But + not in the manner that all four faculties were everywhere + represented. Theology especially was quite frequently lacking, + though the aim was to have all sciences represented. What since + the beginning of the thirteenth century was first of all + understood by a university were <span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">studia generalia</span></span>—then the + usual name for universities, in contradistinction to <span lang= + "la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">studium particulare</span></span>. + Universities enjoyed the privilege of having their academic + degrees honoured everywhere, and their graduates could teach + anywhere. The universities were of an international character. + Hence it happened that at the German universities there were + sitting in quest of knowledge by the side of Germans also foreign + youths, from Scotland, Sweden, and Norway, from Italy and France, + all contending for academic honours—a moment which unquestionably + contributed in no small degree to the improvement of + education.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Prior to the + Reformation, universities were not state institutions, as they + are at present in Europe, but free, independent corporations. + They were complete in themselves, they made their own statutes, + had their own jurisdiction, and many other privileges. The modern + university enjoys but a small remnant of those ancient + prerogatives. In a public speech, made in the presence of the + Duke of Saxony, the Leipsic professor, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Johann + Kone</span></span>, could say in 1445: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“No king, no chancellor, has any right to interfere + with our privileges and exemptions; the university rules itself, + and changes and improves its statutes according to its + needs”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Janssen</span></span>, 1. c. 91).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Up to the year + 1300 there were no less than 23 universities established in + Italy, 5 in France, 2 in England, 4 in Spain, and 1 in Portugal. + <span class="tei tei-q">“Had all intentions been realized, Europe + would have had by the year 1400 no fewer than 55 universities, + including Paris and Bologna. But of 9 of them there are extant + only the charter deeds that were never executed. At any rate, + there were 46 of them, of which 37 or 39 existed at the turn of + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page148">[pg 148]</span><a name= + "Pg148" id="Pg148" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the fourteenth + century; a considerable number, which was not known till recent + years”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Denifle</span></span>). Germany, Austria, + and Hungary shared in 8: Prague, Cracow, Vienna, Fuenfkirchen, + Ofen, Heidelberg, Cologne, and Erfurt. Within fifty years, from + 1460 to 1510, no less than 9 universities were founded in + Germany—a clear proof of the generous enthusiasm for science of + that period.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">By their + fostering and founding of universities, secular princes have won + the lasting gratitude of posterity, and so have the + municipalities of a later period for showing an even greater zeal + than those princes. But it was indisputably the Church that + bestowed upon these homes of learning and culture the greatest + benevolence and support for their foundation and maintenance.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the first + place, history shows that the majority of them were founded by + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Papal + charters</span></em>. Since universities were understood to have + the power of conferring degrees of international value, they had + to be universally acknowledged; this could be effected only by an + authority of universal recognition; hence by the Roman-German + Emperor—as the supreme prince of the world-wide Christian + monarchy, or by the Pope, who was considered in the first place. + He was the general Father and Teacher of Christendom; this is why + Papal charters were so zealously sought after, in addition to + imperial charters. Of the 44 universities called into existence + before the year 1400, 31 were founded by Papal charters. A + similar condition prevailed in the fifteenth century and + afterwards, up to the Reformation. This was no interference in + foreign affairs: such an interpretation would have caused just + surprise in the Middle Ages. That the highest spiritual power on + earth should have the first claim in education was a matter of + general concession. And certainly the manner in which the Church + made use of this right, to speak with an historian of the + universities, forms <span class="tei tei-q">“one of the most + important, and by no means least inglorious, parts of an activity + so manifold and difficult”</span> (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">V. A. + Huber</span></span>, Die Englischen Universitaeten, I, 1839, p. + 14).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These Papal + charters breathe a warm <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">benevolence</span></em> for science. + Everywhere we find the wish expressed, that studies thrive in + those places which are most suitable for the effectual + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page149">[pg 149]</span><a name= + "Pg149" id="Pg149" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> spread of science, + and that the different countries have a sufficient number of + scientifically trained men.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Read, for instance, the charter given by + Pope</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Boniface VIII.</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">to Pamiers and Avignon, or the + Letter of Privileges granted to Coimbra by</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Clement V.</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(apud</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Denifle</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + 793, 524), or</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Pius II.'s</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Bull founding the university of + Basle. The Pope says here about the aim of science:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Among the + various blessings to which man may by the grace of God attain + in this mortal life, the last place is not to be given to + persevering study, by which man may gain the pearl of the + sciences, which point out the way to a good and happy life, and + by their excellence elevate the learned men above the + uneducated. Science makes man like to God, and enables him to + clearly perceive the secrets of the world. It aids the + unlearned, it elevates to sublime heights those born in the + lowliest condition.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">For this reason the Holy See has always + promoted the sciences, given them homes, and provided for their + wants, that they might flourish, so that men, well directed, + might the more easily acquire so lofty a human happiness, and, + when acquired, share it with others.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">This was the longing desire that led to the + opening at Basle of</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">a + plentiful spring of science, of whose fulness all those may + draw who desire to be introduced into the study of the + mysteries of Scripture and learning.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">Even prior to this, the same Pope had written + to the Duke</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Louis of + Bavaria</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">The + Apostolic See desires the widest possible extension of + science,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">which,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">while other things are exhausted by + dissemination, is the only thing that expands the more the + greater the number of those reached by it</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">(apud</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Janssen</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + 1. c, p. 89).</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the Church + was not satisfied with granting charters. She also gave very + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">substantial material aid</span></em> to most + of the universities. The Popes maintained two universities at + Rome, one of them connected with the Papal Curia, a sort of + court-school. It was founded by <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Innocent + IV.</span></span>, in order that the many who came to the Papal + court from all parts of Christendom might satisfy also their + thirst for knowledge. Theology, law, especially civil law, + medicine, and languages, including Oriental languages, were + taught there. Besides this there was another university at Rome, + founded by <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Boniface VIII.</span></span> for a similar + purpose: it did not flourish long, though in 1514 it counted no + less than eighty-eight professors. Many attempts to found or + support universities would have proved abortive had not the Popes + provided for the salaries of professors by prebends and stipends, + and by allotting to that end a portion of the income of priests + and churches. Bishops, too, proved themselves zealous patrons of + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page150">[pg 150]</span><a name= + "Pg150" id="Pg150" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the universities + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Paulsen</span></span>, Gesch. des gelehrten + Unterrichts, 2d ed., I, 1898, p. 27).</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Thus, to cite a few examples of German + universities, there was in 1532, with the consent of the + Archbishop</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Arnest</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + a contribution raised by the clergy for the endowment of the + university of Prague, to which the various cloisters and + chapters, especially those at Prague, contributed. With the + money thus raised the Archbishop purchased property, the income + from which was to provide salaries for the professors. Twelve + professors received from</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Urban V.</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">the canonicates of the church of + All Saints (</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Denifle</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + 598). Erfurt university was given 4 canonicates, Cologne 11, + Greifswald still more. Similarly Tuebingen, Breslau, Rostock, + Wittenberg, and Freiburg were cared for (</span><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Kaufmann</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + Die Gesch. der Deutschen Universitaeten, II, 1896, p. + 34,</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">seq.</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">). + Vienna found a benefactor in the pastor of Gars, who on October + 13, 1370, founded a purse for 3 sublectors and 1 scholar. + Heidelberg received 10 canonicates. Its great benefactor was + the learned</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Johann von + Dalberg</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, first + curator of the university, and later Bishop of Worms. Under him + Heidelberg reached the zenith of its lustre, and laid the + foundation of almost all that has won it the reputation it at + present enjoys. By his co-operation the first chair of Greek + was founded; to him the foundation of the college library is + due, which later on gained world-wide fame under the name + of</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Palatina.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">He further collected a private library, rich + in Latin, Greek, and Hebrew books, the use of which was open to + all scientists.</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">The + Rhenish Literary Society</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">attained its greatest prominence under his + direction (</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Janssen</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + 1. c. 100-105). Ingolstadt, too, obtained its needed income by + the donation of rich church-prebends, to such an extent that + the</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">endowments netted the university about 2,500 + florins,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">a very large sum for that time + (</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Kaufmann</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + 1. c. 38).</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Prantl</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">also admits in regard to + Ingolstadt:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">The Papal + Curia did its best to furnish the university</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">(Gesch. der Ludwig-Maximilian in Ingolstadt, + 1872, I, 19, apud</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Janssen</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + 1. c. p. 9).</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is true, + the Church then owned much property. But it is just as true that + she was ever ready to support science and colleges out of this + property. Pope and clergy were also taking incessant pains to + make it possible for <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">poor students</span></em> to attend the + university, not only for theological students, but for those of + all the faculties, to give an opportunity to rich and poor alike + to enjoy the advantages of higher education. Stipends and + legacies of this kind are numerous. Even in our own days many a + son of an <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">alma mater</span></span> + owes the stipend he enjoys to endowments made by the Church. In + the course of time there were established at most of the + universities so-called <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page151">[pg + 151]</span><a name="Pg151" id="Pg151" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">colleges</span></em> for the purpose of + offering shelter and maintenance to poor students.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">These colleges contributed essentially to the + flourishing condition of the university. Thus</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Albrecht v. + Langenstein</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">suggested, at the founding of Vienna + university, to the Duke,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Albrecht of + Austria</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, the + establishment of such colleges, inasmuch as the continuance of + the university was dependent on them, and stated that Paris + owed its prosperity to them (</span><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Denifle</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + 624).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The Popes set here the best example.</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Zoen</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + Bishop of Avignon, had provided in his testament that eight + students from the province of Avignon should be maintained at + Bologna by his successors from their estates at Bologna. These + estates, however, were sold later on.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">John XXII.</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">then interfered in favour of the + students injured thereby and annulled the deed of purchase. The + income was set aside and increased to an amount sufficient for + thirty scholars; later on the Pope endeavoured to raise their + number to fifty. At the same celebrated academy, which, next to + Paris, had long been a beacon of science sought from near and + afar,</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Urban V.</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">founded a home for poor students + and directed the appropriation of 4,000 gold ducats a year for + it. From June 16, 1367, to June 15, 1368, the home received an + appropriation of 5,908 ducats in gold and 155 baskets of + cereals. His successor,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Gregory + XI.</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, set himself to + the task of completing the work begun. Out of the income of the + Church he ordered appropriated in the future 1,500 ducats a + year for thirty students, of whom one half were to study Canon + Law, the other half Civil Law. He then decreed the purchase of + a home for 4,500 ducats in gold, and ordered to pay out + immediately 4,000 florins in gold for the next school year. + Besides the college named,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Urban V.</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">had founded one at Montpellier for + medical students, and another, which had its seat at first at + Trets, later at Monosque. During his pontificate this Pope + maintained no less than 1,000 students at various institutions. + Toulouse also had several colleges for poor students, founded + by high princes of the Church. In the year 1359</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Innocent VI.</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">devoted his own home at Toulouse + with all its possessions and its entire income to twenty poor + students, ten of whom were to study Canon Law and ten Civil + Law. For their further maintenance he ordered given to them, + besides other things, 25,000 florins in gold</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">manualiter</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Denifle</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + 213</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">seq.</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + 308</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">seq.</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + 339).</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Finally, + nearly all universities, whether they owed their existence to + ecclesiastical or civil power, received many and far-reaching + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">privileges</span></em> from the Popes. Not + the least one was for clerical students the dispensation to free + them from the requirement of residence for the enjoyment of their + benefices, which made it possible for them to study in remote + university towns, where they were free to study not only + theology, but other sciences as well. This dispensation was quite + common. <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page152">[pg + 152]</span><a name="Pg152" id="Pg152" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + Furthermore, the Popes protected in the most energetic way the + universities in their privileges and freedom every time they were + applied to for aid.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">This happened, for instance, at Bologna. The + students there had their free guilds. The municipal authorities + began to restrict their privileges by forbidding native students + under heavy penalties to study outside of Bologna, which was + later on extended to the alien students. The professors sided + with the city.</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Honorius + III.</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">in 1220 called + upon the latter to repeal those statutes; if they wanted to + confine the students to the city, it should be done by clemency, + not with severity and coercion. The city relented. But we see + again in 1224 the students appeal, for the third time since 1217, + to the Pope, begging for protection. The tension had grown; the + city was actually beginning to use force.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Honorius</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">sharply rebuked the city for this + action, threatening excommunication if the authorities continued + to suppress freedom. The city yielded completely, and the freedom + of the students was saved, thanks to their protector. Later on + the Popes had to interfere again.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Clement V.</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">had already ordered the Bishops to + protect the students at Bologna. His successor,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">John + XXII.</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, received + complaints that privileges of students in Italy were being + violated by authorities and citizens of the city. Against the + Podesta of Bologna especially complaints were made. The Pope, in + 1321 and 1322, bade the Bishops and Archbishops to take measures + against those who</span> <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">directe et indirecte + impedire dieuntur, ne ad praedictum studium valeant declinare + contra apostolica et imperialia + privilegia</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">. He + appointed at Bologna a special protector and conservator of the + university. Some years after, when the Podesta declined to take + the</span> <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">juramentum de observandis + statutis ejusdem studiis factis et + faciendis</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, he was + commanded to take the oath.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">At Orleans there was a flourishing law school; + especially its</span> <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">jus civile</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">was famous. Professors and + students were granted by</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Clement V.</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">the privilege of an autonomous + university with the right of free corporation, with the power + to suspend lectures in case they could get no satisfaction for + any wrong done them. These privileges were a thorn in the eye + of the city; its citizens even allowed violence to be done the + university. Then</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Philip the + Fair</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">interfered, but + in a way which indicates that he did not know sufficiently the + university life of the Middle Ages. Moreover, he annulled the + granted free fellowship, and put professors and the students + under civil supervision. But this was not tolerated in those + days. The king had at the same time given many privileges, but + they were disregarded. In 1316 professors and students left + Orleans and the university ceased to exist. The first act + of</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">John XXII.</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">upon ascending the Papal throne + was to restore this school, the French king himself having + begged his support in the matter. The king's suggestion to take + the privilege of free fellowship from the professors and + students was rejected by the Pope. The Pope reaffirmed all + privileges granted to the university, whereupon the professors + and students returned, to inaugurate the most brilliant epoch + of their college.</span></p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page153">[pg + 153]</span><a name="Pg153" id="Pg153" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Considering + these facts, one may subscribe to the judgment of <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Denifle</span></span> which he pronounces at + the conclusion of his thorough treatise on the universities of + the Middle Ages: <span class="tei tei-q">“So far as the + foundation of the universities can be spoken of, its merit + belongs to the Popes, to secular rulers, clergy, and laity. But + that the lion's share belongs to the Popes every one must admit + who has followed my presentment, which is exclusively based on + documents, and who examines history with impartiality”</span> + (Ib. 792 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">seq.</span></span>). Even <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kaufmann</span></span>, who is very + unfavourably disposed towards the Church, cannot deny that + <span class="tei tei-q">“numerous Popes have shown warm interest + for the fostering of sciences during those centuries, and were + for the most part themselves prominent representatives of + science”</span> (Ib. 403).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">That the + mediæval universities in some points, though not in all, were + inferior to modern universities, was not their fault. No good + judge of human conditions could expect it to be otherwise. The + experience and efficiency of the mature man is not attained at + once, but only after the exertions and experiments made by him + during the period of youth and development. At a time when all + the experiences in the field of school legislation, which are the + property of the present day, had yet to be collected, when the + relation between lower and higher schools had not been regulated + in all respects, at that time it was not possible to be in the + position we are in to-day. Future critics of our times will see + in our present educational systems many gross defects, which + often are not hidden even to our own eyes. But it would be + arrogance for them to belittle our efforts, the fruits of which + they will once enjoy without any merit on their part. The + university of yore conformed to the educational purposes of that + period; it was the focus of intellectual life, perhaps to a + larger degree than is the case to-day. This suffices. Moreover, + the number of professors was quite considerable, that of the + students even more so. In Bologna in 1388 the number of + professors was 70, not including the theologians, among them 39 + jurists; in Piacenza there were from the years 1398 to 1402 71 + professors; among them were 27 teachers of Roman law and 22 + teachers of medicine (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Denifle</span></span>, 209, + 571).</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page154">[pg + 154]</span><a name="Pg154" id="Pg154" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In regard to + the zeal displayed by the Church in promoting universities, it + might be objected that she was caring in the first place for + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">theology</span></em>, not for the other + sciences, and that the universities then had chiefly been + established for theological students. This, however, is not the + case. The universities especially favoured by the Popes were + first of all law schools, chiefly of civil law, or medical + schools. Those at Bologna, Padua, Florence, and Orleans were + principally law schools; in Italy, in general, chief attention + was paid to jurisprudence, particularly to Roman law. Montpellier + was essentially a medical college; it attained during the + thirteenth century preponderance even over Salerno. The assertion + has been made that the vigorous life at this medical college was + owing to its independence of Rome (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Haeser</span></span>, Lehrbuch der + Geschichte der Medizin, 1, 655. Cfr. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Denifle</span></span>, 342). But + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Denifle</span></span> has proved that + <span class="tei tei-q">“clerical organs have been the moving + spirits of the medical college at Montpellier.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Nor did the + Papal charter deeds exclude any profane science. The common + formula, which always prevails, authorizes to teach + indiscriminately <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">in jure canonico + et civili necnon in medicina et qualibet alia licita + facultate</span></span>. Only one science was frequently + excepted, and that was just theology. Of the forty-six high + schools that had been established up to the year 1400, about + twenty-eight, therefore nearly two-thirds, excluded by their + charter the teaching of theology. At first a number of + universities sprang up merely as law schools, others as medical + schools, and there was then no need to include the science of + theology in the schedule of studies. Furthermore, Paris was ever + since the twelfth century looked upon as the home and the natural + place for theology (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Denifle</span></span>, 703 f.). Hence the + benevolence of the Church towards the universities was not merely + determined by selfish interest.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Or was it, + nevertheless? May the Church not have bestowed so much care on + the homes of science in order to increase her own influence + thereby, and also with an eye to the future? This assertion has + been made. But this assertion is an injustice and it is against + the testimony of history. The Popes very often issued their + charter deeds only then, when request was made <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page155">[pg 155]</span><a name="Pg155" id= + "Pg155" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> by worldly rulers and by the + cities themselves. Hence there was no hurried self-assertion. And + the Church has never denied the right to worldly powers to found + their own high schools. The theologians of the thirteenth century + expressedly declared it to be the duty of princes to provide for + institutions of learning (Cfr. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Thomas of + Aquin</span></span>, De regimine principum, I, 13; Op. contra + impug. relig. 3).</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Thus up to the year 1400 nine high schools had + received no charters at all, ten only imperial charters or + charters from their local sovereigns. If the Popes had cared only + about their influence, why then did they treat such colleges with + the same benevolence? Spain's first college was founded at + Paleneia in the years 1212-1214 by</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Alfonso + VIII.</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">without asking + the Pope. When soon afterwards it was in trouble it was</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Honorius III.</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">who aided</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Alfonso's</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">successor in restoring it, by + assigning some ecclesiastical income to its professors. When the + college was nearly wrecked and Rome once more applied to for + help,</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Urban IV.</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">lent an aiding hand because he did + not want</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">ut lucerna tanta claritatis + in commune mutorum dispendium sic extincta + remaneat</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">.</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Frederick II.</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">had founded a university of his own. + When it failed it was</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Clement + IV.</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">who urged</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">King Charles</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">of Anjou to re-establish + it.</span> <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">In eodem + regno facias et jubeas hujusmodi studium + reformari</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Denifle</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + 478, 459). This is not the language and action of one who is + only ruled by the passion to spread his own influence, and not + guided by benevolence for science.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">But it is true, in supporting the higher + schools the Church did not aim at science as its ultimate + object; it was her view that science should serve the material + welfare of man, but still more the highest ethical and + religious purpose of life. This in general was the conception + of the entire Middle Ages. At that time it would have been + considered curious to seek a science ultimately for its own + sake.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And the + universities repaid the Church by gratitude and devotion. The + effort has been made to demonstrate that the modern separation of + science from religion had already begun in the Middle Ages, and + had showed itself everywhere; this tendency for autonomy + <span class="tei tei-q">“appeared at first only timidly and in + manifold disguises”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kaufmann</span></span>, 14). How easy it is + to find such disguises may be shown by an example. The university + of Paris had after the death of <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">St. + Thomas</span></span> asked for his remains. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kaufmann</span></span> holds that the notion + of the autonomy of science had found sharp expression in the + memorandum wherein the university stated the motive of its + request. Now how does this harmless document sound? <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Quoniam <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page156">[pg + 156]</span><a name="Pg156" id="Pg156" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + omnino est indecens et indignum ut alia ratio aut locus quam + omnium studiorum nobilissima Parisiensis civitas quae ipsum prius + educavit nutrivit et fovit et post modum ad eodem doctrinae + monumenta et ineffabilia fomenta suscepit ossa ... habeat.... Si + enim Ecclesia merito ossa et reliquias Sanctorum honorat nobis + non sine causa videtur honestum et sanctum tanti doctoris corpus + in perpetuum penes nos habere in honore.”</span> Evidently the + university requests the relic for itself, or rather for the + Parisiensis civitas, not in opposition to the Church, but in + opposition to other cities, altera natio aut locus. I wonder if + the Parisian admirers of St. Thomas ever dreamed that they would + one day be put in the light of forerunners of liberal science, + because of their pious application for the bones of their great + teacher? This is tantamount to carrying one's own idea into the + fact. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Denifle</span></span>, probably the most + competent judge of the affairs of mediæval universities, writes + as follows: <span class="tei tei-q">“If we weigh the different + acts which suggest themselves to us in these various foundations, + and if we compare them with one another, there is revealed to us, + in the realm of history of the foundation of mediæval + universities, a wonderful harmony between Church and State, + between the spiritual and material. This is the reason why the + universities of the Middle Ages appear to us as the highest civil + as well as the highest ecclesiastical teaching institutions. + Fundamentally, they are the product of the Christian spirit which + penetrated the whole, wherein Pope and Prince, clergy and laity, + each held the proper position”</span> (l. c. p. 795).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">One + consequence of this relation between the universities and the + Church was that <span class="tei tei-q">“they attained their + greatest prosperity as long as the unity of Church and faith + remained unimpaired, and that, at the time of the Reformation, + they all sided with the Church with the exception of two, + Wittenberg and Erfurt. Torn away from their ecclesiastical and + established basis only by violent means, they were led to the new + doctrine, but really succumbed to it only when their freedom had + been curtailed and they had been reduced to state + institutions”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Janssen</span></span>, l. c. p. 91). They + had been, as the learned <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Wimpheling</span></span> wrote at the close + of the sixteenth century, <span class="tei tei-q">“the most + favoured daughters <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page157">[pg + 157]</span><a name="Pg157" id="Pg157" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + of the Church, who tried to repay by fidelity and attachment what + they owed to their Mother”</span> (De arte impressoria, apud + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Janssen</span></span>, l. c. 91).</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">A False Progress.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Hence history + cannot subscribe to the accusation that the Church is the enemy + of progress. How then does it happen that this accusation is made + so frequently? The idea suggests itself that there may be here a + different meaning given to the word <span class= + "tei tei-q">“progress,”</span> that the Church opposes a certain + kind of progress which her enemies call <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the”</span> progress. And this is the actual fact. + If we examine the proofs which are to show the hostile attitude + of the Church, we meet at every step <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span>, the Copernican + system, the Syllabus, and Index. But this appears only on the + surface, which hides beneath it something that is easily + overlooked by the cursory glance. And this is the precise + definition of scientific and civilized progress. Progress has + ever been an ideal of powerful attraction. The noblest and best + of men have ever displayed the most earnest endeavour onward and + upward. In our times, however, this ideal comes forward + differently garbed, in the name of the new view of the world, and + resolutely censures as reactionary everything that will oppose + it. What is this definition?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Since the + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">theory + of evolution</span></em> of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Lamarck</span></span> and <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Darwin</span></span> entered biology, it has + also more and more invaded other branches of science. The + principle is now that everywhere, in the organic or inorganic + world and in the whole province of human life there is a gradual + growth and change—nothing permanent, nothing definite and + absolute. Uninterrupted evolution hitherto; hereafter restless + development; especially in the greatest good belonging to human + life, thought, philosophy, and chiefly religion. Here, too, there + are no forms nor dogmas which evolution in its continual + development does not evolve and elevate. This idea of evolution + is supplemented by subjectivism with its <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">relativism of + truth</span></em>: all views, especially philosophical and + religious <span class="tei tei-q">“Truths,”</span> are no longer + the reproduction of objectively existing things, but a creation + of the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page158">[pg + 158]</span><a name="Pg158" id="Pg158" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + subject, of his inner experience and feeling; hence each age must + proceed to new thought of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">its own</span></em>.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The methods of scientific + research,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">we are told,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">are determined by the idea of evolution, and + this applies not only to natural sciences but also to the + so-called intellectual sciences,—history, philology, philosophy, + and theology. The idea of evolution influences and dominates all + our thoughts; without it progress in the field of scientific + knowledge is quite impossible.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">We + read, for instance, in the modern history of philosophy:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">The rise + and fall of a system is a necessary part of universal history; it + is conditioned by the character of its time, the system being the + understanding of that time, while this understanding of the time + is conditioned by the fact that the time has + changed.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">At</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"> + <span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Roscellin's</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">time the nominalists were + intellectually inferior; but where there is question of + undermining the militant Church of the Middle Ages the + nominalists will be considered to have been the greater + philosophers. In this the realists</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">by the futility of their struggle proved that + the time for nominalism had arrived, hence that whoever favours + it understands the time better; that is, more philosophically. + After the beginning of the Renaissance we notice an attempt at + philosophizing in such a way as to ignore the existence of + divine wisdom taught by Christianity. The pre-Christian sages + had done so: to philosophize in their spirit was therefore the + task of the time, and those who had a better understanding of + the time philosophized that way better than by the scholastic + method; though their method may appear reactionary to + unphilosophical minds</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">J. E. + Erdmann</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, Grundriss + der Gesch. der Philosophie, 3d ed., I (1878), 4, 262, 434, + 502). This is a frank denial of any truth in philosophy: the + more neological and modern a thing is, the more truth there is + in it! Realism was right in</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Roscellin's</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">time, but a later period had to + sweep it away. The Christian religion was right for the Middle + Ages, but when the Greek authors began to be read again it was + no longer modern.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Apostasy from the faith is considered a mark + of progress.</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Italian + natural philosophy,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">we are told,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">reached its pinnacle with</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Bruno</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">and</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Campanella</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + of whom the former, though the older, appears to be more + progressive on account of his freer attitude towards the + Church</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(</span><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">R. + Falkenburg</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, Gesch. + der neueren Philosophie, 5th ed. (1905), page 30,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">seq.</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">). + Hence evidently further development of Christianity, too, is + demanded. According to subjectivistic views it was hitherto + only an historical product of the human intellect: hence</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">onward to + new and higher forms corresponding to modern thought and + feeling, onward to a new Christianity without dogmas and + authority!</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Break up + those old tablets,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">spoke</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Zarathustra</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Such is + progress in thought and science, for which the way must be + opened. That the immutable dogmas of Christianity, that the task + of the Catholic Church to preserve revelation intact, are + incompatible with it, that the Church appears reactionary, + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page159">[pg 159]</span><a name= + "Pg159" id="Pg159" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and as an obstacle + to this progress, is now self-evident. Here we have the + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">deeper + contrast between progress, in the anti-Christian sense, and the + essence of Christianity</span></em> in general, and, especially, + of the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Catholic Church</span></em>.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">It is frankly admitted that the issue is the + struggle between the two views of the world—between the + Christian, conservative dogmatism and the anti-dogmatic + evolutionary philosophy</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(Neue Freie Presse, Jun. 7, 1908). Faith + according to its very essence is immutable and stationary, + science is essentially progressive: they had therefore to part in + a manner which could not be kept a secret.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">A divine revelation must necessarily be + intolerant of contradiction, it must repudiate all improvement in + itself</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(</span><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">J. + Draper</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, History of the + Conflict between Religion and Science, VI).</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The great opposition between the rigid dogmatism + of the Roman Catholic Church and the ever progressing modern + science cannot be removed</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(Academicus, l. c. 362). So say the opponents of + the Church.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There is no + error, says <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">St. Augustine</span></span>, which does not + contain some truth, especially when it is able to rule the + thought of many. Hence its capacity to deceive. The same is true + in the present case.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There is + evolution and progress in everything, or at least there should + be. The individual gradually develops from the embryo into a + perfect form, though it becomes nothing else than what it had + formerly been in its embryonic state. Mankind advances rapidly in + civilization; we no longer ride in the rumbling stage-coach but + in a comfortable express train, and the tallow candle has been + replaced by the electric light. Thus we demand progress also in + knowledge and science, and even in religion. Many things that + were obscure to older generations have become clear to us; we + have corrected many an error, made many discoveries which were + unknown to our ancestors. Many doctrines of faith, also, appear + to our eyes in sharper outlines than before; of many we have a + deeper understanding, discovered new relations, meanings, and + deductions. Thus there is progress and development + everywhere.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But it would + be erroneous to conclude from all this that there cannot be any + stable truths and dogmas, that progress to new and different + views and doctrines is necessary. By the same right we might + conclude that the main principles of the Copernican system cannot + be immutable, because they would <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page160">[pg 160]</span><a name="Pg160" id="Pg160" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> hinder the progress of science. Progress + certainly does not consist in throwing away all certainty + acquired, in order to begin anew. Or does it really belong to + progress in astronomy to again give up <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Copernicus</span></span>, to go back to + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ptolemy</span></span> and let the sun and + all the stars revolve again around the earth? Does not progress + rather consist in our studying these astronomical results more + closely, in building up the details, and, first of all, in trying + to solve new problems?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The champion + of the faith will reply: Just as established results do not + hinder the progress of science, just so do the doctrines of faith + not form an obstacle to progress and evolution. The fixed + doctrines of the faith themselves, in themselves and in their + application to the conditions of life, offer rich material for + the growth of religious knowledge. And there is the immense field + for progress in the profane sciences. If any one should say that + the believing scientist, who is bound by his dogmas, can do + nothing further but reiterate his old truths, one might in turn + argue: Then the astronomer bound by the fundamental rules of the + Copernican system could have only the monotonous task of drawing + over and over again the outlines of his system, while the + mathematician who holds the multiplication table to be an + unalienable possession would not be allowed to do aught but to + repeat the multiplication table.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Or the + argument may be put thus: We have made great progress in the + material province of civilization, in science and art; + <span class="tei tei-q">“can an old religion suffice under these + new and improved conditions, a religion which originated at an + age when these conditions did not exist? This contradiction is + shocking.... Progress in culture demands progress in religion.... + We want a more perfect religion, a higher religion”</span> + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Masaryk</span></span>, Im Kampf um die + Religion, 1904, 29). Note the logic of this demonstration. We no + longer light our rooms by the dim light of a small oil lamp, we + walk no longer at night through dark narrow lanes, but through + brightly illuminated avenues, does it follow from this that it + can no longer be true that Christ is the Son of God, nor that He + has worked miracles, or founded a Church, and a new religion is + therefore necessary? We have made progress in our knowledge of + history; we know a good <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page161">[pg + 161]</span><a name="Pg161" id="Pg161" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + deal of Rome and Carthage, of the civilization of ancient Egypt + and of Greece, and of their mutual relations; we have other + fashions of life than our fathers had, we build and paint + differently—our political life, too, has grown more complicated; + does it follow from all this, that it cannot be true that we are + created by God, that we must believe a divine revelation, hence a + new religion is necessary? Progress and evolution to consist in + ever abandoning the old and advancing to new and different + views—this is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">absurd</span></em>. Absurd, in the first + place, because it is no <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">progress</span></em> at all, but a + retrogression, a hopeless alternation of forwards and backwards. + There can be no progress if I am always withdrawing from my old + position; progress is possible only by retaining the basis + established and then advancing therefrom. And <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">evolution</span></em> is not a continuous + remodelling and shaping anew, but a continuance in growth. + Evolution means that the embryo unfolds, and by retaining and + perfecting the old matter gradually becomes a plant; evolution is + in the progress from bud to blossom; but not in the changing mass + of clouds, swept away to-day by the current wind and replaced + to-morrow by other clouds. An absurdity, also, for the reason + that it violates all laws of reason, that once there was a + revelation of God to be believed, but that this is no longer + true.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Furthermore, + the demand to follow always <span class="tei tei-q">“the ideas of + the period”</span> suggests the question: Who is to represent the + period? Who represented Greece, the sophists or <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Plato</span></span>? Who was representative + of the first days of Christianity, the Roman emperors or the + martyrs? Will not the passage in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Goethe's</span></span> Faust apply in most + cases: <span class="tei tei-q">“What they call the spirit of the + times is but their own mind wherein the times are + reflected”</span>? True, if progress is taken to be the + overstepping by human reason of the eternal standards of + immutable truth and the barriers of faith, if it is to be the + attempt at emancipation from God and religion, then there is no + more resolute foe of progress than the Christian religion, than + the Catholic Church. But this is not progress but loss of the + truth, not higher religion but apostasy, not development of what + is best in man, but retrogression to mental disintegration by + scepticism.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page162">[pg 162]</span><a name= + "Pg162" id="Pg162" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">The Syllabus.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the eyes of + many it is especially the Syllabus of <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Pius + IX.</span></span> by which the Catholic Church has erected a + lasting monument to its enmity to civilization. It is the + Syllabus, we are told, in which <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Pius + IX.</span></span> has <span class="tei tei-q">“ex cathedra + condemned the freedom of science”</span> (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">W. + Kahl</span></span>, Bekenntnissgebundenheit und Lehrfreiheit, + 1897, 10); <span class="tei tei-q">“in which modern culture and + science is being cursed”</span> (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Th. + Fuchs</span></span>, Neue Freie Presse, Nov. 25, 1907); in which + <span class="tei tei-q">“the most general foundations of our + political order, the freedom of conscience, are rejected”</span> + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">G. + Kaufmann</span></span>, Die Lehrfreiheit an den deutschen + Universitaeten, 1898, 34); <span class="tei tei-q">“in which it + has simply anathematized the achievements of the modern concept + of right”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">F. Jodl</span></span>, Gedanken über + Reformkatholizismus, 1902, 5); the Syllabus <span class= + "tei tei-q">“strikes blows against the autonomy of human + development of culture, it is a <span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">non possumus</span></span>, I cannot make + peace, I cannot compromise with what is termed progress, + liberalism, and civilization.”</span> The Syllabus is a favorite + stock argument of professional free-thinkers and agitators, and + the one with which they like to open the discussion. For this + reason we must say a few words about it.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When a + Syllabus is spoken of without any distinction, the Syllabus of + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Pius + IX.</span></span> is meant. It is a list of eighty condemned + propositions which this Pope sent on December 8, 1864, to all the + Bishops of the world, together with the encyclical letter + <span class="tei tei-q">“Quanta Cura.”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Pius + IX.</span></span> had, prior to this, and on various occasions, + denounced these propositions as false and to be repudiated. They + were now gathered together in the Syllabus. They represent the + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">program + of modern liberalism</span></em> in the province of religion and + in politics in relation to religion. They are repudiated in the + following order: Pantheism; liberal freedom of thought and of + conscience as a repudiation of the duty to believe; religious + freedom as a demand of emancipation from faith and Church; + religious indifferentism; the denial of the Church and of her + independence of the state; the omnipotence of state power, + especially in the province of thought. The single propositions + are not all designated as heretical, hence the contrary is not + always pronounced to be dogma; they are rejected <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page163">[pg 163]</span><a name="Pg163" id= + "Pg163" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> in general as <span class= + "tei tei-q">“errors.”</span> It is not necessary to discuss here + the question whether and to what extent the Syllabus is an + infallible decision. Suffice it to say it is binding for + believing Catholics.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Has the + Catholic any reason to be ashamed of the Syllabus?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was a + resolute deed. A deed of that intrepidity and firm consistency + which has ever characterized the Catholic Church. With her + fearless love of truth the Church has in the Syllabus solemnly + condemned the errors of the modern rebellion against the + supernatural order, of the naturalization and declaration of + independence of the human life. For this reason the Syllabus is + called an attack upon modern culture, science, and education, + upon the foundations of the state. Is this true?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is, and it + is not. All that is good and Christian in modern culture is not + touched by the Syllabus; it strikes only at what is + anti-Christian in our times and in the leading ideas of our + times. It does not condemn freedom of science, but only the + liberal freedom which throws off the yoke of faith; it does not + repudiate freedom of religion and conscience, but the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">liberal</span></em> freedom which will not + acknowledge a divine revelation nor take the Church as a guide. + Not the foundations of modern states are attacked, but only the + liberal ideas of emancipation from religion, and of opposition to + the Church. The Church proclaims to the world only what has been + known to all Christian centuries, that, just as the single + individual is bound to have the Christian belief and must lead a + Christian life, so are nations and organized states; that the + human creature is subject to the law of Christ in all its + relations. Nor does she contend against genuine progress in + science, education and in the material domain, but merely against + liberal progress towards the irreligious materialization of + life.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This + emancipation from the Christian faith poses mostly under the + attractive and deceptive name of <span class="tei tei-q">“modern + progress.”</span> Indeed, it has ever been the pretension of + liberalism to look upon itself as the sole harbinger of + civilization, to claim the guidance of intellectual life for its + aim, and to stigmatize as a foe of culture any one that opposes + the dissemination of its anti-Christian humanism. It is also an + expert in giving <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page164">[pg + 164]</span><a name="Pg164" id="Pg164" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + to words a charm and an ambiguous meaning that deceive. + Emancipation from religion is <span class= + "tei tei-q">“progress”</span> and <span class= + "tei tei-q">“enlightenment.”</span> Everything else is + reactionary. Its infidelity is freedom of conscience and thought. + Everything else is <span class="tei tei-q">“bondage.”</span> Only + its secular schools, its civil marriage, its separation of Church + and State are <span class="tei tei-q">“modern.”</span> Everything + else is obsolete, hence no longer warranted. For the Church to + defend her rights is arrogance; when the Church uses her + God-given authority for the good of the faith, she practises + intellectual oppression; the Catholic who lets himself be guided + by his Church is called unpatriotic, bereft of his civil + spirit.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What striking + contrast to the honesty in which the Church presents her + doctrines frankly before the whole world, without disguise or + artifice. The reason is that she has sufficient interior strength + and truth to render it unnecessary for her to take refuge in + disguise or present the truth in ambiguity.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The clearest evidence of the Church's hostility + to culture is the condemnation of the 80th thesis of the</span> + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Syllabus</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">, + so it is said. It is the thesis that the Pope can and must + reconcile himself to, and compromise with, progress, + liberalism, and modern civilization. This is a condemned + proposition, hence the contrary is true: the Pope of Rome + cannot, and must not, reconcile himself, nor compromise with, + liberalism and modern civilization. Here we have the frankly + admitted hostility against progress, education, and science—it + is the watchword of the Papacy.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">This conclusion can be arrived at only by + pushing aside all rules of scientific interpretation. What + progress is this, with what civilization can the Papacy not be + reconciled? The progress of modern liberalism. The heading of + the paragraph containing this proposition states expressly + that</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">errors of + modern liberalism</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">are to be condemned. This becomes clear by the + Allocution</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Jamdudum + cernimus</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">of + March 18, 1861, from which this condemnation is taken. There it + is stated:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">It is + asked that the Pope of Rome reconcile himself with progress, to + liberalism as they call it, to the new civilization, and + compromise with them.... But now we ask of those inviting us to + be reconciled with modern civilization, whether the facts be + such as to tempt the Vicar of Christ on earth ... to connect + himself with the civilization of to-day without the greatest + injury to this conscience ... a civilization that has caused + the dissemination of numerous despicable opinions, errors, and + principles in conflict with the Catholic religion and its + doctrines.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Of course a civilization cut off + from any true Christianity by education and science, by family + life and political life, a progress, trying to stop the + activity of the Church in every sphere and attacking her in + their speech, in newspapers, and in schools,</span> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page165">[pg 165]</span><a name= + "Pg165" id="Pg165" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style= + "font-size: 90%">cannot demand of the Papacy to join hands with + them. No Christian, whether Catholic or Protestant, can profess + this</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">progress.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">We have here at the same time a specimen of + how they proceed in interpreting the propositions of the + Syllabus in order to discover in them all possible absurdities. + Many propositions are short sentences taken from the work of an + author, or from previous Papal declarations. Hence they must be + understood in the sense of those sources. Furthermore, + attention must be paid to what is specially emphasized. Then, + again, we must remember that by repudiating a proposition only + the contradictory is asserted, but not the contrary; to + conclude this would be to conclude too much. For instance, the + seventy-seventh condemned proposition reads:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">In our + times it is no longer to any purpose that the Catholic religion + should be the sole religion of the state to the exclusion of + all other confessions.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">According to some,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">e.g.</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Frins</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + the contradictory is thus formulated:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">In our times also it is still to the + purpose....</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">According to others, + however,</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">e.g.</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Hoensbroeeh</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">and</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Goetz</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">In our + times also it is beneficial....</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">Thus while</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Hoensbroech</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">and</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Goetz</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">make the ecclesiastical doctrine + appear to read that it would be beneficial to hold fast to the + Catholic as the sole religion of the state under all + circumstances even to-day, the actual opposite is the doctrine, + that this may be yet to the purpose under certain + circumstances. While no reasonable man could object to the + latter, the former is eagerly exploited against the Church + (</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Heiner</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + Der Syllabus, 1905, p. 31,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">seq.</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">; + cf.</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Frins</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + Kirchenlex, 2d ed., XI, 1031;</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Hoensbroech</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + l. c. 25;</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Goetz</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + Der Ultramontanismus, 1905, 148).</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of course it + may be taken for granted that the Syllabus is distasteful to + modern liberalism, which is branded there as one of the errors of + the day. Yet the Church cannot be censured for not becoming + unfaithful to her vocation of preserving the patrimony of + Christianity to mankind, or for acting as the invincible defender + of the Christian religion in the universal struggle between truth + and error, even though the latter pose with great assurance.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">The Condemnation of + Modernism.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The great + excitement caused in intellectual circles by the Syllabus of + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Pius + IX.</span></span> was aroused again, though not with the same + intensity, when some years ago the news of another Syllabus was + circulated through the world, and the excitement increased when + the rumour was followed by the publication of the encyclical + <span class="tei tei-q">“Pascendi Dominici gregis.”</span> + Indeed, the new event was not very unlike the former: in the 60's + Rome's sentence was <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page166">[pg + 166]</span><a name="Pg166" id="Pg166" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + directed against the Modernism of that period, which called + itself liberalism. The excitement caused by its condemnation was + more intense, because it struck directly at the principles + governing the liberal politics against the Church, which + principles were claimed to be the foundation of the modern state. + Now the Modernism repudiated by the Church's voice was nothing + more than the old humanistic, fundamental, errors of liberalism, + but put in the form of a religious and philosophical view of the + world, and in Catholic garb: it meant man detached from + everything supernatural, and dependent alone on himself in his + intellectual life, more especially in his religious life.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Now, as then, + similar charges were raised: The Church is the irreconcilable foe + of modern achievements and the opponent of them; <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the encyclical aims at modern intellectual life in + all its phases and forms”</span> (XX. Jahrh., 1908, 568). Now, as + then, we have the same ambiguity of the terms <span class= + "tei tei-q">“modern”</span> and <span class= + "tei tei-q">“progress.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What was + condemned by the Church? The document <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Lamentabili sane exitu,”</span> issued by the + teaching authority of the Church on July 3, 1907, is entitled + <span class="tei tei-q">“A Decree of the Holy Congregation of the + Roman and General Inquisition or the Holy Office,”</span> which + has to watch over the unadulterated preservation of the faith. + The decree soon was christened the <span class="tei tei-q">“New + Syllabus,”</span> because of its similarity with the Syllabus of + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Pius + IX.</span></span> In a similar way it condemns sixty-five + propositions against the inspiration and the historical character + of Holy Scripture, against the divine origin of revelation and of + faith, against the divinity of Christ, His Resurrection and His + atoning death, against the Sacraments, and against the Church. + These are component parts of the philosophical religious system + of thought which soon after was set forth and condemned by the + encyclical <span class="tei tei-q">“Pascendi,”</span> of + September 8, 1907.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Modernism is + essentially philosophy, combining modern <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">agnostic-autonomous subjectivism</span></em> + with <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">evolutionism</span></em>, and applied to the + Christian religion, which thereby becomes disfigured beyond + recognition. Its chain of thought, excellently stated by the + encyclical, starts with the proposition that the supernatural is + beyond the knowledge of man, and hence man <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page167">[pg 167]</span><a name="Pg167" id= + "Pg167" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> cannot know anything of God. + The faith which unites us to God is nothing but a feeling, born + of a blind impulse, which may be considered a divine revelation. + If this religious feeling is expressed in forms, the result is + <span class="tei tei-q">“doctrines of faith”</span>; for + Christian <span class="tei tei-q">“dogmas”</span> are this and + nothing more, images and symbols of the noble and divine, hence + they are of human origin and are changeable according to the + disposition and the degree of learning of the individual, as well + as of the times. There is no dogmatic Christianity, in the sense + of an immutable religious doctrine, nor is there any absolutely + true religion, for religion is but a variable feeling, that has + nothing to do with cognition and knowledge. For this reason they + never can come in conflict. The Christian religion originally was + nothing else but the religious experience of Christ, who was not + God but a man; in the course of time it has undergone changes + which are reflected in the shaping of Christian dogma. Holy + Scripture is, similarly, the expression of the religious + experience of its human authors; the Sacraments are symbols, + arousing religious sentiments; the Church is not founded by God, + and only has the task of regulating the development of + Christianity, and of sanctioning at any time whatever religious + experiences the changeable spirit of progressive civilization may + produce.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This is + Modernism, as represented chiefly in France, Italy, and to an + extent also in England; in Germany it did not appear as a system, + but even there its spirit became quite apparent. Thus, Modernism + is nothing else but the systematic arrangement of those ideas + which we have hitherto met, in various places, as the fundamental + principles of modern religious thought opposed to Christianity. + It is subjectivism with its autonomy of the human subject, its + agnosticism, its relativism of truth, sailing under the name of + <span class="tei tei-q">“historical method of thought”</span> and + <span class="tei tei-q">“progress,”</span> and, finally, with its + freedom of thought and conscience which rejects all authority. It + is <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kant</span></span> in the robe of a Catholic + theologian. Ultimately it is nothing else but the shocking + negation of everything supernatural, hence complete apostasy. + <span class="tei tei-q">“The salient point is recognized,”</span> + says <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Troeltsch</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the enemy is the modern historical method of + thought, the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page168">[pg + 168]</span><a name="Pg168" id="Pg168" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + concept of evolution, the theory of inner experience and + relativism as applied to religion, the negation of + supernaturalism as taught by the old Church”</span> (l. c. 22). + Hence, was it not manifest that the Church had to take measures + against this positive denial of Christianity as a whole, the more + so as the uneducated could be easily deceived by it? Every + organism will throw off excrescences, the more energetically the + stronger it is. Any religion lacking this strength is doomed. + That the Papal declaration aroused such opposition must not be + wondered at; it hit once more the central idea of the + anti-Christian view of the world. The judgment was not passed + against modern intellectual life, but only against the grave + errors inherent in it; the Church did not condemn progress, nor + the increase and deepening of knowledge of the truth; not the + enrichment of the life of the mind, of feeling, and the will, but + only pretended progress; she did not condemn the historical + method nor the idea of evolution, but their false application, + which dissolved anything and everything in growth, purely natural + growth at that, without acknowledging a revelation of absolute + truths.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Orthodox Protestants have openly praised this + bold deed of the Pope as highly meritorious for the preservation + of the Christian faith. Thus the South African Church Quarterly + Review (Episcopal) of January, 1908, said:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The Syllabus and Encyclical of</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Pius X.</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">against Modernism are deserving of + the respectful consideration of all Christians.... At the present + stage of history the opposing factors are driving with great + speed towards a fierce and resolute struggle between Christ and + anti-Christ. All who sincerely love Christ, our Lord, must rally + under one flag.... Narrow-minded hostility towards the Pope must + give way to the desire to be united with the great community + which is fighting so valiantly for the old faith of our + fathers.... One must be blind, to misjudge the tremendous + influence exerted by the last deed of the Pope in favour of the + faith.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Even the Evangelical</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Kirchenzeitung</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">admitted that the encyclical is</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">directed + chiefly against the more or less unchristian modern views of + the world ... which we must combat.... Undoubtedly it is not + only the Pope's right to lay bare the unchristian tendency of + these ideas and their incompatibility with the Christian faith, + but it is also his duty and his merit</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(November 29, 1908, n. 48).</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Puny men, + entangled in the ideas of their time and surroundings, are easily + led to take for their standard the thoughts and actions of their + age. They often imagine that <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page169">[pg 169]</span><a name="Pg169" id="Pg169" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> they possess not a little strength and + independence, when they are intellectually entirely dependent and + unable to rise above their time. <span class="tei tei-q">“It is + the fashion, others think that way, therefore I must think so, + too”</span>; these are often the principles of their wisdom, and + they ask the Church to do likewise. The Church, however, looks + back upon a long history, and numerous ideas and opinions she has + seen arise and vanish. And whoever can look back upon a great + experience, and moreover carries in himself the call to lead the + times, feels no restless impulse to be carried away by changing + doctrines.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">The Index.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Whenever the + subject of Rome's enmity to science and progress of culture is + discussed, there invariably appears on the scene, beside Syllabus + and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span>, also the Index. The + latter is held by many to be Rome's permanent means of hindering + the progress of humanity in general, and the free scientific + activity of the Catholic in particular, and to annihilate the + freedom of teaching and learning (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hoensbroech</span></span>, Die Kath. theol. + Fakultaeten, 1907, 40 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">seq.</span></span>). They say <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the Congregation of the Index has no pity nor + consideration for the classical works of literature, and condemns + in the name of religion the most admirable products of the human + intellect”</span> (Grande Dict. univ. du XIX. siècle, IX, 640, + apud <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">J. + Hilgers</span></span>, Der Index der Verb. Buecher, 1904, 166; + much of what we shall say on this topic is taken from this work + by <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hilgers</span></span>).</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">This statement again reminds that the + accusations against the Catholic Church and her institutions are + to be considered with caution, because of the ignorance of her + opponents in Catholic things. This is especially true of the + Index. Thus the above assertion is false.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Dante's</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Divina + Commedia</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(the work referred to) is neither + forbidden nor needs approval nor correction: of the classical + literature of the world little or nothing is forbidden; even + morally offensive books, that are considered classical, may + without ecclesiastical permission be read for the sake of their + elegant diction, whenever their reading is required by one's work + or duty of teaching.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">A few examples of the</span> <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">incredible + ignorance</span></em> <span style="font-size: 90%">alluded to + will suffice. In the</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Grande Dictionnaire Universel du XIX. + Siècle</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">it is actually stated that the + works of</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Albert the + Great</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">were condemned + by a decree of April 10, 1666. What does the Index really + forbid? It states:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span lang="it" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="it"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Alberto</span> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page170">[pg 170]</span><a name= + "Pg170" id="Pg170" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Magno, diviso in tre + libri, nel primo si tratta della virtu delle herbe, nel secondo + della virtu delle pietre, e nel terzo della virtu di alcuni + animali.</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">—Albert the + Great, in three parts: the first treats of the virtue of + plants; the second, of the virtue of stones; and the third, of + the virtue of some animals.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">It is the title of a little superstitious + book, attributed to</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Albert + the Great</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">by an unknown author.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The first edition of the Index of</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Leo XIII.</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">in 1900 was sold out in less than + a year; a second edition followed in 1901, and, like the first, + could be had at all booksellers, at a very moderate price. In + December, 1901, there appeared in the Anglo-American + weekly,</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">The Roman + World,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">an article which says that it is + difficult to obtain this list of notorious books forbidden to + Catholics, unless one be a Church official, since only a few + copies are printed and even these are not handled by general + book-dealers; hence that no details could be given about the + purchase of the copy referred to; but it was quite evident that + it had commanded a good price.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The copy in question, a model of fine + printing, might be worth about $40 to $50, but owing to its + rareness, it had undoubtedly cost $400. The history of this + famous Index is interesting. The one who first hit upon the + idea was</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Charles V.</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">of Spain, about 1550. The first + compilation of the book-list was made by the university of + Louvain in 1564, Pope</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Paul IV.</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">assuming the direction of the + edition. It remained for 357 years in the hands of the + Pope.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Every one of these statements is false. And + just as false is the statement that the</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Syllabus condemns not only a book written by a + Pope, but by Pope</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Leo XIII.</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">himself.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">Still it could not surprise us, since even + David's psalter is on the Index! When the Index of</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Leo + XIII.</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">was published, + Dr.</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Max Claar</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">wrote from Rome to the</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Neue + Freie Presse</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">of Vienna:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">On the old Index we find among other things + the Psalms of King David and the Divina Commedia of</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Dante</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">We have already stated that the + latter was never on the Index. But how in the world could this + man find Holy Scripture condemned on the Index? Perhaps he + found this passage:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Il + salmista secondo la biblia</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">and</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Salmi (sessanta) di David.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">The first is a superstitious booklet, the + second is a translation of sixty Psalms of David by the + heretic,</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Giovanni + Diodati</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">. The learned + doctor in all seriousness mistook them for the Psalms of David + (</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Hilgers</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + 167,</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">seq.</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">).</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What then is + the Index, and how is it to be judged?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Ever since the + Apostle of the Nations had at Ephesus the superstitious books + burned under his eyes, the Holy Fathers, Bishops, and Councils + since the first centuries of Christianity have been careful to + keep from the faithful writings hurtful to faith and morals. Thus + even in the olden time we find several catalogues of forbidden + books, then followed the Indices of the Middle Ages. In the year + 1571 a special Congregation of Cardinals was formed, the + <span class="tei tei-q">“Congregation of the Index,”</span> which + has ever since had charge of the ecclesiastical book-laws. + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page171">[pg 171]</span><a name= + "Pg171" id="Pg171" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> The last edition + of the Index, obligatory for the whole Church, emanated from + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Leo + XIII.</span></span> The title of the work now in force reads, + <span class="tei tei-q">“The Index of Forbidden Books, revised + and published by order of and in the name of Leo XIII. + 1900.”</span> It is divided into two parts. The first and shorter + part contains the general book regulations, giving in short + paragraphs the rules on various classes of forbidden books, the + permission required for reading them, the examination to be made + previous to the publication of certain books. The second part + enumerates the writings forbidden by special decree—the Index in + the particular sense, and the part most often considered. But it + is second in importance to the first, because by far not all + books dangerous to faith and morals are named in it. Most such + books are forbidden by the general laws contained in the first + part, without mentioning the many which are forbidden by mere + common sense.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Ecclesiastical + legislation on books is composed of two factors: first, the + previous censorship—certain books must be examined by + ecclesiastical authority before their publication. Second, the + prohibition of books already published.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The previous + scrutiny in general is delegated to the Bishop; all books dealing + with morals and theology must be submitted. The license to print + the book is to be given if the book is in accord with the + teaching of the Church, in so far as determined by ecclesiastical + authority, the decision based on it rests solely with the censor; + if the author of the book should fail to see that the passages + objected to need revision he may try to clear himself by stating + his reasons; however, he is also free to submit his work to + another Bishop and to look for a printer in the latter's diocese. + If one looks over the numerous books bearing the ecclesiastical + imprimatur, he will readily notice how much freedom is given, if + the author keeps within the doctrine of the Church.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">condemnation</span></em> of a book never + strikes at the person of the author, nor at what he has intended + to express by the passages objected to; judgment is passed only + upon what is actually expressed in them. Hence it is not + necessary to give to the author himself a hearing, or a chance to + explain. <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page172">[pg + 172]</span><a name="Pg172" id="Pg172" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + The reason is that the judgment is rendered on the sense of the + passages, not on the meaning of the author. In general those + books and periodicals are forbidden which are likely to do + serious damage to faith and morals. The isolated cases of + indicting the works of Catholic authors in the nineteenth + century—we may mention <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Lamennais</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hermes</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Guenther</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Loisy</span></span>, and <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Schell</span></span>—show that the Church + proceeds but slowly and with consideration against the author + involved.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To appreciate + the Index properly, one must try to grasp without prejudice the + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">purpose</span></em> the Church has in view. + This purpose is to protect the faithful from error and from moral + contagion, and to preserve the faith intact. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“What is more precious than souls, what more precious + than the faith? But both suffer damage from such reading.”</span> + Such was the judgment of the Council of Ephesus when it drew up + its book-decrees; such was the judgment of an <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Augustine</span></span>, of <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Leo the + Great</span></span>, and of the Holy Fathers; such is still the + judgment of the Church. Books and writings that offend against + morals are a menace to her faithful. They become infected with + wrong ideas; they are as a rule not in a position to distinguish + by themselves the false from the true, and for the most part they + are not morally strong enough to resist the allurements of error. + It may also happen that certain thoughts are true in the + abstract, yet for the time being would be a danger for many. Now, + it is the right and duty of any social authority, beginning with + the head of the family and up to the government, to protect with + strong hand the precious possessions of its subjects.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The state + keeps under control the sale of poison and dynamite, keeps out + contagious diseases from its boundaries—it protects the + possessions of its subjects. European states have for centuries + claimed the right to censure books, and have used it much more + rigorously than the Church ever did, to say nothing of the + censures of the Protestant Church of former times (see abundant + proof apud <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hilgers</span></span>, 206-402). The modern + state also, despite the great freedom granted to the press, + cannot entirely forego its sense of responsibility. It restricts + the freedom of the press by censorship, and by preventive + measures often not less drastic than the censure itself, and it + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page173">[pg 173]</span><a name= + "Pg173" id="Pg173" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> always regards the + confiscation of particularly dangerous writings to be a matter of + course. It puts under censure school-books, political posters, + and theatrical plays, and does not tolerate any socialistic + literature in the soldiers' barracks. And do we not take it as a + matter of course if a father forbids his child to associate with + dangerous playmates, and takes bad books from its hands? We + cannot find fault with the Church if she seeks to protect her + children, if she represses the promiscuous dissemination of false + ideas and doctrines, and if she takes dangerous books under her + control. <span class="tei tei-q">“Feed my lambs, feed my + sheep,”</span> was the command given to the Church.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The objection + should therefore not be made that <span class="tei tei-q">“such + precaution is proper when dealing with children but not with men; + especially since the thinking elements among the Catholics of the + Germanic tongue or origin are too profound and firm in their + faith to warrant a fear of the effects of unrestricted free + research”</span> (from the petition of the so-called <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Index-league”</span> of Muenster). This perusal may + become dangerous even for highly educated men, else how could + Modernism break so forcefully into the Church? Manifestly only + because learned theologians did not possess that firmness of + Catholic faith and Catholic knowledge which would prevent them + from being deceived by the misleading ideas of modern philosophy, + and of the new Protestant theology. Moreover, all forbidden books + may be read upon obtaining the necessary permission.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“Preserve the deposit of faith,”</span> the Church + has been told. She cannot look on silently when her doctrines are + being falsified and denied, when the most venerable sphere of + theology is made the stamping ground for immature minds and a + laboratory for all kinds of experiments. When <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Zola's</span></span> novel, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Rome,”</span> had been put on the Index, the + atheistic literary critic, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sarcey</span></span>, made the following + comment: <span class="tei tei-q">“If my own criticisms of + literature are regarded by many people as highest decisions, why + should a positive criticism be looked upon as monstrous just + because it comes from the Pope? It is my aim to guard good taste + in literature, and it is the aim of the Pope to guard the true + faith”</span> (Allgemeine Rundschau, 1908, 828). Every social + authority must interfere when its foundations are attacked. + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page174">[pg 174]</span><a name= + "Pg174" id="Pg174" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> A church that + tolerates false doctrines cannot be the teacher that Christ sent + to the nations. As a matter of fact the Index has from the first + helped in no small degree to keep the Catholic doctrine pure, to + induce caution in reading certain authors, and to keep awake in + the faithful that aversion against immoral and irreligious + writings which is the characteristic of Catholics, and which has + rescued the faith for thousands.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To judge the + Index fairly one must be convinced that the preservation of true + Christian doctrine is its highest aim. Then the zeal of the + Catholic Church will be intelligible. Of course, he who thinks + that the true weal of mankind consists in the speedy emancipation + from all Christian dogma, he who holds the task of science to be + the establishment of a new <span class="tei tei-q">“scientific + view of the world,”</span> he who no longer knows faith, will see + in the Index nothing but restraint. But, whoever is of a + different view will not take offence at the restriction of the + freedom of writing and reading when it is productive of higher + good. Freedom of science cannot be unrestricted, especially in + regard to teaching; the welfare of humanity must be considered. + Moreover, the Index concerns almost exclusively theology and some + branches of philosophy, the rest of the profane sciences but + little or not at all; the scientific works prohibited, however, + are not removed from scientific perusal: only permission is + necessary, and this is granted without difficulty and without + cost.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is true, an + error on the part of the Church authorities is not impossible. We + know of such a case, putting on the Index the writings of + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Copernicus</span></span>, in 1616. But just + the circumstance that history knows of but one such case of + importance is a clear testimony to the Holy Ghost's direction of + the teaching office even when it is rendering non-infallible + decisions. Besides, the damage that might result from a few + mistakes would not be so great as the damage resulting if + everything were allowed to be written and read.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Catholic + scientist who appreciates the supernatural mission of his Church + will <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">yield to her guidance in humble + confidence</span></em>, he will practise this submission to the + Church by requesting permission for reading forbidden books, and + by this spirit he will obtain God's blessing on his + work.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page175">[pg + 175]</span><a name="Pg175" id="Pg175" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">In doing so he may recall to mind the edifying + words of</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">St. Francis of + Sales</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, in the preface + to his treatise on the errors of the Lutherans and Calvinists, + where he gives the assurance of having conscientiously asked for + and received permission to read their writings.</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">We + fervently request our Catholic readers,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">writes the Saint,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">not to let an evil suspicion against us arise, + as if we had read the forbidden books in spite of the prohibition + of holy Church. We are able to assure them in all truth of having + done nothing forbidden to a good Christian, and of having taken + every precaution due in a matter of so vast importance, so as not + to incur in any way the very just censures of the Church, nor in + any manner to violate the profound reverence we owe to + her.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">The permission granted him, dated + July 16, 1608, is still extant; likewise one asked by</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">St. Charles + Borromeo</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Catholic + scientist also will readily ask the ecclesiastical Imprimatur for + certain of his works. If a careful author before publishing a + work submits the proofs to a friend of his profession, taking his + comment for a guide, why should we deem it intellectual bondage + if the Catholic scientist, in matters of faith and morals, + submits his work to the formal approval of his Church, which to + him is a higher authority than any other? and does this + willingly, as in consistency with his Catholic conviction?<a id= + "noteref_5" name="noteref_5" href="#note_5"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">5</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span lang= + "la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Via stulti recta in oculis ejus, qui autem + sapiens est audit consilia</span></span>, says the Wise Man. It + is characteristic of the fool to be wise in his own eyes, and + stubbornly to cling to his own judgment; but the prudent man + seeks advice, and suffers his attention to be called to his + mistakes.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The believing + scientist, too, will submit to correction; should the rare case + fall to his lot to have the Church condemn his work, he will know + how to be generously obedient. Splendid examples are blazing the + way for him. <span class="tei tei-q">“Were we to draw up a list + of the scientists, who, in a similar critical position as + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Fénelon</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page176">[pg 176]</span><a name="Pg176" id= + "Pg176" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> found strength in the virtue + of obedience, and on the other hand a list of all those whose + subjective scientific views did not allow them to submit, then we + should perceive at a glance that their proud persistence in their + own opinion has been injurious to true wisdom in the same degree + as humble submission proved a benefit to science”</span> + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hilgers</span></span>, 412). Finally, he who + is convinced that the Christian faith is the greatest heritance + of truth from the past, which must be preserved in him, he will + take no offence if the Church is not impressed even by names like + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kant</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Spinoza</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Schopenhauer</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Strauss</span></span>, men much featured as + the captains of modern science and philosophy. In the eyes of the + Church nothing is genuine and true science that is contrary to + the testimony of God, and errors are errors even then when their + perpetrator is receiving cheers and applause. Just as the state + prohibits the physician from designedly assisting any one to + commit suicide, even though the physician be a noted scientist, + just so the Church opposes any one who assaults God's truth, be + he journalist or philosopher.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Frequently the</span> <em class="tei tei-emph"> + <span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">great number + of forbidden books mentioned by the Index</span></em> + <span style="font-size: 90%">is pointed out. The Index of 1900 + contains about 5,000 titles belonging to the last three + centuries; of these about 1,300 belong to the nineteenth + century. Quite a small number, considering the immense + literature of the world. Yet it will look even smaller when + compared, for instance, with the censure of books by the</span> + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Prussian + state</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">In the year 1845 there appeared the following + catalogue:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Index</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">librorum + prohibitorum</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + Catalogue of the books forbidden in Germany during 1844-1845, + first volume.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">The second volume was issued in 1846. The list + is not complete: it does not contain, for instance, the names + of prohibited newspapers and periodicals. Yet it contains 437 + writings, forbidden by 570 decrees,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + two or three times as many as the entire number of German books + of the nineteenth century enumerated by name in the Roman + Index. The</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Historisch-Politischen + Blaetter</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">of + 1840 contain an article beginning thus:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span lang= + "la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Veritas odium + parit.</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">In Prussia + there are now prohibited nearly all Catholic journals and + periodicals, and in order to begin the matter</span> + <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">ab + ovo</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">they have + grasped a welcome opportunity to throw interdicts at wholesale + against works not yet published, or to render their circulation + difficult to a degree amounting to + prohibition.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">How the Prussian censorship proceeded in those + days may be illustrated by another example.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">At the time of the Vatican Council a + publisher,</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Joseph + Bachem</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, came to + Dr.</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Westhoff</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + rector of the Seminary of Cologne, a man of venerable years, + and told him of his misgivings about the dogma of the + infallibility. In his youth he had been taught the maxim that + that is Catholic which has been taught always, + everywhere,</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page177">[pg + 177]</span><a name="Pg177" id="Pg177" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">and by + everybody; yet he had until recently never found the doctrine + of Papal Infallibility taught, neither in schools nor in + text-books. Then the reverend old rector took the visitor by + the hand and led him into the library of the seminary, where he + showed him not less than sixteen catechisms that had been in + use in the Archdiocese of Cologne during the eighteenth + century, and which stated without exception, clearly and + convincingly, the doctrine of Papal Infallibility in matters of + faith and morals. The publisher in utter astonishment then + asked how it was that this doctrine was not taught in later + editions. Dr.</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Westhoff</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">referred him to the Prussian + censure, enforced until 1848, which had expunged this doctrine + from all Catholic catechisms. From that moment</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Bachem</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">no longer wavered in his + opinions</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(Koelnische Volkszeitung, + September 7, 1893).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">One may also remember</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Bismarck's</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">press-campaign during the</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Kulturkampf</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">. + Professor</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Friedberg</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + Prussian court canonist, instigated this campaign, and in many + ways devised the plan of attack. This much-praised + liberalism—how tyrannically it proceeded against the Catholic + press! The Frankfurter Zeitung in those days took a census of + convictions due to the press law. According to the census, + which</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">does not + by far claim to be complete,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">there were of newspaper editors sentenced in + 1875—21 in January, 35 in February, 29 in March, 24 in April; + in four months 137 newspaper writers were either fined or sent + to jail. During the same period 30 newspapers were confiscated + (Staatslexikon, IV, 550). This is not all.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">We could mention at least three + instances,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">says</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">P. Majunke</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">in his History of the + Kulturkampf,</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">where + agents of the Berlin secret police have succeeded in obtaining + a position on the editorial staff of Catholic papers, staying + for a year or more. Besides serving as spies these fellows had + to perform the task of</span> <span lang="fr" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">agents + provocateurs</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, viz., + to incite the editors of Catholic papers to extreme utterances, + similar to the denunciations suggested to correspondents of + foreign Catholic organs for their papers.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">This happened in a civilized state, despite + its constitutional freedom of the press, by order of the same + liberalism which always pretends to be full of righteous + indignation when the Church prohibits books and puts them on + the Index.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Towards the end of the last century, again + with the aid of liberalism, laws against the socialists were + drawn up. After they had been passed war was waged against + socialistic literature. In the year 1886 there appeared a real + Index Librorum Prohibitorum, its title read,</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Social + Democratic publications and societies prohibited by the + imperial law against the dangerous designs of Social + Democracy,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">which law had then been in force + eight years. A supplementary list was published two years + later, in 1888.</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Hilgers</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">makes this comment on it:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">How many + additional pamphlets have been condemned in the time from March + 28, 1888, to September 30, 1890, we cannot + state.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">According to the foregoing + official statement the average is 130 a year. Hence we assume + that the printed matter prohibited during the twelve years that + the law was in force amounted to between 15,000 and 16,000. + This number of social democratic pamphlets forbidden within + twelve years exceeds by far the number of all books prohibited + by the Roman Index in the course</span> <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page178">[pg 178]</span><a name="Pg178" id= + "Pg178" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style= + "font-size: 90%">of the entire nineteenth century—books that + are the products of all countries in the world and dealing with + all branches; the number of these German prohibitions is ten + times that of Roman prohibitions. Indeed, in the course of a + year and a half the new German Empire prohibited more writings + of Germans than Rome had prohibited during the entire past + century. We may mention here</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Goethe</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">. + In the atheism dispute, at the end of the eighteenth century, + decision was rendered upon</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Goethe's</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">advice against the + philosopher</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Fichte</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">;</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Fichte</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">was discharged in spite of + petitions and mediations in his favour. The liberal Grand + Duke</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Karl August of Saxony + Weimar</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">granted in + 1816, after the French conqueror had been overthrown, freedom + of the press. Professor</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Oken</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">of Jena availed himself of this + privilege, and printed in his</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Isis</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">contributions complaining about the + government.</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Goethe</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">had to advise what should be done + against it. He thought that the paper should have been + suppressed by the police at its very first announcement;</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">the + measure neglected at the beginning is to be taken immediately + and the paper is to be prohibited. By prohibiting the</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Isis</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">’</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">the trouble will be stopped at + once</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(Briefwechsel des Grossh.</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Karl August v. + Sax.-Weimar-Eisenach</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">mit</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Goethe</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + II, 1863, 90). And this was done, in spite of the freedom + granted the press.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Frederick + II.</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">is called the + Royal Free-thinker; and yet the general introduction of the + book censure into Prussia occurred precisely during his reign. + The first general censure edict was issued in 1749 and remained + in force till the death of the king. All books, even those + printed in foreign tongues, were subject to the censure. Even + all episcopal and Papal proclamations were subjected to the + royal censure. That the leaders in the Reformation and their + successors were not prevented by their avowal of the principle + of free research from exercising rigorous, often tyrannical, + censure, not only against the Catholics but also against their + fellow reformers, is well known.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">M. Lehmann</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">writes in the Preuss. Jahrb. + 1902:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">It claims + to be infallible, this Papal Church, it wants to be to the + faithful everything, in science and even in nationality. It + offends every nation. The Index in the shape given it in 1900 + by the present Pope proscribes the</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Oeuvres du Philosophe de + Sanssouci,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">’</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Kant's</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Critique + of Pure Reason,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">’</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Ranke's</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style="font-size: 90%">History + of the Popes,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">’</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">the greatest German king, the greatest German + philosopher, and the greatest German + historian</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(1902, no. 8).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">As to</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Frederick + II.</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, his own works + appeared only after his death in 1788, and even then only in + part; later on there were other editions. None of these is put + on the Index. On this list we find since 1760 the</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Oeuvres + du Philosophe de Sanssouci.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">Under this title appeared at first three + volumes, in but a few copies, intended for the most intimate + friends of the king. The first volume he soon withdrew and had + it burned of his own accord; it contained the</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Palladion</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">an imitation of Voltaire's</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Pucelle,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">a + salacious work throughout. In 1762 a new edition was issued. It + also contains a philosophical treatise denying the immortality + of the soul; this treatise was also published separately and + specially prohibited in 1767. A third work put on the Index is + a spurious attack on the Popes published by order of + King</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Frederick + II.</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, with a preface + by him. Its author is said to have been the French</span> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page179">[pg 179]</span><a name= + "Pg179" id="Pg179" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style= + "font-size: 90%">abbé</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Jean Martin De + Prades</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, reader to + the king. These are the indicted works of</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Frederick + II.</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, all written in + French and in substance French Voltairianism. Thus came the + greatest German king on the Index!</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Ranke's</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Roemische + Paepste</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">is on the Index, because the book + belittles the constitutions and doctrines of the Catholic + Church: not because of the true things the author says about + Popes.</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Von Pastor's</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">History + of the Popes</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">is not on the Index, + notwithstanding the bitter truths he writes about Popes</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Alexander + VI.</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">and</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Leo X.</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">He who knows even the fundamental ideas + of</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Kant's</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Kritik + der reinen Vernunft</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">will see that not only the Catholic Church, + but every Christian denomination, might forfeit its existence + if it showed itself indifferent towards it. Heresies are + especially dangerous to the uneducated when they bear the names + of authors of scientific repute. But the Church willingly + grants the permission to read them when there is reason for it. + Moreover, it was not Rome alone that took steps against</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Kant</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">. + This was done by the Prussian king</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Frederick + II.</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">also. One may + recall his cabinet order, under minister</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Woellner</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + against Kant's</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Religion + innerhalb der Grenzen der blossen Vernunft.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">Similarly the works of</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Spinoza</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">were proceeded against, whereas + his indictment by Rome now calls forth protest because he has + since been assigned a prominent place among + philosophers.</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Freudenthal</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">registers a list of 500 sharp + prohibitions issued against</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Spinoza's</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">works during the years 1556-1580: + they were condemned by the states of Holland, by the court, by + synods and magistrates. Those judgments were passed during a + period when the competent authorities had views different from + those of to-day; when the state deemed it its duty to oppose + the undermining of Christianity. The state's judgment has + changed in many ways, Rome's judgment has remained the same. + But the works of</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Kant</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">and</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Spinoza</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">likewise have remained the same, + and so is Christianity, against which they occupy an + irreconcilable position, still the same.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“In the moral world nothing can support that cannot + also resist”</span> is a truthful saying of <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Treitschke</span></span>: it is also the + principle of the Catholic Church. Without ever surrendering to + the unchristian tendency of a time, she opposes error with + unsubdued courage. If this be intolerance, it is not intolerance + towards erring men but towards their errors, it is the + intolerance that the gardener shows in uprooting harmful weeds, + it is the intolerance of the physician towards disease. Obedience + to the Index makes high moral demands upon the Catholic. But it + has been characteristic of the Christian religion and of its + faithful children never to shrink before any moral action where + it appeared demanded. And if the preservation of moral purity + exacts conscientious discipline, this is also true of the + preservation of the pure faith, especially at a time when a + neo-paganism in <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page180">[pg + 180]</span><a name="Pg180" id="Pg180" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + league with an uncontrolled mania for reading is threatening in + many forms.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">Galileo, and Other + Topics.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Galileo + Galilei</span></span>—but few names have achieved equal fame. Men + like <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Alexander</span></span> and <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cæsar</span></span>, like <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Homer</span></span> + and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Dante</span></span>, have scarcely succeeded + in writing their names with a sharper pencil on the tablet of + history than the astronomer of Pisa. His grand discoveries in + natural science have done little to crown his temples with the + wreath of immortality—it was the fate of his life that did it. + And one may add: if this fate had been caused by the French + government, or by a Protestant General Assembly, he would never + have obtained his position in history; but since this lot came to + him by the human limitation of a Roman Church authority, his name + is not only entered on the calendar of the anti-Roman journalist, + it also stands surrounded with the halo of a Martyr in the esteem + of serious scientists, who see in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span> and in the consequent + condemnation of the Copernican system the proof that dogma and + science cannot agree, that the Catholic Church assumes a hostile + attitude toward science. Whenever this theme is mentioned, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galileo's</span></span> ghost is paraded. + For this reason we cannot pass by this fact of history. To a son + of the Church they are unpleasant recollections, but this shall + not keep us from looking history firmly in the eye.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There are some + other charges brought forth from history, but the <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span> case overshadows them + all. We shall touch upon them but briefly, and then return to + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Attention is + called to the Church's condemnation of the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">doctrine of + Antipodes</span></em>. The Priest <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Vigilius</span></span> was accused in Rome, + in 747, of having taught that there exists another world under + the earth, and other people also, or another sun and moon + (<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">quod alius mundus et alii + homines sub terra sint seu sol et luna</span></span>). Such was + his doctrine as stated by Pope <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Zacharias</span></span> in his reply to + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Boniface</span></span>, the Apostle of + Germany, in which he said that he had cited <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Vigilius</span></span> to Rome in order that + his doctrine be thoroughly investigated: if it should turn out + that this had <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page181">[pg + 181]</span><a name="Pg181" id="Pg181" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + really been taught by him, he would be condemned. Further + particulars of his teaching are unknown, because it is mentioned + only in the above passage. The assertion ascribed to him is that + there is another world besides this one, with other inhabitants + and with another sun and moon—an assertion scientifically absurd + and dogmatically inadmissible, as this might call in question the + common descent of mankind from one pair of parents. The anxiety + and rebuke of the Pope is directed solely against the latter + point. The condemnation of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Vigilius</span></span> has never taken + place, for he remained in his office, won great respect, was + elevated to the bishopric of Salzburg, and later canonized by + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gregory + IX.</span></span> Had a condemnation of his particular doctrine + taken place, this would not have involved the condemnation of the + antipodean theory, in the sense that the side of the globe + opposite to us is also inhabited by human beings, a proposition + which does not conflict with any doctrine of faith. The doctrine + described above has another tendency. The entire case is hidden + in obscurity (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hefele</span></span>, Conc. Gesch., 2d ed., + III, 557 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">seq.</span></span>).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Furthermore, + it has been said that at the time when the universities were in + close union with the Church, medical science could not advance + because the Church had prohibited human <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">anatomy</span></em> (Prof. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">J. H. van't + Hoff</span></span>, Neue Freie Presse, December 29, 1907). In + amplification it was said: <span class="tei tei-q">“<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Boniface + VIII.</span></span> had forbidden every anatomical dissection of + a body”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">O. Zoeckler</span></span>, Theologie und + Naturwissenschaft, 1877, I, 342). What is true of this + assertion?</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">In the first place,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Boniface VIII.</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">did not forbid anatomy. He merely + prohibited in 1299 and 1300 the hideous custom then prevailing + regarding the bodies of noblemen who had died away from home: + they were disembowelled, dissected, and boiled, for the purpose + of removing the flesh from the bones so that the latter could be + transported the more easily. This process had nothing to do with + anatomy. The wish to possess the bones of the dead did not seem + to the Pope a sufficient reason for treating the human body in + such a way (Cfr.</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Michael</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + Gesch. des deutschen Volkes III, 1903, 433). Nor does history + know of any other prohibition of anatomy by the Church. It + tells us, however, that</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Frederick + II.</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">in his excellent + rules for the benefit of his Sicilian kingdom in the regulation + of medical science among other things emphasizes the study of + surgery: he ordered that no one be allowed to practise surgery + who</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page182">[pg + 182]</span><a name="Pg182" id="Pg182" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">could not + show by attestation of his professors that he had studied + surgery for at least one year, especially that he had learned + at school how to dissect bodies; a physician must be perfect in + anatomy, else he may not undertake operations + (</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Michael</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + l. c. 430). This was done and practised under the eyes of the + Church. The accusers also seem ignorant of the fact that bodies + of those executed were given to universities for dissection. In + the year 1336 the medical students of Montpellier, the famous + medical school under the immediate direction of the Church (see + above, page 154) were granted the privilege of obtaining once a + year an executed criminal's body for dissection. The same + privilege was extended to the medical students of Lerida by + King</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Juan I.</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">on June 3, 1391, who decreed that + the delinquent should be drowned</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">pro speriencia seu + anatomia fienda</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Denifle</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + Die Universitaeten des Mittelalters, I, 1885, 507).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The story is also circulated that the fourth + Lateran Council in 1215 prohibited monks from studying natural + sciences and medicine (Deutschoester. Lehrerzeitung 15th Dec., + 1909). It will suffice to quote this particular decree of the + Lateran Council:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">No + clergyman is allowed to pronounce capital sentence, nor to + execute it, nor to be present at its execution. No clergyman is + allowed to draw up a document concerning a death sentence: at + the courts this should be done by laymen. No clergyman is + allowed to assume command of Rotarians (freebooters), of + archers or any others who shed human blood; no subdeacon, + deacon, or priest is allowed to practise that part of surgery + by which cutting and burning is done, nor must any one + pronounce a benediction at an ordeal</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Hefele</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + Koncil. Gesch., 2d ed., V, 1887, 887). This will thoroughly + dispose of that charge.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Just as briefly may we settle the story + of</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Columbus</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">having been excommunicated because + of his intention to discover new lands. It is said that + the</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Spanish + clergy denounced his plans as against the faith, and that the + Council of Salamanca excommunicated him</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">W. + Draper</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, ibid. 163). + This is a fairy tale. The truth is, that King</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Ferdinand</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">and + Queen</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Isabella</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">referred the plans of the bold + Genoese to a council of scientists and ecclesiastical + dignitaries, which was held in the Dominican Monastery of + Salamanca,</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Columbus</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">being present. There never was a + Council of Salamanca.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Weiss</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">writes in his</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">History of the World</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Much has + been surmised concerning the objections and their refutation. + It is only certain that the majority rejected the plan as + impossible of execution, and that</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Columbus</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">won over a minority of them, + especially the priests, among whom the learned Dominican</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Deza</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">deserves + mention</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(Weltgesch. VII, 187).</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Denthofen</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + in his biography of</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Columbus</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + says:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">The + Dominican Fathers supported him during the long time the + conference lasted, and even defrayed the expenses of his + journey. Father</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Diego de + Deza</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, chief + professor of theology, was convinced by the reasons of</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Columbus</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + and in turn convinced the more learned of his confrères. The + majority, however, thought the idea but a phantom, while others + deemed it impracticable. The conference adjourned without + coming to any definite decision</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(Christof Columbus, Eine biographische Skizze + ..., 1878, 21).</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Columbus</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">found his warmest friend in the + learned Father</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Juan + Perez</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, Guardian of + the</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page183">[pg + 183]</span><a name="Pg183" id="Pg183" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">Franciscan + Monastery of St. Maria de la Rabida. Within the quiet walls of + this cloister</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Columbus'</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">plans were disclosed for the first + time in Spain, and admired and resolved upon.</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Perez</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">spoke untiringly to Isabella in + favour of the plan, and even aided</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Columbus</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">in gathering men for his crew. + This is the fact about the anathema the Church is paid to have + pronounced on</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Columbus</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">But let us return to</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">.</span><a id="noteref_6" + name="noteref_6" href="#note_6"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">6</span></span></a></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Galileo + Galilei</span></span>, the great Italian physicist, was born in + 1564, at Pisa. At first he was professor in his native town, then + at Padua, where he taught the doctrine of <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ptolemy</span></span>, although at that time + there was no obstacle to accepting the Copernican system. In 1611 + he became mathematician at the court of <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cosimo + II.</span></span> at Florence. His talents and happy discoveries + soon won fame. In general he was more of a physicist than an + astronomer; his astronomical discoveries were, almost without + exception, of a kind that did not presuppose a thorough + astronomical training. As is known, he was not the original + inventor of the telescope, though with its aid he achieved some + of the most important of his discoveries; for instance, that of + the satellites of Jupiter. The telescope was invented in + Holland.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When he went + to Rome, in 1611, he was received with great honour. In one of + his letters from there he wrote: <span class="tei tei-q">“I have + received marked favours from many Cardinals and prelates here, + and from several princes. They wanted to hear of my inventions, + and were all well pleased.”</span> The Jesuits gave a special + reception in his honour at the Roman College. This shows in what + esteem science was then held at Rome. But <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page184">[pg 184]</span><a name="Pg184" id= + "Pg184" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> five years later <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span> returned to the + Eternal City under quite different circumstances. What had + happened? In 1612 he had issued a treatise on <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The History and Explanation of the + Sun-spots,”</span> in which he declared unreservedly for the + Copernican system. And this caused the change. True, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Copernicus</span></span> himself was a + Catholic Priest, and had dedicated his principal work to Pope + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Paul + III.</span></span> But it was generally supposed that he had + brought forward the doctrine only as an hypothesis, only to + illustrate and facilitate calculations, not claiming for it + absolute certainty. This assumption was based on the preface of + the first edition of his book, containing assurance to that + effect. That preface, however, was not the work of <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Copernicus</span></span>, but had been + smuggled into the book by the Protestant publisher <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Osiander</span></span>, without the author's + knowledge, because <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Osiander</span></span> feared <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">his + own</span></em> church authorities.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span> spoke in quite another + tone. He defended the doctrine as true. He soon aroused + opposition. Men standing for the geocentric theory were opposed + by others, siding with <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span> for the solar system, + such as the learned Benedictine, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Castelli</span></span>. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galileo's</span></span> great bitterness and + sarcasm in dealing with his opponents aggravated the quarrel with + the <span class="tei tei-q">“partisans of <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Aristotle</span></span>.”</span> Extreme + irritability and love of praise were prominent traits of + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galileo's</span></span> character.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was the + custom of that time to bring Scripture into controversies about + nature. This was done also in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galileo's</span></span> case. Passages were + quoted against him, referring to the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“rising and setting sun,”</span> to the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“earth that never moves,”</span> of <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Joshua's</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“commanding the sun to stand still.”</span> This + prompted <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span> to cross over into the + field of theology himself. In a letter to <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Castelli</span></span> in 1613 he says: + <span class="tei tei-q">“Holy Writ can never lie nor err; on the + contrary, its sayings are absolute and incontestable truth; but + its interpreters are liable to err in various ways, and it is a + fatal and very common mistake to stop always at the literal + sense”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kepler</span></span>, even prior to + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span>, had interpreted the + respective passages of the Scriptures properly and with + surprising skill; especially in his introduction to his + <span class="tei tei-q">“Astronomia nova.”</span> Cfr. + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Anschuetz</span></span>, Johannes Kepler als + Exeget. Zeitschrift für katholische Theologie, XI, 1887, + 1-24).</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page185">[pg + 185]</span><a name="Pg185" id="Pg185" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Correct as + these arguments were, it was nevertheless imprudent for the court + mathematician to trespass upon grounds regarded by theologians as + their own, instead of furnishing natural scientific proofs. Thus + the matter was brought to Rome before the Congregation of the + Inquisition. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span>, worrying about his + case, went voluntarily to Rome, in 1615. He failed to assuage the + opposition against his theory, though he says he was received + favourably by the princes of the Church. Moreover, heedless of + the admonition of his friends, he pursued the matter with + indiscreet zeal, with vehemence and impetuosity, practically + provoking a decision. Cardinal <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bellarmin</span></span> opposed the haste + with which the matter was being pressed; the Jesuit <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Grienberger</span></span> thought that + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span> should first set forth + his proofs, and then speak about the Scriptures. Had scientific + proofs been brought forth, theological difficulties would have + been easily cleared away; but scientific proof was lacking, and + what there perhaps was of it, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span> failed to offer.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The right of + the Congregation to take up the matter can hardly be denied, for + although the matter was one of natural sciences, yet, by + introducing theology and Scripture, it had assumed the character + of theology and exegesis. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span> personally was dealt + with very leniently. During the discussions of 1616 he was never + cited before the bar of the Inquisition, nor was his exterior + freedom in any way restricted. Only one thing was done: he was + cautioned by Cardinal <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bellarmin</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“by order of the Holy Congregation,”</span> not to + adhere to, nor teach any longer, the Copernican theory. The + documents of the case say that <span class= + "tei tei-q">“<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span> submitted to this + order and promised to obey.”</span> The Congregation of the Index + prohibited, March 5, 1616, all books defending the Copernican + theory, declaring the doctrine to be against Holy Scripture. Even + the work of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Copernicus</span></span> was prohibited + <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">donec + corrigatur</span></span>—until it be corrected. A decision of the + year 1620 declared which passages should be corrected. They are + those in which the author speaks of his theory not as an + hypothesis but as of an established truth: <span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">non ex hypothesi, sed + asserando</span></span>. The Protestant <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kepler</span></span>, upon hearing this, + wrote: <span class="tei tei-q">“By their imprudent acts some have + caused the work of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Copernicus</span></span> to be condemned, + after it had <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page186">[pg + 186]</span><a name="Pg186" id="Pg186" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + been left unmolested for nearly eighty years; and the prohibition + will last at least till the corrections are made. I have been + assured, however, by competent authority, both ecclesiastical and + civil, that the decree was not intended to put any hindrance in + the way of astronomical research”</span> (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">A. + Mueller</span></span>, J. Kepler, 1903, 105). The reproach of + imprudence was intended for <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To teach the + doctrine as an hypothesis was permitted even to <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span>, and this left the way + clear for the development of the hypothesis, because whatever + showed the usefulness of the hypothesis was sure to increase its + value as a truth, but <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span> would not keep within + these limits. Instead of showing in a Christian spirit a + submission to Providence, which even an erring authority may + demand, he openly violated his promise and disobeyed the command + he had received. In the spring of 1632 there appeared at Florence + his <span class="tei tei-q">“<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dialogue on the two + most important systems of the world</span></span>.”</span> It + contained an open, though by no means victorious, defence of the + Copernican system—seeking to hide under a confidence-inspiring + mask. It contained many passages of caustic sarcasm, with the + evident intention of arousing public opinion against the attitude + of the Roman Congregations. It was a flagrant <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">violation of the + command given him personally</span></em>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Pope under + whom the proceedings against <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span> + took place was <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Urban VIII.</span></span>, who, when a + Cardinal, had followed <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galileo's</span></span> discoveries with + enthusiasm, though never partial to the system of <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Copernicus</span></span>, and, in accord + with the custom of the age, he had written an ode to <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Cited to Rome, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span> came only after + repeated urging, on February 14, 1633. The story of his having + been imprisoned and tortured on this second visit to Rome is + false. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span> wrote on April 16 of + that year: <span class="tei tei-q">“I live in an apartment of + three rooms, belonging to the Fiscal of the Inquisition, and am + free to move in many rooms. My health is good.”</span> This stay + in the apartment belonging to the Inquisition lasted but + twenty-two days; after that <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span> was allowed to live in + the palace of the Ambassador of Tuscany. During his whole life + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span> was never even for an + hour in a real prison.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galileo's</span></span> demeanour before the + Inquisition bespeaks little <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page187">[pg 187]</span><a name="Pg187" id="Pg187" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> truthfulness and manliness. It makes a + painful impression. Many other events in his life cast dark + shades of insincerity upon his character, especially his + relations with <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kepler</span></span>. While in his dialogue + he openly defended the truth of the Copernican system, while he + had written, time and again, that the theory had been + demonstrated by <span class="tei tei-q">“forceful, convincing + arguments,”</span> whereas nothing but insignificant reasons + could be pleaded for the contrary, he now assumes the attitude + before the Inquisition of denying that he had championed that + theory, at least not consciously; that he had never taught that + doctrine otherwise than hypothetically. And this he asserts + although he had taken the oath to say nothing but the truth. We + even hear him declare that he considers the doctrine to be false, + and that he was ready to refute it at once.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The judges + were convinced of the untruthfulness of the defendant. In those + times, in order to obtain further confessions, especially when + the accused had been previously convicted of guilt, torture was + resorted to. This regrettable practice was then in vogue at every + European court; the Inquisition, too, had adopted it, but strict + rules were laid down to guard against abuses. Very old persons + were exempt from the rack; they were only threatened with it. + This happened also in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galileo's</span></span> case, he was never + actually put on the rack. Moreover, one can safely presume that + this threat did not terrify him much. His reading must have + enlightened him on this point, and even without it he must have + known the practice by his active intercourse with those + theologians of the Curia who were friendly to him. In fact, he + clung obstinately to his denial, to the very end of the hearing, + although it must be surmised that he would not have aggravated + his case by confession. The commissioner of Inquisition, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Macolano</span></span>, at the first stages + of the trial had expressed his hope that in this event + <span class="tei tei-q">“it would be possible to show indulgence + to the guilty, and whatever the result might be, he would realize + the benefit received, apart from all other consequences to be + expected from a desired mutual satisfaction”</span> (Letter to + Cardinal <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Fr. Barberini</span></span>, April 28, + 1633).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On June 22 + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">the + final verdict</span></em> was rendered: it told the defendant: + <span class="tei tei-q">“Thou art convicted by the Holy + Congregation <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page188">[pg + 188]</span><a name="Pg188" id="Pg188" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + of being suspected of heresy, to wit, to have held for true, and + believed in, a false theory, contrary to Holy Writ—which makes + the sun the centre of the orbit of the earth, without moving from + east to west, and which lets the earth, on the other hand, move + outside the centre of the world, and to have believed that an + opinion may be considered probable and be defended, though it had + been expressly declared to be contrary to the Scripture.”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span> was declared suspect + of heresy, because, in the opinion of the judges, he had assumed + that a doctrine in contradiction to the Scriptures might be + defended. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span> retracted by oath. + That upon retraction he arose and exclaimed, stamping with his + foot, <span class="tei tei-q">“<span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Pur si + muove!</span></span>”</span> (<span class="tei tei-q">“and yet it + does move!”</span>) is a fable. He was sentenced to be jailed in + the Holy Office. But already the next day he was allowed to go to + the palace of the Grand Duke of Tuscany and to consider that + palace his prison. Soon after he departed for Siena, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“in the best of health,”</span> according to the + report of the Tuscan ambassador, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Niccolini</span></span>, and there took up + his abode with his friend the Archbishop <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Piccolomini</span></span>. After a lapse of + five months he was allowed to return to his villa at Arcetri, + near Florence, where he remained, with the exception of + occasional visits to Florence, till his death. Two of his + daughters were nuns in the nearby cloister of S. Matteo. His + literary activity was not suppressed by the surveillance of the + Inquisition. His lively and fertile mind, cut off from polemics, + turned to the completion of his researches in other directions. + His lively intercourse with friends and disciples, of whom many + belonged to various Orders, proved beneficial to him. In the year + 1638 he published his <span class="tei tei-q">“Dialogue on the + New Sciences,”</span> which he rightly pronounced to be his best + effort, and by which he became the founder of dynamics. His + productiveness continued until he became blind.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We may say + without fear of contradiction that, apart from their theoretical + error, the Roman Congregations had shown the greatest indulgence + towards one guilty of having broken his pledge, and doubtless + they would have been still more lenient had <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span>, confirmed by + flattering friends in his anger at the supposed intrigues of his + enemies, not himself made this <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page189">[pg 189]</span><a name="Pg189" id="Pg189" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> impossible; if he had not continued to + propagate secretly his views, verbally and in writing, which was + bound to be discovered. Considering all this, Rome's proceeding + in the case appears to be quite indulgent. Here the position was + taken that the spread of the doctrine would mean an imminent + danger to the purity of the faith. The unfortunate scientist died + on January 8, 1642, at the age of seventy-eight years, fortified + by the holy Sacraments. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Urban VIII.</span></span> sent him his + blessing. Undoubtedly <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span> had nothing in common + with the champions of that unbelieving freedom of science, which + now tries to lift him upon its shield; notwithstanding his later + bitterness he remained to his death steadfast in his Catholic + faith.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">Comments on the Galileo + Case.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The above is a + brief history of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galileo's</span></span> conviction, and of + the occurrences leading to it. An event regrettable to all, a + stumbling-block for not a few; for others a welcome event to make + the Church appear in the light of an enemy of science. Let us now + give more particulars of the merits of the case.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We have before + us two decisions of Roman Tribunals: the Index decree of 1616, + announcing the rejection of the Copernican doctrine and + prohibiting books maintaining it, and the conviction of + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span> in 1633 by the + Congregation of the Inquisition. It is freely admitted that these + Roman Tribunals committed an <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">error</span></em> + in advocating an interpretation of the Bible which was false in + itself, and is to-day recognized as false.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Well, + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">does + this confute the infallibility of the Church?</span></em> It does + not. The matter in point is merely an error of the Congregations, + of bodies of Cardinals, who were responsible for the transactions + and decisions. The Congregations, however, are not infallible + organs. There is no Bull or Papal decree designating the + Copernican doctrine as false, much less is there extant a + decision ex cathedra. Neither in 1616 nor in 1633, nor at any + other time, has the Holy See ever manifested its intention of + declaring, by a peremptory, dogmatic decision, the new system to + be against Scripture.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page190">[pg 190]</span><a name="Pg190" id="Pg190" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">It was thus the general understanding of that + age that in the present case there was no irrevocable dogmatic + decision given. For instance, the Jesuit</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Riccioli</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + wrote not long after the decision:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Inasmuch as no dogmatic decision was rendered + in this case, neither on the part of the Pope nor on the part + of a Council ruled by the Pope and acknowledged by him, it is + not made, by virtue of that decree of the Congregation, a + doctrine of faith that the sun is moving and the earth standing + still, but at most it is a doctrine for those who by reason of + Holy Writ seem to be morally certain that God has so revealed + it. Yet every Catholic is bound by virtue of obedience to + conform to the decree of the Congregation, or at least not to + teach what is directly opposed to it</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(Almagestum novum, 1651, 162).</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Descartes</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Gassendi</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + and others of that time expressed themselves similarly + (</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Grisar</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + 165,</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">seq.</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">). + There is an interesting letter of the Protestant + philosopher</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Leibnitz</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + written to the Landgrave</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Ernest of + Hessia</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, 1688, + begging him to work for the repeal of the condemnation of the + Copernican theory, because of the growing verification of this + theory:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">If the + Congregation would change its censure, or mitigate it, as one + issued hastily at a time when the proofs for the correctness of + the Copernican theory were not yet clear enough, this step + could not detract from the authority of the Congregation, much + less of the Church, because the Pope had no part in it. There + is no judicial authority which has not at times reformed its + own decisions.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But have we + here not at least a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">wilful attack on science</span></em>? or a + manifestation of the Congregation's narrow-mindedness and + ignorance, which are bound to deprive it of all respect and + confidence of sober-minded people?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This harsh + judgment overlooks two points. In the first place, the error of + the judges was quite <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">pardonable</span></em>. Could the liberal + critics of to-day, who so harshly denounce the Cardinals of the + Congregation, be suddenly changed into ecclesiastical prelates, + and transferred back to the years of 1616-1633, and placed in the + chairs of the tribunal which had to decide those delicate + questions, it may be feared that, did they carry into the + decision but a part of the animosity they now show, they would + disgrace themselves and compromise the Church even more than the + judges of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span> did. It is true that + were we to judge the handling of the question by the knowledge of + to-day, we might be astonished at the narrow-mindedness of the + judges, trying to uphold their untenable views against the + established results of scientific research. But it would be + altogether unhistorical to look at the matter in that way. When + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page191">[pg 191]</span><a name= + "Pg191" id="Pg191" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the Copernican + theory entered upon the battlefield, it was <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">by no means + certain and demonstrated</span></em>.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The real arguments for the rotation of the earth + were not then known. There were no direct proofs for the + progressive revolution of the earth around the sun.</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">advanced three main arguments for + his theory. First, he advanced the argument from the phenomenon + of the tides, which, he said, could not be accounted for but by + the rotation of the earth: an argument rejected as futile even at + that time. Next he argued from certain observations of the spots + on the sun: another worthless argument, which others, like</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Scheiner</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + looked upon as proof of the older theory. The third argument + was that the new theory simplified the explanation of certain + celestial phenomena; but the scope of this argument, valid + though it was in the abstract, could not be expressed or + grasped at the time, especially since the corrections of</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Tycho de + Brahe</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">had removed + the greatest objections to the Ptolemaic system. The Copernican + theory could not be considered certain till the end of the + seventeenth century, after</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Newton's</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">work on gravitation.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Then there were difficulties, the greatest of + which was probably the old idea of inertia, which at that time + meant only that all bodies tend to a state of rest; hence it + seemed impossible that the earth could ceaselessly execute two + movements at the same time, around the sun and around its own + axis. This notion of inertia had not been doubted in 1616; + even</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Kepler</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">adhered to it. Later on</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">came very near to the new idea of + inertia: that bodies tended to retain their state of repose or + motion. But this new notion, like everything else new, gained + ground but slowly. Then it was only with great difficulty that + he could dispose of the objection that were the earth to speed + through space, as the new theory claimed, the atmosphere would + take a stormlike motion. Lastly, the philosophical objection + had to be met: the sun and other celestial bodies, as far as we + can know by observation, are moving; if they do not move, then + we must admit that we can know nothing by + observation.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Thus the new doctrine was not at all proven at + that time, as could be easily shown by its opponents; although + it cannot be denied that they did not always enter into the + discussion with impartiality. The astronomer,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Secchi</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + testifies that</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">none of + the real arguments for the rotary motion of the earth was known + at</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Galileo's</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">time, also direct proofs for the + progressive movement of the earth around the sun were lacking + at that time</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(</span><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Grisar</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + 30). Another famous astronomer,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Schiaparelli</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + writes:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">In the + sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the Ptolemaic as well as + the Copernican system could serve for the description of + phenomena; geometrically they were equivalent to each other and + to</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Tycho's</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">eclectic system</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Schiaparelli</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + Die Vorläufer des Copernicus im Altertum (German, 1876), + 86).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Hence no direct evidence could be pleaded + against the decision of the Congregation, not even</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">had that evidence. At any rate no + judge who observed his demeanour at the trial could have + suspected</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">of coming in conflict with his + conscience by swearing off the theory.</span></p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page192">[pg + 192]</span><a name="Pg192" id="Pg192" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For this + reason it would be wrong to call <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span> a martyr for science, + because he did not suffer any martyrdom. He has seen neither rack + nor prison. But he was not a martyr chiefly for the reason that + he could not have had any scientific conviction, apart from the + fact that he did not claim any such conviction, even denied it + expressly.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">No wonder, + then, that the heliocentric system had considerable opponents at + that time; no wonder the opposite view was even the prevalent + one. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">A. + Tanner</span></span> wrote in 1626: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">Ita habet communis ac certa + omnium theologorum ac philosophorum naturalium + sentia</span></span>”</span> (Theol. Schol. I, disp. 6, q. 4., + dub. 3). Had valid argument been brought forth there never would + have been a <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span> case. In this respect + a passage from a letter of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bellarmin</span></span> deserves attention: + <span class="tei tei-q">“If it could be really demonstrated that + the sun be in the centre of the world ... then we would have to + proceed quite cautiously in explaining the apparently opposite + passages in the Scriptures, we would rather have to say that we + do not understand them, than to say of things demonstrated that + they are false”</span> (to <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Foscarini</span></span>, April 12, 1615). + The Cardinals of that time could not be expected to anticipate + the knowledge of a later period. They had to consult the judgment + of their contemporaneous savants. When seeing the majority of + them sharply rejecting the new theory and refuting the arguments + of their opponents, it is little wonder that the Cardinals could + not overcome their theological scruples.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The scruples + arose from the opinion, then prevalent, that the Holy Scripture + taught that the earth stood still and the sun moved; that the + words of the Scripture must be taken literally till the contrary + is demonstrated. The unanimous explanation of the Christian + centuries was also cited. As a matter of fact, however, the + Christian past had not taught this to be the only true sense of + the words, but at that time the words were understood that way, + because no one could arrive at any other sense in those days.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Under these + circumstances, an error was hardly avoidable, if a decision was + required. And a decision seemed to be urgent, and this is the + second point we must not overlook, if we wish <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page193">[pg 193]</span><a name="Pg193" id= + "Pg193" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> to judge fairly. It was a + time eager for innovations, full of anti-religious ideas. A + renaissance, sidling off into false humanism, was combating + religious convictions, false notions were invading philosophy; in + addition, Protestantism was trying to invade Italy. All this + caused suspicion of any innovation apt to endanger the faith; + interpretations of the Scriptures deviating from the accustomed + sense were particularly distrusted. The <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span> quarrel happened at an + inopportune time. Indeed a sudden spread of the Copernican theory + might have been accompanied by great religious dangers. Even now, + after nearly three hundred years, the leaders of the + anti-Christian propaganda are still pointing out that the + progress of natural science has proved Holy Scripture to be + erroneous, and many are impressed by the argument; many thousands + would have been confused in those days by the sudden collapse of + old astronomical views that were connected with unclarified + religious ideas—dreading that victorious science might shatter + all religious traditions. Now, if one is convinced that the + damage to religion is to be estimated greater than any other, + then one may also have the conviction that it was better for the + nations of the new era to have their scientific progress a little + delayed, than to have their most sacred possession endangered. Of + course considerations of this kind will have no weight with + representatives of the naturalistic view of the world. Then it + can only be emphasized that a science that has no appreciation of + the supernatural character of the Catholic Church cannot be in a + position to render a fair judgment on many facts in the history + of that Church.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What we have + said shows sufficiently that the condemnation of <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span> was not due to any + hostility to science.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The idea that the Church's attitude + towards</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">and the Copernican theory was a + result of her antipathy to science is entirely in contradiction + with the character of that strenuous period. In Catholic + countries, especially in Italy, intellectual life was zealously + promoted by the Popes and their influence. It was developing and + flourishing even in the natural sciences. When reading the + correspondence of</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">one must be surprised to see how + popular astronomical, physical, and mathematical studies were in + the educated circles of the period. These studies belonged to the + curriculum of a general philosophical education, and it was a + matter of honour</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page194">[pg + 194]</span><a name="Pg194" id="Pg194" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">for many + ecclesiastical dignitaries to remain philosophers in that sense, + notwithstanding their official duties. We recall to mind the + scientific discussion carried on with</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">in Rome in 1611 and 1616, by + Cardinals</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Del + Monte</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Farnese</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Bonzi</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Bemerio</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Orsini</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + and</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Maffeo + Baberini</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, and by + clergymen like</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Agucchi</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Dini</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + and</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Campioli</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">. + Similarly in France we meet with names like</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Mersenne</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Gassendi</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + and</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Descartes</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">. + And in Italy, after</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">and at his time, we meet with a + long list of eminent naturalists like</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Toricelli</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Cassini</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Riccioli</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + and others. In 1667</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Gemiani + Montanari</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">could + write that in Italy there were continually forming new + societies of scientists. The advance in knowledge of truth was + made on safe grounds; at Naples, Rome, and elsewhere science + was enriched by a great variety of new experiences, inasmuch as + the scientists were making progress in the observation and the + investigation of nature.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Targioni-Tozzetti</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">writes:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Astronomy with us, about the middle of the + sixteenth century, was a very diligently cultivated branch of + science</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(Galileistudien (1882) 338 f.). + The Church was by no means hostile to this newly awakened life, + not even holding aloof from it; on the contrary, it flourished + especially in ecclesiastical circles; a proof that + narrow-minded disappreciation of natural science did not + prevail, and that there was a different explanation for + the</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">case.</span></p> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">Copernicus on the Index till + 1835.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And what of + the fact that <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Copernicus</span></span> remained on the + Index until the nineteenth century? Does it not show a rigid + adherence to old, traditional method and opposition to progress? + The fact is true: The work of <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Copernicus</span></span>, and other + Copernican writings, remained on the Index until 1835. But it is + also true that a great deal connected with this fact is not + generally known or ignored. Let us mention here some of these + facts.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">To begin with, it must not be forgotten that we + owe the new world system, and with it the turning-point in + astronomy, first of all to representatives of the Catholic + clergy. After the learned Bishop</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"> + <span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Nicholas + Oresme</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">had expressed + with fullest certainty the most important point of the + Copernican system as early as 1377 (in a manuscript hitherto + unknown, discovered a short time ago by</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Pierre Duhem</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">in the National Library at Paris. + Cfr. Liter. Zentralblatt (1909), page 1618), and after the + learned Cardinal</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Nicholaus von + Kues</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">(d. 1474) + adopted a rotary motion of the earth in his cosmic system, it + was</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Copernicus</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + a canon of the diocese of Ermland, who became the father of the + new theory, in his work</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">De evolutionibus orbium + coelestium.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">He published it at the urgent + request of Cardinal</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Nikolaus + Schoenberg</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">. But the + most zealous promoter of his work was Bishop</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Tiedemann + Giese</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">of Kulm. + Enthusiastic over the novel idea, he incessantly urged his + friend to publish his work, took care of its publication, and + sent a copy to Pope</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Paul + III.</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, who + accepted</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page195">[pg + 195]</span><a name="Pg195" id="Pg195" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">its + dedication. Again, it was a prince of the Church, Bishop</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Martin + Kromer</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, who, in + 1851, dedicated a tablet in the cathedral at Frauenberg + to</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">The Great + Astronomer and Innovator of Astronomical + Science.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">All these men knew that</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Copernicus</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">defended his work not as an + hypothesis or as fiction, but as true. Before</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Copernicus</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">issued + his great work,</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Clement + VIII.</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">showed a + lively interest in his system and had it explained to him by + the learned</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Johann + Widmannstadt</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">in the + Vatican Gardens (</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Pastor</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + Gesch. der Päpste, IV, 2 (1907) 550).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The first attack against the new system, as + being contrary to Holy Writ, came not from Catholic but from + Protestant circles. Among the latter the opposition + against</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Copernicus</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">was being agitated, while peaceful + calm reigned among the former. Twelve Popes succeeded</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Paul + III.</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, and not one + interfered with this doctrine.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Luther</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + even in</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Copernicus'</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">time, hurled his anathema against + the</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Frauenberg Fool,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">and six years after the publication of</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Copernicus'</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">chief work,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Melanchthon</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">declared it a sin and a scandal to + publish such nonsensical opinions, contrary to the divine + testimony of the Scriptures. In fear of his religious community + the Protestant publisher</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Osiander</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">smuggled in the spurious preface + already mentioned,</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">On the + hypothesis of this work.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">The Protestant</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Rheticus</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + a friend and pupil of</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Copernicus</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + got into disfavour with</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Melanchthon</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">and had to discontinue his + lectures at Wittenberg. The genial</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Kepler</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + finally, was prosecuted by his own congregation, because of his + defence of the theory. And when on the Catholic side the Index + decree of 1616 was already beginning to be regarded as + obsolete, Protestant theology still held to the old view even + up to the nineteenth century: a long list of names could be + adduced in proof.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Certainly no fair-minded person can see wilful + hostility against astronomy in this procedure. Likewise there + should not be imputed dishonourable intentions to Catholics, if + in the course of history they rendered tribute to human + limitation.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But did not + the decrees of 1616 and 1633 do <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">great harm to + research</span></em>? Not at all. That this was hardly the case + with <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span> himself we have shown + above. Soon after we find in Italy a goodly number of + distinguished scientists; the Church in no way opposed the newly + awakened life, nor even held aloof from it. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span> himself was honoured + in ecclesiastical circles. Soon after <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galileo's</span></span> conviction the + Jesuit <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Grimaldi</span></span> named a mountain on + the moon after him.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Nor was there + any considerable harm done to the development of the Copernican + theory. Although after <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span> the occasions were not + lacking, still no further advocate of his theory was ever up for + trial. Nor was any other book on the subject prohibited. Freedom + was quietly granted more and more. In the edition <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page196">[pg 196]</span><a name="Pg196" id= + "Pg196" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of the Index of 1758, the + general prohibition of 1616 of Copernican writings was withdrawn; + it was an official withdrawal from the old position. But not + until 1822 were the special prohibitions repealed, although they + had long since lost their binding force. The occasion was given + by an accidental occurrence. The Magister S. Palatii of the time + intended to deny the Imprimatur to a book on the Copernican + theory, on account of the obsolete prohibition. An appeal was + made, which brought about the formal repeal of the prohibition. + Of course there had been no hurry to revoke a decision once + given. But according to the astronomer <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Lalande's</span></span> report of his + interview with the Cardinal Prefect of the Congregation of the + Index, in 1765, the removal from the Index of <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galileo's</span></span> Dialogue had been + postponed only on account of extraneous difficulties. + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Leibnitz</span></span>, while in Rome, + worked for a repeal of the decree. According to Eméry, there are + extant statements of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Leibnitz</span></span> vouching for the fact + that he very nearly succeeded (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Eméry</span></span>, Pensées de Leibnitz, 1, + 275). The name of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Copernicus</span></span>, too, was omitted + in the next edition of the Index, which appeared in 1835.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But even while + the prohibition was still in force, the works of <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span> and <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Copernicus</span></span> were read + everywhere. As early as 1619 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">John + Remus</span></span> wrote from Vienna to <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kepler</span></span> that the Copernican + writings may be read by scientific men who had received special + permission, and that this was done in all Italy and in Rome + itself. Besides, it was allowed at any time to make use of the + doctrine as an hypothesis. Thus it advanced continually nearer + and nearer to the position of an established truth.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Soon after the + publication of the decree, according to the report of + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kepler</span></span>, it was the general + conviction in ecclesiastical and civil circles of Austria + <span class="tei tei-q">“that the censure was no obstacle to the + freedom of science in the investigation of God's work.”</span> In + 1685 we are assured by the Jesuit <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kochansky</span></span>, that any Catholic + was free to <span class="tei tei-q">“look for an irrefutable, + mathematical, and physical demonstration of the movement of the + earth.”</span> It was also known that the condemnation of the + theory had been aided by the supposition that there were no valid + arguments in support of the new theory. Hence the Congregation's + decree had in the eighteenth century for the most part lost its + force. <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page197">[pg + 197]</span><a name="Pg197" id="Pg197" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + The Jesuit <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Boscovich</span></span>, a celebrated + physicist and astronomer, wrote in 1755: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“In consequence of the extraordinary arguments + offered by the consideration of <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kepler's</span></span> laws, astronomers no + longer look upon his theory as a mere hypothesis, but as an + established truth”</span> (Grisar, 347, 350).</p> + + <div class="tei tei-tb"> + <hr style="width: 50%" /> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus in the + light of history the condemnation of the Copernican theory + appears quite differently from the picture presented by the + superficial accusation that Rome up to the nineteenth century + condemned this theory. There is no trace of callousness and + oppression, but only submission to legitimate authority, in so + far and as long as one deemed himself obliged. It was a science + enlightened by Christianity, which, in questions not yet clearly + decided, laid down upon the altar of the Giver of all wisdom the + tribute of humble submission, for the sake of higher + interests.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We shall have + to class with <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">St. Augustine</span></span> the uncertainty + of human judgments and tribunals among the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“troubles of human life,”</span> and say with him: + <span class="tei tei-q">“It is also a misery that the judge is + subject to the necessity of not knowing many things, but to the + wise man it is not a fault”</span> (De Civ. Dei, IX, 6). May we + therefore infer that the teaching authority is an evil? Were that + true, we should have to abolish the authority of the state and of + parents, because they also make mistakes. We should have to + conclude that there had better be no authority at all on earth. + Where men live and rule, mistakes will certainly be made. The + physician makes mistakes in his important office, yet patients + return to him with confidence. Every pedagogue, every professor, + has made mistakes, yet they still command respect. The state + government is subject to mistakes, yet none but the anarchist + will say that it must therefore be abolished. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“That the judge is subject to the necessity of not + knowing many things, is a misery, but to the wise man not a + fault.”</span></p> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page198">[pg 198]</span><a name= + "Pg198" id="Pg198" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc25" id="toc25"></a> <a name="pdf26" id="pdf26"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">Chapter V. The Witnesses of the + Incompatibility Of Science And Faith.</span></h2> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">The Objection.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We shall not + go wrong in presuming that the reader, who has patiently followed + our deductions, has had for some time in his mind the question: + How about the representatives of scientific research themselves? + Do not a large majority of them, perhaps virtually all, stand + alien and repellant to Christian faith and its fundamental + truths? We do not refer to our modern philosophers, for of them + it might be said that their researches yield questionable + speculations of individualistic stamp, rather than exact results. + But there are the representatives of the more exact sciences, + especially of the most exact of all, natural science. They may be + considered the legitimate representatives of modern science, + since their results are the most accurate, their methods the most + strictly scientific; and are they not, every one of them, opposed + to Christian faith, especially to its fundamental dogma? Is not + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Haeckel</span></span> right when he states + in the final summary of his <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Welträtsel,”</span> in which he so strongly insists + on the incompatibility of religion and natural science: + <span class="tei tei-q">“I am supported by the accord of nearly + all modern naturalists who have the courage to express their + convictions”</span>? Is it not true that <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">A. von + Humboldt</span></span> is considered the prince of German + naturalists? and yet in his voluminous <span class= + "tei tei-q">“<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kosmos</span></span>”</span> he not once + mentions the name of God? Have not, with few exceptions, German + naturalists, under <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Humboldt's</span></span> influence, turned + against Christianity? (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">W. Menzel</span></span>, Die letzten + hundertzwanzig Jahre der Weltgeschichte, VI, 1860, p. 70; cfr. + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Pohle</span></span>, P. Angelo Secchi, 1904, + p. 6). Here indeed the antagonism between true scientific spirit + and the faith seems to take shape in tangible reality, and to + invalidate every argument to the contrary.</p><span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page199">[pg 199]</span><a name="Pg199" id= + "Pg199" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus runs the + speech that is ever recurring in the literature of the day, in + newspapers and magazines no less than in books. And this speech + makes an impression on its hearers. Indeed, why should it not? + After describing how these heroes of science in recent times + marched on triumphantly from victory to victory, how they renewed + the face of the earth, and became the pioneers of human progress, + how can they fail to make a deep impression if in the same breath + they state that these discoverers of truth have, almost to a man, + broken with the ancient teachings of the Christian religion?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Without doubt + the suggestive effect of such speculation must be very + considerable with those who lack sufficient historical knowledge. + The case is different with those better acquainted with the + history of the natural sciences. They know that it is not true to + state that the leading natural scientists, for the most part, or + even unanimously, have rejected and denied Christian religion, + that it is a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">lie</span></em> and a falsification of + history.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Let us + illustrate it briefly. We do not, of course, mean to say, that + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">if</span></em> it were true that all the + leading naturalists were infidels, the inference would + necessarily follow that Christianity is untenable, and + incompatible with science. Not at all. First of all, natural + scientists who oppose Christianity could hardly ever come forward + in the capacity of experts in this matter. For by venturing the + assertion that world-matter and world-force are eternal and + uncreated, that they develop by force of natural causality, by + unending evolution, and not by the power and direction of an + intelligent cause, they leave their own province and trespass on + the domain of philosophy. These and similar questions are not + solved by natural science research, by experiment, observation, + or calculation, but are the subjects of philosophical + speculation. Atheism, materialism, the denial of the soul's + immortality or of eternal destination, all these are + philosophical matters, and a natural science theory of the world + is a misconception about as absurd as a Swiss England or a + Bavarian Spain.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As it is + impossible to review here all scientists of the past centuries, + to probe their bent of mind, we shall restrict ourselves in the + following to scientists of the first rank, for to <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page200">[pg 200]</span><a name="Pg200" id= + "Pg200" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> them the assertion above + mentioned must chiefly refer. First of all, they were possessed + of that spirit of scientific research claimed to be incompatible + with the faith; and they, more than others, should have been + conscious of this contradiction. It is plain that if they did not + know anything of the claimed antagonism between the theories of + evolution and of creation, between physical facts and + spirituality of soul, between natural law and miracles; if it be + shown that many of them were actually orthodox Christians, + believing in the supernatural and yet enthusiastic friends of + science, fathoming the laws of nature and yet unshaken in their + faith, then the fact that inferior minds talk of a contradiction + unknown to these great ones can no longer make much of an + impression.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Therefore let + us look over the long list of great scholars of the last + centuries, those great men to whom we owe knowledge and + discoveries that are our joy to this very day. Among them we + shall find many who, in their life and thought, have plainly + confessed themselves faithful Christians; we shall find that + others were at least the opponents of atheism and materialism, + that they clung to the fundamental truths of the Christian faith, + and that is a matter of moment when the antagonism between + natural science and faith is under discussion.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We shall not + go back to the ancient representatives of natural science, men + like <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Pythagoras</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Aristotle</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Archimedes</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Albert the + Great</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Roger Bacon</span></span>, and others of + past ages, partly because there is no doubt about the religious + views of those men, partly because research at their time was + imperfect. We begin at the rise of modern natural science.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">The Old Masters.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At the + threshold of modern natural science there stands the man who + solved the riddle that had puzzled centuries before him, the + father of modern astronomy, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Nikolaus Copernicus</span></span>. He had + studied at the universities of Cracow, Bologna, Ferrara, and + Padua, and while he was one of the foremost historians of his + time, it was astronomy that had engaged his enthusiastic devotion + from his youth. He was a Catholic priest, a Canon <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page201">[pg 201]</span><a name="Pg201" id= + "Pg201" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of Frauenberg. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“If recent representatives of the Roman + Church,”</span> so writes the Protestant theologian, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">O. + Zoeckler</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“praise this + Frauenberg Canon as a faithful son of their Church, this fact + must be granted by Protestants, despite the frankness with which + he opposed the Aristotelian and Ptolemaic theories taught by the + scholastics, and despite his friendship with the Protestant + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Rheticus</span></span>”</span> (Gottes + Zeugen im Reiche der Natur, 1906, p. 82). <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">George + Joachim</span></span>, a native of Feldkirch, surnamed + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Rheticus</span></span>, and a Protestant + professor at Wittenberg, came to <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Copernicus</span></span> at Frauenberg, and + was cordially received. His praise for <span class= + "tei tei-q">“his teacher”</span> is unreserved. He speaks in the + same admiring terms of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Tiedemann Giese</span></span>, in those days + Bishop of Kulm.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For nearly + forty years <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Copernicus</span></span> sat in the modest + observatory which he had erected at Frauenberg, studying and + collecting the material for his book. Even after all this time + this deliberate scholar, despite the urging of his friends, + especially Bishop <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Tiedemann Giese</span></span> and Cardinal + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Schoenberg</span></span>, Archbishop of + Capua, hesitated for ten years longer before publishing his + discoveries. The work was entitled <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De revolutionibus + orbium caelestium, libri VI</span></span>, and was dedicated to + Pope <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Paul III.</span></span> The author himself + could enjoy his achievement but very little. The first copy sent + by the printer reached <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Copernicus</span></span> on his deathbed, + and a few hours later he breathed his last, on May 24, 1543.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the + introduction to his work this devout Christian scientist wrote: + <span class="tei tei-q">“Who would not be urged by the intimate + intercourse with the work of His hands to the contemplation of + the Most High, and to the admiration for the Omnipotent Architect + of the universe, in whom is the highest happiness, and in whom is + the perfection of all that is good?”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Without + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Copernicus</span></span> there could have + been no <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kepler</span></span>, without <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kepler</span></span> no <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Newton</span></span>. These three men, in + the words of a recent astronomer, belong inseparably together, + they support and supplement one another. It might be fittingly + asked, after which of these three the celestial system should be + named; and were it possible to ask these three men for their + opinion in this matter, they would probably all give the answer + that has been <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page202">[pg + 202]</span><a name="Pg202" id="Pg202" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + ascribed to one or the other of them: Not my system, but God's + Order. Like <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Copernicus</span></span>, so <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kepler</span></span> and <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Newton</span></span> were profoundly + religious men.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Johann + Kepler</span></span>, born of Protestant parents in Württemberg + in 1571, was raised a Lutheran. In 1594 he was appointed + professor of mathematics at a school in Graz, and after that he + dwelt for the most time in Austria, which country became his + second home. From Graz he was called to Prague to be + mathematician at the imperial court, and from there to Linz to be + professor at the college there. His last years were passed at + Sagan and Ratisbon, where he died in 1630. Even after having left + Austria he gratefully remembered the <span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">clementia austriaca</span></span> and the + <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">favor + archiducalis</span></span>. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kepler's</span></span> astronomical + achievements are known to everybody, especially his laws of the + planets. With an untiring spirit of research he combined + beautiful traits of character, cheerfulness, kindness, and + modesty, but chiefly a profoundly religious mind. However, he was + in difficult circumstances as far as his religious life was + concerned. Quite early he came in conflict with the religious + authorities of his confession, particularly for the reason that + they considered <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kepler's</span></span> Copernican views as + against the Bible, a fact which the learned astronomer could not + see. There were also other differences. The conflict became more + and more aggravated. It cannot be denied that the Lutheran + Church-authorities proceeded against <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kepler</span></span> with a lack of + consideration never shown by Rome against men like <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span>. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kepler</span></span> was expelled from the + Lutheran Church, and despite his efforts to be reinstated the ban + was never lifted.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Like</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Kepler</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + so was his predecessor at the Catholic court of Prague, the + Danish astronomer</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Tycho Brahe</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(died 1601), a devout Protestant, + but the trials of</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Kepler</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">were spared him. His erroneous + idea that the Copernican system conflicted with Holy Writ kept + him from subscribing to it: it led him to devise a system + midway between</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Copernicus</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">and</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Ptolemy</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">. + His religious sentiment is evidenced by a passage from a letter + of his, written at his father's death,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Although there are many consolations for me, + of a religious nature based on Holy Writ, and of a + philosophical kind drawn from the contemplation of the fate of + all men and of the inconstancy of everything under the moon, it + is a special comfort for me that my father departed so sweetly + and piously from this valley of misery to the heavenly eternal + home, where, according to</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">St. + Paul</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, we shall find + a lasting abode.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page203">[pg + 203]</span><a name="Pg203" id="Pg203" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But let us + return to <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kepler</span></span>. There is evidence that + at various times in his life he wavered between his Lutheran + confession and the Catholic faith, but that is as far as he went. + He was of the opinion that the fundamental truths of both were in + accord, and he would not presume to judge of the differences; he + had taken a view-point of his own, from which he could not be + made to recede. On the other hand, he was shocked when his + fellow-Lutherans in Styria were on two occasions severely dealt + with, although he personally had been treated with especial + consideration. Otherwise his opinions on Catholic matters and the + <span class="tei tei-q">“wisdom”</span> of the Catholic Church + were eminently fair; he censured his co-religionists for their + invidious attacks on Rome, and for their hesitancy in adopting + the Gregorian reform of the calendar. He had friendly relation + with many a Catholic scientist, was in correspondence with many + Jesuits, was even frequently their guest, receiving stimulus, + commendation, and scientific communications from them.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kepler</span></span> the study of astronomy + became largely a prayer; the finest of his scientific works he + was wont to conclude with the doxology of the Psalmist, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Great is our Lord, and great is His + power, and of His wisdom there is no number: praise Him ye + Heavens; praise ye Him, O Sun, and Moon, ye Stars and light, and + praise Him in your language. Thou, too, praise Him, O soul of + mine, thy Lord, thy Creator, as long as it is granted to + thee”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Harmonices Mundi</span></span>, v. 9). His + name and work is commemorated in the Keplerbund in Germany, which + aims at the promotion of scientific knowledge in the sense of + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kepler</span></span>, in opposition to the + misuse of natural science for purposes of materialism and + atheism.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The work, + begun so happily by <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Copernicus</span></span> and <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kepler</span></span>, was completed by the + great Englishman, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Newton</span></span> (died 1727). It was he + who in his immortal work, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Philosophiae naturalis principia + mathematica</span></span>, laid bare the law of the universe, + which compels the heavenly bodies to revolve about one another. + Therewith the laws of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kepler</span></span>, and consequently the + Copernican hypothesis, became established. When, in 1727, this + scientist, at the age of eighty-five, died, his mortal remains + were entombed in Westminster Abbey, the Pantheon of the British + nation. Lofty <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page204">[pg + 204]</span><a name="Pg204" id="Pg204" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + science and the reverent worship of his Creator were combined in + the noble mind of this great Briton. In an appendix to his + master-work, referred to above, he cited his proofs for the + existence of God, and stated that <span class="tei tei-q">“the + entire order, as to space and time of all things existing, must + have necessarily proceeded from the conception and will of an + existing Being,”</span> that <span class="tei tei-q">“the + admirable arrangement of sun, planets, and comets could only + emanate from the decree and the design of an All-wise and + Omnipotent Being,”</span> that <span class="tei tei-q">“we admire + Him for His perfections, we adore and worship Him as the ruler of + the world, we, the servants of the great Sovereign of the + Universe.”</span> According to <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Voltaire</span></span>, it was stated by + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Newton's</span></span> disciple, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Clarke</span></span>, that his master + invariably pronounced the name of God with reverent attitude and + expression.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Inseparably connected with the history of the + Copernican system there is the name, which recalls harsh + accusations and painful memories, the name of</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">. + That he had nothing in common with the aims of those who have + broken with faith and Christianity, nor with that hostility + against his Church for which his name is so often misused, has + been made evident by what we have said on another page (see + page 189). Not only during his early life was his religious + turn of mind evidenced, but also later on and up to the end of + his life he continued to observe faithfully the duties of his + religion.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">One of the + greatest physicists of recent times was <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Christian + Huygens</span></span>, who died in 1695 at his native city, The + Hague. To him we owe the epoch-making discovery of the undulation + of light, while <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Newton</span></span> had held light to be a + matter of emission. But while <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Huygens</span></span> advanced over + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Newton</span></span> in this respect, he + paid tribute to human limitation by remaining prejudiced against + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Newton's</span></span> theory of + gravitation, which he rejected. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Huygens</span></span> was a believing + Christian.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">In his philosophic dissertation</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Kosmotheoros,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">a + posthumous work, he says in regard to the possibility of the + celestial bodies being inhabited:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">How could the investigator look up to God, the + Creator of all these great worlds, otherwise but in the spirit + of deepest reverence? Here it will be possible for us to find + manifold proofs to demonstrate His providence and wonderful + wisdom; likewise will our contemplation contend against those + who are spreading false opinions, such as attributing the + origin of the earth to the accidental union of atoms, or of the + earth being without a beginning and without a + creator.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page205">[pg + 205]</span><a name="Pg205" id="Pg205" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Religious + fervour is still more pronounced in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Huygens'</span></span> contemporary, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Robert + Boyle</span></span> (died 1692), a son of Ireland. While he had + made considerable achievements in physics, his chief fame lies in + chemistry: he inaugurated the period in which chemistry became + gradually an independent science. Although working in a different + field of research, he is similar to <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Newton</span></span> in many respects: like + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Newton</span></span> and <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Huygens</span></span>, his love of + scientific studies induced him to remain unmarried, like + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Newton</span></span> he found his last + resting place in Westminster Abbey, but chiefly he is like + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Newton</span></span> because of his pious, + religious mind. He was much occupied with theological studies, + and in them the demonstration from nature of the existence of + God, and the author's reverence for the Scriptures are most + conspicuous: <span class="tei tei-q">“In relation to the + Bible,”</span> he writes, <span class="tei tei-q">“all the books + of men, even the most learned, are like the planets that receive + their light and brightness from the sun.”</span> On his deathbed + he made a foundation for apologetic lectures: the Boyle-lectures + are held to this very day.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">We shall have to pass by others. We might point + to the English philosopher and statesman,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Francis Bacon</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">of Verulam (died 1626), who won his + place in the history of natural science by his urging of the + empiric method; we might point to</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">W. + Harvey</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">(died 1658), + the discoverer of the blood-circulation, a man of earnest and + simple piety; we might mention the pious</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Albrecht von + Haller</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">(died + 1777),</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">J. + Bernouilli</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">(died 1728) + the co-inventor of integral calculus, the man of whom his great + disciple</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Euler</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">relates that this</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Bernouilli</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + co-inventor of the most difficult of all calculations, this + great mathematician, expressed regret in his old age that he + had devoted so many years to science, and only few hours to + religion, and that on his deathbed he admonished those around + him to adhere to the Word of God because that alone is the word + of life.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We shall name + but one more, a son of northern Sweden, the famous botanist, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Karl + Linné</span></span> (died 1778). He, too, found God in the living + nature which he studied so diligently.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">In commenting on his</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Systema + naturae</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">he + writes:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Man, know + thyself; in theological aspect, that thou art created with an + immortal soul, after the image of God; in moral aspect, that thou + alone art blessed with a rational soul for the praise of thy + sublime Creator. I ask, why did God put man equipped thus in + sense and spirit on this earth, where he perceives this + wonderfully ordered nature? For what, but to praise and admire + the invisible Master-builder for His magnificent + work.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page206">[pg + 206]</span><a name="Pg206" id="Pg206" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These are the + great masters and reformers of recent natural science, the men + who opened up the paths which natural science of the present day + is still pursuing; most of these savants were of a Christian + mind, many of them even pious. There were but few indifferent or + irreligious, such as <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">E. Halley</span></span> (died 1742), who + computed the cycle of the comet since named after him, and + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">G. de + Buffon</span></span> (died 1788): but they are a small minority. + The period of highest achievement in modern natural science bears + the stamp of religion; indeed, to a great extent it bears the + halo of devotion and fervour. An incompatibility of research and + faith, a solidarity of science and anti-Christian tendency, was + never known to the mind of these great masters.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“Any one who has grasped even the elements of natural + science, the unity of natural forces and their rigid conformity + to laws, becomes a monist if he has the faculty for clear + reasoning, and as to the others, there is no help for them + anyway”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">L. Plate</span></span>, Ultramontane + Weltanschauung und moderne Lebenskunde, 1907, 11). This sort of + argument is shouted at us in manifold variations. How does that + statement look in the light of history? Men like <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Copernicus</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kepler</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Newton</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Linné</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Boyle</span></span>, thus knew nothing of + the elements of natural science, nothing of the conformity to + laws of natural forces: because they were neither monists nor + atheists, but worshippers of the Creator of heaven and earth! A + more painful contrast cannot be imagined than to see these great + masters and pioneers rated as lesser minds, ignorant of real + natural science, by those who trail far behind them and who are + seeking their footsteps. The religious conviction of the natural + scientists of a past age is sufficient proof that, not the + research in natural science, but other causes lead minds to + infidelity.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">Modern Times.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We turn to the + nineteenth century. Does the picture perhaps change essentially + in the century that has shown its children so much progress, that + has disclosed so many secrets of nature, but has also taught + irreligion to thousands of men? Does it become true now that + natural science and Christian fundamental <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page207">[pg 207]</span><a name="Pg207" id= + "Pg207" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> truths are opposed to each + other in hostile attitude? Claims to this effect are not lacking. + In fact, the number of those who refuse assent to the Christian + religion is increasing. But even at this time we do not find such + to be the majority of eminent scientists, and our inquiry is + about eminent scientists, those who make the science of a period, + not those who can hardly expect to have their names known by + posterity. A considerable number, indeed the majority, of the + master minds of natural science, even in the nineteenth century, + reject materialism and atheism, and not infrequently they are + pious Christians; another proof that just upon the deeper and + more serious minds religion exercises a stronger power of + attraction.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Let us + commence with the astronomers.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“The sciences and their true representatives,”</span> + so states the renowned <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mädler</span></span> of Dorpat, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“do not deserve the reproaches and imputations heaped + upon them from a certain side, that they would estrange man from + God, even turn him into an atheist ... we hope to show of + astronomy especially that just the contrary is taking + place”</span> (Reden und Abhandlungen über Gegenstände der + Himmelskunde, 1870, 326).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The greatest + astronomer of the nineteenth century, and one of the greatest + discoverers of all ages, was undoubtedly <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">William + Herschel</span></span> (died 1822). His son <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">John + Herschel</span></span> (died 1871) became his <span class= + "tei tei-q">“worthy successor, almost his peer, who won a fame + nearly equal to that of the inherited name”</span> (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">R. + Wolf</span></span>, Geschichte der Astronomie, 1877, 505). While + not hostile to religion, the father had been so engrossed in his + restless research, that religion received little attention, but + religious thought and sentiment played a prominent part in the + son. Time and again he opposed with zeal the + materialistic-atheistic explanation of the universe. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Nothing is more unfounded than the objection made by + some well-meaning but undiscerning persons, that the study of + natural science induces a doubt of religion and of the + immortality of the soul. Be assured that its logical effect upon + any well-ordered mind must be just the opposite”</span> + (Preliminary Discourse on the Study of Natural Philosophy, 1830, + 7).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Leverrier</span></span> (died 1877), + Director of the Paris Observatory, <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page208">[pg 208]</span><a name="Pg208" id="Pg208" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> who by calculations ascertained the + existence and exact position of the remotest planet Neptune even + before it was discovered. When eventually <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Galle</span></span> + of Berlin really found the planet in the position indicated, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Leverrier's</span></span> name became + famous. But greater still were the achievements of this + indefatigable investigator in respect to the known planets. When + he presented to the French Academy the final part of his great + work, the calculations of Jupiter and Saturnus, he said: + <span class="tei tei-q">“During our long labours, which it took + us thirty-five years to complete, we needed the support obtained + by the contemplation of one of the grandest works of creation, + and by the thought that it strengthened in us the imperishable + truths of a spiritualistic (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span>, non-materialistic) + philosophy.”</span> He was an orthodox Catholic, known as a + Clerical. A newspaper complained of him that <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Under the empire he was a clerical Senator, + concerned with the interests of the altar no less than with those + of the throne”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kneller</span></span>, Das Christenthum und + die Vertreter der neueren Naturwissenschaft, 1904, 96. In the + following pages we have made frequent use of the material + gathered in this sterling work. See also <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">James J. + Walsh</span></span>, Makers of Modern Medicine (1907); and the + same author's Catholic Churchmen in Science, I (1909), II + (1910)).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">One year after + the death of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Leverrier</span></span> another scientist of + the first rank died. It was <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">A. Secchi</span></span> (died 1878). Member + of nearly all the scientific academies of the world, he was not + only a faithful Christian, but also a priest: for forty-five + years, and until his death, he wore the garb of the Society of + Jesus. As an astronomer he has been named, not without good + cause, the father of astrophysics: he ascertained the chemical + composition of about 4,000 stars and classified them into what is + known as <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Secchi's</span></span> four types of stars. + As a physicist he wrote an important work on The Unity of Natural + Forces. He was also an eminent meteorologist.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">At the second International Exposition at Paris + his meteorograph was quite a feature. The</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Kölnische + Zeitung</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">wrote, on + March 2, 1878:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Visitors of + the Italian Exhibition, at the second World's Fair in Paris, + could see the marvellous instrument which does the work of ten + observers and surpasses them in accuracy. At the same time + they</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page209">[pg + 209]</span><a name="Pg209" id="Pg209" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">could obtain + all needed information about details and scope of the + meteorograph from the exhibitor himself; for</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Secchi</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">was there daily, devoting several + hours to answering questions in any of the civilized languages + of Europe. It is peculiarly interesting to observe the silent + movement of the hands working day and night like registrars of + the natural forces, and recording for every quarter of an hour + with the utmost accuracy all changes in temperature, in + humidity, every variance of the wind, any movement of the + mercury in the barometer. Even the force of the wind and the + time of rain is registered by this wonderful + instrument.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">The inventor, out of 40,000 art + exhibitors, was awarded the great golden medal. He also + received the insignia of an officer of the French Legion of + Honor, while the Emperor of Brazil appointed him an officer of + the</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Golden + Rose.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The French scientist</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Moigno</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">writes of</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Secchi</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Secchi</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">was very pious, and as a worker he + knew no limits. He was ever ready to evolve new scientific + plans, to enter into new and long campaigns of observation. The + mere list of his 800 works reveals him as one of the most + intrepid workers of our century. And let this be considered: + every one of these writings, no matter how brief, was the + result of subtle and difficult researches and observations. And + after devoting the day to arduous writing, he passed the night + searching the skies</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">(</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Pohle</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + P. Angelo Secchi, 1904, 191).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">In the nineteenth century, too, astronomy has + not failed in its mission of leading to God. A long list could + be named of believing astronomers of great achievements. For + instance, the Roman astronomer</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Respighi</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(died 1889), a resolute Catholic. + And</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Lamont</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + Director of the Observatory of Munich, whose Catholic orthodoxy + was generally known.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Heis</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(died 1877) likewise was a zealous + Catholic: when he had finished his map of the sky, after 27 + years of hard work, he sent one of the first copies to</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Pius IX.</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">The astronomers</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Bessel</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">and</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Olbers</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">speak + in their letters of God, of the hereafter and Providence, in a + way that has nothing in common with materialism.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Secchi</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">was not the only priest and monk + among the astronomers of the nineteenth century. The very first + day of the century was made notable by the astronomical + achievement of a monk.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Joseph + Piazzi</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, a member of + the Theatine order (died 1826), discovered on that day the + first asteroid, Ceres. The great mathematician</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Gauss</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">named his first born son Joseph, + in</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Piazzi's</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">honor.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">It is, indeed, a remarkable fact, testifying + strongly against the incompatibility of natural science and + faith, that just the Catholic clergy, the prominent + representatives of religion and faith, have contributed a large + contingent to the number of natural scientists.</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Poggendorf's</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Biographical Dictionary of the + Exact Sciences contains, down to 1863, according to preface and + recapitulation, the names and biographical sketches of 8,847 + natural scientists. Of these, 862 are Catholic priests, + amounting to 9.8 per cent. To appreciate these 10 per cent it + must be taken into account that most of them were not connected + with natural science by their position, but only through their + personal interest, and most of them were engaged in other + duties.</span></p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page210">[pg + 210]</span><a name="Pg210" id="Pg210" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Mathematics, + although not natural science proper, is inseparably connected + with it. For this reason we may extend our consideration to + mathematicians. We only point to the three greatest, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Euler</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Gauss</span></span>, and <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cauchy</span></span>, and all three were + religious men. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Euler</span></span> (died 1783 at + Petersburg) has no peer in the recent history of science in + prolific activity: ten times he was awarded the prize by the + Paris Academy of Sciences. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cantor</span></span> says of him: + <span class="tei tei-q">“Like most great mathematicians, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Euler</span></span> was profoundly + religious, though without bigotry. He personally conducted every + evening the private devotions at his home, and one of the few + polemical books he wrote was a defence of revelation against the + objections of free-thinkers.”</span> Its publication at Berlin in + 1747, in close proximity of the court of <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Frederick the + Great</span></span>, presupposed a certain moral courage. In this + book he refers to the difficulties found in all sciences, even in + geometry, adding: <span class="tei tei-q">“By what right then can + the free-thinkers demand of us to reject at once Holy Writ in its + entirety, because of some difficulties which frequently are not + even so important as those complained of in geometry?”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Gauss</span></span> (died 1855) is perhaps + the greatest mathematician of all times. It sounds incredible, + yet it is well attested, that as a child of three years, when in + the workshop of his father, a plain mechanic, he was able to + correct the father if he made a mistake in figuring out the wages + paid to his journeymen. His biographer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Waltershausen</span></span>, says of him: + <span class="tei tei-q">“The conviction of a personal existence + after death, the firm belief in an ultimate Ruler of things, in + an eternal, just, all-wise and all-powerful God, formed the + foundation of his religious life, which, with his unsurpassed + scientific researches, resolved itself into a perfect + harmony.”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cauchy</span></span> (died 1857) was a man + of most extraordinary genius, whose creative genius knew how to + discover new paths everywhere, and almost at every weekly meeting + of the Paris Academy <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cauchy</span></span> had something new to + offer. In addition he was a dutiful Catholic, and a member of St. + Vincent's Society. When, shortly before the February revolution, + an onslaught upon the Jesuit schools was made, he defended them + in two pamphlets.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">One of them contains the following confession of + faith:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">I am a + Christian, that is, I believe in the divinity of Jesus Christ, + with</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Tycho</span> <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page211">[pg 211]</span><a name="Pg211" id= + "Pg211" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Brahe</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Copernicus</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Descartes</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Newton</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Fermat</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Leibnitz</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Pascal</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Grimaldi</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Euler</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Guldin</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Boscovich</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Gerdil</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">; + with all great astronomers, all great physicists, all great + mathematicians of past centuries. I am also a Catholic, with + the majority of them, and if asked for my reasons, I would + enumerate them readily. By them it would be made clear that my + conviction is not the result of inherited prejudices, but of + profound inquiry. I am a sincere Catholic, as</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Corneille</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Racine</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">La + Bruyère</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Bossuet</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Bourdaloue</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Fénelon</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">were, and such as were and still + are a large portion of the most eminent men of our times, among + them those who have achieved most in the exact sciences, in + philosophy and literature, and who have most prominently + adorned our Academy</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">(</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Valson</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + Vie de Cauchy, I, 173). When near death, and told that the + priest would bring the Holy Sacrament, he ordered the finest + flowers of his garden used in the reception of the + Lord.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We now come to + the physicists. To begin with the most prominent representatives + of the science of optics, which was developed especially during + the first half of the century, there are to be named chiefly + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Fresnel</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Frauenhofer</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Fizeau</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Foucault</span></span>. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">A. + Fresnel</span></span> (died 1827), the originator of the modern + theory of light, clung to his conviction of the spirituality and + immortality of the soul. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Frauenhofer</span></span> (died 1826) showed + himself to be a man of refinement and of kindness, which only + occasionally was disturbed by natural irritability: he was much + devoted to his religion, so that even his guests while at his + house had to observe the abstinence prescribed by the Church; + this was quite significant, considering the indifference of his + times in this respect. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Fizeau</span></span> (died 1896), too, was a + staunch Catholic, who fearlessly testified to his belief, even + before the Paris Academy. Though his work was of the first rank, + France's chief marks of honour passed him by, and little notice + was even given to his death. A significant fact. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“These circumstances,”</span> so writes <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kneller</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“induced us to inquire for particulars; and through + the services of friends we obtained information in Paris from + most reliable source that <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Fizeau</span></span> was a faithful + Christian, who fulfilled his religious duties. For this very + reason his name had been stricken, at the Centenary of the + Academy, from the list of candidates for the cross of the legion + of honor, notwithstanding the fact that, on the strength of his + scientific achievement, he should long have been Commander and + even Grand Officer of this order.”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cornu</span></span> + was the only one to protest against this slight. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Foucault</span></span> (died 1868) had, in + the time of his restless scientific <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page212">[pg 212]</span><a name="Pg212" id="Pg212" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> work, taken an unsympathetic attitude + towards the Catholic religion. In his last illness he returned, + step by step, to his Creator and Redeemer, in whom he found his + comfort, and he breathed his last in peace with God and the + Church.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Foucault's</span></span> great countryman, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ampère</span></span> (died 1836), the + celebrated investigator in the fields of electricity, was also + estranged from the Christian religion, but, after passing through + torturing doubts, he regained undisturbed possession of his + Catholic faith, and was a pious Christian at the time of his + brilliant discoveries. He had frequent intercourse with + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">A. F. + Ozanam</span></span>, and the discussion almost without exception + turned to God. Then <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ampère</span></span> would cover his + forehead with his hands, exclaiming: <span class="tei tei-q">“How + great God is! Ozanam! how great God is, and our knowledge is as + nothing.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“This venerable + head,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ozanam</span></span> relates of his friend, + <span class="tei tei-q">“covered with honours and full of + knowledge, bowed down before the mysteries of the faith; he knelt + at the same altars where before him <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Descartes</span></span> and <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Pascal</span></span> worshipped humbly, + beside the poor widow and the small child, who perhaps were less + humble than he”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">A. F. Ozanam</span></span>, Oeuvres + Complètes, X, 37, and VIII, 89). As he was dying, and + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">M. + Deschamps</span></span>, director of the college of Marseille, + began to read aloud some passages from the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Imitation of Christ,”</span> the dying man remarked + that he knew the book by heart.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Another great + discoverer in the domain of electricity, who had preceded + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ampère</span></span>, was <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Volta</span></span> + (died 1827). Like his great fellow countryman, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galvani</span></span> (died 1798), who did + not disdain to be a member of the third order of St. Francis, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Volta</span></span> was a staunch Catholic; + every day he recited the rosary.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At Como, his + home, he was daily seen to go to holy Mass and, on holidays, to + the Sacraments. Those who passed his house on Saturdays saw a + small lamp burning before the picture of the Blessed Virgin Mary + over his door. If the servant forgot to light the lamp, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Volta</span></span> did it himself. On Feast + days, when visiting the parish church, the great electrician + could be seen among the children, explaining the catechism to + them.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">A friend of</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Volta</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + the Canon</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Giacomo + Ciceri</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, once was + endeavoring to convert a dying man, who, however, refused to + hear him, on the ground that whereas religion might be good for + the common people,</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page213">[pg 213]</span><a name="Pg213" id="Pg213" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">scientists + did not need it, and he reckoned himself among them.</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Ciceri</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">thereupon + reminded him of</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Volta</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">. + This made an impression upon the dying man, who declared that + if</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Volta</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">be seriously religious, and not + only as a matter of convention, he would consent to receive the + Sacraments. The Canon then requested</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Volta</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">to write a few lines.</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Volta</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">replied as follows:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">I do not + understand how anybody can doubt my sincerity and constancy in + the religion which I profess, and which is that of Catholic, + Apostolic, Roman Church, wherein I was born and raised, and + which I have professed all my life, inwardly and outwardly.... + Should any misdemeanor on my part have prompted any one to + suspect me of unbelief, then I will declare, for the purpose of + making reparation ... that I always have believed this Holy + Catholic religion to be the only true and infallible one, and + that I still think so, and I thank our dear Lord incessantly + for having given me this belief, in which to live and to die is + my resolution, in the firm hope of gaining the eternal life. It + is true, I acknowledge this belief to be a gift of God, a + supernatural belief; yet, I have not neglected human means to + fortify myself in this belief, and to drive away all doubts + that may arise to tempt me. For this reason, I have studied the + faith diligently in its foundations, by reading apologetic and + controversial writings, weighing the reasons for and against; a + way, which supplies the strongest proof, and makes it most + credible for the human reason to such a degree, that any noble + mind, not perverted by sins and passions, cannot help embracing + and loving it. I wish this profession, for which I was asked + and which I willingly make, written and signed by my own hand, + to be shown at will to any one, because I am not ashamed of the + Gospel. May my writing bear good fruit.</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Alexander + Volta.</span></span></p> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps">Milan</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + January 6th, 1815.</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">(</span><span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">C. + Grandi</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + Alessandro Volta, 1899, 575.)</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + </div> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He who, for + the first time, is made aware of the religious confession of the + greatest natural scientists may perhaps be astonished. Hitherto, + he had heard little of the Christian mind of these men, but a + great deal about their alleged indifference for religion, and + about their materialism and atheism. Now, suddenly, he sees a + large number of them to be the enemies of atheism, many, indeed, + to be zealous Christians.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This is due to + the biographers: they dwell largely on the scientific achievement + of a man, likewise on his human qualities, but his religion is + often not mentioned at all. When, in 1888, a monument was erected + to <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ampère</span></span> in his native city, + Lyons, not a word in the speeches referred to the fact that he + was a faithful Catholic. Nay, more; on one of the books seen on + his monument is chiselled in bold letters the word <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Encyclopédie.”</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page214">[pg 214]</span><a name="Pg214" id="Pg214" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> Those unaware of the facts would infer that + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ampère</span></span> had been one of the + Encyclopædists. His actual relation to this infamous work was + that he had read it in his youth, but abhorred it in his later + age.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The English + physicist, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Faraday</span></span> (died 1867), according + to <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Tyndall</span></span> and <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Du + Bois-Reymond</span></span> the greatest experimentist of all + times, was, like <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Volta</span></span> and <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ampère</span></span>, of religious mind.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">In a letter to a lady he wrote:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">I belong to + a small and despised Christian sect, known by the name of + Sandemanians. Our hope is based upon the belief which is in + Christ.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">In 1847, he concluded his lectures + at the Royal Institution with the following words:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">In teaching + us those things, our science should prompt us to think of Him + whose works they are.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">At + a later lecture, he declared:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">I have never encountered anything to cause a + contradiction between things within the scope of man, and the + higher things, relating to his future and unconceivable to + (unaided) human mind</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Jones</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + The Life and Letters of Faraday).</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of the same + bent of mind was <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Faraday's</span></span> fellow countryman, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Maxwell</span></span> (died 1879), known to + every one who has studied the development of the theories of + electricity. This ingenious theoretician of electrics, professor + of experimental physics at Cambridge, was deeply religious. Every + evening he led in the family prayer; he regularly attended divine + service, and partook of the monthly communion of his + denomination. Those more intimately acquainted with <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Maxwell</span></span> agree, that he was one + of the worthiest men they ever met.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Nothing could better illustrate his religious + sentiment than the splendid prayer found among his posthumous + papers:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Almighty + God, Thou who hast created man after Thy image and hast given him + a living soul, that he should search Thee and rule over Thy + creatures, teach us to study the works by Thy hands that we may + subject the earth for our use, and strengthen our reason for Thy + service, and let us receive Thy holy word thus, that we may + believe in Him whom Thou hast sent us to give us the knowledge of + salvation and the forgiving of our sins, all of which we pray for + in the name of the same Jesus Christ, our + Lord</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(</span><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Campbell-Garnett</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + The Life of J. C. Maxwell).</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Maxwell's</span></span> devout mind is + especially significant here, because, like <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ampère</span></span> and <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Volta</span></span>, he occupied himself + much with philosophical and theological questions. Every Sunday + upon return <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page215">[pg + 215]</span><a name="Pg215" id="Pg215" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + from church he is said to have buried himself in his theological + books.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Many others + might be mentioned of English physicists of the past century, who + combined religious belief with great knowledge. The peculiar + trait of the English character to respect and preserve with piety + the inherited institutions of the past, as against radicalism and + the craze for innovation, manifests itself also in the absence of + the immature and frivolous juggling with the great truths of the + Christian past, not infrequently met with elsewhere. Let us + mention but one more of England's great men who have died in + recent years. In December, 1907, the papers reported the death of + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">William + Thomson</span></span>, latterly better known as <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lord + Kelvin</span></span>. He lived to the age of 83 years, up to his + death incessantly busy with scientific work. As early as 1855, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Helmholtz</span></span> described him as + <span class="tei tei-q">“one of the foremost mathematical + physicists of Europe.<a id="noteref_7" name="noteref_7" href= + "#note_7"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">7</span></span></a>”</span> + The Berlin Academy of Science expressed high praise and + admiration in its address felicitating <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Thomson</span></span> on his Golden Jubilee. + Undoubtedly, he merited this admiration also by stoutly defending + from the viewpoint of science the necessity of a Divine + Creator.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">We do not know,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">he + wrote,</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">at what + moment a creation of matter or of energy fixed a beginning beyond + which no speculation based on mechanical laws is able to lead us. + In exact mechanics, if we were ever inclined to forget this + barrier, we necessarily would be reminded of it by the + consideration that reasoning, resting exclusively upon the law of + mechanics, points to a time when the earth must have been</span> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page216">[pg 216]</span><a name= + "Pg216" id="Pg216" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style= + "font-size: 90%">uninhabited, and it also teaches us that our own + bodies, like those of all living plants and animals, and fossils, + are organized forms of matter for which science can give no other + explanation than the will of a Creator, a truth, in support of + which geological history offers rich + evidence</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(On Mechanical Antecedent of + Motion, Heat and Light, 1884).</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The only contribution of dynamics to + theoretical biology consists in the absolute negation of an + automatic beginning and automatic continuance of + life</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(Addresses and + Speeches).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">On May 1, 1902, the Rev. Prof.</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">G. + Henslow</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, according + to the</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">London + Times</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, spoke at + University College, before a big audience with the President of + the University as chairman, on the subject</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The Rationalism of To-day, an Examination of + Darwinism.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">On conclusion of the speech the + venerable octogenarian,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Lord + Kelvin</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, arose and + proposed a resolution of thanks to the speaker. While fully + subscribing to the fundamental ideas of Prof.</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Henslow's</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">lecture,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Lord Kelvin</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">said, he could not assent to the + proposition that natural science neither affirms nor denies the + origin of life by a creative force. He stated that natural + science</span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">does</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">, + positively, assert a creative force. Science forces every one + to recognize a miracle within himself. That we are living, and + moving, and existing, is not due to dead matter, but to a + creating and directing force, and science forces us to accept + this assumption as a tenet of faith.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Lord Kelvin</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">subsequently amplified these + remarks in an article that appeared in the</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Nineteenth + Century</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, of June, + 1903. It concludes with the admonition, not to be afraid to + think independently.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">If you reason sharply, you will be forced by + science to believe in God, who is the basis of all religion. + You will find science to be, not an opponent of religion, but a + support</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(</span><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Times</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + May 8 and 15, 1903).</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Such were the + views of those to whom, in the first place, the establishment of + natural science and its progress are due. It is not science and + strong reasoning that lead away from God, but the lack of true + science. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bacon</span></span> said: <span lang="la" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Leviores gustus in philosophia movere + fortasse animum ad atheismum, sed pleniores haustus ad Deum + reducere</span></span>. Another thing must be observed. Among + those earnest men, earnest in the investigation of nature, and + earnest in the consideration of questions of a supernatural life, + there are many who made the religious question the subject of + mature study, and who were well acquainted with the objections + against religion and Christianity. But they cling to their + religious persuasion only the more firmly. We may be reminded of + men like <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Volta</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cauchy</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ampère</span></span>, and <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Maxwell</span></span>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To speak of + authorities, what comparison is there between these great + scientists and discoverers, and those who are satisfied with the + general assurance that <span class="tei tei-q">“any one who has + grasped the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page217">[pg + 217]</span><a name="Pg217" id="Pg217" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + elements of natural sciences must become a monist,”</span> and + <span class="tei tei-q">“that the supernatural exists only in the + brain of the visionary and ignorant,”</span> that, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“in the same measure in which the victorious progress + of modern knowledge of nature surpasses the scientific + achievements of former centuries, the untenableness of all + mystical views of life that tend to harness the reason in the + yoke of so-called revelation has been made clear”</span> + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Haeckel</span></span>), and who in such + assurance find perfect intellectual gratification. They recall an + incident at the Congress of English natural scientists, held at + Belfast in 1874, when <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Tyndall</span></span> delivered from the + platform a materialistic lecture, and among the audience sat + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Maxwell</span></span>, his superior in + scientific research, who put down the lecture in doggerel rhyme, + in a humorous vein, of course, but not without deserved + sarcasm.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We proceed on + our way, trying to make haste, and omitting many names that might + be mentioned, limiting ourselves to the most prominent ones.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among the + chemists we name <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Lavoisier</span></span>. A martyr to his + science, he died under the guillotine of the Revolution in 1794; + he had remained true to his Christian faith. The Swede, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">J. + Berzelius</span></span> (died 1848), openly professed his belief + in God. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Thénard</span></span> (died 1859), the + discoverer of boron, of a blue dye named after him, and of many + other chemicals, was a staunch Catholic. The pastor of St. + Sulpice could testify at his funeral as follows: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“He attended church every Sunday, eyes and heart + fixed on his prayer-book, and on solemn Feast days he received + Holy Communion.... With <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Baron Thénard</span></span> one of the + greatest benefactors of my poor people is gone”</span> + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kneller</span></span>).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dumas</span></span> + (died 1884), who is esteemed by his pupil <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Pasteur</span></span> as the peer of + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Lavoisier</span></span>, was also a + practical Catholic, as was his compatriot <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Chevreul</span></span> (died 1889). This + great man had the rare good fortune to be present at his own + centenary in 1886. At this great celebration he received an + address by the Berlin Academy, stating that his name had a + prominent place on the list of the great scientists who had + carried the scientific repute of France to all quarters of the + globe. When, in view of the mundane character of the celebration, + the liberal press endeavoured to rank him among the + representatives of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page218">[pg + 218]</span><a name="Pg218" id="Pg218" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + unbelieving science, and this question being discussed in public, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Chevreul</span></span> felt himself + constrained to proclaim his religious persuasion openly in a + letter to <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Count de Montravel</span></span>, in which + he said: <span class="tei tei-q">“I am simply a scientist, but + those who know me, know also that I was born a Catholic, that I + lead a Catholic life, and that I want to die a Catholic”</span> + (Civilta Cattolica, 1891, 292).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Two Germans + may conclude the list of chemists, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Schoenbein</span></span> (died 1868) and + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">J. + Liebig</span></span> (died 1873).</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">In his diary,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Menschen und Dinge,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">1885 (page 29),</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"> + <span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Schoenbein</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">writes:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">There are + still people who fancy in their limited mind that, the deeper + the human intellect penetrates the secrets of nature, the more + extensive its knowledge, the wider its conception of the + exterior world, the more it must forget the cause of all + things. Many have gone even so far as to assert that natural + science must lead to the denial of God. This view is without + all foundation. He, who contemplates with open eyes, daily and + hourly, the doings and workings of nature, will not only + believe, but will actually perceive, and be firmly convinced, + that there is not the smallest place in space where the divine + does not reveal itself in the most magnificent and admirable + way.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">And in a similar strain</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Liebig</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">writes:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Indeed, the greatness and infinite wisdom of + the Creator of the world can be realized only by him who + endeavours to understand His ideas as laid down in that immense + book,—nature, in comparison to which everything that men + otherwise know and tell of Him, appears like empty + talk</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(Die Chemie in ihrer + Anwendung).</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Now let us + turn to the geographers. We merely mention <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ritter</span></span> (died 1859), the man + who raised geography to the dignity of a science; he was a + faithful Protestant, while biassed against the Catholic Church. + In spite of this, a Catholic historian, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">J. + Janssen</span></span>, has sketched his life, in which we read: + <span class="tei tei-q">“Firm in his belief in the living God, + and in the Incarnate Son of God, His Redeemer, he furnishes a + clear and convincing proof that this faith, far from being a + contradiction to natural science ... alone enables man to acquire + an extensive and deep knowledge of nature.”</span> We give only + passing notice to the founder of scientific crystallography, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">R. + Hauy</span></span> (died 1822), who was a dutiful Catholic + priest. The geologists now will get a hearing.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Among them we meet, in the first place, the + noted geologist and zoölogist,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Cuvier</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(died 1832), a faithful Protestant: + also the foremost French geologist of his time,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">L. De Beaumont</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(died 1874),</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">a Christian</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page219">[pg 219]</span><a name="Pg219" id="Pg219" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">in all things + and a steadfast Christian ... which he remained through his + whole life;</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">so</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Dumas</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">testifies of him in his obituary + (Comptes Rendus, 1874). Then there is</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">J. + Barrande</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, the + untiring explorer of the antediluvian strata of Bohemia. He + came in 1830 to Bohemia with the banished royal family, + as</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Chambord's</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">teacher, and died 1883 at + Frohsdorf near Vienna. He was a pious Catholic. The volumes of + his works are nearly all dated on Catholic feasts. The recently + deceased French geologist,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">A. De + Lapparent</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, was a + practical Catholic, and such were the two Belgian + geologists,</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">J. d'Omalius</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(died 1875), and</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">A. Dumont</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(died 1857), to both of whom + Belgium owes its geological exploration. The English + geologists,</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Buckland</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(died 1856),</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Hitchcock</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">(died + 1864), and</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">A. Sedgwick</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(died 1872), were ministers of the + English Church.</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">J. Dwight + Dana</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">(died 1895), + the foremost geologist of North America, begins his celebrated + text-book of geology with a homage to his Creator, and + concludes it by paying tribute to Holy Writ.</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">W. Dawson</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(died 1899) the worthy geological + explorer of his native land, Canada, published several + apologetic dissertations on the Bible and Nature. A kindred + sentiment animated the German scientists,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Bischof</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(died 1870),</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Quenstedt</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(died 1898), the geologist of + Suabia</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Pfaff</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(died 1886),</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Schafhæutl</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(died 1890), and the equally pious + as learned Swiss geologist</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">O. Heer</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(died 1883). They all have much to + say about the greatness of their Creator, but not a word of any + insolvable contradictions between the Bible and geologic + research.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As a last + division of an imposing phalanx, there are now the biologists and + physiologists. Modern biology, as the science of life, has in the + eyes of many accomplished the bold deed of demonstrating the + superfluity of a soul distinct from matter. Claim is made that it + has sufficiently explained the sensitive and mental life by the + sole agency of physical and chemical forces, and thus to have + removed the boundary between live and dead matter. It is said, + further, that biology in conjunction with zoölogy and botany has + furnished proof that the wonderful organic forms of life may be + explained by purely natural causes, without having to assume as + an ultimate cause the act of a higher intelligence; that a never + ceasing evolution is the sole ultimate cause,—creation is made + superfluous by evolution. Biology is thus claimed to have refuted + the old dualism of soul and matter, of world and God, and to have + awarded the palm to monism.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Are the + eminent representatives of this science really the materialists + and monists they would have to be, if all this were true? The + foremost physiologist of the nineteenth century was <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">J. + Müller</span></span> (died 1858), buried in the Catholic cemetery + at <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page220">[pg 220]</span><a name= + "Pg220" id="Pg220" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Berlin. He was a + decided opponent of materialism; he not only contended for the + existence of a spiritual soul, but also for an immaterial vital + force in plants. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Th. Schwann</span></span> (died 1882) is the + founder of the cellular theory. In the year 1839 he accepted a + call to take the chair of anatomy at the Catholic University of + Louvain. One of the most prominent physiologists of the + nineteenth century was <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">A. Volkmann</span></span> (died 1877). He + was a stout champion of the spirituality and immortality of the + soul, of purposive cause in animated beings, and an opponent of + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Darwin's</span></span> theory. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">G. J. + Mendel</span></span> (died 1884) became by his work on + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Experimenting with Hybrid + Plants</span></span> the pioneer of the modern theory of + hereditary transmission, adopted by modern biology; and + scientists like <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">H. de Vries</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Correns</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Tschermak</span></span>, and <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bateson</span></span> followed his lead. + <span class="tei tei-q">“His important laws of hereditary + transmission are the best so far offered by the research in this + field”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Muckermann</span></span>, Grundriss der + Biologie). He was a Catholic priest, and the abbot of the + Augustinian Monastery at Old-Brünn. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Karl von + Vierordt</span></span> (died 1884) is well known by his + <span class="tei tei-q">“Manual of Physiology,”</span> still in + demand as a reference book in the libraries of universities. In + 1865 he delivered a speech at the Tübingen University on the + unity of science, concluding with this appeal to the students: + <span class="tei tei-q">“Until your religious notions become + clear by a mature insight, trust in the well-meant assurance that + the belief in the divinity of the religion of Jesus has not been + put falsely into your heart. True piety is equally remote from + narrow pietism as from freethinking indifference; it leaves to + reason its full rights, but it also assures to us the faculty to + be aware, in joyful confidence in Almighty Providence, of an + immaterial and for us eternal destiny.”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ch. + Ehrenberg</span></span> (died 1876) is the explorer of the world + of little things: of infusoria and protozoa. He did not + countenance <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Haeckel's</span></span> materialism nor + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Darwin's</span></span> denial of teleology: + to him they were fantastic theories and romances. A friend of + his, and of the same mind, was <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">K. von + Martius</span></span>, who admired God's wisdom in the wonders of + the world of vegetation. Long before his death he ordered his + burial dress to be made of white cloth embroidered with a green + cross,—<span class="tei tei-q">“a cross because I am a Christian, + and green in honour of botany.”</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page221">[pg 221]</span><a name="Pg221" id="Pg221" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> Another renowned name may be mentioned, + that of the Austrian anatomist <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">J. + Hyrtl</span></span> (died 1894).</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">In the years when materialism was + flourishing,</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Hyrtl</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">was painfully grieved to see science + fall into disrepute through the fault of individuals. He gave + vent to his indignation on the occasion of the fifth centenary of + the Vienna University (1864), when, having been elected Rector, + and being considered the greatest celebrity at that college, he + delivered his inaugural speech on the materialistic tendency of + our times. Summing up he said:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">I am at a loss how to explain what scientific + grounds there are to defend and fortify a revival of the old + materialistic views of an</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Epicurus</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">and a</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Lucretius</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + and to endeavour to insure to it a permanent rule.... Its + success is due to the boldness of its assertion and to the + prevailing spirit of the time, which popularizes teachings of + this sort the more willingly, the more danger they seem to + entail for the existing order of things.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">It was the same protest made some years later + by another famous scientist against</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">the dangerous opinion that there were dogmas + of natural science in inimical opposition to the highest ideals + of the human mind.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">He stated that</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">it would be a desirable reward for the efforts + of our foremost naturalists to erect with the aid of + anthropology a barrier to this error which is so demoralizing + for the people</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">J. + Ranke</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, Der Mensch, + 1894).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Hyrtl's</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">speech at once aroused a storm of + indignation in the liberal press of Vienna, and the great + scientist, until then honoured and extolled, became the object + of denunciation and sneer. Thus was the freedom of science + understood in those circles.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Haeckel</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">was much vexed by two fellow + scientists,</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">M. von Baer</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(died 1876) and</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">G. J. + Romanes</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">(died + 1894).</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Baer</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">was prominent in the science of + evolution. He was led to theism by his studies.</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Romanes</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + a friend of</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Darwin</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + had been an adherent of materialism, but through serious study + he returned to the belief in God and Christianity. His + posthumous work,</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Thoughts + on Religion, a scientist's religious evolution from Atheism to + Christianity,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">furnishes a brilliant voucher thereof.</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Romanes's</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">conversion was a sad blow + for</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Haeckel</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">. + However, he constructed an explanation to give himself + comfort.</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">When the + news of this conversion,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">he wrote,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">was first circulated by a friend of</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Romanes</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + a zealous English Churchman, the assumption suggested itself to + me that it was all a mystification and invention, for it is + known that the fanatical champions of ecclesiastical + superstition have never hesitated to pervert the truth to save + their dogma. Later on, however, it was found that it was really + an instance (analogous to the case of old</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Baer</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">) + of one of those interesting psychological metamorphoses with + which I have dealt in Chapter 6 of my book.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Romanes</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">was + in his last years a sick man. It was pathological debility. The + first condition, however, of an unbiassed, pure conception of + reason is the normal condition of its organ. His phronema was + not in a normal condition.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Haeckel</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">will have to rank among those + whose phronema is not in a normal condition a good many other + natural scientists; indeed, most of those of higher + standing.</span></p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page222">[pg + 222]</span><a name="Pg222" id="Pg222" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Every one + knows the celebrated name of <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Louis + Pasteur</span></span> (died 1895), the discoverer of various + bacteria, of whom <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Huxley</span></span> says that his manifold + inventions have repaid to French industry the five billion francs + indemnity which France had to pay to Germany after the war. It is + equally well known that <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Pasteur</span></span> was to his death a + staunch Catholic. <span class="tei tei-q">“As his soul departed, + he held in his hands a small cross of brass, and his last words + were the confession of faith and hope”</span> (La Science + Catholique, X, 1896, 182). The story is told that one of his + pupils asked him how he could be so religious after all his + thinking and studying. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Pasteur</span></span> replied: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Just because I have thought and studied, I remained + religious like a man of Brittany, and had I thought and studied + still more, I would be as religious as a woman of + Brittany”</span> (Revue des Questions Scientifiques, 1896, + 385).</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">In the year 1859 great commotion was caused in + the world of thought by the appearance of</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Darwin's</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">book on the</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Origin of Species.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">It + stated that the various species had gradually evolved from most + simple, primordial forms, and this by natural selection; not, + therefore, in the sense that the Creator had put the laws of + evolution into nature, but that in the struggle for existence the + survival of the fittest was the result of natural selection. Soon + it was claimed that man, too, in his rational life, was the + result of an evolution from animal stages; indeed, the whole + universe had arisen by the survival of the accidentally fittest. + Evolution was to be substituted for creation. In Germany,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">E. Haeckel</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">was the man who considered it the + task of his life to spread those ideas as the established result + of science. In our own time a belated high tide is sweeping over + the intellectual lowlands.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Darwin</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">himself was an agnostic; to begin + with, he lacked all religious training; his mother had died + early, his father was a free-thinker, and his education at + school was rationalistic. The doubt of all higher truths, and + finally, according to his own confession, the doubt respecting + the power of reason, were his companions through life. Yet he + confesses:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">... I + never was an atheist in the sense that I would deny the + existence of God. I think, in general (and more so the older I + grow), but not at all times, agnostic would be a more accurate + description of my state of mind</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">F. + Darwin</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, The Life and + Letters of Charles Darwin, I, 304). Remarkable, however, is the + following passage at the end of</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Darwin's</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">chief work:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">It is a great belief, indeed, of the Creator + having breathed the embryo of all life surrounding us into a + few forms, or in but one single form, and an endless row of + most beautiful, most wonderful forms having evolved and are + still evolving from such a simple beginning, while our planet, + following the laws of gravitation, has steadily revolved in its + circle.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page223">[pg 223]</span><a name= + "Pg223" id="Pg223" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style= + "font-size: 90%">What</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Darwin</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">was lacking in a high degree was a + philosophical training of the mind.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">In itself the</span> <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">theory of + evolution</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">, which + asserts the variability of species of animals and plants, is by + no means opposed to religious truths. It neither includes a + necessity of assuming the origin of the human soul from the + essentially lower animal soul, nor is it an atheistic theory. + On the contrary, such an evolution would most clearly certify + to God's wisdom in laying such a wonderful basis for the + progress of nature, provided this theory could be proved by + scientific facts; indeed, for an evolution within narrow + limits, circumstantial evidence is not lacking. That there is + no contradiction between the theory of evolution and the + fundamental tenets of Christian Creed is sufficiently shown by + the representatives of the theory.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Lamarck</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">(died + 1829) and</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Saint-Hilaire</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(died 1844), both of them + representatives of the theory of evolution long before</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Darwin</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + believed in God. There were, prior to</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Darwin</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + two celebrated Catholic scientists, to wit,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Ampère</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">and</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">d'Omalius</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + who had decidedly taken the part of</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Saint-Hilaire</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">in + his controversy with</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Cuvier</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">. + And also after</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Darwin</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + a number of Christian and Catholic scientists have contended + for the idea of evolution, as, for instance, the pious Swiss + geologist,</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Heer</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">; + also</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Quenstedt</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Volkmann</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + and the American geologist,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Ch. + Lyell</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">. More recently + Catholic scientists have expressed themselves in favour of the + theory of evolution; for instance, the noted zoölogist,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">E. + Wasmann</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, and the + geologists</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Lossen</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">and</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">W. + Waagen</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, both of whom + had to bring bitter sacrifices in their career on account of + their Catholic faith.</span></p> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">Mature Science Respects + Faith.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There have now + passed in review the great natural scientists of the past, those + living at the present time we shall leave to the judgment of the + future. Is it true, then, that the foremost representatives of + natural science had the conviction that science and faith are + incompatible? No! On the contrary, most of them, and the greatest + of them, have professed the fundamental truths of religion, or + have even been devout Christians themselves.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Theism in natural science, or, if you prefer, in + natural philosophy,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">so + says a modern scientist,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">rests upon the basis of a fundamental view which + an old formula has clothed in words as simple as they are + sublime:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style="font-size: 90%">I believe + in God, the Almighty Creator of Heaven and of + Earth.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">’</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">This confession does not cling to + theistic scientists like an egg-shell from the time of + unsophisticated childhood faith; it is the result of their entire + scientific thought and judgment. This conviction has been + professed by the most discerning natural scientists of all + ages</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">(</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">J. + Reinke</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + Naturwissenschaft und Religion).</span></p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page224">[pg + 224]</span><a name="Pg224" id="Pg224" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Still it + cannot be denied that some of the great scientists were of + different mind, men like <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">R. von Virchow</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Tyndall</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">A. von + Humboldt</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Du Bois-Reymond</span></span>. Nor shall it + be disputed that, at the present time, a large number of men of + average learning are on the side of unbelief. However, it must + not be forgotten that unbelief is more frequently pretended to + the outside world for appearance's sake than it really dwells in + the heart. This is, to a great extent, due to human respect, to + public opinion, and the prevailing tendency of science. Then + again, it must be remembered, that religiously minded scientists + are often crowded out from the schools of science, with the + natural result that the others predominate. Another point to be + borne in mind is that the atheistic representatives of science + are doing more to get themselves talked about; they are seeking + more diligently the attention of public opinion. Men like + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Tyndall</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Vogt</span></span>, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Moleschott</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Haeckel</span></span>, are known in larger + circles than men like <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Faraday</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Maxwell</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ampère</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Volta</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Pasteur</span></span>, who, engaged in + serious work, gave no time to making propaganda, as the others + did by lecturing and popular writing for materialistic and + monistic views in the name of science; they had no desire for the + limelight of attention, and for posing as personified + science.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">All this does + not change the fact that a very large number, indeed the largest + number, of natural scientists of first rank were believers in + God, or of pious, Christian mind. And that is of the greater + importance. To do pioneer work in the field of science, to give + impetus, to make progress, requires a penetrating and, at the + same time, an independent mind, one that can rise above + conventional commonplace. The fact that such men have largely + been very religious, that they never belittled religion, weighs + much more in the balance than the disparagement of inferior + minds.</p> + + <div class="tei tei-tb"> + <hr style="width: 50%" /> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These, then, + are the often-cited witnesses for the incompatibility of science + and faith. While only taken from the province of natural science, + they may in our case be deemed representative of science in + general. For natural science is generally regarded the most exact + of all, and as the one which, more than <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page225">[pg 225]</span><a name="Pg225" id="Pg225" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> any other, has the scientific spirit said + to be incompatible with faith, and which, by many, is believed to + have brought about in the modern world of thought the + irreconcilable conflict between faith and science. This is not + so! Such antagonism does <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">not</span></span> exist. It cannot exist, + because it is certain from the outset that both faith and science + unfold the truth. Truth, however, can never be in conflict with + truth. Nor has that antagonism ever existed historically in any + of the great representatives of science. This antagonism is + fictitious, it is false in its very essence. It is fabricated, + either by distorting faith into a blind belief of absurd things, + or else by distorting the human faculty of conception into + infallible omniscience, or, the other extreme, by denying its + faculty for a higher perception.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Faith has + nothing to fear from a mature science that has arrived at the + conviction of its cognitions, nor has it anything to fear from + the great intellects who reason profoundly and seriously. But it + has to fear mock-science and ignorance, and those small and + superficial minds that aim at stretching their pseudo-knowledge + to a gigantic infallibility.</p> + </div> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page227">[pg 227]</span><a name= + "Pg227" id="Pg227" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc27" id="toc27"></a> <a name="pdf28" id="pdf28"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Third Section. The Liberal Freedom of + Research.</span></h1><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page229">[pg + 229]</span><a name="Pg229" id="Pg229" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">The Yoke of the Sun.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The gifted + Danish writer and convert, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">J. Jörgensen</span></span>, tells a parable + which is pregnant with thought. <span class="tei tei-q">“In the + midst of a large rye-field,”</span> he relates, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“there stood a tall poplar, with other trees standing + nearby. One day the poplar turned to the other trees and plants, + and thus began to speak: <span class="tei tei-q">‘Sisters and + brothers! To us, the glorious tribe of plants, belongs the earth, + and everything upon it is dependent on us. We fertilize and feed + ourselves, while beasts and men are fed and clothed by us. Indeed, + the earth itself feeds upon our decaying leaves, upon our boughs + and branches. There is only one power in the world our existence + and growth is said to depend on; I refer to the Sun. I purposely + used the words, <span class="tei tei-q">“is said,”</span> because I + am sure that we do not depend on the Sun. This doctrine of sunlight + being a necessity and a benefit to our plant life is nothing but a + superstition, which at last ought to give way to + enlightenment.’</span> Here the poplar paused. From some old oaks + and elms in the neighbouring grove there came signs of disapproval, + but the inconstant rye-field muttered assent. Thus encouraged and + raising its voice the poplar continued: <span class="tei tei-q">‘I + know well that there is a musty faction amongst us which clings + obstinately to obsolete views. However, I have confidence in the + independence of the younger generation of plants. They will realize + the baseness of continuing to do homage to an absurd superstition. + Our freeborn heads shall never bow to a yoke, not even to the yoke + of the Sun. Down, therefore, with that yoke! And free from + restraint there will arise a free and beautiful generation that + will astonish the world.’</span> The poplar paused for the second + time, and now the applause was long and loud, the fields cheered + and the groves gave boisterous applause, so that the disapproval of + a few old <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page230">[pg + 230]</span><a name="Pg230" id="Pg230" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + trees could not be heard. The following days looked upon an odd + spectacle. At daybreak, when the Sun ascended and cast its first + rays over the landscape, the flowers closed their cups and denied + admission, as if asleep; the leaves no longer turned toward the + Sun. But when the dispenser of warmth and light had gone down + behind the hills, the gayly coloured flowers opened in the dim + starlight, as if now the time had come for them to grow and + blossom.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“Alas, how sad was the fate of these poor rebels! The + rye soon began to languish till it lay prone on the ground; green + leaves turned yellow, the flowers drooped, faded and withered. Then + the plants began to grumble at the poplar. There it stood, its + leaves a seared yellow. <span class="tei tei-q">‘What simpletons + you are, brothers and sisters!’</span> it said. <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘Can't you see that now you are much more like + yourselves than under the rule of the Sun? Now you are refined, + independent beings, well rid of the sluggish health of + yore.’</span> There were some who still believed what the poplar + said. <span class="tei tei-q">‘We are independent, we are + unfettered,’</span> they clamoured, till the last spark of life was + gone. Not long after the poplar, too, stood there with its branches + bared,—it had died. The farmers, however, complained about the + failing of the crop, and consoled themselves by hoping for better + success the next year.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A parable of + deep meaning! It may serve as an illustration for the facts stated, + and for those yet to be dealt with.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">According to the + Christian view, man is dependent on his Creator, from whom he + receives life and light, and, in the same way, his mind depends on + truth, by which it lives as the plants live, by the light and the + warmth of the sun. To many generations this was self-evident, and + withal they felt themselves free, because they looked for the + freedom only of the dependent creature. And, keeping within these + bounds, they had a cheerful existence in the happy possession of + their faith, contented and serene in the possession of truth; their + higher spiritual life throve and flourished, promoted by the + Eternal Giver of light and warmth, who held out to them the + prospect of completing their mental life in the contemplation of + His eternal truth.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page231">[pg + 231]</span><a name="Pg231" id="Pg231" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What the fathers + deemed self-evident has now become a problem to their sons. What to + their fathers was lofty and revered, the things to which they + ascribed their ennoblement, have become to the sons an obstacle to + free development. They have forgotten what they are. They demand + independence and freest realization of their own individuality, in + which they see the sole source of greatness and progress. In every + dependence they perceive a hampering of their natural + development.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We have in + previous chapters become acquainted with this <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">liberal + freedom</span></em>, particularly in reasoning and in scientific + research, the child of the philosophy of humanitarianism and + subjectivism, the philosophy that emancipates man from God's rule, + from the immutable religious truths, and which sees in this + emancipation perfect freedom. We have listened to the arguments in + behalf of this position, especially arguments against the duty to + believe. All that we have set forth hitherto was to prove that such + a freedom is not required. In the faithful adherence to God's + revelation and to His Church there is no degradation of reason, an + exaltation rather; because to join in the eternal reason of its + Creator is not bondage but a privilege.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We proceed. We + shall demonstrate that this freedom is not only not required, but + that it is entirely untenable and ruinous; that it is especially so + because it is urged and demanded in the name of truth and proper + order, in the name of uplift of human intellectual life, and of + progress towards real enlightenment. We shall see that this freedom + is not a liberation from mean fetters, but simply a revolt against + the natural order, an apostasy from God and the supernatural which + one shuns. Hence, not the natural and orderly development of the + human individual, but a principle of negation under the garb of + freedom, the severance of man from the sources of his greatness and + strength, the perversion of true science; not the only admissible + scientific method, but an altogether unscientific method. We shall + show that it becomes thereby the principle of mental pauperization + and decay, a principle of mental decadence, which in the sphere of + idealism will reduce mankind to beggary. <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page232">[pg 232]</span><a name="Pg232" id="Pg232" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> Thereby public testimony is given that in the + midst of mankind there is needed an intelligent force that + preserves, with conscientious earnestness and unyielding firmness, + the intellectual inheritance of mankind, the ideal treasures of + truth and of morality.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page233">[pg 233]</span><a name= + "Pg233" id="Pg233" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc29" id="toc29"></a> <a name="pdf30" id="pdf30"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">Chapter I. Free From The Yoke Of The + Supernatural.</span></h2> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">Ignoramus, We Ignore.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The liberal + principle of research rests on the basis of the humanitarian view + of the world, which makes man autonomous, and causes him to turn + his eyes from above and downward, and to fix them upon his + earthly existence. To remain true to its own idea, this liberal + science will feel the necessity to sever itself gradually from + the restraining powers of the world beyond, and to shun the + thought of God and of His divine influence and supremacy over the + world and human life. It must resent such truths as a burdensome + yoke that oppresses human freedom.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And to this + thought it remains faithful, if not in all its representatives, + then at any rate in a good many of them. With unremitting + persistency it enforces in all its domains the demand: <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Science must not + reckon with supernatural factors</span></em>. Ignoramus is its + watchword, <span class="tei tei-q">“we do not know it”</span> in + the sense of its usual agnosticism, but <span class= + "tei tei-q">“we ignore it”</span> in the spirit of the impulse + which dreads the loss of its freedom through higher powers. + Creation and miracles, divine revelation and the God-imposed duty + of belief, it does not know. A moral law, as given by God, does + not exist for this science. It wants nothing to do with a + religion that worships a personal God, much less with a + supernatural religion, with mysteries, miracles, and grace. It + praises all the higher that modern religion of sentiment, without + dogmas and religious duties, which sovereign man creates for + himself, a poetical adornment of his individuality, a religion he + need not ask what he owes it, but rather what it offers him. All + connection with the world beyond is cut off. Man is now free in + his own house. We shall show this in detail, by the testimony + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page234">[pg 234]</span><a name= + "Pg234" id="Pg234" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> chiefly of men + generally accepted as foremost representatives of modern science. + We do not assert, however, that all representatives of modern + science belong here. Far be it from us to sit in judgment as to + the good intentions of the champions of liberal science. We know + very well that an education indifferent to religion, early + habitual association with the ideas of a sceptical, naturalistic + philosophy, the acquisition of prejudices and unsolved + difficulties, a continuous stay in an intellectual atmosphere + foreign and inimical to religious belief—all this, we well + understand, will gradually rob the mind of all inclination and + unbiassed judgment for religious truth, and thus make for + apostasy from religion. Nor do we assert that the idea of God and + Christianity are extinct in the hearts of the representatives of + liberal science, but we do assert that their <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">science</span></em> no longer wants to know + God and His true religion, that only too often it is in the grip + of a Theophobia, which slinks past God and His works, with its + eyes designedly averted.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At the same + time the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">unprepossession of this science</span></em> + will be made clear. <span class="tei tei-q">“A feeling of + degradation pervades the German university circles,”</span> so + the learned <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mommsen</span></span> expressed himself some + years ago when Strassburg was to get a Catholic chair of history; + therefore a Catholic who takes his Catholic view of the world as + his guide cannot be unprepossessed, hence cannot be a true + scientist. We have become used to this reproach; nevertheless it + is very painful to a Catholic, especially when he devotes his + life to scientific work. The other side claims very emphatically + to have a monopoly on unprepossession and truthfulness; it gives + most solemn assurances of not desiring anything but the truth, of + serving the truth alone, with persevering unselfishness, + unaffected by disposition and party interest, and that it has its + unbiassed spiritual eye turned only to the chaste sunlight of + truth. Hence, we may be permitted to inquire whether these + assurances square with the facts. As they demand belief, we may + also demand proofs; and if those assurances are accompanied by + sharp accusations, the accused will have even a greater right to + examine the deeds and records of this assertive + science.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page235">[pg + 235]</span><a name="Pg235" id="Pg235" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What about the + unprepossession of liberal science, especially in the province of + philosophy and religion? It cannot be our intention to explore + the whole territory in every direction. We shall keep to the + central and main road, the road to which chiefly lead all other + roads of life, we mean the attitude of this school of research + towards the world beyond. We find this attitude to be one of + persistent ignoring! Science cannot acknowledge the supernatural; + this presumption, unproved and impossible of proof, it never + loses sight of, it is even made a scientific principle, which is + called:</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">The Principle of Exclusive Natural + Causation.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This principle + demands that everything belonging to nature in its widest sense, + consequently all objects and events of irrational nature and of + human life, must be explained by natural causes only; + supernatural factors must not be brought in. To assume an + interposition by God, in the form of creation, miracle, or + revelation, is unscientific; he who does so is not a true + scientist. A presumption, a mandate of truly stupendous enormity! + How can it be proved that there is no God, that creation, + miracles, the supernatural origin of religion, are impossible + things? And if they are possible, why should it be forbidden to + make use of them in explaining facts which cannot otherwise be + explained?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">However, it is + readily admitted that the principle is merely a postulate, an + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">unproved</span></em> presumption.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The postulate of exclusive natural causation + tells us that natural events can have their causes only in other + natural events, and not in conditions lying outside of the + continuity of natural causality</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">; + so</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">W. + Wundt</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">. This is + a</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">postulate, + accepted by modern natural science partly tacitly, partly by open + profession.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Even where + an exact deduction is not possible, natural science nevertheless + acts under this supposition. It never will consider a natural + event to be causally explained, if it is attempted to derive that + event from other conditions than preceding natural + events.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Professor</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Jodl</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">protests against alliance with the + Catholic Church, for the reason that the latter does not + acknowledge the fundamental presumption of all scientific + research, namely, the uninterrupted natural causation, and + because the Church is essentially founded on supernatural + presumptions. Prof.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">A. + Messer</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">thinks he has + proved sufficiently the untenableness of the Catholic faith by + the simple appeal to this</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page236">[pg 236]</span><a name="Pg236" id="Pg236" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a><span style= + "font-size: 90%">presumption:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Natural sciences rest upon the presumption + that everything is causally determined. This means, that the + same causes must be followed by the same effects, and all + natural events take their course according to invariable laws. + It is against this presumption that the Church exacts a belief + in miracles, in immediate divine manifestations, not + explainable by natural causes.</span> <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">God</span></em> + <span style="font-size: 90%">is not a causal factor in the eyes + of natural science, because everything, and for that very + reason, nothing, could be explained through + Him.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">We see that the principle is + expressly admitted to be a mere presumption.</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">I concede + readily,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">says</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Paulsen</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">that the + law of natural causation is not a proven fact, but a demand or + presumption with which reason approaches the task of explaining + natural phenomena. But this postulate ... is the hard-fought + victory of long scientific effort.... Gradually there were + eliminated from the course of nature demoniacal influence and + the miraculous intervention of God, and in their stead the idea + of natural causation was installed.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is merely + another expression for the same thing if one calls, with + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Paulsen</span></span>, the unbroken causal + connection <span class="tei tei-q">“the fundamental presumption + of all our natural research”</span>; or concludes, with + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">A. + Drews</span></span>, that the assumption of a transcendental God, + beyond the visible, and in causal relation to the world, destroys + the universal conformity to laws in the world, the self-evident + presumption of all scientific knowledge; or one may say, with + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">F. + Steudel</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“The theory of + unbroken causal connection has become the fundamental + presupposition of all philosophical explanation of world + happenings. This finally disposes of a transcendental God, + together with his empiric correlative, the miracle, as a + philosophical explanation of the world.”</span> The same result + is achieved by declaring evolution from natural factors as the + universal world-law.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">I Know not God the Father, Almighty Creator + of Heaven and of Earth</span></em>”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">With + inexorable persistency this principle is now applied wherever + science meets with God and the world beyond. Hence, let us + proceed on our way and halt at some points to watch this science + at work.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The unbiassed + reasoning of the mind shows that this world, limited and finite, + in all its phenomena accidental and perishable, cannot have in + itself the cause of its existence, hence, that it <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page237">[pg 237]</span><a name="Pg237" id= + "Pg237" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> demands a supernatural + creative cause. This solution of the question is by no means + demonstrated by liberal science as untenable, it is simply + declined.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Natural science, once for all, has not the least + occasion to assume a supernatural act of + creation</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">; + this we are told by the famous historian of materialism,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">F. A. + Lange</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">.</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">To fall + back upon explanations of this sort amounts always to straying + from scientific grounds, which not only is not permissible in a + scientific investigation, but should never enter into + consideration.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">And</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"> + <span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">L. + Plate</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">states:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">A + creation of matter we cannot assume, nor would such an + assumption be any explanation at all; at most, it would be + tantamount to exchanging one question mark for another. We + natural scientists are modest enough, as matters now stand, to + forego a further solution of the question.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">They will subscribe to</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Du + Bois-Reymond's</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">ignoramus</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">rather than assume the only solution of the + question, an act of creation. This scientist, asking himself + the question, from where the world-matter received its first + impulse, argues:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Let us + try to imagine a primordial condition, where matter had not yet + been influenced by any cause, and we arrive at the conclusion + that matter an infinite time ago was inactive, and equally + distributed in infinite space. Since a supernatural impulse + does not fit into our theory of the universe, an adequate cause + for the first action is lacking.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus they + frankly violate the scientific method that demands acceptance of + the explanation demonstrated as necessary, and violate it only + for the reason to dodge the acknowledgment of a Creator. This is + not science, but politics.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But let us + ask, Why should it be against science to reckon with supernatural + factors? Is it because we cannot disclose with certainty the + other world? Are they not aware that such a principle is opposed + by the conviction of all mankind, that always held these + conceptions to be the highest, and therefore not to be considered + illusions? Do they not see, moreover, how they involve themselves + in flagrant contradictions? Does not science by means of its laws + of reasoning, especially on the principle of causality, + constantly infer invisible causes from visible facts? From + physical-chemical facts ether and physical atoms, which no man + has ever seen, are deduced: from falling stones and the movement + of astral bodies is inferred a universal gravitation, + undemonstrable by experience; from an anonymous letter is deduced + an author. The astronomer deduces from certain facts that fixed + stars must have dark companions, <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page238">[pg 238]</span><a name="Pg238" id="Pg238" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> visible to no one; from disturbances in the + movements of Uranus <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Leverrier</span></span> found by calculation + the existence and location of Neptune, then not as yet + discovered. Hence, what does it mean: <span class="tei tei-q">“to + fall back upon explanations of this sort always amounts to + straying away from scientific ground”</span>? Let us imagine a + noble vessel on the high seas to have become the victim of a + catastrophe. It lies now at the bottom of the sea. Fishes come + from all sides and stop musingly before the strange visitor. + Whence did this come? Was it made out of water? Impossible! Did + it creep up from the bottom of the sea? No! At last a fish + reasons: <span class="tei tei-q">“What we see here has + undoubtedly come down to us from a higher world, far above us, + and invisible to us.”</span> The speech meets with approval. But + another fish objects: <span class="tei tei-q">“Nonsense! To fall + back upon explanations of this sort always amounts to straying + away from the scientific grounds on which we fish must stand. We + cannot assume such a world to exist, because this would offend + against the first principle of our science, the principle of the + exclusive natural causation of sea and water.”</span> With these + words the speaker departs, wagging his tail, his speech having + been received with stupefaction rather than with + understanding.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To this + philosophy may be applied the word of the Apostle: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Beware lest any man cheat you by philosophy and vain + deceit”</span> (Col. ii. 8). No, it is not the spirit of true + science that opposes the belief in supernatural factors, but it + is the desertion of the traditions and the spirit of a better + science. To the representatives of paganism, to <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Plato</span></span> + and others, the highest goal of human quest of truth was to find + God and to worship Him. For the great leaders in recent natural + science, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Copernicus</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kepler</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Newton</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Linné</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Boyle</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Volta</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Faraday</span></span>, and <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Maxwell</span></span>, the highest + achievement was to point to God's wisdom in the wonderful works + of nature; their science ended in prayer. A principle of unbroken + natural causation, as a boycott of the Deity, was to them not a + postulate of science but an abomination. They were carried by a + conviction expressed by a later scientist, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">W. + Thomson</span></span>, in the following words: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Fear not to be independent thinkers! If you think + vigorously enough, you will be forced by science to believe in a + God, Who <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page239">[pg + 239]</span><a name="Pg239" id="Pg239" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + is the basis of all religion”</span>; and expressed by + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">R. + Mayer</span></span> in the following words: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“True philosophy must not and cannot be anything else + but the propædeutics of the Christian religion.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But let us + proceed. We have before us an astonishing <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">order</span></em>, we behold uncounted + wonders of well-designed purpose in the world. The question + suggests itself: Whence this Order? The watch originates from the + intelligence of a maker, an accident could not have produced it; + hence also the great world-machine must have had an intelligent + maker. This is the logic of unbiassed reason. But the principles + of liberal research object to the acceptance of this explanation. + What is theirs?</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">There have been some scientists endeavouring to + discover the purposeless in nature, and they have gleaned various + things.</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Haeckel</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">invented for them the name + Dysteleologists; and this is now the name they go by. Why the + destruction of so many living embryos? What is the purpose of + pain, of the vermiform appendix?</span> <span class="tei tei-q"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">To what purpose is the immense belt of desert + extending through both large continents of the Old World? Could + the Sahara not have been avoided?... Indeed, numerous forms of + life we cannot look at but with repugnance and horror; for + instance, the parasitical beings.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">... (</span><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">F. + Paulsen</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">). Hence the + order claimed for the world does not exist, on the + contrary,</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">it is + beyond doubt that the most essential means of nature is of a + kind which can only be put on a level with the blindest + accident</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(</span><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">F. A. + Lange</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">). But they do + not feel satisfied with this. They feel that even if all these + things were actually purposeless, they would amount only to a + few drops in the immense ocean of order which still has to be + explained. At most, they would form but a few typographical + errors in an otherwise ingenious book,—errors that evidently + are no proof that the whole book is a mass of nonsense and not + dictated by reason.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There appears + to them, like a rescuing plank in a shipwreck, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Darwin's</span></span> Natural Selection. + The artistic forms in the kingdom of plants and animals arose, + says <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Darwin</span></span>, by the fact that, + among numerous seemingly tentative formations, there were some + useful organs or their rudiments which survived in the struggle + for existence and became hereditary in the offspring, while + others disappeared. It was seen very soon, and it is even better + understood to-day, that this enormous feat of <span class= + "tei tei-q">“natural selection”</span> is contrary to the facts, + and would be, above all, an incredible accident. Nevertheless + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Darwin</span></span> has become the rescuing + knight for many who became alarmed about the threatening + Supernaturalism.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page240">[pg + 240]</span><a name="Pg240" id="Pg240" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Du + Bois-Reymond</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">speaks + very frankly:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Albeit, in + holding to this theory we may feel like a man kept from drowning + only by holding firmly to a plank just strong enough to keep him + afloat. But when we have to choose between a plank and death, the + preference will decidedly be with the plank.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">The + same idea is expressed somewhat more gracefully by</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">W. + Ostwald</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">That the + quite complicated problem concerning the purposiveness of + organism loses its character of a riddle, at least in principle, + and assumes the aspect of a scientific task, all by virtue of + this simple thought ... is a gain that cannot be sufficiently + appreciated.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">With vehement plainness</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">H. Spitzer</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">maintains:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Purposiveness in nature, which was feared by + positive research like a ghost, because it really seemed only to + be due to the intervention of ghosts in the course of the world, + has now been traced by</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Darwin</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">to its origin from natural causes, + and he thereby made it a fit object for the science that is at + home only in the sphere of natural causes.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">To the height of this point of + view,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">D. F. Strauss</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">boasts,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">we have been led by modern natural research + in</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Darwin</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span><a id="noteref_8" + name="noteref_8" href="#note_8"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">8</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">At any rate one thing is settled:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">The + theological explanation must be rejected,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">as</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Plate</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">puts it.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">It sees in adaptation the proof for the love + and kindness of a Creator, who has ordered all organisms most + conformable to their purpose. Natural Science cannot accept + such an explanation.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Is this the + boasted spirit of truthfulness, which desires only the truth,—but + is evading it persistently? Is this that unbiassed eye that seeks + only the truth? Truly, it seems to be unsound, since it cannot + bear the rays of truth. Let us go to another workshop of liberal + science. It is known now that our earth has once been a ball of + glowing fluid, with a temperature in which no living being could + exist. Consequently the latter must have appeared at a later + stage of evolution. As a fact, palæontology does not show any + remnants of organisms in the lower strata of the earth. Now again + a question suggests itself to the scientist, <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Whence did the + first life come from?</span></em> We have the choice of only two + explanations: either it has risen by itself, out of unorganic, + dead matter, or it was produced by <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page241">[pg 241]</span><a name="Pg241" id="Pg241" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the hand of a Creator: either by + <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">generatio + aequivoca</span></span> or the act of creation. Now there has + never been observed a <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">generatio + aequivoca</span></span>, as is testified to by natural science + itself, and never has it been accomplished in the laboratory. + Therefore, inasmuch as the natural laws of olden times cannot + have been any different from those of the present, there has + never been a primordial genesis. Do they perhaps give the Creator + his due here, where the case is so obvious? Let us see.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The noted zoölogist,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">R. + Hertwig</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + writes:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Inasmuch as + there has doubtless been a time when the prevailing temperature + of our globe made any life impossible, there must have been a + time when life on it arose either by an act of creation or by + primordial genesis. If, conformable to the spirit of natural + sciences, we are relying only on natural forces for an + explanation of natural phenomena, then we are necessarily led to + the hypothesis of primordial genesis,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">although it contradicts all experience. But the + deduction is only brought forth as a</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">logical postulate</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">: + there</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">must</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">be + such genesis after creation is eliminated.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">We natural scientists say,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">states</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Plate</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">that all + living beings must have originated some time in former + geological periods ... from dead, unorganic matter; to assume a + creation would be no explanation at all, exactly as it would be + no explanation to assume the creation of + matter.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Which philosophy teaches that it + is not an explanation of a fact to assume for it the only + reasonable cause? But just this cause they do not want.</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Virchow</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">says in this respect:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">If I do + not wish to assume a creative act, if I desire to explain the + matter in my way, then it is clear that I must resort to</span> + <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">generatio + aequivoca</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">.</span> + <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Tertium + non datur.</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">There is + nothing else left, if one once has said:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">I do not accept creation, but I want an + explanation of it.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">’</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">If this is the first thesis, the second thesis + is, ergo, I accept the</span> <span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">generatio + aequivoca</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">.</span> + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">But we have no actual + proof of it.</span></em><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">Hence</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Haeckel</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">only follows the lead of others + when he writes:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">We admit + that this process (</span><em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">primordial + genesis</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">) must remain a + pure hypothesis, as long as it is not directly observed or + duplicated by experiment. But I repeat that this hypothesis is + indispensable for the entire coherence of the history of + natural creation. Unless you accept the hypothesis of + primordial genesis at this one point in the theory of + evolution, you must take refuge in the miracle of a + supernatural creation.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Is this + science, or is it not rather Theophobia? Does the freedom of + science consist, first of all, in the privilege of emancipating + one's self from truth, whenever truth is not to one's taste? + True, liberal science will then be free from distasteful truths, + but all the more shackled by its irreligious prejudices.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In modern + times, the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">theory of evolution</span></em> is in high + favour. <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page242">[pg + 242]</span><a name="Pg242" id="Pg242" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + On earth we do not only see life, but life in a great variety of + forms, from plant to man. The question, whence this variety, + admits in its turn only of the alternative: either it was + immediately created by God's hand, or it is the result of a slow + evolution from common original forms. Whether there has been an + evolution within the vegetable and animal kingdom is a problem + for natural science. But it is a philosophical question, whether + the essentially superior human soul, endowed with spirituality + and reason, could have evolved from the inferior animal soul. + Philosophy must answer: No, just as impossible as to evolve ten + from two, or a whole book from a single proofsheet. Faith says + the human soul is created by God. We do not intend to discuss the + problem here any further, but shall only point out how science + here, too, expressly or tacitly, is determined very energetically + by the presumption of the exclusive natural causation; this is + applied to the entire theory of evolution, but especially in + regard to man.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The notion of the evolution of the living world + on earth,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">thus states</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Weismann</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">quite significantly,</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">extends far + beyond the provinces of individual sciences, and it influences + our entire range of thoughts. This notion means nothing less than + the elimination of miracle from our knowledge of nature, and the + classification of the phenomena of life on an equal footing with + the rest of natural events.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">The + guiding motive is plainly in evidence.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The aim to + eliminate the <span class="tei tei-q">“miracle of + creation”</span> is manifested even more conspicuously in the + question about the origin of man: man with his entire equipment, + intellectual as well as cultural, must have evolved upward from + the most imperfect rudiments; this is regarded as a self-evident + proposition.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">M. + Hoernes</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, for instance, + writes:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">The + Cosmogonies,</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + the theories of creation, of all nations ascribe the origin of + man to a supernatural act of creation, whereby the Creator is + imagined as a human being, because at the intellectual stage + corresponding to these notions something created could only be + conceived as something formed, something + constructed.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Thus the theory of creation, and + the Christian doctrine of the genesis of man, is disposed of as + a notion of the lower intellect.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">On the contrary, we are taught by science to + look upon the highest mammals as our nearest + blood-relatives.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">This</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">we are taught by science,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">although it is confessed:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">We know the fact of the existence of the man + of the fourth, or glacial, period, but we have</span> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page243">[pg 243]</span><a name= + "Pg243" id="Pg243" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style= + "font-size: 90%">not a solitary fact that would throw light + upon his origin and his previous existence.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The theory of miracles can be given up only + when we shall cease to contemplate man as a creature apart from + the rest of creation, and look upon him as a being developed + within creation to what he is now. Then, however, reason and + language, as well as man himself, are the products of a + continuous evolution,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">says</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Wundt</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">in his</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Psychology of Nations.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Fr. + Müller</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, in a + text-book on the science of language, argues:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">According + to</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Darwin</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">and to modern natural science, man + was not created but has evolved from a lower organism during a + process of thousands and thousands of years.... For this + reason, we must (?) assume that the first language of primitive + man could not have ranked above the speech by which animals + living in families communicate with each + other.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">On the basis of this truly dogmatical + presumption, that the</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">miracle theory</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">of creation must not be accepted, they proceed + then to construe one hypothesis upon another, of the origin of + language, of thought, of conscience, of religion, according to + the method of</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Darwin</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">and</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Spencer</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + hypotheses of utmost arbitrariness, and frequently most + fantastic.</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Ethnographical researches,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">so we are told by</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">E. + Lehmann</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">made by + travellers, representatives of science and of practical life, + in all parts of the globe, ... are starting to-day, almost + without exception, from the tacit presumption that the + civilization of peoples living in the primitive state represent + an early and low stage in a historical chain of + evolution.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">All these are + suitable commentaries upon the trite proposition that natural + science, or more generally science, is incompatible with + religious belief. Of course research, like that described above, + does not agree with Faith. But the fault lies in its unscientific + method, rather than in its scientific character, in its latent + atheistic presumption which prevents an unbiassed conception of + truth.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">In February, 1907, the well-known biologist and + priest of the Jesuit order,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">E. + Wasmann</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, gave three + lectures in Berlin on the theory of evolution, before a large + audience; they were followed on the fourth evening by a + discussion, in the course of which eleven opponents voiced for + nearly three hours their objections and attacks, to which</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Wasmann</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">replied + briefly at midnight, but little time having been allotted to + him for this purpose.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Wasmann</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + as well as his chief opponent, Prof.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Plate</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">of + Berlin, have published the arguments on both sides with notes, + comments, and supplements. The report of Prof.</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Plate</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">lays stress upon the assertion, + which had also formed the refrain of all opposing speeches, + viz.,</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">the + discussion has shown, in the first place, that true research in + natural science is impossible for those taking the position of + the Roman Catholic Church; secondly, the glaring and + irreconcilable</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page244">[pg + 244]</span><a name="Pg244" id="Pg244" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">opposition of + the scientific theory of the world to the Orthodox-Christian + view was sharply manifested.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">In examining how this was demonstrated by this + particular natural science, one meets with a painful + surprise.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Even the facts concerning the arrangements for + the discussion make an unpleasant impression. It is + true,</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Plate</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">accused</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Wasmann</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">of calumny on account of the + latter's complaint. However, upon comparing closely the + statements of both, the following facts remain + undisputed.</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Wasmann</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">notified</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Plate</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">that he desired to speak twice + during the discussion, and that the entire discussion should + not last much over two hours.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Plate</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">promised to arrange matters + accordingly. But on the forenoon of February 18th, the + opponents held a meeting,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Plate</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">presiding, and they resolved, + without the least notification to</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Wasmann</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + that there should be eleven speakers against</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Wasmann</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + and that the latter should reply but once, at the end. Only + just before the beginning of the discussion, the same + evening,</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Plate</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">informed</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Wasmann</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">of the arrangement, making it + practically impossible for the latter to change the situation. + Furthermore, upon</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Plate's</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">proposal, an intermission of five + minutes before the appearance of the tenth speaker was decided + upon,</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">in order + to give those in the audience, who might find the session too + exhausting, a chance to leave.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">Thus the audience was to be subjected for + three long hours to the influence of heated attacks on Theism, + Christianity, and the Church, and without hearing the reply + unless they held out from half-past eight in the evening to + half-past twelve in the morning.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Plate's</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Monism rejects principally + everything metaphysical:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Monism is the short term for the natural + science view of the world, that rejects all preternatural and + supernatural ideas.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">Solutions, not given by the natural sciences, + simply do not exist for him; for him the sun sets on the + horizon of his natural science.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Natural laws comprise all that we are able to + fathom: what is behind them, or what is living in them and + operates in them, is the ultimate question for philosophy, and + there one thinks this way, another that way</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Plate</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">). + Nevertheless, he knows that</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Out of nothing can come nothing: hence matter + is eternal,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">and he is certain that there is no + personal God, no angel nor devil, no beyond nor immortality. + Whoever fails to think the same way is no scientist, he is not + even a man of sound reason: because</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">he who has grasped even the elements of + natural science, the unity and strict conformity to law of the + natural forces, and has a head for sound reasoning, will become + a monist all by himself, while the rest are past help, + anyhow.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The Polytheism of the orthodox + Church,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">he says further, referring to the + mystery of the Trinity,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">is irrational</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">; + for</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Common + Sense says that 3 is not equal to 1, nor 1 to + 3,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">and this is sufficient for</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Plate</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">.</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Trinity, + the Incarnation of the Son of God, Christ's Ascension and His + descent into hell, Original Sin, Redemption from sin by + Christ's sacrifice, Angels and Devils, the Immaculate + Conception, the Infallibility of the Pope, all these and many + other doctrines of the orthodox Church are thrown to the winds + by anybody convinced of the permanence and imperviousness of + the natural laws.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">This again is</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page245">[pg 245]</span><a name="Pg245" id="Pg245" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">sufficient + for him.</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">The + question whether God is personal or + impersonal,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">says he, in another place,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">should never be raised: it is just as + preposterous as the question whether God has eyes or + not.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Another of his arguments reads:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">If the + body after death can become dust by natural means, then there + must have been conditions under which the dust became by + natural means a body.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">An analogous argument would be:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">If a book + can of itself finally wear away into withered and loosened + leaves, then there must be conditions under which the perfect + book could originate all by itself, and without Prof.</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Plate</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + out of withered, loose leaves.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Plate</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">assures us:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">I do not know anything about + metaphysics.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">We + do not want to dispute that. It is regrettable that so many + scientists of our times are betraying a pitiable lack of + philosophical training, a lack which becomes a social danger if + they, nevertheless, yield to the temptation to invade the + domain of Philosophy. Even the Protestant scientist</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">G. Wobbermin</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">in referring to the + above-mentioned discussion remarked:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Wasmann's</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">opponents on that evening have + betrayed without exception a really amazing lack of + philosophical training.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">In glaring contrast with this ignorance stands + their intolerance for any different theory of the world. + Because he thinks as a Christian,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Wasmann</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">is peremptorily expelled from the + ranks of natural scientists.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Father + Wasmann</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">is not a + true natural scientist, he is not a true + scholar.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">With this crushing verdict + Prof.</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Plate</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">concluded his speech. He repeats + this finding on the last page of his book in conspicuous + type:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Father + Wasmann</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, S. J., no + true natural scientist, no true scholar.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">That his opponent, in answer to questions that + go beyond mere natural science, is giving philosophical + replies, in accord with the doctrine of Christianity, is + explained by</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">his + voluntary or involuntary submission to the + Church,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">natural + science bows to Theology.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">He therefore lacks</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">the freedom of thought and of + deduction.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Sophistical stunts in the service + of intolerance! But let us proceed on our way.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The compulsory + dogma of the inadmissibility of a supernatural order of the + world, and of its operation in the visible world, becomes most + manifest when liberal science comes in contact with the miracle. + Forsooth, it shirks this contact. But time and again, now and in + the past, it is confronted by clearly attested facts and it + cannot avoid noticing them. However, it is determined from the + outset that miracles are impossible. Of course, this cannot be + proved except by the presumption that there is no supermundane + God. Even the agnostic <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Stuart Mill</span></span> admits that if the + existence of God is conceded, an effect produced by His will, + which in every instance owes its origin to its creator, appears + no longer as a purely arbitrary hypothesis, but must be + considered a serious possibility (Essays, 1874). <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page246">[pg 246]</span><a name="Pg246" id= + "Pg246" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Generally, however, liberal + science does not try hard to demonstrate in a scientific way the + impossibility.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">It is my unyielding + conviction,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">so speaks</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">A. + Harnack</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, and his is + perhaps the most telling expression of this dogmatic mood,</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">that + anything that happens within time and space is subject to the + laws of motion. Hence, that in this sense,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + of interrupting the natural connection, there cannot be any + miracles.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">One simply does not believe such + things.</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">That a + tempest at sea,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">thus</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Harnack</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">again,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">could have been stilled by a word we do not + believe, nor shall we ever again believe it.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">Similarly reads</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Baumgarten's</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">declaration regarding the + resurrection of Christ:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Even if all the reports had been written on + the third day, and had been transmitted to us as a certainty + ... nevertheless modern consciousness could not accept the + story.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">And</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">W. Foerster</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">writes:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The supposition that such interferences do not + occur, and that everything in the world is advancing steadily + and in accordance with fixed laws, forms the indispensable + presumption of scientific research.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">And</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">H. von Sybel</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">holds</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">An absolute concord with the laws of + evolution, a common level in the existence of things + terrestrial, forms the presumption of all knowledge: it stands + and falls with it.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This is the + presumption, from which is drawn the most extravagant conclusion, + which, though so manifestly improper, is made the basis for + rejecting the entire supernatural religion of Christianity. + Because God's Incarnate Son, in a small town of Palestine, once + turned water into wine, will the Christian housewife lose her + confidence in the stability of water? When it was suddenly + discovered that the orbit of the planet Uranus was not a perfect + ellipsis, as required by the law of <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kepler</span></span>, was it thought that + these deviations are impossible because there must not be any + exception to the law of perfect elliptical movements? Happily, + this law continued to be accepted without deeming an irregularity + impossible, and shortly afterwards Neptune was discovered and + found to be the cause of the disturbance. But anything + miraculous, no matter how well proven, must be considered + unacceptable by reason of such unsound presumption. Philosophical + a-priorism is superior to facts.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Thus</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">St. + Augustine</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">tells in + his work</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">De + civitate Dei</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(1. xxii. c. 8) of a number of + miracles happening in his time, of which he had knowledge + either as eye-witness or by authentical reports from + eye-witnesses.</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">E. Zeller</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">renders judgment on the historical + value of the statement as follows:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The narrator is a contemporary, and partly + even</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page247">[pg + 247]</span><a name="Pg247" id="Pg247" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">an + eye-witness, of the events reported: by virtue of his episcopal + office he is particularly commissioned to closely investigate + them; we know him as a man overtowering his contemporaries in + intellect and knowledge, second to none in religious zeal, + strong faith, and moral earnestness. The wonderful events + happened to well-known persons, sometimes in the presence of + big crowds of people; they were attested and recorded by + official order.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">Hence the statement must be accepted without + objection. But must it not also be believed? is the query of an + unbiassed listener. Not in the judgment of one who is in the + tyrannical yoke of his presumptions.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">What are we to say about + it?</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">continues</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Zeller</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + and finds that</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">in this + unparalleled aggregation of miracles we can after all see + nothing else but a proof of the credulity of that + age.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The report is incontestable, but it must not + be believed!</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">In our times</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Lourdes</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">has become the scene of events + which are founded on facts, and the miraculous character has + been proven at least of some of them.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Bertrin</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + in his</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Histoire + critique des evénéments de Lourdes,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">deals with the attitude of the physicians + toward the miracles. The believing physician can enter upon his + investigation without prejudice: not so the unbelieving + physician and scientist, who is shackled by his prejudice + against the possibility of miracles. Of this a few + examples:</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">How did you get cured?</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">was the question put by a physician to a young + woman who, after having suffered for four years from a + suppurating inflammation of the hip joints, complicated by + caries, had a few days previously suddenly regained her full + health. Pains and sores had disappeared.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">By whom was I cured? By the Blessed + Virgin!</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Never + mind the Blessed Virgin,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">replied the physician.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Young woman, why don't you admit that you had + been assured in advance that you would get well. You were told + that, once in Lourdes, you would suddenly rise from the box + wherein you were lying. That sort of thing happens—we call it + suggestion.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">The girl replied, unhesitatingly, + that it did not happen this way at all. Finally the physician + offered her money if she would admit having really been cured + by suggestion. The girl declined the offer.—Another girl + arrived in Lourdes, with a physician's attestation that she was + a consumptive. She is cured after the first bath. At the bureau + of verification her lungs were found to be no longer diseased. + Her physician's statement having been very brief, a telegram + was sent to him as a matter of precaution, asking him for + another statement without, however, informing him of the cure. + The physician immediately wired back:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">She is a consumptive.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">This was also the opinion of other physicians + who had treated the girl. The girl joyfully returns home, and + hurries to her physician, requesting him to certify to her + cure. He does so quite reluctantly. Upon reading his + certificate, she discovers that it said she had been cured, but + only of a</span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">cough</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">. + The case of consumption of his original testimonial had changed + into a cough. His dread of a miracle had induced this physician + to commit a falsehood.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">A. + Rambacher</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, as he + relates in a pamphlet, sent the scientific treatise on Lourdes + by Dr.</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Boissarie</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">to Prof.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Haeckel</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + with the request to read</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page248">[pg 248]</span><a name="Pg248" id="Pg248" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">it, in order + to gain a better notion of the existence of a supernatural + world. After some urging he finally received the following + reply, which speaks volumes for the attitude of the natural + scientist towards facts:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">With many thanks I hereby return the book by + Dr.</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Boissarie</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">on the Great Cures of Lourdes + which you sent me. The perusal of the same has convinced me + anew of the tremendous power of superstition (glorified + as</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style="font-size: 90%">pious + belief</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">’</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">) + of naïve credulity (without critical examination), and of + contagious collective suggestion, as well as of the cunning of + the clergy, exploiting them for their gain.... The physicians, + said to testify in behalf of the</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">miracles</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">’</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">and the supernatural phenomena, are either + ignorant and undiscerning quacks, or positive frauds in + collusion with the priests. The most accurate description of + the gigantic swindle of Lourdes I know of, is that of</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Zola</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">in his well-known novel.... With + repeated thanks for your kindness ...</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Ernst + Haeckel</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">Against all the facts in evidence this + dogmatic scientist was safely intrenched behind the stone wall + of his presumptions. He knew in advance that everything was + superstition or the fraud of cunning priests, that all + physicians who certified to cures were quacks and + cheats.</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Zola's</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">tendentious romance considered the + best historical source! Mention should be made here how this + celebrated novelist dealt with facts at Lourdes. In the year + 1892, the time of the great pilgrimage,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Zola</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">went to Lourdes. He wanted to + observe and then tell what he had seen. An historical novel it + was to be; time and again he had proclaimed in the newspapers + that he would tell the whole truth. At Lourdes all doors were + opened to him; he had admittance anywhere; he could interview + and obtain explanations at will. How he kept his promise to + report the truth may be shown by a single instance:</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Marie + Lebranchu</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">came to + Lourdes on August 20, 1892, suffering from incurable + consumption. She was suddenly cured, and never had a relapse. + One year after her cure she returned to the miraculous Grotto. + The excellent condition of her lungs was again verified. Now, + what does</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Zola</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">make of this event? In his novel + the cured girl suffers a terrible relapse upon her first return + home,</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">a brutal + return of the disease which remained + victorious,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">we read in</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Zola's</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">book. One day, the president of + the Lourdes Bureau of Investigation introduced himself + to</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Zola</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">in Paris, and asked him</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">How dare + you let</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Marie + Lebranchu</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">die in your + novel; you know very well that she is alive and just as well as + you and I.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">What do I + care,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">was</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Zola's</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">reply,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">I think I have the right to do as I please + with the characters I create.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">If a romancer desires to avail himself of this + privilege he certainly has not the right to proclaim his novels + as truthful historical writings, much less may others see in + such a novel the</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">most + accurate description of the events at + Lourdes.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Renan</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">at one time said:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Oh, if we + just once might have a miracle brought before professional + scientists! But, alas! this will never + happen!</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">He borrowed this saying + from</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Voltaire</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + with the difference that the latter demanded God to perform a + miracle before the Academy of Sciences, as if there were need + for miracles in a physical or chemical laboratory. Those who + desire in earnest to investigate miracles ought to go where + they are performed. And even there, where the eyes can</span> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page249">[pg 249]</span><a name= + "Pg249" id="Pg249" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style= + "font-size: 90%">see them, it also takes good will to + acknowledge them. In this respect an interview is instructive + which</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Zola</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">once had with an editor. The + latter asked:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">If you + were witness to a miracle, that would occur under strictest + conditions suggested by yourself, would you acknowledge the + miracle? Would you then accept the teachings of the + faith?</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">After a few moments of serious + thought,</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Zola</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">replied:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">I do not know, but I do not believe I + would</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(</span><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Bertrin</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">). + On April 7, 1875, there came to the Belgian sanctuary, + Oostacker, a Flemish labourer, by name</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Peter de + Rudder</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, whose leg + had eight years before been broken below the knee, and who was + then suffering from two suppurating cancerous sores, that had + formed at the place of the fracture and on the foot. He + suddenly was entirely cured. The case was investigated in a + most exact way. In 1900 a treatise concerning the case was + published by three physicians.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">E. Wasmann</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">had as early as 1900 published a + short extract of it in the</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Stimmen aus Maria Laach.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">In February, 1907, when, at Berlin, he + delivered his lectures which were followed by a discussion, his + opponents, headed by Prof.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Plate</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + did not know of this article. When they learned of it, some + time afterwards, he was put under the ban because he</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">had + degraded himself to the position of a charlatan by vouching + with his scientific repute for the happening of a miraculous + cure</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">; + and they said</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">they + would fight him in the same way as they would fight every + quack, but as a scientist he was discarded.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Plate</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">had on the evening of the + discussion asked of the assembled scientists the + question:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Have we + ever observed anything like a suspension of the natural laws? + The reply to it is an unconditional</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">we have not</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">’</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">; + consequently Theism becomes inadmissible to the natural + scientist.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Here, in the</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">de Rudder</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">case, is found the required + instance. But</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Plate</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">knows, in advance of any + investigation, that it is a fairy tale, believed without + critical examination. And Prof.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Hansemann</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + another opposing speaker of that evening, subsequently sent + word to</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Wasmann</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">that:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">One can pretty well judge what to think of a + natural scientist who publishes such stuff. For this reason I + now declare that I shall never in future, no matter how or + where, enter into discussion of matters of natural science with + Mr.</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Wasmann</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">When on a certain occasion</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Hegel</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">was advised that some facts did + not agree with his philosophical notions, he replied:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">The more + pity for the facts.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The English + natural scientist, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">W. Thomson</span></span>, once said before + the British Society at Edinburgh: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Science is bound by eternal honour to face + fearlessly every problem that can be clearly laid before + it.”</span> The equally famous <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Faraday</span></span>, in the name of + empirical research, demands of its adherents the determination to + stand or to fall with the results of a direct appeal to the facts + in the first place, and with the strict logical deductions + therefrom in the second. In general these principles are adhered + to so long as religious notions are not encountered. <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page250">[pg 250]</span><a name="Pg250" id= + "Pg250" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> But as soon as these are + sighted, the engine is reversed, and all scientific principles + are forgotten.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A science led + by this spirit will set out to emancipate man's moral conduct of + life from God and religion. Indeed, the first postulate of modern + ethics directs that <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">morality</span></em> must be <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">independent of + religion</span></em>. That God and eternal salvation is the end + of man, the ultimate norm of his moral life, that God's Command + is the ultimate reason of the moral obligation, and divine + sanction its strongest support, it does not want to acknowledge. + Here, too, we find the principle of natural causality in + operation. <span class="tei tei-q">“As in physics God's will must + not be made to serve as an explanation, so likewise in the theory + of moral phenomena. Both the natural and the moral world, as they + exist, may point beyond themselves to something transcendental. + But we cannot admit the transcendental ... a scientific + explanation will have to be wholly immanent, and + anthropological”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Paulsen</span></span>). According to this + approved principle of ignoration, the supreme aim and law of a + morality without religion is <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">man</span></em>, + his earthly happiness, and his culture.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Its aims, according to Prof.</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Jodl</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + one of its noted champions, are:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Promotion of moral life, fostering of a + refined humanity, development of a true fellow-feeling, without + the religious and metaphysical notions upon which mankind + hitherto has mostly built its ethical + ideals.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Kant</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">was the pioneer here:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">In so far + as morality is based on the conception of man as a free, being, + it requires neither the idea of a superior being to make him + cognizant of his duties, nor any motive but the law itself in + order to observe it ... hence morality for its own sake does + not by any means need religion.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">This is the viewpoint of the autonomous man, + who is his own law.</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">From the + viewpoint of authority,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">so tells us</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">E. von + Hartmann</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">autonomy + does not mean anything else but that in ethical matters I am + for myself the highest court without appeal.... The God, Who in + the beginning spoke to His children from a fiery cloud ... has + descended into our bosom, and, transformed into our own being, + speaks out of us as a moral autonomy.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Diis extinctis successit + humanitas.</span></span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“Although an individual representative of science may + be a believer in God in his private life,”</span> so argues the + English philosopher, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">W. James</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“at any rate the times have passed when it could be + said that the heavens announce to science the glory of God, and + that the heaven shows the works of His hands.”</span> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page251">[pg 251]</span><a name= + "Pg251" id="Pg251" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> The flight from + divinity, atheism open or disguised, is the psychological effect + of the liberal principle. Free thought aims to free man of all + authority, it aims at severing from religion his entire + existence, marriage, state, schools, and likewise science. + <span class="tei tei-q">“It is undeniable,”</span> we hear from + the lips of champions of modern man, standing on the pinnacle of + religious liberalism, <span class="tei tei-q">“that there is a + certain forsakenness in this existence of man, as compared to a + life brightened by the idea of a God,”</span> but that + forsakenness is not purchased too dearly, for <span class= + "tei tei-q">“it is the solitude of autonomy, a possession so + precious that no price for it could be too high”</span> + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Carneri</span></span>).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Indeed, these + modern men use even plainer language: science is applauded for + having at last freed man from God. With <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kant's</span></span> principle that we + cannot know anything of the supernatural, we are told, there + <span class="tei tei-q">“were thrown overboard the cosmogonic + notions of the Semitic races, notions that have so severely + oppressed our science and religion, and are still oppressing + them.... By this insight an idol is smashed. In a previous + chapter I called the Israelites the worshippers of abstract + idols; now, I believe, I shall be fully understood.”</span> + Indeed, we understand. It means: Away with God. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“This German metaphysics frees us from idolatry and + reveals to us the living divinity in our own bosom”</span> + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Chamberlain</span></span>).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This is the + manner in which this free thought, within science and without, is + fulfilling the earnest admonition of the Psalmist: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Seek ye the Lord and be strengthened: seek His face + evermore”</span> (Ps. civ. 4), and it turns into irony the words: + <span class="tei tei-q">“This is the generation of them that seek + Him, of them that seek the face of the God of Jacob”</span> (Ps. + xxiii. 6).</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 120%">“</span><span style="font-size: 120%">I Know + not Jesus Christ, His Only Begotten Son, Our + Lord.</span><span style="font-size: 120%">”</span></span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Where the + thought of independence and of this world enslaves the minds, and + holds them captive in harsh aversion to the supernatural, an + objective judgment on the nature and history of the Christian + religion, to say nothing of the Catholic Church, can hardly be + hoped for. What may be expected is that <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page252">[pg 252]</span><a name="Pg252" id="Pg252" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> we will also meet here with a science + which, with its hands held before the eye that fears the light, + wards off and combats everything that is specifically Christian. + It is to be feared only that it will turn light into darkness + regarding the view of life, as also the doctrine and history, of + the Christian religion.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Regarding the + Christian view of life we need only read the superficial and yet + so arrogant discussions of Christian philosophy, as found in + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Paulsen</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Wundt</span></span>, or <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">E. von + Hartmann</span></span>. From this judicial bench the wisdom of + Him, of Whom it is said <span class="tei tei-q">“And we saw His + glory, full of grace and truth,”</span> we see condemned, if not + even treated with subtle ridicule.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Let us for + instance take <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Paulsen's</span></span> presentment of the + <span class="tei tei-q">“View of Life under Christianity.”</span> + Whoever reads it, and believes it, to him the teaching of Jesus + Christ can only be, what the Apostle said it was to the heathens, + foolishness. No longer can he have adoration for its Founder, but + rather the pity that one has for an enthusiastic visionary devoid + of any knowledge of the world and men. The wisdom taught by + Christ is distorted into a sombre grimace, while side by side + with it the conception of life of Hellenic paganism is + transfigured into a beautiful ideal.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">We are told there:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">While classical antiquity saw as the task of + life the perfect development of the natural powers and talents of + man, ... Christianity with clear consciousness makes the contrary + the goal of life.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The cultivation and exercise of intellectual + faculties was of great importance to the Greeks.... Primitive + Christianity looks upon reason and natural cognition with + indifference, even with suspicion and contempt ... indeed, + natural reason and knowledge are an obstacle for the kingdom of + God. Christianity at first was indifferent, even inimical, not + only to philosophy and science, but also to art and poetry. It + cuts off not only sensual but also æsthetical + gratification,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">because</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">St. + John</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">condemned the + gratification of the eyes (which means something quite different + from æsthetical gratification) Christianity is said to + reject</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">the arts of + the Muses and athletics: they belong to that sowing of the flesh + of which the harvest is perdition.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">What the Christians valued highly was not + erudition and eloquence, but silence. Silence is the first thing + recommended by</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Ambrose</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(and he the great and renowned + representative of early Christian eloquence!). There is + more:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">In the + primitive view the first virtue was valour, especially valour + in war; indeed, in Greek and Latin speech the word 'virtue' + meant valour; the Christian's virtue, however, is patience and + endurance. He does not draw the sword; to him are expressly + forbidden not only anger, hatred, and private revenge, but even + litigation.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page253">[pg 253]</span><a name="Pg253" id="Pg253" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">In this tendentious strain</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Paulsen</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">continues, with exaggerations and + misrepresentations that have nothing in common with science. + According to the Greek view, he says, high-mindedness was a + great virtue, but, naturally, the Christian is not allowed to + have it;</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">the + virtue of the Christian is humility,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + in</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Paulsen's</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">sense low-mindedness; this + is</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">the + starting point of Christianity.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">True, the author assures us that Christianity + of to-day is no longer the one he is describing; it has adapted + itself more to the world. But it is sad to have this gloomy, + visionary fanaticism described to us as the one which was + taught by the words of Jesus Himself.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The adherent of this Christianity looks upon + governments and their aims as something essentially foreign to + it, even to be an official</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">would doubtless have been felt as a + contradiction</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">; + but a sudden change is said to have taken place under</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Constantine</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">. + Earthly joys and benefits, the holy ties of the family, those + that Jesus in person blessed at Cana, they were, according + to</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">St. + Paul</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, so we are + told, in the spirit of Christ things to avoid and + condemn.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">And how are these theological discoveries + proven, what sources are quoted in substantiation? By some + arbitrarily selected passages of the Scriptures, that one must + hate father and mother, wife and child, brother and sister; + that the poor in spirit are blessed, that the lust of the eye + is sinful, that evil should not be resisted; and in quoting + these passages all scientific interpretation is carefully + avoided, all the writers who have amply explained them are + ignored. And what the scriptural passages fail to prove must be + demonstrated by some extreme statement borrowed from</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Tertullian</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + who is generally prone to exaggeration. As a matter of course, + gloomy Christianity then seems inferior to the brilliancy of + Greek paganism; Christianity is directly a danger to + civilization; it may be good enough for those tired of + life.</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">The + objection has been made that the fulfilment of this command + would destroy our entire civilization. Most probably this would + be the case. But where is it written (in Holy Writ) that our + civilization must be preserved?</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">We have here the picture formed of the + doctrine of Christ by the world, whereof the Lord has + predicted: the world will hate you.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Paulsen</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">admits frankly:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Whence + this hatred? Because the Christian despises that which to the + world is the highest good. There can be no better reason for + hating any one....</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">It is easy to understand that one who has for + a long time mentally abandoned his Christian faith, cannot + carry in mind its picture as undistorted as he did in his + better days, and as would conform to reality. But it is + reprehensible to exhibit in public this picture, without having + previously and conscientiously examined the main lines, to see + whether they are not caricatures. And they are caricatures, + traced by a hand that is led by the mood of a secret + anti-Christianity.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A treatment + identical with that of its view of life is accorded to the + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">doctrine and history of the Christian + religion</span></em>. Not science and uncorrupted truthfulness, + but antipathy, presumption, harsh denial of everything divine, + only too often point <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page254">[pg + 254]</span><a name="Pg254" id="Pg254" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + the way. Let us listen again to the author named above, since he + knows to express modern thought with a clearness and precision + almost unequalled by any one else.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">It made a painful impression to find in the + Christmas number, 1908, of the liberal-theological</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Christliche + Welt</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">a posthumous article by</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Fr. + Paulsen</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">What think + you of Christ: Whose Son is He?</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">The + article was without doubt one of the last he had written. It + contains the program of modern liberal science.</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">With the + seventeenth century,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">we + read there,</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">begins the + reorganization of the theory of the universe by science. Its + general tendency may be described by the formula: Elimination of + the supernatural from the natural and historical + world.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Consequently, no miracles in history, no + supernatural birth, no resurrection, no revelation, in fact no + interference by the Eternal in temporal + events.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Hence, the man who</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">thinks + scientifically</span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">in this wise</span></em> + <span style="font-size: 90%">can have no doubt that the old + ecclesiastical dogma cannot be reconciled with scientific + thought.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">This, of course, amounts to a + complete renunciation of positive Christianity.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">This scientific thought, in the words + of</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Baumgarten</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">rejects + any projection of the supernatural into tangible + reality</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">; + especially is</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">the + metaphysical genesis and nature of the Saviour highly offensive + to our ethical consciousness,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">even</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">absolutely unbearable.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">The Christian religion can no longer be + permitted to overtower other religions by its + supernaturalness.</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">The + distinction between a revealed and a natural religion becomes + an impossibility,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">says</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">W. + Bousset</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">. And</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Wundt</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">declares:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Christianity, as an</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">absolute</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">’</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">or a</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">revealed</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">’</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">religion, would stand opposed to all other + religious development, as an incommensurable magnitude. This + point of view, evidently, cannot be competent for our + speculations.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Having become + the ruling mode of thought, these presumptions determine from the + outset the results to be obtained by <span class= + "tei tei-q">“research,”</span> and they force it to violate its + own method, so that it may be dragged along the by-ways and false + ways of a mistaken, philosophical a-priorism, thereby making + freedom of science a mockery. From the abundant material at our + disposal let us take only one example, viz., the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Modern Criticism + of the Gospels</span></em>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Gospels + contain many records of facts of a supernatural character, of + miracles and prophecies. That these records are necessarily false + is the first principle of the historical, or critical, method, as + it is called. <span class="tei tei-q">“As a miracle of itself is + unthinkable, so the miracles in the history of Christianity, and + in the Christianity of the New Testament, are likewise + unthinkable. <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page255">[pg + 255]</span><a name="Pg255" id="Pg255" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + Hence, when miracles are nevertheless narrated, these narratives + must be false, in as far as they report miracles: that is, either + the relation did not happen at all, or, if it did, there was a + sufficient natural explanation”</span>; <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the historian must under all circumstances answer, + <span class="tei tei-q">‘No,’</span> to the question whether the + report of a miracle is worthy of belief”</span> (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">T. + Zeller</span></span>). Thus instructed, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“unprejudiced”</span> research proceeds to construct + its results of the investigation of the genuineness, time and + date, of the writing of the Gospels and of the Acts, as well as + of their credibility. Let us see how this is done.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The tradition + of the early Church, as well as intrinsic evidence, testify that + the first Gospel was really written by the Apostle <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Matthew</span></span>, and this certainly + before the destruction of Jerusalem. Liberal-Protestant + criticism, however, assigns its origin to a time after the year + 70, chiefly for two reasons: First, the striking prophecy of the + destruction of Jerusalem, conforming so accurately to the actual + event, could have been written only after the year 70; otherwise + it would have amounted to a real prophecy subsequently fulfilled, + a conclusion that cannot be accepted. The second reason is this: + The contents of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">St. Matthew's</span></span> Gospel is + already wholly Catholic, hence it must have been written during a + later, Catholic, period. For as there can be no influences from + above, and as everything is evolved in a natural way, the + principle must govern: that the more supernatural and the more + dogmas, so much later the period in question; at first there + could have been only a religion of sentiment without dogma, which + gradually developed into Catholic dogmatism. Similar are the + presumptions which direct modern research in respect to the + genuineness of the other Gospels and the Acts. A few proofs:</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Prof.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Jülicher</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">thinks that,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">While we cannot go prior to the beginning of the + second century, because of external testimony, we cannot on the + other hand maintain a later date. The most probable time for our + Gospel is the one shortly before the year + 100....</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Why?</span> <span class="tei tei-q"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Because the ill-fitting feature in the parable + of the wedding feast, that the king in his wrath, because his + invitation had been made light of, sent forth his armies and + destroyed those murderers and burned up their city, could + hardly have been invented before the conflagration of + Jerusalem</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">—a + prophecy, namely, of the coming destruction of Jerusalem</span> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page256">[pg 256]</span><a name= + "Pg256" id="Pg256" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style= + "font-size: 90%">cannot be admitted.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">But to my mind, the decisive point is found in + the religious position of</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Matthew</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">. + Despite his conservative treatment of tradition, he already + stands quite removed from its spirit; he has written a Catholic + Gospel.... To</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Matthew</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">the congregation, the Church, + forms the highest court of discipline, being the administrator + of all heavenly goods of salvation; his Gospel determines who + is to rule, who to give laws: in its essential features the + early Catholicism is completed.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Jülicher</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">arrives at a similar conclusion in + his research on</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">St. Luke's</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Gospel:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">That</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Luke's</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Gospel was written sometime after + the destruction of Jerusalem in 70</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + is proven beyond any doubt, by xxi. 22-24, where the terrible + events of the Jewish war are</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">foretold.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">’</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">... All arguments in favor of a later date of + writing concerning</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Matthew</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">hold + good also of</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Luke</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Even more unreserved is</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">O. + Pfleiderer</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, until + recently a prominent representative of liberal-Protestant + theology at Berlin:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">In this + Gospel we find the elements of dogma, morals, the constitution + of the developing Catholic Church. Catholic is its trinitarian + formula of christening, this embryo of the Creed and of the + apostolic symbol. Catholic is its teaching of Christ ... + Catholic, the doctrine of Salvation ... Catholic are the morals + ... Catholic, finally, is the importance attached to</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Peter</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">as the foundation of the Church + and as the bearer of the power of the key.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">In regard to this latter point</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Pfleiderer</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">remarks expressly:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">In spite + of all attempts of Protestants to mitigate this passage (Matt. + xvi. 17-20) there is no doubt that it contains the solemn + proclamation of</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Peter's</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Primacy.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The unsophisticated reader thereupon would be + likely to deduct: If the oldest Gospel is already Catholic, + then it must be admitted that earliest Christianity was already + Catholic. In so reasoning he might have rightly concluded, but + he would have shown himself little acquainted with the method + of liberal science. This infers contrariwise: early + Christianity must not be Catholic, hence the Catholic Gospel + cannot be so old, it must be the fraudulent concoction of a + later time;</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">hence the + origin of the Gospel of</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Matthew</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">is to be put down not before the + time of</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Hadrian</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">; + in the fourth century rather than in the + third.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">A. Harnack</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">fixes the date of the Gospel at + shortly after 70, because</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Matthew</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + as well as</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Luke</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + are presupposing the destruction of Jerusalem. This follows + with the greatest probability from Matt. xxii. 7 (the parable + of the marriage feast).</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">This is to be held also of</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Luke's</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Gospel.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">This much can be concluded without hesitation: + that, as now admitted by almost all critics,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Luke's</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Gospel presupposes the destruction + of Jerusalem.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Remarkable is</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Harnack's</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">latest attitude towards the Acts; + it shows again that the results of modern biblical criticism + are less the results of historical research than of + philosophical presumptions. In his</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Acts of the Apostles</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Harnack</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">admits:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Very weighty observations indicate that the + Acts (hence also the Gospels) were already written at the + beginning of the sixties.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">In substantiation he cites not less than six + reasons which evidently prove it: they are based upon the + principles of sound historical criticism.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">These are opposed solely by the + observation</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page257">[pg + 257]</span><a name="Pg257" id="Pg257" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">that the + prophecy about the catastrophe of Jerusalem in some striking + points comes near to the actual event, and that the reports + about the Apparition and the legend of the Ascension would be + hard to understand prior to the destruction of Jerusalem. It is + hard to decide.... But it is not difficult to judge on which + side the weightier arguments are</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(viz., on the part of the contention for an + earlier date). Yet</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Harnack</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">is loath to accept the better + scientific reasons: they must suffer correction by + presumptions. He formulates his final decision in the following + way:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Luke</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">wrote at the time of</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Titus</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + or during the earlier time of</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Domitian</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(?), but perhaps (only</span> + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">perhaps</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">, + in spite of decisive arguments) already at the beginning of the + sixties.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(Recently</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Harnack</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">recedes to the time before the + destruction of Jerusalem without, however, acknowledging a + divine prophecy of this catastrophe.) Similar is this + theologian's proof that the fourth Gospel could not have been + written by</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">John</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + the son of</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Zebedee</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">; + because xxi. 20-23 (I will that he tarry till I come) cannot be + a prophecy, but must have been written down after the death of + the favourite disciple.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The section xx. 20-23 obviously presupposes + the death of the beloved disciple; on the other hand he cannot + be left out of the 21st Chapter. This 21st Chapter, however, + shows no other pen than that which had written Chapters 1-20. + This proves that the author of Chapter 21, hence the author of + Chapters 1-20, could not have been the son of</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Zebedee</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + whose death is there presupposed.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">The whole argument again rests upon the + refusal to hold possible a prophecy from the lips of + Jesus.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The main reason, however, for disputing the + genuineness of the fourth Gospel, although external tradition + and internal criterions testify to it as the writing of</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">St. + John</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, is, because it + teaches so clearly the</span> <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">divinity of + Christ</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">: and this must + be denied. Significant are, for instance, the words in + which</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Weizsäcker</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">sums up his objections to this + gospel:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">That the + Apostle, the favorite disciple according to the Gospel, who sat + at the table beside Christ, should have looked upon and + represented everything that he once experienced, as the living + together with the incarnate divine Logos, is rather a puzzle. + No power of faith and no philosophy can be imagined big enough + to extinguish the memory of real life and to replace it by this + miraculous image of a divine being ... of one of the original + Apostles, it is unthinkable. Upon this the decision of this + point will always hinge. Anything else that may be added from + the contents of the Gospel is subordinate.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">This means, Christ cannot be admitted to be a + Divine Being—impossible. An eye-witness could not take Him for + it: therefore, this</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">miraculous picture of a Divine + Being</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">cannot have been the work of an + eye-witness.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Like the + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">genuineness</span></em> of the Gospels, so + is also their <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">credibility</span></em> beyond a doubt. Two + of them are written by Apostles, the two others by Disciples of + the Apostles: they also have all the marks peculiar to writings + of eye or ear witnesses, or of persons who have heard the + narratives directly from the lips of <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page258">[pg 258]</span><a name="Pg258" id="Pg258" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> eye-witnesses. Nor would any one doubt + their credibility if they did not report supernatural facts. But, + this being the case, infidel research is bound to arrive at the + opposite result.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The writers + were frauds—this was long ago the hypothesis of the superficial + Hamburg Professor, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Samuel Reimarus</span></span>, whose + <span class="tei tei-q">“Fragments”</span> were published by + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Lessing</span></span>. But even to a + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">D. F. + Strauss</span></span> <span class="tei tei-q">“such a suspicion + was repulsive.”</span> The Heidelberg Professor, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">H. E. + Paulus</span></span>, sought his salvation in trying to reduce + the reports of miracles to a natural sense, by doing painful + violence to the text: for instance, the Lord did not walk + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">upon</span></em> the sea, but only + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">along</span></em> the sea; the miracle of + the wine at Cana was only a wedding joke. Then came <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">D. F. + Strauss</span></span> (died 1874), and he tried it in a different + way. <span class="tei tei-q">“If the Gospels are really + historical documents, then the miracle cannot be removed from the + life of Jesus.”</span> Hence, it is to remain? Indeed not! The + Gospels must not be accepted as historical sources. They are + products of purposeless poetic legends, the miracles are garlands + of religious myths, gradually twined around the picture of Jesus. + Myths, however, need time for their formation, hence <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Strauss</span></span> fixes the date of the + Gospels within the second century. He openly admits that his + hypothesis would fall to the ground if but a single Gospel has + been written in the first century. As a fact, more recent + rationalistic criticism has found itself constrained to drop this + hypothesis. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">F. Ch. Baur</span></span> (died 1860) fell + back upon the fraud-hypothesis of a <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Reimarus</span></span>. It, too, has been + laid among the dead. Thus they have exhausted themselves in the + attempt to shake off the burdensome yoke of truth.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Influenced by + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Strauss</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Baur</span></span>, + and other German critics, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">E. Renan</span></span> (died 1892) wrote his + <span class="tei tei-q">“Life of Jesus,”</span> a frivolous + romance. Quite frank are the words he wrote down in the preface + to the thirteenth edition of his <span class="tei tei-q">“Vie de + Jésus”</span> (1883): <span class="tei tei-q">“If miracle has any + reality, then my book is nothing but a tissue of errors.... If + the miracle and the inspiration of certain books are real things, + then our method is abominable.”</span> But he silences all doubts + by the phrase: <span class="tei tei-q">“To admit the supernatural + is alone sufficient to place one's self outside of + science.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The newer + <span class="tei tei-q">“historical-critical”</span> school, + while having disposed <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page259">[pg + 259]</span><a name="Pg259" id="Pg259" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + of many contentions of the old schools, is nevertheless in its + research bound just as energetically by the postulate of + conformity to natural laws. The fourth Gospel is pushed aside: in + the others all miraculous occurrences are expounded away, till + the <span class="tei tei-q">“historically credible core”</span> + is reached.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The books of + the Old Testament fare even worse, if possible.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Does Genesis relate history or a + legend?</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">asks Prof.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Gunkel</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + and continues:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">this is + no longer a question to the historian.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">Well, a legend, then. But how does the + historian know this? From his own pantheistic philosophy, which + recognizes no God differing from this world:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">The + narratives of Genesis being mostly of a religious nature, they + continuously speak of God. The way, however, in which + narratives speak of God is one of the most reliable standards + to judge whether they are meant historically or poetically. + Here, too, the historian cannot do without a world philosophy. + We believe that God acts in the world as the latent, hidden + motive of all things ... but He never appears to us as an + acting factor</span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">jointly with + others</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">(the italics are + the author's), but always as the ultimate cause of all things. + Quite different in many narratives of Genesis. We are able to + understand these narratives of miracles and apparitions as the + artlessness of primitive people, but we refuse to believe + them.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Analogous to + Bible-criticism is the research in other branches of theology. + The <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">origin of Christianity</span></em>, this + wonderful power which so suddenly made its appearance in history + and speedily vanquished a whole world, must of course not be a + work of Heaven. Hence its origin must be explained at any cost in + a natural way, or <span class="tei tei-q">“historically,”</span> + as they put it. The religious notions of Christianity must not be + conceded a supernatural certainty over all other religions; and + <span class="tei tei-q">“to understand an event historically + means: to conceive it by its causal connection with the + conditions of a given place and at a certain time of the human + life. Hence science cannot consider such a thing as the + appearance of a supernatural being upon the earth”</span> + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Pfleiderer</span></span>).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And then they + proceed to show that Christianity is a natural, evolutionary + product of the Israelite religion, of Greek philosophy, of + Oriental myths, and Roman customs. That it is far superior to all + these, and that it is the opposite to them in various ways, is + carefully hushed up. The inadequacy and impossibility of such an + explanation is adroitly concealed. Nor <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page260">[pg 260]</span><a name="Pg260" id="Pg260" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> could the Israelite religion of the Old + Covenant, according to the naturalistic principle of liberal + theology, have had its origin in revelation and the prophets; + hence it comes from Babylon, as the product of natural evolution + from Oriental myths and customs. Any old and new analogies, + hypotheses, and fancies are good enough then to demonstrate this + as <span class="tei tei-q">“historical.”</span></p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">The Truth is not in + Them.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We pause here. + We might thus continue for a long time; but it is enough. The + patient reader, who has accompanied us on the tedious way to this + point, may begin to feel tired. May he excuse the detailed + recital for the reason that we had to do some extensive + reconnoitring, through the precincts of modern + philosophical-religious research, to avoid the reproach that we + were making accusations without furnishing proofs. Our contention + was, that liberal science is trying to shake off the yoke of + religious truth, and to explain it away by its self-made + presumptions. We believe that we have proved our contention.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We are + confronted by a science that boasts of monopolizing the spirit of + truthfulness; as a matter of fact, we see that it uses all + scientific devices to shirk the truth and to disguise its effort. + In loquacious protests it rejects the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“rigid dogmatism,”</span> the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“fixed views,”</span> of the Christian faith, and it + proclaims experience and reason as the sole criterions of + scientific cognition; yet it always stands upon the platform of + rigid presumptions, that are derived from no experience, and + which no reason can prove. It clamours for research free from + presumption, and, without winking an eye, substitutes its own + presumption, secretly or openly. It is <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">dishonest</span></em>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It promises to + preserve for man the highest ideals and blessings for which his + mind is yearning, yet it has no religion and no God. It recalls + to mind the words spoken by <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">St. Augustine</span></span> of the + philosophers whom he had followed in the false ways of his youth: + <span class="tei tei-q">“They said: truth, and always truth, and + talked much of truth, but it was not in them.... Oh, truth, + truth, how deeply my inmost spirit sighed after thee, while they + filled my ears incessantly with thy bare name and with the + palaver of their bulky volumes.”</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page261">[pg 261]</span><a name="Pg261" id="Pg261" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> Free it wants to be, this science. One of + its disciples boasted: <span class="tei tei-q">“It has taught its + disciples to look down without dizziness from the airy heights of + sovereign scepticism. How easy and free one breathes up + there!”</span> Aye, it has made itself free,—from the yoke of + unpalatable truth. So much more firmly is it fettered, not with + the holy bonds of belief in God, but by the more burdensome + mental yoke of a disbelief that weakens and blinds the eyes + against the cognition of the higher truth:—and bound by the + chains of public opinion, which threatens anathema to every one + who fails to stop at the border of the natural. Truly free is + only the science that enjoys a clear and free perception for the + truth. Unfree is a science that restrains the mental eye with the + blinkers of theophoby. Our age seeks for the lost happiness of + the soul, it seeks longingly God and the supernatural that have + been removed from its sight. But science, so often its leader, + loathingly dodges God, and refuses to fold the hands and pray. As + long as our age does not break with a science that refuses to + know a God and a Saviour, so long will it hopelessly grope about + without result, and look in vain for an escape from the wretched + labyrinth of doubt.</p> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page262">[pg 262]</span><a name= + "Pg262" id="Pg262" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc31" id="toc31"></a> <a name="pdf32" id="pdf32"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">Chapter II. The Unscientific + Method.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The efforts of + liberal science, to remove more and more from its scope the + supernatural powers, show clearly that man may feel the truth to be + a yoke, and that he may attempt to free himself from this yoke by + opposing the truth and by substituting postulates for knowledge. + Sceptical, autonomous subjectivism, the philosophy of liberal free + thought, has changed the nature of human reasoning, and its + relation to truth, and perverted it to its very opposite. No longer + is the human mind the vassal of Queen Truth, as <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Plutarch</span></span> put it, but the + autocratic ruler who degrades truth to the position of a servant. + Thus liberal freedom of thought becomes the principle of an + unscientific method, because it loses, by false reasoning and false + truth, the first condition of solid and scientific research; + furthermore, by treating the highest questions with consequent + levity, it betrays a lack of earnestness which again renders it + unfit for scientific research in serious matters.</p> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">False Reasoning.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“The philosophical thinkers of to-day,”</span> says + an admirer of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kant</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">A. + Sabatier</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“may be divided + into two classes, the pre-Kantian and those who have received + their initiation and their philosophical baptism from + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kant's</span></span> Critic.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Christian + philosophy of a <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">St. Thomas</span></span>, which is, as even + representatives of modern philosophy are constrained to admit, + <span class="tei tei-q">“a system carried out with clear + perception and great sagacity”</span> (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Paulsen</span></span>), contains many a + principle, the intrinsic merit of which will be fully appreciated + only when contrasted with the experiments of modern philosophy. + An instance is the principle of the old school, that cognition is + the likeness of that <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page263">[pg + 263]</span><a name="Pg263" id="Pg263" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + which is cognized. Apart from the cognition by sense, we are + given here the only correct principle, coinciding with the + general conviction that reasoning is the mental reproduction of + an objective order of existence, independent of us, even in our + conception of the metaphysical world. Thinking does not create + its object, but is a reproduction of it; it is not a producer, + but a painter, who copies the world with his mental brush within + himself, sometimes only in the indistinct outlines of indefinite + conception, often, however, in the sharp lines of clear + cognition.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If, according + to its nature, thinking is subject to standards and laws given it + by an objective world, then subjective arbitrariness, a method of + thought which, while pretending to be a free producer of truth, + yet determines it according to necessity or desire; and, even + more so, a method of thought which feels itself justified to hold + an opinion upon the same question in one way to-day, and another + and entirely opposite one to-morrow, is wholly incomprehensible: + just as incomprehensible as if a draughtsman, attempting to draw + a true picture of St. Peter's Church, would not follow the + reality but prefer to draw the picture at random, according to + his fancy and mood.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We have stated + these fundamental principles already at the beginning of our + book, we have also set forth how greatly liberal freedom of + thought is lacking the first presumption of any proper science, + namely, the clear perception that there is an objective truth in + philosophical-religious questions, to which we must submit, + there, in fact, most of all.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">No! We also + want autonomy of thought, especially in questions of metaphysics, + where, anyway, there can only be postulates! so shouted + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kant</span></span> to the modern world on + the threshold of the nineteenth century. There are no stable + truths, everything is relative and changing, adds the modern + theory of evolution. At last there is freedom for thought and + research, freedom from the yoke of absolute truth! Behold the + aberrations of an unbridled rush for freedom which moves the + world of to-day. This unruly hankering for a freer existence than + allowed by their nature and position, makes unbearable to many + modern children of man the idea of iron laws of truth and marked + boundaries of thought. Revelling in the consciousness + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page264">[pg 264]</span><a name= + "Pg264" id="Pg264" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of their sovereign + personality, they want to measure all things by their + individuality, even religion, philosophy, truth, and ethics. Only + that what is created and experienced by them within the sanctuary + of their personality, only what is made important and legitimate + by their sentiment, is truth and of value to them. <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Autonomism</span></em> thus changes + unnoticeably into <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">individualism</span></em>; the own + individuality, in its peculiar inclinations, moods, and humours, + its exigencies and egotistical aims, its infirmities and + diseases—they have, under the name of <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">individual + reason</span></em>, become the law of thinking and reasoning.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">Without Knowledge of the Human + Nature.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“Varied, according to character, are the demands made + by heart and mind,”</span> assures us a representative of modern + philosophy, <span class="tei tei-q">“corresponding to them is the + image of the world to which the individual turns by inner + necessity. He may waver hither and thither, uncertain as to + himself; at last, however, his innermost tendency of life will + prevail and press him into the view of the world corresponding to + his individuality. Upon its further development worldly and local + influences will play a very important part. But the deciding + factor in giving the direction is personality.”</span> + <span class="tei tei-q">“And,”</span> continues Prof. + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Adickes</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the sharper and more one-sided a character type is + brought to expression, the more it will be urged into a certain + metaphysical or religious tendency, and this man will find no + rest, nor feel himself at home in the world, until he has found + the view of life that fits him. Nor does man assemble his + metaphysics with discrimination on the grounds of logical + necessity, choosing here, rejecting there, but it grows within + himself by that inner compulsion identical with true + freedom.”</span> Hence, not unselfish yielding to truth, no, the + inclinations of heart and mind, the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“personality”</span> must form the view of the world. + Let every type of character therefore develop itself sharply and + one-sidedly, let every one get the view of the world + corresponding to himself, without regard to objective truth and + logical necessity. This precisely is the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“true freedom.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“For + when is a man more free, than when he chooses and does—without + any <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page265">[pg 265]</span><a name= + "Pg265" id="Pg265" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> compulsion, even + resisting compulsion—what his innermost soul is urging him to + choose and do? How could he be more true to himself, more like + himself?”</span> With such a freedom <span class="tei tei-q">“the + outer compulsion”</span> of an absolute truth, to say nothing of + the duty to believe, will not agree. <span class="tei tei-q">“The + core of one's very being,”</span> so <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Harnack</span></span> informs us, + <span class="tei tei-q">“should be grasped in its depths, and the + soul should only know its own needs and the way indicated by it + to gratify them.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“According to my + character,”</span> says <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Adickes</span></span> again, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“is the world reflected within myself by intrinsic + necessity just as my creed represents it, and no opponent is able + to shake my position by arguments of reason or by empirical + facts.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Hence it is + not only true, as has been known from the beginning, that the + inclinations of the heart are trying to prevail upon reason to + urge their desires, and to oppose what displeases them, and that + reason must beware of the heart—no, inclination and character are + now directly called upon to shape our religion and view of the + world. Every type of man, every period, may construct its own + philosophical system, or, if this is beyond it, at least its own + ideas; it may also shape its own Christianity, according to its + experience. As the individual chooses his clothes, and puts his + individuality into them, in like manner may the individual put on + the view of life that fits him.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These + principles represent the apostasy from objective truth, and, at + the same time, the apostasy from the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">principles of + true science</span></em>: their first demand, the proper + understanding of truth, is perverted into its very opposite. A + necessary quality of scientific research is exactness; exactness, + however, demands most conscientious cleaving to truth; scale and + measure are its instruments. The reverse of exactness is to cast + away scale and measure, to turn eye and ear, not toward reality, + but toward one's self, so as to observe personal wishes and + inclinations, and then shape the results of the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“research”</span> accordingly. This may be a method + of freedom, but it cannot be the method of science. The very + thing that true research would eliminate in the first place, + viz., to have the decision influenced by hobbies and moods, is + most important in the method of individualism; objectiveness, + deemed by true science the highest requirement, is to that method + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page266">[pg 266]</span><a name= + "Pg266" id="Pg266" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the least one: + what true science first of all insists on, namely, to prove that + which is claimed, this method knows but little of. It recalls the + method of the gourmet who selects that which gratifies his taste: + it may be likened to the dandy picking frock-coat and trousers + that suit his whim. True research, with a firm hand at the helm, + aims to direct its craft so as to discover new coasts, or at + least a new island; the exploring done by liberal research is + like casting off the rudder to be tossed by the waves, for its + task is only to hold to the course which the waving billows of + individual life give to it. True science, finally, seeks for + serious results, able to withstand criticism: the research by + individualism produces results which, as individualism itself + confesses, must not be taken seriously. They are the subjective + achievements of amateurs, creations of fashion, cut to the + pattern of the ruling principle: <span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">nihil nisi quod modernum est</span></span>. + A science that professes such a method is beyond a doubt unfit to + play a beneficial part in the endeavour of mankind.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Do not say: + but it is not claimed that religion and view of life are matters + of scientific research: on the contrary, they are always + distinguished from science. It is true, this is not infrequently + claimed. But it is also known how energetically just these + matters are appropriated by science. Is it not exactly this + sphere in which free research is to be active? Is it not its aim + to construct a <span class="tei tei-q">“scientific view of the + world,”</span> as opposed to the Christian belief? Is there not + the conviction that science has already carried much light and + enlightenment into this very sphere, that it has upset the old + tenets of faith?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And what an + amount of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">ignorance of human nature</span></em> + underlies these principles! It is the same complete misconception + that has always characterized liberalism, and which it has also + manifested in economical matters. There, too, it demanded + boundless freedom for all economic sources, ignoring man's + disordered inclinations that will work disorder and destruction + if not restrained by laws. In a similar manner they dream that + man, if left to the unrestrained influence of his personality, + will soar without fail to the heights of the pure truth. They + know no longer the maxim once engraved by the wisdom of the + ancient <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page267">[pg + 267]</span><a name="Pg267" id="Pg267" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + world upon Delphi's sanctuary: <span class="tei tei-q">“Know + thyself”</span>! They no longer know the beguiling and benumbing + influence exerted upon reason by inclination, how it fetters the + mind. <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">Amor premit + oculos</span></span>, says Quintilian. The thing we like, we + desire to establish as true; favourable arguments are decisive, + counter arguments are ignored or belittled, inclinations guide + the observation, determine the books and sources drawn from. If + we meet with something unsympathetic, something that interferes + with the liberties we have grown fond of, it takes a rare degree + of unselfishness to love the painful truth more than one's self. + It is easy to leave cool reason in control in mathematical + speculations: they seldom affect the heart; quite different, + however, in questions of philosophy and religion that often have + vexatious consequences.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">We have to concede that</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">D. + F. Strauss</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">was right + when he wrote:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">He who + writes about the Rulers of Nineveh or the Pharaohs of Egypt, may + pursue a purely historical interest: but Christianity is a power + so alive, and the question of what occurred at its origin is + involved in such vast consequences for the immediate present, + that the inquirer would have to be dull-witted to be interested + only in a purely historical way in the solution of these + questions.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">But we must also regret that this + personal interest has misled him, for one, into pernicious + ways.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">In view of the frequent assurances of the + noted historian,</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Th. + Mommsen</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, that he + hates the sight of old Christian inscriptions</span><a id= + "noteref_9" name="noteref_9" href="#note_9"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">9</span></span></a><span style="font-size: 90%">we + may perhaps welcome it in the interest of history that he + refrained from writing the fourth volume of his Roman history, + wherein the Origin of Christianity was to be treated. One of + his biographers asserts that the downfall of paganism through + Christianity was a fact not to</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Mommsen's</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">liking, that</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">a description of the decomposition of all + things ancient, and the substitution therefor of the Nazarene + spirit would not have been a labour of love.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><a id="noteref_10" name= + "noteref_10" href="#note_10"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">10</span></span></a> + <span style="font-size: 90%">And again, when we see the + well-known historian of philosophy,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">F. + Ueberweg</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, in a + letter to</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">F. A. + Lange</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, denouncing + from the bitterness of his heart</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">the miserable beggar-principle of + Christianity,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">and the</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">surrendering of independence and of personal + honour in favour of a servile submission to the master,</span> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page268">[pg 268]</span><a name= + "Pg268" id="Pg268" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style= + "font-size: 90%">who is made a Messiah, nay, even the + incarnate</span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Son of + God</span></em><span style= + "font-size: 90%">,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">then we may well dread the + historical objectivity of a man of such notions in writing + about the religion of Jesus Christ.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">With reference to the chief subject of + psychology, the noted psychologist,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">W. + James</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, writes with + utmost frankness:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">The soul + is an entity, and truly one of the worst kind, a scholastic + one, and something said to be destined for salvation or + perdition. As far as I am concerned, I must frankly admit that + the antipathy against the particular soul I find myself + burdened with, is an old hardness of heart, which I cannot + account for, not even to myself. I will admit that the formal + disposition of the question in dispute would come to an end, if + the existence of souls could be used for an explanatory + principle. I admit the soul would be a means of unification, + whereas the working of the brain, or ideas, show no harmonizing + efficacy, no matter how thoroughly synchronical they be. Yet, + despite these admissions, I never resort in my psychologizing + to the soul.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If we read + such statement, if, in addition, we remember the + popular-philosophical science of men like <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Haeckel</span></span>, particularly perhaps + the literature which he recommends for information about + Christianity, and of which he himself makes use; if we have read + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Schopenhauer</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Nietzsche</span></span>, or the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Philosophy of Races”</span> of a <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Chamberlain</span></span>,—we can no longer + be at a loss what to think of the <span class="tei tei-q">“rule + of reason”</span> and of the <span class="tei tei-q">“search for + pure truth.”</span> Observe, also, the restless haste of those + who, having turned their back upon the Catholic Church, now + proceed to attack her, observe their agitated work and + incitement, how they rummage and ransack the nooks and corners of + the history of the Church in quest of refuse and filth, and if + the find is not sufficient how they even help it along by + forgery, all this to demonstrate to the world that the grandest + fact in history is really absurdity and filth;—then one will + understand what instincts may be found there to guide + <span class="tei tei-q">“reason and science.”</span> How even + sexual impulses are trying to shape their own ethics we shall not + examine here. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">F. W. Foerster</span></span> relates: + <span class="tei tei-q">“I once heard a moral pervert expound his + ethical and religious notions; they were nothing but the + reflection of his perverse impulses. But he thought them to be + the result of his reasoning.”</span> Is there not known in these + days the inherited disorder of the human heart as characterized + by the Apostle in the words: <span class="tei tei-q">“But I see + another law in my members, fighting against the law of my mind, + and captivating me in the law of sin (Rom. vii. 23)”</span>? The + Ancients <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page269">[pg + 269]</span><a name="Pg269" id="Pg269" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + knew it. The wisdom of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Plato</span></span> knew it, who speaks of + the <span class="tei tei-q">“pricks of sin, sunk into man, coming + from an old, unexpiated offence, giving birth to + wickedness.”</span> The wise <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cicero</span></span> + knew of it: <span class="tei tei-q">“Nature has bestowed upon us + but a few sparks of knowledge, which, corrupted by bad habits and + errors, we soon extinguish, with the result that the light of + nature does nowhere appear in its clearness and + brightness.”</span> Truth is often disagreeable to nature. And if + not subdued and ruled by strong discipline, nature proceeds to + oppose the truth. Only to lofty self-discipline and purity of + morals is reserved the privilege of facing the highest truths + with a calm eye. <span class="tei tei-q">“Blessed are the pure in + heart, for they shall see God.”</span></p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">Mental Bondage.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of this wisdom + the admirer of liberal freedom knows little. Instead of + distinguishing the good from the evil in man, of unfolding his + inner kernel, the pure spirit, and making it rule; instead of + demanding, like <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Pythagoras</span></span>, discipline as a + preparatory school for wisdom, he has learned from <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Rousseau</span></span>, the master of modern + Liberalism, that everything in man is good. Depravity of nature, + original sin, are unsympathetic things to his ear. Even + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Goethe</span></span> wrote to <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Herder</span></span>, when <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kant</span></span> + had in his religious philosophy found a radical Evil in man: + <span class="tei tei-q">“After it has taken <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kant</span></span> + a lifetime to clean his philosophical gown of many filthy + prejudices, he now outrageously slabbers it with the stain of the + radical Evil, so that Christians, too, may be enticed to come and + kiss the seam.”</span> Instead of exhorting for a redemption from + internal fetters, as the sages of all ages did, the principle of + wisdom now proposed is to quietly let individuality develop, with + all its inclinations. They call this freedom. Is it not the + freedom whereof the slave of sensuality avails himself to form + his theory of life? It, too, <span class="tei tei-q">“grows up in + man with that inner compulsion which is identical with true + freedom”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Adickes</span></span>).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Freedom this + may be. But <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">only external freedom</span></em>, the only + freedom they often know. They are unaware that they forfeit + thereby the real, the inner freedom. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Thou aimest at free heights,”</span> admonishes even + the most impetuous herald of freedom, <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page270">[pg 270]</span><a name="Pg270" id="Pg270" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> <span class="tei tei-q">“thy soul is + athirst for stars. But also thy wicked impulses are athirst for + freedom. Thy wild hounds want to be free, they bark joyfully in + their kennel when thy spirit essays to throw open all + dungeons.”</span><a id="noteref_11" name="noteref_11" href= + "#note_11"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">11</span></span></a> They + think to be free and speak of the self-assurance of individual + reason, and they cannot see that the mind is in the fetters of + bondage.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Else how is it + that the atheistic free science, considered in general, arrives + with infallible regularity at results that obviously tend to a + morally loose conduct of life? How is it, that it tries + throughout to shirk the acceptance of a personal God, and is at + home only in open or disguised atheism? that it so persistently + avoids the acceptance of anything supernatural? Why does it in + its researches never arrive at theism, which has as much + foundation at least as pantheism and atheism? Why does it, nearly + without exception, deny or ignore the personal immortality of the + soul and a Beyond; why does it never reach the opposite result + which, in intrinsic evidence, ranks at least on a par with it? + Why is it not admitted, that the will is free and strictly + responsible for its acts, although this fact is borne out by the + obvious experience and testimony of mankind? Why does it so + regularly arrive at the conclusion that the Christian religion + has become untenable, and needs development; that its ethics, + too, must be reformed, more especially in sexual matters? Why + does it not defend the duty to believe, but reject it + persistently? A striking fact! The matters in question here + concern truths that impose sacrifices upon man, whereas their + opposites have connections of intimate friendship with unpurged + impulses. It may be noted also that this same science, that + announces to the world these results of research, meets with the + boisterous applause from the elements that belong to the morally + inferior part of mankind.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">St. + Augustine</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">prays:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Redeem me, O God, from the throng of thoughts, + which I feel so painfully within my soul, which feels lowly in + Thy presence, which is fleeing to Thy mercy. Grant me that I may + not give my assent to them; that I may disapprove of them, even + if they seek to delight me, and that I may not stay with them in + sleepiness. May they not have the power to insinuate themselves + into</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page271">[pg + 271]</span><a name="Pg271" id="Pg271" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">my works; may I + be protected from them in my resolution, may my conscience be + protected by Thy keeping.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">It + is the realization of the want of freedom of the human reason, + the only way to the liberation from the fetters of our own + imperfection. He, who has seriously begun to take up the struggle + with his inner disorders, will, by his own experience, pray + as</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">St. Augustine</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">prayed.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Recognizing + this fact, man will try to rise above himself, to cleave to a + superior Power and Wisdom, who, in purer heights, untouched by + human passions, holds aloft the truth, in order to rise thereby + above his own bondage; he will understand the necessity of an + authority clothed with divine power and dignity, so that it may + hold in unvanquished hands the ideal against all onslaughts of + human passions. He will without difficulty find this power in the + religion of Jesus Christ and in His Church: in Him, who could not + be accused of sin, who by His Cross has achieved the highest + triumph over flesh and sin, who has surrounded His Church with + the bright throng of saints. And if he sees this religion and + Church an object of persecution, he will behold in it the + signature of its truth. For truth is a yoke despised by + sensualism and pride, and the spiritual power that contends for + purity and truth will be hated.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">Without Earnestness.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The + regrettable conception of truth proper to the modern freedom of + thought, leads to that flippancy with which our time is prone to + treat the highest questions. Why conscientiousness and anxious + care? All that is needed is to form one's personal views; there + is no certain, generally valid, truth in religious matters. Hence + there is often in this sphere of scientific research a method + wholly different from that in use anywhere else. In history, + philology, natural science, there is a striving for exactness, + but in these matters exact reasoning is replaced only too often + by discretionary reasoning, by loose forming of ideas; in the + very domain which has ever pre-eminently been called the province + of the wisdom of life, there is now in vogue the method of + flippancy.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">True wisdom is + convinced that reason has not been given <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page272">[pg 272]</span><a name="Pg272" id="Pg272" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> to man to grope in the dark in respect to + the most momentous questions of life; that reason, though limited + and liable to err, is given him to find the truth. True wisdom + knows its difficulties when the matter in quest is metaphysical + truth: it knows how, in this case, more than in any other, reason + is exposed to the influence of inclinations from within, and to + the power of error and of public opinion from without; that in + these matters, least of all, reason is not in the habit of taking + the truth by assault. True, there are intuitions, and inspiration + by genius—they have their rights, but they are the exceptions. + The ordinary, and only safe, way is to advance cautiously, by + discoursive thinking, from cognition to cognition, otherwise + there is danger of a sudden fall from the steep path.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the early + Christian ages this insight led to careful cultivation and + application of certain methodical means of thinking and terms of + expressions, to definitions, distinctions, and forms of + syllogism, with that <span class="tei tei-q">“insulting + lucidity,”</span> in the words of a modern philosopher, which + gives to them the stamp of scrupulousness. The same insight into + the cognitive weakness of reason leads to the noble union between + science and modesty.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What, however, + do we see in modern philosophic-religious thinking? Often + unsolidity, with hardly a remnant of the principles of the + serious pursuit of knowledge.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The autonomous + freethinker of these days lacks chiefly humility and modesty. The + ancient Sage of Samos once declined the name of <span class= + "tei tei-q">“sage,”</span> saying that God alone is wise, while + man must be content to be wisdom-loving (φιλόσοφος). Not always + so the sages of modern times.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Kant</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">believed of his system:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Critical + philosophy must be convinced that there is not in store for it a + change of opinions, no improvement nor possibly a differently + formed system, but that the system of criticism, resting on a + fully assured basis, will be established forever, indispensable + for all coming ages to the highest aims of + mankind.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Hegel</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + in turn, was no less convinced of the indispensability of his + doctrine. In the summer term of 1820 he began his lectures with + the words:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">I would + say with Christ: I teach the truth, and I am the + truth.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Yet, to</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Schopenhauer</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Hegel's</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">philosophy is nonsense, humbug, + and worse.</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Schopenhauer</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">knew better, and was convinced + that he had lifted the veil of truth higher than any mortal + before him; he claimed that he had written paragraphs</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">which may + be taken to</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page273">[pg + 273]</span><a name="Pg273" id="Pg273" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">have been + inspired by the Holy Ghost.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">Shortly before his death he wrote:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">My curse + upon any one, who in reprinting my works shall knowingly make a + change; be it but a sentence, or a word, a syllable or a + punctuation point.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Nietzsche</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">held:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">I have given to the world the most profound + book in its possession.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">To the eyes of this philosophy, modesty and + humility are no longer virtues.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">B. + Spinoza</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, a leader in + later philosophy, states expressly:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Humility is no virtue; it does not spring from + reason. It is a sadness, springing from the fact that man + becomes aware of his impotence.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">An arrogant + mind is not capable of finding the higher truth with certainty; + conscientious obedience to truth, unselfish abstention from + asserting one's ego, and one's pet opinion, can dwell only in the + humble mind. Here applies what <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">St. + Augustine</span></span> said of the Neoplatonists: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“To acquiesce in truth you need humility, which, + however, is very difficult to instil into your + minds.”</span><a id="noteref_12" name="noteref_12" href= + "#note_12"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">12</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When God's + authority steps before scientists and earnestly demands faith, + they will talk excitedly about their human dignity that does not + permit them to believe; about reason being their court of last + resort that must not know of submission; and if the Church, in + the name of God, steps before them, they become abusive.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Men who have + scarcely outgrown their minority often feel it incumbent upon + themselves to furnish humanity with new thought and to discard + the old. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">D. F. Strauss</span></span>, a young + under-master of twenty-seven years, writes his <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Life of Jesus, critically analyzed”</span> (1835); + he tells the Christian world that everything it has hitherto held + sacred is a delusion and a snare; he feels the vocation to + <span class="tei tei-q">“replace the old, obsolete, supernatural, + method of contemplating the history of Jesus with a new + one,”</span> which changes all divine deeds into myths. Hardly + out of knickerbockers and kilts, they feel experienced enough to + come forth with novel and unheard-of propositions on the highest + problems. In business and office, as in public service, + sober-mindedness and maturity are demanded; but to work out the + ultimate questions of humanity, inexperience and lack of the + deeper knowledge of life do not disqualify in our time. If + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Schiller's</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page274">[pg 274]</span><a name="Pg274" id= + "Pg274" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> complaint of the Kantians of + his time was that, <span class="tei tei-q">“What they have + scarcely learned to-day, they want to teach to-morrow,”</span> + what is to be said of those who teach even before they have + learned? And what superficial thinking do we meet in the + philosophy of the day! Lacking all solid training, they proceed + to construct new systems, or at least fragments of them. As + regards their competence, one is often tempted to quote the harsh + words of a modern writer: <span class="tei tei-q">“I believe + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Schopenhauer</span></span> would have formed + a better opinion of the human intellect, had he paid less + attention to authors and newspaper-writers, and more to the + common sense evinced by men in their work and business”</span> + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Paulsen</span></span>).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It would be + highly instructive to take a longer journey through the realm of + modern philosophy, in so far as it touches upon questions + concerning the theory of the world, or even liberal Protestant + theology, so as to subject to a searching criticism the untenable + notions and attempts at demonstration even of acknowledged + representatives of this science, whereby they generally do away + with God and miracles, the soul and immortality, freedom of the + will, the divine moral laws, the Gospel, the divinity of Christ, + and so much more, and show what they offer in place of all this. + It would disclose an enormous lack of scientific method: instead + of assured results they offer questionable, even untenable + theories; in place of proofs, emphatical assertions, imperatives, + catch phrases; or else arguments which under the simplest test + will prove miscarriages of logic. These philosophers vault + ditches and boundaries with ease, and derive full gratification + from imperfect and warped ideas. Of course, exactness in + philosophical thinking is not a fruit to be plucked while out + taking a walk; it is the product of serious mental work, of + sterling philosophical training, which, alas, is wanting to-day + in large circles of scientists.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As an + instance, we point to the method described in a previous chapter, + by which all supernatural factors are rejected by the arbitrary + postulate of <span class="tei tei-q">“exclusively natural + causation,”</span> without valid proofs, based only upon the + arbitrary decision of so-called modern science—in the gravest + matter an unscientific process that cannot be + outdone.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page275">[pg + 275]</span><a name="Pg275" id="Pg275" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Another + instructive instance, of serious matters treated with levity, is + furnished in the unscrupulous way in which the Catholic Church, + her teaching, institutions, and history, are passed upon in + judgment by those having neither knowledge nor fairness.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">Without Reverence.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">True wisdom + accepts advice and guidance. It feels reverence for sacred and + venerable traditions, for the convictions of mankind on the great + questions of life, and greater reverence still for an authority + of faith that has received from God its warrant to be the teacher + of mankind, and which has stood the test of time. True wisdom is + convinced that continuity in human thinking and in knowledge is + necessary. Life is short, and gives to the individual hardly time + to attain mental maturity. Philosophy, and this is the matter + before us at present,—philosophy can never be the work of a + single person; it is the achievement of centuries; succeeding + generations, with searching eye and careful hand, building + further upon the achievement for which past ages have laid the + foundations. By nailing together beams and boards the individual + may erect a house good enough for a short time to serve his + sports and pleasures; and if wrecked by the first storm, it may + be replaced by another. But the building of massive and towering + cathedrals that last for ages required the work of generations. + And only skilful and experienced hands may do the work; haste is + out of place here. The ancient sages of Greece, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Plato</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Pythagoras</span></span>, and <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Aristotle</span></span>, had this reverence + for the philosophical and religious traditions of the past. These + representatives of true wisdom did not consider philosophy and + theology as the product of individual sagacity, they did not + attempt to be free rulers in the realm of thought; on the + contrary, they looked upon wisdom as the patrimony of the past, + which it was their duty to preserve.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">They pointed to their venerable traditions, + however meagre they were.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Our forefathers,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">says</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Plato</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">who were + better than we are, and stood nearer to the gods than we, have + handed down to us this revelation.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><a id="noteref_13" name= + "noteref_13" href="#note_13"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">13</span></span></a> + <span style="font-size: 90%">That the testimony of the great + sages, to the effect</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page276">[pg 276]</span><a name="Pg276" id="Pg276" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">that the most + essential elements of their philosophy had their origin in + religious traditions, is based upon truth and not on fancy has + been proven by</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">O. + Willmann</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, whose + knowledge of ancient civilization was very extensive, in his + monumental</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">History + of Idealism.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Delhi, the home of mysteries, the + generations of priests in ancient Egypt, the doctrinal + traditions of the Chaldeans, the Magi of Medes and Persians, + and the wisdom of the Brahmins of ancient India are witnesses + to the fact.</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">The + Ancients were correct,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">says</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Willmann</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">in + tracing their philosophy to earliest traditions ... they knew + what they owed to their forefathers better than we do. They + direct our astonished eyes to a very ancient reality, to a + towering remoteness of living thought.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">This fact is very much against the taste of + our times.... An inherited wisdom, springing from an original + revelation, adapted to the nations, shining with renewed + brightness in true philosophy, is quite the opposite to a + philosophy that seeks the source of mental life only in + isolated thinking; that thinks its success to be conditioned + upon unprepossession; that holds the refutation of tradition to + be the test of its strength.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Unfortunately + this latter view is widespread in our time. Research is often + directed, not by reverence for the wisdom inherited from many + Christian centuries, but by the mania, unwise and fatal alike, of + seeking new paths. <span class="tei tei-q">“Love of + truth,”</span> so we are told, <span class="tei tei-q">“is what + urges on the great leaders of humanity, the prophets and + reformers, to seek new and untrodden paths of life. <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘Plus ultra’</span> is the rallying-cry of these + pathfinders of the future, who are clearing the way for the + mental life of mankind. No authority can restrain them, no + prejudice, however holy: they are following the light which has + dawned upon their soul”</span> (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Paulsen</span></span>).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And a + multitude discover this light in their souls, and join the + prophets and pathfinders! Everybody goes abroad looking for + untrodden paths; from all directions comes the cry: Here and + there, to the right, to the left, is the right way! Do we not + only too often see self-willed and self-satisfied thinkers, whose + shortsighted conceit gets within the four walls of their study + puffed up against God and religion, offer us for holy truth the + fanciful products of their narrow brains? Do we not see, only too + often, champions of shallow reasoning, without discipline of + thought and without ethical maturity, recommending their + undigested efforts as the wisdom of the world? Youthful thinkers + there are in numbers, each of whom claims that he at last has + succeeded in solving the world riddle; they <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page277">[pg 277]</span><a name="Pg277" id= + "Pg277" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> offer us new theories of the + world, new ideas on ethics, on law and theology, for a few + dollars per copy or less. The holy abode of truth has become the + campus for saunterers, each eager to displace the other so that + he may be sole proprietor, or at least a respected partner. Day + by day new solutions of <span class= + "tei tei-q">“problems,”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“vital + questions,”</span> or at least <span class= + "tei tei-q">“outlines”</span> of them; new <span class= + "tei tei-q">“views of the world”</span>; new forms of religion + and of Christianity for the <span class="tei tei-q">“modern + man”</span>; <span class="tei tei-q">“reforms”</span> of marriage + and of sexual ethics, and so on. Truth had not been discovered + until the newcomer puts his pen to the paper. Every one is free + to join in. Yea, more, he may not only join in, but lash those + who do not applaud him. According to this notion, nothing has a + right to exist, no <span class="tei tei-q">“sacred + prejudice”</span> may be claimed once this self-appointed + representative of science takes the field for <span class= + "tei tei-q">“research.”</span> Behold the Christian truth, it has + stood the test of centuries: but it cannot resist these + scientific freebooters, they rush over it with banners + flying.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Severe speech + would here be in order. A painful spectacle, these doings of + modern thought in the sacred precincts of truth. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Put off the shoes from thy feet; for the place + whereon thou standest is holy ground,”</span> we imagine to hear; + yet this sanctuary of truth has been made a profane place of + bartering.</p> + + <div class="tei tei-tb"> + <hr style="width: 50%" /> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">While still a + pagan, but moved by his desire for truth, the philosopher + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Justin</span></span> went to the schools of + his day to seek the solution of his doubts and queries. First he + turned to a Stoic, but as he taught nothing of God, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Justin</span></span> was unsatisfied. He + next went to a Peripatetic teacher, then to a Pythagorean, but + failed to find what he desired. The Platonist at last gave him + something. Walking alone along the beach, and musing over + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Plato's</span></span> principles, he met an + old man who referred him to the truth of Christianity, to the + Prophets and the Apostles: <span class="tei tei-q">“They alone + have seen the truth and proclaimed it unto man, they were afraid + of no one, knew no fear; yielded to no opinion; filled with the + Holy Ghost, they spoke only what they saw and heard. The + Scriptures are still extant, and he who takes them up will find + in them a treasure of information about principles and ultimate + things, and all else the philosopher must know, <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page278">[pg 278]</span><a name="Pg278" id= + "Pg278" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> if he believes + them.”</span><a id="noteref_14" name="noteref_14" href= + "#note_14"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">14</span></span></a> And + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Justin</span></span> found truth and peace, + and bowed to the yoke of the doctrine of Jesus Christ.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What a + striking contrast between this serious love of truth in the days + of passing heathendom, and the uncontrolled thinking of so many + in our Christian age! To them truth is no longer a sacred + treasure, a yoke to be assumed in reverence; it has become the + plaything of their impressions and inclinations. Indeed, they + consider it a burden to accept the old Christian truth, with + which they meet on all their ways.</p> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page279">[pg 279]</span><a name= + "Pg279" id="Pg279" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc33" id="toc33"></a> <a name="pdf34" id="pdf34"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">Chapter III. The Bitter + Fruit.</span></h2> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">The Vocation of + Science.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Science is, + and ever was, an influential factor operating upon the thought, + aims, and actions of man. Hence science must remain conscious of + its vocation. First of all it is to hold aloft and preserve the + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">spiritual possessions of + mankind</span></em>. True, science must also progress; but + progress means growth, which presupposes the preservation of what + has been received from of old. This applies pre-eminently to the + philosophical-religious patrimony of the past; no error could be + more fatal than to presume that each generation must start from + the beginning, that the foundations, which have safely supported + human life for centuries, must be obsolete because human nature + is suddenly considered changed.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What are these + foundations? They are the tested religious and moral convictions + of mankind, and, for our nations particularly, the divine tenets + of Christianity, that have been their highest ideals for + centuries, and have produced serenity and a high standard of + morality. If science aims to be the principle of conservation and + not of destruction, it must look upon the safeguarding of those + possessions of the nations as its sacred task. Indeed, it would + perform this task but poorly were it to waste this patrimony + piece by piece, or to shatter it with wicked fist, instead of + respecting and honouring it, or to set fire to the sanctuary + where mankind hitherto has dwelled in peace and happiness. A + science of this kind would not only cease to be a bulwark for the + mental life of mankind, but turn into a positive danger.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In as far as + it follows the principles of liberal freedom of research, + present-day science does present this danger. This cannot + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page280">[pg 280]</span><a name= + "Pg280" id="Pg280" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> be denied, the + facts speak too plainly. By its very nature it <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">must</span></em> + become such danger. For it recognizes no belief, neither in God + nor in the Church; no dogmas, no <span class= + "tei tei-q">“prejudices,”</span> no traditions, however sacred, + are to be respected; it is fundamental unbelief, the principle of + opposition to the Christian religion. Its autonomous Subject + emancipates himself from the yoke of objective truth which he + cannot procreate free out of himself. It confesses the principle + that there are neither truths nor values that endure; <span lang= + "la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">plus ultra!</span></span> always new ideas! + <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">Quieta + movere</span></span>, hitherto the watchword of unwisdom, is this + science's maxim. And liberal freedom of research is what its + nature compels it to be. Can it do any more than it has done, to + prove itself a principle of mental pauperism? We shall not demand + a list of the things it has thrown aside and shattered. Let us + rather ask, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">what it has left whole</span></em> of the + sacred institutions of truth, inherited from a Christian past. + Alas, it has cast off and denied everything; it has lost not only + the things a Christian age has treasured, but even those a higher + paganism had revered. Let us examine this sad work of negation + and annihilation. It is a more melancholy spectacle than any war + of extermination that was ever waged against Europe's Christian + civilization by a people bent on trampling down every flower of + Christian culture, and on razing every castle to the ground.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">Are We Still + Christians?</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This was the + question proposed some scores of years ago by <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">D. + Strauss</span></span> to himself, and to those of his mind. With + this question we will begin. To our forefathers, especially of + the German nation, nothing was more sacred than the Christian + religion; no people like the German has absorbed it so fully, has + been so permeated with it. But now, wherever liberal science—here + especially modern Protestant theology that brings liberal freedom + of research into full application—wherever it has made the + Christian religion a subject of its study, one treasure after + another has been lost; of the whole of Christendom nothing + remains but an empty name and a formal homage, reminding of the + courtesy paid to deposed rulers.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page281">[pg 281]</span><a name="Pg281" id="Pg281" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the first + place, there has been dropped the fundamental thesis of the + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">divinity of Christ</span></em>, whereupon + rests the entire structure of Christianity. Man's modern + emancipation from everything supernatural has been accomplished + also with respect to the person of Christ: the man Christ is + divested of His divinity and of everything miraculous; His birth + by the virgin, His miracles and prophecies, His resurrection and + ascension, once the subjects of exalting feasts, have fallen a + victim to unbelieving science. It is true, they exert themselves + to keep His person in view, they want the purely human Jesus to + hold His old position of God and man in the believing + consciousness, to conceal the mental pauperization. But this + trick is failing more and more. The Son of God sees Himself + gradually placed among the great men of history; we are becoming + accustomed to find in the <span class="tei tei-q">“Biographies of + Celebrated Men,”</span> among <span class="tei tei-q">“Religious + Educators,”</span> side by side with <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Confucius</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Buddha</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Augustine</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mohammed</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Luther</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kant</span></span>, + and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Goethe</span></span>, also the name of + Jesus. The lustre of the past belief in His divinity is paling. + In the eyes of unbelieving science He has ceased to be the + infallible, all-surpassing Authority, and the basis of the faith. + The teaching of Jesus has become the subject of an analyzing and + eliminating criticism, and whenever deemed advisable His + authority is simply ignored; He was human, affected by the views + and errors of His age.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Thus they know, as does</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">H. + Gunkel</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, that</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Jesus and + the Apostles evidently have taken those narratives (the miracles + of Genesis) to be reality and not poetry</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">;</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">the men of + the New Testament on such questions take no particular attitude + but share the (erroneous) opinions of their + times.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">They also know</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">that in regard to persons possessed with demons + Jesus shared the erroneous notions of his + time</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(</span><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Braun</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">), + and</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Fr. + Delitzsch</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">informs us + that it was</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">particularly a Babylonian + superstition,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">in consequence of which</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">the belief in demons and devils assumed such + importance in the imagination of Jesus of Nazareth and of his + Galilean disciples.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">Thus the word is fulfilled literally:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">He is a + sign which will be contradicted.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">No one knows + really <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">who Jesus was</span></em>. His person is the + football of opinions. <span class="tei tei-q">“If any one + desiring reliable information, as to who Jesus Christ was, and + what message He brought, should consult the literature of the + day, he would find buzzing round <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page282">[pg 282]</span><a name="Pg282" id="Pg282" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> him contradictory voices.... Taken all in + all, the impression made by these contradicting opinions is + depressing: the confusion seems past hope,”</span> admits Prof. + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Harnack</span></span>.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Also</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">E. + V. Hartmann</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">remarks:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Thus, according to some, Jesus was a poet, to + others a mystic visionary, a third sees in him the militant + hero for freedom and human dignity, to a fourth he was the + organizer of a new Church and of an ecclesiastical system of + ethics, to a fifth the rationalistic reformer ... to the + eleventh a naturalistic pantheist like</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Giordano + Bruno</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, to the + twelfth a superman on the order of</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Nietzsche's</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Zarathustra....</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">A + chaos of opinions agreeing only in the one aim of rejecting His + divinity.</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">A. + Schweitzer</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, himself + a representative of liberal Protestant research, says,</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Nothing + is more negative than the result of the research concerning the + life of Jesus.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">And knowing Jesus's person no longer, they no + longer know anything certain about His teaching, as is clear + from the above. According to</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">I. + Wellhausen</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, from + the</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">unsufficient fragments at hand we can get but + a scanty conception of the doctrine of + Jesus.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">—The + fathers were rich, the children have grown poor.</span> + <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Dissipaverunt substantiam + suam!</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">To many even the</span> <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">existence of + Jesus</span></em> <span style="font-size: 90%">has become + doubtful; and this not only to men of an irreligious + propaganda, like Prof.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">A. + Drews</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, who, carried + away by the corroding tendency of a radical age, journeyed from + town to town in order to proclaim, in the twentieth century of + Christian reckoning, the scientific discovery of the</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Myth of + Christ</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">; + but even to others the existence of Jesus has become doubtful + or at least valueless. The task now is to do away entirely with + the person of Jesus, and to solve the problem of preserving a + Christian faith without a Christ. In this sense Prof.</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">M. Rade</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">writes:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Serious and gifted men having asserted that + Jesus never existed (or, what amounts to the same, that, if He + ever lived, nothing is known of Him; hence, His existence is of + no historical importance), we dogmatists almost have to be + grateful to them for having helped us to put a very concrete + question no longer in general terms: how does religious + certainty face historical criticism? but quite specifically: + how does religious certainty (of the Christian) regard the + historic-scientific possibility of the non-existence of the + historical Jesus?</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">They frankly assert that they could entirely + forego the person of Christ. Thus Prof.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">P. W. + Schmiedel</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">declares:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">My innermost religious conviction would not + suffer injury were I to be convinced to-day that Jesus never + lived.... I would know that I could not lose the measure of + piety that has become my property long since, even if I cannot + derive it any longer from Jesus.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Neither does my piety require me to see in + Jesus an absolutely perfect type, nor would it disturb me were + I to find someone else actually surpassing Him, which + undoubtedly is the case in some respects.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">For him to whom Christ is no longer God but a + man and capable of error, His person and existence have + necessarily lost their value.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus we have + arrived at a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Christianity without a Christ</span></em>. + As yet the person of the Lord is usually surrounded by a halo: + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page283">[pg 283]</span><a name= + "Pg283" id="Pg283" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> it is the + after-effect of a faithful past, the last rays of a setting sun. + That this last glimmer, too, will pale and give way to darkness + is but a question of time, when with more honesty expression will + be given to the conclusion necessarily arrived at. If Christ is + not what He claimed to be, God and Messiah, then the belief in + His being the Son of God and the Messiah, in His right to + abrogate the religion of the Old Testament and to found a new + religion, commanding its acceptance under penalty of + damnation—all this can be nothing but the result of religious + fanaticism and mental derangement. And science is, in all + seriousness, preparing to turn into this direction.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">It is true, many are hesitating to draw these + fearful conclusions and to utter them; arriving at this point, + they cautiously stop: so</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Harnack</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">.</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">How Jesus + could arrive at the consciousness of His unique relation to God + as His Son, how He became conscious of His power as well as of + the obligation and task involved in this power, that is His + secret, and no psychology will ever disclose it.... Here, all + research must halt.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">It is the silence of embarrassment, but + equally of unscientific method. Having arrived at untenable + conclusions, when question upon question is impetuously + suggested, they stop suddenly and have nothing to say but a + vague word about inscrutableness.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">But there are those who actually speak the + word so horrible to a Christian heart: Jesus was demented, a + subject for pathology.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Strauss</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">indicated + this cautiously:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">One who + expects to return after his death in a manner in which no human + being had ever returned, he is to us ... not exactly a lunatic, + but a great visionary.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">Others speak more plainly.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Holtzmann's</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">answer to the question: Was Jesus + an Ecstatic, is an emphatic:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Yes, He was.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">De Loosten</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">considers him insane.</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">E. Rasmussen</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">thinks Him an epileptic, but + grants to physicians the right to reckon him among paranoiacs + or lunatics. To</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">A. + Jülicher</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">Jesus is a + visionary,</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">a mystic, + not satisfied to dream of his ideals, but who lived with them, + worked with them, even saw them tangibly before his eyes, + deceiving himself and others.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">Thus the supernatural has become madness; + Jesus Christ, for whose divinity the martyrs went to their + death, wears now, before the forum of a false science, Herod's + cloak of foolishness.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">With the fall + of this fundamental dogma there must necessarily fall all other + specific truths of Christianity, and they have fallen. The Holy + Writ, once the work of the Holy Ghost, has now become a book like + the Indian Vedda, to some perhaps even more unreliable; original + sin, Redemption and grace, the Sacrifice of the Mass and the + Sacraments, have been dropped or <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page284">[pg 284]</span><a name="Pg284" id="Pg284" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> changed into symbols, of which every one + may think what he pleases. They have tried to make Christianity + <span class="tei tei-q">“acceptable to our times,”</span> to + <span class="tei tei-q">“bring it nearer to the modern + idea.”</span> There is really nothing left to offend modern man, + nothing that could get in conflict with any idea. The essence of + Christianity is depreciated and emptied until it has become only + a vague sentiment, without thought; a few names, without ideas. + <span class="tei tei-q">“Christianity as a Gospel,”</span> so + teaches <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Harnack</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“has but one aim: to find the living God, that every + individual may find Him as his God, gaining strength and joy and + peace. How it attains this aim through the centuries, whether + with the Coefficient of the Jewish or the Greek, of flight from + the world or of civilization, of Gnosticism or Agnosticism—this + all is of secondary consideration.”</span> Of secondary + consideration it is, then, whether one is convinced of the + existence of God or whether he doubts with the agnostics, whether + he believes in a personal God or not. To-day even the pantheist + who does not acknowledge a Creator of Heaven and Earth may be a + Christian; and so can he who no longer believes in personal + immortality and in a hereafter; for, we are informed, + <span class="tei tei-q">“this religion is above the contrasts of + here and the beyond, of life and death, of Reason and Ecstatics, + of Judaism and Hellenism”</span> (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Harnack</span></span>). Thus there is no + thought which could not be made to agree with this despoiled + Christianity. For, we are told further, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“much less does the Gospel presuppose, or is joined + to, a fixed theory of nature—not even in a negative sense could + this be asserted”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Harnack</span></span>). Materialism and + Spiritualism, Theism and Pantheism, Belief or Negation of + Creation, everything will harmonize with a Christianity thus + degraded to a thing without character or principle.<a id= + "noteref_15" name="noteref_15" href="#note_15"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">15</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">All that is + left is a word of love, of a kind Father, of filiation to God, + and union with God: words robbed of their true meaning; a shell + without a kernel, ruins with the name <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Christianity”</span> still inscribed thereon, + telling of a house that once <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page285">[pg 285]</span><a name="Pg285" id="Pg285" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> stood here, wherein the fathers dwelt, but + long since vacated by their children. <span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Dissipaverunt substantiam + suam!</span></span></p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">As to God and divine filiation, everybody is + welcome to his own interpretation. He may form with</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">O. Pfleiderer</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">the</span> <span class="tei tei-q"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Neoprotestantism</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">which,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">after breaking with all ecclesiastical dogmas, + recalled to mind the truths of the Christian religion, hidden + beneath the surface of these dogmas, in order to realize, more + purely and more perfectly than ever before, the truth of God's + incarnation in the new forms of autonomous thought and of the + moral life of human society.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">Christianity and God—the symbols of autonomous + man! Or he may follow</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Bousset</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + to whom nature is God, and in this way combines harmoniously + Christianity and Atheism.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">This is the forceful evolution of Christian + religion,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">says he,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">the notion of redemption, the Dogma of the + divinity of Christ, the trinity, the idea of satisfaction and + sacrifice, miracles, the old conception of revelation—all these + we see carried off by this wave of progress.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">What is left? Timid people may think: a wreck. + But to our pleasant surprise we found stated at many points in + our inquiry: what is left is the simple Gospel of + Jesus.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">And what does this simplified + Gospel contain?</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Of course + we cannot simply accept in full the Gospel of Jesus.... There + is the internal and the external. The external and + non-essential includes the judgment of the world, angels, + miracles, inspiration, and other things.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">All this may be disregarded.</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">But even + the essentials, the internal of the Gospel cannot be simply + subscribed to. They must be interpreted.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">What, then, is this essential, this internal + of the Gospel, and what is its interpretation?</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">The + belief of the Gospel in the personal heavenly Father; to this + we hold fast with all our strength. But we carry this belief in + God into our modern thought.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">And what becomes then of</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">God</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">?</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">To us, + God is no longer the kind Father above the starry skies. God is + the Infinite, Omnipotent, who is active in the immense + universe, in infiniteness of time and space, in infinitely + small and in infinitely large things. He is the God whose garb + is the iron law of nature which hides Him from the human eye by + a compact, impenetrable veil.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">We see the belief of the Gospel has dwindled + down to atheistic Monism.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">As early as 1874</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Ed. von + Hartmann</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, in his + book</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Die + Selbstzersetzung des Christentums,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">came to the conclusion that</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">liberal + Protestantism has in no sense the right to claim a place within + Christendom.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">In a later book his keen + examination demonstrates how the speculation of liberal + Protestantism has changed the Christian religion step by step + into pantheism:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Not a + single point in the doctrine of the Church is spared by this + upheaval of principle, every dogma is formally turned into its + very opposite, in order to make its religious idea conform to + the tenet of divine immanence.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">This is called the development of + Christianity. It is this</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">religious progress,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">the same</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">free Christianity,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">that they are now trying to promote by + international congresses. The invitation to the</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">World's + Congress for free Christianity and religious + progress</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">at Berlin, in 1910, was signed by + more than 130 German professors, including</span> <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page286">[pg 286]</span><a name="Pg286" id= + "Pg286" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style= + "font-size: 90%">47 theologians. We have here the development + of the dying into the lifeless corpse, the progress of the + strong castle into a dilapidated ruin, the advance of the rich + man to beggary.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We began our + inquiry with the question proposed some years ago by <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">D. + Strauss</span></span> to his brethren-in-spirit: Are we still + Christians? We may now quote the answer, which he gives at the + conclusion of his own investigation: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Now, I think, we are through. And the result? the + reply to my question?—must I state it explicitly? Very well; my + conviction is, that if we do not want to make excuses, if we do + not want to shift and shuffle and quibble, if yes is to be yes, + and no to remain no, in short, if we desire to speak like honest, + sincere men, we must confess: we are no longer + Christians.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This is the + bitter fruit of autonomous freedom of thinking, which, declining + any guidance by faith, recognizes no other judge of truth than + individual reason, with all the license and the hidden + inclinations that rule it. Protestantism has adopted this freedom + of research as its principle; in consistently applying it, + Protestantism has completely denatured the Christian religion. If + anything can prove irrefutably the monstrosity and cultural + incapacity of modern freedom of research, it is the fate of + Protestantism. Any one capable of seriously judging serious + things must realize here how pernicious this freedom is for the + human mind.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">Reduced to Beggary.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the loss + is even greater. The better class of paganism still clung to the + general notion of an existing personal God, of a future life, of + a reward after death; it was convinced of the existence of an + immortal soul and a future reward, of the necessity of religion, + of immutable standards for morals and thought. Has liberal + science at least been able to preserve this essential property of + a higher paganism? Alas, no! It has lost nearly everything.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">No longer has + it a personal God. While belief in God may still survive in the + hearts of many representatives of this science, it has vanished + from science itself. It begs to be <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page287">[pg 287]</span><a name="Pg287" id="Pg287" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> excused from accepting any solution of + questions, if God is a factor in the solution. The opinion + prevails that <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kant</span></span> has forever shattered all + rational demonstrations of the existence of God. Yet <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kant</span></span> + permits this existence as a <span class= + "tei tei-q">“postulate,”</span> which, according to <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Strauss</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“may be regarded as the attic room, where God who has + been retired from His office may be decently sheltered and + employed.”</span> But now He has been given notice to quit even + this refuge. There must be nothing left of Him but His venerable + name, which is appropriated by the new apostasy in the guise of + pantheism or a masked materialism. Monism is the joint name for + it: this is the modern <span class="tei tei-q">“belief in + God.”</span> In days gone by it was frankly called <span class= + "tei tei-q">“atheism.”</span></p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">This disappearance of the old belief in God is + noted with satisfaction by modern science:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">It is true,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">says</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Paulsen</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">the + belief in gods ... is dying out, and will never be resurrected. + Nor is there an essential difference whether many or only one + of these beings are assumed. A monotheism which looks upon God + as an individual being and lets him occasionally interfere in + the world as in something separate from and foreign to him, + such a monotheism is essentially not different from polytheism. + If one should insist on such conception of theism, then, of + course, it will be difficult to contradict those who maintain + that science must lead to atheism.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Therefore God, + as a personal being, is dead, and will never come to life again. + While there is an enormous exaggeration in these words, they + nevertheless glaringly characterize the ideas of the science of + which <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Paulsen</span></span> is the mouthpiece. It + does not want directly to give up the name of God; it serves as a + mask to conceal the uncanny features of pantheism and + materialism.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The universe,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">we + hear often and in many variations,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">is the expression of a uniform, original + principle, which may be termed God, Nature, primitive force, or + anything else, and which appears to man in manifold forms of + energy, like matter, light, warmth, electricity, chemical energy, + or psychical process.... These fundamental ideas of monism are by + no means</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">atheistic.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">’</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">Many monists in spite of assertions to the + contrary believe in a supreme divine principle, which penetrates + the whole world, living and operating in everything. Of course, + if God is taken to mean a being who exists outside of the world + ... then it is true we are atheists</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Plate</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">). + We have already seen that one can even be a Protestant + theologian and yet be satisfied with a</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">God</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">of this description.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the place + of God has stepped <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">man</span></em>, with his advanced + civilization, radiant in the divine aureole of the absolute as + its <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page288">[pg 288]</span><a name= + "Pg288" id="Pg288" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> highest + incarnation. But what has liberal research done even to him? + According to the Christian idea, man bears the stamp of God on + his forehead: <span class="tei tei-q">“after My image I have + created thee”</span>; in his breast he carries a spiritual soul, + endowed with freedom and immortality—<span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">gloria et honore coronasti + eum</span></span>. Liberal science pretends to uplift and exalt + man; but in reality it strips him of his adornments, one after + the other. He is no longer a creature of God because this would + contradict science. His birthplace and the home of his childhood + are no longer in Paradise, but in the jungles of Africa, among + the animals, whose descendent man is now said to be. Liberal + science, almost without exception, denies the freedom of will + which raises man high above the beast, and as a rule it calls + such freedom an <span class="tei tei-q">“illusion”</span>: of a + substantial soul, of immortality, of an ultimate possession of + God after death, it frequently, if not always, knows nothing.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Let us take up a handbook of modern</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Psychology</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">of this kind, Wundt's, for instance. + We see at a glance that it is a very learned work. The thirty + lectures inform us in minute investigations of the various + methods and resources of psychological research. The reader has + reached the twentieth lecture, and he asks, how about the soul? + The title of the book states that the chapters would treat of the + human soul, but so far not a word has been said about it. But + there are ten lectures more; he continues to turn over the leaves + of the book. He finds beautiful things said about expression and + emotions, about instincts in animal and man, about spontaneous + actions and other things. At last, the third before the last page + of the book, there arises the question, what about the soul, and + what does the reader learn?</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Our soul is nothing else, but the sum total of + our perception, our feeling and our will.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">The + conviction he held hitherto, that he possessed a substantial, + immortal soul, which remains through changing conceptions and + sentiments, he sees rejected as</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">fiction.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">The + reader learns that, though he may still use the term</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">soul,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">he + has no real soul, much less a spiritual soul, least of all an + immortal soul. In its stead he is treated to some learned + statements about muscular sensations and such things, by way of + compensation.</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Jodl</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + too, speaks of the</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">illusions, based upon the old theories about + the soul,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">and he rejects the dualistic + psychology which</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">mistook + an abstract thought, the soul, for a real being, for an + immaterial substance</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">; + and which defended this notion</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">with worthless reasons.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">It is manifest that, together with the + substantial soul, immortality is also disposed of. True, here + too the word is cautiously retained; but by immortality is now + understood perpetuation in the human race, in the ideas of + posterity, in</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">objective + spirit,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">in the</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">imperishable</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page289">[pg 289]</span><a name="Pg289" id="Pg289" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">value of + ethical possessions,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">for which the individual has laboured. Some + fine words are said about it, as roses are used to cover a + grave. Yet, it is only the immortality of the barrel of + Regulus, or the Gordian knot in history, the immortality of + which the printers' press may partake in the effect of the + books it prints. To quote</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Jodl</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">again:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The fact of the objective spirit, together + with the organic connection of the generations to one another, + form the scientific reality of what appears in popular, + mythological tenets of faith as the idea of personal + immortality ... and which has been defended by the dualistic + psychology with worthless, invalid + arguments.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">The refutation of these arguments + does not bother him.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">A refutation of these scholastic arguments is + as little needed as a refutation of the belief in the miracles + and demons of former centuries is needed by a man standing on + the ground of modern natural science.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">This reminds one of</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Haeckel's</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">method. The latter nevertheless + found it worth while in his</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Weltraetsel</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">to dispose in thirteen lines of six such + arguments, and then to assure the reader that</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">All these + and similar arguments have fallen to the + ground.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">That the matter in question is an + idea that has been the foundation of Christian civilization and + ethics for thousands of years, that has led millions to + holiness; an idea, indeed, that has been the common property of + all nations at all times—this seems to count for very + little.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">This technique of a superficial speculation, + which, devoid of piety, casts everything overboard, finds no + trouble in disposing of the entire</span> <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">spiritual + world</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">.</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">No one is + capable,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">says</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Jodl</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">again,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">of imagining a purely spiritual + reality.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">This is disposed of.</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Since the + war between the Aristotle-scholastic and the mechanical method + has been waged, spiritual powers have never played any other + part in the explanation of the world than that of an unknown + quantity in equations of a higher degree, which, unsolvable by + methods hitherto prevalent, are only awaiting the superior + master and a new technique (</span><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">sic</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">) + in order to disappear</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(p. 77</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">seq.</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">).</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">With the + denial of a personal God and of the immortality of the soul, true + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">religion</span></em> is abandoned. Of + course, there is much said and written about religion in our + days: the scientific literature about it has grown to tremendous + proportions—to say nothing of newspapers, novels, and plays. One + might welcome this as a proof that this world will never entirely + satisfy the human heart. But it is also a sign that religion is + no longer a secure possession, but has become a problem—that it + has been lost. Even on the part of free-thought it is not denied + that <span class="tei tei-q">“only unhappy times will permit the + existence of religious problems; and that this problem is the + utterance of mental discord.”</span> Yet they do not want to + forego religion entirely, for they feel that irreligion is + tantamount to degeneration. But what has become <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page290">[pg 290]</span><a name="Pg290" id= + "Pg290" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of religion? It has been + degraded to a vague sentiment and longing, without religious + truths and duties, a plaything for pastime.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">For</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Schleiermacher</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">religion is a feeling of simple + dependence, though no one knows upon whom he is dependent: + according to</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Wundt</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">religion + consists in</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">man + serving infinite purposes, together with his finite purposes, + the ultimate fulfilment whereof remains hidden to his + eye,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">which probably means something, + but I do not know what.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Haeckel</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">calls his materialism the religion + of the true, good, and beautiful;</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Jodl</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">even thinks,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">As the realm of science is the real, and the + realm of art the possible, so the realm of religion is the + impossible.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Religion having been degraded to such a level, + it is no longer astonishing that religion is attributed even to + animals, and in the words of</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">E. von + Hartmann</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">we cannot + help attributing a religious character, as far as the animal is + concerned, to the relation between the intelligent domestic + animals and their masters.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What, finally, + has become of the old standard of <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">morals</span></em>? A modern philosopher may + answer the question.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Fouillée</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">writes:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">In our day, far more so than thirty years ago, + morality itself, its reality, its necessity and usefulness, is in + the balance.... I have read with much concern how my + contemporaries are at fundamental variance in this respect, and + how they contradict one another. I have tried to form an opinion + of all these different opinions. Shall I say it? I have found in + the province of morals a confusion of ideas and sentiments to an + extent that it seemed impossible to me to illustrate thoroughly + what might be termed contemporaneous + sophistry</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(Le Moralisme de Kant, + etc.).</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Where is left + now to liberal science a single remnant of those great truths on + which mankind has hitherto lived, and which it needs for + existence? There was a God—but He is gone. There was a life to + come, and a supernatural world; they are lost. Man had a soul, + endowed with freedom, spirituality, and immortality; he has it no + longer. He had fixed principles of reasoning and laws of morals; + they are gone. He possessed Christ, full of grace and truth, he + possessed redemption and a Church; everything is lost. Burnt to + the ground is the homestead. In the blank voids, that cheerful + casements were, sits despair; man stands at the grave of all that + fortune gave!</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The names + alone have survived; now and then they speak <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page291">[pg 291]</span><a name="Pg291" id= + "Pg291" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of God and religion, of + Christianity and faith, immortality and freedom; but the words + are false, pretending a possession that is lost long since. They + are patches from a grand dress, once worn by our ancestors; ruins + of the ancestral house that the children have lost. They are + still cherished as the memories of better times. People thus + acknowledge the irreparable forfeiture which those names denote, + without realizing how they pronounce their own condemnation by + having destroyed these possessions.<a id="noteref_16" name= + "noteref_16" href="#note_16"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">16</span></span></a> + <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">Dissipaverunt substantiam + suam.</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The son came + to his father. In his heedless anxiety for freedom he would leave + the father's house, to get away from restraining discipline and + dependence. <span class="tei tei-q">“Father, give me the portion + of the goods that falleth to me.”</span> And he departed into a + far country. Soon he had spent all and had nothing to appease his + hunger.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">Despairing of Truth.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These, then, + are the achievements liberal research can boast of in the fields + of philosophy and religion: Negations and again negations; + temples and altars it has destroyed, sacred images it has broken, + pillars it has knocked down. Free from Christianity, free from + God, free from the life to come and the supernatural, free from + authority and faith—it is rich in freedom and negation. But what + does it offer in place of all the things it has destroyed? What + spiritual goods does it show to the expectant eyes of its + confiding followers? The most hopeless things imaginable, namely, + despair of all higher truth, mental confusion, and decay. One + other brief glance at the consequences <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page292">[pg 292]</span><a name="Pg292" id="Pg292" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> and we shall be competent to judge of the + fitness of liberal freedom of thought for the civilization of + mankind.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As far as it + is inspired by philosophy, modern science confesses the + principle: <span class="tei tei-q">“No objective truth can be + positively known, at least not in metaphysics”</span>; restless + doubt is the lot of the searching intellect. We have amplified + this elsewhere in these pages. This result of the modern doctrine + of cognition is not infrequently boasted of. It was good enough, + say they, for the ancients to live in the silly belief of + possessing eternal truth; they were simple and unsuspecting; we + know there is in store for man only doubt and everlasting + struggle for truth.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">We confess that we do not know whether there are + for mankind as a whole, and for the individual, tasks and goals + that extend beyond this earthly existence</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Jodl</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">).</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">There is + no scientific philosophy of generally recognized standard, but + only in the form of various experiments for the purpose of + defining and expressing the harmony and the idea of the active + principle; consequently there cannot be a final philosophy, it + must be ready at all times to revise any point that previously + seemed to have been established</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Paulsen</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">).</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Only to + dogmatism,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">says another,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">are the various theories of the world + contradictory; to science they are hypotheses of equal value, + which, as they are all limited, may exist side by side, the + theistic as well as the atheistic, the dualistic, the monistic, + and whatever their names may be. Man, who conceives these + hypotheses, is master over them all and makes use of them, here + of one, there of another, according to the kind of the problem + he is occupied with at the time. Thus, he is independent of any + view of the world</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">(</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">L. von + Sybel</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">). Again we are + told:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">There has + been formulated a free variety of metaphysical systems, none of + them demonstrable.... Is it our task, perhaps, to select the + true one? This would be an odd superstition; this metaphysical + anarchy is teaching, as obviously as possible, the relativity + of all metaphysical systems</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">W. + Dilthey</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">). Therefore, + nothing but impressions and opinions, and not the truth; + indeed, for the cognition of transcendental, metaphysical + truths, they often have only words of disdain.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The fact should be + emphasized,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">says</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">G. + Spicker</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">that + philosophy really is devoid of any higher ideal; that, through + its doubt of the objective cognizability of things above us, + outside and inside of us, it has fallen prey to scepticism, + even if philosophers do not admit it and try to evade the issue + with the phrase</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style="font-size: 90%">theory of + cognition.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">’</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%"> ”</span></span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A science + cannot sink to a lower level than by the admission that it has + nothing to offer and nothing to accomplish. It is tantamount to + bankruptcy. This science undertakes to nourish the human mind, + but offers stones instead of bread; it <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page293">[pg 293]</span><a name="Pg293" id="Pg293" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> wants to uplift and to instruct, and + confesses that it has nothing to tell. <span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Amphora coepit institui, currente rota + urceus exit.</span></span> In the beginning a proud consciousness + and the promise to be everything to mankind; at the end mental + pauperism and scepticism, a caricature of science.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This, then, is + the terminal at which the free-thought of subjectivism has + arrived: the loss of truth, without which man's mind wanders + restlessly and without a goal. That is the penalty for gambling + boldly with human perception, the retribution for rebelling + against the rights of truth and for the vainglorious arrogance of + the intellect, which would draw only from its own cisterns the + water of life, while alone those lying deep in the Divine may + offer him the eternal fountains of objective truth. Scepticism is + gnawing at the mental life of the world. A scepticism cloaked + with the names of criticism and research, and of positivism and + empiric knowledge, but which, nevertheless, remains what it is, + an ominous demon, liberated from the grave into which has been + lowered the Christian spiritual life, the spirit of darkness now + pervading the world.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">In All Directions of the + Compass.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">They have lost + their way, puzzled by mazes and perplexed with error they are in + hopeless confusion; a correlative of individualistic thinking. If + the absolute subject and his experiences of life are the + self-appointed court of last resort, the result must be anarchy + and not accord. This is manifest; moreover, it is frankly + admitted by the spokesmen of freethought.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">This anarchy is described in vivid words by + Prof.</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Paulsen</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + recently the indefatigable champion of freest thought:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">We no + longer have a Protestant philosophy, in the sense of a standard + system.</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Hegel's</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">philosophy + was the last to occupy such a position. Anarchy rules ever + since. The attempted rally around the name of</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Kant</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">failed to put an end to the + prevalent anarchy, or to the division into small fractions and + individualisms. Then there is the mental neurasthenia of our + times, the absolute lack of ideas, especially noticeable among + so-called educated people.... Billboard art has found a + counterpart in billboard-philosophy. Here, there, and + everywhere we meet the cry: here</span> <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page294">[pg 294]</span><a name="Pg294" id= + "Pg294" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style= + "font-size: 90%">is the saviour, the secret ruler, the magic + doctor, who cures all ills of our diseased age.... After a + while, the mob has again dispersed and the thing is + forgotten</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(</span><span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Philosophia Militans</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">There is no uniform philosophic theory of the + world, such as we, at least to a certain extent, used to + have,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">says</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Paulsen</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">elsewhere,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">the latest ideas are diverging in all + directions of the compass.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">When one buildeth up, and another pulleth + down, what profit have they but the labour? (Ecclus. xxxiv. + 28).</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">We have + no metaphysics nowadays,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">says</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">R. Eucken</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">in the same strain,</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">and there + are not a few who are proud of it. They only would have the + right to be so if our philosophy were in excellent shape, if, + even without metaphysics, firm convictions ruled our life and + actions, if great aims held us together and lifted us above the + smallness of the merely human. The fact is an unlimited + discordance, a pitiful insecurity in all matters of principle, + a defencelessness against the petty human, and soullessness + accompanied by superabounding exterior manifestation of + life.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This is the + status of modern philosophy and also of liberal, Protestant, + theology. Of views of the world, of notions and forms of + Christianity, of ideas, essays and contributions to them, there + is choice in abundance. Here, materialistic Monism is proclaimed, + warranted to solve all riddles. There, spiritualistic Pantheism + is retailed in endless varieties. Yonder, Agnosticism is + strutting: no longer philosophy, but facts and reality, is its + slogan. Then comes the long procession of ethical views of life: + <span class="tei tei-q">“Contemplations of life; theories of + human existence surround us and court us in plenty; the + coincidence of ample historical learning with active reflection + induces manifold combinations, and makes it easy for the + individual to draw pictures of this kind according to + circumstance and mood; and so we see individual philosophies + whirling about promiscuously, winning and losing the favour of + the day, and shifting and transmuting themselves in kaleidoscopic + change”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Eucken</span></span>). <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hegel</span></span>, although he lectured + with great assurance on his own system, lamented: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Every philosophy comes forth with the pretension to + refute not only the preceding philosophy, but to remedy its + defects, to have at last found the right thing.”</span> But past + experience shows, that to this philosophy, too, the passage from + Holy Writ is applicable: <span class="tei tei-q">“Behold, the + feet that will carry thee away are already at the + threshold.”</span> Indeed, often it has come to pass that these + philosophers themselves bury their ideas, preparatory to entering + another camp. Consider the changes that men like <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page295">[pg 295]</span><a name="Pg295" id= + "Pg295" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kant</span></span>, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Fichte</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Schelling</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Strauss</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Nietzsche</span></span>, have essayed in the + short course of a few decades, and we are justified in assuming + that they would again have changed their last ideas had death not + interfered.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Now and then + such confusion of opinions is considered an advantage, the + advantage of fertility. To be sure, it is fertility,—the + fertility of fruitless attempts, of errors, and of fancies, the + fertility of disorder and chaos. If this fertility be a cause of + pride for science, then mathematics, physics, astronomy, and + other exact sciences, are indeed to be pitied for having to + forego this fertility of philosophy, and the privilege of being + an arena for contradictory views.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">Without Peace and without + Joy.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">After the + hopeless shipwreck of the modern, godless thought, can we wonder + at meeting frequently the despondency of <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">pessimism</span></em>? Is not pessimism the + first born of scepticism? At the close of the nineteenth century + we read, again and again, in reviews of the past and forecasts of + the future, how the modern world stands perplexed before the + riddles of life, confessing in pessimistic mood that it is + dissatisfied and unhappy to the depth of its soul. With proud + self-consciousness, boasting of knowledge and power of intellect, + they had entered the nineteenth century, praising themselves in + the words: How great, O man, thou standest at the century's + close, with palm of victory in thy hand, the fittest son of time! + With heads bowed in shame these same representatives of modern + thought make their exit from the same century.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Of the number that voiced this sentiment we + quote but one, Prof.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">R. + Eucken</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, who + wrote:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">The + greatness of the work is beyond doubt. This work more and more + opens up and conquers the world, unfolds our powers, enriches + our life, it leads us in quick victorious marches from triumph + to triumph.... Thus, it is true, our desired objects have been + attained, but they disclosed other things than we expected: the + more our powers and ideas are attracted by the work, the more + we must realize the neglect of the inner man and of his + unappeased, ardent longing for happiness. Doubts spring up + concerning the entire work; we</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page296">[pg 296]</span><a name="Pg296" id="Pg296" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">must ask + whether the new civilization be not too much a development of + bare force, and too little a cultivation of the being, whether + because of our strenuous attention to surroundings, the + problems of innermost man are not neglected. There is also + noticeable a sad lack in moral power: we feel powerless against + selfish interests and overwhelming passions: mankind is more + and more dividing itself into hostile sects and parties. And + such doubts arouse to renewed vigour the old, eternal problems, + which faithfully accompany our evolution through all its + stages. Former times did not finally solve them, (?) but they + were, at least to a degree, mollified and quieted. But now they + are here again unmitigated and unobscured. The enigmatical of + human existence is impressed upon us with unchecked strength, + the darkness concerning the Whence and Whither, the dismal + power of blind necessity, accident and sorrow in our fate, the + low and vulgar in the human soul, the difficult complications + of the social body: all unite in the question: Has our + existence any real sense or value? Is it not torn asunder to an + extent that we shall be denied truth and peace for ever?... + Hence it is readily understood why a gloomy pessimism is + spreading more and more, why the depressed feeling of + littleness and weakness is pervading mankind in the midst of + its triumphs.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Similar, and profoundly true, are the words + spoken some years ago by a noted critic in the</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Literarische Zentralblatt</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(1900):</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">A painful lament and longing pervades our + restless and peaceless time. The bulk of our knowledge is daily + increasing, our technical ability hardly knows of difficulties + it could not overcome ... and yet we are not satisfied. More + and more frequently we meet with the tired, disheartened + question: What's the use? We lack the one thing which would + give support and impetus to our existence, a firm and assured + view of the world. Or, to be more exact, we have found that we + cannot live with the view of the world which in this century of + enlightenment has stamped its imprint more and more upon our + entire mental life. Materialism, in coarser or finer form, has + penetrated deeply our habits of thought, even in those who + would indignantly protest against being called materialists; + the name seemed to imply scientific earnestness and liberal + views. However, there was still left a considerable fund of + old, idealistic values, and as long as we could draw upon them + we saw in materialism only the power to clear up rooted + prejudices, and to open the road for progress in every field. + To the newer generation, however, little or nothing is left of + this old fund, hence, having nothing else but materialism to + depend upon, they are confronted by an appalling dreariness and + emptiness of existence. And ever since the man on the street + has absorbed the easy materialistic principles, and looks down + from the height of his</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">scientific</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">’</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">view of life contemptuously upon all + reactionaries, we have become aware of the danger that imperils + everything implied by the collective word</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">humanism.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">’</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">This explains the plethora of literature which + in these days deals with the questions of a world + philosophy.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Who is not reminded after reading + this mournful confession of the words of</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">St. + Augustine</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Restless + is our heart, till it finds rest in Thee</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">?</span></p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page297">[pg + 297]</span><a name="Pg297" id="Pg297" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If it be true, + then, that philosophical thought stands in closest connection + with civilization, determining the latter in its loftier aspects, + then the freedom of thought of modern subjectivism has proved its + incompetence as a power for civilization; it can produce only a + sham-civilization, it can incite the minds and keep them in + nervous tension, until, tired of fruitless endeavour, they yield + to pessimism. However painful it may be to admit it, this freedom + of thought is and remains the principle of natural decadence of + all the higher elements of a culture that is not determined by + the number of guns, by steam-engines, and high-schools for girls, + but which consists, chiefly, in a steadfast, ideal condition of + reason and will, from which all else obtains significance and + value. What further proof of intellectual and cultural + incompetence can be demanded which this principle has not + furnished already?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If this be the + fact, then it follows in turn that in the life of higher culture, + where the health of the soul and the marrow of mental life is at + stake, there can rule but a single principle, the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">objectivism of + Christian thought</span></em>, the principle of absolute + submission, without variance and change, to a truth against which + man has no rights. The submission of Christian thought to a + religious, teaching authority, recognized as infallible in all + matters pertaining to its domain, while not an exhaustive + presentment of this principle, is its perceptive and concrete + effect.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">A Rock in the Waters.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The history of + human thought of all ages, but especially of the last centuries, + proves how necessary a divine revelation is to man; viz., the + clear exposition of the highest truths in the view of world and + of life, emphasized by a divine authority, which links the human + mind to the one immutable truth; not only in ignorant nations, + not only in the man of the common people, but also, and more + especially, in the educated man and in the scientist, he, namely, + who, through the moderate studies of a small intellect, has + collected a little sum of knowledge that is apt to confuse his + limited understanding and to rob him <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page298">[pg 298]</span><a name="Pg298" id="Pg298" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> of modesty. It is just as manifest that + revelation alone does not suffice, that there is needed also the + enduring forum of a teaching Church, which in the course of + centuries gives expression to truth with infallible, binding + authority.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The full truth + of this is felt even by those unfavourably disposed toward this + authority. A recent champion of autonomous freedom of thought, + the Protestant theologian, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">F. Troeltsch</span></span>, makes this + concession in the words: <span class="tei tei-q">“The immediate + consequence of such autonomy is necessarily a steadily more + intensified individualism of convictions, opinions, theories, and + practical ends and aims. An absolute supra-individual union is + effected only by an enormous power such as the belief in an + immediate, supernatural, divine, revelation, as possessed by + Catholicism, and organized in the Church as the extended and + continued incarnation of God. This tie gone, the necessary sequel + will be a splitting up in all sorts of human + opinions.”</span><a id="noteref_17" name="noteref_17" href= + "#note_17"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">17</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This is to the + Catholic a caution to appreciate the ministry of his Church ever + more highly, and to cleave to it still closer. He will not agree + with those who think that in our time the principle of Authority + must retire. The more his eyes are opened by the present + situation, the more clearly he realizes where thought emancipated + from faith and authority has led, the more he will affirm his + conscious belief in authority. His foothold upon the rock of the + Church will be the firmer the more restless the billows of unsafe + opinions rise and roll about him. The Catholic of mature, + Catholic, conviction would consider it folly to abandon the rock + for the restless and turbulent play of the waves. Many, indeed, + who are looking for a safe place of truth, we see for this reason + taking refuge in a <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page299">[pg + 299]</span><a name="Pg299" id="Pg299" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + strong Church; many are impressed by the stability of Catholic + authority.<a id="noteref_18" name="noteref_18" href= + "#note_18"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">18</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The present + situation is similar socially to that of the ancient world at its + close, and also in regard to the spiritual life. Then, as now, + there was learning without idealism, corroded by scepticism, + without harmony and cheer. Then, as now, there was but one power + to offer rescue. Faith and Church. A longing for help is now also + prevailing in the world. It feels its helplessness. If they only + had the conviction of a <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">St. Augustine</span></span>, who prayed for + deliverance from his errors: <span class="tei tei-q">“When I + often and forcefully realized the agility, sagacity, and acumen + of the human mind, I could not believe that truth was hidden + completely from us—rather only the way and manner how to discover + it, and that we must accept these from a divine authority”</span> + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De + utilit. credendi</span></span>, 8).</p> + + <div class="tei tei-tb"> + <hr style="width: 50%" /> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was a + solemn hour, pregnant with profound significance, when at + midnight at the beginning of this century all the churchbells of + the Catholic globe were ringing, and, while everything around was + silent, their blessed sound was resounding alone over the earth, + over villages and cities, over countries and nations. Grandly + there resounded into the whole world, over the heads of the + children of men about to enter upon a new century of their + history, that the Catholic Church is the Queen in the realm of + mind, that she alone preserves infallibly the truths and ideals + of which mankind is in quest, by which they are raised above + earthly turmoil—those truths and <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page300">[pg 300]</span><a name="Pg300" id="Pg300" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> ideals in which the heart and mind of + earthly pilgrims find rest and peace on their long journey to the + goal of time. Since she assumed the mission of Him who said, + <span class="tei tei-q">“I am the Way and the Truth,”</span> and, + <span class="tei tei-q">“I am with you all days, even unto the + consummation of the world,”</span> the Church has travelled a + long way through the centuries, has withstood hard times and + fierce storms. And she has faithfully preserved for mankind the + precious patrimony from God's hand. And now, at the dawn of new + times, her bells proclaimed that she is still alive, holding the + old truths in a strong hand. And after another century the bells + of the globe will ring again, they will, so we hope—ring more + loudly and more forcefully, over the nations. And these bells + will also ring over the graves of this present generation, over + fallen giants of the forest and over collapsed towers, over + mouldy books, and the wreckage left by a culture that the + emancipated, fallible human mind created, but which truth did not + consecrate. And again the bells will proclaim to a new century + that God, and the world's history, are thinking greater thoughts + than the puny child of man is capable of thinking within the + narrow compass of his years and of his surroundings.</p> + </div> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page301">[pg 301]</span><a name= + "Pg301" id="Pg301" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc35" id="toc35"></a> <a name="pdf36" id="pdf36"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Fourth Section. Freedom of + Teaching.</span></h1><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page303">[pg + 303]</span><a name="Pg303" id="Pg303" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">Preliminary Conceptions and + Distinctions.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Acquisition and + distribution, labour and communication of the fruits of labour, are + the two factors that determine the progress of mankind. Thus the + precious metal is mined and brought to the surface by the labourer, + whence it speeds through the world; thus the faithful missionary + journeys into remote countries, to disseminate there the mental + treasures acquired by study and hard religious effort. And thus + science desires to work, and should work, for the culture and + progress of mankind, and this work is pre-eminently its task. To + properly pursue this vocation science demands freedom, <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">freedom in research + and teaching</span></em>. There is, as we have already pointed out, + an important distinction between the two. Although research and + teaching are mostly joined, the former only attaining its chief end + in teaching, there is a real difference between the two elements; + and not unfrequently they are separated. It makes quite a + difference whether some one within the four walls of his room + studies anarchy, or whether he proceeds to proclaim its principles + to the world; it is quite different whether a man embraces atheism + for his personal use only, or whether he makes propaganda for it + from the pulpit; it makes also a world of difference whether a man + is personally convinced that materialism is the sole truth, or + whether he proclaims it as a science, and is able to affirm that of + the German edition of <span class="tei tei-q">“Welträtsel”</span> + 200,000 copies have been sold, of the English edition about as + many, and that a dozen other translations have spread the + fundamental notions of monism broadcast through the world + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">E. + Haeckel</span></span>, Monismus u. Naturgesetz). Teaching must be + viewed from a different point. Research is a personal function, + whereas Teaching is a social one. This fact, of itself, makes it + evident that teaching cannot be allowed the same measure of freedom + as <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page304">[pg 304]</span><a name= + "Pg304" id="Pg304" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> research, hence that + teaching must be confined within narrower limits.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But Freedom is + demanded not only for research, but also for teaching, in most + cases even an unlimited freedom. It is demanded as an inalienable + right of the individual, it is demanded in the name of progress, + which can be promoted only by new knowledge. Some countries grant + this freedom in their constitutions. Before discussing this demand + and its presumptions, we shall have to make clear some preliminary + conceptions.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">First, the + meaning of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">freedom of teaching</span></em>. How is it + precisely to be understood? Freedom in teaching in general means, + evidently, exemption from unwarranted restraint in teaching. + Teaching, however, to use the words of a great thinker of the past, + means <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">Causare in alio + scientiam</span></span>, to impart knowledge to some one else + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Thomas + Aquinas</span></span>, Quaest. disp. De verit. q. XI al.). Thus the + pious mother teaches the child truths about God and Heaven, the + school-teacher teaches elementary knowledge, the college-professor + teaches science. Teaching is chiefly understood to be the + instruction by professional teachers, from grammar school up to + university. Hence freedom in teaching does not necessarily refer to + scientific matters only; we may also speak of a freedom of teaching + in the elementary school. As a rule, however, the term is used in + the narrower sense of freedom in teaching science.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Here it may not be amiss to mention further + distinctions. As we may distinguish in teaching three essentials, + namely, the matter, the method, and the teacher, so there is a + corresponding triple freedom of teaching. If we regard the matter, + we meet with the demand, that no one be excluded in an unjust way + from exercising his right to teach, that no single party should + have the monopoly of teaching: the right to found free universities + also belongs here. It is part of the freedom of teaching. As it has + relation to the state, we shall return to this point later on. A + second freedom, which might be called methodological, concerns the + choice of the method. This is naturally subject to considerable + restraint; not only because the academic teacher may frequently + have to get along without desirable paraphernalia, but also because + of the commission he receives with his appointment, wherein his + field and scope are prescribed. This is necessary for the purpose + of the university; the students are to acquire the varied knowledge + needed later on in their vocations of clergyman, lawyer, teacher, + or physician. There is frequent complaint that this freedom in + method is abused to a certain extent, that the students are taught + many fragments of science with thoroughness,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page305">[pg 305]</span><a name="Pg305" id="Pg305" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">but too + little of that which they actually need later on; they are + trained too much for theoretical work and not enough for the + practical vocation. Thus there is limitation here, too. But this + is not the freedom in teaching which occupies the centre of + interest to-day.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The trophy for + which the battle is waged is the freedom relating to the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">subject</span></em> + of teaching; we shall term it <span class= + "tei tei-q">“doctrinal”</span> freedom in teaching: Shall the + representative of science be permitted to promulgate any view he + has formed? Even if that view conflicts with general religious or + moral convictions, with the social order? Or must this freedom be + curbed? This is the question.<a id="noteref_19" name="noteref_19" + href="#note_19"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">19</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Obviously, + teaching need not always be done <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">verbally</span></em>, it can be done also by + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">writing</span></em>. The professor lectures in + the classrooms, but he may also expound his theories in books; this + latter the private scholar may also do. In this way <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Plato</span></span> + and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Aristotle</span></span> and the Fathers are + still teaching by their writings, though their lips have long been + silent. True, this way of teaching has not the force of the spoken + word, vibrating with personal conviction, but it reaches farther + out, with telling effect upon masses and remote circles. Thus, + freedom in teaching includes also the freedom to print and publish + scientific theories, hence it includes part of the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">freedom of the + press</span></em>; in its full meaning, however, the freedom of the + press relates also to unscientific periodicals, especially + newspapers.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A counterpart to + the freedom in teaching is presented by the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">freedom in + learning</span></em>. It concerns the student, and may consist of + the right granted to the <span class="tei tei-q">“academic + citizen”</span> to choose at his discretion, but within the + restrictions set by his studies, his university, his teachers, and + his curriculum.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page306">[pg 306]</span><a name= + "Pg306" id="Pg306" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc37" id="toc37"></a> <a name="pdf38" id="pdf38"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">Chapter I. Freedom Of Teaching And + Ethics.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Now for a closer + examination of the problem of freedom of teaching, from the point + of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">general ethics</span></em>, not of law. This + is an important distinction, not seldom overlooked. The former + point of view deals with freedom in teaching only in as far as + regulated or circumscribed by ethical principles, by the moral + principles of conscience, without regard to state-laws or other + positive rules. The freedom in teaching as determined by + governmental decrees may be called freedom of teaching by + state-right. It may happen that the state does not prohibit the + dissemination of doctrines which may be forbidden by reason and + conscience, for instance, atheistical doctrine. There may be + immoral products of art not prohibited by the state; yet ethics + cannot grant license to pornography. The state grants the liberty + of changing from one creed to another, or of declaring one's self + an atheist; yet this does not justify the act before the + conscience. The statutes do not forbid everything that is morally + impermissible; their aim is directed only at offences against the + good of the commonwealth. Moreover, even such offences may not be + prohibited by statute, for the simple reason that the enactment of + such laws may be impossible on account of the complexion of + legislative bodies, or because of other conditions.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We will now take + the ethical position and try to judge the freedom of teaching from + this point of view. First of all, we shall have to explain the + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">social + character</span></em> of teaching and the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">responsibility</span></em> attached thereto. + We start again with the meaning of freedom of teaching. It demands + that the communication of scientific opinions should not be + restrained in unwarranted manner. <span class="tei tei-q">“In + unwarranted manner”</span>; because, manifestly, not all bars are + to be removed; no one will assert that a man may teach things he + knows to be false. Every activity, including <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page307">[pg 307]</span><a name="Pg307" id="Pg307" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> scientific activity, must conform to + truth and morals. Hence there is only the question to determine, + when is freedom in teaching morally reprehensible, and when not; + which are the bars that must not be transgressed, and which bars + may be disregarded? Is it allowed or not to teach any opinion, if + the teacher subjectively believes it to be true? Here the views + differ. However, one thing at present is clear:</p> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">Freedom of Teaching is + Necessary.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Also in + respect to method. Even the teacher in public and grammar + schools, though minutely guided by the plan of instruction, must + be granted, by the demands of pedagogy, a certain liberty; he + should be free to arrange and to try many things. Only where + individual spontaneity is given play will love for work be + aroused, which in turn stimulates devotion to the cause and makes + for success. This applies with even greater force to the + college-professor, in respect to method, course of instruction, + subject, and the results of his research. He must be free to + communicate them, without consideration for unwarranted + prejudices, or for private and party interests.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If the + scientist were condemned to do nothing but repeat the old things, + without change and variance, without improvement and correction, + without new additions and discoveries, all alertness and impulse + would disappear; but his alacrity and ardour will increase, if + allowed to contribute to progress, if assured beforehand of + publicity for the new solutions he hopes to find, if allowed to + promulgate new discoveries.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This freedom + is demanded, even more imperatively, by the vocation of science + to work for the progress of mankind, primarily for the + intellectual and through this for the general progress. The + demand in behalf of the individual is even more urgent in behalf + of science at large: no standing still, ever onward to new + knowledge and the enrichment of the mind, to moral uplift, to a + beautifying of life—and ultimately to the glorification of God! + For, verily, the purpose of the whole universe is the glory of + the Creator. Glory is given to Him by the world of stars, as they + speed through space, conforming <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page308">[pg 308]</span><a name="Pg308" id="Pg308" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> to His laws; glory is given to Him by the + dewdrop, as it reflects the rays of the morning sun; glory is + given to Him by the butterfly, as it unfolds the brilliancy of + colours received from His hand. The chief glory of all is given + to Him by the reason-endowed human mind, developing its powers + ever more fully, the crowning achievement of visible creation, + wherein God's wisdom reflects brighter than the sun in the + morning-dew. And for this is needed the freedom of scientific + progress, which would be impossible without a freedom in + teaching.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">And this applies not only to fixed conclusions; + it must also be permitted, within admissible bounds, to teach + scientific</span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">hypotheses</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">. + Science needs them for its progress; they are the buds that + burst forth into blossoms. Had men like</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Copernicus</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Newton</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Huygens</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + not been free to propound their hypotheses, the sun would still + revolve around the earth, we still would have</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Ptolemy's</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">revolution of the spheres, and the + results of optical science would be denied us.</span></p> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">A Twofold Freedom of Teaching and + Its Presumption.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There cannot + be any doubt that science must have freedom in teaching. But of + what kind? One that is necessary and suitable. Yes, but what kind + of freedom is that? Here is the crux of the question. Now we are + again at the boundary line where we stood, when defining the + freedom of science in general, at the parting of the ways of two + contrary conceptions of man.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">One is the + Christian idea, and also that of unbiassed reason. Man is a + limited creature, depending on God, on truth and moral law, at + the same time dependent on social life, hence also dependent on + social order and authority; consequently he cannot claim + independence, but only the freedom compatible with his position. + Therefore the barriers demanded by truth and by the duty of + belief are set to his research; hence his freedom in teaching can + only be the one permitted by his social position; personal + perception of truth <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">and</span></em> consideration for the + welfare of mankind will be the barriers of this freedom.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This view is + opposed by another, claiming full independence for both research + and teaching, a claim prompted by the modern philosophy of + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">free + humanity</span></em>, which sees in man an autonomous + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page309">[pg 309]</span><a name= + "Pg309" id="Pg309" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> being, who needs + only follow the immanent impulses of his own individuality; and + this especially in that activity which is deemed the most + perfect, the pursuit of science: this hypostatized + collective-being of the highest human pursuit is also to be the + supreme bearer of autonomism. As a matter of course this results + in the claim for unlimited freedom in teaching, a freedom we + shall term <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">liberal</span></em>: in communicating his + scientific view the scientist need merely be guided by his + perception of truth, without any considerations for external + authorities or interests, provided his communication is a + scientific one, viz., observing the usual form of scientific + teaching. This latter limitation is usually added, because this + freedom is to apply to the teaching of <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">science</span></em> only; to the popular + presentation of scientific views, appealing directly to the + masses, such a freedom is not always conceded.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Research,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">we + are told,</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">demands + full freedom, with no other barrier but its own desire for truth, + hence the academic teacher who teaches in the capacity of an + investigator is likewise not to know any barriers but his inner + truthfulness and propriety.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">In this sense we demand to-day freedom in + teaching for our universities. The freedom of the scientist and + of the academic teacher must not be constrained by any patented + truth, nor by faint-hearted consideration. We let the word of the + Bible comfort us:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style="font-size: 90%">if this + doctrine is of God, it will endure; if not, it will pass + away</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">’</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%"> ”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Kaufmann</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">). + Whatever the academic teacher produces from his subjective + veracity must be inviolable; he may proclaim it as truth, + regardless of consequences.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The searching scientist,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">so says another,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">must consider only the one question: What is + truth? But inasmuch as there cannot be research without + communication(?), we must go a step further: the teaching, too, + must not be restricted. The scientific writer has to heed but + one consideration: How can I present the things exactly as I + perceive them, in the clearest and most precise + manner?</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(</span><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Paulsen</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">).</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Scientific research and the communication of + its results must, conformable to its purpose, be independent of + any consideration not innate in the scientific method + itself,—hence independent of the traditions and prejudices of + the masses, independent of authorities and social groups, + independent of interested parties. That this independence is + indispensable needs no demonstration.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Nor can any limitation of the freedom of + research and teaching be deduced from the official position of + the scientist or teacher</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Von + Amira</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">). Just as soon + as he begins his research according to scientific + method,</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + adapts his thoughts to scientific rules, customs, and + postulates, he may question Christianity, God, everything; + neither state nor Church must object, no matter if thousands + are led astray.</span></p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page310">[pg + 310]</span><a name="Pg310" id="Pg310" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This freedom + is pre-eminently claimed for philosophical and religious thought, + for ideas relating to views of the world and the foundations of + social order; because only in this province is absolute freedom + of teaching likely to be seriously refused. In mathematics and + the natural sciences, in philology and kindred sciences, there is + hardly occasion for it; there only petty disputes occur, + differences among competitors, things that do not reach beyond + the precinct of the learned fraternity. Whether one is for or + against the theory of three-dimensional space, for or against the + theory of ions and the like, all that touches very little on the + vital questions of mankind; but the case is quite different when + it comes to publicly advocating the abolition of private + property, to the preaching of polygamy: it is here where great + clashes threaten. Here, also, there enter into the plan the + social powers, whose duty it is to shield the highest possessions + of human society against wanton attack. Nevertheless the demand + is for unlimited freedom in teaching. What, then, are the + arguments used in giving to this exceptional claim the semblance + of justification? This shall be the first question.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">Unlimited Freedom in Teaching not + Demanded.</span></h3> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + <h4 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + 1. Not by Veracity.</h4> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Veracity is + appealed to first; it obligates the teacher, so it is said, to + announce his own convictions unreservedly, for to <span class= + "tei tei-q">“deny one's own convictions would offend against + one of the most positive principles of morals”</span>; hence + the academic teacher could not grant to the state the right to + set a barrier in this respect, <span class="tei tei-q">“it + would be a violation of the duty of veracity, which is innate + to the teacher's office”</span> (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Von + Amira</span></span>).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Was it + realized in making this claim what the duty of truthfulness + really demands? This duty is complied with when one is not + untruthful, that is to say, does not state something to be his + opinion when secretly he believes the contrary to be true; to + force him to do this would of course be instigating + untruthfulness. Truthfulness, however, does not require any one + to speak out publicly what he thinks; one may be silent. Or is + cautious <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page311">[pg + 311]</span><a name="Pg311" id="Pg311" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> silence untruthfulness? It is oftentimes + prudence, but not untruthfulness. There is a considerable + difference between thinking and communicating thought, even to + the scientist.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Or is the + scientist <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">obliged</span></em>, for instance, to + proclaim publicly views he has formed contrary to the + prevailing principles of morals,—views he calls the + <span class="tei tei-q">“results of his research,”</span> so + that mankind at last may learn the truth? Was <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Nietzsche</span></span> in duty bound to + proclaim to the wide world his revolutionary ideas? Any + sober-minded man might have told him he need not worry about + this duty. Has the teacher of science this duty? How will he + prove it? How are they going to prove that it is incumbent upon + an atheistic college-professor to teach his atheism also to + others? Or, must he teach that the fundamental principles of + Christian marriage are untenable, if this has become his + personal opinion? Is it, perhaps, impossible for him to refrain + from such teaching in the lectures he is appointed to give? + This view will mostly prove a delusion. A conscientious + examination of his opinion would convince him that he, too, had + better abandon it, since it is merely an aberration of his + mind. But let us assume that he could neither correct his views + nor refrain from proclaiming them, that he would declare: + <span class="tei tei-q">“I should lie if, in discussing the + question in how far this or that public institution is morally + sanctioned, I were to halt before certain institutions; for + instance if, having the moral conviction that monarchy is a + morally objectionable institution, I omitted to say so”</span> + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Th. + Lipps</span></span>).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Well, he has + the option to change his branch of teaching, or to resign his + office; he is not indispensable, no one forces him to retain + his office. Indeed, he owes it to <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">truthfulness</span></em> to leave his post + the very instant he finds he is not able to occupy it in a + beneficial way; he owes it to <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">honesty</span></em> to yield his position, + if he has lost the proper relation to religion, state, and the + people, to whom his position is to render service.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + <h4 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + 2. Not the Duty of Science.</h4> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“Nevertheless,”</span> we are told, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the representatives of science have the duty of + freely communicating their opinions; they are <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page312">[pg 312]</span><a name="Pg312" id= + "Pg312" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> called by people and state + to find the truth for the great multitude, that is not itself + in the position to pursue laborious research. Where else could + it get the truth but from science?”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The multitude participates in truth generally in a + receptive, passive manner; only a few pre-eminent minds are + destined by nature to be the dispensers and promoters of + knowledge”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Paulsen</span></span>), and with this + vocation of science a restriction of its freedom of speech + would be incompatible.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The idea has + something enticing about it. It also has its justification, if + the matter at issue concerns things outside of the common scope + of human knowledge, such as the more precise research of + nature, of history, and so on. But the idea is not warranted + when applied to the higher questions of human life. Here it is + based on the false premise that man cannot arrive at the + certain possession of truth without scientific research. We + have demonstrated previously how this notion involves a total + misconception of the nature of human thought.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">There is, beside the scientific + certainty, another true certainty, a natural certainty, the + only one we have in most matters, and a safe guide to mankind + especially in higher questions, nay, in general much safer + than science, which, as proved by history, goes easily astray + in such matters. Long before there was a science, mankind + possessed the truth about the principles of life; and it + possesses this truth still, through common sense and, even + more, through divine revelation, which offers enlightenment + to every one regardless of science. Here apply the words of + the poet:</span></p> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Das + Wahre ist schon laengst gefunden</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Hat edle Geisterschaar + verbunden</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">Das alte + Wahre, fasst es an!</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + </div> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + Nevertheless, it is claimed, science remains the sole guide to + truth and progress. Must not truth be searched for and + struggled for always anew? There are no patented truths for all + times—each age must sketch its own image of the world, must + form new values. And it is for science to point out these new + roads. Therefore, full swing for its doctrines. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Science knows not of statutes of limitations or + prescription, hence of no absolutely established possession. + Consequently real, scientific, instruction can only mean + absolutely free instruction”</span> (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Paulsen</span></span>). We may be brief. + Every line bears the imprint of <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page313">[pg 313]</span><a name="Pg313" id="Pg313" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> that sceptical subjectivism which we have + met so often as the philosophical presumption of modern freedom + of science. It is the wisdom of ancient sophistry, which even + Aristotle stigmatized as a <span class= + "tei tei-q">“sham-science,”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“a + running after something that invariably slips away.”</span> A + freedom in teaching with such a theory of cognition can never + be a factor of mental progress, least of all when it seeks to + rise above a God-given, Christian truth to <span class= + "tei tei-q">“higher”</span> forms of religion. This, however, + is often the very progress for which freedom in teaching is + intended—the unhindered propagation of an anti-Christian view + of the world.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + <h4 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + 3. No Innate Right.</h4> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Very well, + we are told, leave aside the appeal to the province of science; + but it cannot be denied that man has at least an innate right + of communicating his thoughts in the freest manner. The first + right of the human individual, a right which must not be + curtailed in any way, is his right to free development + according to his inner laws, provided the freedom of the + fellow-man is not thereby injured. Hence every man has the + right of freely uttering his opinion, in science especially, + because the free right of others is thereby not infringed upon + in any matter whatsoever.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This is the + claim. It is again rooted in the autonomy of the human subject, + the main idea of the liberal view of life, and, at the same + time, the principal presumption of its freedom of science. It + leads to the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">individualistic theory of + rights</span></em>, which declares freedom to be man's + self-sufficient object, viz., freedom in all things regardless + of the weal and woe of others, no matter if the sequel be + error, scandal, or seduction, if only the strict right to + freedom be not violated.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Act + outwardly so,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">says the philosophic preceptor of + autonomism,</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">that + the free use of thy free will may be consistent with the + liberty of others according to a general + law.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">This + liberty,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">continues</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Kant</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">is the + sole, original right of every man by virtue of his + humanity.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">And</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Spencer</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">concurrently teaches:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Every + one is free to do what he wants, as long as he does not + infringe upon the liberty of others.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">This is termed the</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Maxim + of Co-existence.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">Accordingly any one may say and write + anything at will, no matter if people are led</span> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page314">[pg 314]</span><a name= + "Pg314" id="Pg314" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style= + "font-size: 90%">astray by his errors. Even the government + must in no way limit this freedom, except where rights are + violated; to defend religion and morals against attacks, to + guard innocence and inexperience against seduction, is, + according to this theory, not allowed to the state.</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">W. von + Humboldt</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">writes:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">He who utters things or commits actions, + offending the conscience or the morals of other people, may + act immorally: but unless he is guilty of obtrusiveness, he + does not injure any right.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">Hence the state must not interfere.</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Even + the assuredly graver case, when the witnessing of an action, + the listening to certain reasoning, would mislead the virtue + or the thought of others, even this case would not permit + restraint of freedom.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We are + dealing here with that misconception of the social nature of + man which has always characterized liberalism. It knows only of + the right and liberty of the individual; of his duties to + society it knows nothing, not even that men should not injure + the possessions of others, but rather promote them; nor does it + know that men are placed in a society that requires the free + will of the individual to yield to the common weal of the many. + To liberal thought human society is only an accidental + aggregation of individuals, not connected by social unity. The + autonomous spheres of the single individuals are rolling side + by side, each one for itself: wherever it pleases them to roll, + there they are carried by the autonomous centre of gravity, + whatever they upset in their career has no right to complain. + This principle of freedom was given free rein in the economical + legislation of the nineteenth century. Free enterprise, free + development of energy, was the rallying cry; the result was + devastation and wreckage.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">Unrestricted Freedom of Teaching + Inadmissible.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Hence the + claim for absolute freedom in teaching is not warranted; on the + contrary, its chief arguments are borrowed from a philosophy that + is unacceptable to the Christian mind. Is it even admissible? + Though not warranted, is it permissible at least from the + viewpoint of ethics? It is not even this. The claim is ethically + inadmissible, because the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">religious, moral, and social</span></em> + institutions, especially the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Christian + faith</span></em> and the Christian morals of mankind, would be + seriously injured. <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page315">[pg + 315]</span><a name="Pg315" id="Pg315" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + In other words: The claim that it is permissible to proclaim + scientific theories which are apt to do great <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">damage</span></em> to the foundations of + religious, moral, and social life, especially to Christian + conviction and morals, is ethically reprehensible.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A few remarks + in explanation. We merely speak here of the freedom in teaching + relating to the philosophical-religious foundations of life; that + it cannot be the subject of serious objection in other matters we + have previously mentioned. Nor do we yet inquire what social + powers should fix the needed limitations, whether state or Church + should regulate them; we are merely investigating, from the + viewpoint of ethics, what barriers are set by the law of reason, + and would have to be set even in the absence of state laws, + because of the important influence exercised by scientific + doctrine upon the social life—the social welfare of mankind is + the consideration beside the truth that is decisive in + considering freedom in teaching.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The teacher or + writer may himself be of the opinion that his pernicious errors + are not dangerous; he may fancy them even of utmost importance to + the world; hence he thinks he has the right, even the duty, to + communicate them to the world. And do we not hear them all assure + us that they desire only the truth? We do not wish to sit in + judgment on the good faith of them individually; we make no + comment when a man like <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">D. F. Strauss</span></span>, looking back + upon the forty years of his career as a writer, vouches for his + unwavering and pure aim for truth; and when even <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Haeckel</span></span> asserts this of + himself. Every fallacy has made its appearance with this + avowal.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">But, by way of parenthesis, there is no reason + to boast in a general way of the sincere aim at truth and the + pure mind for the ideal, alleged to prevail in the modern + literature of our times, especially in philosophical literature. + He who stands upon Christian ground knows that the denial of a + personal God, of immortality and other matters, are errors of + gravest consequence. Furthermore, if one is convinced of the + capability of man to recognize the truth, at least in the most + important matters, and if one knows that God has made His + Revelation the greatest manifestation in history, and proved it + sufficiently by documents—indeed, had to prove it; that He will + let all who are of good will come to the knowledge of the truth; + then it remains incomprehensible how modern philosophy considered + as a whole is said on the one hand to be guided by a sincere + desire for truth, while on the other hand it clings with hopeless + obstinacy to the most radical errors.</span></p><span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page316">[pg 316]</span><a name="Pg316" id= + "Pg316" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Such talk of general sincere searching for + truth is apt to deceive the inexperienced. He who has obtained + a deeper insight into modern philosophy, he who steadily + watches it at work, will recall to mind only too often the word + of the Holy Ghost:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">For there + shall be a time when they will not endure sound doctrine, but + according to their own desires shall they heap to themselves + teachers ... and will indeed turn away their hearing from the + truth and shall be turned unto fables</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(2 Tim. iv. 3).</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Even if the + teacher is himself convinced of the truth and inoffensiveness of + his theory, it does not follow by any means that society is + obliged to receive it. Indeed not. The state prohibits cults + dangerous to the common weal: it does not intend to suffer damage + just because the adherents of such cults may be in good faith. + And if some one thinks himself called to deliver a people from + its legitimate ruler, let it be undecided whether his purpose is + good or not, he will nevertheless be restrained by rather drastic + means from proceeding according to his idea. This proves that the + principle of <span class="tei tei-q">“no barrier but one's own + veracity”</span> is not conceded in practical life. The teacher + and author, this is the sense of our thesis, must ever be + conscious of the grave responsibility of science, against whose + power the unscientific are so often defenceless; his great duty + will be to make use of this power with utmost compunction, to + teach nothing whereof he is not fully convinced, nor to announce + for truth anything he is still investigating.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As we turn to + the demonstration of our proposition, a start from the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">definition of + scientific teaching</span></em> suggests itself; manifestly this + must be decisive for the measure of its freedom. No doubt, its + purpose obviously is: to promote the weal of mankind by + communicating the truth, by guarding men against errors, + especially against those which would most harm them, by elevating + and increasing the blessings of this life: for knowledge guides + man in all his steps, it is the light on his way.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Science is not + self-sufficient. It is an equally false and pernicious notion to + make science a sovereign authority, throning above man, who must + pay homage, and subordinate his interests to it, but which he + must not ask to serve him for <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page317">[pg 317]</span><a name="Pg317" id="Pg317" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> his own ends in life. There are such + notions of science and also of art. Art, too, it is sometimes + claimed, should serve its own ends only; the demand, that it + should edify, or promote the ideals of society, is deemed a + desertion of its purposes, <span class="tei tei-q">“the + furtherance of worldly or heavenly ideals may be eliminated from + its task”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">E. von Hartmann</span></span>). These are + the excrescences of unclarified cultural thoughts. Since man and + his culture is more and more replacing the divine Ideal, this + culture itself has grown to be the overshadowing ideal of the + Deity, without whom evidently man cannot live. The Egyptians + worshipped Sun and Moon; modern man often burns incense before + the products of his own mind. It is a reversal of the right + proportion. Science and its doctrine are activities of life, + results of the human mind. Activities of life, however, have man + for their end, they are to develop and perfect him: man does not + exist for the clothes he wears—the clothes exist on account of + man; the leaves exist for the sake of the tree that puts them + forth, nor can grapes be of more importance than the vine that + has produced them.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Hence, where + science does not serve this end, where it in consequence becomes + not a blessing, but an injury to man, where it tears down, + instead of building up, there it forfeits the right to exist; it + is no longer a fruitful bough on the tree of humanity, but a + harmful outgrowth. Like every organism actively opposes its + harmful growths, society, too, must not tolerate within its bosom + any scientific tendencies which act as malign germs, perhaps + attack its very marrow.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From the true + object of science, as above stated, it follows that it is wrong + to disseminate doctrines that are apt to injure mankind in the + possession of the truth, which may even imperil the authenticated + foundations of life. For nobody will deny that firm foundations + are needed to uphold and support the highest ideals of life; they + can no more withstand a constant jarring and shaking than can a + house of frame and stone. Such foundations are, first of all, the + moral and religious truths and convictions about the Whence and + Whither of human life, about God and the hereafter, the social + duties toward the fellow-man, obedience to authority, and so on. + If man is to perform <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page318">[pg + 318]</span><a name="Pg318" id="Pg318" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + burdensome duties as husband and father, if, as a citizen, he is + to do justice to others and yield in obedience to authority, he + must have powerful motives; else his impulses will take the helm, + the sensible, moral being becomes a sensual being who reverses + the order and drives the ship of life towards the cataract of + ethical and social revolution. And these motives must rest deeply + in the mind, like the foundation that supports the house; they + must become identified with it, as the vital principle penetrates + the tree, as the instinct of the animal is part of its innermost + being. If new notions are continually whizzing without resistance + through the mind, like the wind over the fields, repose and + permanence are impossible in human life. To jolt the foundations + invites collapse and ruin.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is the duty + of self-preservation, for which every being strives, that society + guard these foundations of order against subversion and + capricious experimentation. Of the Locrians it is told that any + one desiring to offer a resolution for changing existing laws, + was required to appear at the public meeting with a rope around + his neck. He was hanged with it if he failed to win his + fellow-citizens over to his view. This custom pictures the + necessity of erecting a powerful dam against the inundation by + illicit mental tidal waves, that endanger the stability of the + order of life. This, of course, does not oppose every new + progress. In building a house, firm foundations do not prevent + the house from growing in size; but the foundations are a + necessary preliminary to a suitable construction. Under no + circumstances must a man be permitted, in his individualistic + mania for reform, to lay an impious hand at the fundamental + principles of life; and the scientist must bear in mind the fact + that it is not the task and privilege of his individualistic + reason to put the seal of approval on these principles as if the + truth had never before been discovered.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Christian</span></em> nations the immutable + truths of Christianity are these safe foundations. They are + vouched for by divine authority, they have stood all historical + tests of fitness; they sustain the institutions of family and of + government, they determine thought, education, the ideas of right + and wrong—a venerable patrimony of the nations. Shall every + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Nietzsche</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page319">[pg 319]</span><a name="Pg319" id= + "Pg319" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> big or little, be free to + attack them? Experiments may be made with rabbits, flowers, or + drugs; but it would violate the first principle of prudence and + justice to allow every Tom, Dick, and Harry, who may have the + neological itch, to experiment on the highest institutions of + mankind.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span lang= + "la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Primum non nocere</span></span> is an old + caution to the physician; for many medical practitioners and + surgeons not an untimely admonition. It is asserted, and vouched + for by proof, that patients are made the subjects of experiment + for purposes of science; not, indeed, rich people, but the poor + in hospitals and clinics (comp. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">A. + Moll</span></span>, Arztliche Ethik, 1902). Every conscientious + physician will turn with moral abhorrence from such action. + Indeed, man and his greatest possession, life, is not to be made + the victim of scientific experiment. If this holds good as to the + physical things of life, then how much more of the ideal things + of mankind!</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 120%">“</span><span style="font-size: 120%">Every One + to Form His Own Judgment</span><span style= + "font-size: 120%">”</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 120%">?</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But, then, + cannot every one decide for himself as to the teachings of + science, and reject whatever he thinks to be false? Then would be + avoided all damage that might result from a freedom in teaching. + Science does not force its opinion upon any one. With due respect + for the discernment of its disciples, science lays its results + before them, leaving it to them to judge and choose, whatever + they think is good.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Such words + voice the optimism of an inexperienced idealism. To be sure, were + the devotee to science, be he a student at a university or a + reader of scientific works, a clear-sighted diagnostician, who + could at once perceive error, and, moreover, if he were a + mathematical entity, without personal interest in the matter, the + argument might be listened to. But any one past the immaturity of + youth, he, especially, who has earnestly commenced to know + himself, is aware that unfortunately the opposite is the + case.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">First the lack + of ability to <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">distinguish error from truth</span></em>. + Even when recognized, error is not without danger; it shares with + truth the property to act suggestively, especially when + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page320">[pg 320]</span><a name= + "Pg320" id="Pg320" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> it repeatedly and + with assurance approaches the mind. And often error does pose + with great assurance, as the result of science, as the conclusion + of the superior mind of the teacher, perhaps of a famous teacher! + It is taken for granted that whatever serious men assert in the + name of science must be right; or, if not that, there is the + overawing feeling that there must be some justification for the + confidence of the assertion. Authority impresses even without + argument, and impresses the more strongly, the less there is of + intellectual independence. The latter is at lowest ebb at the + youthful age. That which in hypnotic suggestion is intensified + into the morbid: the effective psychical transfer of one's own + thought into some one else, occurs in a lesser form through the + influence of the morbid scepsis of our times; it is a poisonous + atmosphere, affecting imperceptively the susceptible mind which + remains long in it.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">For this reason the religious savant, who has to + do a great deal with infidel books, must be on his watch + incessantly, even though he has the knowledge and the intellect + to detect wrong conclusions. Thus we find that great scholars + often display a striking fear of irreligious books. Of + Cardinal</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Mai</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">it is told:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">He said—and this we can vouch + for—</span><span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style="font-size: 90%">I have the + permission to read forbidden books; but I never make use of it + nor do I intend to do so</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">’</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%"> ”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Hilger</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + Der Index, 1905, 41).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The learned</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">L. A. + Muratori</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">wrote a + refutation of a heretic book. In the preface he thought it + necessary to apologize for having read the book. He + said:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">The book + got into my hands very late, and for a long time I could not + get myself to read it. For why should one read the writings of + innovators except to commit one's self to their folly? I seek + and like books which confirm my faith, but not those which + would lead me away from my religion. But when I heard that the + book was circulated in Italy, I resolved to muster up my + strength for the defence of truth and religion, and for the + safety of my brethren.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Saint Francis of + Sales</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, with touching + simplicity, gives in his writings praise to God for having + preserved him from losing his faith through the reading of + heretical books. Of the learned Spanish philosopher</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Balmes</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">is preserved a saying that he once + addressed to two of his friends:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">You know, the faith is deeply rooted in my + heart. Nevertheless, I cannot read a fallacious book without + feeling the necessity of regaining the right mood by reading + Holy Writ, the Imitation of Christ, and the writings of + blessed</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Louis of + Granada</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What then must + happen when the needed training is lacking? when one easily + grasps the objections to the truth, but cannot find the answer? + when one is not in a position to ascertain <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page321">[pg 321]</span><a name="Pg321" id= + "Pg321" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> whether the asserted facts + are based on truth, whether something important is kept back, + whether there are stated positive facts, or mere hypotheses, or + perhaps even idle suppositions? If one is not capable to + recognize wrong conclusions, to note the ambiguities of words? + Our present treatise cites proof of it. How many earnest men, who + in good faith are the warm advocates of freedom of science, are + aware how ambiguous that term is; how a whole theory of cognition + and view of the world is hidden behind it? How many can at once + see the ambiguity of phrases like <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Difference between knowledge and faith,”</span> of + <span class="tei tei-q">“experiencing one's religion,”</span> of + <span class="tei tei-q">“evolution and progress,”</span> of + <span class="tei tei-q">“humanism,”</span> of <span class= + "tei tei-q">“unfolding personality”</span>? And of the + self-conscious postulate that science cannot reckon with + supernatural factors, how many perceive that it is nothing but an + undemonstrated supposition? We are told that all great + representatives of science reject the Christian view of the + world; who knows at once that such assertion is untrue? We read + that the Copernican theory was condemned by Rome, even prohibited + up to 1835, and this cannot fail to make an impression; but the + part omitted in the story, who will at once supplement or even + suspect it?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Then there is + the great <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">want of philosophical training</span></em>. + Formerly a thorough philosophical education was the indispensable + condition for maturity, and considered the indispensable + foundation for higher studies. All this has changed; frequently + there is not even the desire for philosophical training. Of + course, modern philosophy in its present state does not promise + much of benefit. <span class="tei tei-q">“Students of medicine + and law remain for the larger part without any philosophical + education, and among those of the other two faculties but few + students do better than come into a more or less superficial + touch with philosophy”</span> (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Paulsen</span></span>). The consequence is, + they cannot scientifically get their bearings in respect to + ultimate questions, and easily lose their faith, succumbing to + errors and sophisms.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Imagine a + young man, untrained; in books, in the lecture room, in his + intercourse, everywhere, he is courted by a disbelieving science, + with its theories, its objections, its doubts,—tension everywhere + that is not relieved, accusations that are <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page322">[pg 322]</span><a name="Pg322" id= + "Pg322" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> not explained; how is he to + bring with a steady hand order in all this? To clinch it, he + hears the obtrusive exhortation to form forthwith his own + conviction by his own reasoning!</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">He is, moreover, likely to be informed as + follows:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">The + university is a place for mental struggle, for incessant + investigation of inherited opinions. For years and years the + student was fed with prescribed matter which he had to swallow + believingly, ... at last the moment has arrived when he can + choose and decide for himself. True, this freedom of mental + choice—and it is the essence of academic freedom—has also its + anguish. But how magnificent it is, on the other hand, when the + gloomy walls of the classroom vanish, and the bright ether of + research dawns into view with its wide horizon! He who cannot + grasp and enjoy this moment in its grandeur and exquisiteness, he + who prefers to the free life of the colt on the vast prairies the + dull existence in a narrow fold ... he has taken the wrong road + when he came to the gates of the Alma Mater to study worldly + science—he should have remained at the restful hearth of the + pious, parental home, in the shadow of the old + village-church</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(</span><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Jodl</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">).</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What a lack of + earnestness and of knowledge of man, what lack of the sense of + responsibility! Of young men, without thorough philosophical and + theological preparation, it is demanded to doubt at once their + Christian religion, despite all compunctions of their conscience, + and to argue the dangerous theses of an anti-Christian view of + the world. They are expected, as if they were heirs to the wisdom + of all centuries, to judge and correct forthwith that which their + teachers call the result of their long studies—for they are not + supposed to follow them blindly, they are expected to sit in + judgment over theological tendencies and philosophical systems, + and to struggle through doubts and aberrations, untouched by + error, to display a mental independence which even the man of + highest learning lacks. Such a knowledge of human nature might be + left to itself, if the wrecks it causes were not so + saddening.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">How terrible is the power of + science!</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">a voice of authority warned a short + time ago.</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">The + unlearned are defenceless against the learned, those who know + little against those that know much; the unlearned are incapable + of independently judging the theories of the learned; error in + the garb of knowledge impresses them with the force of truth, + especially when it finds an ally in their evil lusts. No wielder + of state-power can lay waste, can destroy, as much as an + unconscientious, or even merely careless, wielder of the weapons + of knowledge.</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page323">[pg + 323]</span><a name="Pg323" id="Pg323" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">Exalted as is + the pursuit of knowledge, and as knowledge itself is if guided by + strong moral sentiment and earnest conscience, so degraded it + becomes if it tears itself from the self-control of conscience. + This fatal rupture will happen the instant science deviates but a + hair's breadth from the truth it can vouch for upon conscientious + examination.... Sacred is the freedom of science keeping within + the bounds of the moral laws; but transgressing them it is no + longer science, but a farce staged with scientific technique, a + negation of the essence of science</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(Count</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">A. + Apponyi</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, former + Hungarian Minister of Education, officiating at a</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Promotio sub + auspiciis</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + 1908).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">In the year 1877, at the Fiftieth Congress of + Natural Scientists in Munich, Prof.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">R. + Virchow</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, founder and + leader of the Progressive Party in Germany, sounded a warning + to be conscientious in the use of the freedom in teaching, and + in the first place, to announce as the result of science + nothing but what has been demonstrated beyond doubt:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">I am of + the opinion that we are actually in danger of jeopardizing the + future by making too much use of the freedom offered to us by + present conditions, and I would caution not to continue in the + arbitrary personal speculation, which spreads itself nowadays + in many branches of natural science. We must make rigid + distinction between that which we teach and that which is the + object of research. The subjects of our research are problems. + But a problem should not be made a subject of teaching. In + teaching, we have to remain within the small, and yet large + domain which we actually control. Any attempt to model our + problems into doctrines, to introduce our conjectures as the + foundation of education, must fail, especially the attempt to + simply depose the Church and to replace its dogma without + ceremony by evolutionary religion; indeed, gentlemen, this + attempt must fail, but in failing it will carry with it the + greatest dangers for science in general.... We must set + ourselves the task, in the first place, to hand down the + actual, the real knowledge, and, in going further, we must tell + our students invariably: This, however, is not proved, it + is</span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">my</span></em><span style= + "font-size: 90%">opinion,</span> <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">my</span></em> + <span style="font-size: 90%">notion,</span> <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">my</span></em> + <span style="font-size: 90%">theory,</span> <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">my</span></em> + <span style="font-size: 90%">speculation.... Gentlemen, I think + we would misuse our power, and endanger our power, if in + teaching we would not restrict ourselves to this legitimate + province.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And is nothing + known of the inclinations and passions, especially of the + youthful heart, to which truth is so often a heavy yoke, + constraining and oppressing them? Will they not try to use every + means to relieve the tension? Will they not gravitate by + themselves to a science that tells them the old religion with its + oppressive dogmas, its unworldly morals, is a stage of evolution + long since passed by, and that many other things, once called sin + by obsolete prejudices, are the justified utterances of nature? + Will they not worship this science as their liberator? He who + once said <span class="tei tei-q">“I am the truth,”</span> He was + crucified; a sign for all ages. Base nature will at all times + crucify the truth. <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page324">[pg + 324]</span><a name="Pg324" id="Pg324" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">F. + Coppée</span></span>, a member of the French Academy, led back by + severe sickness to the faith of his youth, relates the following + in his confessions: <span class="tei tei-q">“I was raised a + Christian, and fulfilled the religious duties with zeal even for + some years after my first Holy Communion. What made me deviate + from my pious habits were, I confess it openly, the aberrations + of youthful age and the loathing to make certain confessions. + Quite many who are in the same position will admit, if they will + be frank, that at the beginning they were estranged from their + creed by the severe law which religion imposes on all in respect + to sensuality, and only in later years they felt the want to + extenuate and justify the transgressions of the moral law by a + scientific system.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“Having taken + the first step on the downward road, I could not fail to read + books, listen to words, see examples, which confirmed my notion + that nothing can be more warranted but that man obey his pride + and his sensuality; and soon I became totally indifferent in + respect to religion. As will be seen, my case is an everyday + case.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Only exalted + moral purity can keep the mind free from being made captive and + dragged down by the passions.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In a college + town in southern Germany a Catholic Priest some time ago met a + college girl who belonged to a club of monists. They started upon + a discussion, and soon the college girl had no argument left. But + as a last shot she exclaimed, <span class="tei tei-q">“Well, you + cannot prevent me from hating your God.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Prof. + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">G. + Spicker</span></span> relates in his autobiography instructive + reminiscences of his college years. Religiously trained in his + youth, and in his early years for some time a Capuchin, he left + this Order to go to the university. Previous to this he had been + led to doubt by the perusal of modern philosophical writings, and + at Munich he sank still more deeply into doubt. Prof. + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Huber</span></span> advised him to hear the + radical <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Prantl</span></span>. In his dejection he + went to a fellow-student in quest of comfort, and received the + significant advice: <span class="tei tei-q">“Indeed, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Huber</span></span> + is right: you are not a bit of a philosopher; you still believe + in sin, that is only a theological notion; go and hear + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Prantl</span></span>, he'll rid you of your + fancies.”</span> Of the impression <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Prantl's</span></span> lectures made upon + the susceptible young students he relates: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“They were especially overawed by his passionate + enthusiasm, his trenchant criticism, his sarcastic treatment of + everything mediocre and superficial, and, chiefly, by his + self-conscious, authoritative, demeanor. Like a tornado he swept + through hazy, obscure regions, whether in science, art, poetry, + or religion. Even by only attending the lectures one became more + conscious of one's knowledge and looked down with silent contempt + upon semi-philosophers and theologians.”</span> In regard to + himself he admits that a few weeks sufficed to destroy the last + remnants of his former religious persuasion: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Huber's</span></span> prophecy was + completely fulfilled, the last stump of my dogmatic belief was + smashed into a thousand splinters.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span lang= + "la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Vae mundo a scandalis!</span></span> What a + responsibility rests especially upon those who become the scandal + for inexperienced youth!</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the upper + classes of a largely Protestant college in northern Germany the + professor of mathematics, some years ago, asked the <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page325">[pg 325]</span><a name="Pg325" id= + "Pg325" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> question, who among the + students had read <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Haeckel's</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Weltraetsel.”</span> All except four or five rose to + their feet. Upon his further question, who of them believed in + what is said in the book, about half of the classroom rose. + <span class="tei tei-q">“The immature youth who read the + <span class="tei tei-q">‘Weltraetsel,’</span> ”</span> so says + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">A. + Hansen</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“unfortunately + conclude: <span class="tei tei-q">‘<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Haeckel</span></span> says there is no God, + therefore we may boldly live as it suits our natural + immorality....’</span> Is <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Haeckel</span></span> the strong mind to + assume for a long future the responsibility for this + conclusion?”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">One is + frightened by the manner the highest ideals of mankind are often + juggled with, what they dare offer with easy conscience to the + tenderest youth. Prof. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Forel</span></span> is known by his widely + spread book on <span class="tei tei-q">“The Sexual + Question,”</span> perhaps better known even by his lectures on + the subject, which some cities prohibited in the interest of + public morals. In the seventh edition of his book we find + published as a testimonial, also as proof of the good reading the + book makes for early youth, a letter of a young woman whose + opinion of the book had been requested by the author. Her answer + reads: <span class="tei tei-q">“You ask me what impression your + book made upon me. I should state that I am very young, but have + read a great deal. My mother has given me a very liberal + education, and so I have a right to count myself among the + unprejudiced girls.”</span> She assures the author: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“I never thought for a single moment that your book + was immoral, hence I do not believe that you have corrupted + me.”</span> And such books are offered to young girls as fit + reading!</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Some years ago + a sensation was created when in Berlin a young author, twenty-two + years of age, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">George Scheufler</span></span> by name, + killed himself. Though of a religious training, he began at an + early age to read the writings of infidel natural scientists and + philosophers. His belief became weaker and weaker, and he finally + abandoned it entirely. Only a few years afterwards, the young + man, who had become a writer of repute, put a revolver to his + heart, nauseated by the world, tortured by religious doubts. An + organ of modern infidelity commented upon the event in the cold + words: <span class="tei tei-q">“The truth is probably that the + undoubtedly talented author had not nerves strong enough for the + Berlin life, hence he dies. May his ashes rest in peace!”</span> + Heartless words on the misfortune of a poor victim of the modern + propaganda of disbelief.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Heavy, indeed, + is the responsibility courted by representatives of science when + they sin against the holiest ideals of mankind, especially when + they induce the maturing youth, with his susceptibilities and + awakening impulses, to emancipate himself from the belief of his + childhood, and to tear down the fortifications of innocence! If + the teacher is high-minded, this cannot mitigate the + perniciousness of his teaching, but only increase it, neither can + the fact that his personal morals are without a flaw vindicate + him. If a man by strewing poison does no harm to himself, this + does not give him the right to injure others. If science + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page326">[pg 326]</span><a name= + "Pg326" id="Pg326" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> demands the + privilege of assuming the mental education of our people, then + science assumes also the duty of administering these interests + conscientiously, and the gravest responsibility will rest upon + him in whose hand science spreads ruin.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 120%">“</span><span style="font-size: 120%">Knowledge + does no Harm</span><span style= + "font-size: 120%">”</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 120%">?</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“The increase and spread of knowledge”</span> (this + is a further objection) <span class="tei tei-q">“can never harm + society, only benefit its interests”</span> (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Von + Amira</span></span>). Hence, do not get alarmed: nothing is to be + feared from science. The apostles of the enlightened eighteenth + century tried to quiet their age with similar assertions. + <span class="tei tei-q">“It is not true,”</span> says + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Lessing</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“that speculations about God and divine things have + ever done harm to society; not the speculations did it—but the + folly and tyranny to forbid them.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If this were + amended to read <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">true</span></em> knowledge can never do + harm, then the mind might be set at rest, although even then it + might become dangerous to teach the truth without discrimination + or caution. Not all are ripe for every truth: truth can often be + misunderstood, lead to false conclusions. Thus, it may become + certain, perhaps, that a much-worshipped relic, a much-visited + shrine, is not genuine: nevertheless in giving such explanation + to simple, pious people one would have to display caution in + order to keep them from doubting even the tenets of the + creed.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But there is + also false knowledge; can this <span class="tei tei-q">“never do + harm but only benefit?”</span> Will all knowledge exert the same + influence, whether the Christian tenets of love and mercy, or + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Nietzsche's</span></span> moral for the + wealthy, whether young people are given to read Christian books, + or those of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Haeckel</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Buechner</span></span>, and <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Strauss</span></span>? The story is told of + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Voltaire</span></span>, that he sent all + servants out of the room when he had friends for guests and + philosophical discussions started at the dining-table, because he + did not wish to have his throat cut the next night. So this + free-thinker, too, did not think that all knowledge is + beneficial.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But, we are + further assured, let science peacefully pursue its way; if it + should err it will correct itself.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is true, + sciences of obvious subjects, that have no direct <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page327">[pg 327]</span><a name="Pg327" id= + "Pg327" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> relation to moral conduct of + life, do, sooner or later, correct their mistakes; recent physics + has corrected the mistakes of the physics of past ages; + historical errors, too, are disappearing with the times. Quite + different is the matter when philosophical-religious questions + are at issue. Pantheism, subjectivism, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“scientific”</span> rejection of faith, are errors, + grave errors, yet it does not follow that they will fall of + themselves into desuetude; they may prevail for a long time, may + return with the regularity of certain diseases. Their error is + not tangible, and the desires of the heart incline to them by the + law of least resistance. From the earliest ages to this day the + same philosophical errors have returned, in varied form.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But let us + assume that this would be the case; that these errors, too, would + disappear after some time, disappear for good. Is it demanded + that the errors in the meanwhile ought to have free play? Shall + the surgeon be allowed to perform risky experiments on the + patient, because later on he will realize that his act was + objectionable? Will the father hand to his son an improper book, + consoling himself that truth must prevail in the end, even though + defeated temporarily?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These are + delusions of the abstract intellectualism of our times, which + sees all salvation and human perfection merely in learning and + knowledge, and forgets that knowledge signifies education and + benefit for mankind only when attached to truth and moral order. + Not knowledge, but knowledge of the truth, and moral dignity, + make for civilization and perfection; knowledge no longer + controlled by truth and ethics becomes the hireling of the low + passions, and fights for their freedom.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 120%">“</span><span style="font-size: 120%">The + Vehicle of Truth.</span><span style= + "font-size: 120%">”</span></span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Back of the + urgent demands for unrestricted freedom in teaching stands + invariably a thought that operates with palsying effect upon the + minds: to wit, that science is the embodiment of truth, a genius + carrying the unextinguishable beacon of light: to silence it + would be to resist the truth.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Our first + thought when we began our dissertation of the Freedom of Science + was, that science is not the poetical being so <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page328">[pg 328]</span><a name="Pg328" id= + "Pg328" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> often described: it is an + individual activity, a product of the human mind, sharing its + defects and weaknesses. For this reason science is not the + infallible bearer of the truth; least of all in the higher + questions of life, where its eyes are dimmed, and where + inclinations of the heart still further obscure its strength of + vision. And this is admitted, even to the point of despairing of + the ability to find the truth on these questions, and if one is + not ready to admit this, the fact is made apparent by a glance at + the countless errors exhibited in the history of human + thinking.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Is error to + have the same right that truth has? If wholesome beverage may + rightly be offered to anybody, can, with the same right, poison + be given? May one follow his false sense of truth, calling it + science, and teach anything he thinks right?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Moreover, is + not this science, which, according to its exponents, need not + regard anything but its own method, entirely a <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">special kind of + science</span></em>? Indeed it is, as we have learned to know it. + We have learned to know this free science, with its autonomous + subjectivism, that shapes its changing views according to + personal experience; this feeble but proud scepticism; we have + learned of those ominous imperatives, that banish everything + divine from the horizon of knowledge—a science with its torch + turned upside down. And its aim—negation. The beautiful thought + is frequently expressed that science, especially the science of + our universities, is to act as the leader in the mental life of + the nation, <span class="tei tei-q">“a universal Parliament of + science, which would represent the authoritative power so + urgently needed by our discordant and sceptical age, an age that + has lost faith in authority.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The idea is + beautiful, it is sublime; it coincides with a conception of the + divine Spirit, who has already realized it, though, it is true, + in another manner. The divine Spirit has founded in the bosom of + mankind such a centre of mental life; namely, the Church. She, + and only she, bears all the marks of the universal teacher of + truth. By virtue of divine aid the Church alone has the + prerogative of infallibility, as necessary to the teacher of the + nations; human philosophy is not infallible, least of all a + science that despairs of the highest truth, nay, that often + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page329">[pg 329]</span><a name= + "Pg329" id="Pg329" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> deals with it as + the cat does with the mouse. A teacher of the nations must + possess unity of doctrine. The Church has this unity, her view of + the world stands before us in perfect concord; while discord + reigns in the philosophy of a free mankind, one thought opposed + to another. The Church is holy, holy in her moral laws, holy in + her service of the truth; she never shirks truth, not even where + truth is painful; the Church never surrenders the truth to human + passions. The Church is Catholic, general, for the learned and + the unlearned; she is apostolic, with faithful hand she preserves + for all generations the spiritual patrimony of the forefathers. + And the unbelieving science of liberalism, where is its holiness, + when its eye cannot bear the sight of heaven? when it numbers + among its admirers all the unholy elements of humanity? Where is + its catholicity, its reverence for traditions, its historic + sense, the indispensable requirement for the teacher of + centuries? The ruins of overthrown truths, amongst which wanton + thought holds its orgies, bear witness to the unfitness of + infidel science to be the teacher of mankind.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">Serious Charges.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The science of + our day must often listen to charges of the gravest nature. They + are uttered not only by servants of the Church, but in public + meetings, legislative bodies, and in numerous articles by the + press: science, we are told, has become a danger to faith and + morals, it has become the teacher of irreligion, a leader in the + war against Christianity. The force of the accusation is felt and + attempts are made to ward it off. And then we are assured that + science is not the enemy of religion, nor of the precious + possessions of society.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is clear, + without further proof, that science in itself cannot be a social + danger; hence the charge cannot apply to science in general, but + only to that special brand of science cultivated in an <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">anti-Christian</span></em> spirit. The + assurance from its champions, that their intentions are the best, + may often be a proof that they do not realize the scope of their + doctrines; nevertheless, it cannot be denied that this science + has become, through its principles, as taught in lectures and in + print, the greatest <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page330">[pg + 330]</span><a name="Pg330" id="Pg330" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + danger to the religious-moral possessions of our nations and to + the foundations of public order, hence an unlimited freedom for + the activities of this science means unlimited freedom for a + destructive power that spells ruin to our mental culture.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Can the + principles of this science be anything but a danger? Their sharp + antagonism to the principle of authority, must it not undermine + the respect for state authority, must it not strengthen the + elements of social disorder? Its contempt of sacred traditions, + must it not become a danger to everything existing? <span class= + "tei tei-q">“If all mankind were of one opinion,”</span> it + teaches, <span class="tei tei-q">“and but one single man were of + a different opinion, then mankind would have no more right to + impose silence on him than he to silence all of mankind, if he + could,”</span> must not such an individualism become the fertile + soil of revolutionary ideas? Its ethics without religion tells + every one that his own individuality is the court of last resort + for his moral doings, that moral laws are subject to change, and + must such views not become a danger to moral order? Finally, the + separation of mankind from God and its eternal destiny, must it + not necessarily lead the whole of life to materialism? and from + the scullery it is not far to the sewer. Through its antagonism + to Christian faith this science becomes the chief factor in + dechristianizing the nations.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is objected + that this accusation is not true, because science addresses + itself to <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">professional circles</span></em> only; the + people, of course, cannot digest these things, therefore religion + is to be preserved for the people.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Why this + distinction? The principles of liberal science of to-day are + either true or they are not true. If not true, why profess them? + If they are true, as is vehemently asserted, then why should the + people be excluded from a true view of the world? Have the people + not an equal right to the truth in important questions, equal + right to light and happiness? Ah, the consequences of this + doctrine of freedom are feared; it is feared the people's natural + logic would take hold of these principles and draw from them its + conclusions. And by that very fear these principles stand + condemned of themselves. The truth can stand its consequences, as + does the Christian view <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page331">[pg + 331]</span><a name="Pg331" id="Pg331" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + of the world; and the more zealously its consequences are + pursued, the more blessed the fruits. It is otherwise with error. + Therefore, if the principles of liberal science cannot stand + their consequences, they must be erroneous. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Consider chiefly to be good that which enhances when + communicated to others,”</span> is a wise maxim of the + Pythagoreans. Anything spelling damage and ruin, when + communicated to others, is not good, but evil.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Nor is it true + that science confines itself to professional circles. Any one who + does not lead the isolated existence of pedantry knows that this + is not the case. What the professor of our day teaches in the + lecture room, finds its way into the minds of his students, and + from there into preparatory and public schools; ideas committed + by the scientific writer to paper and print, go into all the + world, and, transformed into popular speech, become the common + property of the millions. The flood of books, pamphlets, and + leaflets attacking and vilifying the Christian tenets of faith is + ever swelling, and day by day tons of this literature are spread + without hindrance over Christian countries. There is not a single + book against the Christian truth, be its author named + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Feuerbach</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Strauss</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Darwin</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Haeckel</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Carneri</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Nietzsche</span></span>, or otherwise, that + does not soon circulate in popular editions in every country, or + at least has to lend its subject to pamphlets and booklets, which + then carry these <span class="tei tei-q">“results of + science”</span> to every nook and corner, to the remotest + backwoods village. And the fruits? All those who in these days + profess infidelity and radicalism, they all unanimously profess + adherence to modern free science.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">Tell Me with Whom Thou + Goest.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In stately + array they come along nowadays, free-thinkers and freemasons, + free-religionists and representatives of the free view of the + world, monists, agitators for <span class="tei tei-q">“free + school”</span> and socialists, all impetuously active in the + service of anti-Christianity, bent on reviving and spreading + ancient heathendom. All are avowed disciples of free science, all + spread its doctrines, and all work for the popularizing of their + ideas. There they press on, the living proof that modern science, + as far as it is infidel, has become, <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page332">[pg 332]</span><a name="Pg332" id="Pg332" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> voluntarily or involuntarily, the teacher + of radicalism, of paganism, and the leader in the battle against + religion and Christian morals.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And in its + train is marching Free-thought in all its varieties. Its aim at + destruction, its dismal designs against religion and state, have + become manifest in its books and conventions; for instance, the + international free-thinker conventions lately held at Rome and at + Prague were plainly of anarchistical sentiment. In their midst we + see men of science, academic teachers. Under their auspices are + arranged <span class="tei tei-q">“scientific lectures”</span> to + make known the <span class="tei tei-q">“results of modern + science,”</span> with the conviction that this will suffice for + the overthrow of religion; they demand that <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the instruction in public institutions be only a + scientific one”</span>; itinerant orators are sent to speak with + preference on <span class="tei tei-q">“Science and the + Church,”</span> on the theocratic view of the world and free + science. The doctrines of liberal science are adopted by + freemasonry, its rallying-cry is <span class="tei tei-q">“freedom + from God, freedom of the human reason.”</span> And following the + band-wagon of free science, we see a shouting and jeering + multitude, its clenched fists threatening any one who would dare + to attack this fine science, their liberator from the yoke of + religion; they are the thousands of the common people, whose + faith has been torn out of their hearts, and, with faith, also + peace and good morals. We see marching there hundreds from the + ranks of youth, who in the heedless impulse of their inexperience + have cast off belief, and, with belief, frequently all moral + discipline; they, too, look upon science as their liberator. The + morally inferior part of mankind, which declares anything to be + ethical that <span class="tei tei-q">“promotes life”</span>; + which fights against <span class="tei tei-q">“love-denying + views”</span> and against obsolete maxims of morals, it, too, + follows in the tracks of free science. And wherever the issue is + to fight Christian institutions, under the name of + marriage-reform, free-school, or what not, there we are sure to + see representatives of science and of universities, and to hear + them hold forth for free science.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Where the + purpose is to kindle the fires of revolt against religious + authority, there we are certain to meet in the first rank the + modern teachers of science.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page333">[pg 333]</span><a name="Pg333" id="Pg333" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Science and + its representatives have an ideal vocation. They should be the + hearth of the spiritual goods of the nations; new and wholesome + forces should at all times emanate from the abodes of science, + and the people should look up with confidence to these + watch-towers of knowledge and truth. What a shocking contrast to + this exalted ideal it is, to hear time and again the believing + people and their leaders raise a complaining and indignant voice + against a science that has become a most dangerous antagonist to + their holiest goods! Is it not painful to see the devout mother + apprehensively cautioning her son, who departs for the + university, not to let his faith be taken from him by teaching + and association? Is it not sad to observe that it has become the + common saying: <span class="tei tei-q">“He has lost his faith at + the university”</span>? Is it not regrettable to see that + Catholic universities have become necessary to preserve the ideal + goods of the Christian religion? It is unavoidable that such + complaints are sometimes exaggerated. In their generality they + include universities that have given small reason for them; + honourable men and representatives of sciences who should not be + reproached are being mixed up in these charges. But it is true, + nevertheless, that many have given such occasion. Is it not true + also that many remain silent instead of protesting in the name of + true science? that they feel it incumbent upon themselves to + protect such a procedure, for the sake of the freedom of + science?</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">For a generation and longer,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Haeckel</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">misused science to make war upon + religion, and went to the extreme in his scientific + outrageousness, not even stopping at forgery. Professor</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">W. His</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">had already in 1875 expressed his + opinion of</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Haeckel</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">in relation to the false drawings + of his embryonic illustrations in the words:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Others + may respect</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Haeckel</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">as an active and reckless leader: + in my judgment he has on account of his methods forfeited the + right to be considered an equal in the circle of serious + investigators.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">When Dr.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Brass</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + a member of the Kepler Bund, recently disclosed new forgeries + of this kind, it should have been made the occasion for a + protest in the interest of science and its freedom against such + methods. Instead of that, however, forty-six professors of + biology and zoölogy published a statement in defence of</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Haeckel</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + declaring that while not approving of</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Haeckel's</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">method in some instances, they + condemned in the interest of science and of freedom of teaching + most strongly the war waged against</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Haeckel</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">by</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Brass</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">and the Kepler Bund. Is the + freedom to use methods like</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Haeckel's</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">included in the freedom of + teaching, which they consider must be defended? Can it surprise + any one that this freedom of teaching is viewed with + concern?</span></p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page334">[pg + 334]</span><a name="Pg334" id="Pg334" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Much excitement was caused a few years ago by + a pamphlet of an Austrian professor. Another Austrian + professor, of high rank in science, criticized the pamphlet + as</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">A + reckless and absolute negation of the foundation of the + Christian dogma in the widest sense of the word, proclaimed as + the verdict of science and of common sense. It is replete with + blasphemous jokes, such as may usually be heard only in the + most vulgar places.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">A cry of indignation was raised by the + Catholic people of the Tyrol against this base insult to their + creed; it was shown that the author of this pamphlet had + misused his lectures on Catholic Canon Law, to speak to his + Catholic students disdainfully of the Divinity of Christ, of + the Sacraments, of the Church, and the prime foundations of + Christianity. Upon indictment by the public prosecutor, the + pamphlet was condemned in Court as a libel upon the Christian + religion.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">It was expected that the representatives of + science, in defence of the threatened honour of science, would + repudiate all community of interest with a production that was + merely the expression of an anti-Christian propaganda. That + expectation was not fulfilled; on the contrary, those in + authority at the Austrian universities, and numerous professors + of other countries, joined in a protest against the violation + of the rights of a professor, against the attacks on freedom of + science. They demanded full immunity for the author of the + libel. Even the state department of Religion and Education + expressed the opinion that the accused</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">had only availed himself of the right of free + research.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">Is + this the freedom in teaching that is to be protected by the + state? And yet there are those who indignantly deny that there + is danger for religion in this freedom!</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He who really + has at heart the honour of science and of the universities, and + is inspired by their ideals, should bear in mind that to realize + these ideals the first thing necessary is public confidence: not + the confidence of a revolutionizing minority,—a scrutiny of those + elements that give them their plaudits ought to arouse + reflection,—but the confidence of earnest, conservative circles + of the uncorrupted people.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">In academic circles the increasing lack of + respect for the university and its teachers is complained of. + Professor</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Von Amira</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">writes:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Thirty years ago the academic teacher was + reverenced by the highest society; his association was sought; he + had no need of any other title than the one that told what he + was. To-day we see a different picture, particularly as to the + title 'professor.' To-day they smile at it. Nowadays, if a + professor desires to impress, he must bear a title designating + something else than what he really is. A literature has grown up + that deals with the decline of the universities. The fact of a + decline is taken for granted, only its causes and remedies are + discussed. And this is not all. Invectives are bestowed upon the + institutions, upon the teachers as a body, upon the individual + teacher. And there is no one to take up</span> <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page335">[pg 335]</span><a name="Pg335" id= + "Pg335" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style= + "font-size: 90%">the cudgels in our defence!</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">A + fact suggesting earnest self-examination, and the resolution not + to forfeit still more this respect. It is not sufficient to + repudiate with indignation the complaints. Nor will it do to + pretend a respect for religion and Christianity, and a desire to + see both preserved, that are not really felt. What is needed is + the admission that the road taken is the wrong one.</span></p> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">The Responsibility before + History.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The + distressing fact is realized that the worm of immorality is + devouring in our day the marrow of the most civilized nations. It + is also known that its wretched victims are in no class so + numerous as in the class of college men. Earnest-minded men and + women are raising a warning cry, and are forming societies to + stem the ruin of the nations. The alarm bell is ringing through + the lands.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Remarkable words on this subject are those + written not long ago by</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Paulsen</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">It looks + as if all the demons had been let loose at this moment to + devastate the basis of the people's life. Those who know + Germany through reading only, through its comic weeklies, its + plays, its novels, the windows of its bookshops, the lectures + delivered and attended by male and female, must arrive at the + opinion that the paramount question to the German people just + now is whether the restrictions put on the free play of the + sexual impulse by custom and law are evil and should be + abolished?</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Paulsen</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">puts the responsibility for it + upon the sophistry on the sexual instinct and the present + naturalism in the view of the world:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The prevailing naturalism in the view of world + and life is leading to astonishing aberrations of judgment, and + this is true also of men otherwise discerning. If man is + nothing else but a system of natural instincts, similar in this + to the rest of living beings, then, indeed, no one can tell + what other purpose life could have than the gratification of + all instincts.... Reformation of ideas—this is the cry heard in + all streets; cast off a Christianity hostile to life, that is + killing in embryo thousands of possibilities for happiness. + True, even in past ages young people were not spared + temptation. But the barriers were stronger; traditional, moral, + religious sentiment, and sensible views. Our time has pulled + down these barriers; young people everywhere are advised by all + the leading lights of the day: old morals and religion are + dead, slain by modern science; the old commandments are the + obsolete fetters of superstition. We know now their origin; + they are but auto-suggestions of common consciousness which + mistakes them for voices from another world, that has been + deposed long since by the scientific thought of + to-day.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These are + words of indignation of a well-meaning friend of mankind. Do they + not rebound upon the speaker himself <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page336">[pg 336]</span><a name="Pg336" id="Pg336" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> to become terrible self-accusations for him + and others, who, while perhaps of similar well-meaning sentiment, + are actually working for the annihilation of the moral-religious + sentiment, as <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Paulsen</span></span> himself has done by + his books?</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The old religion is dead, slain by + science,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">is proclaimed in innumerable + passages of his books; the idea of another world has long been + disposed of by the scientific reasoning of the present + time,</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">hence a + philosophy,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">he tells us,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">which insists upon the thesis that certain + natural processes make it necessary to assume a metaphysical + principle, or a supernatural agency, will always have science for + an irreconcilable opponent.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">It will be difficult for a future age to + understand,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">he writes elsewhere,</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">how our + times so complacently could cling to a system of religious + instruction originated many centuries ago under entirely + different conditions of intellectual life, and which in many + points forms the decided opposite to facts and notions which, + outside of the school, are taken by our times for + granted.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">In respect to morals, too, one can + do without a supernatural law.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">According to the view presented here, ethics as + a science does not depend on belief.... Moral laws are the + natural laws of the human-historical life of time and place.... + Nor does it seem advisable in pedagogical-practical respect to + make the force or the significance of ethical commands dependent + on a matter so uncertain as the belief in a future + life.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">We might cite many similar + expressions from his writings.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">It is significant that they have to condemn + their own science in view of its sad consequences.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Paulsen</span></span> loudly demands + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">restriction for the freedom of + art</span></em>, for the industry of lewdness, for the literature + of perversity.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">He says:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The English people, admired by us because of + their liberal principles and free institutions, are less afraid + to show by the sternest means the door to salacious minds ... the + feeling of responsibility for preserving the roots of the + strength of the people's life is in England far more wide awake + than with us, who still feel in our bones the fear of censure and + the policeman's club.... But what are the things committed by our + nasty trades and the publications in their service other than so + many assaults upon our liberty? Are they not primarily an assault + upon the inner freedom of adolescent youth who are made slaves of + their lowest instincts by the industries of these merchants? + Therefore admonish the hangman not to be swerved by the plea of + freedom.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">No one will + deny approval to these words. But do they not, again, become a + severe condemnation of the reckless freedom <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page337">[pg 337]</span><a name="Pg337" id= + "Pg337" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> in teaching, that claims the + right to assault without hindrance the truths which are the + foundation of our nation? If art must not become a danger, why + may science? If the artist is asked to take into consideration + the innocence and weal of young people, if he is cautioned not to + follow solely <span class="tei tei-q">“his sense for + beauty,”</span> why should the teacher be allowed to follow his + <span class="tei tei-q">“sense for truth”</span> without regard + for anything else? If no statute of limitation and restriction + exist for science, neither prescribed nor prohibited ideas for + the academic teacher, why should there be any prohibited + <span class="tei tei-q">“æsthetic principles”</span> for the + artist? Manifestly, because here the absurdity of this freedom is + more clearly perceptible, because it leads to shamelessness. At + this juncture, therefore, they are constrained to concede the + untenability and the senselessness of the unlimited human + freedom, that is defended with so much volubility.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Paulsen</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">points to an age in which, similarly + to our times, progressive men arose and, in the name of science, + discarded religion and morals; they called themselves men of + science, sages,</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">sophists.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">It is remarkable that the very same occurrence + was observed more than 2,000 years ago, when</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Plato</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">experienced it in his time with + the young people of Athens, who became fascinated by similar + sophistical speech.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The noble Sage of Greece had caustic words + for</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Protagoras</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + the champion of sophistry, and his brethren in spirit:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">If + cobblers and tailors were to put in worse condition the shoes + and clothes they receive for improving, this would soon be + known and they would starve; not so</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Protagoras</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + who is corrupting quietly the whole of Hellas, and who has + dismissed his disciples in a worse state than he received them, + and this for more than forty years.... Not</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Protagoras</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">alone, but many others did this + before and after him. Did they knowingly deceive and poison the + youth or did they not realize what they were doing? Are we to + assume that these men, praised by many for their sagacity, have + done so in ignorance? No, they were not blind to their acts, + but blind were the young people who paid them for instruction, + blind were their parents who confided them to these sophists, + blindest were the communities that admitted them instead of + turning them away.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What a + responsibility to co-operate in the intellectual corruption of + entire generations! And the corruption by dechristianizing is + increasing in all circles, owing to the misuse of science. That + the condition is not even worse is not the merit of this science, + nor evidence of the harmlessness of its <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page338">[pg 338]</span><a name="Pg338" id="Pg338" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> freedom; it is the merit of the after + effect of a Christian past, which continues to influence, + consciously or unconsciously, the thought and feeling even of + those circles that seem to be long since estranged from + Christianity.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Concerning the decline of morality in our + age</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Paulsen</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">observes:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Foerster</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">rightly emphasizes the fact that the + old Church rendered an imperishable service in moralizing and + spiritualizing our life, by urging first of all the discipline of + the will, and by raising heroes of self-denial in the persons of + her Saints. That we still draw from this patrimony I, too, do not + doubt.</span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">That we waste it carelessly + is indeed the great danger.</span></em><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + + <div class="tei tei-tb"> + <hr style="width: 50%" /> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">It was a wonderfully balmy evening in the fall + of 1905,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">relates Rev.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">L. + Ballet</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, missionary + in Japan,</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">and the + sun had just set behind Mount Fiji. Unexpectedly a young + Japanese appeared in front of me, desiring to talk to me. I + noticed that he was a young student. I bade him enter, and we + saluted each other with a low bow, as persons meeting for the + first time. I asked him to take a seat opposite to me, and took + advantage of the first moments of silence to take a good look + at him. But imagine my astonishment when his first question + was,</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Do you + believe life is worth living?</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">’</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">asked in an earnest but calm manner. I confess + this question from lips so young alarmed me and went to my + heart like a thrust.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Why, certainly,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">’</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">was my reply,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">life is worth living, and living good. How do + you come to ask a question that sounds so strange from the lips + of a young man? You certainly do not desire to follow the + example of your fellow-countryman</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Fijimura + Misao</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, who jumped + into the abyss from Mount Kegon?</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">’</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">—</span><span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style="font-size: 90%">No, sir, + at least not yet. I confess, however, that I feel my hesitation + to be cowardice, for I have made this resolution for some time. + In my opinion man is purely a thing of blind accident, a + wretched, ephemeral fly without importance, without value. Why + then prolong a life in which a little pleasure is added to so + much sorrow, so much disappointment; a life that at any rate + finally melts away into nothing? I am more and more convinced + that this is the truth.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">’</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">—</span><span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style="font-size: 90%">And what + brought you to such views?</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">’</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">—</span><span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Well, + science, philosophy, the books which I have read for pastime or + study. If it were only the opinion of our few Japanese + scientists one might hesitate; but the science, the philosophy, + of Europe, translated and expounded by our writers, teach the + same thing. God, soul, future life, all is idle delusion. + Nothing is eternal but only matter. After twenty, thirty, sixty + years, man dies, and there remains nothing of him but his body, + which will decay in order to pass into other beings, matter + like he was. This is what science teaches us; a hard doctrine, + I confess; but what is there to be said against it, considering + the positive results of scientific research?</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">’</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%"> ”</span></span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Great + responsibility is borne by a science that despoils mankind of its + best, of all that gives it comfort and support in <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page339">[pg 339]</span><a name="Pg339" id= + "Pg339" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> life! In faraway Japan there + is not the spiritual power of Christianity to counteract the + misuse of science; the poison does its work and there is no + antidote.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">That the + Christian nations <span class="tei tei-q">“carelessly waste their + patrimony, that, indeed, is the great danger.”</span></p> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page340">[pg 340]</span><a name= + "Pg340" id="Pg340" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc39" id="toc39"></a> <a name="pdf40" id="pdf40"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">Chapter II. Freedom Of Teaching And + The State.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Close bonds of + mutual dependence and solidarity interlink all created beings, + especially men. Insufficient in himself, both physically and + mentally, man finds in uniting with others everything he needs; + thus do individuals and families join forces, generations join + hands; what the fathers have earned is inherited and increased by + new generations. Human life is essentially social life and + co-operation—in the indefinite form social life within the great + human society, in the definite form social life within the two + great bodies, Church and state. Within both bodies human benefits + are to be attained and protected against danger by common + exertion—within the Church the spiritual benefits of eternal + character, within the state the temporal benefits.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Hence both + bodies, or societies, will have to take a position in relation to + science and its doctrine. Indeed, in civilized nations there is + hardly a public activity of mightier influence upon life than + science. The contemplation of this position shall now be our + task.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Science, as we + have above set forth, addresses itself to mankind—a fallible + science addressing itself to men easily deceived; therefore, an + unrestricted freedom in teaching is ethically inadmissible. Hence + it follows, as a matter of course, that the authorities of state + and Church, who must guard the common benefits, have the duty of + keeping the freedom in scientific teaching within its proper + bounds, so far as this lies in their power. Hitherto we have left + these social authorities out of consideration; the position taken + was the general ethical one.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The case might + be supposed that the Church had provided few restrictions of this + kind, and the state none at all; nevertheless, <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page341">[pg 341]</span><a name="Pg341" id="Pg341" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> an absolute freedom in teaching would + still present a condition dangerous to the community at large, + contrary to the demands of morality; we should then have an + unrestricted freedom in teaching, permitted by law, but ethically + inadmissible.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The distinction + is important. Quite often freedom in teaching is spoken of as + permitted by the state, as if it was identical with ethical + permission. If freedom in teaching is permitted by the state, this + evidently means only that the state permits teaching without + interference on its part; it says, I do not stand in the way, I let + things proceed. But this does not mean that it is right and proper. + The burden of personal responsibility rests upon him who avails + himself of a freedom which, though not hindered by the state, is in + conflict with what is right. The state tolerates many things—it + does not interfere against unkindness, nor against extravagance, + nor deceit; nevertheless everybody is morally responsible for such + doings.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If, then, we + take up the question, what position social authority should take + toward scientific teaching, whether it be in the higher schools, or + outside of them, we are considering chiefly the state. It is the + state that enters most into consideration when freedom in teaching + nowadays is discussed; the state may interfere most effectively in + the management of schools and universities, for these are state + institutions in most countries.</p> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">Universities as State + Institutions.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">They were not + always state institutions. The universities of the Middle Ages + were autonomous corporations, which constituted themselves, made + their own statutes, had their own courts, but enjoyed at the same + time legal rights. Conditions gradually changed after the + Reformation. The power of princes began more and more to + interfere in the management of the universities, until in the + seventeenth century, and still more in the eighteenth, the + universities became state institutions, subject to the reigning + sovereign, the professors his salaried officials, and text-books, + subject and form of instruction were prescribed by the minute, + paternal directions of the sovereign, and with the <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page342">[pg 342]</span><a name="Pg342" id= + "Pg342" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> mania for regulating that was + a feature of the eighteenth century. The nineteenth century + brought more liberty; it was demanded by the enlarged scope of + universities, which no longer were only the training schools for + the learned professions, but became the home of research, needing + freedom of movement.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Nevertheless, + universities are in many countries still state institutions. They + are founded by the state, are given organization and laws by the + state; the teachers are appointed and given their commissions by + the state. They are state officials, though less under government + supervision than other state officials. At the same time these + universities are possessed of a certain measure of autonomy, a + remainder of olden times. They elect their academic authorities, + which have some autonomy and disciplinary jurisdiction. Likewise + the separate faculties have their powers; they confer degrees, + administer their benefices, and exert considerable influence in + filling vacant chairs.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The state then + considers it its duty to grant freedom in teaching. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Science and its teaching are free,”</span> says the + law in some countries. No doubt a loosely drawn sentence; at any + rate, it means that science should be granted the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">proper</span></em> freedom. And this freedom + it must have. We have become more sensitive of unjustified + paternal government than were the people of the eighteenth + century.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">The Object of the + State.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What kind of a + freedom in teaching, then, should be granted by the state? + Unlimited freedom? This is, at any rate, not a necessary + conclusion. The state must also grant freedom to the father for + the education of his children, to the landowner for the culture + of his fields, to the artist in the production of his works; but + that freedom would not be understood to be an unlimited one, + having no regard to the interests of society, but merely as the + exclusion of unwarranted interference. Hence if the state, for + reasons of the commonwealth, were to restrict freedom of + teaching, the restraint could not be considered unjust. The + purpose of the state must not suffer injury; to attain this + purpose the state has the right to demand, <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page343">[pg 343]</span><a name="Pg343" id= + "Pg343" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and must demand, all that is + necessary to the purpose in view, even though it entails a + restriction of somebody's freedom. Now for a definition of this + purpose of the state.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Like any other + society, the state seeks to attain a definite object, so much the + more because the state is necessary to man, who otherwise would + have to forego the things most needed in life; and but for the + public co-operation of the many these could be attained not at + all, or at least not sufficiently. To provide these things is the + object of the state, viz., the public welfare of the citizens; it + is to bring about public conditions which will enable the + citizens to attain their temporal welfare. To this end the state + must protect the rights of its subjects, and must protect and + promote the public goods of economic life, but especially the + spiritual benefits of morals and religion. The state, through its + legislative, judicial, and executive functions, is to <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">direct</span></em> effectively the community + to this end; therefore it is incumbent upon the state to care for + the preservation and promotion of both material and spiritual + benefits, for the protection of private rights, and for the + conditions necessary to its own existence, even against the + arbitrary will of its subjects.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">Protection for the Spiritual + Foundations of Life.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From this the + conclusion naturally follows, that the state must not grant + freedom to propound in public, by speech or writing, theories + that will <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">endanger the religious and moral goods of + its citizens and the foundation of the state</span></em>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We claim that + the state neglects a solemn duty if it permits without + hindrance—we will not say, the ridicule and disparagement of + religion and morals: the less so, as freedom to ridicule and to + slander has nothing to do with freedom in teaching—but the public + promulgation of theories which are either irreligious, or against + morals, or against the state. Even though they be done in + scientific form, injuries to the common weal remain injuries, and + they do not change into something else by being committed in + scientific form. The state must seek to prevent such injuries by + strictly enforced penalties and by the <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page344">[pg 344]</span><a name="Pg344" id="Pg344" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> selection of conscientious teachers. The + enforcement of the principle may not be possible under + circumstances, legislatures may lack insight or good will, or the + complexion of the state may not admit of it for the time being, + or permanently. Then we would simply see a regrettable condition, + a government incapable of ridding itself of the morbid matter + which is poisoning its marrow. But if there is good will and + energy, one thing may always be done to check injurious + influences, and that is the awakening and employment of forces of + opposition.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The University of Halle is said to have been the + first one to enjoy modern freedom in teaching. What, at that + time, however, was meant by freedom in teaching, is shown by the + words of</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Chr. Thomasius</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">in 1694:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Thank God that He has prompted His Anointed (the + prince) not to introduce here the yoke under which many are now + and then languishing, but gracefully to grant our teachers the + freedom of doctrines</span> <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + that are not against God and the state</span></em><span style= + "font-size: 90%">.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">One hundred and fifty years later + Minister</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Eichhorn</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">advised the University of + Koenigsberg that in natural sciences neither the individual + freedom in teaching nor of research are limited, that the case + is different, however, with philosophy as applied to life, with + history, theology, and the science of laws.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The first requisite there,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">he said,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">is a proper bent of mind, which, however, can + find its basis and its lasting support only in religion. With + the proper bent of mind there will be no desire to teach + doctrines which attack the roots of the very life of one's own + country.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Now, what + considerations make it plain that the duty of the state is as + stated? Two: consideration for its subjects, and consideration + for the state itself. The state must protect the highest + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">possessions of its citizens</span></em>. For + that reason men are by nature itself prompted to found states, so + as to protect better their common goods, by the strong hand of an + authority, against foes from within and without, and to enable + them to bequeath those goods inviolate to their sons and + grandsons. Hence they must demand of state-power not to tolerate + conditions which would greatly jeopardize those goods, and + certainly not to allow attacks thereon by its own educational + organs. The highest spiritual benefits of civilization, and at + the same time the necessary foundations of a well-ordered life, + are, first of all, morality and religion; not morality alone, but + also religion, do not forget this. Man's first duty is the duty + of worshipping God, of recognizing and worshipping his Creator, + the ultimate <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page345">[pg + 345]</span><a name="Pg345" id="Pg345" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + end of all things. A profound truth was stated by <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Aristotle</span></span>, when, coupling the + duties to God with those to parents, he said that those merit + punishment who question the duty of worshipping the gods and of + loving one's parents. Hence the first thing to be preserved to + the nations is religion; it is in many ways their most precious + possession, too. Not only do all nations possess religion, not + excepting the most uncivilized; but there is no power that + influences life and stirs the heart more than religion. Consider + the religious wars of history; while they were surely deplorable, + they demonstrate what religion is to man. Even in individuals who + to all appearance are irreligious, religion never fully dies out; + it appears there in false forms, or is their great puzzle, maybe + the incubus of their lives, giving them no rest. Only in + conjunction with firm religious principle can morality stand + fast. Nowadays they work for ethics without religion, for + education and school without God. Theoreticians in their four + walls, removed from all real life, are busily working out systems + of this sort. This new ethics has not yet stood the test of life, + or, if it did, it has succeeded in gaining for its adherents only + those who are at odds with religion and morals. These theories + must first be otherwise attested before they may replace the old, + well-tried religious foundations.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The noted and justly esteemed pedagogue,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Fr. W. + Foerster</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + writes:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">On the part + of free-thinkers vigorous complaint has been made that my book so + decidedly confesses the unparalleled pedagogic strength of the + Christian religion. The author therefore repeats emphatically + that this confession has not grown out of an arbitrary + metaphysical mood, but directly out of his moral-pedagogic + studies. For over ten years of a long period of instructing the + youth in ethics, he has been engaged exclusively in studying + psychologically the problem of character-forming, and the result + of his studies is his conviction that all attempts at educating + youth without religion are absolutely futile. And, in the + judgment of the author, the only reason why the notion that + religion is superfluous in education is prevalent in such large + circles of modern pedagogues, is, that they have no extensive + practical experience in character-training, nor made thorough and + concentrated studies.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The fact is, that all education in which + religion to all outward appearance is dispensed with, is still + deeply influenced by the after-effect of religious sanction and + religious earnestness. What education without religion really + means will become more clearly known in the coming + generation.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page346">[pg + 346]</span><a name="Pg346" id="Pg346" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The state is + zealous in protecting the property of its citizens, to which end + a powerful police apparatus is constantly at work. If the state + deems it its duty to interfere in this matter, must it not + consider it a still higher duty to protect religion and morals, + for the very reason that they are the property of its citizens, + and even their most precious? <span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Pro aris et focis</span></span>, for home + and altar, was what was fought for by the old Romans. Is it + possible that a pagan government was more sterling and + high-minded than the Christian state of the present? If it is to + be the bearer of civilization, it ought to consider that man + liveth not by bread alone. The only true mental civilization is + the one which does not hamper but helps man in attaining his + eternal goal.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Modern state + power is being urged from all sides to take measures against the + corruption of morals by the novel and the shop window, and not to + look on apathetically when the consuming fire is spreading all + about, in the name of art. Are the dangers to the spiritual + health of society any less if reformers, in the name of science, + shake at the foundations of matrimony, advocate polygamy, teach + atheism? Because a so-called reformer has lost the fundamental + truths of our moral-religious order, must all the rest submit to + an attack upon the sacred possessions of themselves and their + descendants?</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">That the rights of the teacher are not + unrestricted was set forth by an American paper + (</span><span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Science,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">No. + 321) in its comment upon the removal of certain + professors:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">There are + barriers set to them on the one hand by the rights of the + students, and by the rights of the college where he teaches, on + the other. The college must preserve its reputation and its good + name, the student must be protected against palpable errors and + waste of time.... If a professor of sociology should attack the + institution of matrimony, and propound the gospel of polygamy and + of free love, then neither the right to teach his views nor his + honesty of purpose would save him from dismissal. This is of + course a very extreme case, not likely to + happen.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Is it so very extreme? Certainly not in regard + to teaching by books. Listen:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">From the foregoing it is self-evident that + polygyny based upon the rivalry of men for women (analogous to + the animal kingdom) presents the natural sexual practice of + mankind. Whether there is to be preferred a simultaneous or a + successive polygyny, or a combination of both, would depend on + varying conditions. The ethical type of the sexual</span> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page347">[pg 347]</span><a name= + "Pg347" id="Pg347" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style= + "font-size: 90%">condition, viz., in general the desirable + biological type, is the one that would best suit a polygyny + based upon a selection of man.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">It is taught further:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The monogamic principle of marriage in general + is only conditionally favorable to civilization, whereas it is + destructive of it constitutionally, hence in need of + reform.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Our + contemporaneous sexual reform wave has not yet assumed the + position of this knowledge; on the contrary, notwithstanding + its revolutionary aspect in some particulars, it is still under + the ban of the traditional ideal of marriage</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">; + continence before marriage is an</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">absurd</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">proposition!</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">This new system of morals, fit for the + barnyard, but for women the lowest degradation, is now to + become the ideal of men, nay, even of women:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">True + motherly pride, true womanly dignity, are incompatible with the + exclusiveness of the monogamic property principle. If our + movement for sexual reform is to elevate us instead of plunging + us into the mire, then this view must become part and parcel of + our women.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">The + picture of the motherly woman, of the woman with the pride of + sexual modesty, instead of with the exciting desire of + possession ... this picture must become the ideal of men, and + sink down to the bottom of their soul and into the fibres of + their nervous system; it must animate their fancy and awaken + their sensual passions.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><a id="noteref_20" name= + "noteref_20" href="#note_20"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">20</span></span></a> + <span style="font-size: 90%">We stand right in the midst of the + world of beasts!</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">This perilous moral teaching is allowed also + in public lectures. On November 14, 1908, the</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Allgemeine Rundschau</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">wrote:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Imagine a spacious concert-hall, brightly + illuminated, every one of the many seats occupied, the boxes + filled to the last place, the aisles crowded, by a most + variegated audience: men and women, young maidens, youths with + downy beard; gentlemen of high rank with their ladies, faces + upon which are written a life of vast experience side by side + with childish faces whose innocence is betrayed by their looks, + and on the platform a university professor and physician, + holding forth about the most intimate relations of sexual life: + the unfitness of celibacy, the Catholic morals of matrimony, + prostitution and prostitutes, the causes of adultery,</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style="font-size: 90%">sterile + marriage,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">’</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">onanism, and many kinds of + perversities. The man is, moreover, speaking in a fashion that + makes one forget the admonishments of + conscience.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The city council of Lausanne, in its meeting + of February 10, 1907, prohibited</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Forel's</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">lecture as an attack upon decency + and public morals, making reference in its resolution to</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Forel's</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">ideas as laid down in his book. In + protest,</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Forel</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">made a public statement, saying + among other things:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">If the + council desires to be logical it would have to prohibit also + the sale of my book.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">We have no objection to make to his + conclusion.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We stated that + religion is man's first duty. This applies not only to the + individual, but also—and this is forgotten too often—to the + state. Man, by his nature, and hence in all <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page348">[pg 348]</span><a name="Pg348" id= + "Pg348" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> forms of his life, including + his citizenship, is obliged to have religion. He remains in all + conditions the creature which is dependent upon God. And does not + the state, too, owe special duties of gratitude to God? It owes + its origin to God: the impulse to found states has been put into + the human nature by its Creator; the state owes to God the + foundation of its authority: in a thousand difficulties the state + is thrown upon His help. Therefore a public divine service is + found with all peoples. Does the state comply with this duty by + silently supporting a public atheism when it might do otherwise? + by even becoming its patron, when, posing as science, it ascends + to the lecturing desk to teach adolescing youth?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of course, + free-thought is of a different opinion, especially the one of + to-day. Its principle is: the state need not trouble itself about + God and Religion, that is the private matter of each individual. + In the eyes of free-thought the state is an imaginary being, + hovering over the heads of its citizens; though they may be + religious, the state itself should have no Religion. What + absurdity! It is nothing short of nonsense to demand of the + members of a state, the overwhelming majority of whom hold + Religion to be true and necessary, that as a political community + they are to act as if their Religion were false and worthless, as + if to deny and to destroy it were quite proper. What else is the + state but an organized aggregation of its citizens? To make of + religious citizens, a state without Religion is just as absurd as + a Catholic state composed wholly and entirely of Protestant + citizens. This leads us to a further consideration. The state + must protect its own foundations. Just as it must defend its + existence against enemies from without, it must protect itself + against those enemies from within, who, whether realizing the + consequences or not, are by their actions actually shaking its + foundations. These foundations consist of proper views on social + and political principles, on morals and Religion. If the state + does not intend to abolish itself, it must not permit doctrines + to be disseminated which imperil these foundations and, + consequently, the peaceful continuance of the state. In fact, no + state power in its senses would permit a teacher, who directly + attacks the validity of the state order, to continue; it + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page349">[pg 349]</span><a name= + "Pg349" id="Pg349" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> would retire every + professor of law who would dare to teach that regicide is + permissible, or who would with the oratory of a Tolstoy preach + the unnaturalness of a state possessing coercive power.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">As a rule, open advocates of</span> <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + Socialism</span></em> <span style="font-size: 90%">are kept out + of college-chairs. And rightly so. So long as the adherents of + Socialism see in the state but the product of the egotism of + the ruling classes, and an institute for subjugating the + masses, and in the obtainment of political power the means of + doing away with this state of affairs, so long will it be + impossible for the state to trust the education of the future + citizen to a Socialist, nor can the latter, as an honest man, + accept a position of trust from the state, much less bind + himself by the oath of office to co-operate in the work of the + state. Prof.</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">C. + Bornhak</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">makes the + following comment:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">The + decisive point is not freedom in teaching, but the circumstance + that the Socialist professor takes advantage of the respect + connected with a state office, or of his position at a state + institution, to undermine the state. A state that would stand + for this would deserve nothing better than its + abolition.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">And</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Paulsen</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">similarly writes:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">A state + that would allow in the lecture rooms of its colleges + Socialistic views to be taught as the results of science ... + such a state will be looked for in vain.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Hence it is + certain the state cannot grant a freedom in teaching that would + jeopardize the foundation of its existence. It must consequently + recognize no freedom which, in lectures and publications, will + seriously injure public morality and religion. Morality and + religion are, first of all, the indispensable conditions for the + continuance of the state.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Aristotle</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">says the first duty of the state is + to care for religion.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Plato</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">proposes heavy penalty for those + who deny the existence of the gods; a well-ordered state, he + claims, must care first of all for the fostering of + religion.</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Plutarch</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">calls religion the bond of every + society and the foundation of the law.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Cicero</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">declares that there can be neither + loyalty nor justice without regard for God.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Valerius + Maximus</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">could say of + Rome:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">It has + ever been the principle of our city to give preference to + religion before any other matter, even before the highest and + most glorious benefits.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Washington</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + in his speech to Congress in 1789, declared religion and + morality to be the most indispensable support of the + commonweal. He stated that it would be in vain for one, who + tries to wreck these two fundamental pillars of the social + structure, to boast of his patriotism.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Without + religion there can be no firm resistance by conscience against + man's lower nature, no social virtues and sacrifices, there can + only be egotism, the foe of all social order. No <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page350">[pg 350]</span><a name="Pg350" id= + "Pg350" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> secure state-life can be + built upon the principles that formed the basis of the French + Revolution. So we see, generally and instinctively, the endeavour + to prevent as much as possible anti-religious doctrines from + being expounded directly to the broad masses of the people. This + of itself is tantamount to the acknowledgment of their danger to + the state. Yet, millions have tasted the fruit of an atheistic + science, and the poison shows its effect; they have shaken off + the yoke of religion; in its place dissatisfaction and bitterness + are filling their breast, and fists are clenched against the + existing order.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Bebel</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">said in a speech in the German + Reichstag, on September 16, 1878:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Gentlemen, you attack our views in respect to + religion, because they are atheistic and materialistic. I + acknowledge them to be so.... I firmly believe Socialism will + ultimately lead to atheism. But these atheistic doctrines, that + now are causing so much pain and trouble for you, by whom were + they scientifically and philosophically demonstrated? Was it by + Socialists? Men like</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Edgar</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">and</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Bruno</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Bauer</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Feuerbach</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">David + Strauss</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Ernst + Renan</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, were they + Socialists? They were men of science.... What is allowed to the + one—why should it be forbidden to the other?</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The notorious anarchist</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Vaillant</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">said:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">I have demonstrated to the physicians at + Hotel-Dieu that my deed is the inexorable consequence of my + philosophy, and of the philosophy of</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Buechner</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Darwin</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + and</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Herbert + Spencer</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The youthful criminal</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Emil Herny</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">read at his trial a memorandum + wherein he said among other things:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">I am an anarchist since 1891. Up to this time + I was wont to esteem and even to idolize my country, the + family, the state, and property.... Socialism is not able to + change the present order. It upholds the principle of authority + which, all affirmations of so-called free-thinkers + notwithstanding, is an obsolete remnant of the belief in a + higher power. I however was a materialist, atheist. My + scientific researches taught me gradually the work of natural + forces. I conceived that science had done away with the + hypothesis of</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">God,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">’</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">which it needs no longer, hence that also the + religious-authoritative doctrine of morals, built upon it, as + upon a false foundation, had to disappear.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What political + wisdom would it be to honor as science any doctrine that becomes + a social danger the moment it is taken seriously; what logic to + denounce those as dangerous who are putting into practice a + science that is hailed as the bearer of civilization!</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">One may + object: How is the state to determine whether scientific + doctrines are warranted or not warranted? The state <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page351">[pg 351]</span><a name="Pg351" id= + "Pg351" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> has the conviction that in + its political offices it has no organs for the cognition of + scientific truth, for this reason it leaves science to + self-regulation. Only the scientist, it is said, is able to + revise the scientist.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Nothing but + scholarly conceit can engender such ideas. Then any one would + have the right to pin upon himself the badge of the scientist and + become thereby completely immune. Thus, the bearers of practical + political wisdom are declared incompetent to recognize the chief + foundation of their state-structure; to realize, what daily + experience and the experience of centuries teaches, that + disbelief in God, even if sailing under false colors, undermines + authority, that communism and upheaval of moral conceptions are + tantamount to social danger. They are directed to depend for + their information in such matters upon the latest ideas of + impractical scientists. The fact is, the matters at issue have, + with hardly an exception, long been decided. And where the + Christian faith is concerned, the Church and the Christian + centuries tell us clearly enough, what has hitherto been + understood by Christianity. If the objection here advanced were + true, then the state would not have a right to decide in the + matter of exhibiting immoral pictures in show windows, without + having argued the matter previously with representatives of art. + The state would not be allowed to pronounce a death sentence + because some scientists denounce capital punishment: the state + would have to expunge <span class="tei tei-q">“guilt,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-q">“expiation,”</span> and <span class= + "tei tei-q">“liberty”</span> from its penal code, because many + recent scientists, by rejecting the freedom of choice, have + removed the dividing line between crime and insanity, between + punishment and correction.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">Protection for + Christianity.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Hitherto we + have, in respect to religion, considered chiefly the rational + truths, which are the foundations of every religion and also + common to non-Christian creeds; the existence of a supermundane + God and of a life after death are the most important of them. The + revealed Christian religion contains, beside these truths, some + others, which supplement them and surround them like a living + garland, viz., original sin, redemption, <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page352">[pg 352]</span><a name="Pg352" id="Pg352" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> resurrection, the divinity of Christ, grace + and the Sacraments, the existence of a Church with its God-given + rights, indissolubility of matrimony, etc. Should state-power + protect the Christian and Catholic religion by warding off + attacks against it, though such attacks are made in scientific + form? This, too, in a state in which perhaps other confessions + are enjoying the freedom of worship?</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">It would seem superfluous to propose this + question specifically. If, according to the gist of our argument, + religion is to be protected, what other religion can be meant + than the Christian religion? That is the religion of our nations; + none other is. While the stated distinction may have more of an + academic than a practical interest, the discussion of this + question will not be idle, if only for the reason that it will + shed even more light upon our previous statements. Besides, there + are manifest efforts to dislodge Christianity from the life of + our people, and with it all true religion, under the pretext of + opposing church-doctrines and dogmatism. The war against + Christianity has not since the days of a</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Celsus</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">been waged as it is + to-day.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We premise a + principle of a general nature. Of conflicting religions and views + of the world, only one can be true; this is clear to every one + who still believes in truth. It is equally clear that this one + truth only can have the right to come forward and to enlist + support in public life as a spiritual power; error has no right + to prevail against truth. Hence it will not do to say simply: + There are also the convictions of minorities in the state; some + claim that none of the existing religions is the right one, + others have dropped all belief in God; in our times we wish to + concede to any conviction the right to enter into competition + with others, provided mockery and abuse are barred. These remarks + are quite true, in the sense that neither the individual nor the + state may directly interfere with conscience or prescribe + opinions: leaving entirely aside the question whether any one + really could have a serious conviction of atheism. The foregoing + is true also in the sense that public avowal of opinion must not + be hindered by individuals. To interpret this to mean that the + state must grant freedom to any expression of doctrine would be a + grave misconception of the social influence which false ideas are + liable to exercise. Does the state grant this freedom to any kind + of medical practice, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page353">[pg + 353]</span><a name="Pg353" id="Pg353" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + whether exercised skilfully or awkwardly, conscientiously or + unscrupulously?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + Moral-religious error may in public life expect only <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">tolerance</span></em>—just as many other + evils must be tolerated, because their prevention would cause + greater evils to arise. This is the reason why the state may, and + often must, grant freedom of worship even to false creeds, + because its denial would give rise to greater harm to the public + weal (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">St. Thomas</span></span>, 2, 2 q. 10, 11). + Freedom of teaching, likewise, must not be granted in the sense + of acknowledging that false doctrines and truth have equal + rights; this would amount to an assassination of truth. Freedom + can be conceded to error for the one reason only, that by not + granting it there would be engendered greater evils. + Consequently, if a state-power, or the organs of its legislative + part, are convinced that the Christian religion is the only true + one, they cannot possibly concede to contrary doctrines the right + to pose as the truth and thus deceive minds; they may be granted + the same freedom in teaching only because restrictive laws can + either not be enforced at all, or not without creating a disorder + that would give rise to greater evils. Hence the lesser evil must + be carefully ascertained.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">With this + general principle in mind, it is easily seen that a freedom large + enough to include an open attack on the fundamental, rational, + truths of religion and morals—this having been our subject + hitherto—could be conceded only if disbelief and atheism had + gained so much power as to make impossible its prohibition. In + this case, however, the state should be conscious of the fact + that it allows the undermining of its foundations. If, in another + state, religious feeling were at so low an ebb, that the freedom + of the Christian truth could not be obtained in any other way + than by granting full freedom for everything, then even such + unlimited freedom would be a good thing to be striven for; of + itself a deplorable condition and contrary to God's intentions, + but good as the lesser evil.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But let us + return to the revealed religion. In the eyes of those who are + convinced that the Christian religion, namely, the Catholic + religion, is the only true religion, the ideal condition would be + to have the entire population united in its <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page354">[pg 354]</span><a name="Pg354" id= + "Pg354" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> faithful confession; then + matters would simplify themselves in our case. But this ideal + hardly exists anywhere. True, in many countries the population is + almost wholly Christian; but the denominations are mixed, and + many have separated at heart from Christianity. What standards, + then, should rule in this case?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Looking at it + specially, the demand of ethical reason is no doubt this: Nations + and governments whose past was Christian, whose institutions and + civilization are still Christian, and an overwhelming majority of + whose members still think and believe in a Christian way, would + fail in their gravest duties if they would expose or permit the + Christian religion to remain unprotected against the attacks and + the attempts at destruction by a false science, or by conceding + to the adversaries of Christianity equal rights or even + preference. The Christian religion will not be destroyed; but + whole nations may lose it, and its loss will in great measure be + the fault of those in whose hands their fate was laid. Here might + be applied <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Napoleon's</span></span> well-known saying: + <span class="tei tei-q">“The weakness of the highest authority is + the greatest misfortune of the nations.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It remains an + anomaly that a state, the members of which for the most part are + Christians, should treat this religion with indifference, and + tolerate that its tenets and traditions be represented as + fairy-tales and fables, its moral law as a danger to + civilization, and perhaps its divine Founder as a victim of + religious frenzy. If the state is the expression and the + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">representative of its subjects</span></em>, + then such disharmony between public and private life is + unnatural. Moreover, the Christian religion is held by the + majority of its citizens to be the most precious legacy of their + forefathers; they must demand from the state <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">protection for + their greatest good</span></em>. And this may be claimed with + even greater right by provinces where the population almost + unanimously clings to the creed of their ancestors; at the + colleges in these parts the faithful people will be entitled to + protection more than elsewhere against dangers to its inherited + religion. It would be unnatural in this case to apply the + thoughtless principle of dealing uniformly with all provinces of + the state. The state is not a heap of uniform pebbles, but an + organism <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page355">[pg + 355]</span><a name="Pg355" id="Pg355" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + composed of different parts, each desiring to retain its own + peculiar life.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Do not say this presumption does not admit of + application to our conditions, the majority of the people of this + age being long since estranged from Christianity. It is true, if + we turn our eye only to the more conspicuous classes of society, + the classes that control the newspapers and mould public opinion, + this view might be admitted as to some countries. But if we look + at the masses, those not infected by half-education, then this + opinion is true no longer. And there are many who at heart are + not so distant from faith as it would seem. In public life they + pose as free-thinkers, but their domestic life bears frequently a + Christian character. And often they approach more and more the + faith, the older they grow. This is known to be the fact even of + scientists. Instances are men like</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Ampère</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Foucault</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Flourens</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Hermite</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Bion</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Biran</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Fechner</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Lotze</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Romanes</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Littré</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + and others.</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Plato</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">claimed that no one who in his + youth disputed the existence of the gods retained this view to + his old age.</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Christianity,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">observes</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Savigny</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">rightly,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">is not only to be acknowledged as a rule of + life, it has actually transformed the world, so that all our + thoughts are ruled and penetrated by it, no matter how foreign, + even hostile, to Christianity they may + appear.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is a sign + how deeply Christian religion has sunk its roots into the heart, + that it remains <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">the</span></em> religion even for those who + have turned away from it. To be sure, for our nations + Christianity is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">the</span></em> religion. For them the + religion of a <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Confucius</span></span> or <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Zoroaster</span></span> does not enter into + consideration; nor any of the products of modern religious + foundations, which would replace Christianity with substitutions + of all kinds of religious essences; they are on a level with the + attempts at reconstructing sexual ethics: both are regrettable + delusions. <span class="tei tei-q">“Improvement”</span> of + Christian morality is tantamount to abandoning all morals, and + desertion from the Christian religion, amongst our people, has + always been apostasy from all religion. The Christian religion is + so true, that no one can renounce it inwardly and then find peace + in a self-made one. And all efforts aimed at displacing + Christianity lead only to an abandonment of all religion.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Look at the + number of people from whom slander and insinuation have torn + their old religion to be replaced by another—a freer, higher + religion; their moral decadence soon bears testimony of the + religious consecration which has been given to them. Woe unto + those authorities who, while able to oppose, are indifferent, and + who lend a hand in causing Christian thought <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page356">[pg 356]</span><a name="Pg356" id= + "Pg356" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> to withdraw more and more + from our mental atmosphere, to be replaced by another spirit, a + spirit that will gradually control the decision of the judge, the + practice of the physician, the instruction of the teacher, and + thus more and more enter into the life of the people.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">It is not assured to those nations of Europe, + whose public life is feeding to-day upon the remnants of their + Christian past, that they will not relapse into a state of moral + and religious barbarity.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Maybe civilized mankind, or our nation at least, + is really losing its hold more and more upon definite moral + standards,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">so complains a modern + pedagogue;</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">possibly + the emancipation of sensuality will increase without end, perhaps + we have passed forever the stage of true humanity and of a live + idealism, and we shall henceforth glide downward.... These are no + mere, feverish dreams; there is good reason for facing these + possibilities with a determined eye, and no accidental or + philosophical optimism can ignore them</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Münch</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">It is quite possible,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">we are told by another,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">that much will go down in our old Europe + during the next centuries; and the downfall will not be + restricted by any means to Church and Christianity, and in the + crises that will come Europe will hardly get the needed support + from an æsthetic heathendom, from the Monists' Union, or from + the evidences of science</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Troeltsch</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">If it does not come to it, it will not be the + merit of authorities who let the vessel of state drift + rudderless toward the rocks of dechristianization.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">They do not + realize that they greatly endanger thereby also the foundations + of the state. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The foundations of our governments rest upon + Christianity.</span></em> The Christian faith created the state, + created matrimony, family, and the education of the youth; + created the social virtues of loyalty and of obedience. What we + have of religion is Christian, what we have of the religious + support of morality is equally Christian; <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Christianity, Christian faith, Christian formation + of life penetrates all vital utterances of the Occidental world + like an all-pervading element”</span> (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Paulsen</span></span>).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is one of + the first principles of political prudence not to shake the + foundations upon which the state rests. States and nations are + not ephemeral beings, existing from one day to the other, they + are historical structures measuring their lives by centuries; + past generations join hands with present generations, deeds and + customs of the fathers live on in their sons.</p><span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page357">[pg 357]</span><a name="Pg357" id= + "Pg357" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">States must + remain on the historical tracks on which they have travelled to + success, at least until the new track has stood the test of + reliability. So far anti-Christian philosophy has terribly shaken + governments; it has not yet proved itself a state-conserving + principle.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is a sad + condition to see the guardians of states, devoid of historical + appreciation, allow their people to tear themselves away from the + soil wherein reposed the roots from which they drew life and + strength. Sad, too, that complaints are made of + college-professors who abuse freedom in teaching by constructing + an unproved contradiction between knowledge and faith, by + misrepresenting Christian tenets, by lowering the prestige of the + Church, by distorting her historical picture. It would be + regrettable for a Christian state, if the complaint were + justified that for the most part our colleges have become places + where religion is ignored; where the name of Jesus Christ, the + Redeemer of mankind, is no longer mentioned; where the name of + God never occurs in history, in natural and political science; + where religion is considered the most unessential factor of + mental life, a factor that has nothing to offer, that can answer + no question—a treatment which, by the force of suggestion, must + lead young men to think that religion is of no account. It is a + banishment which in its effect is little different from an attack + upon religion.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Sadder still would it be if the following view + were to prevail at our colleges:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">A right of the student to see protected and + not destroyed any views and convictions, including those of a + religious nature, which he may bring to the university from his + home surroundings, from his preliminary education, as it is + asserted time and again in the frequent complaints about the + dechristianizing of youth at the universities—does not exist + and cannot exist, because it would be in contradiction to the + very essence of the university and its tasks</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Jodl</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Is not this the ethical principle of the bird + of prey? Is it not allowed to guard the defenceless chick + against the hawk? Christian people send their sons to the + university, and demand that the education of the parental home + be spared, that the inexperience of youth be not misused. The + state must demand that the religious-moral education which it + furthers in its public schools be not destroyed by the higher + schools. Yet, all these rights must be silenced the moment the + vision of the absolute freedom of teaching makes its + appearance, since to refrain from dechristianizing the youth + would be contrary to his tasks.</span></p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page358">[pg + 358]</span><a name="Pg358" id="Pg358" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If such abuse + in the management of the power of knowledge, within and without + colleges, is not counteracted by all possible means, then none + need be surprised when a science free from religion and + Christianity is followed by an elementary school free from + religion, when in public and preparatory schools the + free-thinking teacher is telling the pupils that there is no + creation but only evolution, and that the gospels and biblical + history are poetical stories such as the Nibelungenlied and the + Iliad and Odyssey.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">We cannot be astonished to find the following + rules advocated for the instruction in public schools:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Religious + instruction in schools should not differ from the instruction in + other subjects, namely, one of full freedom, bound only by + recognized documents and personalities of religious literature + and religious science. The school must teach that which is, it + must present the tenets of all times and all nations in so far as + this is possible within its modest compass.... But if the pupil + should ask, What really is? What position should the teacher + assume toward this question? In my opinion, he should speak in + plain terms. He should say: There are people who believe all that + is taught by the different systems of religion.... The child may + further ask of the teacher whether he himself believes. No + teacher who claims the confidence of the children should shirk + the answer. He may confess his faith or disbelief, without need + of worry. It cannot hurt his prestige in the eyes of the child, + because, if for no other reason, either way he will find himself + in an equally large and good company</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Tews</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">But we hear much more radical utterances. For + instance, the official organ of teachers in a Catholic country + urges defection from the Church in the following words:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">How long + will Social-Democracy, now so formidable, remain inactive + against clerical arrogance? How much longer will it shirk a + duty that is clear to the dullest eye? If the millions of our + Social-Democrats, including the women and children, would break + away from Rome, the priestcraft in Austria is as good as + defeated. A grave responsibility rests upon the + Social-Democratic leaders. Should they miss the moment to act, + they will be judged by history!</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(Deutsch-oesterreichische Lehrerzeitung, June + 1, 1909).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Another organ of teachers declares + Christianity to be nothing else but</span> <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">victorious + heresy</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">, for which + Christ had to lay down His life the same as</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Giordano</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Hus</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + and countless others.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The subject of religion as taught in the + preparatory schools is for the most part taken from ages whose + customs and morals are—happily—no longer + ours.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">We see radicalism rampant in large + circles of public school teachers, demanding noisily, + excitedly, and, of course, in the name of modern science and + enlightenment, the abolition of the divine service, of prayer, + and religious instruction in school, giving as reason + that,</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">as to + matters of mental freedom no difference should be made between + a</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page359">[pg + 359]</span><a name="Pg359" id="Pg359" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">university + and a village school.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">That our people will</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">carelessly waste their Christian patrimony, + this is the great danger.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Our argument + is not that only Catholics should be professors, nor even to + limit the teaching office to Christians. But one thing must be + demanded of the college-teacher, that he possess the pedagogic + qualifications to render him competent of educating the hope of + the Christian people. As a rule this demands a religious, + Christian disposition. One thing the state must absolutely demand + of the teacher, that he have appreciation for the foundations of + the Christian state; he who has no understanding for the + historical forms of the life of a nation, who even regards them + with hostility, should remain away from this vocation.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the United + States the Jesuit Order has five free universities, founded and + directed by the Order. Their professors are not all Catholics; + there are professors of other creeds, even Jews. All work in + harmony to the common end of the university.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Men who sincerely and conscientiously strive for + the interests of science will everywhere show not only + consideration, but even understanding and respect, for what is + true in the ideas of others.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">I gaze,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">so + writes Prof.</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Smolka</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">upon the + likenesses of my venerable Protestant masters, under whom I + studied at Göttingen. Thirty-seven years have passed since I + went to them, in full confidence to find in their school the + leaders who would be free from the influence of the Catholic + view of the world. To their profound knowledge I owe, first of + all, the emancipation from the prejudices I was raised in, from + the views of an atmosphere devoted to Indifferentism in which I + had passed my youth. Prof.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Waitz</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">opened my eyes to the grandeur of + the Catholic Church in the course of the centuries, in the + repeated prostration of the Papacy and its ever-following rise + to unsuspected heights, a fact unparalleled in the history of + human institutions. Prof.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Lotze</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">rebuked me at the very beginning + of my studies at Göttingen for a slighting remark about + scholastic philosophy: later he imbued me with profound respect + for it and for the wealth of problems it embraces. These + scientists, Protestants without exception and in exclusively + Protestant surroundings, inoculated me with sincere love for + scientific truth, regardless of the consequences it would lead + to. They also introduced the youthful mind to the tried methods + of scientific research, indicating the boundaries where the + domain of research ends and the right of dogma, or arbitrary + rule of subjective imagination, begins.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page360">[pg 360]</span><a name= + "Pg360" id="Pg360" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">Restriction of Right.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We need no + further proof that the state is justified in restricting the + freedom of teaching, whenever demanded by the business of the + state as described above. Restriction of this kind can be + considered unjustified only by a state theory of liberalism, + which holds that the object of the state consists in merely + protecting individual liberty, no matter if this liberty should + lead to the gravest injuries so long as it does not affect the + freedom of others; a theory which changes the state community + from an integral organism into a conglomeration of autonomous + individuals. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Lasalle</span></span> scornfully termed this + theory the <span class="tei tei-q">“nightwatchman idea”</span> of + the state. The state has the right and the duty to exert a + necessary influence upon the pursuit of science, especially at + the universities. Against it the pleading of <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">autonomy of the + college</span></em> and its teacher will not hold. They have a + certain autonomy, that was even greater in former times. An + important part of it is the right to propose appointments for + vacant chairs. It must be admitted that this method of + appointment is proper; it vouches for the scientific fitness of + the appointee, and will prove a protection against the exercise + of undue political influence and ministerial absolutism, provided + that this method is impartially exercised. But an autonomy that + disputes the right of the state to protect its interests, where + free science conflicts with it, that would demand, as has been + asserted, that <span class="tei tei-q">“no infringement of the + freedom in teaching must be deduced from the official position as + teacher,”</span>—such autonomy would be a palpable misconception + of the dependency of the college-teacher and of the social + service of science. The rules that apply to other, non-judicial, + officers should apply to teachers appointed by the state, and + offences in their office, or conduct injurious to the purpose and + the dignity of their office, should be treated similarly as in + the case of other public servants. Nor should members of the + legislature be forbidden to defend the rightful interests of + their constituents in regard to schools. They are elected by the + people for this purpose, and the people have a claim on the + schools, which are supported <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page361">[pg 361]</span><a name="Pg361" id="Pg361" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> by their taxes and to which some of their + greatest interests are attached.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">It has been demanded to concede to + college-teachers the independence and immunity of judges. This, + however, would be overlooking the vast difference between + professors and judges. The judge has to render legal decisions in + concrete cases, according to existing laws; in order to lessen + the danger of his being guided by outside considerations he is + given a large measure of independence. But what questions has the + college-professor to decide? Mathematical or physical questions? + There his incorruptibility is not in such danger that he must be + made independent of government. Religious and moral questions, + questions of views of the world? These he is not compelled to + decide. Neither state nor people have appointed him to question, + time and again, the fundamental foundations of human life, and to + render decisions which nobody requested.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is not + clear why science, pleading its independence, should oppose + justified restrictions. As a matter of fact <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">this independence + does not exist anywhere</span></em>. Numerous are the + considerations, often unwarranted, it is actually tied to, yea, + often tied to by its own hands. He who is familiar with + scientific doings, especially academic doings, knows numbers of + such ties—there is the professional opinion in scientific + circles; woe unto him who in his scientific works dares to + confess a supernatural view of the world!—ties of the + predominance of certain leaders or schools, without or against + whose favor it is difficult to attain recognition, approval, or + position; the ties of parties and cliques in an academic career; + the tie, too, of that insinuating power of the state that confers + much-desired decorations and titles.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Where is this freedom of + science?</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">asks a modern academic + teacher.</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Some will + say science and its teaching are free in our country. True, it is + so written on paper. But those charged with keeping this + principle inviolate are human. For instance the monists have the + chief voice in appointments to zoölogical chairs. They will + propose only scientists who are not opponents to the monistic + faith. Far be it from me to assume any</span> <span lang="la" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">mala + fides</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">. They simply + believe that only their faith is the proper one to promote + science. But I ask again, where is the freedom of + science?</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(</span><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Dahl</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">H. St. + Chamberlain</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">tells of + an amusing incident in his life:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Many years ago, when I desired to devote + myself to an academic career, a chemist said to me:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style="font-size: 90%">My dear + fellow, since you belong to the profession, I tell you as a + friend that it is not enough for you to be proficient: you + should try, first of all, to marry the daughter of one of the + professors,</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page362">[pg + 362]</span><a name="Pg362" id="Pg362" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">of a privy + counsellor if possible.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">’</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">This advice comes too late,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">’</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">I + replied,</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style="font-size: 90%">I am + already married.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">’</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">My well-wisher was visibly shocked.</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style="font-size: 90%">What a + pity! Too bad! You don't realize what an influence this has + here upon one's career.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">’</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">What trouble I had to obtain even the</span> + <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">venia + docendi</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">! and then I + stuck fast and could not budge despite all achievements until I + undertook to marry the daughter of one of the</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">head-wirepullers</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">’</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">; + then things were fixed within three months. I may have looked + at him in a peculiar way, for his wife was a veritable + Xanthippe, and, he added with a laugh:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">You know I am all day at the laboratory, from + morning until late at night.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">’</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%"> ”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">There is nothing new under the sun. In the + year of grace, 1720,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Johann Jacob + Moser</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">started his + lectures in Tuebingen, but could get no audience.</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">No + wonder, even a cleverer man than I would not have fared better + at that time, when everything depended on + nepotism.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">The young man had crossed + Chancellor</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Pfaff</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">by rejecting a marriage + arrangement (</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Horn</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">One will find these things very human. + Moreover, it would be unwarranted to assume that they happen + always and everywhere. But they prove that the pursuit of + science rests also on general human grounds, and does not + always remain aloft, in the ethereal heights of pure + truth.</span></p> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">The Freedom of Teaching in + History.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When we said + that it is the duty of the state to protect the common benefits + of life against injury by freedom in teaching, and to stand guard + over its Christian past, we stated nothing but what has been the + conviction of the Christian nations and their rulers up into the + nineteenth century. Absolute freedom in teaching cannot plead the + support of history, it is only of yesterday. History shows it to + be the natural child, not of the first awakening of the + consciousness of freedom, but of <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">the + de-Christianizing of the modern state</span></em>. Its official + entry coincides with the increasing de-christianizing of public + life during the nineteenth century, after the modern state + adopted more and more the principles of liberal thought. A + naturalistic view of the world, without faith, was struggling for + supremacy; science had to proclaim it as higher enlightenment, + and vehemently urged freedom in its behalf. The state receded + step by step, confused by the commanding note in the new demands, + by high-sounding words about the rights of science; it allowed + itself to be talked into the belief that it must become the + leader in the new course, and it took the banner that was forced + into its hands. It has always been so; claims <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page363">[pg 363]</span><a name="Pg363" id= + "Pg363" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> presented with impudence will + intimidate, and assume in the eyes of many the appearance of + right.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">In so far as it signifies the removal of the + religious-moral bars in teaching, the freedom in teaching + developed first in Protestant Germany, together with the + increasing change of universities into state institutions. + Reformation and the ensuing</span> <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + Enlightenment</span></em> <span style="font-size: 90%">had + gradually prepared the way for it. Neither the rationalism nor + the pietism of the eighteenth century could have an + understanding for the tenets of the faith. In addition there + was the confusion engendered by the multiplication of + Protestant denominations, none supported by an overtowering + spiritual authority; it led more and more to the parting + between science and religious confession; political reasons, + too, made it desirable to disregard confessions. Thus the + severance of science from religion increased and the</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">freedom + of teaching</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">in this sense was finally adopted + also by Catholic states as an achievement.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The enlightenment that had developed outside + of the universities made its entry into the halls of + universities chiefly under the Prussian Minister</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">von + Zedlitz</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, a champion + of enlightenment and a friend of the philosophers</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Wolff</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">and</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Kant</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">. + That the universities at that time were controlled by + free-thinkers is illustrated by a saying of</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Frederick + II.</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">On January 4, + 1774,</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">von Zedlitz</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">asked of the king whether</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Steinhauss</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + M.D., should be denied the appointment for professor + extraordinary at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, for the reason that he + was a Catholic. The king decreed in his own handwriting + that</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">This does + not matter if he is clever; besides, doctors know too much to + have belief</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(</span><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Bornhak</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">In the year of the Revolution, 1848, freedom + of teaching became a political catch-word.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The terms freedom of teaching and freedom of + learning, that became popular in 1848, when any phrase + compounded with freedom could not be often enough repeated, + have been ever since reminiscent of barricades, and men who + have witnessed those times become nervous at their mere + sound</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(</span><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Billroth</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">What was understood by freedom in teaching at + the turning point of the eighteenth century is shown by the + demand of</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Thomasius</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">for</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">freedom of doctrines that are not against God + and the state.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">The first move was to break away from</span> + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">human</span></em> + <span style="font-size: 90%">authorities,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Aristotle</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">and others. Thus the Kiel + University, by its regulation of January 27, 1707, ordered + that</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">no + faculty should enslave itself to certain principles or + opinions, in so far as they are dependent on a human + authority</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">(</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Horn</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">In Göttingen and Halle freedom of teaching + also became the maxim, and</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span lang= + "la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Libertas + sentiendi</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">as</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Münchhausen</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">declared,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">was open to every one and not restrained by + statute, except that there should be taught nothing</span> + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">ungodly</span></em> + <span style="font-size: 90%">and</span> <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Unchristian</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">In those days this restriction was + looked upon as a matter of course. It is known that</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Kant</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">was + disciplined by Minister</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Woellner</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">in 1794, because of his treatise + on religion; at Koenigsberg this reproof was accepted with good + grace, and both the philosophical and the theological faculties + pledged themselves not to lecture on</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Kant's</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">religious philosophy. As recently + as the</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page364">[pg + 364]</span><a name="Pg364" id="Pg364" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">middle of the + nineteenth century a restriction in this sense was ordered by + the Prussian Minister</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Eichhorn</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + and the restriction was observed. The Materialist</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Moleschott</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">was cautioned in 1845 by the + Senate of Heidelberg University, and in reply he resigned his + post; in the following year at Tübingen</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Büchner's venia + legendi</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">was + cancelled, because, as he himself stated,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">it was feared I would poison with my teaching + the minds of my young students</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Horn</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">In 1842,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Bruno + Bauer</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, the radical + Bible-critic, was removed by the Prussian faculties from the + academic chair because of his writings.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">D. Strauss</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">lectured on philosophy at + Tübingen, but was forced to resign when the first volume of + his</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Life of + Jesus</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">appeared in 1835. Later on, when + called by the authorities of Zurich to the chair for Church + history and dogmatics, an emphatic protest of the people made + the appointment impossible.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">While showing + a regrettable indifference for attacks against religion, the + modern states, inoculated with the principles of Liberalism, have + not entirely forgotten their traditions. Many sections in their + penal codes still protect religion, not only against defamation, + but, as is the case in Austria, also against public + anti-Christian propaganda, and the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“religious-moral education”</span> in public schools + is made compulsory by law. Of course there is a contradiction, + between the conviction of the state that the principles of morals + and religion must be preserved, and the grant of full freedom to + an anti-religious misuse of science, whose effect upon the masses + is unavoidable. It is a contradiction to tear down the dam at the + river and then erect emergency levees against the onrushing + flood. The amazing presumption, that holds inviolate and sacred + everything that poses under the name of science, is the fault of + it all.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">Freedom of Teaching and Party + Rule.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In some + countries the complaint is heard that a certain faction has + obtained control of the universities, and so exercises its + control that those who are not of its bent of mind are excluded + from both teaching and taking part in the administration of its + affairs, despite the fact that freedom in teaching and learning + has been guaranteed by the state. It is the faction that + professes free-thought and cultivates the freedom of science in + this sense. This condition forces students faithful <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page365">[pg 365]</span><a name="Pg365" id= + "Pg365" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> to their religion to study in + a strange atmosphere, and they are looked upon as strangers. The + parties so accused seek to disclaim these charges as unjust; for + they feel that, if justified, it would disclose an unlawful + condition of things. Nevertheless the facts are so notorious, + that all protestations will be without avail.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">These facts must be painful to the sense of + justice, order, and good-fellowship; and to this sense it is not + pleasing to deal further with matters which have often been the + cause for indignant resentment, and to go into concrete details. + We shall but briefly recall to mind how persistently candidates + for academic positions are pushed aside when they are known to be + of staunch Catholic mind. This is borne out by their trifling + percentage among the large number of college-teachers; by the + high pressure that is often needed to lift the embargo for + a</span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Catholic</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">; + by assaults which not seldom resulted in physical violence. + This small number is glaringly emphasized by the considerable, + even disquieting, number of college lecturers of Jewish + extraction. Furthermore, there is the improper usage that the + theological faculty is passed over at the annual election of + the rector, and likewise, that teachers even of lay-faculties + are excluded from academic offices when they profess themselves + openly as Catholics.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Catholic students have seen themselves treated + as strangers at more than one university; they were not given + the usual privileges, and were accorded rights only in the + proportion that their number had to be reckoned with. Their + corporate bodies were ignored, self-evident rights either + denied or grossly violated.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">As to the small number of religious-minded + lecturers at colleges it is not to be denied that the number of + those who combine fervent religious persuasion with high + scientific efficacy is not considerable these days. Their long + suppression furnishes a reason for it, but not the only one. A + modern university professor rightly states:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">While there never has been a want of + courageous, determined confessors of the Catholic faith who + have occupied a prominent, even leading, position in the + progress of science, in the perfection of methods and means of + scientific research, they were and still are the exception. + They were men of</span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">self-reliance and + independent</span></em> <span style="font-size: 90%">judgment, + who were able to exempt themselves from an humble submission to + the powerful view of the world, which emanates from the hatred + of Christianity and prevails in educated circles. The issue is + still the same secular contrast between the two views of the + world, which</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">St. + Augustine</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">illustrated with unsurpassed mastery as long + as fifteen hundred years ago. But the view of the world which + has been in the ascendant in scientific circles long since, has + certainly nothing in common with scientific + research.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Our task, + however, is not to examine the facts, but to prove that such + conditions are unlawful, no matter where and <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page366">[pg 366]</span><a name="Pg366" id= + "Pg366" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> when found. We do not wish to + discuss further the fact that a university polity, exclusively in + the spirit of a liberalism that gradually goes over into + radicalism, would constitute a grave danger for Christian + traditions. Indifference to the Christian and every other + religion, or to an extent direct rejection, must make it appear + more and more inferior and obsolete in the eyes of educated + circles; this view will then easily find its way to the people. + Nor do we intend to enlarge upon a second point, viz., the + interest of science itself. The kernel of liberal research in the + province of the spiritual is a frivolous agnosticism, with a + rigid bondage to its naturalistic postulates, with which we have + become sufficiently acquainted. Principles of this kind are + poison for true science. For this reason alone it is necessary + that a Christian philosophy be placed by the side of a philosophy + in fear of metaphysics, one that never extends beyond puzzles and + problems; that a history guided by Christian principles be placed + alongside of one inspired by anti-ecclesiastical sentiment; in + general that a spirit of veracity assert itself, which would give + an example, from the home of highest culture, not of vain + arrogance, but of that mental firmness which, conscious of the + limits of human knowledge, is also ready to believe. How can our + universities remain the seats of sterling mental life, if the + highest power of truth that has ever been, the Christian + religion, is ignored there, and even maligned; and if in its + stead is cultivated a philosophical-religious research which + leads only to the negation of everything that hitherto was our + ideal, and which gives birth to a mental anarchy, which, before + the forum of history, makes it a principle of pauperization.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">One point to + be particularly emphasized is the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">violation of + rights and the oppression of mental liberty</span></em>, + resulting from a party-rule in the realm of higher education. + Under a government of law every one, assuming he possesses the + necessary qualification, has an equal right to teach: this is + elemental to freedom of teaching. The state with its institutions + exists for the benefit of all classes, not for one certain class + that has formed the notion that it is the sole bearer of science. + Enemies of the state should be excluded from teaching, but not + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page367">[pg 367]</span><a name= + "Pg367" id="Pg367" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> good citizens. Nor + can it be demanded, as a necessary preliminary for academic + teaching, that one must subscribe to the catch-phrases of any + particular party, and so discard one's religious belief. And + there is the violation of the rights of faithful Christian + people. Since their money in the form of taxes maintains to a + large extent the schools and their teachers, they surely can + demand a conscientious administration of their interests, and a + representation of the Christian view of the world, in a way + becoming its past and its dignity; Christian people can demand + that their sons receive an education in consonance with their + Christian convictions, and that the universities will train + officials, physicians, and teachers, in whom they may have + confidence. If there are no other but state universities in a + country, and these are monopolized by a free-thought party, then + a condition of mental bondage will arise for those of a different + mind. They are compelled either to have their sons forego the + learned profession, or else expose them to an atmosphere wherein + they see danger of a religious and moral nature, in ideas, + association, and example. No right is left to them, but the right + to pay taxes toward the budget of education, and then to look on + how an irreligious party is striving to turn the higher schools + into training camps of obligatory liberalism, and to monopolize + the entire mental life for this purpose. Now and then there is + great indignation against state monopolies; it is said, shall the + state determine what kind of cigars I should smoke, and what I am + to pay for them! Now, then, where is freedom if the majority of + the Christian population is to be forced into taking mental + nourishment it does not desire and rejects, and pay for it + besides? If we recall to mind the past, which gave birth to the + most venerable universities of the present, a sorrowful feeling + comes over us. We see how far our colleges have deviated from + their original purpose, how our governments have lost their old + traditions. Promotion of the Christian religion and of the fear + of God, was the lofty aim which their founders had in mind.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">In bestowing the charter upon Vienna University, + Duke</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Albrecht</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">stated + that he beheld in the university an institution</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">whereby + the glory of the Creator in heaven and His true faith on earth + would be</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page368">[pg + 368]</span><a name="Pg368" id="Pg368" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">furthered, + knowledge would be increased, the state benefited, and the + light of justice and truth brightened.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">And when, in 1366, he donated property to the + university, he declared the object of the donation to be</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">that the + university may increase the prosperity of the entire + Church.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">When Leopold I, on April 26, 1677, signed the + charter of Innsbruck University he declared that he founded + this university pre-eminently for the protection and prosperity + of the Catholic Religion, as a means for its preservation, and + also that many of those who had lost the faith might be led + back to religion, for the honour and the glory of the + Tyrol.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">In the charter of Tübingen University,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Eberhard</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">of Württemberg states:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">I believe + I can do no better work, none more helpful to gain salvation, + none more pleasing to the eternal God, than to provide with + special diligence and emulation for the instruction of good and + zealous young men in the fine arts and sciences, to enable them + to recognize God, to know, to honour, and to serve Him + alone.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">In those + days there was no hesitation to assign to science the loftiest + vocation and to declare ... that, coming from God, science + should also lead back to Him as its origin.... The school was + charged to work for the spread and the defence of the true + belief. Christian truth was once queen at these universities; + now, she has only too often become a stranger, to be denounced + at times if she attempts to knock at the portals of her old + home</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(</span><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Probst</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">).</span></p> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">Free Universities.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Another + manner, to provide proper freedom of teaching, is open to the + modern state by incorporating free universities. Unlike the state + institutions, they are not directly controlled by the state, but + are independent of it in their internal affairs; they are founded + and managed by private persons or societies. Universities of this + kind are found in Belgium and in England, to some extent in + France, but their home is chiefly in the United States. At the + head of the free university of the United States is the + president, with a governing body and a board of trustees elected + from members of the university; they appoint teachers, prescribe + schedules of study and examinations, and conduct its business. + True, the state cannot relinquish its right to oppose a system of + teaching dangerous to the common weal; it will also provide that + those to be licensed to practice the professions possess the + necessary education and training; but the state refrains from + further interference in the management of free universities.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is no doubt + difficult to establish by private means universities <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page369">[pg 369]</span><a name="Pg369" id= + "Pg369" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> equally efficient with those + of the state; in the countries of Middle Europe this undertaking + is perhaps more difficult than elsewhere, but the possibility is + there, and it is even realized in some places. This, however, is + not a question to occupy us here; we merely wish to declare, if + similar foundations are about to be undertaken, and the necessary + conditions are present, then the state must not prevent them, it + must grant freedom in teaching.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">True, the + state is obliged to assist its subjects in acquiring material and + spiritual goods, but only in so far as private means are + insufficient thereto: the state must only act in a supplemental + way. If it does that which its citizens themselves are able to + do, then the state is needlessly abridging their free right. This + includes the establishment of schools and the teaching in them. + Presuming fitness, everybody has a <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">natural + right</span></em> to teach others; hence, also, to found schools, + whether by himself or jointly with others. Furthermore, + instruction is a part of education, even at the university; it + could hardly be said of the graduate of the preparatory school + that his education is completed. Education, however, is a matter + for the parents. Their rights would be infringed upon, if + needlessly forced by the state to intrust their sons exclusively + to the state colleges and to their method of teaching. How could + the state's exclusive right to teach be proved? Does the pursuit + of science belong to its domain? No one will care to claim this. + If science were to be allotted to the jurisdiction of any one + body, the Church would be the first to enter into consideration, + because of her international and spiritual character. Or is this + right to be conceded to the state because it is to be the bearer + of culture? The state is to promote culture, but not to prescribe + a certain brand of it. The argument that private universities + cannot be founded and conducted in the proper way is certainly + not borne out by the facts.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Even if the + state, owing to its superior facilities, could provide better + universities than private effort, it would not be entitled to the + monopoly; the fact of being able to do something better does not + secure the sole privilege of doing it. Moreover, in order to + attract students, free universities will have to <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page370">[pg 370]</span><a name="Pg370" id= + "Pg370" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> emulate state universities. + The right of the state to found universities will of course not + be disputed; but this right must not deteriorate into a disguised + monopoly, that would grant privileges to its own universities, + and deny them to free universities in order to put them out of + existence. At any rate, the state will always retain considerable + influence over the studies at free universities. It may require + certain standards in candidates for political and professional + positions, for judges and lawyers, teachers at state schools, + physicians; it may insist upon state examinations, or it may make + its stipulations for recognizing the examinations and academic + degrees of the free schools.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">By free + schools of higher learning, a greater degree of freedom in + teaching and in learning would be assured, or, speaking + generally, a greater freedom in the intellectual life. If these + higher institutions of learning are exclusively in the hands of + the state, it cannot fail that the higher intellectual life will + be dangerously dependent upon the state, or fall into the control + of a dominating clique. As an example might be cited the + restrictions placed upon jurisprudence by Prussia in the + eighteenth century; the long-continued control of Hegelian + philosophy; the Université Impériale of Napoleon; the + predominance of anti-Catholic thought in our own schools. + Universities, founded upon a positive, Christian basis, would + surely be a comfort for thousands.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">No need to say + that such foundations may also be undertaken by the Church. This + right cannot be denied to the Church, just as little as to any + other corporation. Nay, much less! Because of its intellectual + and international character science is most closely related to + the Church. The latter, furthermore, has an eminent, historical + right; no one has done more for the foundation and promotion of + the European universities than the Church.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">A remarkable and at the same time</span> + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">characteristic + attitude</span></em> <span style="font-size: 90%">towards free, + particularly Catholic, universities is assumed by Liberalism. The + stereotyped objection to Catholic universities is known; it can + be reduced to this formula: At a Catholic university there can be + no freedom in research nor freedom in teaching; but without them + there can be no science; consequently, a Catholic university is a + contradiction. It is</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page371">[pg 371]</span><a name="Pg371" id="Pg371" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">the same old + song: there is but one science, there is but one freedom—the + free-thought that rejects belief. If it is really so obvious that + a Catholic university is a contradiction to science, hence + incapable to foster it, why the excitement? Either such + universities are incompetent, or they are not. Let the experiment + go on; the result will tell. If the result is certain, as is + claimed, very well, one may serenely await it. Liberalism shows + itself again here in the shape of that nasty hybrid of freedom + and intolerance for which it is known. It is the head of Janus + with its two faces: the one showing the bright mien of freedom, + the other the sinister scowl of an intolerant tyrant. They shout + for freedom, freedom they demand; Church and Revelation are put + under the ban, because they restrain freedom. The state is + denounced as soon as it wants to interfere. But if others attempt + research free and independently, though not just so as Liberalism + would like, then tyranny immediately takes the place of liberty, + the herald of freedom resorts to oppression, and those who just + now proclaimed the independence of universities from the state, + who protested against the interference of the state in science, + turn about and loudly call for the help of the state, avowing + that science can thrive only under state control.</span></p> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">The Church and the + Universities.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In discussing + the position of the social authorities toward freedom of + teaching, we have chiefly considered the state. Of the Church we + shall say but a brief word. It will suffice to recall what has + been said previously; what has been stated about the relation of + the Church to freedom of research, applies in many respects + equally to freedom of teaching. Little will have to be added. The + Church, and the Church alone, has received from her divine + Founder the command to preserve the doctrine of revelation and to + proclaim it to mankind. <span class="tei tei-q">“Going, + therefore, teach ye all nations”</span>—this is the commission of + the Lord.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For this + reason the teaching of the revealed truth, Theology, is the + privilege of the Church. But the rest of the sciences will not be + exempt from the obligation to listen to the admonition of the + God-appointed authority, in all cases where religious grounds are + invaded. To the Church is intrusted the religious-moral guidance + of her faithful; she cannot remain indifferent, when in the + public teaching of science a system is followed detrimental to + the Christian principles of the faithful. And whoever has entered + the Church by baptism, remains subject to her authority in all + matters within her sphere.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page372">[pg 372]</span><a name="Pg372" id="Pg372" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The state must + acknowledge these rights of the Church, or else forfeit its claim + to be a Christian state; these rights, belonging to the essence + of the Christian religion, are guaranteed by God, and are + independent of human sanction. Hence, in case of clashes in this + respect, the state must listen to the grievances of the Church; + this will chiefly concern Theology, rarely other sciences. Thus + it would be partially correct to say that the theological + faculties are subject to the Church, but those of the rest of the + sciences to the power of the state. But only partially; spiritual + interests cannot be marked out by faculties. Interests of faith + may be also violated in other faculties: then cases may arise + which lose their purely worldly character, and extend into the + religious sphere of the Church. If a professor should lecture on + a matter touching closely upon interests of faith, for instance, + Catholic Canon law or philosophy, and should show bias against + Church and Christianity, deny its authority, distort and attack + its tenets—then this would constitute an evident wrong to the + Church and a flagrant violation of the interests which to guard + it is her duty, especially in a country overwhelmingly Catholic. + In that case the Church would be entitled to make + expostulation.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In rejecting + the protests of the Church in such cases, as being the + interference of a foreign power, the state would thereby prove + that it misunderstands both, the religious vocation of the Church + and the proper relation between state and Church. For the + faithful, whom the state calls its subject, are also the subjects + of the Church, they are the lambs and sheep the Church is to + feed, in obedience to divine command. Church and state having in + common the same subjects, and being closely connected for so long + a time that it has become historical, it would be unnatural if + they were to treat each other as strangers, such as might be + expected in a heathen country, Japan, for instance. The nature of + the case and the weal of the people demand harmonious action in + such matters. It cannot be denied, moreover, that the Church + commonly meets the state government to the extreme limit of her + ability. About the divine rights of the Church opinions differ, + but those able to fully appreciate the precious benefits of + religion and morality <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page373">[pg + 373]</span><a name="Pg373" id="Pg373" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + will regard it as one of the greatest boons to humanity, that + there exists within its fold an organization which protects with + fearless, awe-inspiring majesty these benefits against all + attacks, even against the state and its all-devouring policy of + utility, and in this way defends the mental dignity of the human + individual against oppression by the reckless reality of external + life.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Just to show how an avowed free-thinker + appreciates the significance of a commanding spiritual force as + against the state we will quote the French positivist</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">A. + Comte</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, who + declares:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">The + absorption of the spiritual by the worldly power is a return to + barbarity; the separation of the two powers, however, is the + principle for mental uplift and moral + dignity.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">True,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">says he,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">men struggle in blind aversion against + spiritual power of any kind; yet it will even then prevail, + though in a mistaken way. Professors, authors, and newspaper + writers will then pose as the speculative leaders of mankind, + although they lack all mental and moral qualification for + it</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(Cours de philosophie + positive).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Short-sighted perception may upbraid the + Catholic Church; but a far-sighted judgment will have to + concede that mankind owes gratitude to the Church and the + Papacy. A noted Protestant writer remarks:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">But for the Papacy the Middle Ages would have + fallen a prey to barbarity. Even in our day the liberty of + nations would be threatened with greatest danger if there were + no Papacy. It is the most effective counterpoise to an + omnipotent power of the state. If it did not exist, it would + have to be invented</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Hübler</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">).</span></p> + </div> + </div> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page375">[pg 375]</span><a name= + "Pg375" id="Pg375" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc41" id="toc41"></a> <a name="pdf42" id="pdf42"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Fifth Section. + Theology.</span></h1><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page377">[pg + 377]</span><a name="Pg377" id="Pg377" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc43" id="toc43"></a> <a name="pdf44" id="pdf44"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">Chapter I. Theology And + Science.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Now one other, + the concluding point. So far our discussion has dealt almost + exclusively with the profane sciences, and while there were often + under discussion general principles, applying also to theology, we + did not refer to the latter expressly for the reason that it + occupies a special position in regard to our question. Theology is + the science of the faith, its subjects are truths established by + divine or inspired authority; hence, in teaching, authority plays a + larger part in this than in any other science. For this reason much + fault is found with theology, and many consider that it forfeits + thereby its claim to rank as a science. They say it lacks all + liberty, the results are prescribed; it lacks possibility of + progress; nothing but rigid dogmas, rejecting all development and + improvement; its vocation is exhausted by the incessant + transmitting of the immutable; hence it lacks all the essential + conditions of a true science, it has no claim to a place at the + university; if it nevertheless has established itself at the + university, as is the case in some countries, it must be considered + as an alien body, a remnant of an obsolete time.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A keen eye + cannot fail to detect in these words the prompting voice of that + view of the world which rejects everything supernatural, and + declares that Christian dogmatics and morals, and ideas of sin, + redemption, humility of faith, cross, and self-denial, do no longer + correspond to modern man. At bottom is the struggle between the two + views of the world—one the philosophy of modern, sovereign man, the + other the contemplation of the world in the light of Christianity: + a process of repulsion, psychologically easily understood, by which + the one seeks to expel <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page378">[pg + 378]</span><a name="Pg378" id="Pg378" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + the other from the position which it desires to occupy. A closer + examination of the matter will show this.</p> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">Theology as a Science.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Is theology a + science in the proper sense? May it rightly claim a place among + the branches of human science? This shall be the first question + to be answered. Theology, meaning the doctrine of God, is the + science of the Revelation, or of the faith; of the Revelation + which began in the Old Testament and reached its perfection in + Christ, the Son of God, in whom appeared the fulness of God, the + image of the glory of God, the perfection of all religion; the + Revelation intrusted to the Church to be preserved infallibly, so + that by these truths, and means of salvation, the Church might + guide and enrich the life of believing mankind. Hence, in the + broad sense in which it is understood now, theology is the + science that gathers the revealed truths from their sources, + endeavours to grasp and to defend them, and to deduce new truths + from them; which also studies these truths and the means given + for salvation, in their development and effect in the Christian + life.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus it + includes a wide range of subordinate branches, connected by a + common object. The biblical sciences have for their subject Holy + Writ; the sciences of introduction to the Bible deal with its + external history, with historical criticism playing an important + part; exegesis is occupied with the scientific interpretation of + the text and uncovers the treasures of truth in Holy Writ, + assisted in this task by hermeneutics and a number of + philosophical-historical auxiliary sciences. Ecclesiastical + history and its branches of patrology, history of dogma, + ecclesiastical archæology, and art, and other auxiliary sciences, + describe the doctrine of Revelation in its historical course + through the centuries, and its development in the bosom of the + Church. Dogmatics (with apologetics) and morals have the task to + explain and defend the doctrine of faith and morals, as drawn + from the Scriptures and from tradition, to deduce new truths from + them and to unite them all in a system. Finally, Canon law, and + even to a greater degree the departments of <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page379">[pg 379]</span><a name="Pg379" id= + "Pg379" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> pastoral theology, + homiletics, liturgy, show how the treasures of Revelation and + Redemption find their realization in the practical life of the + Church and of the Christian people.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Hence there + cannot be any doubt but that theology is a science in the proper + sense, unless a wrong definition of science is presumed. Of + course, if we should identify science in general with empirical + science, and scientific methods with the methods of natural + sciences and mathematics, and refuse to recognize any results as + scientific except those gained by observation and mathematical + calculation, then, of course, theology would not be a science, + nor would many other branches of knowledge come under this head; + the fault, however, would lie with a narrow conception, that + limits itself to the portion of human knowledge within its + vision, ignoring everything that exists beyond its horizon.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What are we to + understand by science? It is the systematic concentration of the + knowledge and the research of things according to their causes; + hence of our cognition of a subject that can be proved by careful + demonstration to be certain or at least probable. This we find to + be the case in theology. It is the sum total, systematically + arranged, of knowledge and researches concerning the tenets of + faith, considered in the abstract, in their history, and in their + effects on the life of the Church. Applying the method of natural + thought, theology first studies the presumptions and foundations + of faith, examines the sources of revelation by the philosophical + and historical-critical method, proves the doctrines of faith by + these sources, endeavours to grasp these truths intellectually, + by the methods of analytical and synthetical thinking, and to + make clear their connection. We have here the same methods as + applied in other sciences: ascertaining the facts, definition of + terms, deduction, induction. In respect to the history of the + Church and to Canon law their similarity with analogous profane + sciences is at once obvious.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There is one + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">difference</span></em>: in the theological + sciences there is active, not only rational research, but also + the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">belief</span></em> in revealed truths. In + some departments, like that of ecclesiastical history, this + difference is less pronounced, they proceed by the <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page380">[pg 380]</span><a name="Pg380" id= + "Pg380" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> method of critically + establishing and connecting the facts; but they, too, are guided + by the conviction that there is in the life of the Church not + only natural causation, but also supernatural principle. + Dogmatics takes faith to a greater degree as its point of + support, in order to connect natural reason with the convictions + of faith, and how richly natural reason may unfold itself is + shown in the works of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">St. Augustine</span></span> and <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">St. + Thomas</span></span>, on the great mysteries of the faith. As + regards faith itself, we must keep in mind that it has a + scientific foundation: the credibility of revelation is proven, + it is a reasoning faith. It may be likened to history. The + historian, on the testimony of his sources, believes in the + actuality of human events, having convinced himself of the + credibility of his sources; this belief becomes then his starting + point for further researches of a pragmatical nature: he + penetrates more deeply into the facts, and connects them + according to their causal relations. The difference is this: the + historian rests upon human authority, the theologian upon + divine.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Yet the + objection is raised: theology is faith, or at least rests on + faith. Faith, however, has nothing to do with science; faith is + sentiment, whereas science is knowledge. That this view of faith + is wrong, and the result of subjective agnosticism that denies to + man any positive understanding of supernatural truths, we have + shown repeatedly. Certainly, if faith were nothing but sentiment, + no science could be built upon it; you cannot build stone houses + upon water. But the Catholic faith is not simply sentiment, it is + a conviction of reason, based upon God's testimony that the + revealed doctrines are true. In the same way that the + historian—to use the comparison once more—believes positively in + his historical facts, on the strength of the authority of a + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Livy</span></span> or <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Tacitus</span></span>, or accepts as proved + some events of ancient times, relying upon the testimony of + Babylonian tablets of clay or upon the pyramids, and makes these + events his starting point for further researches, without having + to fear objections to his work on the ground that knowledge and + belief are incompatible; just so the theologian believes in his + religious truths because they are vouched for by God's testimony. + This proves that the foundation for his further thought is not + formed <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page381">[pg + 381]</span><a name="Pg381" id="Pg381" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + by uncontrollable, irrational sentiment, but by a conviction of + reason.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Hence, if by + knowledge is meant nothing but a conviction of reason—and in this + sense faith and knowledge are usually contrasted by modern + philosophical writers—then faith is knowledge in the proper sense + and a contradiction does not exist. If, however, knowledge is + taken to be the understanding gained by personal insight without + reliance on external testimony, then, of course, there is a + distinction, and theology would not be a science, in so far as it + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">believes</span></em>; just as little as + history would be a science, in so far as it believes its sources. + But theology is a science, in so far as it makes use of + experience and reason, examines its sources, draws from them the + facts of faith, and makes them the starting point for its + investigations.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Theology also has mysteries among its subjects, + namely, truths whose actuality is cognizable, but whose contents, + while not indeed inconsistent, yet remain obscure and + incomprehensible to us. But even this does not impair its + scientific character. Other sciences share with it this lot of + human limitation. Instances are plentiful in natural science + where the existence of natural forces of one kind or another is + proven; of which it is able to form some idea, but cannot fathom; + they remain a puzzle to science, sometimes presenting the + greatest difficulties. For instance, ether, gravitation, + electricity, the nature of motion, and so on. The noted + physicist</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">J. J. Thomson</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">says:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Gravitation is the secret of secrets. But the + very same holds good of all molecular forces, of magnetism, + electricity, etc. There are in animated nature even more things + we cannot understand. We could say that of the processes of + living organisms we understand practically nothing. Our knowledge + of indigestion, of propagation, of instinct, is so small that we + can almost say it is limited to the enumeration of them. What we + do know and understand is not one thousandth part of what would + be necessary for a knowledge in any degree complete.</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style="font-size: 90%">If we raise + an arm,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">’</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">says</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Pasteur</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style="font-size: 90%">or put + our teeth in action, we do something that no one can + explain.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">’</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%"> ”</span></span></p> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">Theology and Progress.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">With a very + superficial conception of theology we might easily arrive at the + opinion that it lacks a characteristic of science, which, in our + time especially, is insisted upon, namely, progress. For it must + adhere to dogmas and not go beyond them. Hence, seemingly, there + is nothing to do for theology <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page382">[pg 382]</span><a name="Pg382" id="Pg382" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> but to transmit unchangeable truths, + perhaps in different aspects, but nevertheless the same + truths.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It must be + admitted that one kind of progress is barred in theology, as also + in other sciences; to wit, the progress of incessant remodelling + and reshaping, the continuous tearing down of the old facts, the + eternal search after truth without ever gaining its + possession.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">This is often the progress demanded.</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">The new + tuition,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">it is said,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">starts from the premise that the truth is to be + searched for</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">(</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Paulsen</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">).</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Science + is not a perfected doctrine, but a research, ever to be + revised</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(</span><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Harnack</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">). + It is particularly demanded of theology that it procure + a</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps">further development + of Christianity</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, and + substitute for it thoughts which modern age has adopted and + which it calls scientific thinking.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">There remains the task,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">they say,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">of expressing faith and its objects so as to + coincide with the conception formed by scientific thinking of + the natural and historical reality</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Paulsen</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">). + Hence miracles, the divinity of Christ, and mysteries of any + kind, must be eliminated; even the notion of a personal God + will have to be changed to a pantheistic notion:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">After the + great revolution in our cosmic theories we can no longer think + of God, the eternal holy Will that we revere as First Cause of + all things, as the</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style="font-size: 90%">first + mover</span><span style="font-size: 90%">’</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">throning outside and above the + universe, as</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Aristotle</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">and</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Thomas</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">did</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Paulsen</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">).</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Such a + progress is impossible in theology, at least in Catholic + theology, and in any other that still aims to be the theology of + the Christian, revealed religion. It cannot be expected from + theology, nor from any other science, that it will degrade itself + to a fashionable science, that takes for its level not truth but + the variable imperatives and moods of the times, and, destitute + of character, changes with each varying fashion. The science of + faith cannot assume this position, so much the less as it must be + aware that its truths often clash with the inclinations of the + human heart, and that its vocation is to lift up mankind, not to + let itself be dragged down. This kind of progress therefore is + barred. This, indeed, is not progress, but a hopeless wavering + from pillar to post, a building and tearing down, acquiring + without permanent possession, searching without finding.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">True + progress</span></em> can be shown in theology as in any other + science.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">possibility</span></em> of progress is + manifest, particularly, in <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page383">[pg 383]</span><a name="Pg383" id="Pg383" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> Church-history, in the biblical and + pastoral sciences: they are closely related to the + profane-historical, philological, social, and juridical branches + of science, hence theology shares in their progress. It would + seem that dogmatics would have to forego progress. Its progress + certainly cannot consist in changing the revealed doctrines, nor + in interpreting differently in the course of times the formulas + of creed; here the rule is, <span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">veritas Domini manet in + aeternum</span></span>. The development of dogmatic knowledge + consists rather in the following: the revealed truths are in the + course of the centuries more and more clearly perceived and more + sharply circumscribed, more surely demonstrated, more and more + extensively appreciated in their connections, relations, and + deductions. The sources of Divine Revelation flow the richer the + more they are drawn from; their truths are so substantial, so + abundant in relation to knowledge and life, that, the more + research advances, the less it reaches its limit. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“No one gets nearer to the realization of truth than + he who perceives that in divine things, no matter how far he + progresses, there remains always something more to be + examined”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Leo the Great</span></span>).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Consider the + progress in mathematics. No one will say the mathematician is + doomed to stagnation because he cannot change the multiplication + table or the geometrical propositions. The increasing + mathematical literature, with its big volumes, contradicts this + notion: but its growth of knowledge is not the zigzag progress of + restless to and fro, it is the solid progress from the seed to + the plant.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">As early as the fifth century</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">St. Vincent</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">of Lerin described the progress in + dogmatical knowledge:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Sed forsitan dicet aliquis: Nullusne ergo in + Ecclesia Christi profectus habebitur religionis? Habeatur plane + et maximus. Nam quis ille est tam invidus hominibus, tam exosus + Deo, qui istud prohibere conetur? Sed ita tamen, ut vere + profectus sit ille fidei, non permutatio. Siquidem ad profectum + pertinet, ut in semetipsum quaeque res amplificetur; ad + permutationem vero, ut aliquid ex alio in aliud transvertatur. + Crescat igitur oportet et multum vehementerque proficiat tam + singulorum quam omnium, tam unius hominis, quam totius + Ecclesiae, aetatum ac saeculorum gradibus, intelligentia, + scientia, sapientia, sed in suo duntaxat genere, in eodem + scilicet dogmate, eodem sensu eademque sententia.... Quodeunque + igitur in hac Ecclesiae Dei agricultura fide Patrum satum est, + hoc idem filiorem industria decet excolatur et</span> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page384">[pg 384]</span><a name= + "Pg384" id="Pg384" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style= + "font-size: 90%">observetur, hoc idem floreat et maturescat, + hoc idem proficiat et perficiatur. Fas est etenim, ut prisca + illa coelestis philosophiae dogmata processu temporis + excurentur, limentur, poliantur, sed nefas est, ut commutentur, + nefas, ut detruncentur, ut mutilentur.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">proof for the + actual progress</span></em> of theology is furnished by its + history. It shows how theology has gradually grown from the first + seed of the divine Word, placed by the hand of God's Son into the + soil of humanity, until it became a great tree, rich in branches + and leaves. The holiest men of the Christian centuries, equipped + with the choicest mental forces, enlightened by the light of + grace, have worked on its growth; toiling and praying, they + filled libraries with their books.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">It is not our intention to outline here a sketch + of this development. A few hints may suffice. Hardly had the + faith taken root in the civilized nations of the old times when + researches were begun. A long list of Holy Fathers and + ecclesiastical authors were the bearers of the first development. + Drawing upon Greek philosophy in aid and to deepen their thought + in the mental battle against the ancient pagan view of the world, + against Judaism and heresy, they elucidated more and more the + tenets of faith and morals, and endeavoured to draw ever more + fully from their spiritual contents. We encounter among the + shining host men like</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Tertullian</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Cyprian</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Clement of + Alexandria</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Origines</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Cyril of + Jerusalem</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Basil</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Gregory of + Nyssa</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, and many + others, up to the powerful dogmatist of the old time,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Augustine</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + who treated scientifically and often extensively the great + dogmas of faith. Truly a voluminous theological literature with + a plethora of genius and truth. The great edition of the Greek + and Latin Fathers by</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Migne</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">numbers 382 volumes in quarto, + each of 1,500 pages or more in close print. Comparing with + these 382 volumes the modest book of the Bible, which had been + their foremost source, the progress of these centuries becomes + manifest.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Soon the way was broken for systematizing the + tenets of the faith, especially by</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">St. John + Damascene</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">(eighth + century). Scholasticism completed the work: it created a + systematical whole and connected theology and philosophy, + especially the Aristotelian, into a harmonious union. Its + pioneers were</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">St. Anselm</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">and still more</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Petrus + Lombard</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">(died 1160). + Then, in the Middle Ages, when universities began to flourish, + there followed the great theologians</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Alexander of + Hales</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Bonaventure</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Albert the + Great</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Scotus</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + and chief of all</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Thomas of + Aquin</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">(died 1274), + in whom scholasticism reached its perfection, and undeniably + one of the greatest minds known in the history of science; + distinguished by an astonishing prolificness, still more by a + wealth and depth of thought combined with the greatest + simplicity and lucidity in presenting truths, he will for ever + remain unapproachable. The decline of scholasticism during the + fourteenth and fifteenth centuries was followed by a new bloom, + when the life of the Church, rejuvenated by the Council of + Trent, gave birth to new forces in</span> <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page385">[pg 385]</span><a name="Pg385" id= + "Pg385" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style= + "font-size: 90%">theology. The mighty tomes of men like</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Suarez</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Lugo</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Gregory of + Valencia</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Ruiz</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Bañez</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Billuart</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + and others joined the volumes of their predecessors and + continued their work. At the same time the various departments + of the science were branching off more and more, and became + independent.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">M. Canus</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">created the theory of theological + cognition as an introduction to dogmatics,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Bellarmin</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">and</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Th. + Stapleton</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">founded + the newer controversial theology. Moral Theology became in the + sixteenth century a separate science and was developed by men + like</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Lugo</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Laymann</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Busembaum</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Alphons of + Liguori</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">. Similarly a + new period of research began in the biblical sciences. Not that + the first foundations were laid at that time; there had + been</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Origines</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + who had become the founder of biblical text criticism by + his</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Hexapla</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">; + the Antioch school of exegetes,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Chrysostomus</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Hilarius</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + and especially</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Jerome</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">. + But it was fostered with renewed zeal. The great Antwerp and + Paris polyglots furnished aids, men like</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Maldonatus</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Salmeron</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Toletus</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Cornelius</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">á + Lapide</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, wrote their + exegetic works. To the seventeenth century belongs the creation + of the propædeutics, by</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Richard + Simon</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">and</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Bernard + Lami</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">. The monumental + work,</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Cursus + sacrae scripturae</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(since 1885), containing so far thirty-six + volumes, demonstrates, among other things, that there has been + in recent years no standstill in the research in Holy Writ. In + the province of ecclesiastical history, too, with its branches + and auxiliary sciences, new life was awakened at that time. In + the sixteenth century, when the defence of the creed by the + witnesses of a former age became urgent, patristics and history + of dogma enjoyed their first rise.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Petavius</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">was prominently connected with + them. How these sciences have been fostered in the nineteenth + century is indicated by the names of</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Mai</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">De + Rossi</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Hergenroether</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Hefele</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Pastor</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">. + There remains to be mentioned the gradual establishment of the + science of Canon law, of the pastoral-theological departments + which have attained an independent position since the close of + the eighteenth century, and since then produced a voluminous + literature. The fear of a standstill in theological research + seems unwarranted in the light of its history. The errors of + the present time will prevent a standstill. The more vehement + the attacks by natural science and philosophy, by philology and + archæology, the more they seek to shake the foundations of the + Christian religion, the stronger theology must grow by the + combat. The solid progress of our times in knowledge and + methodics will not remain without influence; nor can the + empirical, the historical-critical method, the theory of + evolution, and so on, fail to exert their stimulating influence + upon theology.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The progress that Catholic theology has made + since the days of the Fathers, the vast amount of mental work + it has performed, is perhaps made most clear by a glance at + the</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Nomenclator literarius theologiae + catholicae,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">by</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">H. Hurter</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(2d ed., 3 vols.; the 3d ed. is in + 6 vols., 5 being ready). It gives in concise briefness the + biographical data and the more important works of Catholic + theologians of greater repute. Counting the names there + presented, we find not less than 3,900 from 1109 to 1563; about + 2,900 from 1564 to 1663; about 3,900 between 1664 and 1763; + finally, from 1764 to 1894 about 4,000 theological authors; + hence in the period from 1109 to 1894 nearly 14,700 + theologians. That</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page386">[pg 386]</span><a name="Pg386" id="Pg386" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">these 14,700 + scientists—and their number is not exhausted by this + figure—should have written their works without offering in them + any new knowledge, would surely be a bold assertion! In + addition consider the long rows of tomes which some of them + wrote. Perhaps it would not be wholly amiss to refer to the + restless zeal of many of them, as recorded by their + biographers.</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Baronius</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(died 1607) could truthfully + assert before his death, that for thirty years he had never had + sufficient sleep; he usually slept only four or five + hours.</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Pierre + Halloix</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">(died 1656) + likewise was content with four or five hours of rest.</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Dionysius + Sanmarthanus</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">(died + 1725) gave only four hours to sleep and devoted less than half + an hour daily to recreation; likewise</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Fr. Combéfis</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(died 1679), during the last forty + years of his life.</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">A. Fr. Orsi</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(died 1761) contented himself with + three or four hours of sleep;</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Fr. Clement</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(died 1793) and</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">H. + Oberrauch</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">(died 1808) + are said to have slept but two hours daily.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">J. Caramuel de + Lobkowicz</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">(died + 1682) persevered for fourteen hours every day at his + books;</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Chr. Lupus</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(died 1681) even for fifteen hours + daily. The theologian</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Lessius</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">is characterized by</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Parcissimus erat temporis, + laboris pertinax</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">; + the same holds good of hundreds of others of these + men.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">A science, enumerating its disciples by so + many thousands, with the greatest intellects among its workers, + which has commanded so much zeal and work for centuries, should + be safe from the reproach of having back of it a history of + stagnation.</span></p> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">Theology and Freedom of + Science.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To many it + seems obvious that theology lacks at least the other predicate of + science, freedom; because it is bound to dogmas and + ecclesiastical authorities, at least Catholic theology is.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Although this + claim is pressed persistently and with confidence, we may dispose + of it very briefly. The freedom missed in theology, and demanded + in its behalf, is none other than the liberal freedom of science, + the nature of which we have had sufficiently long under the + searchlight, so that there remains nothing to be added. We have + proved sufficiently that this freedom is not a freedom from + unnatural fetters, but a dissolute subjectivism, that claims the + right not to be bound to any unchangeable, religious truths. We + admit that the Catholic theology does not possess <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">THIS</span></em> + freedom. Convinced of the truth of the doctrines established by + divine testimony, and by the infallible voice of the Church, + theology sees not freedom but a sin against truth in the license + to assert the contrary of what it has recognized as the + truth.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page387">[pg + 387]</span><a name="Pg387" id="Pg387" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There is but + one freedom which science may claim: it is freedom from hindrance + in reaching the truth in its legitimate domain. If this truth is + transmitted to science infallibly, by the highest instance of + wisdom—and of this every theologian is convinced—how can science + be said to be hindered thereby in attaining the truth? Restrained + it is, but only by truth: truth, however, can only be a barrier + to license, but not to precious freedom. This restraint theology + shares with the rest of the sciences. The physicist is tied to + the facts brought forth by the experiments of his laboratory; the + astronomer is tied to the results reported to him by the + instruments of his observatory, the historian is tied to the + events disclosed by his sources. Moreover, all sciences are tied + to their methods. In this way, and in no other way, the + theologian, too, is tied to the facts given him by Revelation, + and to his method. Every science has its own method. The + astronomer gains his facts by observation and calculation, the + mathematician arrives at his facts by calculation and study; the + historian, by human testimony; the theologian, however, by divine + testimony, at least as to fundamental truths. That they are + transmitted to him not by his personal study, but by external + testimony, does not matter; the historian too draws from such + sources. Nor can theological knowledge be less certain because + vouched for by divine authority: it makes it the more certain. Or + is there no divine authority, and can there be none? This is + exactly the silent presumption, which is the basis of the charge + against theology. But where is the proof for it? It can only be + demonstrated by denying the existence of a supermundane God; for, + if there is an Almighty God, there can be no doubt that He can + give a Revelation and demand belief.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Perhaps it may + be said further, the theologian is not permitted to doubt his + doctrines, hence he is prohibited from examining them; he surely + cannot be <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">unprepossessed</span></em>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We can refer + to what we have previously said. Unprepossession demands but one + thing, namely, not to assume something as true and certain that + is false or unproved; it demands strong proofs for anything that + needs proof. We may safely assert that there is no other science + more exacting in this <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page388">[pg + 388]</span><a name="Pg388" id="Pg388" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + respect than Catholic theology, both of the present and of the + past. It has not a single position that is not incessantly tested + by attacks as to its tenability. Any one not unacquainted with + theology, who knows the works of <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">St. + Thomas</span></span> and of the later theologians, with their + exact methods of thinking, who observes the conscientious work in + Catholic biblical-exegetic, historical-critical field, must be + convinced of the serious atmosphere of truth prevailing here. + Unprepossession does not demand to doubt, time and again, that + which has been positively proved, to rediscover it by new + research. Positive facts are no longer a subject for research; in + their case research has fully achieved its end. Methodical doubt, + proper in scientific examination, is proper also in regard to + religious truths.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Furthermore, + the latitude of the theologian is much larger than presumed by + those who derive their information solely from modern assertions + about dogmatic bondage. One may safely assert that the freedom of + movement of the mathematician is more limited by his principles, + his train of thought more sharply prescribed, than is the case + with the theologian. Of course the theologian is bound by + everything he finds infallibly established directly by revelation + and by the authority of the Church; or indirectly by the + concurring teaching of the Fathers or the theologians; he is + bound also by non-infallible decisions, especially those of + congregations, though not absolutely and not irrevocably.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But this is + only the smaller part of his province. In many departments, like + the one of ecclesiastical history, there are almost no + restrictions to his research, except those imposed by historical + facts. Canon law and similar departments dealing with the laws of + the Church, coincide in method and liberty of research with the + profane science of law. Of all departments of theology, the + dogmatical is the one most affected by the authority of faith. + Yet even here a great deal is left to unhampered work. Many a + void has to be filled, many a question solved, which the theology + of the past has never taken up; even the defined truths still + offer a large scope for personal work, in regard to + demonstration, or to the philosophic-speculative penetration of + the dogmas and their interpretation.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page389">[pg 389]</span><a name="Pg389" id="Pg389" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As a fact, the + reader of theological literature, both old and new, will, in a + multitude of cases, meet with unrestrained individuality.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">Ecclesiastical Supervision of + Teaching.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Encyclica</span></span> against Modernism + (September 8, 1907) gave rise to fears that any free movement + would henceforth be impossible for Catholic theology. These fears + referred chiefly to the disciplinary measures, prescribed by the + Encyclical for the purpose of supervising theological teaching in + each diocese. Then came the papal Motu Proprio, of September 1, + 1910, which, among other things, required the teacher of theology + to confirm by oath his confession of the Creed and his intention + to repudiate modernistic errors. Since then many a complaint has + been heard about espionage and coercion. Similar complaint, about + an imminent debasement of the Church, has been raised whenever + important measures in the discipline of the Catholic Church were + published, and they emanated primarily from the camp of the + enemy.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is not to + be denied, however, that such an energetic call for watchfulness + and action, issued from the highest ecclesiastical watchtower, + like the one referred to, may lead in some cases to anxiety and + false suspicions. This is no doubt regrettable; but it is an + incident common to human legislation and will surprise no one who + has any experience of life. A glance at these decrees will show + that they are nothing more than an urgent injunction, and the + exercise of that supervision of religious life and teaching which + pertains to the authority of the Catholic Church, and which has + been practised by her at all times. The language is urgent, it + has a severity which is softened in the execution. Its + explanation lies in the eminent danger of the modernistic + movement to the continuance of Catholic life. Modernism, as + described and condemned by the Encyclica, is nothing less than + the absolute destruction of the Catholic faith, and of + Christianity.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Protestant + theologian, Prof. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Tröltsch</span></span>, wrote after the + publication of the Encyclica: <span class="tei tei-q">“As viewed + from the position of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page390">[pg + 390]</span><a name="Pg390" id="Pg390" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + curialism and of the strict Catholic dogma, there existed a real + danger. Catholicism had gotten into a state of inner + fermentation, corresponding to the same condition caused by + modern theology within the Protestant churches.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The danger of + Modernism is often enhanced by a deceptive semblance of the right + faith, and by the pretence to urge only the righteous interests + of modern progress against obsolete forms of thought and life, + now and then also by its secret propaganda. Hence this + intervention by a firm hand, and this only after having waited a + long time. They were measures of prevention, like those taken to + stave off a serious danger; the tidal wave receding, their + urgency disappears automatically.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The German bishops stated in their pastoral + letter of December 10, 1907, that in some Catholic lay-circles + there was uneasiness about the Encyclical, fearing that it might + endanger scientific endeavour and independence in thought and + research, and that the Church intended to prohibit or render + impossible co-operation in solving the problems of + civilization.</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">May they + all recognize,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">they said,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">how groundless such fears are! The Church + desires to set bars only to one kind of freedom—the freedom to + err.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">If the rules and precepts of the + Church do sound harsh sometimes, it is because the Church adheres + unconditionally to the principle: The truth above all.</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">The Church + has at no time opposed the true progress of civilization, but + only that which hinders its progress: heedlessness, haste, the + mania for innovation, the morbid aversion against the truth that + comes from God. But we Catholic Christians can join free and + unhampered, with all our strength and talent, in the peaceful + strife of noble, intellectual work and genuine mental + education.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The fears of too great a pressure by the + ecclesiastical authorities have been given trenchant expression + in most recent times by a man who, while standing outside of + the Catholic Church, has always shown himself well disposed + towards it, namely, the noted pedagogue,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Fr. W. + Förster</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">of + Zurich.</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Förster</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">has won merit and distinction by + his manly and spirited defence of the Christian view in + pedagogical science and mental culture. In the book referred to + he again describes urgently the worthlessness and fatality of + modern individualism, that knows a good deal about freedom but + nothing of self-discipline, nor of authority or tradition, and + which represents most superficial amateurism in the domain of + religion and morals. Then he turns to criticize Church + practice; and his criticism becomes a sharp accusation. His + main charge is</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">fatal + restraint of the spirit of universality.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Some groups in the Church,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">he asserts,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">of mediocre learning, have established a + clique rule, under which the others, the more creative and + intensive souls, become the victims of intolerance, espionage, + and false suspicion</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">;</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">universality, which unites the different + mental tendencies,</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page391">[pg 391]</span><a name="Pg391" id="Pg391" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">has given way + to separation</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">;</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">everywhere a one-sided denunciatory + information of the leading circles by accidentally ruling + groups and factions; anxious intolerance for everything + unusual, disciplinary austerity and unintelligent pedantry, + individualistic and unchristian spirit of distrust and mutual + espionage</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">;</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">levelling + of the mental life</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">;</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">one is + tired,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">we are told,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">of the spirit of incessant + disciplining</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">;</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">of the + invariable cold and disdainful forbidding and + repression.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">In + the Middle Ages and earlier times it was different; then</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">universality was the ruling spirit, the + working of the many into a unit full of life; this policy was + changed for no other reason than because of the struggle of the + Church against Protestantism.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The greatest harm that Catholicism suffered by + the great rupture of the sixteenth century is most likely seen + in the tendency of the Church to view thenceforth religious + freedom within Catholic Christianity with an anxious, even + hostile eye.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Readers of the literature of the day will + recognize here views often met with during the last years, and + the same excited note, which is quite in contrast to the even + temper that ordinarily characterizes</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Förster's</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">books. But what the reader will + not find stated are the proofs for these enormous + accusations.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Undeniably, things have happened in the wide + range of ecclesiastical authority that cannot be approved. But + where are the facts that would justify charges of such sweeping + nature? A Protestant author can hardly be presumed to possess + such a direct and positive insight into the ecclesiastical + practice of the higher and the highest order, to give + convincing strength to his bare assertion. Or is the number of + dissatisfied voices that make these charges sufficient proof in + itself? If the ecclesiastical authority be allowed, now and + then, to emerge from its passiveness to take measures against + dangerous doctrinal tendencies, is it not to be expected, as a + matter of course, that some minds become disgruntled and + complain about oppression and clique rule? Or must that right + be denied the Church altogether?</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Förster</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">says + himself:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">The + spirit of dignity and responsibility has never ruled all parts + of the hierarchy in the same measure as now, and rarely if ever + were there found in its leading circles so many men leading an + almost holy life as at present.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">And yet we are asked to believe that it was + reserved exactly for this worthy hierarchy, and for these + saintly men, to forget the traditions of the Church in the most + irresponsible manner. One will have to say:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">If</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Förster</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">would examine without bias the + situation and apply consistently in respect to authority the + principles that he himself defends, he would be convinced that + the Church could not have acted any differently than it did in + regard to the regrettable events of the last years, and that it + has ever been the aim of the Church, before the sixteenth + century as after, to guard carefully the purity of traditions + of faith against any attack</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">(Prof.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">G. Reinhold</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">in a review of</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Förster's</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">book).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The Church has never known a universality that + did not oppose doctrinal errors. The Middle Ages did not know + it; one need only read the many condemnations from Nicholas I. + to Innocent VIII.; nor was such a universality known to the + great Councils of ancient</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page392">[pg 392]</span><a name="Pg392" id="Pg392" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">Christianity + up to the Nicæan, which hurled its anathema against numerous + teachings that opposed no dogmas defined at that time; nor did + the Holy Fathers know such a universality, nor the Apostles, + with their strict admonitions of unity of faith. The reply is + made, the</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Church + must not yield the least of its fundamental + truths,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">that</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">its centralizing power ought to remain within + the region of the most essential</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">; + whereas she actually exercises it in the domain of the + incidental. The ecclesiastical supervision of teaching has + never limited itself to the most essential, nor would this + practice ever accomplish the object to preserve pure the + doctrine of faith. Furthermore, what is the</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">most essential</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">what is the</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">incidental</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">?</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Förster's</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">book does not inform us about this + most important question. The views against which the Church has + made front in the last years, do they relate only to the + incidental? Does this apply to the doctrines of a</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Rosmini</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">and</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Lamennais</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + who are referred to in passing? No well-informed theologian + will assert this.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">We shall hardly be wrong in assuming that the + charge of overstraining the ecclesiastical authority is based + upon a presumption of a philosophical nature, which is in + evidence in several other passages of the book—on the view, + namely, that in religion the intellectual moment should recede + before the mystical, before anticipation and inner experience. + Hence the severe censure of</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">the narrow autocracy of the intellectual + interpretation</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">against the</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">preponderance of the intellectual + contemplation</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">in the Church, which is said to have become so + prevalent as to exert unavoidably a paralyzing effect upon the + entire religious life. Here we have the result of the notion + that theory of life, religion, and faith, depend but little on + rational knowledge. This notion is also in accord with the + argument about the impossibility of an independent scientific + ethics. We have discussed this elsewhere. We demonstrated that + religion and faith relate to positive truths that can be + realized, and that can therefore be accurately defined; they + must be so defined. Of course this realization need not be a + scientific one, it can be of the natural kind that is not + clearly conscious of its reasons.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Förster</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + too, touches upon this important distinction when + quoting</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Saitschick</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">The inner + perception overtowers feeling and logical reason—here, too, + lies the source of a light shining brighter, stronger, and + incomparably more true than any light of + reason</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">; + and again, when his advice is, to foster to a greater extent + the</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">inner + perception.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">What is felt here vaguely has long + since been expressed much more lucidly in Christian + philosophy.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Certainly a view that fails to lay, first of + all, absolute stress on the protection of the</span> <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">doctrine</span></em> + <span style="font-size: 90%">of faith cannot understand the + Catholic point of view; it will assume only too easily that the + supervision relates to incidentals. It will also engender a + criticism against which the Church may rightly protest, because + it starts from presumptions that do not apply to the + Church.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">No one will be astonished to find a Protestant + author lacking the clarified conception of the supernatural + character of the Church that is possessed by the Catholic; to + see him view the Church almost invariably in the light of a + human organization, similar to the Protestant</span> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page393">[pg 393]</span><a name= + "Pg393" id="Pg393" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style= + "font-size: 90%">denominations which he may cite before the + court of his individual reason and force to bow under the yoke + of his criticism. The Catholic has a better understanding of + the words:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">I am with + you all days, even unto the consummation of the + world.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">There will be foreign to his mind + the idea that the Church has since the days of Reformation, for + now nearly four centuries, deviated from the right way, and + degenerated more and more to a separatistic and insignificant + community; a church able to forget its traditions to the extent + of grossly misconceiving its proper sphere of authority, and + fettering itself in a narrow spirit to incidentals, could not + keep his confidence any longer.</span></p> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">The Oath Against + Modernism.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Motu + Proprio</span></span> of September 1, 1910, decreed that teachers + of theology, and also Catholic priests generally, had to bind + themselves by oath to reject modernistic heresies, and to accept + obediently the ecclesiastical precepts. Dispensed from this + pledge were only the professors of theology at state + institutions, to spare them difficulties with state + authorities.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This + anti-modernist oath at once became the signal for a storm of + indignation, than which there has been hardly a greater one since + the days of the Vatican Council. A cry was raised for freedom of + science, for the exclusion of theological faculties, even for + another <span class="tei tei-q">“Kulturkampf.”</span> The General + Convention of German college professors, held at Leipzig January + 7, 1911, issued a declaration to the effect that <span class= + "tei tei-q">“All those who have taken the anti-modernist oath + have thereby expressed their renunciation of an independent + recognition of truth and of the exercise of their scientific + conviction, hence they have forfeited all claim to be considered + independent scientists.”</span> Interpellations were made in + legislative bodies, it was demanded that the option of taking the + oath should be taken away from university professors, because + <span class="tei tei-q">“the dignity of the universities would be + lowered if their members had the opportunity to bind themselves + by such an oath.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Even threats + were made by statesmen, hinting at reprisals by the state, + because its interests were being jeopardized, while, on the other + hand, there were those who declared: <span class="tei tei-q">“If + the Catholic Church thinks it necessary for her ecclesiastical + and religious interests to put her servants under oath, it is her + own business; <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page394">[pg + 394]</span><a name="Pg394" id="Pg394" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + neither the state nor the Evangelical Church have a right to + interfere”</span> (Prime Minister <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bethmann-Hollweg</span></span>, in the + Prussian Diet, on March 7, 1911).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The agitation + of the minds will soon subside, as on former occasions of this + kind; and, with calm restored, people will find, as <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">J. G. + Fichte</span></span> told the impulsive <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">F. + Nicolai</span></span>, one hundred and thirty years ago, that the + fact has only just been discovered that the Catholics are + Catholic.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Yes, indeed, + the Catholics are Catholic, and desire to remain Catholic—this + and nothing else is the gist of the anti-modernist oath. It does + not oblige to anything else but what was believed and adhered to + before. It obliges to accept the doctrines of faith; but they are + the old truths of the Catholic Church, propounded and believed at + all times, and the necessary inferences from them. Even the + proposition that truths of faith can never be contradicted by the + results of historical research, or by human science in general, + is as old as faith itself. In addition, the oath avows obedient + submission to Church precepts; but this has been demanded for + centuries by the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">professio fidei Tridentina</span></span>, a + pledge by oath to which every professor of theology has been + before obliged: <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">Apostolicas et + ecclesiasticas traditiones reliquasque eiusdem Ecclesiae + observationes et constitutiones firmissime admitto et + amplector</span></span>. This was the opinion of all competent + judges on this theological question. <span class="tei tei-q">“We + are convinced,”</span> declared correctly a prominent theological + institution, <span class="tei tei-q">“that there is not assumed + by this oath any obligation new in subject, and no obligation not + already existing. The oath is but the affirmation of a duty + already imposed by conscience”</span> (the professors of Theology + of Paderborn, December 12, 1910). The Breslau faculty said, in + the same sense: <span class="tei tei-q">“The faculty does not see + in the so-called anti-modernist oath any new obligation, nor one + exceeding the rule of faith ever adhered to by the + faculty.”</span> And this declaration was fully approved of by + Rome.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Cardinal</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Kopp</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + at the session of the German Upper House on April 7, 1911, + commented on these statements as follows:</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Against the opinions of these circles (having + a different opinion of the oath) I set the testimony and the + statement of the most competent people, to wit, the professors + of university faculties and also those at episcopal seminaries. + Those who have taken the oath, as well as those</span> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page395">[pg 395]</span><a name= + "Pg395" id="Pg395" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style= + "font-size: 90%">who have refrained from it by the privilege + granted them by the Holy See, they both declare positively that + the oath does not contain any new obligations, nor does it + impose new duties on them; hence that, on the contrary, they + are not impeded in the pursuit of their tasks as teachers and + of their scientific work of research. Now, gentlemen, I do not + think it would be proper to insinuate that these earnest men, + appointed by the Government, or at least in office by its + consent, would make this declaration against their conviction + and not in full sincerity.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">No wonder, + therefore, that of the hundreds of thousands of Catholic priests + hardly a handful have refused the oath.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Nor is there anything new in the obligation to + swear and subscribe in writing to a confession of creed. Very + often in the course of the centuries decrees of creed and symbols + had to be subscribed to in writing. In the days of Jansenism, + when priests were required to swear to and sign a statement, many + Jansenists tried to dodge this oath, and the Jansenist</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Racine</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">complained that this demand was + unheard-of in the Church. Thereupon the learned theologian</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Tournely</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">and + others cited a number of examples of this kind from the history + of the Church.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Therefore the + anti-modernist oath has not created anything new. Consequently it + has not changed anything in regard to the freedom of theological + research. It is the same as before; nor has the oath changed + anything in the quality of theological professors, they merely + promise to be what they must be anyway; nor can, for instance, + the oath induce the Catholic priest, in teaching profane history, + to present the history of the Reformation in a different light + than before, and thus render him unfit to teach history; the oath + has created no new, confessional differences, hence has given no + justified cause for excitement—provided one has the needed + theological comprehension of the oath. If one has not this + insight, and will not trust to information from a competent + source, then it will be the act of prudence to leave the test to + the future; and we can await this test serenely.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">We referred above to the declaration of German + college teachers, to the effect that all who have taken the oath + have thereby expressed their renunciation of independent + cognition of truth. These stereotyped ideas we have so often + heard, with the same haziness and inconsistency.</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Because + they have thereby expressed the renunciation of independent + cognition of the truth,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">namely, by the acceptance of certain doctrines. + But is not every one who clings to his Christian</span> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page396">[pg 396]</span><a name= + "Pg396" id="Pg396" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style= + "font-size: 90%">belief bound by this very fact to certain + doctrines? Does every one who still prays his Credo express the + renunciation of his independence? If the argument quoted is to + mean anything at all, it means the full rejection of all + Christian duty to believe; indeed, this is the real sense of + this</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%"> + “</span><span style="font-size: 90%">independent recognition of + truth,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">as we have already seen. But + cannot some one, because of his conviction, renounce this + independence and believe, and in this conviction accept the + doctrines of the Church? If this conviction is his, and he + affirms it by oath, how can any one see in this oath a want of + freedom, nay, a renunciation of truth? If an atheist solemnly + declared his intention to be and to remain an atheist, he would + hardly be accused of lack of character by the advocates of + modern freedom of thought. The judge, the military officer, the + member of a legislature, the professor, who must all take the + oath of allegiance,—all of these will have to be protected + against the insinuation of disloyalty to truth. If a man + affirms by oath his unalterable Catholic faith, he is without + any hesitation accused of untruthfulness. The government has + been urged to forbid this spontaneous exercise of Catholic + sentiment. The inconsistency of modern catch-phrases can hardly + be given more drastic expression. In order to guard the freedom + of thought the government is to forbid one from pledging + himself to his own principles; in order to remain an + independent thinker a man must be forced by penal statute to + confess unconditionally the brand of free science prescribed by + a certain school and by no means have an opinion of his own; in + order to be free in his research the teacher in theology must + be tied to the catch-phrases of liberal philosophy. This is + modern freedom, a hybrid of freedom and bondage, of sophistry + and contradiction, of arrogance and barrenness of thought, + which will exert its rule over the minds as long as they are + guided by half-thinking.</span></p> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">Bonds of Love, not of + Servitude.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">People to + whose mind Catholic thinking is foreign will never be able to + appreciate the energetic activity of the Church authority.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On close + examination, however, they will not deny that, <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">if</span></em> + the Christian treasure of faith is to be preserved undiminished, + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">if</span></em> in the hopeless confusion and + the unsteady vacillation of opinions in our days there is to be + left anywhere a safe place for truth and unity of faith, this + cannot be accomplished otherwise than in the shape of a strong + authority that has the assurance of the aid of God.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The Catholic theologian may be permitted to + point in exemplifying this fact to the recent history of + Protestantism and of its theology. Protestantism does not + acknowledge a teaching authority: its theology</span> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page397">[pg 397]</span><a name= + "Pg397" id="Pg397" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style= + "font-size: 90%">demands complete freedom of research and + teaching, making the most extensive use of both. The result is + the demoralization of the Christian faith, which is speeding + with frightfully accelerated steps to total annihilation. The + very danger which Modernism threatened to carry into the + Catholic Church has overwhelmed Protestant theology: the + metaphysical ideas of a modern philosophy penetrated it without + check, and killed its Christian substance. The measures against + Modernism were sharply criticized by many Protestants who, at + the same time, laid stress upon the fact that nothing of the + sort could happen among themselves. Indeed it could not, at + least not consistently with Protestant principle. But there is + not a single fact in all history which demonstrates more + clearly the necessity of the Catholic authority of faith, than + just the condition of Protestantism at the present time. On the + part of believing Protestants this is admitted, if not + expressly, then at least in practice. To stem the destructive + work of liberal theology they resort to authority; invoke + Evangelical formulas of confession, the traditional doctrine, + sometimes even the aid of the state; neological preachers are + disciplined by censures, even by dismissal, against the loud + protest of the liberals. Such action is easily understandable; + one cannot hear without sadness the cry for help of pious + Protestantism, a cry that grows more desperate every day; one + cannot help regretting its forlorn situation in view of the + millions of souls whose salvation is jeopardized, who are in + danger of being despoiled of the last remains of their + Christian faith. Yet it must be admitted that this cry for + authority and obedience signifies the abandoning of the + Protestant principle, and the involuntary imitation and + therefore acknowledgment of the Catholic principle—for the + Catholic an incentive to cleave the more closely to his + Church.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Many to whom + the Catholic way of thinking is foreign, look upon the duty of + obedience which ties the Catholic to his Church as a sort of + servitude; to the Catholic it is the tie of love, uniting free + people to a sacred authority. Many look upon the Church of Rome + as a tyrannical curia, where Umbrian prelates are cracking their + whips over millions of servile and ignorant souls; to the + Catholic the Church is the divinely appointed institution of + truth, that possesses his fullest confidence. He knows that + history has given the most magnificent justification to the + Catholic principle of authority. Opinions have come and gone, + systems were born and have died, thrones of learning rose and + fell; only one towering mental structure remained standing upon + the rock of God-founded authority in the vast field of ruins with + its wrecks of human wisdom. And its ancient Credo, prayed by all + nations, is the same Credo once prayed by the martyrs.</p> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page398">[pg 398]</span><a name= + "Pg398" id="Pg398" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc45" id="toc45"></a> <a name="pdf46" id="pdf46"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">Chapter II. Theology And + University.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“He is not for our turn, and he is contrary to our + doings”</span>; thus spoke in bygone ages the children of this + world. <span class="tei tei-q">“Let us therefore lie in wait for + the just.... He boasteth that he hath the knowledge of God and + calleth himself the Son of God”</span> (Wisdom ii, 12 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">seq.</span></span>). + Centuries later the children of the world treated in the same + manner God's Son and His doctrine. And in these days, when the + science of the faith is to be driven from the rooms of the school, + let us recall that in olden times the children of the world planned + similarly.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the days when + the private and public life of Europe's nations was permeated with + the Christian faith, and their ideas were still centred in God and + eternity, then the science of the faith was held to be the highest + among the sciences, not only by rank but in fact.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And when, in the + budding desire for knowledge, they erected universities, the first + and largest of them, Paris University, was to be the pre-eminent + home of theology, and wherever theology joined with the other + sciences it received first honours. Thus it was in the days of + yore, and for a long time. The secular tendency of modern thought + led to the gradual emancipation of science from religion; + unavoidably, its aversion for a supernatural view of the world soon + turned against, and demanded the removal of, the science + representing that view. Reasons for the demand were soon found. + Thus the removal of theology from the university has become part + and parcel of the system of ideas of the unbelieving modern man; + the liberal press exploits the idea whenever occasion offers. + Resolutions to this effect are introduced in parliaments and diets, + meetings of young students <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page399">[pg 399]</span><a name="Pg399" id="Pg399" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> are echoing the ideas heard elsewhere. No + wonder that the Portuguese revolution of 1910 had nothing more + urgent to do than to close the theological faculty at Portugal's + only university.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What are the + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">reasons</span></em> advanced? Many are + advanced; the main reason is usually disguised; we shall treat of + it when concluding. In the first place we are again met by the old + tune of free science, which has been in our ears so long; the rooms + of the colleges, it is said, are destined for a research which + seeks truth with an undimmed eye, and not for blindfolded science + confined to a prescribed path.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">No need to waste + words on this. Just one more reference may be permitted us, namely, + to the study of law. There is hardly another science with less + latitude than the science of law. Its task is not to doubt the + justification of state laws, but to look upon constitutions and + statutes as established, to explain them, and by doing so to train + efficient officials and administrators of the law. When explaining + the civil code the teacher of law has small opportunity for + pursuing <span class="tei tei-q">“free search after truth”</span>; + neither will his pupil be tested at examinations in the maxims of a + free research that accepts no tradition; he will have to prove his + knowledge of the matter that had been given to him. Yet no one has + ever objected to the teaching of jurisprudence at the university. + Therefore the objection cannot be valid that theology is restricted + to the established doctrines of its religion and has to transmit + them without change to its future servants. It should be borne in + mind that our universities are not intended for research only, but + also, and chiefly, for training candidates for the professions.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">This disposes at the same time of the objection + that theology has to serve ecclesiastical purposes outside of and + foreign to science. Religious science, like any other science, + serves the desire that strives for truth. True, it serves also for + the practical training of the clergyman for his vocation. But shall + we eliminate from science the interests of practical life? Then + medicine and legal science would also have to be excluded, and for + these there would be planted only sterile theories, and the + universities transformed into a place of abstract + intellectualism.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Again it is argued that religion and faith are + not really cognition and knowledge, but only the products of + sentiment, and hence theology has no claim to a place among the + sciences; that religion can only be a subject for psychology + which lays bare its roots in the human</span> <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page400">[pg 400]</span><a name="Pg400" id= + "Pg400" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style= + "font-size: 90%">heart, and a subject for the history of + religion, to trace its historical forms and to study its laws of + evolution—sciences which belong to the philosophical + faculty.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Thus we come back to the principles of an + erroneous theory of knowledge. No need to demonstrate again that + the Christian belief is built upon the clear perception of + reason, and that it is not a sentimental but a rational + function.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But has not the + Church her theological seminaries? Let theology seek refuge there! + We answer the Church herself desires this; she does not like + theological faculties, they are in her eyes a danger to the + faith.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Now, <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">if</span></em> the + Church would be deprived of her authoritative influence upon the + appointment of professors at theological faculties and upon the + subject of their teachings, consequently, <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">if</span></em> + there would be jeopardized the purity of belief of the candidates + for priesthood, and through them of the people, then, we admit, the + Church would rather forego theological faculties at + state-universities. This could not be done without considerable + injury to the public prestige of the Church, to her contact with + worldly sciences and their representatives and disciples, even to + the scientific study of theology. In the latter particularly by the + loss of the greater resources of the state, and by the absence of + inducement to scientific aim, which is more urgent for theologians + than for others at college. Neither would the state escape injury, + because of the open slight and harm to religion, and of lessening + its contact with the most influential body in Christian countries. + But if the Church is assured of her proper influence on the + faculties, she has no reason for an unfriendly attitude toward + them. The object the Church seeks to achieve in her seminaries is + the clerical education of her candidates, their ascetic training, + the introduction into a life of recollection and prayer, into an + order of life befitting priests; this cannot be sufficiently done + in the free life at the university.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This is not a + bar to scientific instruction by the theological faculty. Seminary + and faculty supplement one another. We see very frequently, at Rome + and outside of Rome, the theological school separated from the + seminary with the approval of the Church. But all these objections + do not give the real reason, the roots lie deeper.</p><span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page401">[pg 401]</span><a name="Pg401" id="Pg401" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When the Divine + Founder of our Religion stood before the tribunal of Judea He said: + <span class="tei tei-q">“My kingdom is not of this world: if my + kingdom were of this world, servants would strive for me.”</span> + This was the whole explanation of why He stood there accused. The + guardian of the doctrine of her Master may use these words to + explain the fact that, in the eyes of many, she stands to-day + accused and defamed. The mind of modern man has forsaken the world + of the Divine and Eternal; no longer is he a servant of this + kingdom. His ideals are not God and Heaven, but he himself and this + world; not the service of God, but human rights and human dignity. + This view of the world, which cannot grasp the wisdom of Jesus + Christ, and which takes offence at the Cross, also takes offence at + a science that confesses as the loftiest ideal <span lang="la" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Jesum Christum, et hunc + crucifixum</span></span>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The real kernel + of the question is: Does the Christian religion in its entirety + still serve the purpose of to-day—or does it not? is it to remain + with us, the religion wherein our fathers found the gratification + of their highest mental aims, the religion that gave Europe its + civilization and culture, that created its superior mental life, + and still rules it to this hour? Or shall religion be expelled by a + return to a heathendom which Christianity had overthrown? + <span class="tei tei-q">“We do not want Him to rule over + us”</span>—there is the real reason for the modern antipathy to + Catholic theology. Else, whence the excited demand for its removal? + Because it is superfluous? Even if this were the fact, there is + many a category of officials, the little need of which can be + demonstrated without difficulty, yet no one grows excited about it; + many expenditures by the state are rather superfluous, yet there is + no indignation. No, the matter at issue is not so much the + scientific character of theology, nor misgivings about its progress + or its freedom; the real question is this:</p> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">Do we Desire to Remain + Christians?</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">if</span></em> we + still recognize the Christian religion as the standard for our + thought, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">if</span></em> we are persuaded that it must + remain the foundation of our life, then there can be no doubt + that its facts, its truths, and standards of life require + scientific presentation; <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page402">[pg 402]</span><a name="Pg402" id="Pg402" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> then it cannot be disputed that this + science is entitled to a place alongside of the science of law, + of chemistry, or Indology. Indeed, then it must assume the first + place in the system of sciences.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Surely a science ranks the higher, the higher + its object and its sources, the surer its results, and the + greater its significance for the most exalted aim of mankind. The + subject of theology is God and His works, the ultimate causes of + all things in God's eternal plan of the universe, the</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">wisdom of + God in a mystery, a wisdom which is hidden, which God ordained + before the world, unto our glory</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">(1 + Cor. ii. 7). Therefore it is wisdom; for</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">the science of things divine is science + proper</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(Augustinus, De Trinit. xii, 14). A + science, having as its subject Greek architecture, geography, or + physical law, may claim respect, yet it must step back before a + science of Religion, that rises to the highest sphere of truth by + a power of flight that participates in the omniscience of the + Holy Ghost; for such is the faith. For this reason its results, + in so far as they rest on faith, are more certain than the + results of all other sciences.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Finally, the aims of life which theology + serves are not physical health or advantages in the external + life, but the knowledge of God, the spread of His kingdom on + earth, and the eternal goal of all human life.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">So long as the + Christian religion is the valued possession of the people of a + country, and the roots of their lives rest more in Christianity + than in mathematics, astrophysics, or Egyptology, so long is the + science of religion entitled to a seat at the hearth of the + sciences; and the people, then, have the right to demand that the + servants of religion get their education at the place where the + other leading professions get their training. If the state + considers it its duty to train teachers of history and physics + for the benefit of its citizen, then it is still more its duty to + help in the education of the servants of religion, who are called + upon to care for more important interests of the people and state + than all the rest of the professions. Let us consider the task of + universities. As established in the countries of central Europe, + they are destined to foster science in the widest sense, and to + educate the leading professions: to be the hearth for the sum + total of mental endeavour, this is their vocation; hence all + things that contain truth and have educational value should join + hands here. To eliminate the science of the highest sphere of + knowledge would be tantamount to a mutilation of the university. + Here all boughs and branches of human knowledge should be united + into a large organism, of unity and community of work, of giving + and taking <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page403">[pg + 403]</span><a name="Pg403" id="Pg403" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + Theology needs for auxiliaries other sciences, such as profane + history and philology, Assyriology and Egyptology, psychology and + medicine. In turn it offers indispensable aid to history and + other branches of science, it guards the ethical and ideal + principles of every science, and crowns them by tendering to them + the most exalted thoughts. Here is the place of education for the + judge and official, for the physician and teacher; hence it + should be the place also for the education of the servant of the + chief spiritual power, religion.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The university should unite all active mental + powers that lift man above the commonplace. But is there any + stronger mental power than religion?</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">It is the oldest and mightiest factor in + mental life; it is as natural to man as the flower is to the + field; his mind gravitates to a religious resting place, whence + he may view time and eternity, where he may rest. Therefore + religion demands a science that inquires into its substance, + its justification, its effect on thought and life. Man strives + to give to himself an account of everything, but most of all of + what is foremost in his mind. A system of sciences without + theology would be like an uncompleted tower, like a body + without a head.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The history of theology dates back to the very + beginning of science and culture. If we trace the oldest + philosophy we find as its starting point theological research + and knowledge.</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Orpheus</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">and</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Hesiod</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + who sang of the gods, and the sages of the oldest mysteries, + were called theologians;</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Plutarch</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">sees in the theologians of past + ages the oldest philosophers, in the philosophers, however, the + descendants of the theologians;</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Plato</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">derives + philosophy from the teachers of theology. Even more prominently + was religious study and knowledge responsible for Hindoo, + Chaldean, and Egyptian philosophy.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Was it reserved for our age to discard all the + better traditions of mankind? Shall victory rest with the + destructive elements in the mental education of Europe? Against + this danger to our ideal goods, theology should stay at the + universities, as a bulwark and permanent protest.</span></p> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">Theological Faculty in State and + Church.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For this + reason the theological faculty has a birth-right at the + university, whether state school or free university. Where it is + joined to a state university, theology automatically becomes + subordinate to the state, in a limited sense. More essential is + its dependency upon the Church, because, being the science of the + faith, theology is primarily subject to the authority and + supervision of the Church. For the Church, and only <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page404">[pg 404]</span><a name="Pg404" id= + "Pg404" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the Church, is charged by its + Divine Founder to teach His religion to all nations. Hence no one + can exercise the office of a religious teacher, neither in the + public school nor at college, if not authorized to do so by the + Church. It is a participation in the ministry of the Church; and + the latter alone can designate its organs. Whoever has not been + given by the Church such license to teach, or he from whom she + takes it away, does not possess it; no other power can grant it, + not even the state. Nor can the state restore the license of + teaching to a theologian from whom the Church has withdrawn it; + this would be an act beyond state jurisdiction, hence + invalid.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In granting + the license to teach, the Church does so in the self-evident + presumption that the one so licensed will teach his students the + correct doctrine of the Church, as far as it has been + established; and he binds himself to do so by voluntarily taking + the office, and more explicitly by the profession of the creed. + If he should deviate from the creed later on, it is the obvious + right of the Church to cancel his license. In this the Church + only draws the logical conclusion from the office of the teacher + and from his voluntary obligation. He holds his office as an + organ of the Church, destined to lecture on pure doctrine before + future priests. Whether or not he has honestly searched for the + truth when deviating therefrom, this he may settle with his + conscience; but he is incapacitated to act still further as an + organ of the Church, and it is only common honesty to resign his + office if he cannot fulfil any longer the obligations he assumed. + The professor of theology is therefore in the first place a + deputy of his Church. Also he is teacher at a state institution + and as such a state official; he is appointed by the state to be + the teacher of students belonging to a certain denomination, he + is paid by the state, and may be removed by the state from his + position as official teacher. But withal the right must not be + denied to the Church to watch over the correctness of the + Christian doctrine, and to make appointment and continuance in + the teaching office dependent upon it.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Indeed, this demand was urged by Prof.</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Paulsen</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + notwithstanding his entirely different position: he + says:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">The + Catholic-theological faculties are in a certain sense a + concession by the Church to the</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page405">[pg 405]</span><a name="Pg405" id="Pg405" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">state; of + course they are also a service of the state for the Church, and + a valuable one, too; but they rest in the first place upon a + concession made by the Church to the state, with a view to the + historically established fact, and to peace. Naturally, this + concession cannot be unconditional. The condition is: the + professors appointed by the state must stand upon + ecclesiastical ground, they must acknowledge the doctrine of + the Church as the standard of their teaching, and they must + receive from the Church the</span> <span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">missio + canonica</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">. The Church + cannot accept hostile scientists for teachers. Hence for the + appointment an agreement must be reached with ecclesiastical + authority. The universities are not merely workshops for + research, they are at the same time educational institutions + for important public professions; in fact, they were founded + for this latter purpose: they are the outcome of the want for + scientifically educated clergymen, teachers, physicians, + judges, and other professionals. And this purpose necessitates + restrictions: the professor of Evangelical theology cannot + teach arbitrary opinions any more than his Catholic + fellow-professor can; the lawyer is also restricted by + presumptions, for instance, that the civil code is not an + accumulation of nonsense, but, on the whole, a pretty good + order of life. Just as little as we should dispute the lawyer's + standing as a scientist on this account, so little shall we be + able to deny this standing to the Catholic theologian who + stands with honest conviction on the platform of his + Church.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">We want + the Catholic theological faculties to be preserved; of course, + under the presumption of freedom of scientific research within + the limits drawn by the creed of the Church.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">In a similar sense the Bavarian minister of + education, Dr.</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">V. + Wehner</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, said, on + Feb. 11, 1908, in the course of a speech in the Bavarian + Diet:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Thus the + Catholic professor of theology is bound to the standards of + creed and morals as established by the Church. The decision as + to whether a Catholic professor of theology teaches the right + doctrine of the Church is not for the state to give, but for + the Church alone.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The business of the professors at theological + faculties is to transmit the teachings of the Church to future + candidates for the priesthood, and this is what they are + employed for by the state. That the Church does not tolerate a + doctrine to differ from her own is to me quite + self-evident.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">Hence we may conclude,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">The attacks directed here and there in recent + times against the continuance of Catholic theological faculties + need not worry us in any way. Nor are they likely to meet with + response at the places where the decision rests. Times have + changed. Even non-Catholic governments are no longer blind to + the conviction that an educated clergy must be reckoned among + the most eminent factors for conserving the + state</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(</span><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Freiherr von + Hertling</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">). Even + during the heated debates on the anti-modernist oath in the + Prussian Diet and upper house, the importance of the + theological faculties was acknowledged by the speakers, none of + whom demanded the removal of these faculties, though outspoken + in their criticism of the oath. Prime minister</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Bethmann-Hollweg</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">declared on March 7:</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Catholic + students will get their training at the Catholic faculties the + same as hitherto, even after the anti-modernist oath is + introduced. The state never will claim for itself the authority + to determine in any way</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page406">[pg 406]</span><a name="Pg406" id="Pg406" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">which, and in + what, forms doctrines of faith shall be taught to Catholic + students. This is no affair of the state. If, and this is my + wish, the Catholic faculties will retain that value to + teachers, students, and the total organism of the universities, + which is the natural condition of their existence, then they + will continue to exist for the profit of both, the Catholic + population and the state. Should they lose this value, however, + an event I do not wish to see, then they will die by + themselves. But I do not see that it is demanded by the + interest of the state to abolish without awaiting further + development these faculties with one stroke, thereby harming + our Catholic population, whose wants and needs deserve as much + consideration as those of any other part of the + population.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">There is no warrant for the view that theology + is subject to a foreign power, and therefore it cannot claim a + place in a state institution. In its external relations the + theological faculty is subject also to the state, serving the + public interests so much the better the more continually the + priest by his activity influences the life of the people. By + the way, why this urgent demand for state control in the + pursuit of a science by a party that otherwise is striving + zealously to put the university beyond the influence of the + state? To be a state institution or not can only be an + extrinsic matter to the university itself. Or has the science + of medicine not enough intellectual substance and consistency + to thrive at a free university? Is science as such a matter of + state? Therefore, why find fault with theology because it will + not be entirely subordinated to the state? Nor is it proper to + call the Church a</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">foreign</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">power. It is certainly not a foreign power to + theology; neither to the Christian state, that has developed in + closest relation to the Church, which owes its civilization and + culture to the Church, shares with her its subjects, and is + based even to-day upon the doctrines and customs of the + Church.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Against Christ + there arose the Jewish scribes and denounced His wisdom as error; + the scribes have passed away, we know them no longer. To the + Neoplatonics Christianity was ignorance, even barbarity; + Manicheans and Gnostics praised as the higher wisdom Oriental and + Greek philosophy adorned with Christian ideas. They belong to + history. When the people of Israel came in touch with the + brilliant civilization of Egypt, Assyria, and Greece, they often + became ashamed of the religion of their forefathers, and embraced + false gods; to-day we look upon their fancy of inferiority as + foolishness, and we rank their religion high above the religious + notions of the pagan Orient.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus has truth + pursued its way through the centuries of human history, often + unrecognized by the children of men, scolded for being obsolete, + nay, more, driven from its home and <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page407">[pg 407]</span><a name="Pg407" id="Pg407" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> forced to make room for delusion and error. + Delusion fled, and error sank into its grave—but truth remained. + Thus the Church has endured, and thus the Church will live on, + with her doctrines and science misunderstood and repulsed by the + children of a world unable to grasp them; they will pass away and + so will their thoughts, yet the Church will remain, and so will + her science. <span class="tei tei-q">“She was great and + respected”</span>—this is the familiar quotation from a + Protestant historian—<span class="tei tei-q">“before the Saxon + had set foot on Britain, before the Frank had passed the Rhine, + when Grecian eloquence still nourished in Antioch, when idols + were still worshipped in the temple of Mecca. And she may still + exist in undiminished vigor when some traveller from New Zealand + shall, in the midst of a vast solitude, take his stand on a + broken arch of London Bridge to sketch the ruins of St. + Paul's”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Lord Macaulay</span></span>).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Then, perhaps, + another observer, leaning against the pillars of history, and + looking back upon the culture of this age, will realize that only + one power of truth may rightly say: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Heaven and earth will pass away, but my words will + not pass away”</span>—Christ and His Church.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">Law and Freedom. An + Epilogue.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The great + Renovator of mankind, in whom the pious Christian sees his God, + and in whom the greater part of the modern world, though turned + from faith, still sees the ideal of a perfect human being, hence + also of true freedom, once spoke the significant words: + <span class="tei tei-q">“<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">Et veritas + liberabit vos</span></span>, and the truth shall make you + free”</span> (John viii. 32). As all the words that fell from His + lips are the truth for all centuries to come, so are these words + pre-eminently true.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There is in + our times a strong tension felt between freedom on the one hand, + and law and authority on the other; true freedom and true worth + it sees too exclusively in the independent assertion of the + self-will, and in the unrestrained manifestation of one's + strength and energy, while law and authority are looked upon as + onerous fetters. Our times do not understand that freedom + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page408">[pg 408]</span><a name= + "Pg408" id="Pg408" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and human dignity + are not opposed to law and obedience, that no other freedom can + be intended for man than the voluntary compliance with the law + and the standards of order.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">All creatures, + from the smallest to the largest, are bound by law; none is + destined for the eminent isolation of independence. The same law + of gravitation that causes the stone to fall, also governs the + giants of the skies, and they obey its rule; the same laws that + rule the candle-flame, that are at work in the drop of water, + also rule the fires of the sun and guide the fates of the ocean. + The heart, like all other organs of the human body, is ruled by + laws, and medical science, with its institutes and methods, is + kept busy to cure the consequences of the disturbance of these + laws. Every being has its laws: it must follow them to attain + perfection; deviation leads to degeneration.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus the + decision of the worth and dignity of man does not rest with an + unrestrained display of strength, but with order; not with + unchecked activity, but with control of his acts and with truth. + The floods that break through the dam have force and energy, but + being without order they create destruction; the avalanche + crashing down the mountain side has force and power, but, free + from the law of order, it carries devastation; glowing metal when + led into the mould becomes a magnificent bell, while flowing lava + brings ruin. Only <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">one</span></em> dignity and freedom can be + destined for man, it consists in voluntarily adhering to + warranted laws and authorities.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For him who + with conviction and free decision has made the law of thought, + faith, and action his own principle, the law has ceased to be a + yoke and a burden; it has become his own standard of life, which + he loves; it has become the fruit of his conviction, <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">truth</span></em> + has made him free. Ask the virtuoso who obeys the rules of his + art whether he considers them fetters; indeed he does not, he has + made them his principles. Let us ask of the civilized citizen + whether he feels the laws of civilization to be a yoke; he does + not, he obeys them of his own free will, they are his own order + of life. Unfree, slaves and serfs, will be those only who carry + with resentment the burden of the laws they must obey. Unfree + feels the savage people fighting against the laws of + civilization; unfree the wicked boy to whom <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page409">[pg 409]</span><a name="Pg409" id= + "Pg409" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> discipline is repugnant. It + is not the law that makes man unfree, it is his own lawlessness + and rebellion.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Nor does + submission to the God-given law of the Christian belief make man + low or unfree; to those to whom their belief is conviction and + life, the suggestion that they are oppressed will sound strange. + On the contrary, they feel that this belief fits in harmoniously + with the nobler impulses of their thought and will, like the + pearl in the shell, like the gem in its setting. Man experiences + this when his belief lifts him above the lowlands of his sensual + life to mental independence, and frees him from the bondage of + his own unruly impulses, that so often seek to control him.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Freiheit sei der Zweck des + Zwanges</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 1.80em"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Wie man eine Rebe + bindet,</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Dass sie, statt im Staub zu + kriechen,</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 1.80em"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Frei sich in die Lüfte + windet.</span> + </div> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">(Freedom be + the aim of restraint, just as the vine is tied to the trellis + that it may freely rise in the air, instead of crawling in the + dust.) This is the freedom of mind, knowing but one yoke, the + truth; the freedom that does not bow to error, nor to high + sounding phrases, nor to public opinion, nor to the bondage of + political life; neither is true freedom shackled by the fetters + of one's own lawless impulses. <span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Et veritas liberabit vos.</span></span></p> + </div> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page411">[pg 411]</span><a name= + "Pg411" id="Pg411" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc47" id="toc47"></a> <a name="pdf48" id="pdf48"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Index.</span></h1> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Accusations of the Church, <a href="#Pg142" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">142</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">et + seq.</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Achievements of liberal research, <a href="#Pg291" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">291</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Adickes, E.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg092" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">92</a>, <a href= + "#Pg264" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">264</a>, + <a href="#Pg269" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">269</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Agnosticism, <a href="#Pg043" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">43</a>, <a href="#Pg046" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">46</a>, <a href="#Pg048" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">48</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Amira, K. von</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg011" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">11</a>, + <a href="#Pg017" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">17</a>, <a href="#Pg309" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">309</a>, <a href="#Pg326" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">326</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ampère, A.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg212" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">212</a> <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg223" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">223</a>, <a href= + "#Pg224" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">224</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Anthropocentric view of the world, <a href="#Pg019" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">19</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Apponyi, A., Count</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg323" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">323</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Arago</span></span>, <a href="#Pg119" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">119</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Aristotle</span></span>, <a href="#Pg004" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">4</a>, <a href= + "#Pg005" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">5</a>, + <a href="#Pg007" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">7</a>, <a href="#Pg052" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">52</a>, <a href="#Pg345" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">345</a>, <a href="#Pg349" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">349</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Arnest, Archbishop</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">150</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Atheism, <a href="#Pg019" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">19</a>, <a href="#Pg079" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">79</a>, <a href="#Pg287" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">287</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Augustine, St.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg004" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">4</a>, + <a href="#Pg027" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">27</a>, <a href="#Pg076" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">76</a>, <a href="#Pg080" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">80</a>, <a href="#Pg082" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">82</a> <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg110" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">110</a>, <a href= + "#Pg135" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">135</a>, + <a href="#Pg159" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">159</a>, <a href="#Pg179" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">179</a>, <a href="#Pg246" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">246</a>, <a href="#Pg260" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">260</a>, <a href= + "#Pg273" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">273</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Authority of Faith, <a href="#Pg081" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">81</a>, <a href="#Pg112" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">112</a>, <a href="#Pg125" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">125</a> <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— private, <a href="#Pg082" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">82</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— Protestant, <a href="#Pg397" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">397</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— rejection of, <a href="#Pg033" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">33</a>, <a href="#Pg040" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">40</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Autonomism, <a href="#Pg025" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">25</a>, <a href="#Pg029" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">29</a>, <a href="#Pg033" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">33</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Autonomy of the College, <a href="#Pg360" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">360</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— of Reason, <a href="#Pg036" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">36</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— of the Teacher, <a href="#Pg361" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">361</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Autotheism, <a href="#Pg023" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">23</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bacon, F.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg205" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">205</a>, <a href= + "#Pg216" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">216</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Baer, M. von</span></span>, <a href="#Pg221" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">221</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Balmes, J.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg320" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">320</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Barrande</span></span>, <a href="#Pg219" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">219</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Baumgarten, O.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg246" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">246</a>, + <a href="#Pg254" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">254</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Baur, F. Ch.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg258" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">258</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Beaumont, L. de</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">218</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bebel</span></span>, <a href="#Pg350" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">350</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Becker, K.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg146" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">146</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bellarmin, Cardinal</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg185" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">185</a>, + <a href="#Pg192" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">192</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Benedict XIV.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg096" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">96</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Berkeley</span></span>, <a href="#Pg035" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">35</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bernouilli</span></span>, <a href="#Pg205" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">205</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bertholon</span></span>, <a href="#Pg119" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">119</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bertrin, G.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg247" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">247</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Berzelius, J.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg217" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">217</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bessel, F. W.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg209" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">209</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bethmann-Hollweg</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg394" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">394</a>, + <a href="#Pg405" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">405</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Bible, <a href="#Pg281" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">281</a>, <a href="#Pg283" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">283</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Bible-Criticism, modern, <a href="#Pg254" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">254</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">et + seq.</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Billroth, Th.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg363" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">363</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Biot, J.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg116" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">116</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bischof, K. G.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg219" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">219</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Boissarie, Dr.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg247" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">247</a> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Boniface VIII.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg149" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">149</a>, + <a href="#Pg181" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">181</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bornhak, C.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg349" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">349</a>, <a href= + "#Pg363" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">363</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Boscovich</span></span>, <a href="#Pg197" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">197</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bourdaloue</span></span>, <a href="#Pg211" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">211</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bousset, W.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg254" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">254</a>, <a href= + "#Pg285" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">285</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Boyle, Robert</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg205" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">205</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Brahe, Tycho de</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg191" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">191</a>, + <a href="#Pg202" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">202</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Branco, W.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg116" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">116</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Brass, A.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg333" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">333</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Braun, K.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg082" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">82</a>, <a href= + "#Pg117" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">117</a>, + <a href="#Pg119" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">119</a>, <a href="#Pg281" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">281</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Brewster, D.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg118" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">118</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Broda, R.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg050" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">50</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Büchner</span></span>, <a href="#Pg115" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">115</a>, <a href= + "#Pg364" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">364</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Buckland, W.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg219" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">219</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Buffon, G. de</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg206" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">206</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cabet, Etienne</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg111" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">111</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cantor, M.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg210" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">210</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Caprivi</span></span>, <a href="#Pg019" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">19</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Cardinals, <a href="#Pg098" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">98</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Carneri, B.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg251" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">251</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cassirer</span></span>, <a href="#Pg050" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">50</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Catholic, not free in research, <a href="#Pg108" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">108</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Catholic Universities, <a href="#Pg370" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">370</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cauchy</span></span>, <a href="#Pg210" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">210</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Causation, Natural, <a href="#Pg034" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">34</a>, <a href="#Pg235" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">235</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">et + seq.</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Certainty, scientific, <a href="#Pg137" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">137</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Censorship of Books, civil, <a href="#Pg172" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">172</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— ecclesiastical, <a href="#Pg171" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">171</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Chamberlain, H. St.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg026" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">26</a>, + <a href="#Pg036" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">36</a>, <a href="#Pg251" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">251</a>, <a href="#Pg361" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">361</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Charles Borromeo, St.</span></span>, + <a href="#Pg175" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">175</a> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page412">[pg 412]</span><a name= + "Pg412" id="Pg412" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cherbury, Herbert of</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg028" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">28</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Chevreul, M. E.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg217" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">217</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Christ, <a href="#Pg031" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">31</a>, <a href="#Pg143" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">143</a>, <a href="#Pg246" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">246</a>, <a href="#Pg401" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">401</a>, <a href= + "#Pg407" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">407</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— Divinity denied, <a href="#Pg251" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">251</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Christian Religion, State Protection for, <a href="#Pg352" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">352</a> <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— Truths, <a href="#Pg021" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">21</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— View of the World, <a href="#Pg014" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">14</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">et + seq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg027" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">27</a>, <a href="#Pg030" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">30</a>, <a href="#Pg055" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">55</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Christianity, <a href="#Pg021" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">21</a>, <a href="#Pg024" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">24</a>, <a href="#Pg051" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">51</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— compared with Paganism, <a href="#Pg267" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">267</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— free, <a href="#Pg285" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">285</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— Origin of, <a href="#Pg259" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">259</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">vs.</span></span> Paganism, <a href="#Pg253" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">253</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— without Christ, <a href="#Pg252" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">252</a>, <a href="#Pg282" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">282</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Church, the, <a href="#Pg014" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">14</a>, <a href="#Pg030" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">30</a>, <a href="#Pg039" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">39</a>, <a href="#Pg050" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">50</a>, <a href= + "#Pg063" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">63</a> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg070" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">70</a>, <a href= + "#Pg090" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">90</a> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg106" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">106</a>, <a href= + "#Pg125" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">125</a>, + <a href="#Pg179" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">179</a>, <a href="#Pg235" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">235</a>, <a href="#Pg275" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">275</a> <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— Accusations of the, <a href="#Pg142" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">142</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">et + seq.</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— and Medical Science, <a href="#Pg181" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">181</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— Catholic, alone enduring, <a href="#Pg298" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">298</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— Episcopal, <a href="#Pg298" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">298</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— founder of Schools and Universities, <a href="#Pg145" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">145</a> <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— not a foreign Power, <a href="#Pg406" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">406</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— the Mother of Civilization, <a href="#Pg145" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">145</a> <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cicero</span></span>, <a href="#Pg003" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">3</a>, <a href= + "#Pg008" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">8</a>, + <a href="#Pg138" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">138</a>, <a href="#Pg269" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">269</a>, <a href="#Pg349" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">349</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Claar</span></span>, M., <a href="#Pg170" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">170</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Clement IV.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg155" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">155</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Clement V.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg149" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">149</a>, <a href= + "#Pg152" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">152</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Clement VIII.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg195" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">195</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Cognition, human, <a href="#Pg034" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">34</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">et + seq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg043" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">43</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + College Professors, <a href="#Pg393" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">393</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Columbus, Christopher</span></span>, + <a href="#Pg182" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">182</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Communistic Experiments, <a href="#Pg111" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">111</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Congregations, Roman, <a href="#Pg098" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">98</a>, <a href="#Pg189" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">189</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Copernican System, <a href="#Pg183" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">183</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Copernicus, <a href="#Pg004" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">4</a>, <a href="#Pg113" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">113</a>, <a href="#Pg174" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">174</a>, <a href="#Pg184" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">184</a>, <a href= + "#Pg186" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">186</a>, + <a href="#Pg189" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">189</a>, <a href="#Pg194" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">194</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">et + seq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg200" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">200</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Coppée, F.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg324" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">324</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Corneille</span></span>, <a href="#Pg211" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">211</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cornu</span></span>, <a href="#Pg211" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">211</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Cosmogonies, of Nations, <a href="#Pg242" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">242</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Council, Fourth Lateran, <a href="#Pg182" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">182</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Council, Vatican, <a href="#Pg068" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">68</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">et + seq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg090" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">90</a>, <a href="#Pg103" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">103</a>, <a href="#Pg106" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">106</a>, <a href="#Pg109" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">109</a>, <a href= + "#Pg130" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">130</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Craniotomy, <a href="#Pg102" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">102</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Creation, disputed, <a href="#Pg241" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">241</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Criticism of the Gospels, modern, <a href="#Pg254" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">254</a> <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cuvier, G.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg218" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">218</a>, <a href= + "#Pg223" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">223</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cyril, St., of Alexandria</span></span>, + <a href="#Pg087" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">87</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Dalberg, J. von</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">150</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Dana, J. Dwight</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg219" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">219</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Darwin</span></span>, <a href="#Pg107" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">107</a>, <a href= + "#Pg115" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">115</a>, + <a href="#Pg157" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">157</a>, <a href="#Pg239" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">239</a>, <a href="#Pg243" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">243</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— an Agnostic, <a href="#Pg222" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">222</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Davy, Sir H.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg119" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">119</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Dawson, W.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg219" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">219</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Dechristianizing of the modern State, <a href="#Pg362" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">362</a> <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Delitzsch, Fr.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg051" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">51</a>, + <a href="#Pg281" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">281</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Deluc, A.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg119" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">119</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Denifle, H.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg151" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">151</a>, <a href= + "#Pg153" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">153</a> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg182" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">182</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Denthofen</span></span>, <a href="#Pg182" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">182</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Descartes, R.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg035" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">35</a>, + <a href="#Pg118" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">118</a>, <a href="#Pg190" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">190</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Dilthey, W.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg292" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">292</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Divinity of Christ, <a href="#Pg281" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">281</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— denied, <a href="#Pg251" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">251</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">et + seq.</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Dogmas, <a href="#Pg051" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">51</a>, <a href="#Pg067" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">67</a>, <a href="#Pg097" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">97</a>, <a href="#Pg158" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">158</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Döllinger</span></span>, <a href="#Pg103" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">103</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Draper, J.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg086" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">86</a> <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg144" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">144</a>, <a href= + "#Pg159" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">159</a>, + <a href="#Pg182" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">182</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Drews, A.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg236" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">236</a>, <a href= + "#Pg282" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">282</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Dualism, <a href="#Pg031" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">31</a>, <a href="#Pg063" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">63</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Du Bois-Reymond</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg115" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">115</a>, + <a href="#Pg224" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">224</a>, <a href="#Pg237" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">237</a>, <a href="#Pg240" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">240</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Dumas, J. B.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg217" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">217</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Dumont, A.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg219" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">219</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Economics, liberal, <a href="#Pg030" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">30</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Egger, F.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg099" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">99</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ehrenberg, Ch.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg220" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">220</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ehrenfels, Chr. von</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg347" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">347</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Eichhorn, Minister</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg344" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">344</a>, + <a href="#Pg364" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">364</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Emancipation from the Truth, <a href="#Pg041" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">41</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Eméry</span></span>, <a href="#Pg196" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">196</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Epinois, de l'</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg183" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">183</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Episcopal Church, <a href="#Pg298" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">298</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Erdmann, J. E.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg050" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">50</a>, + <a href="#Pg158" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">158</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Error, Danger of Infection by, <a href="#Pg319" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">319</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— to be taught with same right as truth? <a href="#Pg328" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">328</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Ethics, modern, <a href="#Pg050" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">50</a>, <a href="#Pg250" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">250</a>, <a href="#Pg325" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">325</a>, <a href="#Pg330" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">330</a>, <a href= + "#Pg347" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">347</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Eucken, R.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg026" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">26</a>, <a href= + "#Pg050" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">50</a>, + <a href="#Pg051" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">51</a>, <a href="#Pg244" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">244</a>, <a href="#Pg294" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">294</a> <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Euler</span></span>, <a href="#Pg210" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">210</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Evolution, Theory of, <a href="#Pg049" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">49</a>, <a href="#Pg157" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">157</a>, <a href="#Pg241" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">241</a> <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— Theory, held by Catholic Scientists, <a href="#Pg223" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">223</a> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page413">[pg 413]</span><a name= + "Pg413" id="Pg413" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Faith, <a href="#Pg014" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">14</a>, <a href="#Pg043" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">43</a>, <a href="#Pg051" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">51</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— and Reason, <a href="#Pg073" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">73</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— Authority of, <a href="#Pg061" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">61</a>, <a href="#Pg081" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">81</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— Definition of, <a href="#Pg061" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">61</a>, <a href="#Pg063" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">63</a>, <a href="#Pg066" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">66</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— Doubts forbidden, <a href="#Pg139" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">139</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— its scientific Demonstration, <a href="#Pg130" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">130</a> <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— Motive of, <a href="#Pg071" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">71</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— not blind, <a href="#Pg061" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">61</a>, <a href="#Pg071" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">71</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— Obedience of, and Freedom of Action, <a href="#Pg105" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">105</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Falkenberg, R.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg045" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">45</a>, + <a href="#Pg158" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">158</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Faraday, M.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg214" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">214</a>, <a href= + "#Pg224" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">224</a>, + <a href="#Pg249" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">249</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Favaro, A.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg183" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">183</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Fénélon</span></span>, <a href="#Pg110" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">110</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Feuerbach, L.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg021" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">21</a>, + <a href="#Pg022" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">22</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Fichte, J. G.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg004" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">4</a>, + <a href="#Pg052" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">52</a>, <a href="#Pg129" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">129</a>, <a href="#Pg178" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">178</a>, <a href="#Pg394" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">394</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Fischer, Kuno</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg037" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">37</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Fizeau, A.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg211" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">211</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Foerster, F. W.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg128" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">128</a>, + <a href="#Pg246" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">246</a>, <a href="#Pg268" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">268</a>, <a href="#Pg338" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">338</a>, <a href="#Pg345" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">345</a>, <a href= + "#Pg390" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">390</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Fonck, L.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg086" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">86</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Fonsegrive, G.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg039" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">39</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Forel, A.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg325" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">325</a>, <a href= + "#Pg347" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">347</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Foucault, L.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg211" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">211</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Fouillie, A.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg290" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">290</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Francé, R. H.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg240" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">240</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Francis of Sales, St.</span></span>, + <a href="#Pg175" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">175</a>, <a href="#Pg320" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">320</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Franklin, B.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg119" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">119</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Frauenhofer</span></span>, <a href="#Pg211" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">211</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Frederick II., King</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg178" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">178</a>, + <a href="#Pg179" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">179</a>, <a href="#Pg363" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">363</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Freedom, Definition of, <a href="#Pg008" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">8</a>, <a href="#Pg016" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">16</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— for the Truth, <a href="#Pg074" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">74</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— modern Idea of, <a href="#Pg016" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">16</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">et + seq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg018" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">18</a>, <a href="#Pg026" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">26</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— of Art, <a href="#Pg336" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">336</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— of Research, different from Freedom of Teaching, <a href= + "#Pg009" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">9</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— of Research, liberal, <a href="#Pg229" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">229</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">et + seq.</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— of Science, Necessity, <a href="#Pg012" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">12</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— —— Subject to human Nature, <a href="#Pg361" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">361</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— of Teaching, as understood in the Past, <a href="#Pg344" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">344</a>, <a href= + "#Pg363" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">363</a> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg370" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">370</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— —— Danger of, admitted by modern Scientists, <a href="#Pg323" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">323</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— —— Definition of, <a href="#Pg303" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">303</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— —— unrestricted, inadmissible, <a href="#Pg314" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">314</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Freedom of Thought, <a href="#Pg030" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">30</a>, <a href="#Pg298" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">298</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— two Kinds of, <a href="#Pg013" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">13</a>, <a href="#Pg015" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">15</a>, <a href="#Pg055" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">55</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Freemasons, <a href="#Pg022" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">22</a>, <a href="#Pg028" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">28</a>, <a href="#Pg331" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">331</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Free-religionists, <a href="#Pg023" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">23</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Free-thinkers, <a href="#Pg017" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">17</a>, <a href="#Pg022" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">22</a>, <a href="#Pg030" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">30</a>, <a href="#Pg272" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">272</a>, <a href= + "#Pg291" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">291</a>, + <a href="#Pg331" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">331</a>, <a href="#Pg332" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">332</a>, <a href="#Pg345" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">345</a>, <a href="#Pg363" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">363</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Fresnel, A.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg211" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">211</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Friedwald</span></span>, <a href="#Pg140" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">140</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Frins, V.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg165" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">165</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Fuchs, Th.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg162" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">162</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span>, <a href="#Pg055" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">55</a>, <a href= + "#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">97</a>, + <a href="#Pg099" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">99</a>, <a href="#Pg101" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">101</a>, <a href="#Pg102" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">102</a>, <a href="#Pg180" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">180</a> <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galle, J. G.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg208" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">208</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galvani, L.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg118" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">118</a>, <a href= + "#Pg212" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">212</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Gassendi, P.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg190" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">190</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Gauss, K.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg209" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">209</a>, <a href= + "#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">210</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Gebler, K. von</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg183" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">183</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Generatio aequivoca, <a href="#Pg241" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">241</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Genesis, <a href="#Pg281" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">281</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— Doctrine of, <a href="#Pg212" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">212</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— History or Legend? <a href="#Pg259" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">259</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— primordial, <a href="#Pg241" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">241</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Gerdil</span></span>, <a href="#Pg211" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">211</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Gibbons, Cardinal</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg103" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">103</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Giese, T.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg194" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">194</a>, <a href= + "#Pg201" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">201</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Giesebrecht, F. W.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg129" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">129</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + God, <a href="#Pg006" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">6</a>, <a href="#Pg011" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">11</a>, <a href="#Pg014" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">14</a>, <a href="#Pg023" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">23</a>, <a href= + "#Pg026" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">26</a>, + <a href="#Pg032" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">32</a>, <a href="#Pg044" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">44</a>, <a href="#Pg053" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">53</a>, <a href="#Pg065" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">65</a>, <a href= + "#Pg176" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">176</a>, + <a href="#Pg235" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">235</a>, <a href="#Pg236" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">236</a>, <a href="#Pg286" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">286</a>, <a href="#Pg387" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">387</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + God's Order of Life, <a href="#Pg014" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">14</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Goethe</span></span>, <a href="#Pg178" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">178</a>, <a href= + "#Pg269" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">269</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Goetz, L.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg165" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">165</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Gospels, <a href="#Pg285" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">285</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— modern Criticism of, <a href="#Pg254" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">254</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">et + seq.</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Government, founded on Christianity, <a href="#Pg356" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">356</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Goyau, G.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg299" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">299</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Grace, divine, Definition of, <a href="#Pg073" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">73</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Gray, Th.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg119" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">119</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Gregory VII.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg145" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">145</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Gregory IX.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg181" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">181</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Gregory XI.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg151" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">151</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Grienberger</span></span>, <a href="#Pg185" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">185</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Grimaldi, F.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg195" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">195</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Grisar, H.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg099" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">99</a>, <a href= + "#Pg190" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">190</a>, + <a href="#Pg197" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">197</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Grosse, E.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg116" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">116</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Grotthuss, von</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg024" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">24</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Guldin</span></span>, <a href="#Pg211" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">211</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Gunkel, H.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg259" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">259</a>, <a href= + "#Pg281" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">281</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Günther, A.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg099" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">99</a>, <a href= + "#Pg172" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">172</a> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page414">[pg 414]</span><a name= + "Pg414" id="Pg414" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Häckel, E.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg087" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">87</a>, <a href= + "#Pg114" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">114</a>, + <a href="#Pg198" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">198</a>, <a href="#Pg217" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">217</a>, <a href="#Pg221" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">221</a>, <a href="#Pg222" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">222</a>, <a href= + "#Pg239" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">239</a>, + <a href="#Pg241" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">241</a>, <a href="#Pg268" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">268</a>, <a href="#Pg303" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">303</a>, <a href="#Pg325" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">325</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + ——— denounced for Forgery, <a href="#Pg333" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">333</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + ——— on Lourdes, <a href="#Pg247" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">247</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Haeser</span></span>, <a href="#Pg154" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">154</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Haller, A. von</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg007" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">7</a>, + <a href="#Pg205" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">205</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Halley</span></span>, E., <a href="#Pg206" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">206</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hansen, A.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg325" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">325</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Harnack, A.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg017" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">17</a>, <a href= + "#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">64</a>, + <a href="#Pg071" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">71</a>, <a href="#Pg117" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">117</a>, <a href="#Pg129" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">129</a>, <a href="#Pg134" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">134</a>, <a href= + "#Pg246" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">246</a>, + <a href="#Pg256" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">256</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">et + seq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg265" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">265</a>, <a href="#Pg282" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">282</a>, <a href="#Pg283" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">283</a>, <a href="#Pg284" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">284</a>, <a href= + "#Pg382" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">382</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hartmann, E. von</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg250" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">250</a>, + <a href="#Pg282" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">282</a>, <a href="#Pg285" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">285</a>, <a href="#Pg290" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">290</a>, <a href="#Pg317" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">317</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Harvard University, <a href="#Pg074" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">74</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Harvey, W.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg205" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">205</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hauy, R.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg218" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">218</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Heer, O.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg219" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">219</a>, <a href= + "#Pg223" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">223</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hefele, K. von</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg181" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">181</a> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hegel</span></span>, <a href="#Pg004" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">4</a>, <a href="#Pg047" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">47</a>, <a href= + "#Pg050" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">50</a>, + <a href="#Pg272" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">272</a>, <a href="#Pg294" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">294</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Heis, E.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg209" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">209</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Helmholtz, H. von</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg004" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">4</a>, + <a href="#Pg215" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">215</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Henslow, G.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg216" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">216</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Herbart</span></span>, <a href="#Pg004" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">4</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hermes, G.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg172" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">172</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Herrmann, W.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg076" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">76</a>, <a href= + "#Pg078" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">78</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Herschel</span></span>, <a href="#Pg207" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">207</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hertwig, R.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg241" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">241</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hertz</span></span>, <a href="#Pg004" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">4</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hettner, H.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg028" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">28</a>, <a href= + "#Pg036" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">36</a>, + <a href="#Pg047" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">47</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hilgers, J.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg111" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">111</a>, <a href= + "#Pg169" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">169</a>, + <a href="#Pg176" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">176</a>, <a href="#Pg177" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">177</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">His, W.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg333" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">333</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Historian, the Catholic, <a href="#Pg095" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">95</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">et + seq.</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + History, and the Faith, <a href="#Pg093" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">93</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hitchcock</span></span>, <a href="#Pg219" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">219</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hoensbroech, P.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg165" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">165</a>, + <a href="#Pg169" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">169</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hoff, van't</span></span>, <a href="#Pg071" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">71</a>, <a href= + "#Pg181" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">181</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Holl, K.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg103" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">103</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Holtzmann, O.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg283" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">283</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Honorius III.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg152" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">152</a>, + <a href="#Pg155" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">155</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hörnes, M.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg242" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">242</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Huber, V. A.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg148" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">148</a>, <a href= + "#Pg324" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">324</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Humanists, <a href="#Pg018" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">18</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">et + seq.</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Humanitarian Religion, <a href="#Pg051" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">51</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— View of Life, <a href="#Pg055" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">55</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Humanity, emancipated, <a href="#Pg022" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">22</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Human race, Origin of, <a href="#Pg115" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">115</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">et + seq.</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Humboldt, A. von</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg198" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">198</a>, + <a href="#Pg224" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">224</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Humboldt, W. von</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg038" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">38</a>, + <a href="#Pg074" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">74</a>, <a href="#Pg314" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">314</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hume, D.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg035" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">35</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Huxley, Th.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg222" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">222</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Huygens, Chr.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg118" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">118</a>, + <a href="#Pg204" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">204</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">et + seq.</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hyrtl, J.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg221" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">221</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Illuminati, <a href="#Pg025" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">25</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Immorality, among College Men, <a href="#Pg335" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">335</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Inclinations, human, <a href="#Pg264" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">264</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">et + seq.</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Incompatibility of Science and Faith, <a href="#Pg198" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">198</a> <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Index of forbidden Books, <a href="#Pg055" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">55</a>, <a href="#Pg169" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">169</a> <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg189" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">189</a>, <a href= + "#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">196</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Individualism, <a href="#Pg025" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">25</a>, <a href="#Pg028" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">28</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Infallibility, <a href="#Pg076" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">76</a>, <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">97</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">et + seq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg109" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">109</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Innocent IV.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg149" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">149</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Innocent VI.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg151" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">151</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">James, W.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg048" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">48</a>, <a href= + "#Pg250" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">250</a>, + <a href="#Pg268" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">268</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Janssen, J.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg146" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">146</a>, <a href= + "#Pg149" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">149</a>, + <a href="#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">150</a>, <a href="#Pg156" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">156</a>, <a href="#Pg218" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">218</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Jesuit Order, <a href="#Pg183" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">183</a>, <a href="#Pg359" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">359</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Jesus Christ, <a href="#Pg252" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">252</a>, <a href="#Pg357" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">357</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— Existence of, <a href="#Pg282" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">282</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— who was? <a href="#Pg281" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">281</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">et + seq.</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Jews, <a href="#Pg128" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">128</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Joachim, G.</span></span> (see <a href= + "#Index-Rheticus" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Rheticus</span></span></a>) + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Jodl, F.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg019" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">19</a>, <a href= + "#Pg021" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">21</a>, + <a href="#Pg022" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">22</a>, <a href="#Pg066" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">66</a>, <a href="#Pg123" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">123</a>, <a href="#Pg130" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">130</a>, <a href= + "#Pg162" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">162</a>, + <a href="#Pg245" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">245</a>, <a href="#Pg250" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">250</a>, <a href="#Pg288" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">288</a>, <a href="#Pg292" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">292</a>, <a href= + "#Pg322" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">322</a>, + <a href="#Pg357" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">357</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">John XXII.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg151" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">151</a> <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Jones, Dr. Spencer</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg298" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">298</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Jörgensen</span></span>, <a href="#Pg229" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">229</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Jülicher</span></span>, <a href="#Pg255" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">255</a>, <a href= + "#Pg283" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">283</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Justin, Phil.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg277" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">277</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kahl, W.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg010" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">10</a>, <a href= + "#Pg162" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">162</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kant, I.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg004" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">4</a>, <a href= + "#Pg029" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">29</a>, + <a href="#Pg035" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">35</a>, <a href="#Pg036" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">36</a>, <a href="#Pg037" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">37</a> <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg043" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">43</a> <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg046" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">46</a> <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg054" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">54</a>, <a href= + "#Pg063" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">63</a>, + <a href="#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">64</a>, <a href="#Pg077" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">77</a>, <a href="#Pg132" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">132</a>, <a href="#Pg167" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">167</a>, <a href= + "#Pg179" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">179</a>, + <a href="#Pg250" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">250</a>, <a href="#Pg263" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">263</a>, <a href="#Pg269" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">269</a>, <a href="#Pg272" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">272</a>, <a href= + "#Pg287" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">287</a>, + <a href="#Pg293" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">293</a>, <a href="#Pg313" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">313</a>, <a href="#Pg363" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">363</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kaufmann, G.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg017" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">17</a>, <a href= + "#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">150</a>, + <a href="#Pg153" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">153</a>, <a href="#Pg155" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">155</a>, <a href="#Pg162" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">162</a>, <a href="#Pg309" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">309</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kelvin, Lord</span></span> (see <a href= + "#Index-Thomson" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Thomson</span></span></a>) + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kepler, J.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg004" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">4</a>, <a href= + "#Pg125" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">125</a>, + <a href="#Pg184" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">184</a>, <a href="#Pg185" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">185</a>, <a href="#Pg187" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">187</a>, <a href="#Pg191" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">191</a>, <a href= + "#Pg195" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">195</a> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg201" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">201</a> <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Kepler-Bund, <a href="#Pg333" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">333</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kirchhoff, G. R.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg004" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">4</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kleinpeter, H.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg035" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">35</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kneller</span></span>, <a href="#Pg007" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">7</a>, <a href= + "#Pg208" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">208</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Knowledge and Faith, separation of, <a href="#Pg042" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">42</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kochansky</span></span>, <a href="#Pg196" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">196</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kohlbrugge, J. H.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg116" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">116</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Köller</span></span>, <a href="#Pg121" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">121</a> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page415">[pg 415]</span><a name= + "Pg415" id="Pg415" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kollmann, J.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg116" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">116</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kone, J.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg147" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">147</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kromer, Bishop</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg195" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">195</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kues, N. von</span></span>, <a href="#Pg194" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">194</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Lacharpe</span></span>, <a href="#Pg047" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">47</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Lalande</span></span>, <a href="#Pg196" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">196</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Lamarck, J. B. de</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg157" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">157</a>, + <a href="#Pg223" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">223</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Lammenais, F.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg172" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">172</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Lamont, J. von.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg209" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">209</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Lange, F.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg237" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">237</a>, <a href= + "#Pg239" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">239</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Lapparent, A. de</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg219" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">219</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Lateran Council, Fourth, <a href="#Pg182" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">182</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Lavoisier, A.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg217" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">217</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Law, necessity of, <a href="#Pg408" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">408</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Laws of nature, <a href="#Pg011" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">11</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Lehmann, E.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg243" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">243</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Lehmann, M.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg178" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">178</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Leibnitz, G. W.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg114" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">114</a>, + <a href="#Pg118" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">118</a>, <a href="#Pg190" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">190</a>, <a href="#Pg196" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">196</a>, <a href="#Pg211" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">211</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Leo, the Great</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg383" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">383</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Leo XIII.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg095" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">95</a>, <a href= + "#Pg170" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">170</a> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Lessing, G. F.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg326" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">326</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Leverrier, M.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg048" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">48</a>, + <a href="#Pg207" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">207</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">et + seq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg238" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">238</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Liberalism, <a href="#Pg029" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">29</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">et + seq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg162" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">162</a>, <a href="#Pg364" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">364</a>, <a href="#Pg370" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">370</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + License to teach, ecclesiastical, <a href="#Pg404" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">404</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Liebig, J. von</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg004" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">4</a>, + <a href="#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">218</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Liebmann, O.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg035" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">35</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Life, first, whence did it come, <a href="#Pg240" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">240</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Linné, Karl</span></span>, <a href="#Pg205" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">205</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Lipps, Th.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg078" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">78</a>, <a href= + "#Pg135" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">135</a>, + <a href="#Pg311" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">311</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Locke, J.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg028" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">28</a>, <a href= + "#Pg035" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">35</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Loisy, A.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg172" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">172</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Loosten, de</span></span>, <a href="#Pg283" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">283</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Lossen</span></span>, <a href="#Pg223" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">223</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Lourdes, <a href="#Pg247" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">247</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Lüdeman</span></span>, <a href="#Pg045" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">45</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Luther</span></span>, <a href="#Pg027" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">27</a>, <a href= + "#Pg029" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">29</a>, + <a href="#Pg038" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">38</a>, <a href="#Pg195" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">195</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Lutheran Church, expelled Kepler, <a href="#Pg202" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">202</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Lyell, Ch.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg223" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">223</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Macaulay</span></span>, <a href="#Pg407" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">407</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mach, E.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg035" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">35</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Macolano</span></span>, <a href="#Pg187" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">187</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mädler, J.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg206" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">206</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mai, Cardinal</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg320" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">320</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Man, Descent of, <a href="#Pg288" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">288</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— free, <a href="#Pg015" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">15</a>, <a href="#Pg025" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">25</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— his Destiny, <a href="#Pg011" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">11</a>, <a href="#Pg019" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">19</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— Member of Society, <a href="#Pg011" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">11</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Man, the autonomous, <a href="#Pg024" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">24</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">et + seq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg029" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">29</a>, <a href="#Pg033" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">33</a>, <a href="#Pg287" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">287</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— the transcendental, <a href="#Pg023" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">23</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">et + seq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg037" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">37</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Man's Emancipation, <a href="#Pg027" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">27</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— Intellect, <a href="#Pg014" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">14</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Martius, von</span></span>, <a href="#Pg220" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">220</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Masaryk, T. G.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg062" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">62</a>, + <a href="#Pg072" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">72</a>, <a href="#Pg136" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">136</a>, <a href="#Pg160" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">160</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Maxwell, J.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg214" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">214</a> <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg224" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">224</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mayer, R.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg215" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">215</a>, <a href= + "#Pg239" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">239</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Melanchthon</span></span>, <a href="#Pg195" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">195</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mendel, G. J.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg220" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">220</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Menger, K.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg062" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">62</a>, <a href= + "#Pg086" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">86</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Messer, A.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg140" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">140</a>, <a href= + "#Pg235" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">235</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Method of modern Science, <a href="#Pg262" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">262</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Michael, E.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg146" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">146</a>, <a href= + "#Pg181" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">181</a>, + <a href="#Pg182" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">182</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Migné</span></span>, <a href="#Pg384" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">384</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mill, Stuart</span></span>, <a href="#Pg245" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">245</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Miracles denied, <a href="#Pg246" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">246</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">et + seq.</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Modernism, <a href="#Pg044" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">44</a>, <a href="#Pg045" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">45</a>, <a href="#Pg165" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">165</a> <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg389" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">389</a> <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— Oath against, <a href="#Pg393" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">393</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Moigno</span></span>, <a href="#Pg209" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">209</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Moleschott, J.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg115" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">115</a>, + <a href="#Pg224" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">224</a>, <a href="#Pg364" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">364</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mommsen, Th.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg121" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">121</a>, <a href= + "#Pg128" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">128</a>, + <a href="#Pg234" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">234</a>, <a href="#Pg267" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">267</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Monism, <a href="#Pg031" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">31</a>, <a href="#Pg331" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">331</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— Definition of, <a href="#Pg244" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">244</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Monists, <a href="#Pg331" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">331</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Montanari, G.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg194" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">194</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Morality, <a href="#Pg325" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">325</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— independent of Religion, <a href="#Pg250" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">250</a>, <a href="#Pg336" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">336</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— no absolute Standard of, <a href="#Pg050" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">50</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Muckermann, H.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg220" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">220</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Müller, A.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg186" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">186</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Müller, Fr.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg243" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">243</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Müller, J.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg219" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">219</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Münch, W.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg147" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">147</a>, <a href= + "#Pg356" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">356</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Muratori, L. A.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg320" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">320</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mysticism</span></span>, <a href="#Pg043" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">43</a>, <a href= + "#Pg046" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">46</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Nature, human, ignored, <a href="#Pg264" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">264</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Newton</span></span>, <a href="#Pg004" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">4</a>, <a href= + "#Pg007" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">7</a>, + <a href="#Pg118" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">118</a>, <a href="#Pg125" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">125</a>, <a href="#Pg191" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">191</a>, <a href="#Pg201" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">201</a>, <a href= + "#Pg203" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">203</a> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Nicolai, F.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg394" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">394</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Niebergall, F.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg045" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">45</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Nietzsche</span></span>, <a href="#Pg023" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">23</a> <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg031" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">31</a>, <a href= + "#Pg037" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">37</a>, + <a href="#Pg053" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">53</a>, <a href="#Pg054" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">54</a>, <a href="#Pg079" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">79</a>, <a href="#Pg270" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">270</a>, <a href= + "#Pg273" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">273</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Oath against Modernism, <a href="#Pg405" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">405</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— binding? <a href="#Pg046" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">46</a> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page416">[pg 416]</span><a name= + "Pg416" id="Pg416" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Oath of Allegiance in civil Professions, <a href="#Pg396" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">396</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— of the Professio Fidei Tridentina, <a href="#Pg394" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">394</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Objectivism, <a href="#Pg033" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">33</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Oken</span></span>, <a href="#Pg178" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">178</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Olbers, W.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg209" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">209</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Omalius, J. de</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg219" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">219</a>, + <a href="#Pg223" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">223</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Oppression, of mental Liberty, by Party Rule, <a href="#Pg366" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">366</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Oresme, Bishop</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg194" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">194</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Osiander</span></span>, <a href="#Pg184" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">184</a>, <a href= + "#Pg195" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">195</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ostwald, W.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg240" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">240</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Owen, R.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg111" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">111</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ozanam, A.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg212" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">212</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Paganism, <a href="#Pg267" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">267</a>, <a href="#Pg286" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">286</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— extolled by modern Science, <a href="#Pg212" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">212</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— preferred to Christianity, <a href="#Pg267" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">267</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Palacky</span></span>, <a href="#Pg146" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">146</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Pantheism, <a href="#Pg023" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">23</a>, <a href="#Pg041" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">41</a>, <a href="#Pg284" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">284</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Papacy, Importance of, <a href="#Pg373" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">373</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Papal Charters of Universities, <a href="#Pg148" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">148</a> <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Pascal</span></span>, <a href="#Pg211" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">211</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Pasteur</span></span>, <a href="#Pg217" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">217</a>, <a href= + "#Pg222" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">222</a>, + <a href="#Pg224" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">224</a>, <a href="#Pg381" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">381</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Pastor, L. von</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg096" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">96</a>, + <a href="#Pg195" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">195</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Patients, made Subjects for medical Experiments, <a href="#Pg319" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">319</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Paul III.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg184" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">184</a>, <a href= + "#Pg195" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">195</a>, + <a href="#Pg201" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">201</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Paul IV.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg170" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">170</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Paulsen, F.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg017" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">17</a>, <a href= + "#Pg038" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">38</a>, + <a href="#Pg039" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">39</a>, <a href="#Pg040" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">40</a>, <a href="#Pg041" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">41</a>, <a href="#Pg044" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">44</a>, <a href= + "#Pg049" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">49</a>, + <a href="#Pg051" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">51</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">et + seq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">64</a>, <a href="#Pg078" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">78</a>, <a href="#Pg134" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">134</a>, <a href="#Pg150" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">150</a>, <a href= + "#Pg236" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">236</a>, + <a href="#Pg239" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">239</a>, <a href="#Pg252" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">252</a>, <a href="#Pg253" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">253</a>, <a href="#Pg262" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">262</a>, <a href= + "#Pg274" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">274</a>, + <a href="#Pg276" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">276</a>, <a href="#Pg287" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">287</a>, <a href="#Pg292" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">292</a> <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg309" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">309</a>, <a href= + "#Pg312" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">312</a>, + <a href="#Pg321" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">321</a>, <a href="#Pg335" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">335</a>, <a href="#Pg338" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">338</a>, <a href="#Pg382" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">382</a>, <a href= + "#Pg404" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">404</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Paulus, H. E.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg258" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">258</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Pedagogy, <a href="#Pg345" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">345</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Perception, the Nature of human, <a href="#Pg033" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">33</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Pesch, Chr.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg099" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">99</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Peschel, O.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg115" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">115</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Pessimism</span></span>, <a href="#Pg295" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">295</a> <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Pfaff, F.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg219" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">219</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Pfleiderer, O.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg256" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">256</a>, + <a href="#Pg259" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">259</a>, <a href="#Pg285" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">285</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Philip, the Fair</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg152" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">152</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Philosophical Errors, <a href="#Pg327" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">327</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— Training, great Want of, <a href="#Pg321" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">321</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Philosophy, <a href="#Pg007" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">7</a>, <a href="#Pg016" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">16</a>, <a href="#Pg021" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">21</a>, <a href="#Pg028" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">28</a>, <a href= + "#Pg036" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">36</a>, + <a href="#Pg044" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">44</a>, <a href="#Pg078" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">78</a>, <a href="#Pg242" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">242</a>, <a href="#Pg275" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">275</a>, <a href= + "#Pg292" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">292</a> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Philosophy and the Faith, <a href="#Pg092" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">92</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— Scholastic, <a href="#Pg049" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">49</a>, <a href="#Pg053" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">53</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Piazzi, G.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg209" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">209</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Pindar</span></span>, <a href="#Pg074" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">74</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Pius IX.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg099" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">99</a>, <a href= + "#Pg162" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">162</a>, + <a href="#Pg165" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">165</a>, <a href="#Pg166" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">166</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Pius X.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg099" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">99</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Plate, L.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg206" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">206</a>, <a href= + "#Pg237" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">237</a>, + <a href="#Pg240" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">240</a>, <a href="#Pg241" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">241</a>, <a href="#Pg243" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">243</a> <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg249" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">249</a>, <a href= + "#Pg287" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">287</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Plato</span></span>, <a href="#Pg052" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">52</a>, <a href="#Pg074" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">74</a>, <a href= + "#Pg249" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">249</a>, + <a href="#Pg269" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">269</a>, <a href="#Pg275" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">275</a>, <a href="#Pg337" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">337</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Plutarch</span></span>, <a href="#Pg349" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">349</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Poggendorff</span></span>, <a href="#Pg209" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">209</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Pohle, J.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg209" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">209</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Poincaré, H.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg114" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">114</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Pope, his Person, <a href="#Pg098" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">98</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Popes, and the Universities, <a href="#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">150</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">et + seq.</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Prantl, K. von</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg324" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">324</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Prayer, <a href="#Pg046" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">46</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Pressensé, F. de</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg299" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">299</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Primordial Genesis, <a href="#Pg241" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">241</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Progress, <a href="#Pg159" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">159</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Promoting the Christian Faith, the Aim of Founders of + Universities, <a href="#Pg367" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">367</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Protestantism, <a href="#Pg019" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">19</a>, <a href="#Pg027" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">27</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">et + seq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg044" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">44</a>, <a href="#Pg045" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">45</a>, <a href="#Pg051" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">51</a>, <a href="#Pg054" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">54</a>, <a href= + "#Pg066" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">66</a>, + <a href="#Pg077" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">77</a>, <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">97</a>, <a href="#Pg117" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">117</a>, <a href="#Pg128" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">128</a>, <a href= + "#Pg129" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">129</a>, + <a href="#Pg140" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">140</a>, <a href="#Pg168" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">168</a>, <a href="#Pg193" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">193</a>, <a href="#Pg195" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">195</a>, <a href= + "#Pg202" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">202</a>, + <a href="#Pg255" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">255</a>, <a href="#Pg293" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">293</a>, <a href="#Pg298" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">298</a>, <a href="#Pg359" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">359</a>, <a href= + "#Pg363" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">363</a>, + <a href="#Pg390" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">390</a>, <a href="#Pg396" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">396</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ptolemy</span></span>, <a href="#Pg005" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">5</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Pythagoras</span></span>, <a href="#Pg004" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">4</a>, <a href= + "#Pg140" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">140</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Quenstedt, F.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg007" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">7</a>, + <a href="#Pg219" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">219</a>, <a href="#Pg223" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">223</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Rade, M.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg282" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">282</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Radicalism, <a href="#Pg332" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">332</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ramsay, W.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg007" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">7</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ranke, L. von.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg116" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">116</a>, + <a href="#Pg179" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">179</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ratzel, F.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg115" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">115</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Reason, its Limitations, <a href="#Pg007" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">7</a>, <a href="#Pg014" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">14</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Reformation, the, <a href="#Pg027" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">27</a>, <a href="#Pg028" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">28</a>, <a href="#Pg363" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">363</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Reimarus, H. S.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg258" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">258</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Reinhold, G.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg391" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">391</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Reinke, J.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg007" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">7</a>, <a href= + "#Pg115" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">115</a>, + <a href="#Pg223" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">223</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Relative Truth, <a href="#Pg157" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">157</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Religion, <a href="#Pg016" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">16</a>, <a href="#Pg020" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">20</a>, <a href="#Pg025" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">25</a>, <a href="#Pg028" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">28</a>, <a href= + "#Pg051" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">51</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— abandoned, <a href="#Pg289" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">289</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">et + seq.</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— distinguished from Science, <a href="#Pg266" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">266</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— of natural Reason, <a href="#Pg028" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">28</a>, <a href="#Pg051" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">51</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Religious Instruction of Children, <a href="#Pg045" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">45</a> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page417">[pg 417]</span><a name= + "Pg417" id="Pg417" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Remus, John</span></span>, <a href="#Pg196" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">196</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Renan, E.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg054" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">54</a>, <a href= + "#Pg248" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">248</a>, + <a href="#Pg258" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">258</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Research, and Faith, <a href="#Pg059" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">59</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— Definition of, <a href="#Pg009" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">9</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Restraint, proper, of Science, <a href="#Pg090" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">90</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Revelation, <a href="#Pg029" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">29</a>, <a href="#Pg051" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">51</a>, <a href="#Pg072" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">72</a>, <a href="#Pg077" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">77</a> <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg090" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">90</a>, <a href= + "#Pg125" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">125</a>, + <a href="#Pg297" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">297</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— Proof of, <a href="#Pg138" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">138</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Revolution, French, <a href="#Pg029" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">29</a>, <a href="#Pg036" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">36</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— of 1848, <a href="#Pg363" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">363</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <a name="Index-Rheticus" id="Index-Rheticus" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Rheticus</span></span> (<span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">G. Joachim</span></span>), <a href="#Pg195" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">195</a>, <a href= + "#Pg201" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">201</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Rhodius</span></span>, <a href="#Pg140" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">140</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Riccioli, J.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg190" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">190</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Right of Christians, to be represented, <a href="#Pg367" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">367</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— to teach, natural, <a href="#Pg369" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">369</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Rights of Teacher, not unrestricted, <a href="#Pg346" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">346</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ritter, K.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg218" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">218</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Romanes, G.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg221" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">221</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Roscellin</span></span>, <a href="#Pg158" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">158</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Rosenberger</span></span>, <a href="#Pg118" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">118</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Rosmini-Serbati</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg110" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">110</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Rothenbücher</span></span>, <a href="#Pg030" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">30</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Rousseau, J. J.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg028" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">28</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Rudder, P. de</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg249" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">249</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ruville, A. von</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg077" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">77</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sabatier, A.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg026" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">26</a>, <a href= + "#Pg039" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">39</a>, + <a href="#Pg078" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">78</a>, <a href="#Pg262" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">262</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Saint-Hilaire</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg223" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">223</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Saitschick</span></span>, <a href="#Pg392" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">392</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sarcey</span></span>, <a href="#Pg173" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">173</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Savigny, F. von</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg355" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">355</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Scepticism, <a href="#Pg035" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">35</a>, <a href="#Pg047" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">47</a>, <a href="#Pg055" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">55</a>, <a href="#Pg293" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">293</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Schafhäutl, K. von</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg219" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">219</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Scheiner, Ch.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg125" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">125</a>, + <a href="#Pg191" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">191</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Schell, H.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg136" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">136</a>, <a href= + "#Pg172" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">172</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Schelling</span></span>, <a href="#Pg004" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">4</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Scherr, J.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg038" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">38</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Schiaparelli, G.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg191" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">191</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Schiller</span></span>, <a href="#Pg274" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">274</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Schleiermacher</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg045" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">45</a>, + <a href="#Pg054" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">54</a>, <a href="#Pg290" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">290</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Schmiedel, P.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg282" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">282</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Schneider, W.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg116" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">116</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Schönbein</span></span>, <a href="#Pg007" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">7</a>, <a href= + "#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">218</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Schönberg, Cardinal</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg194" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">194</a>, + <a href="#Pg201" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">201</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Schools, free, <a href="#Pg022" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">22</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Schopenhauer</span></span>, <a href="#Pg035" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">35</a>, <a href= + "#Pg272" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">272</a>, + <a href="#Pg274" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">274</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Schwann, Th.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg220" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">220</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Schwegler, A.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg028" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">28</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Schweitzer, A.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg282" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">282</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Science, an Activity of the human Mind, <a href="#Pg006" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">6</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— anti-Christian, its Danger, <a href="#Pg329" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">329</a> <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— Definition, <a href="#Pg003" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">3</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">et + seq.</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— Errors of, <a href="#Pg115" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">115</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">et + seq.</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— grave Charges against Modern, <a href="#Pg329" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">329</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— Limitations, <a href="#Pg007" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">7</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— Power of, <a href="#Pg322" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">322</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— restricted by accidental Conditions, <a href="#Pg361" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">361</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— subject to God, <a href="#Pg006" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">6</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— subject to Imperfections of human Mind, <a href="#Pg006" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">6</a>, <a href= + "#Pg031" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">31</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— subject to Truth, <a href="#Pg006" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">6</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— Vocation of, <a href="#Pg279" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">279</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Sciences, profane and the Faith, <a href="#Pg088" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">88</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Scientific Research, Methods, <a href="#Pg158" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">158</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— Teaching, Definition, <a href="#Pg316" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">316</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Scientists, Catholic, <a href="#Pg384" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">384</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">et + seq.</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Scripture, does not teach profane Sciences, <a href="#Pg084" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">84</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— Interpretation, <a href="#Pg027" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">27</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— Narratives not to be taken in literal Sense, <a href="#Pg082" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">82</a> <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Secchi, A.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg191" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">191</a>, <a href= + "#Pg208" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">208</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sedgwick, A.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg219" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">219</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Seminaries, <a href="#Pg400" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">400</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Sensuality, Emancipation of, Danger to Civilization, <a href= + "#Pg356" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">356</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Sexual Perversities, <a href="#Pg347" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">347</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— Practice, natural, <a href="#Pg346" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">346</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— Questions, <a href="#Pg325" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">325</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— Reform, <a href="#Pg347" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">347</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Sham-Science, <a href="#Pg313" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">313</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Silence not Denial, <a href="#Pg011" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">11</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Smet, de</span></span>, <a href="#Pg086" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">86</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Smith, Adam</span></span>, <a href="#Pg028" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">28</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Smolko, S. von</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg359" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">359</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Socialism, <a href="#Pg111" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">111</a>, <a href="#Pg349" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">349</a>, <a href="#Pg350" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">350</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Socialists, <a href="#Pg331" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">331</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Social question, <a href="#Pg030" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">30</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Sociology, <a href="#Pg030" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">30</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Socrates</span></span>, <a href="#Pg007" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">7</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Soul, the, <a href="#Pg046" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">46</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">et + seq.</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— the, an illusion, <a href="#Pg288" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">288</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">et + seq.</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Spencer, H.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg243" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">243</a>, <a href= + "#Pg313" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">313</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Spicker, G.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg022" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">22</a>, <a href= + "#Pg026" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">26</a>, + <a href="#Pg292" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">292</a>, <a href="#Pg324" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">324</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Spinoza, B.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg041" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">41</a>, <a href= + "#Pg179" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">179</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Stägemann</span></span>, <a href="#Pg036" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">36</a> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page418">[pg 418]</span><a name= + "Pg418" id="Pg418" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + State, the, and Freedom of Teaching, <a href="#Pg340" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">340</a> <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Steudel</span></span>, <a href="#Pg236" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">236</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Strauss, D. F.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg054" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">54</a>, + <a href="#Pg065" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">65</a>, <a href="#Pg240" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">240</a>, <a href="#Pg258" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">258</a>, <a href="#Pg267" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">267</a>, <a href= + "#Pg273" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">273</a>, + <a href="#Pg280" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">280</a>, <a href="#Pg283" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">283</a>, <a href="#Pg286" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">286</a>, <a href="#Pg287" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">287</a>, <a href= + "#Pg315" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">315</a>, + <a href="#Pg364" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">364</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Stütz</span></span>, <a href="#Pg119" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">119</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Subjectivism</span></span>, <a href="#Pg033" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">33</a> <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Supernatural, Factors to be excluded, <a href="#Pg235" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">235</a> <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— the, inadmissible, <a href="#Pg031" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">31</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Supervision of Teaching, Ecclesiastical, <a href="#Pg389" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">389</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sybel, L. von</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg246" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">246</a>, + <a href="#Pg292" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">292</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Syllabus, the, <a href="#Pg055" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">55</a>, <a href="#Pg094" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">94</a>, <a href="#Pg115" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">115</a>, <a href="#Pg162" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">162</a> <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Tanner, A., <a href="#Pg192" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">192</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Targioni-Tozzetti</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg194" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">194</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Teachers, anti-Christian, <a href="#Pg358" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">358</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— Catholic, small Number of, <a href="#Pg365" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">365</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— Jewish, <a href="#Pg365" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">365</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Teaching, Definition of, <a href="#Pg010" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">10</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— of the Church, as distinguished from Opinions of Theologians, + <a href="#Pg082" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">82</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">et + seq.</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Tews, J.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg358" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">358</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Thénard, L.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg217" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">217</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Theocentric View of the World, <a href="#Pg019" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">19</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Theologians, Catholic, of Repute, <a href="#Pg384" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">384</a> <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Theological Literature, Catholic, <a href="#Pg384" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">384</a> <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Theology and Progress, <a href="#Pg381" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">381</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">et + seq.</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— a Science, <a href="#Pg378" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">378</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">et + seq.</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— History of, <a href="#Pg403" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">403</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Theophobia of Science, <a href="#Pg234" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">234</a>, <a href="#Pg241" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">241</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Theory of Rights, individualistic, <a href="#Pg313" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">313</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Thomas, St.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg082" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">82</a>, <a href= + "#Pg084" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">84</a>, + <a href="#Pg155" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">155</a>, <a href="#Pg262" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">262</a>, <a href="#Pg353" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">353</a>, <a href="#Pg388" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">388</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Thomasius, Chr.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg344" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">344</a>, + <a href="#Pg363" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">363</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <a name="Index-Thomson" id="Index-Thomson" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Thomson</span></span> (<span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Lord Kelvin</span></span>), <a href="#Pg074" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">74</a>, <a href= + "#Pg238" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">238</a>, + <a href="#Pg249" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">249</a>, <a href="#Pg251" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">251</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">et + seq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg381" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">381</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Toland, J.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg028" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">28</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Treitschke, H. von</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg129" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">129</a>, + <a href="#Pg179" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">179</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Tröltsch, E.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg028" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">28</a>, <a href= + "#Pg134" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">134</a>, + <a href="#Pg167" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">167</a>, <a href="#Pg298" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">298</a>, <a href="#Pg356" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">356</a>, <a href="#Pg389" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">389</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Truth, relative, <a href="#Pg049" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">49</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">et + seq.</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Tyndall, J.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg217" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">217</a>, <a href= + "#Pg224" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">224</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Überweg, F.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg267" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">267</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Uhlich, L.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg291" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">291</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + United States, <a href="#Pg111" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">111</a>, <a href="#Pg368" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">368</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Universities, <a href="#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">150</a>, <a href="#Pg341" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">341</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">et + seq.</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— and the Church, <a href="#Pg371" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">371</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— Catholic, <a href="#Pg370" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">370</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— free, <a href="#Pg368" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">368</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + University, and Theology, <a href="#Pg398" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">398</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— Teachers, <a href="#Pg017" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">17</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— vanishing Respect for, <a href="#Pg334" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">334</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Unprepossession in Research, <a href="#Pg121" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">121</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">et + seq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg357" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">357</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Urban IV.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg155" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">155</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Urban V.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg151" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">151</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Urban VIII.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg096" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">96</a>, <a href= + "#Pg186" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">186</a>, + <a href="#Pg189" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">189</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Vaillant</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Anarchist</span></span>, <a href="#Pg350" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">350</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Valerius, Maximus</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg319" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">319</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Varnhagen</span></span>, <a href="#Pg036" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">36</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Vatican Archives, <a href="#Pg095" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">95</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Vatican Council, <a href="#Pg068" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">68</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">et + seq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg090" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">90</a>, <a href="#Pg103" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">103</a>, <a href="#Pg106" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">106</a>, <a href="#Pg109" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">109</a>, <a href= + "#Pg130" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">130</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Vaudin</span></span>, <a href="#Pg119" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">119</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Vierort, K. von</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg220" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">220</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + View of life, Christian, <a href="#Pg252" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">252</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— of the World, anthropocentric, <a href="#Pg019" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">19</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— —— Christian, <a href="#Pg014" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">14</a>, <a href="#Pg027" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">27</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— —— humanitarian, <a href="#Pg018" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">18</a>, <a href="#Pg021" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">21</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">et + seq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg031" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">31</a> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + —— —— theocentric, <a href="#Pg019" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">19</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Views of the World, various, <a href="#Pg013" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">13</a>, <a href="#Pg022" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">22</a>, <a href="#Pg159" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">159</a>, <a href= + "#Pg294" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">294</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Vigilius, St.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg180" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">180</a> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Vincent, St. of Lerin</span></span>, + <a href="#Pg383" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">383</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Virchow, R. von</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg116" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">116</a>, + <a href="#Pg224" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">224</a>, <a href="#Pg241" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">241</a>, <a href="#Pg323" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">323</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Vogt, K.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg030" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">30</a>, <a href= + "#Pg115" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">115</a>, + <a href="#Pg224" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">224</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Volkmann, A.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg220" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">220</a>, <a href= + "#Pg223" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">223</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Volta, A.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg212" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">212</a> <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg224" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">224</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Voltaire</span></span>, <a href="#Pg028" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">28</a>, <a href= + "#Pg326" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">326</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Vries, H. de</span></span>, <a href="#Pg220" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">220</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Waagen, W.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg223" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">223</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Wahrmund, L.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg086" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">86</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Wallace, A.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg119" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">119</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Walsh, J. J.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg208" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">208</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Walther, W.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg284" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">284</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Washington, George</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg349" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">349</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Wasmann, E.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg116" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">116</a>, <a href= + "#Pg223" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">223</a>, + <a href="#Pg243" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">243</a>, <a href="#Pg249" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">249</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Wehner, von</span></span>, <a href="#Pg405" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">405</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Weismann</span></span>, <a href="#Pg242" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">242</a> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page419">[pg 419]</span><a name= + "Pg419" id="Pg419" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Weizsäcker</span></span>, <a href="#Pg257" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">257</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Westermark</span></span>, <a href="#Pg050" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">50</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Westhoff</span></span>, <a href="#Pg177" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">177</a>, <a href= + "#Pg074" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">74</a>, + <a href="#Pg145" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">145</a>, <a href="#Pg276" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">276</a>, <a href="#Pg282" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">282</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Wimpheling</span></span>, <a href="#Pg156" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">156</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Wobbermin, G.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg245" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">245</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Wolf, R.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg207" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">207</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Wöllner, Minister</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg363" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">363</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Wundt, W.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg024" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">24</a>, <a href= + "#Pg052" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">52</a>, + <a href="#Pg062" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">62</a>, <a href="#Pg071" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">71</a>, <a href="#Pg137" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">137</a>, <a href="#Pg235" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">235</a>, <a href= + "#Pg243" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">243</a>, + <a href="#Pg254" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">254</a>, <a href="#Pg288" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">288</a>, <a href="#Pg290" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">290</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Young, Th.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg119" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">119</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Zacharias, Pope</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg180" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">180</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Zedlitz, von</span></span>, <a href="#Pg363" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">363</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Zeller, E.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg246" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">246</a>, <a href= + "#Pg255" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">255</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ziegler, Th.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg059" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">59</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Zittel</span></span>, <a href="#Pg116" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">116</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Zöckler</span></span>, <a href="#Pg007" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">7</a>, <a href= + "#Pg181" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">181</a>, + <a href="#Pg201" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">201</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Zoen, Bishop</span></span>, <a href="#Pg151" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">151</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Zola</span></span>, <a href="#Pg248" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">248</a> <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span> + </div> + </div> + </div> + </div> + <hr class="doublepage" /> + + <div class="tei tei-back" style= + "margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 6.00em"> + <div id="footnotes" class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc49" id="toc49"></a> <a name="pdf50" id="pdf50"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Footnotes</span></h1> + + <dl class="tei tei-list-footnotes"> + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1" name="note_1" href= + "#noteref_1">1.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Whenever we use here the word + <span class="tei tei-q">“modern,”</span> we do not take it in the + sense of <span class="tei tei-q">“present,”</span>—the Christian + view of the world is also a present one, and is still of the utmost + importance,—but in the sense of <span class= + "tei tei-q">“new”</span> in contrast to the time-honoured and + inherited.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_2" name="note_2" href= + "#noteref_2">2.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The difference + between the Protestant and the Catholic manner of reasoning is + stated by the convert, Prof. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">A. von + Ruville</span></span>, as follows:</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“My mind had harboured up to now the + characteristically Protestant thought that I, from my superior + mental standpoint, was going to probe the Catholic Church, that I + was going to pass an infallible judgment on her truth or untruth, + and this in spite of my being ready to acknowledge the truth in + her. But now I became more and more conscious of the fact that it + was the Church who had a right to pass judgment on me, that I had + to bow to her opinion, that she immeasurably surpassed me in + wisdom. Many details, which I was inclined to criticize, + demonstrated this to me, for in every instance I recognized that + it was my understanding that was at fault, and that what appeared + to me as an imperfection was rooted in the deepest truth. In this + way I was gradually brought to the real Catholic standpoint, to + accept the doctrines immediately as Truth, because they proceeded + from the Church, and then to endeavour to understand them + thoroughly, and to reap from them the fullest possible harvest of + Truth. Formerly, with regard to Protestant doctrines, I always + retained my independence and the sovereignty of my judgment. Why + should I not have had my own opinion, when every denomination and + every theologian had an individual opinion? How different with + the Catholic Church. Before her sublime, never varying wisdom, as + it is proclaimed by every simple priest, I bowed my knees in + humility. Compared to her experience of two thousand years my + ephemeral knowledge was a mere nothing”</span> (Back to Holy + Church, by Dr. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Albert von Ruville</span></span>, pp. 30, + 31).</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_3" name="note_3" href= + "#noteref_3">3.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Infallible teachings are often also + called dogmas. But they are not always dogmas in the strict sense. + In the strict sense dogmas are such truths as are contained in + divine revelation, and are proclaimed by the infallible teaching + authority of the Church to be believed as such by the faithful. In + a broader sense those tenets are often called dogmas which are + presented by revelation or by the Church as infallible truths. In + this sense all teachings of faith clearly found in Holy Scripture + are dogmas, even if not declared by the Church. In this sense + Protestants, too, believe in revealed dogmas.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_4" name="note_4" href= + "#noteref_4">4.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“They that + have received the faith through the ministry of the Church can + never have just cause for changing their faith or calling it into + doubt”</span> (Sess. III, ch. 3). The Vatican Council did not + thereby mean to say that an exceptional case could not happen where + some one, without fault of his own, might fall away from his faith, + either on account of insufficient religious instruction, or of + natural dullness or exceptional misfortunes in the circumstances of + life in which he may be placed. The theologians who worded the + decision also say that the Council did not intend to condemn the + opinion expressed by many older theologians, that under certain + conditions an uneducated Catholic might be led in such way into + error as to join another faith without committing a sin. (cf. + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Granderath</span></span>, Const. Dog. ss. oec. + Concl. Vat. 69).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_5" name="note_5" href= + "#noteref_5">5.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">At a certain Austrian university, + where the custom obtains that a member of a faculty of the + university, in the regular order of the faculties, publishes during + the year a book on some study in its particular branch, the turn + came to the theological faculty. One of its members then issued a + work on moral theology, of course with the ecclesiastical + Imprimatur. Upon this being discovered the senate resolved not to + acknowledge the book as a university publication, nor to issue it + as such, as is usually the custom. They believed they saw in the + Imprimatur a degradation of science and a violation of its + freedom—a procedure entirely in accord with the traditional + narrow-mindedness and intolerance of liberalism.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_6" name="note_6" href= + "#noteref_6">6.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A clear understanding of the case of + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span> has been made possible + only since the year 1877, when the papers of the trial were + published by two men of opposite religious views,—the + Catholic-minded historian, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">de l'Epinois</span></span>, and the liberal + author, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">K. Gebler</span></span>, who in 1876 had + already published a work on <span class="tei tei-q">“Galileo + Galilei and the Roman Curia,”</span> in the spirit of the + anti-clerical tendency of the times. Yet, in spite of his attitude, + he was given free permission to copy the papers—a magnanimity by + which the Holy See has earned the gratitude and admiration of every + fair-minded lover of history. In more recent times, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">A. + Favaro</span></span> published, in 1890-1907, a work of twenty + volumes containing all the papers relating to the trial of + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Opere di Galileo Galilei, Edizione Nazionale.”</span> + He, too, had access to the ecclesiastical archives, which he + acknowledges with thanks. It may be said now that the <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Galileo</span></span> + case has been settled by documentary evidence.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_7" name="note_7" href= + "#noteref_7">7.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">After visiting <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Thomson</span></span> + at Kreuznach, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Helmholtz</span></span> wrote: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“He surpasses all great scientists I have personally + met, in acumen, clearness and activity of spirit, so that I felt + somewhat dull beside him.”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Helmholtz</span></span> himself (died 1894) + has never expressed himself about religion. Absorbed by his + scientific work, he seemed to have been indifferent to religion, + but according to his biographer his father was a decided theist, + and his philosophical views were held in great esteem, and partly + subscribed to, by the son. According to <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Dennert</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Helmholtz</span></span> attended church now + and then, and even partook of holy communion. Of decided religious + bent of mind was <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Helmholtz's</span></span> fellow-countryman, + and co-discoverer of the law of energy, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Robert + Mayer</span></span>. At the Congress of scientists at Innsbruck, in + 1869, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mayer</span></span> ended his address with the + significant words: <span class="tei tei-q">“Let me in conclusion + declare from the bottom of my heart that true philosophy cannot and + must not be anything else but propædeutics of the Christian + religion.”</span> His letters breathe piety. For a time he had the + intention of joining the Catholic Church.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_8" name="note_8" href= + "#noteref_8">8.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Others take refuge in the fantastic + theory of an <span class="tei tei-q">“All-Animation.”</span> + According to it all organisms, including trees, shrubs, grasses, + are possessed of a soulful sensation and feeling for the purposes + they serve, and for the elaborate actions they undertake: this is + the reason for their efficacy, not because a wise Creator had + arranged them thus. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">R. H. Francé</span></span> exclaims + triumphantly: <span class="tei tei-q">“When the powers that be + should ask in their dissatisfaction: <span class="tei tei-q">‘Where + has God a place in your system?’</span> we can answer calmly: + <span class="tei tei-q">‘We do not need the hypothesis of a + personal God.’</span> ”</span> God is superfluous—this is the + precious gain which this unscientific explanation is to yield.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_9" name="note_9" href= + "#noteref_9">9.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Compare Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum + XI (1883, vii.).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_10" name="note_10" href= + "#noteref_10">10.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">L. M. Hartmann</span></span>, Theodor Mommsen + (1908), 81. The author of the biography is a Jew. There is a + much-circulated story, alleged to come from <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">F. X. + Kraus</span></span>. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mommsen</span></span> is said to have told + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kraus</span></span>, inasmuch as neither the + origin, nor nature, nor the spread of Christianity can be explained + by natural causes, and since he, in his capacity of historian, + could never acknowledge anything supernatural, therefore the fourth + volume will remain unwritten.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_11" name="note_11" href= + "#noteref_11">11.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Nietzsche</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Thus spoke Zarathustra.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_12" name="note_12" href= + "#noteref_12">12.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“<span lang= + "la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Veritati ut possetis acquiescere, humilitate + opus erat, quae civitati, vestrae difficillime persuaderi + potest</span></span>”</span> (De civit. Dei, X, 29).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_13" name="note_13" href= + "#noteref_13">13.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Plato</span></span>, Phil. 6 c. Similarly + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Pythagoras</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Aristotle</span></span>, and <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cicero</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_14" name="note_14" href= + "#noteref_14">14.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dial. c. Tryph. 2.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_15" name="note_15" href= + "#noteref_15">15.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“But for the + retention of names and terms <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Harnack</span></span> leaves nothing of the + specific nature of Christianity,”</span> admits the Protestant + Professor of Theology, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">W. Walther</span></span>, in his book, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Harnack's Wesen des Christentums”</span> + (1901).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_16" name="note_16" href= + "#noteref_16">16.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Uhlich</span></span>, founder of a community + of free-thinkers, who died in 1873, thus describes his evolution + from rationalism to atheism: <span class="tei tei-q">“At the + beginning I could say: We hold fast to Jesus, to Him who stood too + high to be called a mere man. Ten years later I could say: God, + virtue, immortality—these three are the eternal foundation of + religion. And after ten more years I could issue a declaration + wherein God was mentioned no more.”</span> Similar progress in + spiritual disintegration has been shown by Liberalism in recent + years: first it partially abandoned Christian dogma, without + however quite breaking loose from it; in the eighteenth century + rationalistic enlightenment tore loose from all revelation, + adhering only to natural religion: to-day even this is lost.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_17" name="note_17" href= + "#noteref_17">17.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dr. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Spencer + Jones</span></span>, an Episcopal clergyman, says in his book, + <span class="tei tei-q">“England and the Holy See”</span>: + <span class="tei tei-q">“For the Episcopal Church the junction with + Rome, with its sharply defined dogmas, its supreme ministry, and + its firm leadership, is a question of life. More and more the + supernatural belief is replaced by individual opinions, a condition + which in itself causes faith to disappear. A condition like the + present, making it possible that in one and the same congregation + the most pronounced contrariety of opinions in respect to most + essential tenets, as well as a general confusion of minds, is not + only tolerated, but directly welcomed, such a condition cannot + endure in the long run.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_18" name="note_18" href= + "#noteref_18">18.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A French author, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">G. + Goyau</span></span>, states with truth: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“What makes the (Catholic) Church lovable in the eyes + of thinking minds outside of the Church, is just her uncompromising + attitude. They see a Church steadfast, permanent, imperturbable. + The stumbling block of yore has become for them an isle of safety. + They are thankful to Rome for holding before their eyes <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">the</span></em> + Christianity, instead of giving them the choice of several kinds of + Christianity, including kinds still unknown, which they undoubtedly + themselves may discover, if so inclined. They welcome the Roman + Church as the <span class="tei tei-q">‘Teacher of Faith’</span> and + <span class="tei tei-q">‘Conqueror of Errors,’</span> and, to quote + more of the forcible language of the Protestant <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">de + Pressensé</span></span>: <span class="tei tei-q">‘they are + disgusted with a Christianity for the lowest bidder, but are + impressed by the rigid inflexibility of + Catholicism....’</span> ”</span> (Autour du Catholicisme social. I. + 1896).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_19" name="note_19" href= + "#noteref_19">19.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“The + Independent”</span> (New York) of Feb. 2, 1914, reports under the + head <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">freedom of teaching</span></em> the dismissal + of a professor from the Presbyterian University at Easton, Pa. + After quoting from the charter article VIII, which provides + <span class="tei tei-q">“that persons of every religious + denomination shall be capable of being elected Trustees, nor shall + any person, either as principal, professor, tutor or pupil be + refused admittance into said college, or denied any of the + privileges, immunities or advantages thereof, for or on account of + his sentiments in matters of religion,”</span> the report goes on + to say: <span class="tei tei-q">“it appears however, from the + investigations of the committee, that President <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Warfield</span></span> insists that the + instruction in philosophy and psychology has to be such, as, in his + opinion, accords with the most conservative form of Presbyterian + theology.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_20" name="note_20" href= + "#noteref_20">20.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Prof. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Chr. von + Ehrenfels</span></span>, Sexualethik. Similar passages might be + quoted from numerous other books by college-professors.</dd> + </dl> + </div> + <hr class="doublepage" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <div id="pgfooter" class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <pre class="pre tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FREEDOM OF SCIENCE*** +</pre> + <hr class="doublepage" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="rightpageheader51" id="rightpageheader51"></a><a name= + "pgtoc52" id="pgtoc52"></a><a name="pdf53" id="pdf53"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Credits</span></h1> + + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <tbody> + <tr> + <th class="tei tei-label tei-label-gloss">July 26, + 2012 </th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="tei tei-item tei-item-gloss"> + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" + style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <tbody> + <tr class="tei tei-labelitem"> + <th class="tei tei-label"></th> + + <td class="tei tei-item">Project Gutenberg TEI + edition 1</td> + </tr> + + <tr class="tei tei-labelitem"> + <th class="tei tei-label"></th> + + <td class="tei tei-item"><span class= + "tei tei-respStmt"><span class= + "tei tei-name">Produced by Dianna Adair, David + King, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team + at <http://www.pgdp.net/>. 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