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diff --git a/40318.txt b/40318.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 3ce4f4d..0000000 --- a/40318.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,14014 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Book of Cheese, by Charles Thom and -Walter Warner Fisk - - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - - - - -Title: The Book of Cheese - - -Author: Charles Thom and Walter Warner Fisk - - - -Release Date: July 25, 2012 [eBook #40318] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII) - - -***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOOK OF CHEESE*** - - -E-text prepared by Susan Carr, Turgut Dincer, Charlene Taylor, and the -Online Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page -images generously made available by Internet Archive (http://archive.org) - - - -Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this - file which includes the original illustrations. - See 40318-h.htm or 40318-h.zip: - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/40318/40318-h/40318-h.htm) - or - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/40318/40318-h.zip) - - - Images of the original pages are available through - Internet Archive. See - http://archive.org/details/bookofcheese00thomrich - - -Transcriber's note: - - Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). - - Text enclosed by plus signs is in bold face (+bold+). - - - - - -THE BOOK OF CHEESE - - * * * * * - - The Rural Text-Book Series - - EDITED BY L. H. BAILEY - - - _Carleton_: THE SMALL GRAINS. - - _B. M. Duggar_: THE PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANT PRODUCTION. - - _J. F. Duggar_: SOUTHERN FIELD CROPS. - - _Gay_: BREEDS OF LIVE-STOCK. - - _Gay_: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF JUDGING LIVE-STOCK. - - _Goff_: PRINCIPLES OF PLANT CULTURE. - - _Guthrie_: BOOK OF BUTTER. - - _Harper_: ANIMAL HUSBANDRY FOR SCHOOLS. - - _Harris and Stewart_: PRINCIPLES OF AGRONOMY. - - _Hitchcock_: TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES. - - _Jeffery_: TEXT-BOOK OF LAND DRAINAGE. - - _Jordan_: FEEDING OF ANIMALS. Revised. - - _Livingston_: FIELD CROP PRODUCTION. - - _Lyon_: SOILS AND FERTILIZERS. - - _Lyon, Fippin and Buckman_: SOILS, THEIR PROPERTIES AND MANAGEMENT. - - _Mann_: BEGINNINGS IN AGRICULTURE. - - _Montgomery_: THE CORN CROPS. - - _Morgan_: FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT. - - _Mumford_. THE BREEDING OF ANIMALS. - - _Piper_: FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE. - - _Sampson_: EFFECTIVE FARMING. - - _Thom_ and _Fisk_: THE BOOK OF CHEESE. - - _Warren_: THE ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE. - - _Warren_: FARM MANAGEMENT. - - _Wheeler_: MANURES AND FERTILIZERS. - - _White_: PRINCIPLES OF FLORICULTURE. - - _Widtsoe_: PRINCIPLES OF IRRIGATION PRACTICE. - - * * * * * - - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.--A cheese laboratory in the New York State -College of Agriculture at Cornell University.] - - -THE BOOK OF CHEESE - -by - -CHARLES THOM - -Investigator in Cheese, Formerly at Connecticut -Agricultural College - -and - -WALTER W. FISK - -Assistant Professor of Dairy Industry (Cheese-Making), -New York State College of Agriculture -at Cornell University - - - - - - - -New York -The Macmillan Company -1918 -All rights reserved - - -Copyright, 1918, -By the Macmillan Company. - -Set up and electrotyped. Published July, 1918. - -Norwood Press -J. S. Cushing Co.--Berwick & Smith Co. -Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. - - - - -PREFACE - - -Certain products we associate with the manufactures of the household, so -familiar and of such long standing that we do not think of them as -requiring investigation or any special support of science. The older -ones of us look back on cheese as an ancient home product; yet the -old-fashioned hard strong kind has given place to many named varieties, -some of them bearing little resemblance to the product of the kitchen -and the buttery. We have analyzed the processes; discovered -microorganisms that hinder or help; perfected devices and machines; -devised tests of many kinds; studied the chemistry; developed markets -for standardized commodities. Here is one of the old established farm -industries that within a generation has passed from the housewife and -the home-made hand press to highly perfected factory processes employing -skilled service and handling milk by the many tons from whole -communities of cows. This is an example of the great changes in -agricultural practice. Cheese-making is now a piece of applied science; -many students in the colleges are studying the subject; no one would -think of undertaking it in the old way: for these reasons this book is -written. - -This book is intended as a guide in the interpretation of the processes -of making and handling a series of important varieties of cheese. The -kinds here considered are those made commercially in America, or so -widely met in the trade that some knowledge of them is necessary. The -relation of cheese to milk and to its production and composition has -been presented in so far as required for this purpose. The principles -and practices underlying all cheese-making have been brought together -into a chapter on curd-making. A chapter on classification then brings -together into synoptical form our knowledge of groups of varieties. -These groups are then discussed separately. The problems of factory -building, factory organization, buying and testing milk, and the proper -marketing of cheese, are briefly discussed. - -Such a discussion should be useful to the student, to the beginner in -cheese-making, as a reference book on many varieties in the hands of -makers who specialize in single varieties, and to the housekeeper or -teacher of domestic science. The material has been brought together from -the experience of the writers, supplemented by free use of the -literature in several languages. Standard references to this literature -are added in the text. - -No introduction to the subject of cheese should fail to mention the work -of J. H. Monrad, who has recently passed away. Mr. Monrad never -collected his material into a single publication, but his contributions -to cheese-making information, scattered widely in trade literature over -a period of thirty years, form an encyclopedia of the subject. - -Bulletins of the Agricultural Experiment Stations and United States -Department of Agriculture have been quoted extensively, with citation of -the sources of the material. Personal assistance from Professor W. A. -Stocking and other members of the Dairy Department of Cornell -University, and C. F. Doane of the United States Department of -Agriculture, is gladly acknowledged. - -Students cannot learn out of books to make cheese. They may, however, -be aided in understanding the problems from such study. To make cheese -successfully they must have intimate personal touch with some person who -knows cheese. Sympathetic relations with such a teacher day by day in -the cheese-room are essential to success in making cheese which, at its -best, is one of the most attractive of food-products. - - - THE AUTHORS. - - - - -TABLE OF CONTENTS - - - CHAPTER I - - PAGES - - GENERAL STATEMENT ON CHEESE 1-4 - - Nature of cheese, 1; Cheese-making as an art, 2; - Cheese-making as a science, 3; Problems in cheese-making, - 4; History, 5. - - - CHAPTER II - - THE MILK IN ITS RELATION TO CHEESE 5-28 - - Factors affecting the quality, 6; Chemical composition, 7; - Factors causing variation in composition, 8; Milk - constituents, 9; Water, 10; Fat, 11; Casein, 12; - Milk-sugar, 13; Albumin, 14; Ash, 15; Enzymes, 16; The - flavor of feeds eaten by the cow, 17; Absorption of odors, - 18; Effect of condition of the cow, 19; Bacteria in the - milk, 20; Groups of bacteria in milk, 21; Acid - fermentation of milk, 22; Bacterium lactis-acidi group, - 23; Colon-aerogenes group, 24; Acid peptonizing group, 25; - Bacillus bulgaricus group, 26; Acid cocci or weak - acid-producers, 27; Peptonizing organisms, 28; Inert - types, 29; Alkali-producing bacteria, 30; Butyric - fermenting types, 31; Molds and yeasts, 32; Bacterial - contamination of milk, 33; Germicidal effect of milk, 34; - Sources and control of bacteria in milk, 35; The cow, 36; - Stable air, 37; The milker, 38; Utensils, 39; The factory, - 40; The control of bacteria, 41; Fermentation test, 42; - The sediment test, 43. - - - CHAPTER III - - COAGULATING MATERIALS 29-40 - - Ferments, 44; Nature of rennet, 45; Preparation of rennet - extract, 46; Pepsin, 47; Chemistry of curdling, 48; Use - of acid, 49; Robertson's theory, 50; Rennet curd, 51; - Hammarsten's theory, 52; Duclaux theory, 53; Bang's - theory, 54; Bosworth's theory, 55. - - - CHAPTER IV - - LACTIC STARTERS 41-54 - - Acidifying organisms, 56; Starter, 57; Natural starter, - 58; Commercial starter or pure cultures, 59; - Manufacturer's directions, 60; Selecting milk, 61; - Pasteurization, 62; Containers, 63; Adding cultures, 64; - Cleanliness, 65; "Mother" starter or startoline, 66; - Examining starter, 67; Second day's propagation, 68; - Preparations of larger amount of starter, 69; Amount of - mother starter to use, 70; Qualities, 71; How to carry the - mother starter, 72; Starter score-cards, 73; Use of - starter, 74; The amount of starter to use, 75; Starter - lot-card, 76. - - - CHAPTER V - - CURD-MAKING 55-80 - - The composition of the milk, 77; Cheese color, 78; The - acidity factor, 79; Acidity of milk when received, 80; The - acid test, 81; Rennet tests, 82; Marschall rennet test, - 83; Comparison of acid and rennet test, 84; Control of - acid, 85; Acidity and rennet action, 86; Acidity and - expulsion of the whey, 87; Acidity in relation to cheese - flavor, 88; Acidity in relation to body and texture of - cheese, 89; Acidity in relation to cheese color, 90; - Control of moisture, 91; Relation of moisture to - manufacture and quality, 92; Relation of moisture to - acidity, 93; Setting temperature, 94; Strength of - coagulating materials, 95; Amount of coagulating materials - to use, 96; Method of adding rennet, 97; The curdling - period, 98; Cutting or breaking the curd, 99; Curd knives, - 100; Heating or "cooking," 101; Draining, 102; Application - to cheese, 103. - - - CHAPTER VI - - CLASSIFICATION 81-88 - - Basis of classification, 104; Processed cheeses, 105; Whey - cheeses, 106; Soft and hard cheeses, 107; Relation of - moisture to classes, 108; Relation of heat to classes, - 109. - - - CHAPTER VII - - CHEESES WITH SOUR-MILK FLAVOR 89-110 - - Skim series, 110; Cottage cheese, 111; Household practice, - 112; Factory practice, 113; Buttermilk cheese, 114; - Neufchatel group, 115; Domestic or American Neufchatel - cheeses, 116; The factory, 117; Cans, 118; Draining racks, - 119; Cloths, 120; Molding machinery, 121; Milk for - Neufchatel, 122; Starter, 123; Renneting or setting, 124; - Draining, 125; Cooling Neufchatel, 126; Pressing, 127; - Working and salting Neufchatel, 128; Storage, 129; - Molding, 130; Skimmed-milk Neufchatel, 131; Baker's - cheese, 132; Domestic Neufchatel, 133; Partially skim - Neufchatel, 134; Cream cheese, 135; Neufchatel - specialties, 136; Gervais, 137; European forms - occasionally imported, 138. - - - CHAPTER VIII - - SOFT CHEESES RIPENED BY MOLD 111-133 - - Hand cheese and its allies, 139; Pennsylvania pot cheese, - 140; Appetitost (Appetite cheese), 141; Ripened - Neufchatel, French process, 142; The Camembert group, 143; - Camembert cheese, 144; Description of Camembert, 145; - Conditions of making and ripening, 146; Outline of making - process, 147; Acidity, 148; Ripening the cheese, 149; - Composition, 150; Factory, 151; Economic factors, 152; - French Brie, 153; Coulommiers, 154. - - - CHAPTER IX - - SOFT CHEESES RIPENED BY BACTERIA 134-148 - - The Isigny group, 155; Raffine, 156; Liederkranz cheese, - 157; Limburger cheese, 158; The milk, 159; Making the - cheese, 160; Draining and salting, 161; Ripening, 162; - Marketing and qualities of Limburger, 163; Yield and - composition of Limburger, 164; Muenster cheese, 165. - - - CHAPTER X - - SEMI-HARD CHEESES 149-171 - - The green mold group, 166; Roquefort cheese, 167; Cow's - milk or Facons Roquefort, 168; Outline of making - Roquefort, 169; Ripening of Roquefort, 170; Gorgonzola, - 171; Stilton cheese, 172; Gex, 173; Bacterially-ripened - series, 174; Brick cheese, 175; Making of brick cheese, - 176; Ripening brick cheese, 177; Qualities of brick - cheese, 178; Composition and yield, 179; Port du Salut - cheese, 180. - - - CHAPTER XI - - THE HARD CHEESES 172-183 - - The Danish group, 181; The Dutch group, 182; Edam cheese, - 183; Method of manufacture, 184; Salting and curing Edam, - 185; Equipment for making Edam cheese, 186; Qualities and - yield of Edam cheese, 187; Gouda cheese, 188; Method of - manufacture, 189; Equipment for Gouda cheese, 190; - Composition and yield, 191. - - - CHAPTER XII - - CHEDDAR CHEESE-MAKING 184-221 - - The lot-card, 192; The milk, 193; Ripening the milk, 194; - Setting or coagulating, 195; Cutting, 196; Heating or - "cooking" the curd, 197; Removing the whey, 198; Hot-iron - test, 199; Firmness of the curd, 200; Gathering the curd - together, 201; Matting or cheddaring, 202; Milling the - curd, 203; Salting, 204; Hooping the curd, 205; Pressing - the curd, 206; Dressing the cheese, 207; Handling - over-ripe and gassy milk, 208; Qualities of Cheddar - cheese, 209. - - - CHAPTER XIII - - COMPOSITION AND YIELD OF CHEDDAR CHEESE 222-246 - - Composition of milk, whey and cheese, 210; Relations of - fat to casein in normal milk, 211; Influence of fat in - milk on yield of cheese, 212; Fat loss in cheese-making, - 213; Effect of bacterial-content of milk on yield of - cheese, 214; Factors affecting the moisture-content of - Cheddar, 215; Variations of the Cheddar process, 216; - Cheddar-type cheese from pasteurized milk, 217; Club - cheese, 218; The stirred-curd or granular process, 219; - California Jack cheese, 220; The washed-curd process, 221; - English dairy cheese, 222; Pineapple cheese, 223; Leyden, - 224; Cheddar cheese with pimientos, 225; Sage cheese, 226; - Skimmed-milk cheese, 227; Full skimmed-milk Cheddar - cheese, 228; Half skimmed-milk Cheddar cheese, 229; Yield - and qualities of skimmed-milk Cheddar cheese, 230. - - - CHAPTER XIV - - CHEDDAR CHEESE RIPENING 247-275 - - Fat, 231; Milk-sugar, 232; The salts, 233; Gases, 234; - Casein or proteins, 235; Causes of ripening changes, 236; - Action of the rennet extract, 237; The action of the - bacteria, 238; Conditions affecting the rate of cheese - ripening, 239; The length of time, 240; The temperature of - the curing-room, 241; Moisture-content of the cheese, 242; - The size of the cheese, 243; The amount of salt used, 244; - The amount of rennet extract, 245; The influence of acid, - 246; Care of the cheese in the curing-room, 247; - Evaporation of moisture from the cheese during ripening, - 248; Paraffining, 249; Shipping, 250. _Defects in Cheddar - cheese_: Defects in flavor, 251; Feedy flavors, 252; Acid - flavors, 253; Sweet or fruity flavors, 254; Defects in - body and texture, 255; Loose or open texture, 256; Dry - body, 257; Gassy textured cheese, 258; Acidy, pasty or - soft body and texture, 259; Defects in color, 260; Defects - in finish, 261. _Cheddar cheese judging_: Securing the - sample, 262; How to determine quality, 263; Causes of - variations in score, 264; The score-card, 265. - - - CHAPTER XV - - THE SWISS AND ITALIAN GROUPS 276-292 - - _Swiss cheese_: The Swiss factory, 266; The milk, 267; - Rennet extract, 268; Starter, 269; The making process, - 270; Curing Swiss, 271; Block Swiss, 272; Shipment, 273; - Qualities of Swiss cheese, 274; Composition and yield, - 275; _The Italian group_: Parmesan, 276; Regianito, 277. - - - CHAPTER XVI - - MISCELLANEOUS VARIETIES AND BY-PRODUCTS 293-296 - - Caciocavallo, 278; Sap sago, 279; Albumin cheese, 280; - Mysost, Norwegian whey cheese, 281; Whey butter, 282. - - - CHAPTER XVII - - CHEESE FACTORY CONSTRUCTION, EQUIPMENT, ORGANIZATION 297-310 - - Locating the site, 283; The building, 284; Heating plant, - 285; Curing-rooms, 286; Light, 287; Ventilation, 288; - Boiler-room, 289; whey tanks, 290; Store-room, 291; The - floors, 292; Arrangement of machinery and rooms, 293; - Arrangements for cleanliness, 294; Equipment and supplies - list, 295; Factory organization, 296. - - - CHAPTER XVIII - - HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHEESE INDUSTRY IN AMERICA 311-326 - - The factory system, 297; Introduction of factory system in - Canada, 298; Introduction of cheddaring, 299; Introduction - of Swiss and Limburger, 300; Number and distribution of - cheese factories, 301; Total production of cheese in the - United States, 302; Rank of the leading cheese-producing - states, 303; Exportation and importation of cheese by the - United States, 304; Average yearly price of cheese, 305; - Canadian cheese statistics, 306; Introduction of - cheese-making into new regions, 307. - - - CHAPTER XIX - - TESTING 327-342 - - The fat test, 308; Sampling the milk, 309; Adding the - acid, 310; Centrifuging, 311; Reading the test, 312; - testing whey for fat, 313; testing cheese for fat, 314; - Reading the test, 315; The Hart casein test, 316; Solids - in the milk, 317; the lactometer, 318; Calculating the - solids not fat in the milk, 319; Testing cheese for - moisture, 320. - - - CHAPTER XX - - MARKETING 343-361 - - Buying milk, 321; Cheese yield basis of buying milk, 322; - Fat basis for payment of milk, 323; Weight basis or - pooling method for payment of milk, 324; Fat-plus-two - method for payment of milk, 325; Comparison of methods, - 326; Laws governing the production and sale of milk, 327; - Marketing of cheese, 328; Mercantile exchanges, 329; - Marketing perishable varieties, 330; Distribution of - price, 331; Standards, 332; Laws relating to cheese - marketing, 333. - - - CHAPTER XXI - - CHEESE IN THE HOUSEHOLD 362-381 - - Food value of cheese, 334; Digestibility of cheese, 335; - Cheese flavor, 336; Relation to health, 337; Cheese - poisoning, 338; Proper place in the diet, 339; Care of - cheese, 340; Food value and price, 341; Methods and - recipes for using cheese, 342. - - - - -THE BOOK OF CHEESE - - - - -CHAPTER I - -_GENERAL STATEMENT ON CHEESE_ - - -Cheese is a solid or semi-solid protein food product manufactured from -milk. Its solidity depends on the curdling or coagulation of part or all -of the protein and the expulsion of the watery part or whey. The -coagulum or curd so formed incloses part of the milk-serum (technically -whey) or watery portion of the milk, part of the salts, part or all of -the fat, and an aliquot part of the milk-sugar. The loss in manufacture -includes a small fraction of the protein and fat, the larger proportion -of the water, salts and milk-sugar. - -+1. Nature of cheese.+--Milk of itself is an exceedingly perishable -product. Cheese preserves the most important nutrient parts of the milk -in condition for consumption over a much longer period. The duration of -this period and the ripening and other changes taking place depend very -closely on the composition of the freshly made cheese. There is an -intimate relation between the water, fat, protein and salt-content of -the newly made cheese and the ripening processes which produce the -particular flavors of the product when it is ready for the consumer. -This relation is essentially biological. A cheese containing 60 to 75 -per cent of water, as in "cottage cheese" (the sour-milk cheese so -widely made in the homes), must be eaten or lost in a very few days. -Spoilage is very rapid. In contrast to this, the Italian Parmesan, with -30 to 32 per cent of water, requires two to three years for proper -ripening. - -The cheeses made from soured skim-milk probably represent the most -ancient forms of cheese-making. Their origin is lost in antiquity. The -makers of Roquefort cheese cite passages from Pliny which they think -refer to an early form of that product. It is certain that cheese in -some form has been familiar to man throughout historic times. The -technical literature of cheese-making is, however, essentially recent. -The older literature may be cited to follow the historical changes in -details of practice. - -+2. Cheese-making as an art+ has been developed to high stages of -perfection in widely separate localities. The best known varieties of -cheese bear the geographical names of the places of their origin. The -practices of making and handling such cheeses have been developed in -intimate relation to climate, local conditions and the habits of the -people. So close has been this adjustment in some cases, that the -removal of expert makers of such cheeses to new regions has resulted in -total failure to transplant the industry. - -+3. Cheese-making as a science+ has been a comparatively recent -development. It has been partly a natural outgrowth of the desire of -emigrant peoples to carry with them the arts of their ancestral home, -partly the desire to manufacture at home the good things met in foreign -travel. Its development has been largely coincident with the development -of the agricultural school and the science of dairy biology. Even now -we have but a limited knowledge of a few of the 500 or more varieties of -cheese named in the literature. It is desirable to bring together the -knowledge of underlying principles as far as they are known. - -No technical description of a cheese-handling process can replace -experience. Descriptions of appearances and textures of curd in terms -definite enough to be understood by beginners have been found to be -impossible. It is possible, however, to lay down principles and -essentials of practice which are common to the industry and form the -foundation for intelligent work. Cheese-making will be a science only as -we depart from the mere repetition of a routine or rule-of-thumb -practice and understand the underlying principles. - -+4. Problems in cheese-making.+--Any understanding of these problems -calls for a working knowledge of the very complex series of factors -involved. These include the chemical composition of the milk, the nature -of rennet and character of its action under the conditions met in -cheese-making, the nature of the micro-organisms in milk, and the -methods of controlling them, their relation to acidity and to the -ripening of the cheese. To these scientific demands must be added -acquaintance with the technique of the whole milk industry, from its -production and handling on the farm through the multiplicity of details -of factory installation and organization, to those intangible factors -concerned with the texture, body, odor and taste of the varied products -made from it. Some of these factors can be adequately described; others -have thus far been handed on from worker to worker but have baffled -every effort at standardization or definition. - -+5. History.+--The recorded history of the common varieties of cheese is -only fragmentary. Practices at one time merely local in origin followed -the lines of emigration. Records of processes of manufacture were not -kept. The continuance of a particular practice depended on the skill and -memory of the emigrant, who called his cheese after the place of origin. -Other names of the same kind were applied by the makers for selling -purposes. The widely known names were thus almost all originally -geographical. Some of them, such as Gorgonzola, are used for cheeses not -now made at the places whose names they bear. Naturally, this method of -development has produced national groups of cheeses which have many -common characteristics but differ in detail. The English cheeses form a -typical group of this kind. - -Emigration to America carried English practices across the Atlantic. The -story of cheese-making in America has been so closely linked with the -development of the American Cheddar process that the historical aspects -of the industry in this country are considered under that head in -Chapter VIII. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -_THE MILK IN ITS RELATION TO CHEESE_ - - -The opaque whitish liquid, secreted by the mammary glands of female -mammals for the nourishment of their young, is known as milk. The milk -of the cow is the kind commonly used for cheese-making in America. - -+6. Factors affecting the quality.+--The process of cheese-making begins -with drawing the milk from the udder. The care and treatment the milk -receives, while being drawn, and its subsequent handling, have a decided -influence on its qualities. The process of cheese-making is varied -according to the qualities of the milk. There are five factors that -influence the quality of the milk for cheese-making: (1) its chemical -composition; (2) the flavor of feed eaten by the cow; (3) the absorption -of flavors and odors from the atmosphere; (4) the health of the cow; (5) -the bacteria present. The first factor is dependent on the breed and -individuality of the cow. The other four factors are almost entirely -within the control of man. Of these factors, number five is of the most -importance, and is the one most frequently neglected. - -+7. Chemical composition.+--The high, low and average composition of -milk is approximately as follows: - - TABLE I - - COMPOSITION OF MILK - - --------+-------+------+--------+-------+---------+----- - | WATER | FAT | CASEIN | SUGAR | ALBUMIN | ASH - | PER | PER | PER | PER | PER | PER - | CENT | CENT | CENT | CENT | CENT | CENT - --------+-------+------+--------+-------+---------+----- - High | 88.90 | 5.50 | 3.00 | 5.00 | .72 | .73 - Low | 85.05 | 3.00 | 2.10 | 4.60 | .70 | .70 - Average | 87.47 | 3.80 | 2.50 | 4.80 | .71 | .72 - --------+-------+------+--------+-------+---------+----- - -+8. Factors causing variation in composition.+--The composition of cow's -milk varies according to several factors. The composition of the milk of -different breeds differs to such a degree that whole series of factories -are found with lower or higher figures than these averages on account of -dominant presence of particular kinds of cattle. - -The following table shows the usual effect of breed on fat and total -solids of milk: - - TABLE II - - THE USUAL EFFECT OF BREED OF COWS ON FAT AND TOTAL - SOLIDS OF MILK - - ------------------+------------------------ - | AVERAGES - BREED OF COWS +----------+------------- - | Fat | Total Solids - | Per Cent | Per Cent - ------------------+----------+------------- - Jersey | 5.62 | 14.74 - Guernsey | 5.34 | 14.70 - Shorthorn | 4.17 | 13.41 - Ayrshire | 3.61 | 12.72 - Holstein-Friesian | 3.30 | 11.89 - ------------------+----------+------------- - -The figures[1] in Tables I and II are compiled and averaged from a large -number of analyses made at different agricultural experiment stations. - -This variation not only affects the fat, but all constituents of the -milk. While there is a difference in the composition of the milk from -cows of different breeds, there is almost as wide variation in the -composition of the milk from single cows[2] of the same breed. With the -same cow the stage of lactation causes a wide variation in the -composition of the milk.[3] As the period of lactation advances, the -milk increases in percentage of fat and other solids. - -+9. Milk constituents.+--From the standpoint of the cheese-maker, the -significant constituents of milk are water, fat, casein, milk-sugar, -albumin, ash and enzymes. These will be discussed separately. - -+10. Water.+--The retention of the solids and the elimination of the -water are among the chief considerations in cheese-making. Water forms -84 to 89 per cent of milk. Cheese-making calls for the reduction of this -percentage to that typical of the particular variety of cheese desired -with the least possible loss of milk solids. This final percentage -varies from 30 to 70 per cent with the variety of cheese. The water has -two uses in the cheese: (1) It imparts smoothness and mellowness to the -body of the cheese; (2) it furnishes suitable conditions for the action -of the ripening agents. To some extent the water may supplement or even -replace fat in its effect on the texture of the cheese. If the cheese is -properly made, the water present is in such combination as to give no -suggestion of a wet or "leaky" product. - -+11. Fat.+--Fat is present in the milk in the form of suspended small -transparent globules (as an emulsion). These globules vary in size with -the breed and individuality of the cow and in color from a very light -yellow to a deep yellow shade as sought in butter. Milk with small fat -globules is preferred for cheese-making, because these are not so easily -lost in the process. Milk-fat is made up of several different compounds -called glycerids,[4] which are formed by the union of an organic acid -with glycerine as a base. - -Fat is important in cheese-making for two reasons: (1) Its influence on -the yield of cheese; (2) its effect on the quality of the cheese. Many -of the details of cheese-making processes have been developed to prevent -the loss of fat in manufacture. The yield of cheese is almost directly -in proportion to the amount of fat in the milk; nevertheless, because -the solids not fat do not increase exactly in proportion to the fat, the -cheese yield is not exactly in proportion to the fat. The fat, however, -is a good index of the cheese-producing power of the milk. - -+12. Casein.+--Cheese-making is possible because of the peculiar -properties of casein. This is the fundamental substance of cheese-making -because it has the capacity to coagulate or curdle under the action of -acid and rennet enzymes. Casein is an extremely complex organic -compound.[5] Authorities disagree regarding its exact composition, but -it contains varying amounts of carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, -phosphorus and sulfur, and it usually is combined with some form -of lime or calcium phosphate. It belongs to the general class of -nitrogen-containing compounds called proteins. It is present in milk in -the form of extremely minute gelatinous particles in suspension. Casein -is insoluble in water and dilute acids. The acids, when added, cause a -heavy, white, more or less flocculent precipitate. Rennet (Chapter III) -causes the casein to coagulate (curdle), forming a jelly-like mass -called curd, which is the basis of manufacture in most types of cheese. -In the formation of this coagulum (curd), the fat is imprisoned and -held. The casein compounds in the curd hold the moisture and give -firmness and solidity of body to the cheese. Casein contains the protein -materials in which important ripening changes take place. These changes -render the casein more soluble, and are thought to be the source of -certain characteristic cheese flavors. - -+13. Milk-sugar.+--Milk-sugar (lactose) is present in solution in the -watery part of the milk. It forms on the average about 5 per cent of -cow's milk. Since it is in solution, cheese retains the aliquot part of -the total represented by the water-content of the cheese, plus any part -of the sugar which has entered into combination with the milk solids -during the souring process. The larger part of the lactose passes off -with the whey. Lactose[6] is attacked by the lactic-acid bacteria and by -them is changed to lactic acid. Cheeses in which this souring process -goes on quickly, soon contain a large enough percentage of acid to check -the rotting of the cheese by decay organisms. Without this souring, most -varieties of cheese will begin to spoil quickly. For each variety there -is a proper balance between the souring, which interrupts the growth of -many kinds of putrefactive bacteria, and the development of the forms -which are essential to proper ripening. - -+14. Albumin.+--This is a form of protein which is in solution in the -milk. Albumin forms about 0.7 per cent of cow's milk. It is not -coagulated by rennet. Most rennet cheeses, therefore, retain only that -portion of the total albumin held in solution in the water retained, as -in the case of milk-sugar. Albumin is coagulated by heat, forming a film -or membrane upon the surface. There are certain kinds of cheese, such -as Ricotte, made by the recovery of albumin by heating. - -+15. Ash.+--The ash or mineral constituents make up about 0.7 per cent -of cow's milk. This total includes very small amounts of a great many -substances. The exact form of some of the substances is still unknown. -Of these salts, the calcium or lime and phosphorus salts are most -important in cheese-making. They are partially or completely -precipitated by pasteurization. After such precipitation rennet fails to -act[7] or acts very slowly; hence pasteurized milk cannot be used for -making rennet cheese unless the lost salts are replaced, or the -condition of the casein is changed by the addition of some substance, -before curdling is attempted. - -+16. Enzymes.+--Milk also contains enzymes. These are chemical ferments -secreted by the udder. They have the power to produce changes in organic -compounds without themselves undergoing any change. Minute amounts of -several enzymes are found in milk as follows: Diastase, galactase, -lipase, catalase, peroxidase and reductase. Just what part they play in -cheese-making is not definitely known. - -+17. The flavor of feeds eaten by the cow.+--Undesirable flavors in the -milk are due many times to the use of feed with very pronounced flavors. -The most common of these feeds are onions, garlic, turnips, cabbage, -decayed ensilage, various weeds and the like. These undesirable flavors -reach the milk because the substances are volatile and are able to pass -through the tissues of the animal. While feed containing these flavors -is being digested, these volatile substances are not only present in -the milk, but in all the tissues of the animal. By the time the process -of digestion is completed, the volatile flavors have largely passed -away. Therefore, if the times of milking and feeding are properly -regulated, a dairy-man may feed considerable quantities of -strong-flavored products, such as turnip, cabbage and others, without -any appreciable effect on the flavor of the milk. To accomplish this -successfully, the cows should be fed immediately before or immediately -after milking, preferably after milking. This allows time for the -digestive process to take place and for the volatile substances to -disappear. If, however, milking is performed three or four hours after -feeding, these volatile substances are present in the milk and flavor -it.[8] - -In the case of those plants which grow wild in the pasture, and to which -the cows have continued access, it is more difficult to prevent bad -flavor in the milk. The cows may be allowed to graze for a short time -only, and that immediately after milking, without affecting the flavor -of the milk. This will make it necessary to supplement the pasture with -dry feed, or to have another pasture where these undesirable plants do -not grow. - -Undesirable flavors are usually noticeable in the milk when the cows are -turned out to pasture for the first time in the spring; and when they -are pastured on rank fall feed, such as second growth clover. - -+18. Absorption of odors.+--Milk, especially when warm, possesses a -remarkable ability to absorb and retain odors from the surrounding -atmosphere.[9] For this reason, the milk should be handled only in -places free from such odor. Some of the common sources of these -undesirable odors are bad-smelling stables, strong-smelling feeds in the -stable, dirty cows, aerating milk near hog-pens, barn-yards and swill -barrels. The only way to prevent these undesirable flavors and odors is -not to expose the milk to them. The safest policy is to remove the -source of the odor. - -+19. Effect of condition of the cow.+--Any factor which affects the cow -is reflected in the composition and physiological character of the milk. -(1) Colostrum. Milk secreted just before or just after parturition is -different in physical properties and chemical composition from that -secreted at any other time during the lactation period. This milk is -known as colostrum. It is considered unfit for human food, either as -milk or in products manufactured from the milk. Most states[10] consider -colostrum adulterated milk, and prohibit the sale of the product for -fifteen days preceding and for five days after parturition. (2) Disease. -When disease is detected in the cow, the milk should at once be -discarded as human food. Some diseases are common both to the cow and to -man, such as tuberculosis, foot-and-mouth disease. If such diseases are -present in the cow, the milk may act as a carrier to man. Digestive -disorders of any sort in the cow are frequently accompanied by -undesirable flavors in the milk. These are not thought to be due to the -feed, but to the abnormal condition of the cow. When the normal -condition is restored, these undesirable flavors disappear. - -+20. Bacteria in the milk.+--Bacteria are microscopic unicellular -plants, without chlorophyll. Besides bacteria, there are other forms of -the lower orders of plants found in milk, such as yeasts and molds. -While the bacteria are normally the more important, frequently yeasts -and molds produce significant changes in milk and other dairy products. -Bacteria are very widely distributed throughout nature. They are so -small that they may easily float in the air or on particles of dust. -Many groups of bacteria are so resistant to adverse conditions of growth -that they may be present in a dormant or spore stage, and, therefore, -not be easily recognized; when suitable environments for growth are -again produced, development begins at once. They are found in all -surface water, in the earth and upon all organic matter. There are a -great many different groups of bacteria; some are beneficial, and some -are harmful. As they are so small, it is difficult to differentiate -between the beneficial and harmful kinds, except by the results -produced, or by a careful study in an especially equipped laboratory. -The bacteria multiply very rapidly. This is brought about by fission; -that is, the cell-walls are drawn in at one place around the cell, and -when the walls unite at the center, the cell is divided. There are then -two bacteria. In some cases, division takes place in twenty to thirty -minutes. Like other plants, they are very sensitive to food supply, to -temperature and to moisture, as conditions of growth. Inasmuch as the -bacteria are plant cells, they must absorb their food from materials in -solution. They may live on solid substances, but the food elements must -be rendered soluble before they can be used. Most bacteria prefer a -neutral or slightly acid medium for growth, rather than an alkaline -reaction. Ordinary milk makes a very favorable medium for the growth of -bacteria, because it is an adequate and easily available food supply. - -In milk, certain groups of bacteria are commonly present, but many -others which happen to get into it live and multiply rapidly. A -favorable temperature is very necessary for such organisms to multiply. -There is a range of temperature, more or less wide, at which each group -of bacteria grows and multiplies with the greatest rapidity. This range -varies with the different groups, but most of them find temperatures -between 75 deg. F. and 95 deg. F. the most favorable for growth. -Excessive heat kills the bacteria. Low temperatures stop growth, but kill -few if any bacteria. Temperatures of 50 deg. F. and lower retard the -growth of most forms of bacteria found commonly in milk. Many forms will -slowly develop, however, below 50 deg. and some growth will occur down -to the freezing point. Milk held at 50 deg. F. or lower will remain in -good condition long enough to be handled without injury to quality until -received in the cheese factory. In the place of seeds, some groups of -bacteria form spores. The spores are exceedingly resistant to -unfavorable conditions of growth, such as heat, cold, drying, food -supply and even chemical agents. This property makes it difficult to -destroy such bacteria. - -+21. Groups of bacteria in milk.+--Milk when first drawn usually shows -an amphoteric reaction; that is, it will give the acid and alkaline -reactions with litmus paper. Under normal conditions, milk soon begins -to undergo changes, due to the bacteria. Changes produced in this way -are called "fermentations"; the agents causing them, "ferments." -Normally the acid fermentation takes place first, and later other -fermentations or changes begin, which, after a time, so decompose the -milk that it will not be suitable for cheese-making or human -consumption. - -The following grouping of the organisms in milk is based on their -effects on the milk itself[11]: - - I. Acid-producing types. - II. Peptonizing types. - III. Inert types. - IV. Alkali-producing types. - V. Butyric fermenting types. - -Each type of bacteria produces more or less specific changes in the -milk. As a general rule, the predominance of one of these types is an -aid in the interpretation of the quality of the product at the time of -analysis, such as the age, the temperature at which it has been held, -the conditions under which it was produced and, in some cases, the -general source of the contamination. The reaction due to certain -bacteria is utilized in the manufacture and handling of dairy products; -other groups have deleterious effects. (See Fig. 2.) - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Effect of different fermentations of milk: _U_, -Curd pitted with gas holes; _G_ and _O_, gassy curds which float; _K_, -smooth, solid desirable curd.] - -+22. Acid fermentation of milk.+--By far the most common and important -fermentation taking place in milk is due to the action of the lactic -acid-forming bacteria on the milk-sugar or lactose. The bacteria that -bring about this fermentation may be divided into several groups on the -basis of their morphology, proteolytic activity, gas production, -temperature adaptation and production of substances other than lactic -acid. The larger number of organisms producing lactic acid in milk also -produce other organic acids in greater or less abundance. Inasmuch as -lactic acid is the principal substance produced, they are called lactic -acid organisms. This group contains different kinds of organisms which -may be subdivided into small groups as follows: - - (a) _Bacterium lactis-acidi_ group. - (b) _Bacterium colon-aerogenes_ group. - (c) Acid peptonizing group. - (d) _Bacillus bulgaricus_ group. - (e) Acid cocci or weak acid-producing group. - -+23. Bacterium lactis-acidi group.+--There are many strains or varieties -in this group which are closely related in their activities. They are -universally present in milk and are commonly the greatest causal agent -in its souring. They are widely distributed in nature. At a temperature -of 65 deg. F. to 95 deg. F., these bacteria grow and multiply very -rapidly; at 70 deg. F. (approximately 20 deg. C.) these forms usually -outgrow all others. The total amount of acid produced in milk by these -organisms varies from 0.6 of one per cent to 1 per cent acid calculated -as pure lactic acid. These forms coagulate milk to a smooth curd of -uniform consistency. In addition to the lactic acid, there are produced -traces of acetic, succinic, formic and proprionic acids, traces of -certain alcohols, aldehydes and esters. Substances other than lactic -acid are not produced by organisms of this group to such an extent as to -impart undesirable flavors to the milk. The action of this group on -the milk proteins is very slight. They produce no visible sign of -peptonization. The _B. lactis-acidi_ group of organisms are essential to -the production of the initial acidity necessary in most types of cheese. -The practical culture and utilization of them for this purpose under -factory conditions are discussed in Chapter IV, entitled "Lactic -Starters." - -+24. Colon-aerogenes group.+--This group takes its name from a typical -species, _Bacterium coli communis_, which is a normal inhabitant of the -intestines of man and animals, and from _Bacterium coli aerogenes_, -which is similar in many respects to _B. coli communis_. The initial -presence of these bacteria in milk is indicative of fecal contamination -or unclean conditions of production. These organisms, however, grow and -develop in milk very rapidly at high temperatures of handling. The total -acidity produced by these forms is less than that by the _Bacterium -lactis-acidi_ group. Of the acid produced, less than 30 per cent is -lactic acid; the other acids are formic, acetic, proprionic and -succinic. The large percentage of these acids, with comparatively large -amounts of certain alcohols, aldehydes and esters, invariably impart -undesirable flavors and odors to the milk. Members of this group -uniformly ferment the lactose with the production of the gases, carbon -dioxide and hydrogen. The milk is coagulated into a lumpy curd, -containing gas pockets. - -+25. Acid peptonizing group.+--These are often associated with colon -organisms. The group includes those bacteria which coagulate milk with -an acid curd and subsequently partly digest it. They grow and multiply -rapidly at a temperature between 65 deg. and 98 deg. F. They impart -undesirable flavors and odors to the milk, which appear to be due to the -formation of acids other than lactic acid, and to action on the milk -proteins. - -+26. Bacillus bulgaricus group.+--These organisms grow best at a -temperature of 105 deg. to 115 deg. F. They will develop at lower -temperatures, but not so rapidly. They survive heating to 135 deg. F. -without loss of vigor, as occurs in Swiss cheese-making. They produce -from 1 to 4 per cent of acid in milk, which is practically all lactic -acid. They do not produce gas. They impart no undesirable flavors to -the milk. - -+27. Acid cocci or weak acid-producers.+--This group of organisms is not -very well defined. It consists mostly of coccus forms, commonly found -in the air and in the udder. Their presence in the milk may indicate -direct udder contamination. These are regarded as of little importance, -unless in very large number, and they have been only partially studied. -They produce little or no lactic acid, and small amounts of acetic, -proprionic, butyric and caproic acids. These forms rarely create enough -acid to coagulate milk. - -+28. Peptonizing organisms.+--This group includes all bacteria which -have a peptonizing effect on the milk. It includes the acid peptonizing -organisms, although they are of primary importance in the acid type of -bacteria, because the acid-producing power is greater than the -peptonizing power. Some of the specific organisms in this class are -_Bacillus subtilis_, _Bacterium prodigiosus_ and _Bacterium -liquefaciens_. These are commonly found in soil water and in fecal -material. The presence of these organisms denotes contamination from -such sources. - -+29. Inert types.+--As the name indicates, these are organisms not known -to have an appreciable effect on milk. The ordinary tests fail to -connect them with important processes; hence they appear to feed upon, -but not to affect the milk in any serious way. Milk ordinarily contains -more or less of these organisms, but no particular significance is -attached to their presence. - -+30. Alkali-producing bacteria.+--This group of organisms has only -recently been studied in relation to its action on milk. Investigators -still disagree as to the usual percentage in the normal milk flora. -Their presence in milk has been considered to be relatively unimportant. - -+31. Butyric fermenting types.+--Organisms causing butyric fermentation -may be present in the milk, but seldom become active, because they are -commonly anaerobic and so will not develop in milk kept under ordinary -conditions, and the rapid growth of the lactic acid-forming bacteria -prevents their growth. These organisms act on the milk-fat, decomposing -it. Butyric acid fermentations are more common in old butter and cheese. -In these, the fermentation causes a rancid flavor. - -+32. Molds and yeasts.+--The cattle feed and the air of the barn always -contain considerable numbers of yeasts and mold spores. Yeasts have been -found by Hastings[12] to cause an objectionable fermentation in -Wisconsin cheese. No further study of this group as factors in -cheese-handling has been reported. Mold spores, especially those of the -blue or green molds (Penicillum sp.) and the black molds (Mucors), are -always abundant in milk. These spores are carried into all cheeses made -from unpasteurized milk, in numbers sufficient to cover the cheeses -with mold if they are permitted to grow. Pasteurization[13] kills -most of them. The border-line series commonly referred to as the -streptothrix-actinomyces group are also very abundant in all forage and -are carried in large numbers into all milk and its products. - -+33. Bacterial contamination of milk.+--When drawn from the cow, milk is -seldom if ever sterile. Organisms usually work their way from the tip of -the teat into the udder and multiply there. The fore milk usually -contains more organisms than does that drawn later. Most of the -bacterial contamination of the milk is due to the handling after it is -drawn from the cow. - -+34. Germicidal effect of milk.+--Authorities agree that when a -bacterial examination of the milk is made, hour by hour, beginning as -soon as it is drawn from the cow, there is no increase in the number of -organisms for a period of several hours at first, but an actual -reduction not infrequently takes place. This is called the -"germicidal"[14] property of milk. The lower the temperature of the -milk, the longer and less pronounced is the germicidal action; the -higher the temperature, the shorter and more pronounced is this action. - -This is explained as either: (1) a period of selection within which -types of bacteria entering by accident and unadapted for growth die off; -or (2) an actual weak antiseptic power in the milk-serum itself; or (3) -the forming of clusters by the bacteria and so reducing the count. - -In working on a small scale or on an experimental basis, this property -at times introduces a factor of difficulty or error which is not to be -lost sight of in the selection of the milk for such purposes. - -+35. Sources and control of bacteria in milk.+--Most of the bacterial -infection of milk is due to lack of care in handling. Some of the common -sources[15] of contamination are: the air in the stable; the cow's body; -the milker; the utensils; the method of handling the milk after it is -drawn from the cow; unclean cheese factory conditions. - -Since bacteria cause various kinds of fermentation, not only in the -milk but in the products manufactured from it, the question of their -control is of prime importance. There are two ways in which the -bacterial growth in milk used for cheese-making may be controlled: (1) -prevention of infection; (2) the retardation of their development when -present. The former is accomplished by strict cleanliness, the latter by -adequate cooling. - -+36. The cow.+--The body of the cow may be a source of bacterial -contamination. Bacteria adhere to the hair of the animal, and to the -scales of the skin, and during the process of milking these are very -liable to fall into the milk. To prevent this, the cow should be curried -to remove all loose material and hair. Just before milking, the udder -and flank should be wiped with a damp cloth; this removes some of the -material, and causes the remainder to adhere to the cow. - -+37. Stable air.+--If the air of the stable is not clean, it will be a -source of contamination. Particles of dust floating in the air carry -more or less bacteria, and these fall into the milk during the process -of milking. To keep the stable air free from dust at milking time, all -operations which stir up dust, such as feeding, brushing the cows, -cleaning the floor, should be practiced after milking or long enough -before so that the dust will have settled. It is a good plan to close -the doors and to sprinkle the floor just before milking. - -+38. The milker+ himself may be a source of contamination. He should be -clean and wear clean clothing. The hands should not be wet with milk -during milking. - -[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Types of small-top milk pails.] - -+39. Utensils.+--The utensils are an important source of bacterial -contamination. The bacteria lodge in the seams and corners unless these -are well-flushed with solder. From these seams they are not easily -removed. When fresh warm milk is placed into such utensils, the bacteria -begin to grow and multiply. All utensils with which milk comes in -contact should first be rinsed with cold water and then thoroughly -washed and finally scalded with boiling water, and drained or blown -absolutely dry. They should then be placed in an atmosphere free from -dust until wanted for use again. If an aerator is used, this should be -operated in pure air, free from odors and dust. One of the greatest -sources of bacterial contamination of cheese milk is the use of the -milk-cans to return whey to the farms for pig feed. Frequently, sour -whey is left in the cans until ready to feed. These cans are then not -properly washed and scalded. The practice of pasteurizing the whey at -the cheese factory is a great help in preventing this source of -infection and the spreading of disease. - -The use of a small-top milk pail[16] is to be especially recommended in -preventing bacterial contamination. Because of the small opening, -bacteria cannot easily fall into the milk in as large numbers as when -the whole top of the pail is open. (See Fig. 3.) - -If a milking machine[17] is used, great care must be exercised to see -that all parts that come in contact with the milk are cleaned after each -milking, and then put in a clean place until ready to use again. - -+40. The factory.+--Another source of contamination is the cheese -factory itself. The cheese-maker should keep his factory in the cleanest -condition possible, not only because of the effect on the milk itself, -but as a stimulus for the producers to follow his example. All doors and -windows in the factory should be screened to keep out flies. - -+41. The control of bacteria.+--If, in spite of preventive measures, -bacteria get into the milk, their growth can be retarded by controlling -the temperature. If the temperature of the milk, as soon as drawn, can -be reduced below that at which the bacteria grow and multiply rapidly, -it will retard their development. In general, all milk should be cooled -to 50 deg. F. or below. In cooling the milk, it should not be exposed to -dust or odors. One of the best methods of cooling is to set the can -containing the milk into a tub of cold running water, and then stir. If -running water is not available, cold well-water[18] may be used, but the -water should be changed several times. If the milk is not stirred during -the cooling process, it will not cool so rapidly, because the layer of -milk next the can will become cold and act as an insulator to the -remainder in the center of the can. - -One way to destroy many of the bacteria in milk is by pasteurization. -This consists in heating the milk to such a degree that the bacteria are -killed, and then quickly cooling it. After pasteurization, the milk is -so changed that some kinds of cheese cannot be made successfully. - -+42. Fermentation test.+--When a cheese-maker is having trouble with gas -in his cheese, or bad flavors, he can generally locate the source of -difficulty. This can be done by making a small amount of cheese from -each patron's milk, called a fermentation test.[19] Pint or quart fruit -jars or milk bottles make suitable containers. They should be thoroughly -washed and scalded, to be sure they are clean and sterile, and then -covered to prevent contamination. As the milk is delivered to the -factory, a sample is taken of each patron's milk. The best way to secure -the sample is to dip the sterile jar in the can of milk as delivered and -fill two-thirds full of milk. - -The jars are then set in water at 110 deg. F. to bring the temperature of -the milk to 98 deg. F. The jar should be kept covered. A sink or wash-tub -makes a convenient place in which to keep the jars. When the temperature -of the milk is 98 deg. F., ten drops of rennet extract or pepsin is added -to each jar. A uniform temperature of 98 deg. F. should be maintained in -the jars. This will necessitate the addition of warm water occasionally to -the water surrounding the jars. When the milk is coagulated, the curd is -broken up with a sterile knife. Precaution should be taken to sterilize -the knife after using it in one jar before putting it into another. The -best way to do this is to hold the knife for a minute in a pail of -boiling water, after taking it out of each jar. The same precaution -should be observed with the thermometer. Unless care is taken, -contamination is liable to be carried from one jar to the other. After -cutting, the whey is poured off. The temperature should be kept at 98 deg. -F. so that the organisms will have a suitable temperature for growth. -The whey should be poured from the jars occasionally, usually about -every half hour. - -As the fermentation takes place, different odors will be noticed in -different jars. In ten to twelve hours the jar should be finally -examined for odors and the curd taken out and cut to examine it for gas -pockets. By this means, bad flavors and gas in the cheese can be traced -to their sources. - -[Illustration: FIG. 4.--A gang sediment tester, one tester removed.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 5.--A single sediment tester.] - -+43. The sediment test.+--The presence of solid material or dirt in the -milk is always accompanied by bacterial contamination. By means of the -sediment test, the amount of solid material can be determined. The test -consists of filtering the milk through a layer of cotton; the foreign -material is left on the cotton filter. Various devices for filtering the -milk have been manufactured. (Figs. 4 and 5.) In order to be able to -compare the filters from the different dairy-men's milk, the same amount -of each patron's milk is filtered, usually about a pint. These tests are -usually made once or twice a month at the factory and the filters placed -on a card where the dairy-men can see them. Much improvement in the -quality of the milk has been accomplished by the use of the sediment -test. The purpose of this test may be and often is defeated by the use -of efficient strainers. Milk produced in an unclean way may be rendered -nearly free from sediment if carefully strained. It must be remembered -that the strainer takes out only the undissolved substances and that -bacteria and soluble materials which constitute a very large part of the -filth pass through with the milk. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -_COAGULATING MATERIALS_ - - -At the present time, two substances are used to coagulate milk for -cheese-making,--rennet extract and commercial pepsin.[20] Many -substances will coagulate milk, such as acids and other chemicals. -Enzymes in certain plants will also coagulate it. - -The curing or ripening of the cheese seems to depend on the physical and -chemical properties of the curd, on the activity of certain organisms -and on enzymes produced by them or in the milk. Rennet extract and -pepsin are the only known substances which will produce curd of such -character as will permit the desired ripening changes to take place. -Until recently, rennet extract was principally used to coagulate the -milk, but because of the scarcity, pepsin is now being substituted. - -+44. Ferments.+--Many of the common changes taking place in milk are due -to fermentations. The souring of milk is one of the most familiar cases -of fermentation. The important change taking place is the formation of -lactic acid from the milk-sugar. The change is brought about by certain -living organisms, namely, the lactic acid-forming bacteria. Another -familiar case of fermentation is the coagulation of milk by rennet -extract or pepsin. In this case, the change is produced by a chemical -substance, not a living organism. Fermentation may be defined as a -chemical change of an organic compound through the action of living -organisms or of chemical agents. - -There are two general classes of ferments: (1) living organisms, or -organized ferments; (2) chemical, or unorganized ferments. Organized -ferments are living microorganisms, capable, as a result of their -growth, of causing the changes. Unorganized ferments are chemical -substances or ferments without life, capable of causing marked changes -in many complex organic compounds, while the enzymes themselves undergo -little or no change. These unorganized ferments are such as rennin, -pepsin, trypsin, ptyalin. The rennet and pepsin must, therefore, be very -thoroughly mixed into the milk to insure complete and uniform results, -because they act by contact, and theoretically, if they could be -recovered, might be used over and over again. Practically, the amount -used is so small a percentage that recovery would be impractical even if -possible. - -+45. Nature of rennet.+--Two enzymes or ferments are found in rennet -extract, rennin and pepsin. They are prepared from the secreting areas -of living membranes of the stomachs of mammalian young. For -rennet-making, these stomachs are most valuable if taken before the -young have received any other feed than milk. Rennin at this stage -appears to predominate over pepsin which is already secreted to some -extent. With the inclusion of other feed, the secretion of pepsin comes -to predominate. Rennin has never been separated entirely from pepsin. -Both of these enzymes are secreted by digestive glands in the same area, -perhaps even by the same glands. They are so closely related that many -workers have regarded them as identical. In practical work the -effectiveness of rennet preparations has been greatest when stomachs -which have digested feed other than milk are excluded. The differences, -therefore, however difficult to define, appear to be important in the -commercial preparation of rennet. - -It was the practice until a few years ago for each cheese-maker to -prepare his own rennet extract. Each patron was supposed to supply so -many rennets. Now commercial rennet extract and pepsin are on the -market; however, some Swiss cheese-makers prefer to make their own -rennet extract. For sheep's and goat's milk cheese, some makers hold -that rennet made from kid or lamb stomachs is best for handling the milk -of the respective species. The objection to the cheese-maker preparing -his own rennet extract is that it varies in strength from batch to batch -and is liable to spoil quickly. Taints and bad odors and flavors develop -in it and so taint the cheese. - -+46. Preparation of rennet extract.+--This extract may be manufactured -commercially from digestive stomachs of calves, pigs or sheep. An animal -is given a full meal just before slaughtering; this stimulates a large -flow of the digestive juices, containing the desired enzymes. - -The stomach is taken from the animal, cleaned, commonly inflated and -dried. It may be held in the dry condition until needed for use. Such -stomachs are usually spoken of as "rennets" in the trade. Such old -rennets may be seen to-day hanging from the rafters of some of the older -cheese factories. When wanted for use, rennets are placed in oak barrels -and covered with water. Before placing them in the barrel, they are cut -open so that the water may have easy access. Salt is usually added to -the water at the rate of 3 to 5 per cent. They are stirred and pounded -in this solution from five to seven days. At the end of this time, they -are wrung through a clothes-wringer to remove the liquid. The rennets -are put back into a fresh solution of salt and water, the object being -to obtain all the digestive juices possible. They are usually soaked -from four to six weeks. At the end of this time, most of the digestive -juices will have been removed. The liquid portion is passed through a -filter made of straw, charcoal and sand. When clean, an excess of salt -is added to preserve it. - -Such extracts cannot be sterilized by heat because the necessary -temperature would destroy the enzyme. Effective disinfectants cannot be -used in food products. The extract, therefore, should be kept cool to -retard bacterial growth. The extract is kept in wooden barrels, stone -jugs or yellow glass bottles to protect it from light, which is able to -destroy its activity. Rennet extract should be clear, with a clean salty -taste and a distinct rennet flavor. There should be no cloudy appearance -and no muddy sediment in properly preserved rennet. Rennet extract is on -the market in the form of a liquid and a powder, the former being much -more common. The commercial forms of rennet have the advantage in the -skill used in their preparation and standardization. The combined -product from large numbers of stomachs may not be as effective a -preparation as the most skillfully produced sample from the very -choicest single stomach, but it gives a uniformity of result which -improves the average product greatly. - -+47. Pepsin.+--Pepsin is on the market in several commercial forms, as a -liquid, scale pepsin and in a granular form known as spongy pepsin. Some -commercial concerns put out a preparation which is a mixture of rennet -extract and commercial pepsin. - -+48. Chemistry of curdling.+--The chemistry of casein[21] and of curd -formation under the influence of acid and rennet extract and pepsin has -been the subject of many years' research. While many points remain -unsettled, the general considerations together with a large mass of -accepted facts may be presented and some of the unsolved problems -pointed out as left for future researches. - -Casein is a white amorphous powder, practically insoluble in water. It -is an acid and as such readily dissolves in solutions of the hydroxides -or the carbonates of alkalies and alkaline earths by forming soluble -salts. - -Pure casein salt solutions and fresh milk do not coagulate on boiling, -but in the presence of free acid coagulation may take place below the -boiling temperature. The coagulum formed in the case of milk includes -fat and calcium phosphate. The slight pellicle which coats over milk -when it is warmed is of the same composition. - -+49. Use of acid.+--A commonly accepted explanation of the precipitation -of casein by acids is that the casein is held in solution by chemical -union with a base (lime in the case of milk); that added acid removes -the base, allowing the insoluble casein to precipitate; and that excess -of acid unites with casein, forming a compound which is more or less -readily soluble. - -+50. Robertson's theory.+--According to Robertson's conception, in a -soluble solution of a protein or its salt, the molecules of the protein -unite with each other to a certain extent, in this way forming polymers. -The reaction is reversible, and the point of equilibrium between the -compound and its polymeric modification varies under the influence of -whatever condition affects the concentration of the protein ions. -Addition of water, or of acid, alkali or salt, or the application of -heat has such an effect, and consequently alters the relative number of -heavier molecule-complexes. Robertson's experiments give evidence that -one of the effects of increase of temperature on a solution of casein is -a shifting of the equilibrium in the direction of the higher complexes. -He explains coagulation as being a result of these molecular aggregates -becoming so large as to assume the properties of matter in mass and to -become practically an unstable suspension and then a precipitate. The -acid curd then is casein or some combination of casein with the -precipitant acid. - -+51. Rennet curd.+--Rennet extract and pepsin coagulation differs from -coagulation by acids, and cannot be looked on as a simple removal of the -base from a caseinate. The presence of soluble calcium salts (or other -alkaline earth salts) seems to be essential, and the precipitate formed -is not casein or a casein salt, but a salt of a slightly different -nucleoalbumin called "paracasein." Many writers, following Halliburton, -call this modification produced by rennin the "casein" and that from -which it is derived, "caseinogen." Foster and a few others have used the -term "tyrein" for the rennet clot. - -A number of investigations have been made on the conditions essential or -favorable to formation of the coagulum, especially with regard to the -effects of the degree of acidity and of conditions affecting the amount -of calcium present, either as free soluble salt or bound to the casein. -Soluble salts of calcium, barium and strontium favor or hasten -coagulation, while salts of ammonium, sodium and potassium retard or -prevent coagulation. - -The bulk of the coagulum from milk is a calcium paracaseinate, but it -carries down with it calcium phosphate and fat, both of which bodies -have been helped to remain in their state of suspension in milk by the -presence of the casein salt. Lindet (1912) has concluded that about -one-half of the phosphorus contained in the rennet curd is in the form -of phosphate of lime (probably tricalcic), the other half being -organically combined phosphoric acid. - -+52. Hammarsten's theory.+--According to Hammarsten (1877, 1896), whose -view has been commonly held, the distinctive effect of the ferment is -not precipitation but the transformation of casein into paracasein. This -is evidenced by the fact that if rennet be allowed to act on solutions -free from lime salts no precipitate occurs; but there is an invisible -alteration of the casein, for now, even if the ferment be destroyed by -boiling the solution, addition of lime salts will cause immediate -coagulation. (See also Spiro, 1906.) Hence the process of rennet -coagulation is a two-phase process; the first phase is the -transformation of casein by rennin, the second is the visible -coagulation caused by lime salts. - -Furthermore, if the purest casein and the purest rennin were used, -Hammarsten always found after coagulation that the filtrate contained -very small amounts of a protein. This protein he designated as the "whey -protein." - -In accordance with these observations, Hammarsten (1911) explains the -rennin action "as a cleavage process, in which the chief mass of the -casein, sometimes more than 90 per cent, is split off as paracasein, a -body closely related to casein, and in the presence of sufficient -amounts of lime salts the paracasein-lime precipitates out while the -proteose-like substance (whey-protein) remains in solution." - -By continued action of rennin on paracasein, a further transformation -has been found in several cases (Petry, 1906; Van Herwerden, 1907; Van -Dam, 1909), but perhaps due to a contamination of the rennin with -pepsin, or to the identity of these two enzymes. The action which forms -paracasein and whey-protein takes place in a short time (Hammarsten, -1896; Schmidt-Nielson, 1906). The composition and solubilities of -paracasein have received considerable attention. (See Loevenhart, 1904; -Kikkoji, 1909; Van Slyke and Bosworth, 1912.) It is more readily -digested by pepsin-hydrochloric acid than is casein (Hosl, 1910). - -+53. Duclaux theory.+--Duclaux (1884) and Loevenhart (1904) and others -do not accept Hammarsten's theory; but to most workers it seems -probable, at least, that the action of the rennin is to cause a cleavage -of casein with formation of paracasein. However, the chemical and -physical differences observed between casein and paracasein appear to be -so slight that Loevenhart and some others think that they are only -physical, perhaps differences in the size of the colloid or solution -aggregates. Loevenhart conceives of a large part of the work of the -rennet (or of the acid, in acid and heat coagulation) as being a freeing -of the calcium to make it available for precipitation. Some think that -the aggregates of paracasein are larger than those of casein, but there -is more evidence of their being smaller, which idea corresponds with the -findings of Bosworth, though he looks on the change as a true cleavage. - -+54. Bang's theory.+--Another description of the precipitation is given -by Bang (1911), who studied the progress of the coagulation process by -means of interruptions at definite intervals. His observations confirm -the idea that rennin causes the formation of paracasein, and that the -calcium salt serves only for the precipitation of the paracasein; the -rennin has to do also with the mobilizing of lime salts. According to -Bang, before coagulation occurs, paracaseins with constantly greater -affinity for calcium phosphate are produced. These take up increasing -amounts of calcium phosphate, until finally the combination formed can -no longer remain in solution. - -+55. Bosworth's theory.+--By a very recent work of L. L. Van Slyke and -A. W. Bosworth (Van Slyke and Bosworth, 1912, 1913; and Bosworth and Van -Slyke, 1913), in which ash-free casein and paracasein were compared as -to their elementary composition, and as to the salts they form with -bases, and the properties of these salts, it is indicated that the two -compounds are alike in percentage composition and in combining -equivalent, the paracasein molecule being one-half of the casein -molecule. Moreover, Bosworth (1913) has shown that, if the rennin -cleavage be carried out under conditions which avoid autohydrolysis, no -other protein is formed; also that, if the calcium caseinate present be -one containing four equivalents of calcium, the paracaseinate does not -precipitate, save in the presence of a soluble calcium salt, while, if -the calcium caseinate be one of two equivalents of base, rennin does -cause immediate coagulation. Bosworth concludes that the rennin action -is a cleavage (probably hydrolytic) of a molecule of caseinate into two -molecules of paracaseinate, the coagulation being a secondary effect due -to a change in solubilities, dicalcium paracaseinate being soluble in -pure water but not in water containing more than a trace of calcium -salt, and the monocalcium caseinate being insoluble in water. The alkali -paracaseinates, as well as caseinates, are soluble. This explanation -seems to promise to harmonize the observations with regard to acidity -and the effects of the presence of soluble salts. This theory -represents, therefore, many years of continuous work at the New York -Experiment Station centered primarily on American Cheddar cheese. -Disputed points remain for further study but these workers have -contributed much toward a clear description of the chemical constitution -of casein as affected by rennet action and bacterial activity. - -The investigations of these authors and of Hart with regard to the -changes which the paracasein, the calcium and the phosphorus undergo -during the ripening of cheese (Van Slyke and Hart, 1902, 1905; Van Slyke -and Bosworth, 1907, 1913; Bosworth, 1907) contributed to this -interpretation. - - BANG, IVAR, Ueber die chemische Vorgang bei der - Milchgerinnung durch Lab, Skand. Arch. Physiol. 25, pages - 105-144; through Jahresb. u. d. Fortsch. d. Thierchem. - 41, pages 221-222, 1911. - - BOSWORTH, A. W., The action of rennin on casein, N. Y. - Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 31, 1913. - - BOSWORTH, A. W., Chemical studies of Camembert cheese, N. - Y. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 5, 1907. - - BOSWORTH, A. W., and L. L. VAN SLYKE, Preparation and - composition of basic calcium caseinate and paracaseinate, - Jour. Biol. Chem. Vol. 14, pages 207-210, 1913. - - DUCLAUX, EMILE, Action de la presure sur le lait, Compt. - Rend. Acad. Sci. 98, pages 526-528, 1884. - - HAMMARSTEN, OLOF, Zur Kenntnis des Caseins und der - Wirkung des Labfermentes, Nova. Acta Regiae Soc. Sci. - Upsaliensis in Memoriam Quattuor Saec. ab Univ., - Upsaliensi Peractorum, 1877. - - HAMMARSTEN, OLOF, Ueber das Verhalten des Paracaseins zu - dem Labenzyme, Zeit. physiol. Chem. 22, pages 103-126, - 1896. - - HAMMARSTEN, OLOF, A text book of physiological chemistry, - from the author's 7th German edition, 1911. - - HOSL, J., Unterschiede in der tryptischen und peptischen - Spaltung des Caseins, Paracaseins und des - Paracaseinkalkes aus Kuh- und Ziegenmilch, Inaug. Diss. - Bern., 31 pp., 1910. - - KIKKOJI, T., Beitrage zur Kenntniss des Caseins und - Paracaseins, Zeit. physiol. Chem. No. 61, pages 130-146, - 1909. - - LINDET, L., Solubilite des albuminoides du lait dans les - elements du serum; retrogradation de leur solubilite sous - l'influence du chlorure, Bul. Soc. Chim. (ser. 4) 13, - pages 929-935. - - LINDET, L., Sur les elements mineraux contenus dans la - caseine du lait, Rep. Eighth Internat. Congr. of Applied - Chem. 19, 199-207, 1912. - - LOEVENHART, A. S., Ueber die Gerinnung der Milch, Zeit. - physiol. Chem. 41, pages 177-205, 1904. - - PETRY, EUGEN, Ueber die Einwirkung des Labferments auf - Kasein, Beitrage z. Chem. Physiol. u. Path. 8, pages - 339-364, 1906. - - ROBERTSON, T. BRAILSFORD, On the influence of temperature - upon the solubility of casein in alkaline solutions, - Jour. Biol. Chem. 5, pages 147-154, 1908. - - SCHMIDT-NIELSON, SIGVAL, Zur Kenntnis des Kaseins und der - Labgerinnung, Upsala laekaref. Foerh. (N. F.) No. 11, - Suppl. - - Hammarsten Festschrift No. XV, 1-26; through Jahresb. u. - d. Fortschr. d. Thierchem. No. 36, pages 255-256, 1906. - - SPIRO, K., Beeinflussung und Natur des Labungsvorganges, - Beitrage z. Chem. Physiol. u. Path. 8, pages 365-369, - 1906. - - VAN DAM, W., Ueber die Wirkung des Labs Auf. - Paracaseinkalks, Zeit. physiol. Chem. No. 61, pages - 147-163, 1909. - - VAN HERWERDEN, M., Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Labwirkung - auf Casein, Zeit. physiol. Chem. 52, pages 184-206, 1907. - - VAN SLYKE, L. L., and A. W. BOSWORTH, I. Some of the - first chemical changes in Cheddar cheese. II. The acidity - of the water extract of Cheddar cheese, N. Y. Exp. Sta. - Tech. Bul. 4, 1907. - - VAN SLYKE, L. L., and A. W. BOSWORTH, Composition and - properties of some casein and paracasein compounds and - their relations to cheese, N. Y. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 26, - 1912. - - VAN SLYKE, L. L., and A. W. BOSWORTH, Method of preparing - ash-free casein and paracasein, Jour. Biol. Chem. Vol. - 14, pages 203-206, 1913. - - VAN SLYKE, L. L., and A. W. BOSWORTH, Preparation and - composition of unsaturated or acid caseinates and - paracaseinates, _Ibid._ Vol. 14, pages 211-225, 1913. - - VAN SLYKE, L. L., and A. W. BOSWORTH, Valency of - molecules and molecular weights of casein and paracasein, - _Ibid._ Vol. 14, pages 227-230, 1913. - - VAN SLYKE, L. L., and A. W. BOSWORTH, Composition and - properties of the brine-soluble compounds in cheese, - Jour. Biol. Chem. 14, pages 231-236, 1913. - - VAN SLYKE, L. L., and E. B. HART, A study of some of the - salts formed by casein and paracasein with acids; their - relations to American Cheddar cheese, N. Y. Exp. Sta. - Bul. 214, 1902. - - VAN SLYKE, L. L., and E. B. HART, Casein and paracasein - in some of their relations to bases and acids, American - Chem. Jour. 33, pages 461-996, 1905. - - VAN SLYKE, L. L., and E. B. HART, Some of the relations - of casein and paracasein to bases and acids, and their - application to Cheddar cheese, N. Y. Exp. Sta. Bul. 261, - 1905. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -_LACTIC STARTERS_ - - -Acidity in cheese-making arises almost exclusively from the lactic acid -produced from the fermentation of milk-sugar (lactose) by bacteria. -Hydrochloric acid is used in the Wisconsin[22] process of making -pasteurized milk cheese and sometimes for making skimmed-milk curd for -baking purposes. It is regularly used in precipitating casein not for -food but for manufacturing purposes. - -+56. Acidifying organisms.+--Many species of bacteria have been shown to -possess the power to produce lactic acid by fermenting lactose. In -practice, however, the cheese-maker seeks to control this fermentation -by the actual introduction of the desired organisms and by the -production of conditions which will insure this dominance through -natural selection. For this purpose the initial souring for most types -of cheeses is produced by some variety of the species originally -described by Esten[23] and commonly referred to as _Bacterium -lactis-acidi_, but variously named as _B. acidi-lactici_, _Streptococcus -lacticus_, _B. guntheri_ by different authors. Organisms of this series -dominate all other species in milk which is incubated at 70 deg. F. They -produce a smooth solid mass without a sign of gas holes and without the -separation of whey from the curd, and develop in milk a maximum acidity -of about 0.90 of one per cent when titrated as lactic acid. (For -titration see Chapter V.) This species is usually present in small -numbers in fresh milk. There are many varieties or strains of the -species with differing rates of activity and measurable differences in -acid produced but with approximately the same qualitative characters. -Most commercial starters for cheese- and butter-making belong to this -group of species, although special mixtures with other organisms are -prepared for special purposes. In addition to this group, most varieties -of cheese contain some members of the colon-aerogenes group. When the -milk is in proper condition, the activity of this group should be held -in check by the early and rapid development of acid. Free development of -members of this group usually shows itself in the presence of gas holes -in the curd. - -+57. Starter.+--The practice of using pure cultures in cheese-making has -brought about the development of factory methods of producing day by day -cultures of the organisms desired, in quantities sufficient to inoculate -the total quantity of milk used in manufacture. For this purpose milk is -mostly used and the product is known as "starter." For cheese-making -purposes, a starter is a substance used in the manufacture of dairy -products having a predominance of lactic acid-forming microorganisms in -an active state. There are two general classes of starter: (1) Natural -starter; (2) commercial starter. - -+58. Natural starter.+--Milk, or other similar substance, which has -become sour or in which large numbers of lactic acid-forming organisms -are present, is called a natural starter when used in the manufacture of -dairy products. To secure clean-flavored milk, the cheese-maker usually -selects the milk of some producer who usually brings good milk and -allows it to sour naturally for use the next day. There is often a -variation from day to day in the milk delivered by the same producer, so -that the cheese-maker is not certain of a uniform quality in his -fundamental material. While the lactic acid-forming organisms are -developing, other organisms may also be present in numbers sufficient to -produce bad flavors. If a starter has any objectionable flavor, it -should not be used. Natural starters very commonly develop objectionable -flavors which at first are very difficult to recognize. When natural -starters with objectionable but not easily recognizable odors are used, -the effect may be seen on the cheese. Milk, sour whey and buttermilk are -materials commonly used as natural starter. A common difficulty in -skimmed-milk cheese is caused by the use of buttermilk as a starter. - -+59. Commercial starter or pure cultures.+--The alternative practice -consists in the introduction of pure cultures of known strains of lactic -bacteria into special milk to make the starter. Since these cultures -must be prepared by a bacteriologist, commercial laboratories have -developed a large business in their production. Many such commercial -brands are manufactured under trade-marked names. Some of these cultures -represent races of lactic bacteria cultivated and cared for efficiently, -hence uniformly valuable over long periods of time. Others carelessly -produced are worthless, or even a peril to the user. - -These organisms are usually shipped in small quantities in bottles of -liquid or powder, or in capsules of uniform size. The contents may be -either the culture medium upon which the organisms grew or inert -substance designed merely to hold the bacteria in inactive form. In -either solid or liquid form, the producer of the culture should -guarantee its activity up to a plainly stated date. - -It is the problem[24] of the cheese-maker or butter-maker to increase -this small amount of lactic acid-forming organisms to such numbers and -in such active condition that it may be used in the factory; while being -built up, these organisms must be kept pure. The usual practice is to -allow them to develop in some material, usually whole milk or -skimmed-milk; dissolved milk powder may be used in the place of milk. - -+60. Manufacturer's directions.+--The manufacturer usually sends -directions with his starter preparation, telling how it should be used -to secure the best result. These directions apply to average conditions -and must be varied to suit the individual instances so that a good -starter will be the result. The directions usually state the amount of -milk necessary for the first inoculation. It is usually a small amount, -one or two quarts. After the specific amount has been selected, this -milk should be pasteurized. - -+61. Selecting milk.+--The milk for use in starter-making should be -selected with very much care. Only clean-flavored sweet milk, free from -undesirable micro-organisms, should be used in the preparation of -starter. The milk is ordinarily chosen from a producer whose milk is -usually in good condition. The quality of the milk can be determined by -the use of the fermentation test. (See Chapter II.) It is better to -choose only the morning's milk for the making of starter, because the -bacteria have not had so much opportunity to develop. In no case should -the mixed milk be used in the preparation of starter, as this eliminates -all opportunity for selection. The flavor of the starter will be the -same as that of the milk from which it is made. - -+62. Pasteurization+ is the process of heating to a high temperature for -a given length of time and quickly cooling. It kills most of the -micro-organisms in the milk. In other words, it makes a clean seed-bed -for the pure culture. The temperatures of pasteurization recommended for -starter-making differ with the authority. A temperature of 180 deg. F. -for thirty minutes or longer seems to be very satisfactory, since under -these conditions nearly all the micro-organisms in the milk are killed. - -+63. Containers.+--Various kinds of containers may be used for -starter-making. One-quart glass fruit jars or milk bottles make very -satisfactory containers, because the condition of the starter may be -seen at any time. They are also easily cleaned. They have the -disadvantage, however, of being easily broken, if the temperature is -suddenly changed, or if severely jarred. Tin containers may also be -used. Such containers are not easily broken, but they are harder to -clean and must be opened to examine the contents; hence the liability of -contamination is very much greater. - -This small amount of milk may be pasteurized by placing the container in -water heated to the desired temperature. A very satisfactory arrangement -is to cut of a barrel, and place a steam pipe in it. The barrel can then -be filled partly full of water and heated by steam. The bottles of milk -to be pasteurized are hung in the water in the barrel. Two or three -more bottles should be prepared than it is expected will be used as some -of the bottles are liable to be broken while cooling or heating. The -bottles should be filled about two-thirds full. This leaves room enough -to add the mother starter and later to break up the starter to examine -it. It is desirable not to have the milk or starter touch the cover -since contaminations are more likely. It is a good plan when -pasteurizing to have one bottle as a check. This may be filled with -water and left open and the thermometer placed in it. A uniform -temperature may be obtained by shaking the bottles. - -+64. Adding cultures.+--After being pasteurized, the milk should be -cooled to a temperature of 80 deg. F. This is a suitable temperature for -the development of the lactic acid-forming organisms. The commercial or -pure culture should now be added to the milk at the rate specified in -the directions. Care should be exercised in opening bottles not to put -the covers in an unclean place. A sterile dipper is a good place to put -them. After the culture has been added to the milk, it should be mixed -thoroughly by shaking the bottle. This should be repeated every fifteen -or twenty minutes for four or five times. This is done to make certain -that the culture is thoroughly mixed with the milk. The milk should be -placed in a room or incubator as near 80 deg. F. as possible, in order to -have a uniform temperature for the growth of the organisms. The bacteria -in the pure culture are more or less dormant so that a somewhat higher -temperature than the ordinary is necessary to stimulate their activity. -This milk should be coagulated in eighteen to twenty-four hours, -depending largely on the uniformity of the temperature during -incubation. - -+65. Cleanliness.+--To produce a good starter, great care should be -exercised that all utensils coming in contact with the milk are sterile. -After the milk is in the container in which the starter is made, it -should be kept covered as continuously as possible. Thermometers should -not be put into it to ascertain the temperature. When examining the -starter, do not dip into it, but pour out, as this prevents -contamination. The cover, when removed from the container, should be put -in a sterile place in such way that the dirt will not stick to it and -later get into the starter. - -+66. "Mother" starter or startoline.+--The thickened sour milk obtained -by inoculating the sweet pasteurized milk with pure culture of lactic -acid-forming bacteria is known as "mother starter" or "startoline." - -+67. Examining starter.+--This starter should be examined carefully as -to physical properties, odor and taste. The coagulation should be -smooth, free from whey and gassy pockets or bubbles. Sometimes the first -few inoculations from a new culture will show signs of gas, but, -usually, this will quickly disappear, and not injure the starter. It -should have a clean sour cream odor and clean, mild, acid flavor. After -breaking up it should be thick and creamy, entirely free from lumps. -This starter may have an objectionable flavor, due to the media in which -the organisms were growing when shipped. In such cases it is necessary -to carry the starter one or two propagations to overcome the flavor, to -enliven the micro-organisms and to secure the quantity desired. - -+68. Second day's propagation.+--For the second day, the milk for the -starter is selected as on the first day. It is pasteurized, and this -time cooled to 70 deg. F. The milk is cooled a trifle colder the second -day than the first, because the organisms have become more active and -hence do not require as high a temperature to grow. Instead of -inoculating with powder, as was done the first day, the mother starter -prepared the first day is used. This requires only a very small amount, -perhaps a tablespoonful to a quart bottle. It should be thoroughly mixed -with the milk. This starter may have the flavor of the media used in the -laboratory culture, therefore may need to be carried one or two days -more to eliminate it. After the flavor has become normal, the mother -starter is ready for commercial use. - -[Illustration: FIG. 6.--An improved starter-can.] - -+69. Preparation of larger amount of starter.+--The first thing to -determine is the quantity of starter required. As much milk should be -carefully chosen as the amount of starter desired. This milk should then -be pasteurized. An improved starter-can (Fig. 6) may be used in the -pasteurization of the milk and the making of starter, or a milk-can -(Fig. 7) placed in a tub of water in which there is a steam pipe. The -former requires mechanical power to operate the agitator, but the latter -can be used where mechanical power is not available. In the latter the -milk and starter are stirred by hand. This is the kind of apparatus more -often found in cheese factories. - -[Illustration: FIG. 7.--A simple device for the preparation of starter.] - -If possible, this milk should be pasteurized to 180 deg. F. for thirty -minutes; this kills most of the bacteria and spores. The milk should be -cooled to 60 deg.-65 deg. F., the temperature of incubation. This -temperature may be varied with conditions, so that the starter will be -ready for use at the desired time. The higher the temperature, the less -time is required to ripen the starter. - -+70. Amount of mother starter to use.+--The mother starter prepared the -day before is now used to inoculate the starter milk. The amount to use -will depend on: - -1. Temperature of milk when mother starter is added; - -2. Average temperature at which the milk will be kept during the -ripening period; - -3. Time allowed for starter to ripen before it is to be used; - -4. Vigor and acidity of the mother starter added. There is a very wide -range as to the amount of mother starter required, from 0.5 of one per -cent to 10 per cent being used under different conditions. - -Some operators prefer to add the mother starter while the milk is at a -temperature of about 90 deg. F., before it has been cooled to the -incubating temperature. This reduces the amount of mother starter -necessary. - -If an even incubating temperature can be maintained, it will require -less mother starter than if the temperature goes down. - -If the ripening period is short, it will require a larger amount of -mother starter, than if the ripening period is longer. If the starter -has a low acidity or weak body indicating that organisms are of low -vitality, it will require more mother starter. - -+71. Qualities.+--The starter, when ready to use, may or may not be -coagulated; a good idea of the quality of the starter may be gained by -the condition of the coagulation. The coagulation should be jelly- or -custard-like, close and smooth, entirely free from gas pockets and -should not be wheyed off. - -When broken up, the starter should be of a smooth creamy texture and -entirely free from lumpiness or wateriness. It should have a slightly -pronounced acid aroma. The starter should be free from taints and all -undesirable flavors; the flavor should be a clean, mild acid taste. - -+72. How to carry the mother starter.+--Some mother starter must be -carried from day to day to inoculate the large starter. This may be -carried or made in several ways: - -1. Independently: By this method a mother starter is made and carried -entirely separately from the large starter. It requires more time and -work, but is by far the best method. With a good mother starter, there -is not so much danger of the larger starter becoming poor in quality. - -2. Mother starter may be made by dipping pasteurized milk from that -prepared for the large starter with sterile jars and then inoculating -these jars separately. By this method, if the milk selected for the -large starter is poor, the mother starter for the next day will be the -same. It is very difficult by this method to carry a uniform, high -quality mother starter. - -There is danger that the container used for the mother starter may not -be sterile, and there is also danger of contamination in transferring -the milk. - -3. Another practice is to hold over some of the large starter used -to-day for mother starter. This is by far the easiest method. By this -practice, there is no certainty of the quality of the starter, because -there is little or no control of the mother starter. If the large -starter is for some reason not good, there is no separate reserve of -mother starter on which to rely. - -+73. Starter score-cards.+--The use of a score-card tends to analyze the -observations in such a way as to emphasize all the characteristics -desired in the starter. Such an analysis seeks to minimize the personal -factor and produce a standardization of the quality. The score-card -finally reduces the qualities of the starter to a numerical basis for -ease of comparison. Many score-cards have been proposed but the one -preferred by the authors is that used by the Dairy Department of the New -York State College of Agriculture, which is as follows: - - - CORNELL SCORE-CARD - - Flavor 50 Clean, desirable acid. - - Aroma 20 Clean, agreeable acid. No undesirable aroma. - - Acidity 20 0.6 per cent-0.8 per cent. - - Body 10 Before breaking up: jelly-like, close, - absence of gas holes. No free - whey. After breaking up: - smooth, creamy, free from granules - or flakes. - -The qualities mentioned in this score-card can be quickly and easily -determined by examining and tasting the starter and by making an acid -test of a sample. The acid test is conducted as with milk (see Chapter -II) except the starter must be rinsed out of the pipette with pure -water. Some starter score-cards call for a bacterial examination and -counting of the starter organisms. This takes a considerable period of -time and is not entirely necessary. The physical properties and acid -test are closely correlated with the presence of the desired organisms. - -+74. Use of starter.+--If all milk could be clean and sweet and the only -fermentation from it were the clean acid type, a starter would be -useless. Such milk is hard to obtain; therefore, a starter is used to -overcome the bad fermentation. This improves the flavor, body and -texture of the cheese. The common contaminations which the starter will -tend to correct are: - - 1. Gas-producing bacteria. - 2. Yeasts. - 3. Bad flavors or taints. - -The length of time a starter may be carried depends on the accuracy and -carefulness of the maker. This calls for scrupulous attention to the -temperature, the selection of milk and keeping out contaminations. The -maker must remember that a starter is not merely milk, but milk full of -a multitude of tiny plants, very sensitive to food, temperature, clean -surroundings and the quantity of their own acid. - - - NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY - - +STARTER LOT-CARD+ +Department of Dairy Industry.+ - ================================================================== - Day and Date_____________________ - - +MILK:+ - - Kind________________ % fat_____% solids not fat_____ - - Flavor__________________________________ - - Amount of milk____________ Hours old______________ - - +PASTEURIZATION:+ - - Method______________________________________________ - - Milk when received: Temperature_____ deg. - - Acidity_____ % - - Heating: Turning on heat__________ APM. - - Desired temp. reached__________ APM. - - Turning off heat__________ APM. - - Length of time at desired temp.__________ - - Beginning to cool__________ - - Cooled__________ APM; to__________ deg. - - Acidity: After pasteurization__________ - - When inoculated________________ - - +INOCULATION:+ - - Time__________ Temperature__________ - - Amount__________ lbs. __________% - - +INCUBATION:+ - - Temperature__________ Time__________ - - +MOTHER STARTER USED:+ - - Source_____________________________________ % used_______________ - - Times propagated___________________________ Acidity______________ - - Amount used________________________________ Appearance___________ - - Flavor_______________________________ - - Comments__________________________________________________________ - - +STARTER:+ - - Time of examining__________ - - Temperature________________ - - +SCORE-CARD:+ - - Flavor__________50| Clean, desirable acid. - | - Aroma___________20| Clean, agreeable acid. No undesirable aroma. - | - Acidity_________20| 0.6%-0.75%. - | - Body____________10| Before breaking up: jelly-like, close, - | absence of gas holes. No free whey. - ____| ___After breaking up: smooth, creamy, free from - | granules or flakes. - Total_________ 100| - ----------------------------------- - The above is a tentative score-card. - - +COMMENTS:+____________________________________________________ - _______________________________________________________________ - _______________________________________________________________ - _______________________________________________________________ - - +Work and observation by+______________________________________ - - -+75. The amount of starter to use+ depends on the amount of acid desired -in the milk for any particular kind of cheese. The great abuse of -starter is the practice of using too much. It is better and safer to add -starter a little at a time and several times than to add too much at -once. When starter is added to milk for cheese-making, it should be -strained to remove any lumps; otherwise an uneven color is likely to -result. - -+76. Starter lot-card.+--For certain dairy operations, a permanent -record is desired. This is especially true in the making of starter and -certain varieties of cheese. A lot-card not only serves as a record but -also points out the succeeding steps of the operation. This latter is -especially useful for beginners and students. Page 53 shows a desirable -lot-card to be used when making starter. Each operation has been -referred to the page in the text where it is discussed. This makes this -particular lot-card an index to the whole process of starter-making as -here treated. - - - - -CHAPTER V - -_CURD-MAKING_ - - -Aside from the purely sour-milk cheeses, the coagulum or curd resulting -from rennet action is the basis of cheese-making. The finished cheese, -whatever its final condition, is primarily dependent on a particular -chemical composition and fairly definite physical characters in the -freshly made curd mass. These characters are determined by a series of -factors under control of the cheese-maker. Assuming the milk to be -normal in character, success depends on the use of a proper combination -of these factors. The possible variations in each factor together with -their number makes an almost infinite series of such combinations -possible. The essential steps in the process are, therefore, presented -as underlying all cheese-making. The special adaptations of each factor -are considered in the discussion of the varieties group by group. - -These factors follow: - - _A._ The coagulation group: - - 1. Fat-content of the milk. - 2. The acidity of the milk. - 3. The temperature of renneting. - 4. The effective quantity of rennet. - 5. Curdling period or the time allowed for rennet action. - - _B._ The handling group: - - 6. Cutting or breaking the curd. - 7. Heating (cooking) or not heating. - 8. Draining (including pressing, grinding and putting into hoops - or forms). - -+77. The composition of the milk.+--The fat percentage in the milk in -the cheese-vat should be known to the cheese-maker and be strictly under -his control. The fat tester and the separator make this clearly -possible. He can go further. Milk from particular herds whose quality is -a matter of record from the routine test of each patron's milk may be -selected and brought together for the manufacturer of cheese of special -quality. Control of casein or lactose, on the contrary, is not nearly so -practicable. The purchase of milk on the fat test has become so well -established in most dairy territories, as to insure the presence and -constant use of the tester. A fat test of the mixed product in the -cheese-vat in connection with established tables thus insures an -accurate knowledge of the materials which go into each day's cheese. For -some varieties of cheese, whole milk should always be used. For other -varieties, the addition or removal of fat is regularly recognized as -part of the making process. The presence of added fat or the removal of -fat affects the texture of the product and the details of the process of -making. - -+78. Cheese color.+--An alkaline solution of annatto is usually used as -a cheese color. This colors both casein and fat in contrast to butter -color which is an oil solution of the dye and mixes only with the fat. -Cheese color is added to the milk in making some varieties of cheese, -and not for others. When lactic starter is used, the color should be -added after the starter and just before the addition of the rennet. The -amount is determined by the color desired in the cheese. The usual -amount varies from one to four ounces to each thousand pounds of milk. -Before adding, the color should be diluted in either milk or water, -preferably water. It should then be mixed thoroughly with the milk. - -+79. The acidity factor.+--Milk as drawn shows a measurable acidity when -titrated to phenolphthalein with normal sodium hydroxide. This figure -varies with the composition of milk. Casein itself gives a weakly acid -reaction with this indicator. Calculated as lactic acid, this initial -acidity varies within fairly wide limits, records being found from 0.12 -to 0.21 of one per cent or even more widely apart. Commonly, however, -such titration shows 0.14 to 0.17 per cent. Some forms of cheese -(Limburger, Swiss, Brie) are made from absolutely fresh milk. Acidity -from bacterial activity is important as a factor in the making of most -types of cheese and probably in the ripening of all types. - -Increasing the acidity of the milk hastens rennet action and within -limits produces increased firmness of the curd. If carried too high, -acidity causes a grainy or sandy curd. Normally fresh milk is -sufficiently acid in reaction when tested to phenolphthalein to permit -rennet to act, but the rate of action increases rapidly with the -development of acid. Increase of acidity may be accomplished: (_a_) by -the addition of acid as has been done by Sammis[25] and Bruhn in -pasteurized milk for Cheddar cheese; or (_b_) by the development of acid -through the activity of lactic organisms, which is the usual way. For -renneting, the acidity necessary for particular cheeses runs from that -of absolutely fresh milk still warm (as in French Brie, Limburger, -Swiss, Gorgonzola) through series calling for increase of acidity, -hundredth by hundredth per cent calculated as lactic acid. This ranges -from 0.17 to 0.20 per cent as is variously used in American factory -Cheddar to about 0.25 to 0.28 per cent as obtained by adding acid in -Sammis' method. This method is discussed under the heading "Cheddar -Cheese from Pasteurized Milk" (p. 229) since it requires special -apparatus and has not thus far been used with other types of cheese. For -the development of acidity by the action of bacteria, lactic starter is -almost universally used. This may be added in very small quantities and -the acidity secured by closely watching its development or by adding -starter in amount sufficient to obtain the required acidity at once. In -either case, the cheese-maker needs to know the rate of action of the -culture to insure the proper control of the process. The amount of acid -already present when the rennet is added affects not only the texture of -the curd as first found, but within limits indicates also the rate at -which further acidity may be expected to develop. - -A series of experiments in making Roquefort were tabulated to show the -rate of acidification from various initial points. In the graphs (Fig. -8) the curves for acid development are parallel after the determination -reaches 0.30 per cent. These experiments were made at a temperature 80 -deg. to 84 deg. F. Milk at the lowest acidities tried developed -titratable acid very slowly. A period of several hours was required to -produce sufficient acid to affect the curd texture. When the acid reached -0.25 per cent by titration, the further rise was rapid and all the lines -became almost straight and parallel after the titration reached 0.30 -per cent. If this rapid souring occurred after the completion of the -cheese-making process, the texture of the experimental cheese was not -measurably affected. In those cases, however, in which 0.30 per cent was -reached before the cheese reached its final form in the hoop, the -texture of the ripened cheese was entirely different from that desired -for this variety under experiment. These curves apply directly to but -one cheese process in which a particular combination of acidity, rennet -and time is used to obtain a very delicately balanced result. In other -varieties it is equally important to obtain exactly the adjustment of -these factors which will bring the desired result. - -[Illustration: FIG. 8.--The acidification of Roquefort cheese.] - -+80. Acidity of milk when received.+--If proper care has been taken, -milk should be delivered to the factory fresh, clean and without the -development of acid. If the milk has not been handled properly, the -early stages of souring or some other unfavorable fermentation will have -developed. Such milk may develop too much acid, or gas, or any one of -several objectionable flavors during the making and ripening of the -cheese. Some cheese-makers become very expert in detecting the first -traces of objectionable qualities, but most makers are dependent on -standardized tests to determine whether milk shall be accepted or -rejected, and when accepted to determine the rate at which it may be -expected to respond during the cheese-making process. - -Various tests have been devised to determine the amount of acid present -in milk. There are two tests commonly used in cheese-factories. One is -known as the "acid test" and the other the "rennet test." - -+81. The acid test+[26] is made by titrating a known amount of milk -(Fig. 9) against an alkali solution of known strength, using -phenolphthalein as an indicator. The object of the indicator is to tell -the condition of the milk, whether it is acid, alkaline or neutral. The -indicator does not change in an acid solution but turns pink when the -solution is or becomes alkaline. To make the test, a known quantity of -the material to be tested is placed in a white cup, and to this several -drops of indicator are added. As an indicator, a 1 per cent solution of -phenolphthalein in 95 per cent alcohol is commonly used. As an alkali -solution, sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is used in the standardized strength -usually either tenth (N/10) normal or twentieth (N/20) normal. This -solution should be obtained in some one of the standardized forms -commercially prepared. The alkali is added, drop by drop, from a -graduated burette until a faint pink color appears. This shows that the -acid in the milk has been neutralized by the alkali. The amount of -alkali that has been used can be determined from the burette. Knowing -the amount of milk and alkali solution used, it is easy to calculate the -amount of acid in the substance tested. The results are usually -expressed either as percentages of lactic acid or preferably as cubic -centimeters of normal alkali required to neutralize 100 or 1000 c.c. of -milk. This kind of test is on the market under different names, such as -Mann's, Publow's, Farrington's and Marschall's. - -[Illustration: _FIG. 9._--An acid tester.] - -+82. Rennet tests.+--Several rennet tests have been devised, but the one -most widely used is the Marschall (Fig. 10). This consists of a 1 c.c. -pipette to measure the rennet extract, a small bottle in which to dilute -the extract, a special cup to hold the milk and a spatula to mix the -milk with the rennet extract. This cup has on the inside from top to -bottom a scale graduated from 0 at the top to 10 at the bottom. There is -a hole in the bottom to allow the milk to run out. - -[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Marschall rennet test.] - -+83. Marschall rennet test.+--To make a Marschall rennet test, 1 c.c. of -rennet extract is measured, with the 1 c.c. pipette, and placed in the -bottle. Care should be exercised to rinse out the pipette. The bottle is -then filled to the mark with cold water. After the milk has been heated -to the setting temperature, 84 deg.-86 deg. F., the cup is filled with -milk and set on the edge of the vat so that the milk running out through -the hole in the bottom of the cup will flow into the vat. Just as the -surface of the milk reaches the 0 mark on the cup, the diluted rennet -extract is added and thoroughly mixed with the milk, using the small -spatula to stir it. The rennet and milk should be mixed until it has run -down at least one-half space on the scale in the cup. As the rennet -begins to coagulate the milk, it runs slower from the hole in the bottom -of the cup, until it finally stops. When it stops, the point on the scale -indicated by the surface of the coagulated milk is noted. The test is -recorded by the number of spaces the surface of the milk lowers from the -time the rennet is added until it is coagulated. This test depends on -three factors: the strength of the rennet extract, the temperature of -the milk, the acidity of the milk. The more acid, the quicker the milk -will coagulate. To measure any one of these factors, the other two must -be constant. The variable factor is the acidity of the milk. This test -will not indicate the percentage of acid in the milk, but is simply a -comparative test to be used from day to day; for example, if the rennet -test to-day shows three spaces, and the operator makes that milk into -cheese and the process seems to be normal, it shows that for good -results in this factory, milk should be ripened to show three spaces -every day. If the next day the milk showed four spaces, it should be -allowed to ripen more until it shows three spaces. If it shows only two -spaces, this indicates that the milk has too much acid development or is -over-ripe. A cheese-maker will have to determine at what point to set -his milk, because the test will vary from one factory to another. - -+84. Comparison of acid and rennet test.+--Each of these tests has its -advantages and disadvantages. The advantage of the acid test is that it -can be made as well of warm as cold milk. This is of great importance in -determining whether the milk delivered by any patron is too ripe to be -received. The acidity of other materials, such as whey and starter, can -be determined as well as that of milk. The disadvantages are that it is -difficult to get the alkali solution of the proper strength and the -solution is liable to deteriorate on standing. It requires a careful -exact operator to make the test. - -The advantages of the rennet test are that it is easy to make, and it -requires no materials that are hard to replace. The disadvantage is that -the milk must be warmed to the same temperature before a comparative -test can be made. The size of the outlet in cups varies. It does not -indicate the percentage of acid present in the milk. It is simply a -comparative test. To obtain the best result, both tests should be used -in conjunction. - -+85. Control of acid.+--The control of acidity in curd and cheese is -dependent on the control of the moisture or water-content. The control -of both factors is very important in relation to the quality[27] of the -cheese. Often acidity is spoken of when moisture is really intended, and -vice versa. The close relation between the moisture and acidity is due -to the presence of the milk-sugar in solution in the milk-serum which -becomes the whey of cheese-making. Water or moisture in cheese consists -of the remnant of this whey which is not expelled in the making process. -During manufacture and the ripening process, the milk-sugar is changed -to lactic acid. A cheese may be sweet when first made and after a time -become sour because it contains too much moisture in the form of whey. -Excess of whey carries excess of milk-sugar from which fermentation -produces intense acidity. - -Various tests have been devised to determine the amount of acid -developed at the different stages of manufacture. These tests are -described on page 61. By the use of such tests, the development of acid -during the manufacturing process can be very accurately determined. -There is no quick, accurate test to determine the amount of moisture in -the curd. The cheese-maker has to rely on his own judgment, guided -largely by the appearance, feeling and condition of the curd. - -After the rennet extract has been added, all control of the acid -development is lost. The cheese-maker can determine rather accurately -how fast the acid will develop during the ripening of the milk. This -shows the importance of the proper ripening. The amount of acid -developed during the different stages of the manufacturing process can -be approximately followed with the various acid tests. The manufacturing -process should then be varied to obtain the proper relation between the -moisture and the acid present. The only time that the acidity may be -controlled is when the milk is being ripened. If too much acid is -developed before the rennet is added, there is apt to be too much acid -at each stage of the manufacturing process. This is liable to hurry the -cheese-making process and to cause a loss, both in quality and quantity -of cheese, and may cause a high acid or sour cheese. If sufficient acid -is not developed at the time the rennet is added or if the milk is not -sufficiently ripened, the acid is liable not to develop fast enough so -that there will not be sufficient at each step in the cheese-making -process. Such a cheese is called "sweet." There are several conditions -which will cause an over-development of acid. Such a cheese is called -"acidy" or "sour." These factors are within the control of the -cheese-maker, hence should be avoided. A sour cheese shows lack of skill -and care on the part of the cheese-maker. - -_Conditions causing an acidy or sour cheese:_ - - Receiving sour or high acid milk at the cheese-factory. - Use of too much starter. - Ripening the milk too much before the rennet is added. - Removing the whey before the curd is properly firmed, hence leaving - it with too much moisture. - Development of too much acid in the whey before the whey is removed. - Improper relationship between the moisture and acidity at the time - of removing the whey. - -_Conditions causing deficient acid:_ - - Adding the rennet before sufficient acid has developed. - Not using sufficient starter. - Not developing sufficient acid in the whey. - -+86. Acidity and rennet action.+--The rennet extract acts only in an -acid medium. The greater the acid development, within certain limits, -the faster the action of the rennet. If enough acid has developed to -cause a coagulation of the casein, the rennet will not coagulate the -milk. This is one reason why Cheddar cheese cannot be made from sour -milk. - -+87. Acidity and expulsion of the whey.+--The contraction of the curd -and expulsion of the whey are so closely related that they may be -treated under the same heading. The more acid, the faster the whey -separates from the curd, other conditions being uniform. The relation of -acidity and firmness of the curd to temperature of the curd is another -important factor in the successful manufacture of cheese. The higher the -acidity, the faster the temperature of the curd can be raised without -any harmful effects. If the temperature is raised too fast in relation -to the acidity, the film surrounding each piece of curd will become -toughened so that the moisture will not be able to escape. When this -condition exists, the curd will feel firm but when the pieces are -broken open the inside is found to be very soft. This results in a large -loss later or may cause a sour cheese. It usually causes an uneven -texture and color in the cheese. - -+88. Acidity in relation to cheese flavor.+--Just what part the acid -plays in the development of cheese flavor is not known. If a certain -amount of acid is not present, the characteristic cheese flavor does not -develop. If too much acid is developed, it gives the cheese a sour -flavor which is unpleasant. If sufficient acid is not developed, the -other undesirable factors seem to be more active, causing very -disagreeable flavor and may cause the cheese to putrefy. A cheese with a -low acid usually develops a very mild flavor, and if carried to -extremes, as in the case of some washed curd cheese, the true cheese -flavor never develops. - -+89. Acidity in relation to body and texture of cheese.+--If a cheese is -to have a close, smooth, mellow, silky body and texture, a certain -amount of acid development is necessary. If too much acid is developed, -the body and texture will be dry, harsh, sandy, mealy, corky. If the -acid is not sufficient the cheese may be soft or weak bodied, and is -usually characterized by "Swiss curd holes," which are spaces of various -sizes usually more or less round and very shiny on the inside. - -+90. Acidity in relation to cheese color.+--An over-development of -acidity affects the color of a cheese. If this development of acidity is -uniform throughout the cheese, it causes the color to become pale or -bleached. If this development is uneven, due to the uneven distribution -of moisture, the color will be bleached in spots, causing a mottled -effect. - -+91. Control of moisture.+[28]--The cheese-maker must use skill and -judgment in regulating the amount of moisture in relation to the -firmness of the curd and the acid. Since there are no quick accurate -tests to determine the amount of moisture, this is left entirely to the -judgment of the operator. Certain methods of handling the curd reduce -the moisture-content, while others increase it. The cheese-maker must -decide how to handle the curd. If the curd becomes too dry, methods -should be employed to increase the moisture, and vice versa. - -_Causes of excessive moisture:_ - - Cutting the curd coarse. - Cutting the curd after it has become too hard. - Setting the milk at a high temperature. - Use of excessive amount of rennet extract. - Low acid in the curd at the time of removing the whey. - Not stirring the curd with the hands as the last of the whey is - removed. - High piling of the curd during the cheddaring process. - Piling the curd too quickly after removing the whey. - Use of a small amount of salt. - Holding the curd at too low a temperature after the whey is removed. - Soaking the curd in water previous to salting. - Allowing the curd to remain in the whey too long so that it reabsorbs - the whey. - Heating the curd too rapidly. - -_Causes of insufficient moisture:_ - - Cutting the curd too fine or breaking up the pieces with the rake into - too small pieces. - Cutting the curd too soft. - Stirring the curd too much by hand as the last of the whey is being - removed. - Developing high acid in the curd at the time of removing the whey. - Insufficient piling of the curd during the cheddaring process. - Using a large amount of salt. - High temperature and low humidity in the curing room. - -+92. Relation of moisture to manufacture and quality.+--(1) _Flavor:_ If -the cheese contains too much moisture, it is likely to develop a sour or -acidy flavor. A cheese with a normally high moisture-content usually -ripens or develops a cheese flavor much faster than one with a lower -moisture-content, other conditions being uniform. A cheese with a high -moisture-content is much more liable, during the curing process, to -develop undesirable flavors than is one with a lower moisture-content. -(2) _Body and texture:_ A cheese containing too much moisture is very -soft and is difficult to hold in shape. Such a product breaks down very -rapidly and is usually pasty and sticky in texture. If too little -moisture is present, the cheese is very dry and hard, and cures or -ripens very slowly because of the lack of moisture together with -milk-sugar from which acid may be formed. Dry cheeses are usually harsh, -tough and rubbery in texture. Such cheeses also have poor rinds. (3) -_Color:_ If the ideal conditions exist, the moisture will be evenly -distributed throughout the cheese. The spots containing more moisture -will be lighter in color. If a cheese contains so much moisture that it -becomes "acidy," the effect is the same as when too much acid is -developed, that is, the color becomes pale from the action of the acid. -(4) _Finish:_ A cheese containing too much moisture is usually soft. A -good rind does not form. Such a cheese loses its shape very easily, -especially in a warm curing room. (5) _Quality:_ A cheese with a high -moisture-content is usually marketable for only a very short period. -Such a product usually develops flavor very quickly in comparison to a -dry cheese. It must be sold very soon because if held too long, the -flavor becomes so strong as to be undesirable, and objectionable flavors -are liable to develop. In some cases, such cheeses rot. - -+93. Relation of moisture to acidity.+--From the preceding discussion, -it is evident that the relation between the moisture and acidity is very -close, in fact so intimate that in some cases it is difficult to -distinguish one from the other when the quality of the cheese is -considered. The proper relation of the moisture and the acidity -determines the quality of the resulting cheese. If too much acid is -developed during the manufacturing process, the product will be sour. If -too much moisture is retained in the form of whey, the cheese will be -sour. The less acid in the curd, the more moisture in the form of whey -may be retained in the curd without causing a sour cheese. The proper -relationship between the moisture and the acidity must be maintained or -a sour cheese will result. - -The relation of the moisture to the acidity also has an influence on the -curing. If the cheese has a low development of acidity and a low -moisture-content, it will cure very slowly. The increasing of either the -acidity or moisture usually increases the rate of cheese ripening, other -factors being the same. - -The relation of the acidity and the moisture is so important that it -cannot be neglected without injuring both the quality and quantity of -cheese. This knowledge can be obtained only by experience. - -+94. Setting temperature.+--The temperature of renneting makes very much -difference in the texture of the product. The enzyme rennin is sensitive -to very slight changes in temperature. Below 70 deg. F., its rate of -action is very slow. Beginning with approximately 20 per cent of its -maximum effectiveness at 70 deg. F. (the curdling point for Neufchatel), -it has risen to 65 per cent at 84 deg. F., to 70 per cent at 86 deg. F., -as used in Cheddar, to about 80 to 85 per cent at 90-94 deg. F., as used -in Limburger. At 105 deg. F. it reaches its maximum effective working -rate to fall from that efficiency to about 50 per cent at 120 deg. F. -Curdling at low temperature lengthens the time required for the same -amount of rennet to curdle a given quantity of the same milk. The -texture of curd produced at temperatures between 70 deg. F. and 84 deg. -F. is soft, jelly-like, friable rather than rubbery. At 86 deg. F. it -begins to show toughening or rubbery characters which become very marked -at 90 deg. F. to 94 deg. F. as used in Limburger. With the increased -vigor of action as it passes its maximum rate of action at 105 deg. F., -the texture tends to become loose, floccose to granular. Aside from the -Neufchatel group, the working range of temperatures for the renneting -period runs from about 84 deg. F. to about 94 deg. F., a range of barely -10 deg. F., or the use of 65 per cent to 80 or possibly 85 per cent of -the maximum efficiency of the rennet. Within this range of temperature, -the curd has the physical characters demanded for making most varieties -of cheese. - -+95. Strength of coagulating materials.+--Rennet and pepsin preparations -vary in strength and in keeping quality. With a particular stock, -changes go on to such a degree that the last samples from a barrel of -rennet are much weaker than the earlier ones. Each sample, barrel, keg -or bottle should be tested before used. In continuous work the results -of each day's work furnish the guide for the next day's use of a -particular lot of rennet. - -+96. Amount of coagulating materials to use.+--For most varieties of -cheese, sufficient rennet extract or pepsin is added to the milk to give -a firm curd in twenty-five to forty minutes. Of the ordinary commercial -rennet extract, this requires from two and one-half to four ounces to -one thousand pounds of milk. This gives a maximum of one part rennet for -each four to six thousand parts of milk. The great strength of the -rennet extract is thus clearly shown. - -+97. Method of adding rennet.+--Before rennet is added to the milk, it -is diluted in about forty times its volume of cold water, which chills -the enzyme and retards its action until it can be thoroughly mixed with -the milk. If the material is added without such dilution, the -concentrated extract produces instant coagulation in the drops with -which it comes in contact, forming solid masses from which the enzyme -escapes only slowly to diffuse throughout the mass. Uniform coagulation -thus becomes impossible. After the rennet extract has been diluted with -cold water, it should be distributed the entire length of the vat in an -even stream from a pail. It should then be mixed with the milk by -stirring from top to bottom for about three to four minutes. For this -purpose, either a long-handled dipper or a wooden rake may be used. A -dipperful should be drawn from the gate and stirred into the vat, -otherwise the milk in the gate will fail to coagulate properly because -the rennet diffuses too slowly to reach and affect all the milk at that -point. The milk should be stirred on the top, preferably with the bottom -of a dipper, until signs of coagulation begin to appear. This stirring -keeps the cream from rising. There are various ways or signs to indicate -when the coagulation has gone to the stage at which the mix is about to -become thick: (1) The milk becomes lazy or thicker as the finger is -passed through it; (2) bubbles caused by moving the finger remain on the -milk longer, usually until one can count ten when ready to thicken. - -If the milk is stirred too long or after it begins to thicken, the -result is a granular sort of curd, and there will be an abnormally large -loss of fat in the manufacturing process. The addition of the rennet and -subsequent stirring require the exercise of great care and constant -attention to details. The cheese-maker can do nothing else for those few -minutes. When through stirring, it is a good plan in cold weather to -cover the vat with a cloth as this will keep the surface of the curd -warm. In summer the same cover will keep out the flies. - -_Causes of a delayed coagulation:_ - - (1) Weak rennet extract or too small an amount. - (2) Low temperatures due to inaccurate thermometers. - (3) Pasteurized milk. - (4) Presence of abnormal bacterial ferments. - (5) Presence of preservatives. - (6) Heavily watered milk. - (7) Use of badly rusted[29] cans. - (8) Milk containing small amounts of casein or calcium salts. - -_Causes of uneven coagulation:_ - - (1) Uneven temperature of the mix in the vat, due to lack of - agitation. - (2) Uneven distribution of the rennet extract. - (3) Adding rennet to vat too soon after heating, while the sides and - bottom are still hot, causes curd to stick to sides and bottom - of the vat making cutting difficult. - (4) Sloshing after the milk begins to thicken breaks the curd and - causes it to whey off. - -+98. The curdling period.+--The time allowed for rennet action also -affects the texture of the curd. The enzymes of rennet (rennin and -pepsin) do not cease acting with the thickening of the milk. In many -cheeses, the handling process begins as soon as the curd has become -solid enough to split cleanly before a finger thrust into it. If let -stand further, the same curd mass will continue to harden with the -progressive separation of whey; this shows first as drops ("sweating") -on its surface, which then increase in number and size until they run -together and form a sheet of whey. The limit of such action is difficult -to measure. The solidifying process ceases in a period of hours. The -further action of the enzymes is digestive in character and goes on -slowly. It requires a period of weeks or even months to accomplish -measurable results at the working temperatures in use in the trade. -Other ripening agents with more rapid action intervene to shape the -final result. It follows that the rennet factor in the ripening changes -found at the end of the period is almost negligible for most varieties -of cheese, although it appears to be measurable in some varieties. - -+99. Cutting or breaking[30] the curd.+--As soon as curd is formed, -separation of whey begins upon the surface and perhaps around the sides -of the vessel. This is accompanied by shrinkage and hardening of the -mass. If the curd remains unbroken, the separation is extremely slow. In -cheese-making practice, such curd masses may be dipped at once into -hoops as in Camembert, dumped in mass into cloths for drainage as in -Neufchatel or, as in the larger number of cheeses, cut or broken in some -characteristic manner. After the curd mass is firm, the rate at which -subsequent changes take place depends largely on the size of the -particles into which the curd is cut. The smaller the particles, the -quicker the water is expelled. Consequently the development of the -acidity and other changes take place more slowly. For this reason the -curd should be cut into pieces of uniform size. If the work is not -properly performed, the pieces of curd of various sizes will be at -different stages of development. The fine particles will be firm and -elastic while the larger particles are still soft and full of whey and -may be developing too much acid. The knives should be inserted into the -curd obliquely so that they will cut their way into the curd and not -break it. The horizontal knife is used lengthwise of the vat and cuts -the curd into layers of uniform thickness. The perpendicular knife then -is used lengthwise and crosswise of the vat. It first cuts the curd -into strips and then into cubes. The knives may have wire blades or -steel blades, some operators preferring one and some the other. -Whichever is used, the blades should be close enough together to give -the fineness of curd desired. - -After the knife passes through, the cut faces quickly become covered -with a smooth coating, continuous over all exposed areas. This surface -has the appearance of a smooth elastic coating or film. This can be seen -by carefully breaking a piece in the hand. It is this film which holds -the fat within the pieces of curd. If the film is broken, some of the -fat globules are lost because the rennet extract acts only on the casein -and that in turn holds the fat. All the fat globules which come in -contact with the knives as they pass through the curd will be left -between the pieces of curd and will pass off in the whey. If care is -exercised in cutting, the loss of fat will be confined to what may be -called a mechanical loss. This is similar to the loss of the sawdust -when sawing a board. This loss in American Cheddar is about 0.3 per cent -and cannot be avoided. If it is greater than this, it is due to -negligence on the part of the cheese-maker or the poor condition of the -milk. The cutting of the curd into small pieces may be considered a -necessary evil. If the moisture could be expelled from the whole mass -without disturbing it, this fat loss could be prevented. The cutting, -breaking or turning should be done with the greatest care, that the loss -may be as small as possible. - -+100. Curd knives.+--For cutting curd, special knives have been devised -(Fig. 11). They consist of series of parallel blades fixed in a frame to -make cuts equidistant. The blades run vertically in one, horizontally -in another. They are spaced according to the demands of the variety of -cheese to be made. Wires stretched in a frame take the place of blades -in some makes of curd knife. - -[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Blade and wire curd knives: horizontal, -perpendicular, horizontal, perpendicular.] - -+101. Heating or "cooking."+--Curdling by rennet has already been shown -to be markedly hastened by moderate heating. After the coagulum or curd -is formed, the making process may be completed without the application -of further heat, as in Neufchatel, Camembert and related forms (Fig. 12) -and in some practices with Limburger. In other forms and especially in -the hard cheeses in which cutting of curd is a prominent part of the -process, the curd after being cut is reheated or "cooked." The cooking -process hastens the removal of the whey, thus shortening the time -required to reduce the water-content of the mass to the percentage most -favorable for the type of cheese desired. The process also produces -marked changes in the physical character of the curd mass. With the rise -in temperature the casein becomes elastic first, then approaches a -melting condition and assumes a tough, almost rubbery consistency. The -final texture is the result of the combination of the amount of rennet -added, the temperature, the acidity reached during the process, and the -final water-content of the mass. - -[Illustration: FIG. 12.--The heat relation. See pages 77 and 87.] - -+102. Draining+ (including grinding, putting into hoops or forms and -pressing).--The reduction of the water in the curd begins almost as soon -as the curd becomes firm. It is aided by cutting or breaking, by the -retention of the heat applied before renneting and by the secondary -heating or cooking used in making certain groups of cheeses. In many -varieties special apparatus is provided in the form of draining boards, -draining racks or bags to hasten the removal of the whey as fast as it -separates. The draining process continues until the cheese has reached -its final form and weight. The intervening process of matting in the -Cheddar group involves a combination of a souring process with the -removal of whey, during which the cubes of curd become fused into -semi-solid masses. If such masses are formed, they must be ground up -before the cheese can be given its final form in the hoop. The draining -process, therefore, may take any one of many forms varying from the -direct transfer of freshly formed curd into hoops in which the entire -draining process is completed, to an elaborate series of operations -which end in pressing curd drained to approximately its final condition -before it is placed in the hoop. - -+103. Application to cheese.+--From the discussion of these factors, it -is evident that the cheeses produced will differ widely with the -differences in manipulation. If one considers essential constituent -substances separately, the water-content of the finished product is -found to vary from 30 per cent in Parmesan to 75 per cent in cottage -cheese. The fat-content runs from a trace in some varieties to 60 per -cent in some cream cheeses. The texture of the casein, which gives -character to the product, varies from the tough or glue-like consistency -of freshly made Swiss to the buttery condition of a cream or Neufchatel -cheese. Inside such limits the tastes of different peoples have led to -the manufacture of many kinds of cheese. Each of these varieties -represents some particular combination of curd-making factors and -ripening conditions which produces a cheese suited to the taste of the -maker and consumer of that country or community. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -_CLASSIFICATION_ - - -The literature of cheese-making contains reference to more than 500 -names for varieties of cheese. Many of these can be thrown readily into -great groups or families in which there are variations in unessential -detail without modifying the characteristic texture and flavor of the -product. Many varietal names are attached to the product of single -factories or factory groups. Such varieties frequently differ only -slightly in size or shape, or in stage of drainage or of ripening, from -widely known varieties or other similar local forms. The descriptions -recorded for such varieties commonly emphasize minor differences in -manipulation without showing differences in essential factors. Vessels -of particular size are prescribed to be made of wood, earthenware, or of -a special metal. These details specify the exact size and shape of -hoops, the use of particular styles of cutting or breaking instruments -and of certain stirring tools, the material and construction of mats and -draining racks. - -The descriptions themselves are very commonly inadequate. The variable -factors in cheese-making are fat-content of the milk, acidity, -temperature of setting, amount of rennet, time allowed for curdling and -the method of draining the curd. The differences in practice lie, with -few exceptions, in the amount or intensity of particular factors, not -differences in kind or quality of treatment. Such contrasts are -quantitative, not qualitative. A great number of combinations is -possible by small variations of these factors. - -Varieties selected as types of groups give marked contrasts in -character, but comparison of large numbers of forms shows that almost -every gradation from group to group can actually be found. Within groups -frequently the same physical results in texture and flavor can be -obtained by combinations or adjustments of factors for the purpose of -offsetting or counteracting the effects of one change in practice by the -manipulation of other factors. In ripening, an equally large range of -practices makes possible the development of very different qualities in -mature cheeses from the same lot. - -Only a few of the large number of described varieties have obtained even -national importance; fewer still are known outside the country of -origin. In spite of the success of special products when properly -advertised, the largest place in the market is clearly accorded to the -standard forms which are widely known. - -+104. Basis of classification.+--A series of these widely known forms -has been chosen as typical of groups in a system of classification -adapted from the French of Pouriau. No completely satisfactory scheme of -classifying all of these varieties has been devised. The grouping -proposed here is based on the principles of curd-making already -discussed together with consideration of the ripening processes to be -discussed with each group. The factors that actually influence the -quality of the final product are separated as completely as possible -from non-essential operative details. - -The common use of the terms "soft" and "hard" cheese is based on the -single arbitrary fact of texture. The term "semi-hard" cheese may be -conveniently applied to a miscellaneous group of unrelated families -which are intermediate in texture between such soft forms as Neufchatel -or Camembert and really hard cheeses like Cheddar or Parmesan. Although -these terms are not made the main basis of the proposed grouping, their -application to sections is indicated. Classification based on the -essential facts of manufacture is, however, really helpful. - - - ANALYTICAL TABULATION OF GROUPS - - Section I. Cheeses with sour milk flavor only (Eaten fresh). - (Soft cheeses 45 to 75% water) PAGE - - 1. Curdled by souring, Cottage cheese and its - allies in America, many related varieties - in Europe 90 - - 2. Curdled by souring and rennet--the Neufchatel group 95 - - a. Skim--Skim-milk Neufchatel 105 - - b. Part skim to whole milk--American or - Domestic Neufchatel 106 - - c. With fat added--the cream cheeses of - the Neufchatel group (both American - and European)--such as Cream, Gervais, - Malakoffs, etc. 108 - - Section II. Cheeses ripened. - - Subsection A. Soft cheeses (40 to 50% water). - - 1. Curdled by souring, heated, then ripened. - - Hand cheese, Pennsylvania pot cheese, - Harz, etc. 112 - - 2. Curdling by souring and rennet, ripened - - Ripened (French) Neufchatel 114 - - 3. Curdled primarily by rennet. - - a. Ripened by mold--Camembert, Brie - and their allies 117 - - b. Ripened by bacteria. - - * Made from soft or friable - curd--d'Isigny, Liederkranz, etc. 134 - - ** Made from firm or tough - curds--Limburger and allies 139 - - Subsection B. Semi-hard cheeses, firm, well-drained - (38 to 45% water) - - a. Curd not cooked, ripened by molds. - * Made from friable curd--Roquefort 150 - - ** Made from firm or tough - curd--Gorgonzola, Stilton and - such French forms as Gex, - Septmoncel 158 - - b. Curd cooked and ripened by - bacteria,--brick, Munster, Port - du Salut (Oka) 164 - - Subsection C. Hard cheeses, cooked and pressed (30 to - 40% water). - - a. Ripened without gas holes. - 1. Dutch--Edam, Gouda 173 - 2. Danish. - 3. The Cheddar group. - * English--Cheddar and numerous - related forms known principally - in Great Britain 184 - ** American--the factory Cheddar of - United States and Canada 184 - - b. Ripened with the development of - gas holes. - * Holes large--Swiss-Emmenthal, - Gruyere, American Swiss 276 - - ** Holes small--Parmesan and related - varieties 288 - -Such a classification brings together series of products in which there -is essential similarity in the final output, however great the -differences in manipulation. It does not consider all varieties and -specialties. Some of these groups are important enough to demand special -mention. - -+105. Processed cheeses.+--Cheese of any group may be run through mixing -and molding machines and repackaged in very different form from that -characteristic of the variety. In such treatment, the texture and -appearance may be so changed as to give the effect of a new product. -Substances (such as pimiento) are added to change the flavor. Or the -product may be canned and sterilized with equally great change of -flavor and texture. One thus finds Club made from Cheddar; Pimiento -from Cream, Neufchatel or Cheddar; similarly olive, nut and other -combinations are made. The possible variations are numerous. - -+106. Whey cheeses.+--Several products bearing cheese names are made -from whey. These take the forms of the recovery of the albumin and -casein separately or in a single product, and the recovery of the -milk-sugar either alone or with the albumin. Whey cheeses have been -especially developed by the Scandinavian people, although some of them -have their origin in the south of Europe. Certain of these varieties are -produced on a limited scale in America. - -There are a number of forms fairly widely known that are difficult to -place in this scheme of groups. Among these are Caciocavallo, Sap Sago. - -+107. Soft and hard cheeses.+--Another commonly used classification -makes two groups: (1) soft cheeses; (2) hard cheeses. In such a -classification the semi-hard group presented here is included with the -soft cheeses. Some cheeses of this group are soft in texture. This is -correlated with high water-content, high fat-content or both together. - -+108. Relation of moisture to classes.+--In this classification the -water-content reflected in the texture of the cheese assumes first -place. To carry the analysis somewhat further by showing the correlation -between water-content and certain factors, a tabulation of well-known -varieties of typical groups is presented (Table III). In this table the -series of typical dairy products are first arranged according to -water-content of the final product. Approximate limits of percentages of -milk-fat are also given, because milk-fat frequently affects texture to -a degree almost equal to water. Column 4 gives the period within which -the more quickly perishable cheeses are usable, and the length of the -ripening for the more solid forms. The correlation between -water-content, texture and the time of keeping is clearly shown for most -varieties. - - TABLE III - - CORRELATION WATER- AND FAT-CONTENT WITH RIPENING - - ------------------+--------+--------+-------------+-------------- - | PER | PER | | - VARITY OF | CENT | CENT | PERIOD | RIPENING - | WATER | FAT | REQUIRED | AGENT - ------------------+--------+--------+-------------+-------------- - Cheese: Soft, | | | | - Cottage | 70 | trace | a few days | Bacteria - Skim Neufchatel | 70 | trace | a few days | Bacteria - Neufchatel | 50-60 | 12-28 | a few days | Bacteria - Camembert | 50 | 22-30 | 3-5 weeks | Molds - Cream cheese | 40-50 | 35-45 | a few days | Primarily - | | | | bacteria - | | | | - Semi-hard: | | | | - Limburger | 40-45 | 24-30 | 3-6 months | Bacteria - Roquefort | 38-40 | 31-34 | 3-6 months | Mold - Brick | 37-42 | 31-35 | 3-6 months | Bacteria - | | | | - Hard: | | | | - Cheddar | 30-39 | 32-36 | 6-12 months | Bacteria - Swiss | 31-34 | 28-31 | 9-18 months | Bacteria - | | | | and yeasts - Parmesan | 30-33 | | 2-3 years | Bacteria - ------------------+--------+--------+-------------+-------------- - -The soft cheeses are quickly perishable products. Bacteria and molds -find favorable conditions for growth in products with 45 to 75 per cent -of water. If such growth is permitted, enzymic activities follow quickly -with resultant changes in appearance, texture, odor and taste. -Refrigeration is necessary to transport such cheeses to the consumer, -if properly ripened. Trade in these forms may continue throughout the -year in cool climates and in places where adequate refrigeration is -available. Practically, however, outside the large cities this trade in -America is at present limited to the cold months; inside the large -cities much reduced quantities of these cheeses continue to be handled -through the year. - -In the stricter sense, the soft group of cheeses falls naturally into -two series: (1) the varieties eaten fresh; and (2) the ripened soft -cheeses. Those eaten fresh have a making process which commonly involves -the development of a lactic acid flavor by souring, but no ripening is -contemplated after the product leaves the maker's hands. In the ripened -series, after the making process is completed, the essential flavors and -textures are developed by the activity of micro-organisms during -ripening periods varying in length but fairly well-defined for each -variety. - -In contrast to the soft cheeses, the hard kinds are low in -water-content, ripen more slowly and may be kept through much longer -periods. They retain their form through a wider range of climatic -conditions. They develop flavor slowly and correspondingly deteriorate -much more slowly. Such cheeses are in marketable condition over longer -periods. In their manufacture the cooking of the curd takes a prominent -place. - -+109. Relation of heat to classes.+--The close relation between the heat -applied and the product sought forms the basis of a striking series of -graphs (Fig. 12, page 78). These show the changes hour by hour in the -heat relation during the making process of a series of widely known -forms, each of which is chosen as typical. In some of these forms, heat -is applied but once to bring the milk to the renneting temperature -typical for the variety. Subsequent manipulations are accompanied by a -steady fall in temperature. In other forms, the curd when solid is -specially heated or "cooked" to bring about the changes characteristic -of the variety. These contrasts are clearly brought out by the graphs -which represent practices well recognized for the varieties. The -detailed process for these groups is considered in succeeding chapters. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -CHEESES WITH SOUR-MILK FLAVOR - - -The cheeses with flavor of sour milk are probably more widely used than -any other group. Historically and to a very large degree at present, -they are farm cheeses.[31] No estimate of volume of such production in -the household has ever been made. The utilization of surplus milk in -this way is of ancient origin. - -With the introduction of the factory system of handling milk, the -manufacture of such cheese in the household was largely dropped. The -rise in price of all food substances and increasing appreciation of the -food value of milk products have made the recovery of all surplus milk -in some form very necessary. The manufacture of cottage, Neufchatel and -cream cheese is one of the best forms of such recovery which may be -adapted to utilize any grade from skimmed-milk to cream. Large -quantities of skimmed-milk have frequently been lost from the total of -human food by the manufacture of casein for industrial uses, and by use -as stock feed. - -+110. Skim series.+--The kinds of cheeses eaten fresh have in common a -very soft texture and the flavor of sour milk, principally lactic acid. -The group falls naturally into two sections: (1) the cheeses made from -milk curdled by souring; (2) those for which the milk is curdled by -souring and rennet. In the latter group both agencies are necessary to -the resulting product. The time required to curdle by souring alone is -longer than when rennet is used; this period is usually longer than -necessary for the cream to rise by gravity; hence the cream is either -skimmed off or removed with the separator beforehand. The curd, -therefore, is essentially a skimmed-milk curd. Casein curdled in this -way tends to become granular or "rough," to feel "sandy" when rubbed -between the fingers. Heating is commonly necessary to lower the -water-content of the mass even to 75 per cent. Such curd tends to become -hard or rubbery when heat is applied. In this group, the best known form -is variously called "cottage" cheese, "clabber" cheese, schmierkaese. - -+111. Cottage cheese+ is made from skimmed-milk, soured by lactic -bacteria until a curd is formed. This is done preferably at about 20 deg. -C. (70 deg. F.), because at this temperature the purely lactic type of -organism has been found to outgrow competing forms which may be present. -Starter containing the desired culture, if properly used, saves much -time in the curdling period. Such curdling requires at least twelve to -twenty-four hours, frequently much longer unless abundant starter is -introduced. - -+112. Household practice.+--The details of cottage cheese making in the -home differ widely in separate sections and even in different families -in the same part of the country. The essentials of the practice, common -to all, include: (1) curdling the whole milk by natural souring; (2) -removing the sour cream which is usually used for butter-making; (3) -scalding the curdled skimmed-milk either by slowly heating it in the -original vessel surrounded by hot water or by actually pouring an -approximately equal volume of boiling water into the curdled mass; (4) -bagging and draining the mass until it reaches the desired texture; (5) -the kneading of the mass with the addition of salt and cream. The -resulting product varies greatly in quality. Unfavorable fermentations -frequently affect the flavor.[32] The "scalding" varies from a -temperature of 90 deg. F. almost to boiling with a resultant texture -varying from almost the smooth buttery consistency of Neufchatel to hard -coarse granular lumps. The best practice, using clean well-cared-for -milk and draining at low temperature, produces a very attractive cheese. -Such cheese is heated to 90 deg. to 100 deg. F. on the maker's judgment, -drained carefully, kneaded well by hand or by machine with the addition -of cream to give it an attractive texture and flavor. - -+113. Factory practice.+--When cottage cheese is made in the -factory,[33] separated milk is taken; it should be pasteurized and then -soured by a lactic starter. The souring can be accelerated by the use of -a starter, which may be added at the rate of 0.5 to 5 per cent of the -skimmed-milk used, depending on the amount of starter that can be made. -Generally, the more starter added, the more rapid will be the -coagulation and the better will be the flavor of the cheese. As soon as -the milk has thickened, the curd is ready to be broken up and separated -from the whey. This separation is hastened by the application of heat. -Usually the temperature of the curd is raised slightly before it is -broken up; since this makes the curd firmer, there will be a smaller -loss of curd particles in the whey. The curd may be cut with coarse -Cheddar cheese knives or broken with a rake. The temperature of the curd -should be raised very slowly, at least thirty minutes being taken to -reach the desired final temperature. No set rule can be given as to the -exact temperature to which the curd should be heated. The temperature -should be raised until a point is reached at which the curd, when -pressed between the thumb and the fingers, will stick together and not -go back to the milky state. This temperature is usually from 94 deg. to -100 deg. F., but the cheese-maker must use his own judgment in this -respect. If the curd is heated too much, it will be hard and dry; on the -other hand, if it is not heated sufficiently, the whey will not separate -from the curd and the latter will be very soft and mushy. - -When the curd has been heated sufficiently and has become firmed in the -whey, it should be removed from the whey. This may be done either by -letting down one end of the vat and piling the curd in the upper end, or -by dipping out the curd into a cloth bag and allowing the whey to drain, -which it does very rapidly. No treatment can prevent the "roughness" of -an acid curd (this is a fine gritty feeling when rubbed between the -fingers), but the coarse hard grainy texture and lumps characteristic of -the highly heated curd do not develop. Experimental workers have agreed -that to have the proper texture, such curd should contain when finished -about 70 to 75 per cent of water. It should have a mild but clean acid -flavor. Such a cheese will carry about 1 to 2 per cent of salt, without -an objectionably salty taste. This cheese is commonly sold by measure, -sometimes in molds or cartons. The manufacture of all forms of cottage -cheese has been largely superseded by the making of skimmed-milk -Neufchatel or Baker's cheese. - -The yield from one hundred pounds of skimmed-milk runs up to fourteen to -nineteen pounds of cheese, when made very wet or from pasteurized milk. -The yield varies with the moisture-content of the cheese, being greater -for cheese with a high content. Too much moisture or whey should not be -left in the curd, however, as this will render it too soft to be -handled. - -Cottage cheese made by either the home or factory practice is a quickly -perishable article. Although the acid restrains bacteria at first, the -high percentage of water favors the growth of molds which tolerate -acidity, especially _Oidium (Oospora) lactis_ and the Mucors or black -molds. These molds destroy acidity rapidly and thus permit the bacteria -of decay to develop and to produce objectionable taste and odors. -Spoilage in these products is accelerated by the kneading process which -distributes air throughout the mass and with it all forms of microbial -contamination. - -+114. Buttermilk cheese.+--A cheese closely resembling cottage may be -made from buttermilk. If the buttermilk came from cream which was -churned before it became sour, the process is the same as that already -described for the making of cottage cheese from skimmed-milk. If the -buttermilk came from sour cream the process of manufacture is much more -difficult. The casein of sour cream has already been coagulated with -acid and broken during churning into very minute rather hard particles. -These fine particles are difficult to recover. They are so fine that -they pass through the draining cloth or at other times clog it and -prevent drainage. They do not stick together at ordinary temperatures. -They cannot be collected by the use of acid because they have already -been coagulated with acid. After casein has been coagulated with acid, -rennet extract will not recoagulate the particles. The buttermilk may be -mixed with sweet skimmed-milk; then as the latter coagulates, it locks -in the casein of the buttermilk so that it can be collected. If -buttermilk from soured cream is used alone, the casein may be -collected[34] by neutralizing and heating to 130 to 150 deg. F., and -holding until the casein gathers together. The whey can then be drawn -off. Often there is further difficulty in getting the casein to collect, -since the pieces remain so small that they go through the strainer. - -Cheese made entirely from buttermilk is sandy in texture and often not -palatable. If the buttermilk with good flavor is mixed with -skimmed-milk, it makes a good cheese closely resembling cottage. - -+115. Neufchatel group.+[35]--The Neufchatel process originated in -northern France where a number of varieties are included under this as a -group name. Among these are Bondon, Malakoff, Petit Suisse, Petit Carre. -The name designates a general process of curd-making which is applied to -skimmed-milk, whole milk or cream. Some of the resultant cheeses are -ripened; some are eaten fresh. The Neufchatel cheeses of France gained -such wide recognition for quality that the process of making has become -widely known. In America the manipulations of the French process were -early dropped. The essentials were made the basis of a successful -factory practice which has been widely adopted. The American factory -practice is discussed here and the French process briefly considered -under the heading Ripened Neufchatel. (See Chapter VIII.) - -+116. Domestic or American Neufchatel cheeses+ are soft, have clean sour -milk (lactic acid) flavor and are quickly perishable. In all but the -coldest weather, they require refrigeration to reduce deterioration and -loss. They range in fat-content from traces only to 50 per cent and -more; in water from 40 to 75 per cent, according to the milk used. In -texture Neufchatel is smooth, free from gas, free from lumps or -roughness when rubbed between the fingers. This flavor and texture is -obtained by a combination of slow rennet curdling with developing -acidity. No further ripening is permitted. - -+117. The factory.+--Neufchatel factories require the standard dairy -equipment for receiving, weighing, testing, separating, heating, -pasteurizing and cooling the milk. Since many factories produce several -products, the same general dairy equipment may serve for all. In -addition to such equipment, Neufchatel requires a curdling apparatus -which can be held at 70-75 deg. F. This may be a room properly -controlled, or a tank where temperature control is obtained by water and -steam. For draining, a room kept at 60 deg. F. gives nearly the ideal -temperature, which must be supplemented by relative humidity high enough -to prevent the exposed surface of curd from drying during periods of -twelve to twenty-four hours. This requires almost a saturated atmosphere. -A room with special molding machinery is required and tables for -wrapping, labeling and boxing the product are necessary. Box-making -machinery is usually an economic necessity for work on a large scale. -Adequate refrigeration is requisite both to chill the curd before molding -and to preserve it after packaging. - -[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Neufchatel draining racks.] - -+118. Cans.+--For curdling, the "shot-gun" can, about nine inches in -diameter and twenty inches deep, is generally used. This holds thirty to -forty pounds of milk. Increased capacity is dependent, therefore, on the -number of units installed, not on changes in the units themselves. - -[Illustration: FIG. 14.--Detail of a Neufchatel draining rack.] - -+119. Draining racks.+--A draining rack is required for each can of -curd. These racks also are standardized units whose number limits the -capacity of the factory. The design of these racks (Figs. 13, 14) and -their arrangement in the draining room are taken from Bulletin 78 of the -Storrs Agricultural Experiment Station: "The racks are rectangular, -thirteen inches wide, thirty-six inches long and ten inches deep. The -corner posts extend one and one-half inches beyond the strips at top and -bottom with the tops rounded as a rule as seen in the photograph. The -bottom slats fit loosely into notches, hence are removable for washing -purposes. The materials required are four corner posts one and one-half -by one and one-half inches; nine strips one by three-eighths by -thirty-six inches; six strips one by three-eighths by thirteen inches, -two strips one by three-eighths by twelve and a quarter inches, notched -to receive the bottom slats; all made from pine." - -+120. Cloths.+--For each draining rack, a cloth one yard wide and one -and one-half yards long is required. Cotton sheeting is satisfactory for -the purpose; "even-count, round-thread, unmercerized voile" is suggested -by Dahlberg.[36] - -[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Neufchatel and cream cheese molds.] - -+121. Molding machinery.+--For work on a large scale, special power -machines[37] are regularly used. These consist of a hopper and worm -delivering a standard size stream of curd through a proper size and -shape of delivery tube. This curd stream is cut by an automatic device -into the proper lengths to form the standard cheese. In this way a -uniform size of cheeses is obtained. Experimental work with hand -apparatus showed that a worm six inches in diameter is required to -deliver curd in a smooth column one and one-half inches square. If the -pressure is not sufficient, the column will frill at the edges. Such -irregular surfaces cannot be wrapped smoothly enough to delay spoilage. - -On a small scale, a fair grade of product can be molded through a tin -tube (see Fig. 15) one and three-quarters inches in diameter and ten -inches long in which the curd is compressed by a close fitting plunger -operated by hand. - -+122. Milk for Neufchatel+ should be clean, free from gas and taint. -Such milk should preferably be not more than twelve hours old when -received and in no case show higher than 0.20 per cent lactic acid by -titration. Milk testing 4 per cent fat or higher will produce a higher -quality of product than lower grade milk, although every grade from -skimmed-milk to cream is used in producing some form of Neufchatel. This -milk should be pasteurized unless shown to be free from tuberculosis by -proper test of the cattle. Evidence[38] that the organism of -tuberculosis will withstand the regular handling process for cheeses of -this group and retain its ability to cause disease in experimental -animals makes the introduction of pasteurization necessary in this whole -group of cheeses. Any effective pasteurization may be used, but -temperatures of 140-145 deg. F. for thirty minutes have been effective -with less changes in the milk than higher temperatures for shorter -periods. The milk should be cooled to curdling temperature and the -starter and rennet added and stirred into the milk in bulk. The milk may -then be quickly distributed into the curdling cans with a hose or from -the gate valve of the mixing vat. - -+123. Starter.+--To insure the development of a clean acid flavor, a -small amount of lactic starter should be used. The quantity to use -depends on the quality of the milk. With skimmed-milk, a pint for each -thirty-pound can is recommended by Matheson and Cammack[39] and by -Dahlberg. (See page 98.) For whole-milk Neufchatel, 2 c.c. to a -thirty-pound can of milk commonly gives good results. On this basis 2 -ounces of starter would be sufficient if properly stirred into about -1000 pounds of milk. Too slow development of acid is preferable to -over-rapid souring. - -+124. Renneting or setting.+--The milk should be cooled after -pasteurizing to between 70 deg. and 75 deg. F. Rennet is added at the -rate of 1/3 c.c. to a thirty-pound can (roughly 1/3 ounce to 1000 -pounds). This will thicken the milk sufficiently in the first few hours -to reduce the separation of the cream. For completion of the curdling -and souring process, twelve to eighteen hours are required. Usually the -cans stand overnight at uniform temperature. When ready to drain, the -curd should be firm, smooth and mildly acid. Whey separating from it -should not titrate above 0.35 per cent titrated as lactic acid. - -+125. Draining.+--A cloth is spread over a draining rack and the -contents of one "shot-gun" can poured upon the cloth with as little -breaking as possible. In this way a large surface is exposed. The room -must be kept wet to prevent the surface of the curd drying to form -crusts which stop draining. A temperature of 60 deg. F. is favorable to -the maintenance of proper texture and humidity without the development -of objectionable organisms, especially _Oidium lactis_, which tends to -cover every exposed surface in such rooms. Draining may be hastened by -turning the curd or changing the position of the cloth. In factory -practice, the large draining surface reduces the necessity of handling -the curd and reduces the loss of fat. About twelve hours are required -upon the draining racks. - -On a small scale with a few cans of curd in the home, any form of -draining rack may be used, such as a potato or berry crate, or the -corners of the cloth may be brought together, tied and the mass hung up. -The curd must be turned by pulling up the corners of the cloth to -prevent drying at the edges and stoppage of draining from the center of -the mass. Such treatment produces much more rapid drainage than the -factory practice and involves proportionately more labor and larger fat -losses. - -+126. Cooling Neufchatel.+--When whey ceases to separate readily, the -corners of the cloth are loosed from the rack, folded diagonally or -tied, and the curd cooled on ice or in refrigerators. When thoroughly -chilled the bags of curd are put into presses, where light but -increasing pressure forces more whey out of the mass. Tests at this time -should show about 0.60 per cent acid in the whey. With low-fat curd -every step of the process may be hastened, but with high-fat care must -be exercised to prevent loss of fat during pressing especially. Any -pressing device permitting continuous pressure with ease of manipulation -may be used. - -+127. Pressing.+--The ideals of the maker must determine the extent of -pressing. A high yield is obtained by leaving whey in the curd. If -immediate consumption is certain, such cheese may be satisfactory, but -if the cheese is to be held some days the extra whey carrying more -milk-sugar favors increased acid development. This produces very sour -cheese with much more danger of other fermentations which cause -objectionable flavor. Too much water favors more active bacterial growth -as well as produces cheese too soft for the necessary handling in the -market. - -In the press, several bags of curd may be piled together. The press -should be released and the bags turned from time to time to insure even -drainage. Several hours of pressing are usually required. The danger of -insufficient pressing is due to the difference of texture between the -worked and unworked curd. Before working, curd carrying 10 per cent -excess moisture resembles the finished product sufficiently to deceive -any but the experienced maker. But if this curd is transferred to the -worker and to the molding machine, it is found to become soft, pasty and -sticky, to lack "body," hence to make very unsatisfactory packages and -to spoil very quickly. The masses of curd should come out of the press -as dry and hard flat cakes. - -[Illustration: FIG. 16.--Working Neufchatel.] - -+128. Working and salting Neufchatel.+--The cakes of curd go from the -press to the working table. Here they are broken by hand or by a -butter-worker or kneading machine (Fig. 16). Salt at the rate of one -and one-half pounds to 100 pounds of curd is added. If the curd is not -sufficiently pressed, the masses become mushy or pasty during the -working process. The working is continued until the whole mass is -uniformly smooth and buttery. - -+129. Storage.+--The draining and working processes permit the -contamination of the curd with organisms from the air and from the -apparatus. These are distributed throughout the mass. Air is also worked -thoroughly into the curd. Such a product spoils quickly. Distributing -houses find the Neufchatel trade uncertain in volume from day to day, -hence many of them store the cheese in bulk and package only fast enough -to fill orders. This minimizes the loss due to spoilage. Such curd may -be packed into tubs and kept for considerable time in cold storage. If -molded for the retail trade, it is more quickly perishable. When packed -solidly in mass, curd is largely protected from spoilage by the -exclusion of air and perhaps the quick exhaustion of free oxygen through -the respiration of the micro-organisms present and by its acidity. This -must be supplemented by low temperature to reduce the loss to a minimum. -Even when spoilage begins, it is easily confined to the slight growth of -_Oidium lactis_ or green mold and bacteria on exposed areas. These can -be removed with minimum loss and damage to the mass. On the other hand, -such curd molded into the commercial package of 3 to 6 ounces and -wrapped in paper, with tin-foil or carton for protection, still presents -enormously increased surface for the growth of aerobic forms--especially -_Oidium lactis_, green mold (Roquefort mold is the usual green species) -and accompanying bacteria. Curd in tubs may be kept some days; in -commercial packages lowering of quality (flavor) begins almost at once. - -+130. Molding.+--When the standard molding machine (Fig. 17) is -provided, curd is brought directly from the refrigerator to the machine. -If permitted to become warm, the mass becomes sticky; when cold it is -more readily handled. The machine is fitted with the special delivery -tube for the variety to be handled, cylindrical for Neufchatel in its -various forms, rectangular in section for cream. Enough workers should -be provided to wrap and label the cheese without leaving it exposed to -contamination or heat. Parchment paper and tin-foil cut the proper size -for each variety and bearing printed labels are readily obtainable. Each -cheese should be wrapped with paper and tin-foil and put directly into a -flat box which holds a standard number (usually 12 or 24) of the special -product. - -[Illustration: FIG. 17.--Molding Neufchatel.] - -In working with the hand molding tube (Fig. 15) the same care is -required. Chilled curd is forced into a firm smooth mass with the -plunger. It is removed and wrapped when it reaches the regular size of -the variety. - -All forms when molded go directly into the boxes and then back to the -refrigerators until demanded for actual use. The details of the process -differ according to the form made. - -+131. Skimmed-milk Neufchatel.+--Separator skimmed-milk is frequently -made into curd by the Neufchatel process. The absence of fat eliminates -the largest element of loss in manufacture. Each stage of the making -process, therefore, may be shortened. The demand that the curd shall be -smooth and buttery in texture rather than rough or gritty requires the -exercise of care in curdling of milk. The draining and pressing of the -curd may be accomplished much more rapidly than in the fatty cheeses. -The final product should differ from cottage cheese in smoother texture, -milder acidity and, as a rule, cleaner flavor. In composition, the -absence of fat must be largely compensated by leaving more water in the -cheese. Such a product reaches the market with 65 to 75 per cent of -water and perhaps 1.25 per cent of salt. Casein forms 20 to 30 per cent -of the mass. - -These cheeses are very perishable on account of their high -water-content. The destructive effect of microorganisms both in the -interior of the cheese and upon its surface is rapid. - -Cheeses of this description may be found in the trade as cottage cheese, -Neufchatel style, and as Neufchatel made from skimmed-milk; skimmed-milk -Neufchatel would be a strictly proper labeling. - -+132. Baker's cheese.+--There is considerable market for skimmed-milk -curd as Baker's cheese. This product is essentially skimmed-milk -Neufchatel curd, partially drained and sold in bulk. When the bakery is -near by, the curd is frequently shoveled into milk-cans in very wet -condition and sent directly from the factory to the bakery. If the -distance is such as to require considerable time for transportation, -the same care is frequently given as for Neufchatel curd packed in bulk -for storage and transportation. - -Great variations in practice are found among the makers of this type of -product. In some cases low grade skimmed-milk is handled on a large -scale. Curdling is done quickly and little care is given to the details -of flavor and texture in the curd. Working in this manner, two men are -able to make a ton of such curd, and ship it out in milk-cans each day. -The resulting product, although very deficient in flavor and texture, -goes into manufactured specialties which conceal its deficiencies if -considered as cheese. - -+133. Domestic Neufchatel.+--The name Neufchatel, unless limited clearly -by the label, should designate a cheese made from fresh whole milk. -Cheeses of this group are produced in a small number of well-equipped -factories scattered widely through the dairy states of the North and -Northeast. Every factory uses one or more trade names for its product. -The same product is frequently relabeled by the distributor who uses his -own trade name instead of that of the maker. - -The usual form of package is cylindrical, about 1-3/4 inches in -diameter and 2-1/2 inches long, or sometimes rectangular 2-1/2 by 1-1/2 -by 1-1/2 inches. The cheese is protected by wrapping in parchment paper -closely surrounded by tin-foil. These packages vary from 2-1/2 to 4 -ounces. In some cases screw-topped glass jars are substituted for the -tin-foil package. They are objectionable, first, because of cost and, -second, because they are so commonly associated with less perishable -products as to mislead either dealer or consumer into holding the -product for too long a time. The paper or tin-foil package can be kept -only at refrigerator temperature, hence automatically keeps its -possessor reminded of the perishable nature of its contents. - -Neufchatel of the best quality made from whole milk testing about 4 per -cent fat may be expected to fall within the following limits;[40] many -grades contain more water than this at the expense of flavor and keeping -quality: - - Water 50-55 per cent - Fat 23-28 per cent - Casein 18-21 per cent - Salt 0.5-1.25 per cent - Yield 12-14 lb. per 100 lb. of milk. - -+134. Partially skim Neufchatel.+--Brands of Neufchatel made from milk -that would test every gradation from whole milk to separator -skimmed-milk may be found. The quality of the product varies with the -skill of the maker from brands no better than cottage cheese to products -scarcely distinguishable from the best whole-milk Neufchatel. Many -factories that produce more than one quality of Neufchatel use labels of -different color, different design or both to separate them; for example, -blue labels usually stand for whole milk, red labels represent lower -grades. Sometimes the difference in material is indicated by a clear cut -grade mark. Frequently color, a design of label or both are the only -definite marks upon the cheese. The consumer unfamiliar with the trade -practice commonly has no means of knowing the quality of the product -offered. Such cheeses vary in water-content from 55 to 70 per cent; in -fat from 10 to 25 per cent; in casein from 18 to 25 per cent. - -+135. Cream cheese.+--The Neufchatel process is also used to make cream -cheese. The material utilized is commonly what has been called double -cream. This is produced by separating about half of a given volume of -milk and running the cream into the other half. Usually cream cheese is -made in the same factory as various grades of Neufchatel. No material is -lost. In some instances, cream cheese is prepared by working thick cream -into the Neufchatel type of curd from practically skimmed-milk. In -working with high percentages of fat in curd, care must be taken to -avoid loss of fat in draining and pressing. The curd is carefully -chilled before pressing to reduce this loss. This may be done under -refrigeration or upon cracked ice. Otherwise the manipulations of the -process are unchanged. The cheeses are commonly molded in the Neufchatel -machine into square cakes weighing about 4 ounces and measuring -approximately 3 by 2-1/4 by 7/8 inches. These are wrapped in paper and -tin-foil and handled exactly as Neufchatel. - -Cream cheese of high quality made from reenforced milk testing 7 to 9 -per cent fat may be expected to test approximately as follows:[41] - - Water 38-43 per cent - Fat 43-48 per cent - Protein 13-16 per cent - Salt 0.5-1.25 per cent - Yield 16-18 lb. per 100 lb. of cream. - -Increases of water, hence greater yields, are very common but usually -associated with loss in quality both as to flavor and texture, and in -more rapid spoilage; certain brands regularly carry 50 to 60 per cent of -fat but their increased cost of manufacture and sale restricts them to -the role of specialties with closely limited distribution. Trade names -such as Philadelphia Cream, Cow Brand, Eagle Brand, Square Cream, Blue -Label and many other factory brands are on the market. - -+136. Neufchatel specialties.+--Neufchatel or cream cheese curd is -frequently mixed with some flavoring substance, such as pimiento -(pickled Spanish peppers), olives, nuts, spices or other cheeses, such -as Roquefort. These bear appropriate trade names and form a very -attractive addition to our varieties of cheese. Among the names found -are Pimiento, Olive, Nut, and Pim-olive or Olimento. - -+137. Gervais+ is a brand of cream cheese made in Paris and sold widely -in France and even in other continental countries. It occasionally comes -to America. As made in Paris, these cheeses are flat cakes containing -approximately 40 per cent water and 35-45 per cent fat. It clearly -differs only in detail from the square cream cheeses made in America. -The name Gervais is the property of a particular company. Since the -cheese differs in no essential feature from other cream cheeses, this -name should not be applied to a domestic cream brand. - -+138. European forms occasionally imported.+--Among the cheeses related -to Neufchatel as they reach the market are the "White" cheeses of -southern Europe. These differ greatly in quality according to their -source and to their content of cow, sheep, goat's milk or some -combination of these. This texture and flavor link them with unripened -Neufchatel. The time required for importation puts a minimum possible -period of ten to fifteen days between production and consumption with a -probable period of at least one month for most samples. As they come to -America, these forms usually show fermentive changes beyond those -tolerated in the domestic product. This may take either of several -forms: (1) intensification of acid flavor with the intensification of -the characteristic flavors of the particular brand; (2) the development -of old or rancid flavors; (3) the development of Oidium and partial -softening of the mass through its agency; (4) the growth of Roquefort -mold and development of the flavor associated with that organism. This -last form was found in a shipment of Hungarian Briuse which showed about -40 per cent fat, 14 per cent protein and 43 per cent water. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -_SOFT CHEESES RIPENED BY MOLD_ - - -The ripened soft cheeses include a series of groups of varieties which, -in addition to initial souring, have been subjected to special ripening -processes, and which in the ripened condition are soft in texture and -mostly have high flavors. The varieties in each group have in common -some essential principles of manufacture together with a ripening -process dominated by a characteristic group of organisms. In certain -groups, the ripening is dominated by a yellowish or orange viscid -surface slime containing _Oidium lactis_ and bacteria; in another -series, the characteristic organism is a mold of the genus Penicillium -(_P. Camemberti_). Referring to the analysis of groups (page 83), the -ripened soft cheeses are found to fall into three well-marked groups, -one of which may perhaps be subdivided as indicated. The series curdled -by souring alone begins with approximately cottage cheese curd and -develops high flavors by ripening, as in "hand" cheese. Ripened -Neufchatel curdled by souring and rennet together finds its basis in -Neufchatel curd also but modifies the final product until the familiar -flavor and texture of the unripened form are no longer recognizable. -Among the forms curdled by rennet alone the Camembert series contains -one form, Coulommiers, which is occasionally used unripe, but represents -in general a mold-ripened group of highly flavored forms. The series of -soft rennet cheeses ripened by bacteria may be broadly designated the -Limburger group. - -+139. Hand cheese and its allies.+--Among skim cheeses, there is a -series of forms largely German in origin in which curd not far removed -from cottage cheese is the basis of the product. Harz cheese is one of -the best-known of these forms as studied by Eckles and Rahn.[42] One of -these forms, hand cheese,[43] is manufactured on a commercial basis in -farm dairies among families of German descent principally in -Pennsylvania, and on a factory basis in a few places in New York, -northern Illinois and Wisconsin. On the small scale, curd is made by -natural souring or by use of starter, heated to expel water, cooled and -molded by hand into cakes two to three inches in diameter and one-half -to three-quarters inch in thickness. The freshly formed cakes are placed -upon a shelf to dry. There they are turned daily until fairly firm, then -packed in rolls into wooden boxes and ripened in a cool damp room. In -this ripening there is a prompt development of a heavy viscous slime, -which consists of Oidium and bacteria. Other molds forming loose cottony -mycelium are brushed off if they appear. The proper consistency of this -slimy covering depends on a close adjustment of water-content in the -cheese with temperature and relative humidity in the ripening room. If -conditions are too dry, the cheeses harden quickly or if less dry they -are attacked by green or blue-green molds. If too wet, the slimy -covering becomes too soft and watery, or secondarily covered with loose -shimmering masses of mold (Mucor sp.). Ripening should proceed slowly -and occupy a period of six to eight weeks. - -+140. Pennsylvania pot cheese.+--A form of "pot" cheese is made in -certain counties of Pennsylvania, principally for local use. Production -of this cheese on a factory basis is now being attempted. The steps in -manufacture are about as follows:[44] (1) The home-made type of cottage -cheese curd is prepared, put into a crock or pot and covered carefully; -(2) kept in a warm place (in kitchen usually); (3) stirred from time to -time, until it has ripened to a semi-liquid condition. This occurs very -rapidly under the attack of _Oidium lactis_ accompanied by bacteria. -Within a period of three to seven days, according to the temperature and -to the water-content of the mass, the granules of curd become covered -with a wrinkled gelatinous almost viscid mass of mold mycelium beneath -which is a layer of semi-liquid curd with a strong characteristic odor -and taste. This ripened or semi-liquid part reaches about half the total -mass in four or five days at favorable temperatures. (4) The vessel is -then placed in a larger vessel of water and heated over the fire with -constant stirring until the whole mass is melted and smooth. (5) Butter -or cream, and salt or other flavor is finally added, stirred in and the -liquid cheese poured into molds or jelly glasses to cool. If properly -made and cooked, the resultant cheese has a soft buttery consistency -with an agreeable flavor, which frequently resembles that of Camembert -cheese. - -+141. Appetitost (Appetite cheese).+--A Danish buttermilk cheese is made -under this name. Sour buttermilk is heated, by some to boiling -temperature but others (Monrad[45]) prefer 120 deg. F., stirred -thoroughly and allowed to settle. The whey is removed as far as possible. -The semi-liquid mass is covered and set in a warm place. Fermentation -becomes active. This tends to make the curd more viscous or sticky. It -is then kneaded and allowed to ferment again. This process is repeated -until the mass is yellowish and soft but tough or viscous. When -thoroughly fermented, the mass is again heated to 120 deg. F., and 6 per -cent salt is added together with spice; both are worked in and the -cheese is formed into fancy shapes for sale. - -+142. Ripened Neufchatel, French process.+--Neufchatel as a ripened -cheese is made rather widely in France but it is produced on an -especially large scale in Seine-Inferieure.[46] Some factories use whole -milk, or milk with added cream, others skimmed-milk.[47] The whole-milk -brands of Neufchatel are those which have the widest reputation. For -making this cheese, the working room is held as closely as possible at -15-16 deg. C. (58-60 deg. F.). The milk is strained into earthen vessels -holding twenty liters. Rennet is added to the freshly drawn milk at about -30 deg. C. (86 deg. F.) in amount sufficient to produce coagulation in -about twenty-four hours. Draining racks of various forms are covered with -cloth. The vessels of curd are dumped upon the racks. The whey separates -slowly and drains off through the cloth. About twelve hours are allowed -for this process. The corners of the cloth are then brought together -and folded in or tied and the mass pressed to complete the drainage. The -finished curd is worked or kneaded to produce a smooth and uniform -texture. This process of curd-making is essentially the same as the -American factory process of making Neufchatel. The ripening process has -been entirely dropped in America. The curd is finally molded in metal -forms 5 cm. (2 inches) in diameter and about 6.7 cm. (about 3 inches) -high, open at both ends. These molds are filled, the freshly formed -cheeses are pressed out with a plunger or piston and their surfaces -smoothed with a wooden knife. - -After molding is completed, the cheeses are salted by sprinkling the -entire surface with fine dry salt as the cheese is held in the hand. In -this way each cheese receives and absorbs 3 to 4 per cent salt. After -salting, the cheeses are arranged upon boards and allowed to drain -twenty-four hours. They are then removed to the first or drying room. -The frames of the drying room (secherie) are covered with straw and the -cheeses are placed carefully upon the straw to avoid contact with each -other. They are turned each day to present a fresh surface to the straw -during a period of two to three weeks in the drying room (secherie). -Mold begins to show as white cottony mycelium after five to six days, -and slowly turns to "blue" (bluish green). When the cheeses are well -covered with this moldy rind, they are removed to the ripening cellar. -In the ripening cellar also the cheeses stand upon straw. They are -turned over every three or four days at first, then allowed to stand for -a longer period. - -When ripe, a Neufchatel cheese so made weighs about 125 grams. One -liter of milk makes 225 grams of such cheese. The ripening of Neufchatel -has never been fully studied, but a series of these cheeses were -obtained by one of the authors; cultures were made and examined.[48] The -salt-content in the first place was found to be so high that _Oidium -lactis_ was eliminated as an active factor in the ripening. The mold -proved to be on some cheeses _Penicillium Camemberti_, the typical mold -of Camembert as it is made in Normandy, on others _P. Camemberti_ var. -_Rogeri_, the pure white form as used under the patents of M. Georges -Roger in the region of Seine-et-Marne to the eastward of Paris and -called by him and by Maze _P. candidum_. The physical condition of the -ripened curd and the flavors encountered were those associated with -these two species by many hundreds of experiments during the Camembert -investigation in Connecticut.[49] These facts justify the conclusion -that ripened Neufchatel is first soured by lactic organisms, then so -salted as to eliminate or reduce to a minimum the characteristic -activities of _Oidium lactis_, while the proteolytic action and the -physical changes are closely similar to those of Camembert which is -ripened primarily by the same molds. - -+143. The Camembert group.+--The soft cheeses ripened by molds are -French in origin. Their manufacture has spread into Germany, Italy and -America. Of the series, the most widely known is Camembert, which will -be described as typical for the group. Brie, Coulommiers, Robbiola and -Ripened Neufchatel belong to this series. - -+144. Camembert cheese.+--The origin of Camembert is given by French -authorities as 1791 in the Commune of Camembert near Vimoutiers in Orne, -France. From a very restricted production at first, Camembert-making has -spread through the region from Caen in the west to Havre, Rouen and a -considerable area east of Paris. In America Camembert began to be made -in one factory about 1900. Several other factories followed by 1906. The -difficulties and losses encountered led to the abandonment of these -undertakings, until at the outbreak of the European war in 1914 but one -factory was making Camembert and that only on an experimental scale. -Meanwhile the United States Department of Agriculture and the Storrs -Experiment Station had taken up and solved, on an experimental basis, -most of the problems arising in these commercial failures. A shortage of -product at the outbreak of the war brought about the re-establishment of -a series of factories. The product as put on the market indicates that a -permanent establishment of Camembert-making is entirely practicable. - -Camembert cheese is made from cow's milk either whole or very slightly -skimmed; the removal of about 0.5 per cent of fat has been found to be -desirable if not actually necessary. - -+145. Description of Camembert.+[50]--These cheeses are made in sizes -2-1/2 to 4-1/2 inches in diameter and 1-1/4 to 1-1/2 inches in thickness. -They are ripened by the agency of molds and bacteria which form a -felt-like rind over their whole surface, 1/16 to 1/8 of an inch in -thickness. This rind may be dry and gray or grayish-green, consisting of -a felt-like surface of mold on the outside, below which a harder portion -consists of mold embedded in partially dried cheese, or the moldy part -may be more or less completely overgrown or displaced by yellowish or -reddish slime composed mainly of bacteria. Good cheeses may have either -appearance. - -Inside the rind, the cheese is softened progressively from the rind -toward the center from all sides, so that a fully ripe cheese has no -hard sour curd in the center, but is completely softened. No mold should -be visible inside the rind, but the moldy rind itself is necessary -because the ripening is caused by the enzymes secreted by the organisms -of the rind into the cheese. As the curd ripens, the changed portion -assumes a slightly deeper color than the unripe curd as a result of -chemical changes. Well-ripened cheeses vary from nearly a fluid texture -to the consistency of moderately soft butter. The ripening of Camembert -is finished in wooden boxes which protect the cheeses from breaking -after they become soft and during the market period. - -+146. Conditions of making and ripening.+--These processes depend on a -very close adjustment between the composition of the freshly made cheese -and the temperature and humidity of the rooms in which the cheeses are -made and ripened. Very slight failures in control bring loss in ultimate -results. The room for making Camembert should be maintained between 60 -deg. and 70 deg. F. and should be wet enough to reduce drying to a -minimum. The essentials of apparatus are comparatively inexpensive. Work -on a factory basis calls, however, for the installation of special tables -and other apparatus to utilize space and labor to advantage. Rooms are -protected from change of weather by double sash in the windows. Flies -must be excluded by close-meshed screens for all doors and windows with -movable sash. The equipment installed in such a room is shown in Fig. 18. -Curdling cans are ranged on a shelf a few inches above the floor along -one side of the room below an open tin trough with side branches. This -open trough brings the milk from the mixing vat to the curdling cans. -(The open tin trough offers no lodgment for dirt.) The cans hold about -200 pounds of milk, are about 12 inches in diameter at bottom, and 20 to -24 inches at top. They are heavily tinned. Iron trucks as high as the -shelf and with tops the same diameter as the bottoms of the cans form a -convenient method of bringing cans of curd to the very edge of the -draining tables. - -[Illustration: FIG. 18.--Camembert cheese-making room in an American -factory.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 19.--Draining mat for Camembert cheese.] - -The wooden draining tables are placed about 32 inches above the floor; -they are usually made of 2-inch lumber, have raised edges and slope -slightly toward the wall. Whey and wash water are thus carried to a -draining trough along the wall. For cheese-making, each is covered with -a strip of matting consisting of wooden strips held together by thread -(Fig. 19). The strip of matting should be exactly the width and length -of the table. The hoops used are heavy tin, with edges turned and -soldered, about 5 inches high, 4-5/8 inches in diameter with three rows -of holes about 1/12 inch in diameter and 2 inches apart in the row. -These hoops are placed as thickly as possible upon the mats. - -+147. Outline of making process.+--The making process[51] is summarized -as follows (Thom, 1909): - -_Starter._--From 0.5 to 1.0 per cent of active starter is added to milk -kept overnight below 60 deg.F. - -_Acidity at renneting._--Milk titrated to phenolphthalein should test -0.20 to 0.23 per cent calculated as lactic acid. - -_Temperance of renneting._--84 deg.-86 deg. F. is used for Camembert. - -_Rennet._--From 3 to 5 oz. of standard rennet extract to 1000 lb. milk -(10-15 c.c. per 100 lb. milk) produces a curd of proper texture. - -_Curdling time._--To reach the proper condition for handling, 1-1/4 to -1-1/2 hours or longer is required. This is indicated by the onset of -"sweating" or the separation of large drops of whey on the surface of -the solid curd. - -_Dipping._--A long-handled dipper is used to transfer curd from cans to -hoops. This can be lowered into the hoop. This transfer is to be done -with the least possible breaking. One dipperful is transferred at a time -to each of a series of hoops. By the time the series is covered, some -drainage has occurred and a second dipperful is added to the contents of -the hoop. In this way the hoop is filled within a period of two to four -hours. - -_Draining._--Hoops when properly filled have taken in approximately 2 -quarts of milk each. No pressure is used. Cheeses drain by gravity. They -stand unturned until the following morning when they should be firm -enough to permit turning without removing the hoops. The cheeses when -firm enough to handle (usually on the third morning) are salted by -dusting the entire surface with coarse salt and permitting all that -adheres to remain. The cheeses should then be removed to a room at about -58 deg.F. to prevent too rapid leakage of water and salt from their -surfaces. Ripe cheeses of good quality show a total salt-content varying -from 2.25 to 3 per cent with an average of about 2.5 per cent. When so -handled there is slight, if any, loss of water and salt in the salting -period of twenty-four to forty-eight hours. At the end of the salting -period such cheeses should carry 55 to 57 per cent water or slightly -more. - -+148. Acidity.+--The essential biological factor in the making period of -Camembert is proper souring. The milk should be free from gassy -organisms. The lactic starter required should introduce the typical -lactic organism (_Streptococcus lacticus_) in numbers sufficient to -suppress all other forms during the next twenty-four hours. The amount -of acid starter introduced, however, plus the acid resulting from growth -during the curdling period, should not produce a grainy acid curd. The -temperatures of handling are such as to favor this group of organisms if -properly introduced and permit the development of nearly 1 per cent of -acid (estimated as lactic) by the second morning. Cheeses with such acid -are fairly free from further danger from bacterial activity. Members of -the high-acid group (_B. Bulgaricus_ and allies) may be found in these -cheeses but do not appear to develop in numbers sufficient to affect the -cheese to any marked degree. - -[Illustration: FIG. 20.--Halloir, the first ripening room for Camembert -in an American factory.] - - CAMEMBERT CHEESE RECORD - - Date_______________ Set__________ No._____ - - Amt. milk___________ No. cheese_____ Milk per cheese________ - - Producer of milk_______________ - - Apparent cleanliness of milk_______________ - - +Acidity:+ - - Before adding starter____________________ - - After adding starter____________________ - - After acidity period____________________ - - Whey at dipping_______________ - - +Starter:+ - - Kind_______________ Age_____ Amt_____ - - +Color:+ - - Amount_______________ - - +Curdling:+ - - Temperature used__________ - - Amount of rennet__________ - - Time at which rennet is added__________ - - Time at which milk is curdled__________ - - Time of curdling__________ - - Quality of curd____________________ - - +Dipping:+ - - Cut or uncut_______________ - - Amt. of cutting_______________ - - +Draining:+ - - Temperature of room during__________ - - Condition of cheese after____________________ - - +Salting:+ - - Time of_____ Total amt. of salt used_____ Kind of salt_____ - - Amt. of salt per cheese_____ - - +Mold inoculation:+ - - Form of culture used_______________ - - Method of inoculation______________ - - Time of inoculation__________ - - +Remarks on making:+ - - +Curing:+ - - Transfer of curing rooms_________________________ - - Condition of cheese______________________________ - - Rooms____________________________________________ - - Dates____________________________________________ - - +Mold growth:+ - Date of first appearance____________________ - Purity and vigor____________________________ - Date of changing color______________________ - - +Surface of slimy growth:+ - Extent of___________________________________ - General character of________________________ - - +Surface contamination:+ - Mold________________________________________ - Oidium______________________________________ - Yeast_______________________________________ - Bacterial___________________________________ - - +Wrapping:+ - Date_______________ Material____________________ - Condition of cheese_________________________ - - +Ripening:+ - Rapidity of_________________________________ - Texture_____________________________________ - - +Flavor:+ - Ripened curd________________________________ - Unripened curd______________________________ - - +Special treatment and reasons for same:+ - - Record of treatment by days____________________ - - Room__________ Date__________ Observations.____________________ - - 1 D_____ 16 D_____ - 2 D_____ 17 D_____ - 3 D_____ 18 D_____ - 4 D_____ 19 D_____ - 5 D_____ 20 D_____ - 6 D_____ 21 D_____ - 7 D_____ 22 D_____ - 8 D_____ 23 D_____ - 9 D_____ 24 D_____ - 10 D_____ 25 D_____ - 11 D_____ 26 D_____ - 12 D_____ 27 D_____ - 13 D_____ 28 D_____ - 14 D_____ 29 D_____ - 15 D_____ 30 D_____ - 31 D_____ - -+149. Ripening the cheese.+--The cheese is now ready for the ripening -rooms (Fig. 20). For this process temperatures between 52 deg. and 58 -deg.F. are desirable; lower temperatures only delay the process; higher -temperatures favor undesirable fermentations. The cheeses rest upon -coarse matting (Fr. clayons) consisting of round wooden rods about the -size of a pencil separated 1-1-1/4 inches and held in position by wire -strands. Assuming cheeses of optimum composition as indicated above, the -relative humidity of the ripening rooms should be 86 to 88 per cent. -Higher humidities produce too rapid development of slimy coatings; too -low humidity is indicated by drying, shrinkage and the growth of green -molds on the surface. A slight and very slow evaporation is demanded; by -this the water-content of the cheeses is reduced 3 to 6 per cent in two -weeks. During the first two weeks of ripening, the cheeses commonly show -some growth of yeast and _Oidium lactis_ first, followed by cottony -white areas of Camembert mold (_Penicillium Camemberti_). This mold must -be introduced by inoculation in new factories but once firmly -established in the factory will propagate itself if conditions are kept -favorable. Climatic conditions in most dairy sections of America have -been sufficiently unfavorable to make more or less continuous use of -pure cultures desirable. At the end of two weeks, Camembert cheeses -should show a well-established rind, consisting of a well-matted felt -work of mold hyphae through the outer 2 mm. (1/12 inch) of the whole -surface of the cheese. More or less of the pale gray-green fruit of the -characteristic _Penicillium Camemberti_ can usually be seen. Beginning -at about twelve to fourteen days,[52] a softening of the curd is first -directly detectable under the rind. This is preceded by the -disappearance of the acidity of the curd, which progresses inward. The -softening of the curd follows closely the lowering of the acidity. Thus -a litmus test taken along the cut face of a Camembert cheese at any -stage of softening will always show a sharp acid reaction in the solid -sour portion which changes to alkaline just before the softening due to -proteolytic action becomes noticeable. These two changes appear to be -due to enzymes secreted by the mycelium of the _Penicillium Camemberti_ -and _Oidium lactis_ which constitute the most active factors in the -ripening. Some accessory bacterial action is indicated but of minor -importance in the changes found. - -To avoid loss from breaking, after the softening of the curd has fairly -begun, the cheeses must be removed from the coarse matting to smooth -boards where they are watched and turned repeatedly, or as in the more -common practice, wrapped at once in parchment paper and boxed. The -ripening may be completed in either way. The conditions necessary are -such as to favor the extension of slimy areas of bacteria over part or -all of the rind to the exclusion of further development of gray-green -fruiting areas of mold. - -Complete softening may occur in three weeks in cheeses in which -evaporation has gone on too slowly. Such cheeses are found to contain 51 -to 55 per cent of water when ripe and decay very quickly. If handled -properly, the water-content should fall from about 57 per cent at the -beginning of ripening to 48 per cent at its completion which should -require a minimum period of about four weeks. It is more desirable that -a cheese four weeks old show a thin core of sour curd in the center than -that it be entirely liquid at that age. - -[Illustration: FIG. 21.--Very soft Camembert cheese.] - -+150. Composition.+--Properly ripe Camembert shows about the following -range of composition: Water 47 to 49 per cent; fat 25 to 28 per cent; -protein 18 to 21 per cent; salt 2.2 per cent to 2.8 per cent. Variations -outside these limits are usually associated with less desirable -qualities. The approximate limits and characters outlined for Camembert -still leave a considerable latitude for variations in practice which -characterize the output of particular factories in a producing group. At -one extreme are brands of Camembert cheese which are very soft (Fig. -21), some of them actually liquid when ripe, and which have very strong -odor and taste; one such brand has held first place in the trade of -certain American cities for years. Another popular brand when fully ripe -is well covered with yellow-orange viscid slime[53] but is fairly firm -in texture with high flavor; still others show dry moldy surfaces and -mild flavors. The product of certain factories is always characterized -by the presence and characteristic ammoniacal odor of _Penicillium -brevicaule_. - -Each of these forms seems to appeal to some classes of consumers, so -that in handling imported Camembert the trade comes to assign the -product to specific groups of purchasers according to the conditions -observed at its arrival from Europe. - -[Illustration: FIG. 22.--Camembert cheese factory at Lisieux, France. -The square windows are seen in the second-floor rooms.] - -+151. Factory.+--The type of factory to be used in making and ripening -Camembert must be adjusted to the climate. This product originated in -the Normandy section of France which is but a few feet above sea level, -is swept by winds from the Gulf Stream, and has a narrow range of -temperature, with highly humid conditions. In that region, every effort -must be made to secure ventilation to carry off the necessary amount of -evaporation water. In contrast, most of the dairy sections of America -have land instead of sea breezes, much higher altitudes, much greater -extremes of temperature and a lower range of relative humidities. The -conditions of an upstairs room full of windows in Normandy (Fig. 22) are -most readily reproduced in rooms partly or completely below ground in -this country. The industry calls for the production and maintenance of a -specific set of working conditions. These are furnished by nature in -northern France, probably also in certain Pacific coast areas, but must -be artificially obtained where the climate is unfavorable. - -+152. Economic factors.+--Camembert cheeses show a yield of about 13 -pounds to 100 pounds of milk testing 4 per cent fat. At roughly one-half -pound each, the number of cheeses will be approximately twenty-six. -Assuming no losses and a wholesale price of 15 cents each, the wholesale -value of 100 pounds of milk would be $3.90. The labor cost of production -is high, the package represents (box, wrapping and label) at least 1-1/2 -cents a cheese. The time between the purchase and the consumption of the -cheese will average about one month. Few cheeses actually remain this -length of time in the possession of the maker. This short investment -period, therefore, is a distinct advantage of Camembert. Among -disadvantages, however, the extremely perishable character of the fully -ripe cheese makes provision of an adequate and constant market -essential. Losses due to failures in manufacturing or ripening -conditions are also frequent. Excessive heat in summer and very cold -periods in winter are both unfavorable. The Camembert-maker cannot, -therefore, use the cheapest milk of the summer months at all and the -losses entailed by failure of control in winter fall on the most costly -milk of the year. Camembert requires, therefore, careful selection of -the location for manufacture and ripening, effective control of -conditions throughout the period and adequate marketing facilities. -Camembert at its best is one of the finest of all cheeses; when bad, it -becomes quickly inedible and is a total loss. - -+153. French Brie.+[54]--Brie cheese has its center of production in -Seine-et-Marne, east of Paris in northern France. The apparatus, -arrangement of the factories and details of manipulation differ from -those described for Camembert, but the final product is in flavor and -texture closely related to Camembert. Brie cheeses are the same -thickness as Camembert, 1 to 1-1/4 inches; in diameter, however, there -are three or more sizes varying from 8 to 16 inches, or even greater. -The largest cheeses weigh 5 to 6 pounds. As in Camembert, practices of -making and ripening vary to such a degree as to produce various -qualities of product. These run from whole milk through all shades of -skimming. Perhaps the best established practice puts the cheese-making -room next to the stalls of the cows. The milk is drawn, strained -directly into the curdling cans and renneted while still warm,--86-92 -deg. F. (30-33 deg. C.). No lactic starter is added and no ripening -period is given to the milk. The other manipulations differ only in -detail from Camembert. Ripening of Brie follows the same course with -the same organic agents, namely, Camembert mold (_Penicillium -Camemberti_) and _Oidium lactis_ with the accompaniment of a mixture of -slimy organisms upon the surface of the cheese. The process admits of -many minor modifications each capable of affecting the product in a -characteristic way. The judgment and skill of the maker is given a wide -opportunity to establish and work toward a particular ideal of -appearance and texture and flavor. Brands with characteristic qualities, -therefore, command -their own market. - -Brie as known in France must not be confused with the American -"d'Isigny," or with the particular sizes of that type which have been -called Brie on account of diameter only. Very little Brie as known in -France has been made in America and only a limited amount has been -imported for very restricted trade. - -+154. Coulommiers.+--Another member of the Camembert group is called, -from its place of origin, Coulommiers. This form is made at the same -thickness as Camembert and about 5-1/4 inches in diameter. It appears as -either a ripened or unripe cheese. As a ripened cheese, Coulommiers is -not essentially different from Camembert except that some brands are -made without salting. As a cheese eaten unripe, it has certain -advantages over the other cheeses with the flavor of sour milk only. The -cottage and (American) Neufchatel group of cheeses comprises the best -known forms with the acid flavor. These cheeses are very perishable in -nature. On the other hand, Coulommiers as eaten fresh can be held and -used over a much longer time without loss. Coulommiers[55] in this sense -is simply a fresh Camembert. Such a cheese, when ready for the salting -process, is a firm sour mass, close textured, almost impervious to air -and but slowly permeable to liquids. Spoilage in such a cheese begins -only on the outside, and not throughout the mass as in cottage cheese or -Neufchatel. Successive portions of such a cheese can be removed daily -over a considerable period with no loss of substance aside from slight -scraping at times and little or no change in flavor. This product has -very tangible merit for manufacture and use on the farm in many sections -of America. - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -_SOFT CHEESES RIPENED BY BACTERIA_ - - -A bacterially-ripened series of cheeses parallels the mold-ripened group -as typified by Camembert. Although the varieties overlap, these may be -roughly grouped as: (1) those made from friable or soft curd; (2) those -made from firm or rubbery curd. In the first group, the curd is set at -86 deg. F., or below; in the second, the rennet is added at 90 deg. F. or -above. In the first, the lower temperature and long curdling time with -ripened milk gives a soft friable curd which may be toughened somewhat by -cutting and stirring in the whey. This section is typified by d'Isigny, -American Brie, Liederkranz. In the second, curdling of unripened milk at -temperatures of 90 deg. F. or above insures a smooth elastic curd which -fuses more or less completely into the firm rubbery mass typified by -freshly made Limburger. - -+155. The Isigny group.+--A series of names, d'Isigny, Brie, Brie -d'Isigny, combined with trade names, are used for a domestic cheese, -made in a small number of factories distributed over New York, -Pennsylvania, Michigan, Illinois, Wisconsin, Iowa and California. The -cheeses sold under the separate varietal names differ only in diameter; -their thickness is fairly uniform; the process of manufacture and -ripening with resultant textures and flavors furnishes no fundamental -varietal characters, although the products of the several factories show -noticeable differences in market quality. D'Isigny, while the name of a -French town famous for butter production, is not used to designate a -cheese in France. It may, therefore, be accepted as a French name -arbitrarily applied to a domestic product. Brie as used in France is a -markedly different cheese (p. 131), and the name should be dropped from -this form as made in America. As used for a member of this series made -in America, it merely means cheese 7 to 15 inches in diameter. The -cheese partakes of the characters of French Livarot, and of Pont -l'Eveque without exactly reproducing either form. - -The milk varies from separator skim to whole milk, with resultant -differences in quality. Freedom from gas is essential to the best -results. The milk is curdled at 85 deg. to 86 deg. F. with sufficient -rennet to produce a very firm curd within a period of one and one-half -hours. Curd is then cut in two directions, allowed to stand a few minutes -or gently agitated to produce a very slight toughness or "worked" -condition, then scooped into hoops 4-1/2 to 5 inches in height and -varying in diameter from 2-1/2 to 15 inches according to the size -selected for manufacture. To aid in the escape of whey, three rows of -holes 1/12 inch in diameter and 2 inches apart in the row are made in -each hoop. The hoops are arranged upon draining tables with more or less -corrugated surface, which for best drainage should be covered with -matting. The cheeses are allowed to drain without pressure. They are -commonly turned the second morning, although they are sometimes solid -enough to turn within the first day. When fully drained, the cheeses are -salted by rubbing coarse salt on the surface, after which they stand an -extra day. They are then arranged upon shelves in a ripening room held -between 50 deg. and 60 deg. F. with humidity so high that evaporation is -kept at a minimum. In this room, a surface slime develops quickly. This -consists of bacteria of several forms, yeasts, _Oidium lactis_ and -accidental species of other molds. During this ripening, the cheeses are -turned, rubbed with the hands, washed with salt water and scraped if -infected with molds which produce colored colonies. In the course of -ripening, the slimy surface layer acquires a yellowish orange color with -the strong odor and taste characteristic of the series. - -Brands of d'Isigny are made from every grade between separator skim and -whole milk. They reach the market in condition all the way from "Kosher" -forms[56] which are eaten entirely unripe, to brands which approximate -the qualities of Limburger and others which approach Port du Salut. - -The biology and chemistry of the ripening of this type of cheese have -not been completely followed. An initial souring process always takes -place quickly. _Oidium lactis_ is always present in some degree on the -surface, but the organisms in the yellowish to orange slime on the -surface of the cheese appear to produce the characteristic odor and -taste. These appear to be due to the development of volatile fatty -acids, such as valerianic and caproic, which diffuse throughout the -cheese, even penetrating the unripened sour portions. The same odor and -taste in varying intensity are present in Limburger, Brick, and a long -series of German varieties not handled in America. - -High-flavored cheeses such as these, form an acceptable part of the meal -in cases in which the intensity of other flavors is such as to mask -entirely the milder flavors of Camembert or cream cheese. - -In composition, a characteristic whole-milk brand of this group showed -the following analysis:[57] water, 45.5 per cent; fat, 25.28 per cent; -protein, 18.22 per cent. - -+156. Raffine.+[58]--This cheese is made in the French settlement of the -Isle of Orleans in the St. Lawrence River. The practice seems to have -been brought from France and represents an intermediate product between -Camembert and perhaps Livarot, a cheese on the borderline between -Camembert and Isigny as made in America. The outline of the making -process as given follows: Milk freshly drawn is curdled without cooling, -at approximately 90 deg. F. The rennet is prepared on the farm. About -one-half hour is required for curdling. The curd is cut into 2-inch -cubes. Whey is removed as fast as it separates. About two hours are -required for draining. The curd then goes into the hoops. The metal -hoops, which are closed at one end, are 6 inches high, 4-1/2 inches in -diameter, with holes about 1/16 inch at intervals of about 1/2 inch, and -stand upon three legs about 1 inch in height. When filled, the cheeses -are left on a draining table. Some salt is put on top while draining. -When the volume is reduced to one-half, the cheese is turned. The -draining room is kept at about 70 deg. F. After they are firm enough to -handle, drainage is completed on racks covered with rush matting. These -are arranged on special racks. The cheeses are turned twice a day, and -washed in slightly salted water every two days. After each washing, they -are drained for two hours on cloth, and placed on clean matting. This -treatment continues about fifteen days. - -After fifteen days on the matting, the cheeses are ready for ripening. -They are first covered with cold brine and let stand twenty-four hours. -The cheeses are packed in rolls or tiers in boxes, covered with cloth -and ripened at 45 deg. F. They must be kept moist; if signs of drying -appear, moisture must be added. If the cheeses develop yellow slime, -they are washed with clear water and rinsed in water with salt added. -After a ripening period of three weeks, the cheeses should begin to be -soft when pressed with the finger. The growth of molds must be prevented -by washing the boxes, cloths, and washing and scraping the cheeses if -necessary. When the cheeses are ready for the market, they are scraped -clean and white, wrapped separately in cheese-cloth or parchment paper -and packed into the boxes. Ripe cheeses are about 5 inches in diameter, -1 inch thick and weigh a little over 5 ounces. - -The outline of the Raffine process follows: - - coagulation by rennet 30 minutes - cutting and draining curd 2 hours - draining in hoops 10 hours - stand on mats 15 days - ripening in boxes 21 days - Total period 36 days - -The treatment described closely resembles the handling of Livarot cheese -in the department of Calvados, France. - -+157. Liederkranz cheese.+--Among the specialties in the bacterial group -is Liederkranz, made from curd with the soft friable texture of a -Camembert, molded in rectangular blocks of about 4 ounces in weight and -ripened very completely. Although this name is the private brand of a -single factory, it has become widely known with the effect of creating a -type name in the American market. Analysis of this brand of cheese -gives about 55 per cent water, 25 per cent fat, 17 per cent protein, -which indicates a whole milk cheese. - -+158. Limburger cheese+[59] derives its name from the town of Limburg in -Belgium. The manufacture of this cheese is now widely practiced in -Europe and in certain parts of the United States, especially in New York -and Wisconsin. Practically no cheese of this name is at present -imported, and the practices described are limited to those in American -factories. - -+159. The milk.+--Limburger cheese is probably best known on account of -its pronounced odor. Because of this characteristic pungent smell, it is -often thought that the cheese is made in dirty or unsanitary places. On -the contrary, Limburger cheese is usually made in small factories which -are clean and sanitary. Because of the constant attention required, a -cheese-maker can handle only about 2000-2500 pounds of milk a day, and -then some help is necessary to care for the cheeses in the curing -room.[60] The discussion of the milk given in Chapter II applies to that -to be made into Limburger cheese; however, Limburger requires sweeter -milk than do some of the other types. To be sure of obtaining very sweet -milk, it is the usual practice for the milk to be delivered without -cooling morning and evening at the cheese factory. The cheese is made -twice a day. Because the milk must be delivered twice daily, it is -obtained from only a few producers near the factory. A factory usually -does not have more than eight to twelve patrons. Because of the small -number of patrons, it is comparatively easy to obtain a supply of fresh -clean milk. - -[Illustration: FIG. 23.--A common type of Limburger cheese factory.] - -The factories are variously built. A common type takes advantage of -sloping ground so that the floor at one end may be on the ground level -and run backward into a hillside until the other end is a cellar with -small windows at the ceiling opening at the ground level (Fig. 23). The -family of the cheese-maker often lives in the same building above the -factory. - -+160. Making the cheese.+--Limburger cheese is made from the whole milk. -When the milk is received at the factory, it is placed in the cheese -vat. As the milk is delivered both morning and evening without cooling, -it reaches the factory at a temperature of 90 to 96 deg. F. In some cases -the night's and morning's milk is mixed and then warmed to about 94 deg. -F. This practice is not recommended but is frequently adopted, when the -supply of milk becomes too small to work in two lots. As soon as all of -the milk has been delivered, the cheese-making process begins. No -starter is used. The milk is not ripened because no acid development -during the making process is desired. The milk is set or curdled at the -temperature at which it is received at the factory, usually from 90 to -96 deg. F. Sufficient rennet extract is used to give a firm coagulation -in twenty to thirty minutes. This usually requires 2-1/2 to 3 ounces of -rennet extract for each 1000 pounds of milk: This is diluted in about -forty times its own volume of cold water and added to the milk. (For -method of adding rennet extract to milk, see Chapter V.) When the -coagulum has become firm so that it will split clean over the finger, -the curd is ready to cut. Coarse Cheddar cheese knives are used. -Sometimes only the perpendicular knife is employed, and the curd is -broken up while being stirred with the hands and rake. This usually -causes a large fat loss. After cutting, the curd is stirred first by -hand and later with an ordinary wooden hay rake. Usually the curd is not -"cooked" or heated after setting, though occasionally it is brought up -as high as 96 deg. F. to 98 deg. F. If the curd does not firm up, the -temperature may be raised to 98 deg. to 100 deg. F. to aid in expelling -the moisture. - -When ready to dip, the curd should still be in large soft shiny pieces. -It requires from one hour to an hour and thirty minutes from the time -the rennet extract is added until the curd is ready to dip. When, in the -judgment of the cheese-maker, the curd has become sufficiently firmed in -the whey, the whey is drawn down to the surface of the curd. The curd is -then dipped into the Limburger molds. These molds are 5 inches square by -8 inches deep without top or bottom. Usually there are five or six of -these molds built together into a section. These molds are placed on a -draining table beside the vat and the curd is ladled into them with a -large tin ladle. The draining table has strips on both sides and one end -and slants toward the other end so that the whey will drain from the -curd and yet not go on the floor except at the one end. This makes it -easy to save and catch the whey for stock feed. - -+161. Draining and salting Limburger.+--In some factories, a clean piece -of burlap is put on the draining table and the molds and curd placed on -the burlap. This aids in the rapid draining of the whey from the curd -and prevents the loss of curd particles. The curd should be turned -frequently in the mold to obtain uniform draining. The molds are -transferred to the salting room as soon as well drained, usually in -about twelve hours, but sometimes they are left until the following -morning. Here they are placed on another draining table, which has -strips about 5 inches high on the sides and one end. The cheeses are -placed along this board, each cheese being separated by a piece of board -4 inches high and 5 inches wide. When the row is filled, a long strip -the length of the table is placed against the row. Another row is laid -down against this strip in the same manner as the first, and so on until -several rows are on the table. The last long strip is held firmly in -place by sticks wedged between it and the opposite side of the table. -These strips and pieces form a mold for each cheese while draining. -Usually the cheeses are turned several times in this period to obtain a -uniform expulsion of whey. In about twenty-four hours the cheeses are -ready to be salted. This is done by applying the salt to the outside of -the cheese. The edges are rolled in a box of salt and the salt then -rubbed on the two broad surfaces. Any excess salt is brushed from the -cheese with the hand. The cheeses are then laid on a draining table in -single layers. The second day, they are salted again in the same way and -piled two deep; they are salted again the third day and piled three or -four layers deep. The salting room or cellar should have a temperature -of 60 deg. F. and be fairly damp. The amount of salt used is very -important. The tendency is to use too much salt. This retards the -ripening process and in extreme cases gives the cheese a salty taste. If -not enough salt is used, the cheese will deteriorate very rapidly on -account of the development of undesirable types of fermentation. The -cheeses when salted are then placed in the curing room, which is a -cellar, usually beyond the salting room. This cellar should have a -temperature of 58 deg. to 64 deg. F. and a relative humidity of 95 per -cent of saturation. In winter it is necessary to have a fire to keep the -rooms warm, otherwise the cheese would cure very slowly or not at all. -In some factories the curing and salting cellars are a single room. - -+162. Ripening Limburger.+--When first placed in the curing cellar, the -cheeses are put on edge close together, and as they cure are gradually -separated. While in the curing cellar, the cheese must be rubbed -frequently by hand and washed, usually with salt water. The object of -the rubbing is to keep the surface of the cheese moist and prevent the -growth of molds. The drier the cheese and the more mold, the oftener the -cheeses must be rubbed. The drying or the evaporation from the cheese -can be retarded by sprinkling the floor of the cellar with water. When -first placed in the curing cellar, they are usually rubbed daily; after -a few days they are rubbed every other day and finally as often as the -cheese-maker can find time to work at them. The more the cheeses are -rubbed, the better the rind. - -In the curing of Limburger cheese, protein compounds are attacked by the -micro-organisms. Certain highly-flavored fatty acids are commonly -produced.[61] This change works most rapidly near the outside and more -slowly toward the center of the cheese. The stage of ripening can be -determined by examining the cheese. When first made, a cheese is harsh -and hard and the outside is more or less white: as the curing changes -take place, the cheese becomes soft and pasty or buttery. The outside -color changes from a whitish to a yellowish and finally even a reddish -brown. It requires considerable time for the ripening agents to work -from the outside to the center of the cheese. As ripening progresses, -Limburger cheeses tend to become soft enough to break in handling. If -such cheeses are wrapped in manila paper after three to four weeks of -ripening and packed in boxes, losses from handling are eliminated. One -loose board is left on each box and the boxes remain in the ripening -cellar until the cheese-maker decides by removal and examination of -cheeses from time to time that they are ready for shipment. When fully -ripe, the cheese spoils very quickly. Unless handled very carefully, the -outer part may actually rot before the interior is fully ripe. The -cheeses are shipped from the factory when they are eight to ten weeks -old. They are then placed in cold storage, which checks the action of -the ripening agents and so lengthens the commercial life of the cheese. - -+163. Marketing and qualities of Limburger.+--As shipped from the -factory, each cheese is wrapped in heavy manila paper and frequently -also in tin-foil. The cheeses are packed in boxes which hold -forty-eight. Each cheese weighs about two pounds. - -Limburger cheese should be regular in shape. The rind should not be -cracked or broken nor the sides bulged, nor should it be lopsided. It -should have the pronounced characteristic flavor, without other -objectionable flavors due to undesirable fermentations. The body should -be uniform throughout. It is common to find cheeses that have not a -uniform body, due to lack of curing; a small part of the interior at the -center will be hard and not cured, while the remainder of the cheese -will be soft and buttery. The color should be uniform. When not entirely -cured, the uncured part at the center is usually of a lighter color. - -The cheese should contain the proper amount of salt. The most common -defect is in the flavor. If the milk is not free from bad odors and -flavors, these are apt to be more pronounced in the cheese than in the -milk. (For care of milk see Chapter II.) Gas-forming fermentations are -very bad in this variety of cheese as they cannot be controlled and give -the cheese a bad flavor and a "gassy body." When a cheese is gassy, the -sides are most liable to be bulged and the body is full of gas holes or -pockets. Another defect is a sour cheese. This is caused by the -development of too much acid in the milk or during the manufacturing -process. A sour cheese usually cures slowly and has a pronounced sour -taste. The body is hard and bitter. - -If the cheese contains too much moisture, it will cure rapidly and the -body will be very soft and pasty. In extreme cases it will be so soft -that it will run when the rind is broken. On the other hand if the -cheese does not contain sufficient moisture, it will cure very slowly -and the body will be hard and dry and sometimes crumbly. There is no -standard score-card for judging Limburger cheese. The Wisconsin -Cheese-makers Association[62] uses the following score-card for -Limburger: - - Flavor 40 - Texture 40 - Color 10 - Salt 5 - Style 5 - --- - Total 100 - -+164. Yield and composition of Limburger.+--The yield of cheese depends -on: (1) the amount of fat and other solids in the milk from which it is -made; (2) the amount of moisture incorporated into cheese; (3) the loss -of solids during the manufacturing process. - -The yield varies from 12 to 14 pounds of cheese from 100 pounds of milk. -The more fat and other solids in the milk, the more cheese can be made -from 100 pounds of the milk. The more moisture incorporated into the -cheese, the larger the yield. The quality of the cheese and the amount -of solids determine the amount of moisture that can be incorporated into -the cheese. The greater the losses during the manufacturing process, the -less is the yield. The composition of Limburger cheese is affected by -the same factors as the yield. The average cheese probably carries from -40 to 42 per cent of moisture. Limburger cheeses will vary in -composition from this analysis about as follows: water 38 to 44 percent, -protein 21 to 25 percent, fat 25 to 30 percent. The differences in -practice in factory groups are considerable. Certain markets call for -more solid brands, others for the very soft forms. - -+165. Muenster cheese+ originated in Germany near the city whose name it -bears. There is a limited demand for this variety in America; therefore -it is not extensively made. It is usually manufactured from whole milk -in a Limburger or Brick cheese factory. The process of manufacture is -between that of these two varieties in temperatures used, firmness of -curd and amount of moisture in the curd and cheese. The process is -probably more like that of Limburger. The curd is firmed more in the -whey than for Limburger, and more acid is developed. The cheeses are -pressed or drained in round forms 7 inches in diameter and 6 inches -high. The hoops are lined with cloth to prevent the loss of curd -particles while draining. When the cheeses are sufficiently drained, -until they are firm enough to hold their shape, the cloths are removed. -The cheese is salted by rubbing dry salt on the surface or soaking the -cheese in brine. The product is handled in the curing room very much the -same as Limburger or Brick cheese. When sufficiently ripe, each cheese -is wrapped in parchment paper and placed in a separate wooden box. This -cheese, when cured, has a characteristic flavor which is between that of -Limburger and Brick. The body is more or less open. The essential factor -in the manufacture of Muenster cheese is clean milk. Bad fermentations, -such as produce gas and bad flavors, seriously interfere with the -manufacture and sale of the product. The cheese is usually made in the -late fall and winter, when it is difficult to manufacture Limburger. - - - - -CHAPTER X - -SEMI-HARD CHEESES - - -Between the quickly perishable soft cheeses and the typical hard group, -are two series of varieties, one ripened by green mold and best known by -Roquefort, the other ripened by bacteria and typified by Brick cheese. -These cheeses are fairly firm, hold their shape well, ripen over a -period varying from a few weeks to several months and their marketable -period is comparatively long. In texture they are intermediate between -the conditions known as "soft" and "hard." In water-content, they range -at their best from 37 to 45 percent. Outside these limits, the cheeses -are often marketable but they lose in quality[63] and trueness to type. - -+166. The green mold group.+--There are three well-known semi-hard -cheeses ripened by green or blue-green mold.[64] The mold is an -incidental factor in certain other forms but none of these forms has won -larger than local or purely national recognition. French Roquefort, on -the contrary, is probably the most widely known of all cheeses. Stilton, -to a small degree at least, has followed the English to the many lands -they inhabit. Gorgonzola, although made in Italy alone, has a large -market in other parts of Europe and in America. In the manipulations of -manufacture, these forms are not closely related but they resemble each -other in that each becomes streaked or marbled by the growth of green -mold (_Penicillium Roqueforti_) through open spaces within the cheese. -The "blue-veined" or marbled cheeses have a characteristic taste which -is developed in its most typical form in Roquefort. - -+167. Roquefort cheese.+--This is a rennet cheese made from sheep's milk -(with occasional and minor admixture of goat's and cow's milk) in the -section of southern France centering about Roquefort in Aveyron. The -practices are standardized and controlled by a few companies, thus -reaching exceptional uniformity. Roquefort is uncolored, open, made from -firm but brittle or crumbly, not tough or waxy curd. Each cheese is -about 7-1/4 inches (20 cm.) in diameter and 3-1/4 inches (9 cm.) in -thickness without a definite rind, and when ripe enough for market is -scraped carefully, closely covered with tin-foil and kept in -refrigerators. The cut cheese shows extensive open spaces which are -lined with green mold. This cheese, in addition to a strong cheesy odor -and taste, has a peppery or burning quality which according to -Currie[65] is due to the formation of volatile fatty acids such as -caproic, caprylic and capric from the butter-fat of the sheep's milk -used. A series for Roquefort cheeses selected for excellent quality was -found by Dox[66] to show the following composition: - - TABLE IV - - COMPOSITION OF ROQUEFORT CHEESE - - ========================================================= - | WATER | FAT | PROTEIN | ASH | SALT - | PER | PER | PER | PER | PER - | CENT | CENT | CENT | CENT | CENT - --------------+--------+-------+---------+------+-------- - Average | 38.69 | 32.31 | 21.39 | 6.14 | 4.14 - Minimum | 37.49 | 31.50 | 19.14 | 5.18 | 3.64 - Maximum | 40.10 | 33.53 | 23.06 | 6.81 | 4.88 - ========================================================= - -The composition of the sheep's milk of the Roquefort producing region is -reported by Marre:[67] - - TABLE V - - COMPOSITION OF SHEEP'S MILK - - ============================================================= - | WATER | CASEIN | FAT | LACTOSE | ASH - | PER | PER | PER | PER | PER - | CENT | CENT | CENT | CENT | CENT - -------------+-------+--------+----------+---------+--------- - Range | 76-83 | 5-8 | 5.5-10.5 | 4 to 5 | 0.8-1.2 - Average | 79.5 | 6.5 | 8.0 | 4.5 | 1.0 - ============================================================= - -The cheeses when properly made in the local factories are transported to -Roquefort for ripening in the famous caves which have made possible the -development of a great industry. - -The Roquefort caves were originally natural openings leading back into -the face of a cliff until they reached a deep, narrow fault or crack in -the rock leading to the plains above. The cooler air from the plains -came down this crack over moist and dripping rocks and issued through -these clefts in a cold moisture-laden current which kept the caves about -50 to 55 deg. F. and moist enough to ripen the cheeses without shrinkage. -As the business outgrew the natural caves, great cellars, some of them -five or six floors deep, were excavated and tunnels were dug back to the -crack so that the strong ventilating current reaches every part of the -cellars and keeps both temperature and relative humidity favorable to -the ripening of the cheeses. - -+168. Cow's milk or Facons Roquefort.+--The supply of Roquefort is -automatically limited by the supply of sheep's milk. The sheep gives -milk only about five months in the year and at best a scant average of -about a pint a day to a sheep. Sheep's milk for cheese-making is not -produced, therefore, outside of very limited regions. Some cow's and -goat's milk unavoidably finds its way regularly into the industry -itself. Attempts were naturally made to substitute cow's milk. Outside -the controlled area, factories were established for this purpose. The -quality of the product did not equal that of the Roquefort factories, -and French courts decreed that the name Roquefort should not be used for -such products. Although some local success was obtained, not much -progress was made against the intrenched Roquefort industry. Similar -attempts to make such a product in Germany[68] were tried on an -extensive scale but failed. More recently, under the inspiration of -Conn, the United States Department of Agriculture and the Storrs -Experiment Station have studied the possibilities of such an industry. -Although the work is not completed, the preliminary reports[69] have -indicated the fundamental principles which must underlie such -development. - -+169. Outline of making Roquefort.+--Some of the results of these -experiments are summarized in the following paragraphs: - -_Milk._--Clean-flavored fresh milk testing 4-4.2 per cent fat and up to -2.8 per cent casein gives the best results. The milk with a high -percentage of cheese-making solids forms a firmer curd, hence works up -better in the process than milk of lower quality. - -_Acidity._--The milk is ripened by lactic starter up to an acidity of -0.23 per cent titrated as lactic acid at the time rennet is added. This -gives a firm curd, which drains to the desired water-content but is low -enough to prevent the toughening effect of too high acid. A very slight -increase in initial acid--1 to 2 hundredths per cent--combined with the -rate at which acidity is developing introduces such physical changes in -texture as to make the final texture of Roquefort impossible. - -_Temperature._--Rennet is added at or below 84 deg. F. Every degree of -heat adds definitely to the efficiency of rennet. Below 82 deg. F., -curdling becomes slower and the coagulum softer and more difficult to -drain. The sheep's milk curd is made from 76 deg. to 84 deg. F. but -sheep's milk has about twice the cheese solids found in cow's milk. It -was found necessary to raise the temperature as high as texture would -permit. However, at 86 deg. F. the physical character of the curd tends -to become tough or waxy in handling. At 84 deg. F. the curd remains -brittle and crumbly. It was, therefore, necessary to keep the curdling -temperature down to 84 deg. F. - -_Renneting or setting._--Rennet at a rate of 3 to 4 ounces of standard -liquid rennet to 1000 pounds (10 to 12 c.c. to 100 pounds) was found to -give the best curd under experimental conditions. - -_Curdling time._--One and one-half to two hours gave most satisfactory -results in forming curd. This should be very firm and stand until it -begins to "sweat," until beads of whey have begun to collect upon its -surface. - -_Cutting._--The cow's milk curd gave best results when cut in two -directions with the half-inch curd knife. The resulting columns, a half -inch square in cross-section, may be handled without excessive losses. - -_Draining._--The cut curd is dipped to a draining rack covered with -cloth with as little breaking as possible. During the draining process, -a certain amount of turning is necessary to facilitate the separation -and escape of the whey. If handled too much, losses of fat are increased -and the curd becomes tough or waxy instead of remaining brittle or -crumbly. When properly handled, not over 0.35 per cent of fat is lost. -Under favorable conditions, four-ninths to two-thirds of the original -weight of curd will separate and run off as whey in twenty to thirty -minutes. The curd meanwhile is exposed to the air of the room and cools -toward room temperature. If cooling goes too far, further drainage is -interfered with. Hence the curd is put into the hoop and the drainage -completed while the cheese is reaching its final form. - -_Hoop._--Hoops for cow's milk Roquefort must be 7-1/2 inches in diameter -and about 5-3/4 inches high to hold curd enough to produce a cheese the -size of the standard Roquefort when completely drained. Sheep's milk -with its higher percentage of solids does not require such high hoops. -The curd as it goes into the hoop should be a soft, pulpy mass with no -suggestion of toughness. - -_Inoculation with mold._--The mold for Roquefort cheese (_Penicillium -Roqueforti_[70]) is readily grown in pure culture in ordinary loaves of -bread. For this purpose loaves hot from the oven are quickly drenched -with or immersed in hot paraffine to form an impervious crust to retain -moisture as well as to keep out contaminations. It is then allowed to -cool. The interior of each loaf is inoculated by drawing a suspension of -_P. Roqueforti_ spores in water into a sterile pipette (10 c.c.) which -is then thrust through the paraffined crust to the center of the loaf of -bread and allowed to empty there. The hole is sealed up with paraffine. -These loaves are incubated for about a month at room temperature. When -cut, every open space should be found lined with the green spores of the -mold. When dry enough, the mass may be powdered, and put into an -ordinary pepper box. When the curd is ready to go into the hoop, this -mold powder is sprinkled upon it from the pepper box. - -_Handling._--Freshly made cheeses are turned within the first hour to -insure the proper smoothness of both sides. Further draining is best -accomplished in a room at about 64 deg. F. with a relative humidity of 85 -to 90 per cent. If the surface of the cheese becomes too dry, a rind is -formed. No real rind is permitted on Roquefort. If the temperature is -too high, slime forms quickly and unfavorable fermentation may occur. -Slime (bacteria and _Oidium lactis_ usually) must be scraped when it -becomes too heavy. - -_Salting._[71]--Experimental cheeses were found to give the best results -when at the end of about three days' drainage they contained about 50 -per cent water. Such cheeses were salted by sprinkling the entire -surface lightly, replaced upon the drain boards for one day, salted -again and piled in two's. After another day they received the third -salting and were piled in three's for two days longer. A total of about -10 per cent by weight of salt was used to secure an absorption of 4 per -cent. At the same time the water-content dropped to 40 to 43 per cent. -After salting is completed, the cheeses are brushed and punched with -holes to permit oxygen to enter.[72] They are then ready for ripening. - -+170. Ripening of Roquefort.+--The ripening of experimental Roquefort -has required four to six months at a relative humidity of 85 to 90 per -cent. This relative humidity is just below the equilibrium relative -humidity of the cheese, hence permits a shrinkage of 2 to 4 per cent in -the water-content of the cheese. This makes it possible to control the -amount of surface slime developed. - -If the relative humidity goes too high, the surface slime of bacteria -and yeasts becomes very heavy, soft and almost liquid, and follows the -openings into the cheese with resultant damage to appearance and flavor. -Even under the conditions at Roquefort, this slime must be removed by -rubbing or scraping several times to avoid injury to the cheeses, -together with the production of bad odor and taste. If the humidity -becomes too low, the surface becomes dry, hard and cracks open, the -friable crumbly texture is injured, and there is considerable loss in -weight. Salt forms about 4 per cent of the cheese. This is in solution -in the water present, which is about 40 per cent, and makes a brine of -about 10 per cent strength. This strength of brine does not prevent the -growth of the Roquefort mold (_Penicillium Roqueforti_) but does hinder -the development of _Oidium lactis_ in the open spaces within the cheese. -Accurate adjustment of temperature and relative humidity in the ripening -rooms to salt and water-content in the cheese is essential to proper -ripening. These conditions are furnished by the unique natural -conditions of the caves of Roquefort. The production of such cheeses -elsewhere depends either on the discovery of another locality with -closely similar conditions or on the artificial production and control -of the necessary temperature and relative humidity. This has been done -on an experimental basis by the use of cold storage apparatus combined -with proper humidifiers. - -The differences between working with sheep's and with cow's milk lie in -the making process rather than in the ripening. Sheep's milk freshly -drawn shows a higher acidity than cow's milk, probably on account of the -acid reaction of its greater casein content. With nearly double the -total solids of cow's milk, the yield to one hundred pounds is much -greater, consequently the drainage of the curd is much more easily -handled. - -Once made and salted, the cheeses require very nearly the same -conditions of ripening. The resultant products are alike in appearance -and texture. In flavor, cow's milk Roquefort differs in character from -sheep's milk cheese to such a degree as to be recognized by taste. The -difference was found by Currie[73] to be due to an actual difference in -the combination of fatty acids present. - -Although these differences in character are recognizable by the expert -in testing the cheese, as well as by chemical analysis, cow's milk -Roquefort would satisfy that large proportion of consumers who use such -cheese only in connection with other fairly high flavored foods. The -demands for technical skill and factory equipment are not naturally -greater than for many other lines of cheese-making. The gradual -development of a cow's milk Roquefort may be anticipated. - -[Illustration: FIG. 24.--Gorgonzola ripening establishment in valley -near Lecco.] - -+171. Gorgonzola+[74] is a rennet cheese made from fresh whole cow's -milk, in northern Italy. It takes its name from the village of -Gorgonzola, a few miles from Milan, but the manufacture of the cheese -has spread over a wide area. The cheeses are made on farms and in -factories from which they are transported for ripening to cool valleys -of the Alps, principally near Lecco (Fig. 24). Boeggild introduced the -making of a cheese after the Gorgonzola process into Denmark about 1885. -This industry has been successful on a small scale since that time. -Gorgonzola cheeses are about 30 cm. (12 inches) in diameter and 18 cm. -(7 inches) thick and weigh 15 to 20 pounds. As exported they are usually -heavily coated[75] with a mixture usually barite, tallow and lard -colored with annatto or other cheese color. This coating prevents -shrinkage or mold on the surface of the cheese in transit. When cut -these cheeses vary greatly. All show marbling with mold (Roquefort -mold). During their ripening they become very slimy at the surface. To -open up air spaces for mold growth, this slime is scraped off and holes -are punched into the cheeses. These holes are readily seen in the final -product. Some show crumbly texture, well distributed mold, as in -Roquefort, with flavor approaching that cheese; in others the texture is -waxy rather than crumbly, a condition correlated regularly with -different character in the flavor. Frequently in whole areas or in small -pockets, slime consisting of bacteria and Oidium has followed the -openings into the cheese and affects its odor and taste. - -Experimental Gorgonzola cheeses comparable with the Italian product were -made with cow's milk ripened as for Roquefort or higher, to 0.25-0.30 -per cent (titrated as lactic acid), curdled at 86 deg. F. (30 deg. C.), -cut into cubes and slightly stirred, then dipped to a draining board for -about one-half hour, and put into the hoop. The cheeses drained quickly -to about 50 percent water and developed a surface rind as in the harder -cheeses. Cut surfaces showed a fairly open cheese in which mold grew -readily. These cheeses were salted to taste, not to a specified -percentage. They ripened with the same irregular results and the -characteristic range of flavors found in Gorgonzola. To avoid the -rotting of the cheese by surface growths, they were exposed to low -humidities for a time and cracks opened at the surfaces, as seen in the -ripening rooms at Lecco (Fig. 24). The texture was more or less waxy or -tough, which was correlated with the slightly higher heat at renneting -together with the stirring or "working" of the curd. Comparative -analyses of a series of imported cheeses confirm the interpretation that -the salt-content of Roquefort, 4 per cent approximately, prevents the -invasion of the interior of the cheese by Oidium. No complete study of -the ripening of Gorgonzola has been made. As far as followed, it -consists in an initial souring process followed by ripening by molds and -slime organisms. At its best, Gorgonzola is nearly equal to Roquefort -but the percentage of such quality is low. In spite of its irregular -quality, England has used larger amounts of Gorgonzola than of -Roquefort. Considerable quantities have been imported for the Italian -trade in the United States. - -[Illustration: FIG. 25.--Gorgonzola cheese curing-room.] - -+172. Stilton cheese+ bears the name of an English village[76] in which -it was first sold. It is made from cow's milk and is typically a whole -milk cheese, although part skim cheeses are regularly made and sold as -lower grades. In the Stilton-making counties, the milk from Shorthorn -cattle testing about 3.5 to 4.0 per cent fat is preferred to richer or -poorer grades. Such milk is curdled with rennet at about 86 deg. F. in -about one hour; the curd is cut, dipped to a draining table covered with -cloth and drained slowly over a period of several hours, commonly -overnight. During this period considerable acidity is developed. The curd -is then milled or broken by hand, salted, packed into hoops 15 to 16 -inches high and 7 inches in diameter. These hoops are made from heavy tin -(Fig. 26) with four rows of holes about 3/10 inch in diameter. The -freshly filled hoops are allowed to stand and drain without pressure in a -room at about 70 deg. F. (Fig. 26). Such cheeses are turned every day for -several days. When solid enough to stand the hoops are removed, the -cheeses are scraped or rubbed with a knife until the surface is smooth, -and commonly wrapped with a cloth bandage to maintain the shape, if the -cheese is still too soft to stand firmly. In the factories, several rooms -are used with varying temperature and relative humidities, which makes it -possible to place each cheese under the condition best suited to its -texture and condition of ripeness. In general, the dairy sections of -England are much more humid than those of America and there are less -violent changes in temperature. Stilton cheese-making has grown up to -take advantage of this climatic factor in handling the product. -Transplantation of such an industry necessitates a mastery not only of -the manipulations but a grasp of the fundamental principles underlying -the process and a readjustment of practices to preserve those -principles. - -[Illustration: FIG. 26.--Stilton cheeses in hoops, draining.] - -Stilton is, then, a soured curd cheese in whose ripening a very -prominent part is played by the green mold (usually some strain of _P. -Roqueforti_) which grows throughout the cavities of its mass[77]. At -its best, it has attractive texture and flavor. Much of it fails to -reach high quality on account of the invasion of bacteria, _Oidium -lactis_, and very frequently myriads of cheese mites. The following -analysis was furnished as typical for ripe cheese by Miles Benson,[78] -late professor of dairying at Reading, England: Water 31 per cent, fat -36 per cent, casein 29 per cent, mineral constituents including salt -about 4 per cent. Approximately the same figures are given by Primrose -McConnell (Agricultural Note Book). The low percentage of salt is -another factor of uncertainty in the control of this Stilton product, as -in Gorgonzola, since these cheeses are commonly high in water-content at -first and are thus subject to invasion by Oidium. - -Stilton has been made on a small scale in Canada[79] and occasionally -attempted in the United States. No serious effort to develop an industry -of commercial importance has been made in America. Comparative study of -the cheeses ripened by green mold tends to the conviction that the -adaptation of the Roquefort practice to the use of cow's milk offers a -more satisfactory basis for experiment than efforts to establish a -Stilton or a Gorgonzola industry. - -+173. Gex.+--A cheese under this name made in southern France resembles, -in its general character as a ripened cheese, the English Stilton and -Italian Gorgonzola. Although it has no commercial importance, reference -is made to this cheese to show that mold-ripened cheeses have been -developed entirely independently in different countries to bring about -the same general character of product. - -+174. Bacterially ripened series.+--The semi-hard cheeses ripened by -bacteria stand half-way between true Limburger and the hard forms. In -fact, brands of Limburger are readily found which approach the texture -and ripening of Brick cheese. In the same way, Brick cheeses are often -found which have the appearance, texture and much of the flavor of the -Cheddars with only a trace of the taste of Limburger. Port du Salut, -Oka, Muenster, in France Livarot, in the Balkan regions Kascoval, belong -in this series. - -+175. Brick cheese.+--The name of this cheese is probably due to the -finished product being about the size and shape of a brick. It is -similar to the German cheese Baeckstein and may have been developed from -it. It is typically a sweet-curd cheese, made from milk freshly drawn, -without permitting the development of appreciable quantities of acidity -until after the curd has been put into the hoop. In the making process, -it is intermediate between Limburger and the cheeses of the Cheddar -group. Some cheese-makers use an ordinary cheese vat, others a copper -kettle in manufacturing. - -It is the usual practice to deliver the milk to the cheese factory both -morning and evening, without cooling. Cheese is made twice a day. In -some cases the milk is delivered only once a day, and extra precautions -must then be taken to care for the milk properly. - -The discussion of the care of milk in Chapter II applies to that for -Brick cheese. For the best quality of cheese, the milk in the vat -should show about 0.15 of 1 per cent acidity and never above 0.18 of 1 -per cent.[80] - -+176. Making of Brick cheese.+[81]--The milk is received at the cheese -factory at a temperature of about 92 deg. to 96 deg. F. For the best -results, the acidity should be determined (by the acid test) to decide -on the amount of starter to use. Few Brick cheese-makers use an acid test -or a starter but these precautions would improve the product of many -factories. For method of using the acid test, see Chapter V. Chapter IV -discusses the preparation and use of starter. Usually 0.25 to 0.50 of 1 -per cent of starter is the amount required. A small amount of starter is -used to aid the development of lactic acid and for the beneficial effect -it has on the flavor. A very small development of acid is desired after -adding the starter; therefore the change in acidity should be very -carefully watched with the acid test. The vat is usually set when the -acid test shows 0.16 of 1 per cent acidity. The more acid in the milk, -the less starter should be employed. Sufficient rennet extract should be -used to give a coagulation suitable for cutting in thirty to thirty-five -minutes. For method of adding the rennet extract, see Chapter V. When -the coagulum is firm enough for the curd to break clean over the finger, -it is ready to cut. The curd is cut with coarse knives into 3/8- or -1/2-inch cubes. After cutting, the curd is let stand three to five -minutes, then stirred with the hands for a few minutes until the whey -begins to separate and then stirred with the rake. Some makers do not -stir by hand but use the rake directly after cutting. When this is done, -great care must be exercised to stir the curd without breaking up the -pieces, because this causes a loss of fat. After cutting the curd is -stirred for twenty to thirty minutes before the steam is turned on. The -curd is heated very slowly at first and more rapidly during the last -stages of cooking. The curd is cooked to a temperature of 110 deg. to -115 deg. F. The lower the temperature that can be used to produce firm -curd, the better the texture of the cheese. After cutting and during the -cooking, the curd must be constantly stirred so that lumps will not form. -When the curd forms lumps, the moisture is not evenly expelled. This -results in uneven texture and curing. Sometimes some salt is added to the -curd in the vat to restrain souring. The curd is stirred after cooking -until it is sufficiently firm. It remains usually in the whey for a total -period of one and one-fourth to one and one-half hours from the time of -cutting. It is then dipped into forms 10 inches long by 5 inches wide by -8 inches deep. The forms are without top or bottom and are placed on a -draining table. This table is so constructed that the whey can be saved -for stock feed. When ready to "dip," the whey is drawn down to the -surface of the curd in the vat, then the curd is dipped into the forms -or hoops. Care must be taken to get the same amount of curd into each -form to produce the cheeses of uniform size. Each cheese is turned -several times to insure even draining and even reduction of the -temperature. While draining, a follower is placed in each hoop and a -weight placed on each cheese. Usually a brick is used for this weight. A -cheese is allowed to drain or press for ten to fifteen hours. It is -then placed on the salting table and rubbed with coarse salt. While on -the salting table, a cheese is placed on its broad side. Some -cheese-makers prefer to salt their cheeses by soaking them in a salt -brine. This brine should be strong enough to float an egg. Salting -requires three days. The cheeses are then brushed free from excess salt -and taken to the cellar to cure or ripen. - -+177. Ripening Brick cheese.+--For this process, the cellars are kept at -about 90 percent relative humidity and a temperature of 60 deg. to 65 -deg. F. Some prefer a temperature for curing as high as 68 deg. F. During -the curing, the surfaces of the cheese are kept moist and mold growths -kept down by rubbing or brushing the cheese with pure water or salt and -water. In the curing cellars the cheeses are placed on shelves; at first -they are set close together and as they cure, they are separated. During -curing, the color changes from a whitish to a reddish brown. The cheese -cures from the outside toward the center. When first made, the product -is harsh and hard in texture but during the ripening process it becomes -mellow and smooth. The cheeses remain on the curing shelves for four to -six weeks, after which they are wrapped in heavy waxed paper and boxed. -A cheese ready for market usually weighs about five pounds. A Brick -cheese box is 5 inches deep by 20 inches wide by 3 feet long, and holds -110 to 115 pounds of cheese. - -+178. Qualities of Brick cheese.+--The cheeses should be neat and -attractive and the rind not cracked or broken. The sides should be -square and not bulged. The cheese should have a clean, characteristic -Brick cheese flavor. The body and texture should be mellow and smooth -and when rubbed between the thumb and forefinger, should break down -like cold butter. The color should be uniform. The cheese should contain -the proper amount of salt and moisture. One of the worst faults with -Brick cheese is bad flavor. This is many times due to the cheese-maker -not using clean flavored starter. It may also be due to bad flavored -milk. A Brick cheese-maker has no means of controlling gassy -fermentations. These show themselves in the bad flavor of the cheese and -in the porous body. They also cause the cheese to bulge. If detected, -gassy milk should be rejected. If too much acid is developed, a sour -cheese is the result. This will not cure normally and usually has a sour -flavor. The body will be brittle and mealy. If too much salt is used, -the cheese may have a salty taste and it will cure very slowly. If not -enough salt is used, the cheese may cure too rapidly and undesirable -flavors and fermentations develop. The cheese must have the proper -moisture-content; if too much moisture is present, the cheese cures too -fast and is soft and pasty in body; if not enough moisture, then the -reverse is true. Tabulation of cheeses of special quality, as submitted -in scoring contests, show an average water-content of 37 to 38 per cent, -with occasional cheeses verging toward Limburger in texture and flavor -with 40 to 42 per cent water, and others indistinguishable from Cheddar, -with water-content as low as 34 per cent. - -The Wisconsin Cheese-makers Association uses the following score-card -for the judging of Brick cheese on a scale of 100: - - Flavor 40 - Texture 40 - Color 10 - Salt 5 - Style 5 - --- - 100 - -+179. Composition and yield.+--The composition of Brick cheese varies -within wide limits. The average cheese probably contains from 37 to 39 -per cent of water, although many cheeses are above and below this -average; Doane and Lawson[82] give the fat as 28.86 per cent, proteins -23.8 per cent and total ash 4.20 per cent. - -The composition and yield are both affected by: (1) the moisture-content -of the cheese; (2) composition of the milk from which made; and (3) -losses during the manufacturing process. The average yield of Brick -cheese is 11 to 13 pounds to 100 pounds of milk. - -+180. Port du Salut cheese.+--The Trappist monks originated this type of -cheese in their monasteries in France. Under the name of their community -Oka, it has been made and sold widely by the Trappist Fathers of Quebec. -In recent years, factories independent of the order have made such -cheese both in America and in Europe. - -The following outline of the making process indicates the close -relationship between Port du Salut and Brick cheeses. Whole milk or milk -not over one-fifth skimmed is ripened to medium acidity, then heated to -90 deg. to 95 deg. F. according to season and acidity. Rennet enough is -added (see Chapter V) to curdle in thirty to forty minutes, although some -makers shorten the time to twenty minutes. When formed, the curd is cut -into small cubes and excess of whey is dipped away. The constantly -stirred mass is then heated or cooked to 100 deg. to 105 deg. F. within a -period of ten to twelve minutes or according to some makers twenty to -thirty minutes. It is allowed to stand a few minutes to settle. Most of -the whey is then drawn and the mass is stirred vigorously to prevent -fusion of the curd granules. The curd is ready for the hoop when the -particles are about the size of grains of wheat and do not stick together -when squeezed with the hand. The individual grains of curd should crumble -easily between the fingers. The hot curd is transferred directly to the -hoops without cooling. For this purpose, a hoop is set upon the table -covered with a cloth and the curd dipped into the cloth. The edges of -the cloth are then folded over. In this condition the cheese is -transferred to the press where gradually increasing pressure begins with -3 to 4 pounds and reaches about 70 pounds. To insure proper shape, -cheeses are turned and put into fresh cloths at the end of the first -hour and turned subsequently several times during the pressing period of -about twelve hours.[83] - -Port du Salut cheeses are salted by rubbing fine salt on the surface by -hand at the rate of 1.2 to 2 per cent of the weight of the cheese. After -about two days in the salting process, they are put into the ripening -cellars. The cellars are wet, since they reach 90 to 95 per cent -relative humidity at a temperature of about 55 deg. F. After two days in -the cellar, the cheeses are plunged into a tank of saturated brine to -which a trace of cheese color has been added. As they come out of these -tanks, they are yellowish and greasy or slimy. They are returned to the -shelves where they are rubbed every day with a cloth or by hands wet in -brine. After about one week they are again plunged in the brine. -Treatment with brine tends to insure a firm rind. The cheeses are rubbed -more or less regularly with brine through the whole ripening period. - -After six weeks, such cheese may be eaten. The cut surface of Port du -Salut is creamy in color, may or may not show small holes. In texture it -is soft enough to spread readily under pressure without losing its shape -in handling. In flavor the cheese is a mild form belonging to the -Limburger group. - -Port du Salut cheeses as imported from France usually are firm round -cakes about 1-1/2 inches thick, weighing about 3 pounds. - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -_THE HARD CHEESES_ - - -The hard cheeses form a great series of groups, whose most prominent -physical character is their firm or hard texture. This is correlated -with comparatively low water-content, which is usually between 30 and 40 -per cent. Although certain varieties occasionally test above 40 per cent -water, this deviation is accompanied by quick ripening and rapid -spoilage. These varieties of cheese are staple products with long -marketable periods; therefore they may be handled in large lots, -shipped, carted and stored freely without the losses such treatment -would entail in soft cheese. The retailer frequently buys hard cheese by -the ton, not by the cheese or by the box. - -In making, these varieties are characterized as cooked and pressed -cheeses. Although both the heating of a curd and the pressing of a newly -made cheese occur among semi-hard forms, these practices appear in their -most typical forms in the hard cheeses. - -The hard cheeses show two types of texture. A cut cheese may appear -smooth, free from holes or with a few angular cracks or seams, or it may -show round holes or "eyes." In the smooth textured forms every effort is -made to prevent gassy fermentations, usually by controlling the -fermentation of the curd in the making process. When "eyes" are present, -the end sought has been a development of a particular form of gassy -fermentation which gives this appearance and brings about the -characteristic ripening texture and flavor. - -The hard cheeses have been developed in groups of national varieties. -The best known of these groups are those which may be represented by -English Cheddar, American Factory Cheddar, Danish, the Edam of Holland, -Swiss and Parmesan with many related varieties in Italy and neighboring -countries of southern Europe. - -+181. The Danish group.+--The Danish cheeses are related in appearance -and flavor to the English group represented by Cheddar. The demand for -butter in Europe has been so great that the Danish cheese-makers have -developed skim and part skim varieties largely to the exclusion of the -whole milk form. Skillful handling of their process has resulted in a -product which has had a very large and appreciative market in England -and Germany. - -+182. The Dutch group.+--Edam and Gouda are the two forms of cheese made -in Holland and most widely known among other peoples. Both reach America -in considerable quantities; both are shipped in large amounts to -tropical countries. Although attempts have been made to manufacture them -in America, no commercial production of these cheeses has been -successful. Although whole milk grades of these cheeses are known, they -are to a large measure part skim in manufacture. The presence of one or -both of these forms in every large market in America makes the general -facts of their production of general interest. Parts of a report on -experimental work in the making of Edam and Gouda are, therefore, given -here. - -+183. Edam cheese+[84] is a sweet-curd type, made from partially -skimmed-milk. It comes to the market in the form of round red balls, -each weighing from 3-1/2 to 4 pounds when cured. It is largely -manufactured in northern Holland and derives its name from a town famous -as a market for this kind of cheese.[85] Milk from which one-fourth to -one-third of the fat has been removed is used. Too great pains cannot be -taken in regard to the condition of the milk. It should be fresh, free -from every trace of taint; in brief, it should be in as perfect -condition as possible. - -+184. Method of manufacture.+--The following paragraphs give the steps -in the manufacture of Edam cheese: - -_Treatment of milk before adding rennet._--The temperature of the milk -should be brought up to a point not below 85 deg. F. nor much above 88 -deg. F. When the desired temperature has become constant, the coloring -matter should be added. Cheese color is used at the rate of 1-1/2 to 2 -ounces for 1000 pounds of milk. The coloring matter should, of course, -be added to the milk and thoroughly incorporated by stirring before the -rennet is added. - -_Addition of rennet to milk._--The rennet should not be added until the -milk has reached the desired temperature (85 deg. to 88 deg. F.) and -this temperature has become constant. - -When the temperature reaches the desired point and remains there -stationary, the rennet extract is added. Rennet extract may be used, -4-1/2 to 5-1/2 ounces being taken for 1000 pounds of milk, or enough to -coagulate the milk in the desired time, at the actual temperature used. -The milk should be completely coagulated, ready for cutting, in about -twelve to eighteen minutes from the time the rennet is added. The same -precaution observed in making Cheddar cheese should be followed in -making Edam cheese with reference to care in adding the rennet, such as -careful, accurate measurement, dilution with pure water before addition -to milk. - -_Cutting the curd for Edam._--When the curd breaks clean across the -finger, it should be cut; it is cut a very little softer than in the -Cheddar process as ordinarily practiced. As stated, this stage of -hardness in the curd which fits it for cutting should come in twelve to -eighteen minutes after the rennet is added. First, a vertical knife is -used and the curd is cut lengthwise, after which it is allowed to stand -until the slices of curd begin to show the separation of whey. Then the -vertical knife is used in cutting crosswise, after which the horizontal -knife is at once used. Any curd adhering to the bottom and sides of the -vat is carefully removed by the hand, after which the curd-knife is -again passed through the mass of curd lengthwise and crosswise, -continuing the cutting until the curd has been cut as uniformly as -possible into very small pieces. - -_Treatment of Edam curd after cutting._--When the cutting is completed, -one commences at once to heat the curd up to the temperature of 93 deg. -to 96 deg. F. The heating is done as quickly as possible. While the -heating is in progress, the curd is kept constantly agitated to prevent -settling and consequent overheating. As soon as the curd shows signs of -hardening, which the experience of the worker will enable him to -determine, the whey is drawn off until the upper surface of the curd -appears, when one should commence to fill the press molds. - -[Illustration: FIG. 27.--Edam cheese mold.] - -_Filling molds, pressing and dressing Edam._--The molds, which are -described later in detail, are well soaked in warm water previous to -use, in order to prevent too sudden chilling of curd and consequent -checking of separation of whey. As soon as whey is drawn off, as -indicated above, one begins to fill the pressing molds (Fig. 27). The -filling should be done as rapidly as possible to prevent too great -cooling of curd. When the curd has been put into the molds, its -temperature should not be below 88 deg. F. Unless care is taken to keep -the curd covered, the portion that is last put into the molds may become -too much cooled. In making Edam cheese on a small scale, it is a good -plan to squeeze the moisture out with the hands as much as possible and -then break it up again before putting in the molds, when the curd should -be pressed into the mold firmly by the hands. The molds should be filled -as nearly alike as possible. The cheese should weigh from 5 to 5-1/4 -pounds each when ready for the press. When the filling of molds is -completed, they are put under continual pressure of 20 to 25 pounds for -about twenty-five or thirty minutes. While the cheese is being pressed, -some sweet whey is heated to a temperature of 125 deg. or 130 deg. F., -and this whey should not be allowed to go below 120 deg. F. at any time -while it is being used. When the cheeses are taken from their molds, each -is put into the warm whey for two minutes, then removed and dressed. For -dressing Edam cheese, the ordinary cheese bandage cloth is used. This is -cut into strips, which should be long enough to reach entirely around the -cheese and overlap an inch or so, and which should be wide enough to -cover all but a small portion of the ends of the cheese when put in -place. Before putting on the bandage, all rough projections should be -carefully pared from the cheese. In putting on, the cheese is held in one -hand and the bandage is wrapped carefully around the cheese, so that the -whole is covered, except a small portion on the upper and lower surface -of the cheese. These bare spots are covered by small pieces of bandage -cloth of a size sufficient to fill the bare surface. The bandage is kept -wet with the warm sweet whey, thus facilitating the process of dressing. -After each cheese is dressed, it should be replaced in the dressing mold, -care being taken that the bandage remains in place and leaves no portion -of the surface of the cheese uncovered and in direct contact with the -mold. The cheese is then put under continual pressure of 60 to 120 pounds -and kept for six to twelve hours. - -+185. Salting and curing Edam.+--There are two methods which may be -employed in salting,--dry and wet. In dry-salting, when the cheese is -finally taken from the press, it is removed from the press mold, its -bandage is removed completely, and the cheese placed in another mold, -quite similar, known as the salting mold. Each cheese is placed in a -salting mold with a coating of fine salt completely surrounding it. The -cheese is salted in this way once each day for five or six days. Each -day the cheese should be turned when it is replaced in the mold, so that -it will not be rounded on one end more than the other. - -In the method of wet-salting, the cheese is placed in a tank of salt -brine, made by dissolving common salt in water in the proportion of -about 1 pound of salt to 2-1/2 quarts of water. Each cheese is turned -once a day and should be left in the brine seven or eight days. When -the cheese is taken from the salting mold or salt bath, it is placed in -warm water and given a vigorous, thorough brushing in order to remove -all slimy or greasy substances that may have accumulated on the outer -surface. When the surface is well cleansed, the cheese is carefully -wiped dry with a linen towel and placed upon a shelf in the curing-room. -In being put on the shelves, the cheeses should be placed in contact so -as to support one another, until they have flattened out at both ends so -much that they can stand upright alone. Then they are moved far enough -apart to allow a little air space between them. Another method of -securing the flattened ends is to support each cheese on opposite sides -by wedge-shaped pieces of wood. After being placed on the shelves in the -curing-room, they are turned once a day and rubbed with the bare hand -during the first month, twice a week during the second month and once a -week after that. When any slimy substance appears on the surface of the -cheese, it should be washed off at once with warm water or sweet whey. -The special conditions of the curing-room will be noticed in detail -below. When the cheeses are about two months old, they can be prepared -for market in the following manner: They are first made smooth on the -surface by being turned in a lathe or in some other manner, after which -the surface is colored. For coloring, some carmine is dissolved in -alcohol or ammonia to secure the proper shade, and in this color-bath -the cheeses are placed for about one minute, when they are removed and -allowed to drain, and as soon as they are dry the outside of each cheese -is rubbed with boiled linseed oil, in order to prevent checking. They -are then wrapped in tin-foil, which is done very much like the -bandaging. Care must be taken to put on the tin-foil so that it presents -a smooth, neat appearance. The cheeses are finally packed in boxes, -containing twelve cheeses in each box, arranged in two layers of six -each with a separate partition for each cheese. - -+186. Equipment for making Edam cheese.+--Careful attention must be -given to the moisture and temperature of the curing-room. This room -should be well ventilated, quite moist and its temperature kept between -50 deg. and 65 deg. F. These are conditions not easy to secure in any -ordinary room. Some form of cellar is best adapted for these conditions. -The amount of moisture can be determined by an instrument known as a -hygrometer. In a curing-room suited for Edam cheese, the moisture should -be between 85 and 95 per cent, or a little short of saturation. When the -temperature is between 50 deg. and 65 deg. F., the moisture is between 85 -and 95 per cent if the wet-bulb thermometer is from 1 to 2 deg. F. (or -1/2 to 1 deg. C.) below the dry-bulb thermometer. Cheese will check or -crack and be spoiled for market, if the degree of moisture is not kept -high enough. - -Aside from the molds, press and salting vat, the same apparatus that is -used in making Cheddar can be used for Edam cheese. The pressing mold is -turned preferably from white wood or, in any case, from wood that will -not taint. Each mold consists of two parts; the lower constitutes the -main part of the mold, the upper portion is simply a cover. The lower -portion or body of the mold has several holes in the bottom, from which -the whey flows when the cheese is pressed. Care must be taken to prevent -these holes being stopped up by curd. This part of the mold is about six -inches deep and six inches in diameter across the top. The salting mold -has no cover and the bottom is provided with only one hole for the -out-flow of whey; in other respects it is much like the pressing mold. - -+187. Qualities and yield of Edam cheese.+--The flavor of a perfect Edam -cheese is difficult to describe. It is mild, clean, and pleasantly -saline. In imperfect Edams, the flavor is more or less sour and -offensive. In body, a perfect Edam cheese is solid, rather dry and mealy -or crumbly. In texture, it should be close and free from pores. In the -experiments here reported the amount of fat in 100 pounds of the -partially skimmed-milk varied from 2.45 to 3.20 pounds and averaged 2.77 -pounds. Of this amount, from 0.30 to 0.51 pound of fat was lost in the -whey, with an average of 0.39 pound. The yield of cheese from 100 pounds -of milk varied from 9.60 to 11.82 pounds and averaged 10.56 pounds. - -+188. Gouda cheese.+[86]--This Dutch variety is a sweet-curd cheese made -from whole milk. In shape, the Gouda cheese is somewhat like a Cheddar -with the sharp edges rounded off and sloping toward the outer -circumference at the middle from the end faces. They usually weigh 10 or -12 pounds, though they vary in weight from 8 to 16 pounds. They are -largely manufactured in southern Holland, and derive their name from the -town in which they were first made. Fresh sweet milk that has been -produced and cared for in the best possible manner should be used. - -+189. Method of manufacture.+--The processes of manufacturing Gouda -cheese are as follows: - -_Treatment of milk before adding rennet._--The temperature of the milk -should be brought up to a point not below 88 deg. F. nor much above 90 -deg. F. When the desired temperature has been reached and has become -constant, the coloring matter is added. One ounce of cheese color for -about 1200 pounds of milk may be used. The coloring matter should be -thoroughly incorporated by stirring before the rennet is added. - -_Addition of rennet to milk._--The rennet should not be added until the -milk has reached the desired temperature (88 to 90 deg. F.) and this -temperature has become constant. The milk should be completely -coagulated, ready for cutting, in fifteen or twenty minutes. The same -precautions should be used in adding rennet as those previously -mentioned in connection with the manufacture of Edam cheese. - -_Cutting the curd._--The curd should be cut when it is of about the -hardness generally observed for cutting in the Cheddar process. The -cutting is done as in the Cheddar process except that the curd is cut a -little finer in the Gouda cheese. Curd should be about the size of peas -or wheat kernels when ready for press and as uniform in size as -possible. - -_Treatment of curd after cutting._--After the cutting is completed, -heating and stirring is begun at once. The heating and constant stirring -is continued until the curd reaches a temperature of 104 deg. F., which -should require from thirty to forty minutes. When the curd becomes -rubber-like in feeling, the whey should be run off. The whey should be -entirely sweet when it is removed. - -_Pressing and dressing Gouda._--After the whey is off, the curd is put -in molds at once without salting (Fig. 28). Pains should be taken in -this process to keep the temperature of the curd as near 100 deg. F. as -possible. Each cheese is placed under continuous pressure amounting to -ten or twenty times its own weight and kept for about half an hour. The -first bandage is put on in very much the same manner as in Edam cheese -making. The cheese is then put in press again for about one hour. The -first bandage is then taken off and a second one like the first put on -with great care, taking pains to make the bandage smooth, capping the -ends as before. The cheese is then put in press again and left twelve -hours or more. - -[Illustration: FIG. 28.--Gouda cheese mold.] - -_Salting and curing._--When Gouda cheese is taken from the press, the -bandage is removed and it is placed for twenty-four hours in a -curing-room like that used for Edam cheese, as previously described. -Each cheese is then rubbed all over with dry salt until the salt begins -to dissolve, and this same treatment is continued twice a day for ten -days. At the end of that time, each cheese is carefully and thoroughly -washed in warm water and dried with a clean linen towel. The cheeses are -then placed on the shelves of the curing-room, turned once a day and -rubbed. The temperature and moisture are controlled as described in the -curing process of Edam cheese. If the outer surfaces of the cheese -become slimy at any time, they are carefully washed in warm water and -dried with clean towels. Under these conditions, cheese ripens in two or -three months. - -+190. Equipment for Gouda cheese.+--The molds, press and curing-room -are the only equipment needed in the making of Gouda cheese that differ -from that employed in making Cheddar cheese. The mold used for Gouda -cheese consists of two portions, which are shown separately in Fig. 28. -These molds are made of heavy pressed tin. The inside diameter at the -middle is about 10 inches, that of the ends about 6-1/2 inches. The -height of the mold is about 5-1/2 inches, and this represents the -thickness of the cheese, but by pushing the upper down into the lower -portion, the thickness can be decreased as desired. - -+191. Composition and yield of Gouda.+--In work with milk averaging 4.2 -per cent of fat there were lost in the whey from 0.29 to 0.43 per cent -with an average of 0.35 per cent of fat. The loss of fat appears to be -not much greater than the average loss met with in cheese factories in -making Cheddar cheese. From 100 pounds of milk, there were made from -11.60 to 13.35 pounds of green cheese, with an average of 12.50 pounds. -The percentage of water in the experimental cheese varied from 41.25 to -45.43 per cent and averaged 43.50 per cent. - - - - -CHAPTER XII - -_CHEDDAR CHEESE-MAKING_ - - -Cheddar is the best known cheese throughout the United States and the -one most commonly made in factories. The Cheddar process was brought to -America by English immigrants. Similar to Cheddar cheese are Pineapple, -English Dairy, Sage cheese, skimmed-milk and California Jack cheese made -in this country, and Derbyshire, Leicestershire, Wensleydale and -Cheshire made in England. The Cheddar cheese process as employed in the -factories to-day has been modified and improved since it was first -introduced into this country by the early immigrants. The following -description[87] includes only the practices as found in the factories -to-day if whole milk is used. Skimmed-milk Cheddar cheese is discussed -later. - -+192. The lot-card.+--The Cheddar process involves several hours of -manipulation and includes many details which should be closely and -accurately observed and recorded. The necessity of carrying observations -of several different factors at the same time makes a scheme of -recording data essential to convenient work. For this purpose, a -lot-card for Cheddar cheese is introduced here and the pages given to -particular factors are indicated in the space intended for the recording -of observations. The manufacture of Cheddar cheese is a complicated -process, because several factors must be given attention at the same -time. A careful record of the observations of each step in the -successive handling of each lot of milk puts the operator in possession -of a permanent record of his experience. This record has several uses. -It may help to convince patrons of the importance of eliminating faults -in the milk; it furnishes the cheese-maker a cumulative record of his -experiences in handling milk with special qualities, such as high or low -fat-content, over-acidity or taints. Since Cheddar ripening covers a -period of weeks and months, no operator can remember particular lots of -milk sufficiently well to be able to use his experience on the -interpretation of the qualities found in the ripened product. - -[Illustration: FIG. 29.--Delivering milk to the cheese factory.] - -+193. The milk.+--It is the usual practice to deliver the milk to the -cheese factory each morning (Fig. 29). The night's milk is cooled and -kept clean and cold until delivered at the factory. It is advisable not -to mix the cold night's milk and the warm morning's milk, but to deliver -them in separate cans to the cheese factory at the same time. The milk -is weighed, sample for fat test taken and then run into the vat (Fig. -30). The receiving or taking in of the milk is one of the most important -parts of the cheese factory work. It is practically as important as the -actual manufacturing of the cheese. - - +21 CHEESE.+ This card must remain with lot ........... from the milk room - until the finished product is ready to leave the building, then it should - be handed to instructor. - - +MAKING+ Day and Date ................................ Vat ............... - +Milk | | - Used+ | | +Milk+ - ........................|............| Appearance of Milk ................ - ........................|............| Odor .............................. - ........................|............| Taste ............................. - Total pounds |............| Weather conditions ................ - ------------------------+------------+------------------------------------ - ...........% fat ...........lbs. fat | +Starter+ - | Kind used.......................... - ....% solids not fat ....lbs. s.n.f. | Flavor............................. - | Acidity............................ - ....% casein ....lbs. casein. | Amount used.......... % used....... - -------------------------------------+------------------------------------ - +Time of Minutes+ | +% Acid+ | +Temperature+ - adding starter }...... | _In Milk_ | of milk when received - } | | when starter added... - adding rennet }...... | when received............| when rennet added.... - } | before adding starter....| when whey removed.... - coagulation }...... | after adding starter.....| at pressing.......... - } | when rennet added........+---------------------- - cutting }...... | | +Rennet Test+ - } | | when milk received... - turn'g on steam }...... | _In Whey_ | after adding starter. - } | after curd is cut....... | when rennet added.... - turn'g off steam}...... | at dipping.............. +---------------------- - } | at packing.............. | +Hot Iron Test+ - dipping }...... | at milling | at dipping........... - } | at milling | at packing........... - packing }...... | at salting | at salting........... - } +--------------------------+---------------------- - milling }...... | +Condition of Curd+ - } | - salting }...... | when cut........................................ - } | when packed..................................... - hooping }...... | when milled..................................... - } | when salted..................................... - pressing }...... | when pressed.................................... - } +------------------------------------------------- - dressing }...... | Amount per | +Color+ | +Rennet+ | +Salt+ - | 1000 lbs. milk |.........|..........|........ - Total time from }....| | | | - setting to pressing} | Total Amount |.........|..........|........ - ------------------------+-------+-----------+---------+----------+-------- - % fat in lbs. fat estimated | If comments are added on - .......whey ....... so lost. | reverse side, put cross here............ - % of total milk | Work and - ....fat lost in whey | Observations by......................... - Assisted by............................................................... - -------------------------------------------------------------------------- - +YIELD+ Day and Date......................... Time....................... - Serial - Weight of cheese when removed from press to curing room,......lbs. No.... - lbs. milk for Kind of cheese made lbs. cheese per - ..........one lb. cheese. ................... ......100 lbs. milk - lbs. cheese for one No. of cheese made. lbs. cheese for one - ..........lb. fat in milk. ................... ....lb. total solid - If comments are added on reverse side put cross here........... - Work and observations by.................................................. - -------------------------------------------------------------------------- - Arranged by W. W. Hall. - -[Illustration: FIG. 30.--Receiving, sampling, weighing and running the -milk into the cheese vat.] - -Any milk high in acid or with a bad flavor should be avoided. It is -often bad policy to reject the milk, for a neighboring factory will -accept it and the factory not only loses the milk but also the patron. -Factories should have an agreement to prevent this. The acidity can be -determined by the acid test, but the detection of flavors must be made -by the cheese-maker himself with the aid of smell and taste. Many of -the bad flavors in the cheese can be traced to the poor quality of the -milk. One of the worst qualities in milk and cheese is the presence of -gas-producing organisms.[88] Any milk which shows gassy fermentation -should be rejected, for it is difficult to make cheese from this and at -best there will be a large loss during the manufacturing process. The -cheese may have a bad flavor and develop "pin-holes" and in extreme -cases may puff up like a ball. The person receiving the milk should talk -to the farmers or dairy-men about the proper care of the utensils and -milk. He must see that the cans are kept clean. One very bad practice is -to deliver milk and take home whey in the same cans. The cans, as they -are brought back from the cheese factory full of whey, are often left in -the barn or near a hog-pen until the whey is fed. Unless such cans are -emptied immediately on returning to the farm and then rinsed out with -cold water, thoroughly washed and scalded, bad flavors may develop in -the cheese. It is thought that this causes "fruity" or sweet flavor, -which resembles that of fruits such as raspberries, strawberries or -pineapples. - -+194. Ripening the milk.+--A slight development of acidity is required: -(_a_) to obtain the formation of a firm curd; and (_b_) to establish -immediate dominance of a desirable type of lactic organism which will -produce the large amount of acid required later in the cheddaring -process. The development of this acidification before the addition of -rennet is known as the ripening of the milk. The extent of ripening -advised by different schools of makers has varied from an acidity of -0.20 of 1 per cent or even slightly higher percentage titrated as lactic -acid, to about 0.17 of 1 per cent as now preferred by some of the most -successful groups of workers. The ripeness of the milk can also be -determined by the use of the rennet test. - -The milk may be ripened by allowing the lactic organisms already present -in the milk to develop naturally. This requires considerable time and -while the lactic acid-forming bacteria are developing, other and -undesirable fermentations may be taking place, so that the good results -which should follow the uninterrupted development of the lactic -acid-forming organisms are lost. Starter is commonly used to produce the -desired ripening of the milk. (For the preparation of starter see -Chapter IV.) - -[Illustration: FIG. 31.--Steel cheese vat.] - -Some makers put the starter into the empty vat (Fig. 31) and add the -milk as it is received; others add it to the total volume of cold milk -and then begin to heat it. Whenever the starter is used, it should be -strained to remove lumps. These lumps might cause a mottled color in the -cheese. The best practice calls for an acidity or a rennet test of the -mixed milk after it has been brought to the setting temperature in the -vat. With milk tested at this stage and the volume of milk in the vat -known, the cheese-maker is able to calculate closely the amount of -starter needed. When the quantity of starter to use is in doubt, the -amount added should be under rather than over the estimate, since the -need of more can be determined by making frequent rennet and acid tests -in a very few minutes without damage to the cheese. If too much starter -has been used, acid or sour cheese is usually obtained, with loss in -market quality. - -An over-development of acidity at any stage of the manufacturing process -affects the flavor, body and texture, color and finish of the cheese. -The product is known as a sour cheese, and can usually be identified by -its sour taste and smell. A sour cheese while curing will seldom develop -a normal Cheddar flavor and the texture will be hard and harsh and very -brittle. The body will not be smooth but harsh and grainy. The -over-development of acid will show by fading or bleaching the color. A -sour cheese usually leaks whey for a few days after being placed on the -curing-room shelves. - -Ripening the milk is one of the most important parts of cheese-making. -Proper ripening places the acid fermentations under the control of the -cheese-maker so that he may know what results will follow his labors. -The operator can control the acidity while ripening the milk, but after -the rennet is added all control of the acidity is lost. From that time, -the moisture must be regulated in proportion to the acidity. - -Before setting, the milk should be ripened to such a point as to leave -at least two and one-half hours from the time that the rennet extract is -added until the acid development has reached the stage at which it is -necessary to remove the whey. By the acid test the milk may vary from -0.16 to 0.18 of 1 per cent, but no definite statement can be given for -the rennet test. This can be determined only by comparison from day to -day. For operation of rennet test see Chapter V. During this period of -two and one-half hours, the curd is formed, then cut, and the -temperature is raised from 84 deg. or 86 deg. F. (the temperature at -which the rennet extract is added) to about 98 deg. to 100 deg. F. The -curd must be kept agitated so that the particles will not mat together; -this is necessary to obtain sufficient contraction of the particles of -curd with the proper reduction of water-content. If the milk becomes too -ripe (too sour) before the rennet is added, there will not be sufficient -time for these steps to take place naturally. In such cases special -means are required to firm the curd. These result in a loss of both -quality and quantity of cheese. On the other hand, if the milk is not -ripened, but the rennet extract added, regardless of the acid -development, one of the important natural forces for expelling the -moisture is lost. The time required for the particles of curd to contract -is much prolonged, the expulsion of whey is usually inadequate and the -curd remains in a soft or wet condition. Using too much starter is almost -equally bad, for although it hastens the making process, it produces a -sour or acid cheese. - -+195. Setting or coagulating.+--The milk for Cheddar cheese-making is -heated to 86 deg. to 88 deg. F. or occasionally a slightly lower -temperature. This temperature is found by experiment to give the texture -of curd most favorable for the desired results. Although some -cheese-makers work as low as 84 deg. F., the texture of such curd is too -soft and coagulates too slowly. The very slight change of 2 deg. F. -produces curd which coagulates more quickly and is tougher and firmer. - -If the cheeses are to be colored, the color should be added after all -the starter. It should be thoroughly and evenly mixed with the milk to -insure an even color in the cheese. If the color is added before the -starter, there are likely to be white specks in the cheese, on account -of the coagulated casein in the starter. The amount of color to use -depends on the tint desired in the cheese. It varies from 1/3 to 1/2 -ounce to 1000 pounds of milk for a light straw color to 1-1/2 to 2 -ounces for 1000 pounds of milk for a deep red color. - -Enough rennet should be used to produce a curd firm enough to cut in -twenty-five to thirty-five minutes. The necessary amount will vary with -the strength of the rennet extract itself, with the acidity, the -temperature, the nature of the lot of milk, and with the individual aims -of the maker in which he adjusts the other factors to his preferences as -to rapidity of rennet action. With the usual commercial extract, the -needed amount ranges from 2.5 to 4 ounces for 1000 pounds of milk. As -for all varieties of cheese, the rennet extract should be diluted in -cold water at about one part rennet to forty parts water and thoroughly -stirred into the milk. (See Chapter V.) - -+196. Cutting.+--The object of cutting is to obtain an even expulsion of -the moisture from the curd. The curd is cut as soon as it becomes firm -enough. To determine this, various tests may be used. Some operators -test it by pressing it away from the side of the vat, considering it -ready to cut when it separates cleanly from the metal. The test most -commonly used is to insert the index finger obliquely into the curd, -then to start to split the curd with the thumb and finally to raise the -finger gently; if ready to cut, the curd will split cleanly over the -finger and clear whey will separate to fill the opened crack. Another -arbitrary but more or less satisfactory rule is that the time from -adding the rennet until cutting should be two and one-half times that -from the addition of rennet until the first sign of coagulation is -observed. - -The condition of the curd itself is the best guide to show when it is -ready to cut. The condition of the curd is constantly changing, so that -in a large vat, if the cutting is not begun until the curd is in the -best condition, by the time the last of the curd is cut it will be too -hard or firm. It is better to begin while the curd is a trifle too soft -so that the cutting will be taking place while the curd is at the proper -stage. At best the last of the curd may become too hard. If too hard, it -will break ahead of the knife instead of cut. Breaking causes more fat -loss than cutting because there is more surface exposed and hence more -fat globules. The softer the curd when cut, the quicker and easier the -moisture can be expelled. - -If the curd is cut when soft, care must be exercised not to stir it too -hard immediately after cutting. Soft curd breaks very easily. When the -curd is cut soft and then stirred vigorously, there is a larger loss of -fat than when the curd becomes hard before it is cut. - -Two knives are used to cut the curd. (See Fig. 11.) These knives may -have either wire or blades for cutting. The space between the wires or -blades varies from 5/16 to 1/2 inch. Knives used should have blades or -wires close enough together to cut the pieces as small as desired, -without a second cutting. When the curd has to be cut a second time it -usually results in pieces of uneven sizes, because the pieces already -cut cannot be evenly split in two. - -One set of knives has horizontal and the other perpendicular blades or -wires. The curd is cut the long way of the vat with the horizontal knife -and lengthwise and crosswise with the perpendicular knife so that the -result is small cubes or oblongs of curd. Some cheese-makers prefer to -use one knife first and some the other, but the result should be a curd -cut into pieces of uniform size. The smaller the particles of curd or -cubes are cut, the quicker the curd will firm up or cook. If not cut -uniformly, the changes taking place later in the curd particles will not -be uniform,--the small pieces will be hard and dry while the large ones -will be soft and mushy. - -[Illustration: FIG. 32.--The proper way to put the knife into the curd.] - -Care should be taken to let the knife cut its way into the curd (Fig. -32). If the knife is pushed into the curd, it will break it and cause a -large loss of fat. The same is true when taking the knives out of the -curd. The loss of fat due to cutting is very similar to the loss of -sawdust when sawing a board. It may be considered a necessary evil. The -loss due to cutting is about 0.3 of 1 per cent of fat in the whey and -the loss of casein about 0.1 of 1 per cent in the whey. - -[Illustration: FIG. 33.--Acme curd rake.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 34.--McPherson curd agitator.] - -+197. Heating or "cooking" the curd.+--After the curd is cut, the pieces -(cubes) rapidly settle to the bottom of the vat and tend to mat -together. To prevent this, the curd must be kept stirred. When stirring -first begins, the curd is soft and very readily broken. Some -cheese-makers prefer to stir by hand for the first few minutes after -cutting, while the curd is soft. The importance of careful handling can -hardly be over-emphasized. No matter how well the curd has been cut, if -the stirring is performed in a careless manner in the early stages, it -will be broken into uneven sized pieces and a considerable loss of fat -will result. A wooden hay rake or a McPherson curd agitator (Figs. 33, -34) may be used to stir the curd. Mechanical curd agitators are used in -some cheese factories. There are several makes. (See Fig. 35.) These -agitators save much hand labor, although some stirring by hand must be -done in connection with them. The mechanical agitators do not stir the -curd in the corners of the vat; this must be done with the hand rake. It -is the usual practice to stir the curd immediately after cutting for -five to ten minutes before the mechanical agitators are used. This is -necessary to give the curd a slight chance to firm as the mechanical -agitators tend to break it up. After cutting, a thin film forms on each -piece of curd. This film holds the curd particles, especially the fat. -Breaking the films on the cubes causes loss of fat. If lumps form at -the early stage, by matting of the curd particles, violent stirring is -required to separate them. When such lumps are broken up, new cleavage -lines are formed with loss of fat, because the original films -surrounding the soft curd fuse so firmly that the curd cubes do not -separate but actually break. New surfaces are thus formed with -consequent fat loss. Rapid shrinkage with expulsion of whey takes place -during the first few minutes of gentle agitation. Before any heat is -applied to the vat, sufficient whey should have separated or formed to -float each piece of curd separately. This will require ten to fifteen -minutes from the time of cutting. - -[Illustration: FIG. 35.--Two types of mechanical curd agitators.] - -Thus far the first of three distinct factors which expel the moisture -from the curd has been considered: (1) the action of the rennet; (2) the -development of the lactic acid; and (3) the application of heat. These -forces must have time to act naturally. If heat is applied too soon -after the curd is cut or if the temperature is raised too rapidly, it -causes a thick film to form on the pieces of curd which interferes with -the escape of the whey. The outside of the curd becomes firm but the -inside remains very soft. A curd which is cooked on the outside only -feels firm when stirred by hand in the whey, but when a handful is -squeezed the soft centers are noticed. To firm such curd masses requires -violent stirring, which will break the thick tough film. This allows the -moisture to escape and also increases the fat loss. The rapidity of -heating should depend on the condition of the curd and the amount of -acid developed. The heat should keep pace with these. When ready to -raise the temperature, the least amount of steam possible should be -allowed to pass through the valve. This should raise the temperature -very gradually. If heat is applied too quickly at first, it will cause -the curd to lump. A safe rule is to raise the temperature one degree in -the first five minutes after the steam has been turned on. The heating -should progress slowly until the whole mass of curd in the vat has -reached a temperature of 90 deg. to 92 deg. F. The usual temperature to -which the curd is heated or cooked is 98 deg. F. to 100 deg. F. The -lower the temperature that can be used and properly firm the curd, the -better will be the body of the cheese. If the curd is heated too high, it -will become hard, which causes a dry hard "corky" cheese. After this -temperature has been reached, there is not such a tendency for the curd -particles to stick together nor are they so easily broken in stirring. -It should require, under normal conditions, not less than thirty to -forty-five minutes, from the time the steam is turned on, to raise -temperature of the curd from the setting temperature to that necessary -to "firm" the curd. If a shorter time is allowed to raise the -temperature, the curd will not have opportunity to contract naturally. - -The temperature required to expel the moisture properly varies with the -percentage of fat in the milk. If rich in fat (4.5 to 5.5 per cent) milk -requires a temperature of 98 deg. to 104 deg. F. to firm the curd, while -the same result can be accomplished with milk testing 3.0 to 3.5 per cent -fat at a temperature of 94 deg. to 96 deg. F. A higher temperature is -needed in winter than in summer because the milk is usually richer in -fat. In a water-jacketed vat, allowance must always be made for the rise -in temperature due to the water surrounding it. The water may be removed -if there is danger of the temperature going too high. However, it is -better to gauge the heat so that the water may be left, as this helps to -hold the curd at an even temperature, especially in cold weather. In a -steam-heated vat there is not so much danger of the temperature running -up. - -The stirring must be kept up after the steam has been turned off until -the curd has reached such a stage of contraction that it will not -readily pack or mat in the bottom of the vat. After the curd reaches -this stage it may be allowed to settle to the bottom and stirred only -occasionally until it is time to remove the whey. If the cheese room is -not warm and there is danger of the curd cooling, a cover should be -placed on the vat. The curd should not be allowed to settle for more -than fifteen minutes without stirring to keep each piece separate. This -is necessary to obtain uniform contraction of all curd masses. - -+198. Removing the whey.+--To permit the normal changes in the curd to -take place naturally, two and one-half hours from the time the rennet -extract is added is ordinarily required before the whey is drawn. The -time of removing the whey is determined by two factors: one, the acid -development, and the other, the firmness of the curd. For the best -results, it is better to have the firmness of the curd a trifle ahead of -the acid development. When the proper acid development has been reached, -the whey must be removed, regardless of the firmness of the curd. If the -curd has not become firm enough by natural forces, when the acid -development has reached the proper stage to remove the whey, it must be -firmed by other means. If it is not firm enough, either by natural or -artificial means, when the whey is removed, a sour cheese is the result. -The acid development should not be allowed to go beyond 0.16 to 0.19 of -1 per cent acidity in the whey by the acid test or 1/16 to 1/8 of an -inch of acid on the hot-iron test, before the whey is removed. - -+199. Hot-iron test.+[89]--This test is employed to determine the amount -of acid in the curd. A piece of iron, such as an iron pipe two feet -long, is heated in the fire to proper temperature. If the iron is too -hot it will burn the curd, and if not hot enough the curd will not stick -to the iron. When hot, it is taken from the fire and wiped clean with a -cloth. A handful of curd is taken from the vat and squeezed dry, either -in the hand or in a cloth. This curd is carefully pressed against the -hot iron and drawn away. If the iron is at the right temperature and the -curd has sufficient acid development, the curd will stick to the iron -and when pulled away will form fine threads. The length of these threads -determines the amount of acid in the curd. The acid is usually spoken of -in terms of the length of threads, as 1/8 inch of acid, 1/2 inch of acid -and the like. The curd must have a slight development of acid before it -will stick to the iron. This test takes advantage of the peculiar -properties[90] of curd which are produced by the action of the acid on -the casein. - -+200. Firmness of the curd.+--The cheese-maker must be able to judge the -firmness of the curd by physical examination. The particles of curd -should have shrunken to about one-half their original size and should be -of uniform consistency throughout; they should not have any soft -centers. The curd should be firm and springy. When a double handful is -pressed and suddenly released, the curd particles should spring apart. -The curd should have a "shotty" feeling when in the whey. If the curd -has attained the proper firmness, and the acid has not reached the -correct stage to remove the whey, it may be left in the whey until -sufficient acid development has been attained. This is liable to cause -the curd to become too firm and to result in a hard dry cheese. If there -is no evidence of the presence of undesirable organisms, such as bad -odors, or gas holes in the curd, it is better to remove the whey and -develop the acid when the curd is in the "pack." The pack refers to the -first piling of the curd. - -[Illustration: FIG. 36.--Whey siphon with strainer.] - -The whey may be removed either by means of a faucet or gate in the vat -or by a siphon (Fig. 36). With either form of removal a whey-strainer -(Fig. 37) should be used to prevent loss of curd particles. It requires -considerable time for the whey to escape from a large vat. After the -curd has been heated to the proper temperature, it is well to remove a -portion of the whey. In doing this the surface of the whey should not be -drawn down quite to the top of the curd. When ready, the remaining whey -can be quickly removed. - -[Illustration: FIG. 37.--Whey strainer with spout to fit into the gate -in the vat.] - -If it is decided that the curd is not firm enough, when the whey is -drawn down to the surface of the curd and the acid has developed -sufficiently, the curd should be firmed up in the whey by stirring it -vigorously by hand before the remainder of the whey is removed. This is -commonly called "hand stirring." This difficulty results either from the -use of too much starter or from holding the milk until too much acid -development has taken place before adding the rennet. Hand stirring -accomplishes what natural forces would accomplish if given sufficient -time. If the curd does not firm naturally in the whey, there is a large -loss of fat and other solids, because the pieces of curd will have to be -broken up to allow the water to escape from the soft centers of these -masses. This loss can usually be reduced by firming the curd in the whey -or adding water rather than by stirring without either water or whey. If -the curd is not properly firmed, it carries extra whey into the cheese. -With the increase in whey, the amount of milk-sugar carried into the -cheese increases. This extra milk-sugar attacked by bacteria produces an -excess of lactic acid, which results in "sour" cheeses. This explains -why the curd is placed beyond the danger of over-development of acid by -removing so large a portion of the whey. If the curd is properly firmed -in the whey and the whey is removed before too much acid has developed, -it is impossible to make a sour cheese. - -+201. Gathering the curd together.+--Before the last of the whey has -been removed, the curd should be pushed back from the faucet into the -upper two-thirds of the vat and spread in an even layer. This layer -should be six to eight inches thick. The curd can be pushed back with -the rake or a board which will fit crosswise in the vat, in which are -many holes. As soon as the whey has been removed so that there is not -enough to wash the curd into the lower part of the vat, the vat should -be tilted and a ditch eight to ten inches wide cut in the curd through -the center. The curd from the ditch should be removed to either side and -spread evenly. As soon as all the whey has been removed, the pieces of -curd scattered about in the vat should be gathered up and placed with -the remainder. - -In some factories, instead of matting the curd in the vat, a curd sink -is used. This is a wooden receptacle about the size of the vat but not -so deep, with a slatted false bottom. It is fitted with castors so that -it can be easily moved about. A cloth is placed in the sink and the curd -and whey are dipped upon the cloth. The whey escapes very rapidly -through the cloth. The curd sink is an advantage in those cases in which -it is desirable to remove the whey from the curd quickly, such as high -acid curds which have to be hand stirred to firm the curd. The -disadvantage lies in the work required to keep the sink and the large -cloth clean. - -+202. Matting or cheddaring+ is the distinctive feature of the Cheddar -process. It is the piling and matting of the curd. Whether the curd is -matted in the vat or in the curd sink, the process is practically the -same. The object of cheddaring is three-fold: (1) to control the -incorporation of moisture; (2) to control undesirable ferments, if -present in the curd; (3) to develop the texture desired in the cheeses. - -[Illustration: FIG. 38.--A cheese knife.] - -After the curd in the vat has become matted so that the particles stick -together, the masses on either side of the central channel are cut -crosswise into strips with a cheese knife (Fig. 38). The width of the -strip depends on the water-content of the curd at this stage. The more -water, the smaller should be the pieces of curd. This allows the whey to -drain away much more rapidly. As soon as the strips of curd are cut, -they should be turned over or stood on edge. A drain should be left -along the middle line of the vat and on each side. This permits the whey -to run away freely. If, on the other hand, the outlet is dammed up, the -curd may become "whey-soaked." This produces a soft mushy cheese which -sometimes is "acidy" or sour. After the curd is turned each time, all -crumbs of curd broken off should be brushed underneath the masses of -curd so that they will mat with it. They should never be placed on top -of the curd because they will not unite but will become dry and hard. If -the crumbs are not kept brushed up, they become dry and will cause an -open textured granular cheese and possibly lumps in the cheese. After -the pieces of curd have been turned several times, and the whey has -fairly completely drained away, they may be piled first two deep, then -three deep and so on, the depth of the piling being gauged by the -softness or amount of water in the curd and the temperature. The higher -the curd is piled, the more water it will retain (assimilate), so that -the amount of moisture in the curd is regulated by the size of the -pieces into which it is cut and the rapidity and depth to which it is -piled. - -The curd should not be left too long from the time it is turned until it -is turned again. This period is usually about ten to fifteen minutes. -The moister the curd, the more often it should be turned. In turning, -care should be taken to keep the ends at the same temperature as the -remainder. This can be done by piling them inside, thereby keeping them -warm. There is a tendency for the ends of the pieces of curd to remain -granular and so cause an open-textured cheese. - -During the cheddaring process, the temperature should be reduced -uniformly and gradually. If there is danger of the curd becoming too -cold, the vat should be covered and a pail of hot water may be placed -inside, if it is deemed necessary. The temperature of the curd should -not be allowed to go below 85 deg. to 90 deg. F. If kept too warm, the -curd will become soft and plastic, and if too cold, it will not mat -together. - -While the curd is being turned and piled, its physical properties are -changing. The acid develops. When the cheddaring process is completed, -the curd should be elastic, smooth and fibrous. The curd should have the -close meaty texture desired in the cheese. If this step in the process -is neglected, defects may appear later in the body, texture and flavor -of the cheese. Attempts to pile the curd too fast result in a soft, -mushy, open-textured product. Such cheese has mechanical holes, in which -moisture collects, and so is likely to cause rot while curing. - -If gas is detected either before or during the cheddaring process, the -curd should be piled until the gas holes are no longer round but flat. -If the gas holes are not flattened or obliterated during this process, -the cheeses will be very liable to puff on the shelves in the -curing-room. The curd should be handled until the gas holes flatten out -evenly, although this may require considerable time. At best, gassy curd -will never produce the highest grade of cheese. - -Cheddaring or piling the curd is not thoroughly understood by most -cheese-makers. Because the moisture contains the milk-sugar, there is -danger of having so much moisture present in the cheese that it will -become sour from the action of the lactic acid-forming bacteria on the -milk-sugar. A cheese may be sweet when made and later become sour -because it contains too much moisture or milk-sugar. This is known as -"shelf souring." For the proper cheddaring of a curd, it is necessary -that it be properly firmed in the whey. If the moisture is not evenly -incorporated, the cheese will have a mottled color. The pieces that have -the more moisture will be lighter colored. If the proper amount of -moisture is not incorporated, the cheese will be dry and hard, and if -too much, soft and pasty. - -+203. Milling the curd.+--The large pieces formed by the cheddaring -process must be cut into small ones before the curd can be easily put -into the hoop. This is called "milling." Properly milled curd can be -salted evenly, cools more quickly and uniformly and can be distributed -evenly in the hoops. - -The proper time to "mill" the curd is determined by its physical -condition. Some curds will cheddar much more rapidly than others, hence -no definite length of time can be given. Curd, when ready to mill, -should have a fibrous texture somewhat like the white meat of a chicken -breast. The pieces of curd should split very easily. When cut, the curd -should show a close, solid, smooth interior. The amount of lactic acid -developed may vary within rather wide limits. The hot iron may show -strings 1/2 to 1 inch long. The acidity (by titration of the freshly -separating whey) may be 0.45 to 0.65 of 1 per cent. If the curd has been -properly made, that is, firmed up in the whey with the proper acidity so -far, acid development during the cheddaring process will take care of -itself. The physical condition remains the principal means of -determining the time when the curd should be milled. - -[Illustration: FIG. 39.--Gosselin curd-mill.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 40.--Barnard curd-mill.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 41.--Junker curd-mill.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 42.--Harris curd-mill.] - -There are many kinds and styles of curd-mills on the market. Gosselin, -Barnard, Pohl, Junker, Victor, Harris are well-known kinds (Figs. -39-42). Some are hand, others power mills. Some of these tear the curd -into pieces of unequal size, others cut it into uniform pieces. A mill -that will do the work with the least possible pressure on the curd and -which will cut it into small uniform-sized pieces is most desirable. The -ideal mill should release the least fat and leave the curd in the best -condition to receive the salt. It is impossible to run curd through any -mill without exposing some fat on the freshly cut surfaces, and if the -curd is put under pressure, more fat will be pressed out and lost. -Cutting in the mill, like cutting the curd after coagulation by rennet, -may be called a necessary evil. There is an unavoidable mechanical loss -which may be greater or less according to the mill used. If the curd has -been properly handled so that the water in it has become thoroughly -assimilated (properly incorporated), this loss will be reduced to the -minimum. If the curd contains free moisture and many of the particles -have soft interiors, a stream of white whey will run down the vat as the -curd masses are cut. Some samples of such white whey will test as high -as 15 per cent fat. This not only causes a loss in yield but in quality -of cheese, according to the amount of fat lost. White whey is an -indication of loss of fat. If the proper amount of moisture is present -and is so thoroughly incorporated in the curd that it can be separated -only by evaporation, the ideal condition has been reached. While -milling, the cut curd should be stirred as fast as milled to prevent -matting again and to allow odors to escape. This stirring is usually -performed with a curd fork (Fig. 43). At the same time the temperature -will be lowered. The milled curd should be spread evenly over the upper -three-quarters of the bottom of the vat. The flavor of the curd that has -been made from tainted milk can be very much improved by stirring at -this time so that air can enter. - -[Illustration: FIG. 43.--A curd fork.] - -A gassy curd, which has been held until the holes have become flattened, -should be stirred very frequently during this stage to allow the gas to -escape, thereby improving the flavor. - -+204. Salting.+--Salt is added to Cheddar curd for several purposes: (1) -for its taste; (2) to aid in the removal of the whey and to harden and -shrink the curd; (3) to influence the fermentation by slowing down -acidification, checking the growth of unfavorable organisms and delaying -ripening. The salt should be pure. It should be coarse-grained, because -the large grains dissolve more slowly and permit its absorption to a -much larger extent than the fine-grained salt. Salt that dissolves -slowly is, therefore, to be sought for this purpose. - -The following factors must be considered in determining the amount of -salt to be used: (1) the amount of curd from the milk; (2) the -percentage of water in the curd; (3) the acidity of the curd; (4) the -particular market form of cheese desired. The custom of determining the -quantity of salt by the weight of milk is an inaccurate practice. The -amount of salt should be based on the amount of curd. If the amount of -fat in the milk is known, a fairly accurate estimate of the amount of -curd can be made. It would be more accurate to weigh the curd before -salting, but this is not practicable or necessary to insure a good -quality of cheese. The amount of salt varies from 1-1/2 to 2-1/2 pounds -of salt to the curd from each 1000 pounds of milk. - -The salt should not be added directly after milling because, at that -time, it would cause a large loss of fat. After milling there should be -time before salting for the freshly cut surfaces to dry or "heal over." -When first milled the curd has a dry harsh feeling; when ready to salt -it will feel soft and mellow and some moisture can usually be squeezed -out easily. Fifteen to twenty minutes from the time of milling are -required before the curd is ready for the salt. When ready, the curd -should be spread evenly over the bottom of the vat. The salt should be -carefully weighed, and then applied, evenly, over the surface of the -curd, in two or three applications. The curd should be thoroughly -stirred after each application of salt. While the salt is being -dissolved and absorbed, the curd should be stirred occasionally to -prevent lumps from forming. - -[Illustration: FIG. 44.--Wilson press hoop. _A_, complete hoop; _B_, -bottom cover with wide flange; _C_, top cover with narrow flange; _D_, -closed body; _E_, bandager.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 45.--Fraser press hoop. _A_, complete hoop; _B_, -bandager; _C_, follower; _D_, fibrous press ring.] - -+205. Hooping the curd.+--When the salt has become dissolved and the -curd as soft and mellow as before the salt was added, it is ready to be -put into the hoop. Various sized hoops may be used, depending on the -desired size of the cheese. Two types are the Wilson and the Fraser -(Figs. 44, 45). With either type, a dampened press cloth should be cut -just to fit the bottom of the hoop. A starched circle may or may not be -used; if used, it should be placed on top of the press cloth. The -bandage now commonly employed is the seamless one which comes in the -form of a tube of various sizes for different sized hoops. The lengths -of bandage cut for each hoop or cheese depend on the height of the -cheese plus about one and one-half inches' lap on each end. The bandage, -after being cut the desired length, is placed on the part of the hoop -made to hold it, so that it is suspended about the side of the hoop and -laps about one and one-half inches on the bottom. The bandage should be -free from ravelings and placed squarely in the hoop. - -The hoop is now ready to fill with curd. Enough hoops should be prepared -to hold all the day's curd as fast as it is ready. In order to have all -the cheeses as nearly as possible of the same size, it is advisable to -weigh the curd into the hoops. The curd may be measured into the hoops, -but this is not so accurate. The curd may be dipped with a flat-sided -curd pail or a curd scoop into the hoops (Fig. 46). - -[Illustration: FIG. 46.--Curd scoop and pail.] - -+206. Pressing the curd.+--The natural changes sought in the curd -require a period of at least five hours between the time of setting -(addition of the rennet) and the pressing of the curd. Less time than -this involves loss in yield and quality of the cheese. In other words, -the time requirement for these changes cannot be ignored. The object of -pressing is not primarily to remove whey but to produce the physical -conditions essential to ripening the cheese in a mass and put it in -convenient form for handling. The whey should have been removed during -the cooking and cheddaring. When ready for the press, the temperature of -the curd should be about 80 deg. to 85 deg. F.; it should be brought down -to this point during the milling, salting and hooping processes. If the -curd is put to press too warm or too cold, the following results may be -expected: - -Too high temperature during pressing produces several faults, as: - - (1) Favors the development of undesirable ferments. - - (2) Causes excessive loss of fat. - - (3) Gives the curd pieces a greasy surface so that they - will not readily pass into a compact cheese. If a cheese - is greasy, the bandages will not stick. - - (4) Favors the formation of mechanical holes in the - cheese. - - (5) Causes "seamy" color in the cheese by the collection - of fat between pieces of curd. - -Too low temperature has its difficulties, such as: - - (1) The pieces of curd will not fuse together. - - (2) The rind does not form properly. - - (3) It appears to cause mottled cheese. - -[Illustration: FIG. 47.--Continuous pressure gang cheese-press.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 48.--Filling the hoops and pressing the curd.] - -The commonly used gang press may or may not have an arrangement to cause -continuous pressure to be applied to the cheese (Figs. 47, 48). When -fresh cheeses are first placed in the press, the pressure should be -applied very gradually. The curd, after being cut through the mill, will -have many exposed fat globules. A heavy pressure at first will force -out the whey set free by the extracting power of the salt. The whey will -carry away the exposed fat globules, and therefore reduce the yield. As -soon as white whey starts from the hoops, the increased application of -the pressure should be stopped until the whey regains the appearance of -clear brine. More pressure can then be gradually applied until full -pressure is reached. The cheeses should remain under heavy pressure for -one-half to one hour, when they should be removed from the press and -dressed. - -+207. Dressing the cheese.+--When ready to dress the cheese, the press -is opened and the hoops turned down. The hoops are opened so that the -bandages can be lapped over the top of the cheeses about 1-1/2 inches. -Before turning a bandage down, it should be carefully pulled up to -remove any wrinkles from the sides of the cheese, but not hard enough to -pull it free from the bottom. After it is pulled up, the bandage should -be lapped over the top about 1-1/2 inches, and if not even should be -trimmed with a sharp knife. It should then be sopped down with warm -water. Plenty of warm water to wet the bandage and cloths helps to form -a good rind. If starched circles are used, one should be placed on the -top of the cheese and sopped down with warm water. If not, the press -cloth should be wrung out of warm water and put on smoothly, so there -will be no wrinkles. The hoop is then put together and placed back in -the press under heavy pressure for twelve to eighteen hours. The -pressure should be sufficient to cause the curd particles to unite so -that the surface of the cheese will be smooth. The next day the cheeses -are taken from the hoops and placed in the curing-room. If they do not -come out of the hoop easily, they may be loosened by cutting between the -sides of the cheese and the hoop with a knife. A special thin-bladed -knife for this purpose is called a speed knife (Fig. 49). Care should be -taken not to cut the bandage when trying to loosen the cheese. If -starched circles are used, the press cloths are removed from the cheese, -when they are put in the curing-room. If neither starched circles nor -press cloth are left on the cheese in the curing-room, the rind will -crack on account of drying out on the exposed surface. This allows mold -and insects to enter the cheese. The flavor, body and texture and color -of the cheese are all dependent on the skill of the cheese-maker and the -quality of the milk from which it is made. The finish is dependent -entirely on the skill and carefulness of the maker. An operator should -see that the cheese press is straight so that there will be no crocked -cheese and that the bandage and press cloths are properly put on, -because the finish or appearance of the cheese is an index of his -ability. - -[Illustration: FIG. 49.--Speed knife.] - -+208. Handling over-ripe and gassy milk.+--Because it is sometimes -necessary to make over-ripe[91] or gassy milk[92] into cheese, special -directions or precautions are necessary. The best way is to reject this -milk. When it is necessary to make it into cheese, the losses are much -more than with normal milk. It is a question of making as good a cheese -as possible, and the subject of losses is ignored. - -(1) _Over-ripe milk._--The fact that the milk is over-ripe shows that -there is already too much acid present. Every effort must be made to get -the curd as firm as possible in the whey with the acid development as -low as possible or before the acid has had time to develop any more than -can be helped. Although the milk is over-ripe, it is a good plan to add -about 1/4 of 1 per cent of starter just before the rennet. This starter -will not begin to work until the curd is being cheddared and it will -help the flavor, especially if any bad fermentation should be present. - -The rennet is added at 80 deg. F., as this lower temperature tends to -check the acid development. More rennet is used, commonly from 4 to 4-1/2 -ounces to 1000 pounds of milk. This gives a quicker coagulation. The -curd is cut soft, as this tends to expel the moisture more quickly. The -heat is turned on sooner after cutting. The time to turn it on and the -length of time to heat are determined by the amount of acid. A curd -should not be heated in less than fifteen minutes. If the curd has -enough acid and has not begun to firm up much, the whey should be drawn -down to the surface of the curd, water the temperature of the whey and -curd put into the vat, and the curd firmed up in this water. The water -washes the acid out of the curd and because of the lack of milk-sugar -checks the acid development. - -If the milk is not so ripe and the curd nearly firm enough, the whey may -be drawn off and the curd firmed up by hard stirring in the vat or sink. -The curd should not be pushed back enough to be very deep or thick when -ready to cheddar. - -The curd should be cut into very small pieces to cheddar. The smaller -the pieces, the faster the whey drains away. Sometimes it is necessary -to cut the curd into pieces six inches square. The pieces should not be -piled but should be turned often and stood on edge to let the whey drain -away and sometimes pressed with the hands to force the whey out. It is -often all one man can do to keep the curd turned. - -[Illustration: FIG. 50.--At the left is a regular shaped, close, solid -textured cheese; at the right one puffed up with gas.] - -The curd is not cheddared very long but is milled early so that the whey -can escape. If it is thought that the cheese will be sour, the curd -should be washed in cold water to remove the acid and milk-sugar. A -little more salt is sometimes used. A product made from over-ripe milk, -no matter how skillful the cheese-maker, will show traces of a sour -cheese. - -(2) _Gassy milk._--If a cheese-maker knows that there is "gassy" -fermentation, he should add more starter and develop more acid when -ripening the milk to try to overcome this. There are different kinds of -gassy fermentation. Some produce acid and some do not. Some will not -show until the cheeses have been on the curing-room shelves several -days. Others will cause the curd to float in the whey. Usually the gas -shows as pin-holes while the curd is being cheddared. - -[Illustration: FIG. 51.--This shows the same cheeses as in Fig. 50, cut -open to show the solid and gassy texture.] - -The gas causes tiny round holes in the cheese, resulting in the cheese -swelling or puffing out of shape and sometimes breaking open (Figs. 50, -51). The only time to overcome the gas is during the cheddaring process. -The curd is piled and repiled until the holes flatten out. This shows -that the gas-producing organisms have weakened and will not cause any -more holes. Because the curd has to be piled so many times and so long, -the pieces become very thin. The curd is ready to mill when most of the -holes have flattened. After milling, the curd should be stirred and -aired for some time before salting to allow the bad odor to escape. - -Because of the high acid development, it often happens that the cheese -will not be gassy but will be sour. At best a cheese made from milk -having gassy fermentation will have a bad flavor. The quality of the -cheese can be no better than that of the milk from which it is made, -plus the skill of the cheese-maker. - -+209. Qualities of Cheddar cheese.+--The cheese should be neat, clean -and attractive. If unclean, and the bandage not put on the cheese -properly, it shows that the manufacturer is not particular to keep the -curing-room shelves tidy nor careful and painstaking in dressing. The -cheese should not be lopsided or bulged. When cut, it should have a -uniformly colored interior. The principal color defects are too high, or -too light color, mottled or seamy. The texture should be solid and -close. A common defect is mechanical holes or openings and another is -gas pockets. The body can be tested by rubbing the cheese between the -thumb and fingers. It should be smooth and waxy and free from lumps. It -should rub down like cold butter. The common defects are graininess and -lumpiness. Graininess may be caused by too much acid or too much -moisture in the cheese. Lumpiness is due to uneven curing. If too much -moisture is present, the body will be soft and mushy; if not enough -moisture, the body will be hard and dry. - -The cheese should have a pleasant, clean, mild aroma and the -characteristic flavor which is usually somewhat similar to that of nuts -and so is spoken of as a nutty flavor. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII - -_COMPOSITION AND YIELD OF CHEDDAR CHEESE_ - - -So many factors affect the composition and yield of Cheddar cheese that -no positive or exact statement can be made unless other facts are -definitely known. The following factors affect both the composition and -yield: - - 1. The chemical composition of the milk. - - 2. Amount of moisture incorporated into the cheese. - - 3. The amount of solids lost in cheese-making. - - 4. The skill of the cheese-maker. - - 5. The bacterial-content of the milk. - -+210. Composition of milk, whey and cheese.+--The -following Tables[93] VI, VII, VIII, which are the average -of forty-eight factories for the season of 1893, show the -minimum, maximum and average composition: - - - TABLE VI - - AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF THE MILK - - | Minimum | MAXIMUM | AVERAGE - --------------------|---------|---------|--------- - Water | 86.28 | 88.30 | 87.28 - Total solids | 11.70 | 13.72 | 12.72 - Fat | 3.30 | 4.40 | 3.77 - Casein | 2.20 | 2.85 | 2.48 - Albumin | 0.52 | 0.81 | 0.69 - Sugar and ash, etc. | 5.63 | 5.89 | 5.78 - - - TABLE VII - - AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF THE WHEY - - | Minimum | MAXIMUM | AVERAGE - --------------------|---------|---------|--------- - Water | 92.75 | 93.28 | 93.00 - Total solids | 6.72 | 7.25 | 7.00 - Fat | 0.24 | 0.51 | 0.38 - Casein, albumin | 0.66 | 0.99 | 0.86 - Sugar, ash, etc. | 5.63 | 5.86 | 5.76 - - - TABLE VIII - - AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF THE GREEN CHEESE - - | Minimum | MAXIMUM | AVERAGE - --------------------|---------|---------|--------- - Water | 33.16 | 43.89 | 37.33 - Total solids | 66.84 | 56.11 | 62.67 - Fat | 30.00 | 35.89 | 33.41 - Casein | 20.80 | 25.48 | 23.39 - Sugar, ash, etc. | 4.86 | 7.02 | 5.89 - -Table VI shows the minimum, maximum and average composition of the milk -and Table VIII the composition of the cheese made from that milk. The -average composition of the cheese in Table VIII shows that it contains -37.33 per cent of water. The tendency to-day seems to be for a softer -cheese so that the average would probably be higher. Table VIII also -shows the wide variation in the composition of the cheese. The moisture -and total solids both vary about 10 per cent. In order to judge the -variation in composition, one must know the composition of the milk and -the moisture-content of the cheese and then only a very inaccurate -estimate of the composition of the cheese can be formed. - -+211. Relation of fat to casein in normal milk.+--In order to understand -the relation of the composition of the milk to yield of cheese, one must -be familiar with the relation of the fat to the casein in normal milk. -The following table[94] shows the relation of fat to casein in normal -milk: - - - TABLE IX - - SUMMARY SHOWING THE RELATION OF FAT TO CASEIN - IN NORMAL MILK - - ==================================================================== - | | | | | AVERAGE - | | | AVERAGE | AVERAGE | POUNDS OF - | PER CENT | NUMBER | PER CENT | PER CENT | CASEIN FOR - GROUP | OF FAT IN | OF | OF FAT IN | OF CASEIN | EACH POUND - | MILK | SAMPLES | EACH IN | EACH | OF FAT IN - | | | GROUP | GROUP | MILK - --------+-----------+----------+-----------+-----------+------------ - I | 3.0-3.5 | 22 | 3.35 | 2.20 | 0.66 - II | 3.5-4.0 | 112 | 3.72 | 2.46 | 0.66 - III | 4.0-4.5 | 78 | 4.15 | 2.70 | 0.65 - IV | 4.5-5.0 | 16 | 4.74 | 3.05 | 0.64 - V | 5.0-5.25 | 7 | 5.13 | 3.12 | 0.61 - ==================================================================== - -Table IX shows that the pounds of casein for each pound of fat are not -constant but that the casein does not increase in proportion to the fat -above 4.0 per cent of fat in the milk. - -+212. Influence of fat in milk on yield of cheese.+--The following table -shows the influence which fat in the milk has on the yield of -cheese:[94] - - - TABLE X - - SUMMARY SHOWING RELATION OF FAT IN MILK TO YIELD - OF CHEESE - - ============================================================== - | AVERAGE PER | POUNDS OF GREEN CHEESE | POUNDS OF - GROUP | CENT OF FAT | MADE FROM 100 LB. OF | GREEN CHEESE - | IN MILK | MILK | MADE FOR 1 LB. - | | | OF FAT IN MILK - ------+-------------+------------------------+---------------- - I | 3.35 | 9.14 | 2.73 - II | 3.72 | 10.04 | 2.73 - III | 4.15 | 11.34 | 2.70 - IV | 4.74 | 12.85 | 2.71 - V | 5.13 | 13.62 | 2.66 - ============================================================== - -Table X shows that as the fat in the milk increases, the pounds of -cheese made from 100 pounds of that milk increases; but the amount of -cheese made for each pound of fat in the milk does not increase. This is -due to the fact pointed out in Table IX, namely, that as the fat -increases in the milk the casein does not increase in the rich milk in -proportion to the fat. From Tables IX and X this conclusion may be -drawn: that as the percentage of fat increases in the milk the more -cheese can be made from 100 pounds of that milk, but after the increase -in fat gets above 4 per cent the amount of cheese that can be made for -each pound of fat in the milk is decreased because the casein does not -increase in proportion to the fat. No exact statement of yield can be -made without first stating the moisture-content of the cheese. The -losses also must be considered. - -Van Slyke[95] in the following Table XI shows the effect of the -fat-content of normal milk on the yield of cheese. - -The moisture-content of all the cheeses is reduced to a uniform basis of -37 per cent. (See cut showing yield of cheese, Fig. 52.) - -[Illustration: FIG. 52.--The figures represent the relative yield of -cheese containing different percentages of fat, but all have a uniform -content of 37 per cent water.] - - - TABLE XI - - TABLE SHOWING THE EFFECT OF THE FAT-CONTENT OF - NORMAL MILK ON THE YIELD OF CHEESE - - ----------------+-------------+--------------+------------------- - PER CENT OF FAT | PER CENT OF | AMOUNT OF | AMOUNT OF CHEESE - IN THE MILK | CASEIN IN | CHEESE MADE | MADE FOR EACH - | THE MILK | FROM 100 LB. | POUND OF FAT - | | OF MILK | IN THE MILK - ----------------+-------------+--------------+------------------- - 3.00 | 2.10 | 8.30 | 2.77 - 3.25 | 2.20 | 8.88 | 2.73 - 3.50 | 2.30 | 9.45 | 2.70 - 3.75 | 2.40 | 10.03 | 2.67 - 4.00 | 2.50 | 10.60 | 2.65 - 4.25 | 2.60 | 11.17 | 2.63 - 4.50 | 2.70 | 11.74 | 2.61 - 4.75 | 2.80 | 12.31 | 2.59 - 5.00 | 2.90 | 12.90 | 2.58 - ----------------+-------------+--------------+------------------- - -+213. Fat loss in cheese-making.+--The amount of solids lost in the whey -also affects the yield. The following table gives the amount of fat lost -in whey with normal milk containing different percentages of fat: - - - TABLE XII - - SUMMARY SHOWING AMOUNT OF FAT IN MILK LOST IN - CHEESE-MAKING - - ================================================================= - GROUP | POUNDS OF FAT IN | POUNDS OF FAT LOST | PER CENT OF FAT - | 100 LB OF MILK | IN WHEY FOR 100 | IN MILK LOST - | | LB. OF MILK | IN WHEY - ------+------------------+--------------------+------------------ - I | 3 to 3.5 | 0.32 | 9.55 - II | 3.5 to 4 | 0.33 | 8.33 - III | 4 to 4.5 | 0.32 | 7.70 - IV | 4.5 to 5 | 0.28 | 5.90 - V | 5 to 5.25 | 0.31 | 6.00 - ================================================================= - -Table XII shows that the percentage of fat in the whey is approximately -the same for milk high or low in fat. But the milk low in fat loses a -higher percentage of the total milk-fat in each 100 pounds of whey. - -+214. Effect of bacterial-content of milk on yield of cheese.+--The -bacterial-content[96] of the milk influences the yield by affecting both -the moisture-content and the losses. If the milk is sour or has bad -fermentation, the losses will be increased because the curd cannot be -carefully handled, and the moisture cannot be incorporated to the extent -that it can in clean milk, without injury to the quality. The -proper-cooling of the milk in one instance increased the yield 0.3 pound -of cheese for each 100 pounds of milk. The more moisture that can be -incorporated into the cheese up to the legal limit, the greater the -yield. - -+215. Factors affecting the moisture-content of Cheddar.+--The amount of -moisture that can be incorporated in a curd depends on several -factors.[97] The following increase the moisture-content control of the -cheese: - - 1. Cutting the curd coarse. - - 2. High setting temperature. - - 3. Low acid in the curd at time of removing whey. - - 4. Not stirring the curd with the hand as the last of the whey is - removed. - - 5. Slow pressure. - - 6. High piling of the curd in the cheddaring process. - - 7. Small amount of salt. - - 8. Holding the curd at low temperature after the whey is removed. - - 9. Large amount of rennet. - - 10. Cutting the curd hard. - -The following factors decrease the moisture-content of the cheese: - - 1. Fine cutting. - - 2. Low setting temperature. - - 3. High acid in the curd at time of removing the whey. - - 4. Stirring the curd with the hand as the last of the whey is removed. - - 5. Fast pressure. - - 6. Low piling of the curd in the cheddaring process. - - 7. Large amount of salt. - - 8. Holding the curd at high temperature after the - whey is removed. - - 9. Small amount of rennet. - - 10. Cutting the curd soft. - -From this discussion, it is evident that the yield of cheese from 100 -pounds of milk increases with higher percentages of fat and casein in -the milk, with reduced losses of solids during manufacture, with the -absence of undesirable fermentations, and with the incorporation of -large amounts of water. - -+216. Variations of the Cheddar process.+--The Cheddar process, as -already described, is widely employed in cheese factories. Many -varieties are found, however, and varietal names are used for such -products. A whole series of these forms are either locally or widely -made in England and taught in the English dairy schools. Some of these -varieties resemble the factory Cheddar product fairly closely; others -are clearly different products. A typical series of the variations as -developed in America will be considered. - -In the commercial trade Cheddar cheese is usually designated by some -name which indicates its size. The size of the cheese is determined by -that of the hoops. The hoops vary both in diameter and height. The table -on the following page shows the usual sizes of the hoops and the weight -and name applied to the cheese. - -+217. Cheddar-type cheese from pasteurized milk.+--Sammis and Bruhn[98] -have described a variation of the Cheddar process to overcome the -difficulties of making cheese from pasteurized milk. Such milk curdles in -very unsatisfactory manner unless some chemical is added to compensate -for the salts lost and to offset the other changes resulting from heat. -For this purpose, they found the use of hydrochloric acid satisfactory. - - TABLE XIII - - SIZE OF CHEESE HOOPS, WEIGHT, AND TERM APPLIED TO - CHEESE - - ======================================================================== - DIAMETER OF | HEIGHT OF | WEIGHT OF | TERM APPLIED TO - HOOP | CHEESE | CHEESE | CHEESE - | | POUNDS | - ---------------+-------------------+------------+----------------------- - 6-7 in. | 7-8 in. | 9-11 | Young America - Tapers 5-7 in. | 10-14 in. | 10-16 | Long Horn - 12-14 in. | 3-1/2-4-1/2 in.| 18-24 | Daisy or Picnic - 14-15-1/2 in. | 4-6 in. | 30-40 | Twin (two in same box) - 14-16 in. | 4-7 in. | 35-40 | Flat - 13-1/2-15 in. | 10-12 in. | 40-50 | Cheddar - 14-16 in. | 12-15 in. | 75-90 | Export - ======================================================================== - -"The acidulation of milk with hydrochloric acid after pasteurization is -accomplished without difficulty or danger of curdling by running a small -stream of the acid, of normal concentration, into the cooled milk as it -flows from the continuous pasteurizer into the cheese vat. One pound of -normal-strength acid is sufficient to raise 100 pounds of milk from 0.16 -percent to 0.25 percent acidity (calculated as per cent of lactic acid). -The amount of acid needed each day to bring the milk up to 0.25 per cent -acidity is read from a table or calculated from the weight of the milk -and its acidity, determined by the use of Manns's acid test (titration -with tenth-normal sodium hydrate and phenolphthalein). The preparation -of standard-strength acid in carboy lots for this work and the -acidulation of milk present no great difficulty to any one who is able -to handle Manns's acid test correctly. - -"After the milk is pasteurized and acidulated three-fourths per cent of -first-class starter is added and the vat is heated to 85 deg.. It is set -with rennet, using 2 ounces of rennet per thousand pounds of milk, so -that the milk begins to curdle in 7 minutes and is cut with three-eighth -inch knives in 25 minutes. All portions of the work after adding rennet -are carried out in an unvarying routine manner, according to a -fixed-time schedule every day. As soon as the rennet has been added the -cheese maker is able to calculate the exact time of day when each of the -succeeding operations should be performed, and the work of making the -cheese is thus simplified and systematized. It is possible that the -routine process here described may be varied somewhat with advantage at -different factories." - -This cheese usually lacks characteristic Cheddar flavor or contains it -in very mild form. It therefore satisfies only those who seek very mild -flavored products. Efforts are now being made to find a flavor producing -substance or organism which will bring the flavor of this product more -nearly to that of typical Cheddar. - -+218. Club cheese+ is known by a variety of trade names. It is made from -Cheddar cheese, so that it is especially liked by persons who care for -strong Cheddar flavor. It has a soft texture so that it spreads easily, -and is therefore much used for sandwiches. Well-ripened or old Cheddar -cheese is ground in a food chopper. The older the Cheddar, the stronger -will be the flavor of the club cheese. Cheese of good flavor should be -used. In order to do away with all lumps in the texture, it is sometimes -necessary to run the mixed cheese through the food chopper a second -time. While all lumps must be worked out, care should be taken not to -work the cheese so much that it will become salvy and sticky. - -Usually a little pepper is added, to give the cheese a biting taste. -Some manufacturers add a great variety of substances, but these are not -necessary and destroy the flavor of the cheese. - -Club cheese may be wrapped in tin-foil or put up in air-tight glass -jars. The latter practice, while more expensive, has the advantage of -making the cheese keep longer; but for local trade tin-foil is just as -satisfactory as glass. In filling the glass, care must be taken not to -leave any air spaces between the cheese and the glass, as this is likely -to permit the cheese to mold. A glass jar can be filled and air spaces -prevented by first smearing a very thin layer of cheese over the glass. - -+219. The stirred-curd or granular process.+--The original practice as -brought from England and followed in the farm dairies before the -development of the factory system is now known variously as the -"stirred-curd" or "granular curd" process. With the introduction of the -cheese factory, as known to-day, this system was replaced by the Cheddar -cheese. The old farm process is still used on some farms and in a few -factories. As the name indicates, the curd for such cheeses is kept -stirred so that it remains in granular condition instead of being -allowed to mat as in the Cheddar process. - -The early steps of the two processes are identical. They diverge at the -point at which in the factory Cheddar process the whey is drawn and the -curd is allowed to mat. In some factories the curd and part of the whey -are dipped into a curd sink. This allows the whey to escape more easily -and quickly. In the stirred-curd process, the pieces of curd are kept -separated by stirring and not allowed to mat. The whey is drawn off and -the stirring continued by hand. After stirring fifteen to twenty -minutes, the curd becomes so dry as not to mat easily. As soon as the -curd has reached this stage, the salt is evenly and thoroughly mixed -with it. More salt is added than in the Cheddar process because the curd -is more moist than Cheddar curd at the time of salting. The whey freely -separating carries away much of the salt. The quantity of salt to use -depends on the amount of whey draining from the curd. After salting, the -curd is allowed to cool, with occasional stirring to prevent the -formation of lumps. The advantage of the stirred-curd practice lies in -the shorter time required for making cheese and in the greater yield due -to increased water-content. It has several disadvantages, among them -being: (1) lack of control of undesirable fermentation; if gas organisms -are present, the cheeses more frequently huff than with the Cheddar -system; (2) there is more fat lost while stirring the curd, hence -quality and yield suffer; (3) the water is not so thoroughly -incorporated, which more frequently results in mottled cheeses; (4) the -body is commonly soft and "weak," shows mechanical holes, and cures too -rapidly. These faults are closely correlated with the presence of higher -percentages of water than in cheeses made by the Cheddar process. In -other words, the stirred-curd process usually produces a cheese with -higher water-content, hence more subject to the development of -unfavorable fermentation than the Cheddar cheeses. - -+220. California Jack cheese+[99] is very similar to the stirred-curd or -granular process. This cheese was originally made in Monterey County on -the coast of California, about twenty-five years ago, in small -quantities, but after it was found to sell well other counties started -to manufacture it. As Monterey was the first county to make this -product, it was named "Monterey" cheese. In order to distinguish the -cheese made in other counties from this, it was suggested that it be -given a name and, consequently, it was called "Jack" cheese. This has -been accepted as its true name. The cheese is made mostly by Portuguese -and Italian-Swiss, although some of the best of the variety is now -manufactured near Modesto, California. - -This cheese is adapted for manufacture on small dairy farms, where there -is inexpensive and scanty equipment. The smaller sizes of cheese are -made and ripened quickly. It has become widely used in California. - -The cheese is made every morning, from evening's and morning's milk. The -former is put into the cheese vat at night, and morning's milk is added -as milking is going on. When the milk is all in the vat, it is -immediately warmed to 86 deg. to 88 deg. F. and rennet extract is added -(when milk has 0.2 to 0.21 of 1 per cent acidity) at the rate of 6 to 8 -ounces to 1000 pounds of milk. No coloring matter is used. It is ready -for the curd-knife in thirty to thirty-five minutes, its readiness being -determined the same as in making Cheddar cheese. The curd is first cut -lengthwise of the vat with the horizontal curd-knife and allowed to -stand until the whey rises over and partly covers the curd, when it is -cut again with the vertical curd-knife crosswise of the vat. It is then -hand-stirred, gently at first, and the stirring is finished with the -rake. - -Either a steam-heating or self-heating vat is used (the steam-heating -vat is preferred) and temperature increased about one degree in five -minutes. The curd is heated to 98 deg. F. in winter, and to 105 deg. F. -to 110 deg. F. in summer. After temperature is up, it is stirred -occasionally with a rake until the whey is drawn at 0.14 to 0.15 of 1 -per cent acidity. The curd is hand-stirred as soon as the whey is nearly -drained off, and raked to each side of the vat to drain more thoroughly, -when it is quickly stirred again to keep it from lumping or matting. Salt -is now added at the rate of 1-1/2 pounds to 100 pounds of curd, and -stirred in thoroughly several times. During the salting process, cold -water is allowed to run under the vat, the hot water having been run off -previously. - -Curd is put into cloths at a temperature of 80 deg. to 85 deg. F. No -cheese hoops are used. Two sets of press cloths are necessary; one set is -ready to use while the other is still on the cheese in the press. These -press cloths are about one yard square. The press cloths are all laid out -evenly one on top of the other, as many as there are cheeses. They are -then taken together and spread out over the top of a large, open tin -milk-pail, and pushed down in the center to the bottom of the pail, with -the edges hanging over the top. A common one-gallon lard pail is used to -measure the curd into the press cloths. A lard pail full will make a -cheese weighing six and one-half pounds, which is the popular size. -After a pailful has been put into the press cloth, the four corners are -caught up with the left hand, while with the right hand the curd is -formed round and the press cloth straightened and the other corners in -turn taken up. The press cloth is now taken up tight over the curd with -the left hand, while the cheese is given a rolling motion on the table -with the right hand, pressing at the same time to expel some of the -whey. This twists the press cloth tight over the curd, where it is tied -with a stout string. After fixing them all (as many as there are -cheeses) in this way, they are ready for the press. - -The cheeses are pressed between two wooden planks, 12 inches wide, 1-1/2 -inches thick, by whatever length is required for the number of cheeses -to be pressed. One plank is nailed on supports at a convenient height -from the floor on a little slant for the whey to drain off better. The -cheeses in the press cloths are placed at the proper distance apart so -they do not touch. Then the other plank is put squarely over the top of -the cheese and levers about four feet long at an interval of five feet -are placed over this plank, from a cleat in the wall, on the other end -of which is placed a heavy weight of about 100 pounds, which acts as an -automatic pressure. The cheeses are left in the press until the next -morning, when they are taken out and put on the shelves in the -curing-room. The cheeses have no bandage or covering, and do not seem to -crock, and they form a very good rind. - -The cheese is a sweet variety, weighs six and one-half pounds cured and -cures in about three weeks ready to ship, and sells at 16 to 25 cents a -pound wholesale. Most of the work seems to lie in forming and rolling -the curd in press cloths before pressing. Trouble is experienced by the -makers, especially in warm climates in summer, in not having the milk at -a uniform acidity when rennet is added. Great improvements could be made -in this cheese by using an acidimeter, paraffining and curing the cheese -in an even temperature, not much over 60 deg. F. - -Old and hard Jack cheese is also employed for grating and cooking, while -the fresh is used for the table. - -+221. The washed-curd process+ has been developed in recent years -largely in the state of New York. In this method, a regular Cheddar curd -is made up to the time of milling. This curd is washed or soaked in cold -water during or directly after milling. The theoretical object of this -washing is to carry away bad flavors and to reduce over-development of -acidity by washing away all traces of whey. However, cheese-makers soon -found that it increased the yield and this led some to carry it to -extremes. - -After the curd has been milled, it is covered with cold water. The -temperature of this water ranges from 50 deg. F. to 70 deg. F. The curd -is stirred in this water for various lengths of time according to the -judgment of the cheese-maker. This time varies from five minutes to one -hour. Sometimes the vat is partly filled with water and the curd milled -directly into the water. This process has certain advantages and -disadvantages. - -The advantages are: if too much acid has developed in the curd, this -washing will reduce it so that the cheese will not be sour. Sometimes -when bad flavors are present in the curd, washing will tend to overcome -or remove them. Its disadvantages are: the larger yield due to excessive -soaking tempts the makers to soak curd beyond the time needed to relieve -the initially sour condition. Curd soaked in this way produces cheeses -containing percentages of water so high as to lower their quality. This -increases the yield sometimes as much as 3 to 5 per cent. Such a cheese -is very soft in texture and does not cure like a Cheddar cheese which -has not been washed. Part of the lactic acid, milk-sugar[100] and the -inorganic salts are removed by this washing. A washed-curd cheese will -sometimes rot, due to the activity of the putrefactive bacteria, and to -the lack of the restraining effect of the lactic acid-forming bacteria. -Some washed-curd cheeses are so soft that they will not retain their -normal shape. - -A washed-curd cheese is never sour because the milk-sugar and lactic -acid have been removed by washing. - -+222. English dairy cheese.+--In some localities cheeses are still made -on the farms. These are mostly produced after the stirred-curd process, -hence are soft-bodied and open-textured. They usually weigh ten to -twelve pounds and are three to four inches thick and twelve inches in -diameter. - -+223. Pineapple cheese.+--This variety derives its name from the fact -that the cheeses are made in about the size and shape of a pineapple. -The curd is made after the Cheddar process from either whole milk or -partly skimmed milk. It is pressed in molds shaped like a pineapple. The -cheeses are then hung in nets to give the checked appearance on the -surface. They are rubbed with linseed oil to prevent the surface -cracking, and finally are shellacked. - -+224. Leyden.+--Among specialties, a cheese called Leyden originating in -Holland is made in Michigan and New York. This is a part skim cheese -heavily spiced with caraway seed. The ripe cheese is colored red as it -goes to market. - -+225. Cheddar cheese with pimientos.+--Recently some Cheddar cheeses -have been made with pimientos added. This gives a mixture of -characteristic Cheddar and pimiento flavors, which seems to be desired -by some persons. An ordinary Cheddar curd is made and the pimientos -added just before salting. The pimientos are ground rather coarsely and -then added to the curd together with the liquid which was with the -pimientos in the can. The pimiento should be thoroughly and evenly -mixed with the curd to insure a uniform distribution and mottled color -in the cheese. The salt is then applied. The remainder of the process is -the same as for ordinary Cheddar cheese. - -+226. Sage cheese+ is a product flavored from the leaves of the ordinary -garden sage. It is made by two methods: one, in which the sage leaves -are used, and the other, in which a part of the curd is colored to -imitate that given by the sage leaves, and sage oil or tea is used to -give the flavor. - -In the leaf method, a regular Cheddar cheese curd is made up to the time -of salting. Just before the salt is added, sage leaves are mixed with -the curd. The leaves should be dried and freed from stems and other -coarse particles and the leaves themselves broken up rather finely. The -leaves are then added at the rate of 3 ounces for every 1000 pounds of -milk. Care must be exercised to see that the leaves are evenly mixed -through the curd or an evenly mottled cheese will not result. The salt -is then added. This sequence seems to increase the absorption of the -flavor by the curd. - -If these cheeses are consumed as soon as well cured, no fault can be -found. On the other hand, if they are held for any length of time, -yellow areas form about each piece of sage leaf; the leaves decay -rapidly and spoil the cheese. This method gives a very true flavored -sage cheese, the only objection being that it cannot be held in storage -for any length of time without a marked deterioration. - -In the other method of making sage cheese, either a vat with a movable -partition or a large and a small vat must be used. In many cases the -receiving can is used as the small vat. After the milk is properly -ripened and ready to set, one-sixth to one-seventh of the milk is put -into the small vat. To this small vat, green coloring matter is added. -Juice from the leaves of corn, clover, or spinach was formerly used as -coloring. Consequently the manufacture of sage cheese by this method was -limited to the seasons of the year when these leaves could be obtained. -Now, however, the dairy supply houses have a harmless green color paste -which is much cheaper and can be secured at any season of the year. The -amount of color paste to use will vary from 30 to 35 c.c. for every 1000 -pounds of total milk. This should be added to the small vat of milk. It -gives a green milk and later a green curd. - -Both vats are worked along together, until the time for removing the -whey. Then the partition in the vat is removed or the small vat is mixed -with the large one. The green curd should then be evenly mixed with the -white one or an even green mottled cheese will not result. The curds -should not be mixed until they are well firmed or the white curd will -take on a greenish cast and spoil the appearance of the cheese. - -After the whey is removed, the curd is allowed to mat as in ordinary -Cheddar but care must be exercised to pile the curd so that it cannot -spread or "draw" out. If it does draw out, the small green spots will be -stretched out and large blotches or patches of green will be the result. -The cheese-maker must watch the curd closely or he may not secure the -much desired small green mottles. When the curd is well matted, it is -milled as in Cheddar. Just before the salt is added, the sage extract is -applied to the curd. - -The sage extract can be obtained from dairy supply houses, or a sage -tea can be made by steeping the sage leaves. In many cases the -commercial extract gives the cheese a strong disagreeable flavor, but -not a true sage flavor. The sage tea gives a flavor more like that of -the leaves themselves. Too much of the extract or the leaves will give a -very rank flavor. The sage extract can best be put on the curd by means -of a sprayer or atomizer with which it can be evenly sprayed over the -entire surface. The extract should be applied two or three times and the -curd well stirred after each application. The amount of the extract to -use depends altogether on its strength; an ounce of the extract or three -ounces of sage tea to 1000 pounds of milk is about the correct amount. -After the extract has been added, the salt is used at the same rate as -with a normal Cheddar curd and the sage curd is carried along the same -as a Cheddar. - -This extract method gives a sage cheese mottled with small green spots -which somewhat resemble the green of sage leaves. A cheese made in this -way can be held for a long time, as nothing has been added which can -decay. The only objection to this method is that the sage extract may -not give a true sage flavor. Therefore, the maker must try to obtain the -best extract possible or make his own from the sage leaves. - -+227. Skimmed-milk Cheddar cheese.+[101]--The process of making -skimmed-milk cheese after the Cheddar process is varied with the amount -of fat left in the milk. Before attempting to make skimmed-milk Cheddar, -one should become familiar with the process for whole-milk Cheddar. -Skimmed-milk cheeses are usually highly colored. - -When part skimmed-milk cheese is manufactured, there is often -difficulty in getting the milk in the vat to test the desired percentage -of fat. Some cheese-makers skim all the milk and then put in the desired -amount of cream. This practice seems wasteful, not only because of the -cost of separation, but because the fat will not mix easily with the -milk but will tend to float on the surface. If the fat floats, there -will be a large loss. After a very few trials an operator can tell about -how much of the whole milk must be skimmed in order to have the mixed -skimmed-milk and whole milk test the desired percentage of fat. The -necessary percentage of fat in the mixed milk to produce cheese of a -certain grade can be determined by testing the cheese by the Babcock -test. (See Chapter XIX.) - -+228. Full skimmed-milk Cheddar cheese.+--In the summer there is not -much demand for full skimmed-milk cheese, but it is made in large -quantity in winter. The method of manufacture is as follows: - -Skimmed-milk as it comes from the separator is at a temperature of about -88 deg. to 90 deg. F.; it is ripened and set at this temperature. It is -ripened rather highly on the acid test, from 0.18 to 0.20 of 1 per cent, -and to correspond on the rennet test which will not be many spaces. In -about twenty-five to thirty minutes it is coagulated ready for cutting. -The curd of skimmed-milk cheese is cut a little softer than is that of -whole-milk cheese. Milk is usually set at 88 deg. to 90 deg. F. The curd -is not ordinarily cooked above this temperature. If the milk was 84 deg. -to 86 deg. F. when set, then the curd should be raised to 88 deg. to 90 -deg. F. The curd firms in the whey very rapidly. When firm enough, it -should have a slight development of acid. On the acid test it should show -0.17 to 0.19 per cent, and on the hot iron 1/8 to 1/4 of an inch. The -milk should be ripe enough or starter enough should have been used, so -that the acid will continue to develop in the "pack" very rapidly. During -the cheddaring process the curd is piled more rapidly and in higher piles -than is customary with whole-milk cheese. This is necessary to incorporate -or assimilate a large percentage of water or whey in the cheese. Therefore -the process of skimmed-milk Cheddar cheese is much shorter. More acid is -developed with the skimmed-milk than with the whole-milk cheese because -it seems necessary to develop proper texture. If the acid is not -developed sufficiently, the cheese will be very rubbery and cure very -slowly, in which case bad fermentation and flavor may and often do -develop. The curd is turned, piled or cheddared in the vat until it -begins to become meaty and fibrous. If there is danger of too much acid, -the curd may be rinsed off with water. It is then milled and salted at -the rate of 1 or 1-1/4 pounds of salt to the curd from each 1000 pounds -of milk. The remainder of the process is the same as that for making -whole-milk cheese. - -+229. Half skimmed-milk Cheddar cheese.+--No definite directions can be -given for the manufacture of part skimmed-milk cheese, because the -process varies with the amount of fat left in the milk. As the fat is -decreased, the process becomes more like that for making full -skimmed-milk cheese; as the fat is increased, the process becomes more -like that for whole-milk cheese. However, the process of making half -skimmed-milk cheese is about midway between the two. The milk is ripened -more than it would be for whole-milk cheese, usually until it tests from -0.15 to 0.17 of 1 per cent acid. The curd is coagulated and cut the same -as for the other skimmed-milk cheeses. It is cooked to a temperature -just sufficient to firm the curd, usually from 94 deg. to 96 deg. F. The -lower the temperature at which the curd can be cooked and yet become -firm, the better is the texture of the cheese. When the curd has firmed -enough, or when sufficient acid development, from 0.15 to 0.17 of 1 per -cent, has taken place, the whey is removed. The curd is then turned, -piled or cheddared. A skimmed-milk curd may be piled much more rapidly -than a whole-milk curd without danger of injuring it. When the curd -becomes meaty or fibrous, it is milled. It should be salted at the rate -of 1-1/4 to 2 pounds of salt to the curd from each 1000 pounds of milk. -The remainder of the process is the same as that for making whole-milk -cheese. - -The cheese-maker should observe the following points when making -skimmed-milk cheese: (1) Have clean-flavored sweet milk; (2) use -clean-flavored commercial starter; (3) ripen the milk sufficiently, but -not too much; (4) firm the curd at as low a temperature as possible; (5) -have the curd properly firmed when the whey is drawn; (6) cheddar the -curd faster than the curd from whole milk; (7) make the cheeses all the -same size; (8) keep the cheese neat and clean in the curing-room. - -+230. Yield and qualities of skimmed-milk Cheddar cheese.+--The results -of skimming different percentages of whole milk containing varying -percentages of fat are given in the following table. As the percentage -of fat in the milk decreases, the yield of cheese also decreases, -according to the table. As the percentage of fat decreases in the milk, -the percentage of moisture in the cheese increases, showing that -moisture is substituted for fat. The yield of cheese from 100 pounds of -milk is also given in this table. This yield varies with the amount of -moisture incorporated into the cheese, the amount of solids not fat in -the milk, and the solids lost in the whey. - - - TABLE XIV - - TABLE SHOWING THE COMPOSITION AND YIELD OF SKIMMED-MILK - CHEDDAR CHEESE - - ============================================================================ - | |PERCENTAGE|NUMBER | COMPOSITION OF THE CHEESE - PERCENTAGE|PERCENTAGE|OF FAT IN |OF POUNDS +----------+----------+---------- - OF FAT |OF THE |THE MILK |OF CHEESE |PERCENTAGE| | - IN THE |MILK |IN THE |FROM 100 |OF TOTAL |PERCENTAGE|PERCENTAGE - MILK |SKIMMED |VAT AFTER |POUNDS |OF TOTAL |OF FAT |OF WATER - | |SKIMMING |OF MILK |SOLIDS | | - ----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+---------- - 4.7 | 50 | 2.4 | 9.92 | 54.75 | 22.00 | 45.25 - 4.7 | 60 | 2.0 | 9.74 | 52.46 | 17.50 | 47.54 - 4.7 | 70 | 1.5 | 9.26 | 49.87 | 13.50 | 50.13 - 4.7 | 80 | 1.0 | 8.42 | 48.26 | 10.00 | 51.74 - 4.0 | 50 | 2.0 | 9.70 | 53.29 | 21.00 | 46.71 - 4.0 | 60 | 1.6 | 9.50 | 50.89 | 17.00 | 49.11 - 4.0 | 70 | 1.2 | 9.30 | 48.06 | 13.50 | 51.94 - 4.0 | 80 | 0.9 | 9.20 | 45.24 | 10.50 | 54.76 - 3.5 | 50 | 1.8 | 8.54 | 54.20 | 19.50 | 45.80 - 3.5 | 60 | 1.5 | 8.10 | 51.10 | 16.50 | 48.90 - 3.5 | 70 | 1.1 | 7.44 | 52.62 | 13.00 | 47.38 - 3.5 | 80 | O.9 | 7.00 | 49.64 | 9.54 | 50.36 - 3.4 | 50 | 1.9 | 8.24[102]| 54.50 | 20.00 | 45.50 - 3.4 | 60 | 1.5 | 7.82 | 52.05 | 16.50 | 47.95 - 3.4 | 70 | {1.4 | {7.80 | {49.04 | {14.00 | {50.96 - | | {1.2 | {7.28 | {50.76 | {14.00 | {49.24 - 3.4 | 80 | 0.9 | 7.24 | 47.41 | 10.50 | 52.59 - ============================================================================ - -In some creameries and cheese factories, the milk is skimmed and the -cream made into butter and the skimmed-milk into cheese by the Cheddar -process. In making cheese without the milk-fat, it is difficult to -standardize a method that will produce the flavor and body of the -whole-milk Cheddar cheese. A skimmed-milk cheese lacks the softness and -mellowness of texture of the whole-milk product. It is very likely to be -tough, dry or leathery. It is attempted to remedy this defect by -incorporating more moisture into the skimmed-milk cheese. The added -moisture tends to replace the fat in giving a soft mellow body. It -requires skill on the part of the cheese-maker to incorporate moisture -to take the place of the fat in giving the cheese mellowness and -smoothness of body. - -The grades of skimmed-milk cheese vary between rather wide limits--from -those made entirely of skimmed-milk to those made of milk from which -only a small amount of fat has been removed and which are almost like -whole-milk cheese. Because of the gradations of skimmed-milk cheese, it -is difficult to make anything but general statements and to base -comparisons with whole-milk cheese. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV - -_CHEDDAR CHEESE RIPENING_ - - -Freshly made Cheddar cheese is hard, tough and elastic and lacks -characteristic cheese flavor. In this condition it is called "green," -unripe or not cured. Before the cheese is ready to be eaten, it passes -through a complex series of changes which are collectively known as -ripening. In the ripening process the texture becomes soft and mellow -and the characteristic cheese flavors develop. Cheese ripening must be -considered from two view-points, first, the changes taking place inside -the cheese and secondly the outside conditions necessary for ripening. -Some of the chemical changes during ripening are known, while others are -not understood. The different agents causing ripening, and the -constituents of the milk, will be discussed. - -+231. Fat.+--Numerous investigations have been made to ascertain what -chemical changes the fat undergoes in the ripening process. Suzuki,[103] -in studying the fat, found no enzyme capable of producing lactic acid or -volatile fatty acids. However, these acids were found in increasing -amounts during the ripening process and after the lactose had -disappeared. Acetic and propionic acids reached a maximum at three -months and then decreased, while butyric and caproic acids continually -increased during the experimental period covered. Formic acid was -detected in the whole-milk cheese only at the five and one-half month -stage. In the judgment of the experimenter the principal source of -acetic and propionic acids was probably lactates. Traces of these acids -may have had their origin in protein decomposition or further -fermentation of glycerine. The principal sources indicated for butyric -and caproic acids were fats and proteins. - -The distillate from the experimental cheese was designated "flavor -solution" and contained alcohols and esters, giving a close resemblance -to the cheese aroma. The "flavor solution" from the mild whole-milk -cheese contained esters made up largely of ethyl alcohol and acetic -acid, while from the more pungent skimmed-milk cheese the esters were -largely compounds of ethyl alcohol and caproic and butyric acids. The -alcohol may have come from the lactose fermentation. It appears to be an -important factor in flavor production. The agencies operative in the -production of volatile acids and syntheses of esters are as yet -undefined. - -+232. Milk-sugar.+--The milk-sugar (lactose) is changed into lactic acid -by the lactic acid-forming organisms, within the first few days after -the cheese is made. This acid is combined with the other constituents as -fast as it is formed. After a few days, the milk-sugar will have -entirely disappeared from the cheese.[104] The relation between the -milk-sugar and lactic acid is very close. It is necessary that -milk-sugar be present in order later to have the lactic acid develop. - -+233. The salts.+--Just what changes the salts[105] undergo or how they -combine with the other compounds is not definitely known. It is supposed -that the calcium salts first combine with the phosphates and later, as -the lactic acid is formed, they combine with the lactic acid, forming a -calcium lactate. - -+234. Gases.+--In the process of cheese ripening, gases are formed, the -commonest being carbon dioxide.[106] Exactly how this gas is formed is -not known. It may be due to the formation of lactic acid from the -milk-sugar or to the living organisms in the cheese. - -+235. Casein or proteins.+--Complex ripening changes in the cheese take -place in the casein compounds or proteins. Because of the complex -chemical nature of the proteins and the various agents acting on them, -it is difficult to follow these changes. This has led to different -opinions regarding the ripening process. The various compounds thought -to be formed from the casein or proteins are as follows:[107] - -_Paracasein_ (formed by the action of the rennet on the casein). -Insoluble in brine and warm 5 per cent salt brine. - -_Protein._ Soluble in warm 5 per cent salt brine. - -_Protein._ Insoluble in warm salt brine or water. - -_Paranuclein._ A protein soluble in water and precipitable by dilute -hydrochloric acid. - -_Caseoses and proteoses._ Protein derivations soluble in water and not -coagulated by heat. - -_Peptones._ Protein derivations simpler than the proteoses, soluble in -water and not coagulated by heat. - -_Amido acids._ Protein derivations soluble in water, least complex -except ammonia. - -_Ammonia._ The simplest protein derivations. - -From the discussion of the constituents in the milk and cheese, it is -evident that practically all the principal ripening changes are -concerned with those taking place in the proteins. - -+236. Causes of ripening changes.+--Authorities disagree as to the exact -agents which cause the ripening changes. Some think they are due to the -action of the enzymes in the rennet and those secreted in the milk. -Others hold that these changes are due entirely to bacterial action. A -combination of the two seems probable. The action of the rennet extract -renders the casein insoluble and in the ripening process the proteins -become soluble, the degree depending on the length of time the cheese is -ripened. The amount of water-soluble proteins and protein derivatives is -used as a measure of the extent of cheese ripening, considered from a -chemical standpoint. - -+237. Action of the rennet extract.+--Some authorities hold that rennet -extract contains two enzymes, rennin and pepsin, while others think it -is a single peptic ferment. These enzymes produce effects[108] closely -related to, if not identical with, those of pepsin in the following -particulars: neither the rennet enzyme nor pepsin causes much, if any, -proteolytic change except in the presence of acid; the quantitative -results of proteolysis furnished by the rennet enzyme and pepsin agree -closely, when working on the same material under comparable conditions; -the classes of soluble nitrogen compounds formed by the two enzymes are -the same, both quantitatively and qualitatively; neither enzyme forms -any considerable amount of amido compounds and neither produces any -ammonia; the soluble nitrogen compounds formed by both enzymes are -confined to the group of compounds known as paranuclein, caseoses and -peptones. - -Rennet exerts a digestive effect on the casein[109] which is intensified -by the development of acid in the curd. The soluble nitrogenous products -formed in Cheddar cheese by the rennet enzymes are the albumoses and the -higher peptones. Experiments show that no flavor develops until the -amido acids and ammonia are formed. When the rennet enzymes were the -only digesting ferments in the cheese, there was no trace of cheese -flavor. This is probably due to the fact that the rennet enzyme changed -the casein into caseoses and peptones but did not form amido acids and -ammonia. Some authorities[110] think that the enzyme galactase carries -the ripening of the protein from this stage. The question arises whether -these intermediate compounds must be found before other agents can form -the amido acids and ammonia. - - - TABLE XV[111] - - SHOWING THE EFFECT OF DIFFERENT AMOUNTS OF RENEET - EXTRACTS ON THE RATE OF FORMATION OF SOLUBLE - NITROGEN COMPOUNDS IN CHEESE RIPENING - - ========================================================= - | PER CENT OF WATER SOLUBLE NITROGEN - QUANTITY OF | COMPOUNDS IN THE CHEESE - RENNET ADDED PER +--------------------------------------- - 1000 LB. OF MILK | Initial | 32 days | 80 days | 270 days - -----------------+---------+---------+---------+--------- - 2 oz. | 0.14 | 0.47 | 0.68 | 1.30 - 4 oz. | 0.16 | 0.75 | 1.13 | 1.74 - 8 oz. | 0.16 | 0.90 | 1.50 | 1.97 - 16 oz. | 0.14 | 1.26 | 1.70 | 2.04 - ========================================================= - -The above table shows that the more rennet extract used the faster the -cheese cures, measured by the amount of water-soluble nitrogen compounds -formed in the cheese. - -+238. The action of the bacteria.+--Authorities[112] disagree as to the -groups of bacteria found in Cheddar cheese. This may be due to lack of -proper classification. Some of the groups are: _Bacterium lactis acidi_, -_B. coli communis_, _B. lactis aerogenes_, _B. casei_, Streptococci, -_B.[113] Bulgaricum_ and Micrococci. Authorities agree that the _B. -lactis acidi_ group is the most prominent. This group makes up 90 per -cent or more of the total bacteria flora of the cheese in the early -stages of ripening. In the course of a few weeks, however, this group is -largely replaced by the _B. casei_ group[114]. - - - TABLE XVI - - SHOWING THE NUMBER OF BACTERIA TO A GRAM IN CHEDDAR - CHEESE AS DETERMINED BY LACTOSE-AGAR PLATE CULTURES - - ==================================================================== - TIME OF | CHEESE NUMBER - PLATING +-------------+---------------+-------------+-------------- - | 580 | 581 | 582 | 583 - ---------+-------------+---------------+-------------+-------------- - Milk | 8,000,000 | 500,000 | 700,000 | 500,000 - ---------+-------------+---------------+-------------+-------------- - Curd at | | | | - salting | 160,000,000 | 326,000,000 | 912,000,000 | 839,000,000 - time | | | | - ---------+-------------+---------------+-------------+-------------- - 12 hours | 332,000,000 | 1,048,000,000 | 623,000,000 | 965,000,000 - ---------+-------------+---------------+-------------+-------------- - 1 day | 586,000,000 | 736,000,000 | 709,000,000 | 569,000,000 - ---------+-------------+---------------+-------------+-------------- - 2 days | 235,000,000 | 405,000,000 | 848,000,000 | 580,000,000 - ---------+-------------+---------------+-------------+-------------- - 4 days | 145,000,000 | 684,000,000 | 522,000,000 | 1,025,000,000 - ---------+-------------+---------------+-------------+-------------- - 6 days | 165,000,000 | 184,000,000 | 853,000,000 | 184,000,000 - ---------+-------------+---------------+-------------+-------------- - 14 days | 51,000,000 | 211,000,000 | 369,000,000 | 401,000,000 - ---------+-------------+---------------+-------------+-------------- - 21 days | 284,000,000 | 290,000,000 | 348,000,000 | 319,000,000 - ---------+-------------+---------------+-------------+-------------- - 28 days | 285,000,000 | 453,000,000 | 314,000,000 | 144,000,000 - ---------+-------------+---------------+-------------+-------------- - 35 days | 104,000,000 | 261,000,000 | 326,000,000 | 504,000,000 - ---------+-------------+---------------+-------------+-------------- - 49 days | 132,000,000 | 228,000,000 | 436,000,000 | 661,000,000 - ---------+-------------+---------------+-------------+-------------- - 70 days | 128,000,000 | 291,000,000 | 193,000,000 | 168,000,000 - ---------+-------------+---------------+-------------+-------------- - 98 days | 114,000,000 | 212,000,000 | 45,000,000 | 55,000,000 - ==================================================================== - - From Wis. Bul. 150. - -The large number of bacteria in the cheese is very striking. The number -as given in the accompanying table is not that actually in the cheese, -as it is very difficult to obtain the sample in suitable condition for -plating.[115] - -The principal action of the lactic acid-forming bacteria in the cheese -ripening is the changing of the milk-sugar or lactose into lactic acid -and the formation of small amounts of other substances, such as acetic, -succinic and formic acids, alcohol, aldehydes and esters and some gases, -carbon dioxide and hydrogen. While the amount of these substances other -than lactic acid is small, it is thought that the effect of these on the -cheese may be important. Heinemann shows[116] that lactic acid exists in -two optical modifications, the levorotatory and dextrorotary acids. In -cheese they are usually found in the inactive or racemic form, the -levorotatory and dextrorotary acids being present in equal amounts. What -importance the question of optical activity of the lactic acid may -assume is not definitely known. Just as some groups of bacteria have a -specific effect on the lactose, producing only one modification of -lactic acid, so bacteria attacking lactic acid may exercise a selective -action and use only one or the other optically active modification. In -other words, the early flora of cheese-ripening bacteria may determine -the later flora by the production of a form of lactic acid attacked by -one group of bacteria and not by another, and the effect on the flavor -will differ accordingly. The amount of lactic acid in the cheese -increases for a time, then decreases. - -The errors in determining lactic acid are considerable. It seems that -the tendency is toward an increase of lactic acid in the cheese long -after the lactose has disappeared. Two explanations are offered: one, -that in the lactic acid fermentation an intermediate compound or -compounds are formed which exist for some time, the conversion into -lactic acid being complete at about three months; the other is that -lactic acid is formed as a product of paracasein proteolysis. - -The lactic acid formed in cheese ripening does not exist in a free state -but reacts with the calcium salts in the cheese and forms calcium -lactates. It is thought that there is sufficient of these salts to -neutralize all the acid formed, and therefore the acid does not enter -into combination with the paracasein salts. It has been found that -lactates are the principal source of acetic and propionic acids. These -are supposed to have some effect on the flavor of the cheese. - -The effect of lactic acid as a determinant of bacterial and enzymic -changes is very important. Early in the ripening process, lactic acid -suppresses the growth of undesirable micro-organisms. It also furnishes -the acid medium necessary for the best action of both the coagulating -and peptic enzymes. - -The importance of the lactic acid bacteria in cheese ripening has been -summed up by Hastings[117] as follows: "The functions of this group of -bacteria in Cheddar cheese are through their by-product lactic acid as -follows: (_a_) To favor the curdling of milk by rennet. (_b_) The -bacteria of the milk are held in great part in the curd. Through the -acid they influence the shrinkage of the curd and expulsion of the whey, -(_c_) The acid so changes the nature of the curd as to cause 'matting,' -or 'cheddaring' of the curd, (_d_) The acid activates the pepsin of the -rennet extract, (_e_) The acid prevents the growth of putrefactive -bacteria in the cheese. (_f_) It has been shown that _Bacterium lactis -acidi_ is able to form acid in the absence of the living cell. (_g_) The -development of _Bacterium lactis acidi_ is followed by the growth of -another group of acid-forming bacteria, the _Bacillus Bulgaricus_ group. -They reach numbers comparable with those of the first group, reaching -their maximum number within the first month of ripening. Since they -develop after the fermentation of the milk-sugar, they must have some -other source of carbon and of energy than milk-sugar." It is also -probable that other groups constantly present contribute to the changes. - -From the preceding discussion it is evident that each of the ripening -agents has its important part to play in the ripening process and a -normal ripening of the cheese is a composite result of these various -agencies. - -+239. Conditions affecting the rate of cheese ripening.+--The rate at -which these agents cause ripening of the cheese depends on several -factors.[118] Most of these factors are within the control of man. They -are as follows: the length of time; temperature of the curing-room; -moisture-content of the cheese; size of the cheese; the quantity of salt -used; the amount of rennet; the influence of acid. - -+240. The length of time.+--The water-soluble nitrogen compounds -increase as the cheese ages, other conditions being uniform. The rate of -increase is not uniform; it is much more rapid in the early than in the -succeeding stages of ripening. - -+241. The temperature of the curing-room.+--Very few cheese factories -have made any provision for regulating the temperature of the -curing-room. Without such provision the temperature follows closely that -of the outside air. In some cases the curing-room is located over the -boiler-room and hence becomes very hot. In the cheese warehouses, -provision has been made to control the temperature very closely. -Experiments show that the soluble nitrogen compounds increase, on the -average, closely in proportion to an increase of temperature, when the -other conditions are uniform. - -The temperature of the curing-room has a material effect on the quality -of the cheese. Cheese made from the same day's milk, and part cured at -40 deg. F., part at 50 deg. F., part at 60 deg. F. show considerable -differences, the greatest seeming to be in the flavor and texture. Those -kept at the low temperature cure more slowly and develop a milder flavor, -those at the higher temperature cure faster and develop undesirable -flavors. At the higher temperature the undesirable organisms seem to be -more active. Some very skillful makers and judges of cheese have always -contended that if Cheddar is properly made, firmed to the body and -texture of a high-class cheese, ripening at 55 to 60 deg. F. gives a -higher quality. Such a cheese must be low in moisture, perhaps 3 to 5 per -cent lower than one cured successfully by the cold process. - -The following tables[119] XVII, XVIII show the effect of different -temperatures of curing cheese on the total score and on the points of -the flavor, body and texture: - - - TABLE XVII - - TABLE SHOWING THE RELATION OF TEMPERATURE OF CURING - TO TOTAL SCORE - - ========================================== - TEMPERATURE OF CURING | TOTAL SCORE - ----------------------+------------------- - 40 deg. | 95.7 - 50 deg. | 94.2 - 60 deg. | 91.7 - ========================================== - - - TABLE XVIII - - TABLE SHOWING THE RELATION OF TEMPERATURE OF CURING - TO SCORE OF BODY AND TEXTURE, AND FLAVOR - - ============================================================ - TEMPERATURE OF CURING | 40 deg. F. | 50 deg. F. | 60 deg. F. - ----------------------+------------+------------+----------- - Body and texture | 23.4 | 32.0 | 22.2 - Flavor | 47.4 | 46.4 | 44.8 - ============================================================ - -Of the three temperatures of curing, the lowest gave a higher total -score and a higher score for flavor, body and texture. - -The curing temperature should not go low enough to freeze the cheese, as -this lowers the quality. The cheese will cure very slowly and have a -mealy texture. - -+242. Moisture-content of the cheese.+--Other conditions being equal, -there is a larger amount of water-soluble nitrogen compounds in cheese -containing more moisture than in that containing less moisture. -Therefore, a high moisture-content of the cheese causes it to cure -faster. The presence of moisture also serves to dilute the fermentation -products which otherwise would accumulate and thus check the action of -the ripening agents. - -+243. The size of the cheese.+--Cheeses of large size usually cure -faster than smaller ones, under the same conditions. This is due to the -fact that the large cheeses lose their moisture less rapidly by -evaporation and therefore after the early period of ripening have a -higher water-content. - -+244. The amount of salt.+--The relation of salt to the rate of ripening -is more or less directly associated with the moisture-content of the -cheese, since an increase in the amount of salt decreases the moisture. -Thus, cheese containing more salt forms water-soluble nitrogen compounds -more slowly than that containing less salt. The salt also has a direct -effect in retarding one or more of the ripening agents. - -+245. The amount of rennet extract.+--The use of increased amounts of -rennet extract in cheese-making, other conditions being uniform, results -in the production of increased quantities of soluble nitrogen compounds -in a given period of time, especially such compounds as paranuclein, -caseoses and peptones. - -+246. The influence of acid.+--It is necessary that acid be present but -the exact relation of varying quantities of acid to the chemical changes -of the ripening process is not fully known. If too much acid is present, -it imparts a sour taste to the cheese. It also causes the texture of the -cheese to be mealy or sandy instead of smooth and waxy. - -Conditions that may increase the rate of ripening: - - 1. Increase of temperature. - 2. Larger amounts of rennet. - 3. More moisture in the cheese. - 4. Less salt. - 5. Large size of the cheese. - 6. Moderate amount of acid. - -Conditions that may retard ripening: - - 1. Decrease of temperature. - 2. Smaller amounts of rennet. - 3. Less moisture in the cheese. - 4. More salt. - 5. Small size of the cheese. - 6. No acid or an excess of acid. - -+247. Care of the cheese in the curing-room.+--The cheeses need daily -attention while in the curing-room (Fig. 53). They should be turned -every day to prevent sticking and molding to the shelf and to secure an -even evaporation of moisture. If not turned, the moisture will not -evaporate evenly from all surfaces and will result in an uneven -distribution in the cheese, which causes uneven curing, and usually -gives the product an uneven color. - -The surface of the cheese should be watched to see that the cloths -stick. If they do not, the surface will crack, due to the evaporation of -the moisture. If the cloths are loosened, they should be removed and the -surface of the cheese greased with butter. The grease will tend to -prevent the rind from cracking. If the surface of the cheese is not -smooth, due to wrinkles in the bandage, or if it cracks, due to the lack -of cloths, it furnishes the opportunity for insects to lay their eggs -and the larvae to develop within the cheese. Molds also lodge and grow in -such cracks. - -[Illustration: FIG. 53.--Cheddar cheese curing-room.] - -The cheese should be kept clean while in the curing-room. This means -that the hands of the person handling the cheese must be clean. The -shelves should be washed with good cleaning solution and scalded with -hot water whenever they become greasy or moldy. - -Some means should be provided for regulating the temperature and -humidity of the curing-room. In most factories this is accomplished by -opening the doors and windows at night to admit the cool air and closing -them in the morning to keep out the hot air. Care should be taken to -keep the doors and windows closely secured. The windows should have -shades to keep out the sun. If the room becomes too dry, the floor may -be dampened with cold water. - -The length of time in the curing-room depends on how often shipment is -made to some central warehouse or to the market. This usually varies -from two to six weeks. - -When the surface of the cheese becomes dry and the rind is well formed, -the cheese may be paraffined. It usually requires four to six days after -cheeses are taken from the hoop before they are ready for this process. -The object of paraffining is to prevent the escape of moisture and to -keep the cheese from molding. - -+248. Evaporation of moisture from the cheese during ripening.+--The -losses due to evaporation while the cheeses are curing are a -considerable item. The rate of evaporation depends on the temperature -and humidity of the curing-room, the size of the cheese, the -moisture-content and protection to the surface. - -Table XIX[120] shows the effect of size of cheese and temperature of the -curing-room, on losses while curing. This table shows that the -evaporation of moisture is more as the size of the cheese decreases and -the temperature is increased. This is probably due to the fact that the -smaller cheese has more surface to a pound than a large cheese. The -evaporation increases with temperature, probably because of lowered -relative humidity. The humidity can be tested with an hygrometer. - - - TABLE XIX - - SHOWING THE VARIATION OF LOSSES IN WEIGHT OF CHEDDAR - CHEESE WHILE CURING, DUE TO SIZE OF CHEESE AND TEMPERATURE - OF CURING-ROOM - - ============================================================= - | WEIGHT LOST PER 100 POUNDS OF CHEESE IN 20 - WEIGHT OF CHEESE | WEEKS AT - IN POUNDS +---------------+--------------+------------ - | 40 deg. F. | 50 deg. F. | 60 deg. F. - -----------------+---------------+--------------+------------ - 70 | 2.5 | 2.4 | 4.2 - 45 | 2.7 | 3.7 | 5.1 - 35 | 3.9 | 5.9 | 8.5 - 12-1/2 | 4.6 | 8.1 | 12.0 - ============================================================= - -The higher the moisture-content of the cheese, usually the more rapid is -the evaporation. This is due to several causes: there is more moisture -to evaporate; the moisture is not so well incorporated; a moist cheese -does not form so good a rind. - -249. +Paraffining+[121] consists of dipping the cheese in melted -paraffin at a temperature of about 220 deg. F. for six seconds. Fig. 54 -shows an apparatus for paraffining. This leaves a very thin coat of -paraffin on the cheese; at a lower temperature, a thicker coat would be -left. The thicker coating is more liable to crack and peel off. If the -cheese is not perfectly dry before it is treated, the paraffin will -blister and crack off. - -Before a cheese is paraffined, the press cloth is removed and also the -starched circles, if loose. After a cheese has been paraffined, if the -coating is not broken, the loss due to evaporation is greatly reduced. -The amount of paraffin to coat a 35-pound cheese will depend on the -temperature of the paraffin and the length of time the cheese is -immersed. Usually at 220 deg. F. it requires about 0.15 of a pound for -each 35-pound cheese. After the cheeses have been paraffined, they may -be left on the curing-room shelves or boxed ready to ship. - -[Illustration: FIG. 54.--A paraffiner for cheese.] - -+250. Shipping.+--When ready to ship, each cheese should be carefully -and accurately weighed and boxed. Usually these cheeses are boxed after -being paraffined. If press cloths are left on the cheese in the -curing-room, they should be removed just before weighing. These cloths -should not be left in a pile in the factory after being removed as they -have been known to heat and sometimes cause fires. They should be washed -clean and dried ready for use again. If starched circles are used, they -should be left on the cheese. A scale board should be placed on each end -of the cheese to prevent its sticking to the box and also to keep the -box from wearing the surface of the cheese. - -The box should be a trifle larger in diameter than the cheese so that -the latter can be easily placed in it. The sides of the box should be -the same height as the cheese. - -The weight of each cheese should be neatly and accurately marked on each -box. Care should be exercised to keep the boxes clean. - - -DEFECTS IN CHEDDAR CHEESE - -A great number of defects may occur in Cheddar cheese. Certain of these -are due to known causes and proper remedies are definable, while neither -cause nor remedy has been found for other defects. Some of the common -defects and their causes and remedies are discussed under different -headings of the score-card as: defects in flavor, their causes and -remedies; defects in body and texture, their causes and remedies; -defects in color, their causes and remedies; defects in finish and their -causes and remedies. - -+251. Defects in flavor.+--Any flavor differing from the characteristic -Cheddar cheese is a defect. Certain of these defective flavors can be -recognized and causes and remedies given for them, while others may be -distinguished as such but no cause or remedy can be given. - -+252. Feedy flavors.+--Flavors may be characteristic of certain feeding -stuffs. Feeding strong-flavored foods, such as turnips, cabbage, decayed -silage, certain weeds and sometimes rank green feed, give their peculiar -flavors to both milk and cheese. Freshly drawn milk usually absorbs -these odors from the air in barns filled with such foods. Certain of -these materials may be fed just after milking in moderate amounts -without affecting the milk drawn at the next milking. Others should not -be used. Milk should not be exposed to strong volatile odors. Some of -the objectionable odors may be removed by airing the curd for a longer -time after milling before the salt is applied. - -+253. Acid flavors.+--A cheese with an acid flavor has a pronounced sour -smell and taste. This is caused by the over-development of acid which -may be due to any of the following causes: (_a_) receiving milk at the -factory which is sour or has too high development of acid; (_b_) using -too much starter; (_c_) ripening the milk too much before adding rennet; -(_d_) not firming the curd sufficiently in the whey before removing the -latter; (_e_) developing too much acid in the whey before it is removed; -(_f_) retaining too much moisture in the curd. - -The trouble can be reduced or eliminated by one or more of the following -precautions: (_a_) receiving only clean, sweet milk at the cheese -factory; (_b_) maintaining the proper relation between the moisture and -acidity; (_c_) adding the rennet at the proper acidity; (_d_) using less -starter; (_e_) adding the rennet extract so that there will be -sufficient time to firm the curd before the acid has developed to such a -stage that it will be necessary to draw the whey; (_f_) producing the -proper final water-content in the newly made cheese. - -+254. Sweet or fruity flavors.+--These are the sweet flavors -characteristic of strawberry, raspberry and the like. Such flavors are -very objectionable and usually increase with the age of the cheese. They -appear to be caused by: (_a_) carrying both milk and whey in the same -cans without properly cleaning them; (_b_) exposing milk near hog-pens -where whey is fed; (_c_) dirty whey tanks at the cheese factory; (_d_) -micro-organisms which get into the milk through any unclean conditions. - -These troubles can be controlled: (_a_) if milk and whey must be carried -in the same cans, the cans should be emptied immediately on arrival at -the farm and thoroughly washed and scalded; (_b_) the whey vat at the -factory should be kept clean and sweet; (_c_) the starter must have the -proper clean flavor. - -Other defects may be classed as "off flavors," "dirty flavors," "bitter -flavors" and the like. These are undoubtedly due to unsanitary -conditions whereby undesirable organisms get into the milk, even though -the particular organism is often not determined. The flavors may be -improved by the use of a clean-flavored commercial starter and by airing -the curd after milling before salting. The best remedy is to remove the -source of the difficulty. - -+255. Defects in body and texture.+--The body and texture should be -close. A sample rubbed between the thumb and fingers should be smooth -and waxy. Any condition which causes a body and texture other than this -is to be avoided. - -+256. Loose or open texture.+--A cheese with this defect is full of -irregularly shaped holes and usually soft or weak-bodied. This is -serious if the cheese is to be held for some time. Moisture and fat are -likely to collect in these holes and cause the cheese to deteriorate, -thereby shortening its commercial life. - -Several causes may bring about this condition: (_a_) insufficient -cheddaring; (_b_) pressing at too high a temperature; (_c_) inadequate -pressing; (_d_) development of too little acid. - -The corresponding remedies are: (_a_) cheddar the curd until the holes -are closed and the curd is solid; (_b_) cool the curd to 80 deg. F. -before putting to press; (_c_) press the curd longer, possibly -twenty-four to twenty-six hours; (_d_) develop a little higher acid in -the whey before removing the curd. - -+257. Dry body.+--A cheese with this defect is usually firm, hard and -dry, sometimes rubbery or corky. This may result from lack of moisture, -fat or both, and may be due to the following causes: (_a_) making the -cheese from partly skimmed-milk; (_b_) heating the curd in the whey for -too long a time; (_c_) heating the curd too high; (_d_) stirring the -curd too much in the whey or as the last of the whey is removed; (_e_) -using too much salt; (_f_) developing of too much acid in the whey; -(_g_) curing the cheese in too hot or too dry a curing-room; (_h_) not -piling the curd high or fast enough in the cheddaring process. - -The cause should be located and the corresponding remedy found, as -follows: (_a_) make cheese only from whole milk; (_b_) draw the whey -sooner; (_c_) firm the curd at as low temperature as possible in the -whey; (_d_) stir the curd in the whey only enough to keep the curd -particles separated but do not hand-stir it; (_e_) use less salt; (_f_) -develop less acid in the whey; (_g_) cure the cheese in a cool moist -curing-room; (_h_) pile the curd sooner and higher during the cheddaring -process. - -The number of causes which may singly or in combination produce dry -cheese demands experience and technical skill that calls for the -development of a high degree of judgment. - -+258. Gassy textured cheese.+--Gassy cheese has large numbers of very -small round or slightly flattened holes. When round these are called -"pin-holes," and when slightly flattened "fish eye" openings. These are -due to the formation of gas by the micro-organisms in the cheese. When a -cheese is gassy, it usually puffs up from gas pressure as in the rising -of bread. If enough gas is formed, it will cause the cheese to break or -crack open. Instead of being flat on the ends, such a cheese becomes so -nearly spherical as to roll from the shelf at times. - -The gas-producing organisms enter because of unclean conditions -somewhere in the handling of the milk and the making of the cheese. -Some of the common sources of gas organisms are: (_a_) unclean milkers; -(_b_) dirty cows; (_c_) aerating the milk in impure air, especially air -from hog-pens where the whey is fed; (_d_) allowing the cows to wade in -stagnant water or in mud or in filthy barnyards and then not thoroughly -cleaning the cows before milking; (_e_) exposing the milk to the dust -from hay and feed; (_f_) dirty whey tanks; (_g_) drawing milk and whey -in the same cans without afterward thoroughly washing them; (_h_) -unclean utensils in the factory; (_i_) using gassy starter; (_j_) -ripening cheese at high temperatures. - -Some of these causes are within the control of the cheese-maker after -the making process is begun. Many of them are avoided only by eternal -vigilance. Among the recommendations for meeting gassy curd are the -following: use only milk produced under clean sanitary conditions; use a -clean commercial starter. - -If gas is suspected in the milk, a larger percentage of commercial -starter should be used. More acid must be developed before the whey is -removed. If the gas shows while cheddaring, the curd should be piled and -repiled until the holes flatten out before milling. - -The curd should be kept warm during the piling or cheddaring process. -This may be accomplished by covering the vat and setting a pail or two -of hot water in it. After milling, the curd should be stirred and aired -for a considerable length of time before salting. This will aerate the -curd and allow it to cool. The cheese should then be placed in a cool -curing-room. (See handling of gassy milk.) - -+259. Acidy, pasty or soft body and texture.+--A cheese with acidy body -may be either hard and dry or soft and moist. It has a mealy or sandy -feeling when rubbed between the fingers. The causes and remedies are the -same as for cheeses with acid flavors. When rubbed between the fingers, -it is pasty and sticks to the fingers. It is caused by the cheese -containing too much water. (See control of moisture.) - -+260. Defects in color.+--Any color which is not uniform is a defect. -The proper color depends on the market requirement. Some markets prefer -a white and others a yellow cheese; however, if the color is uniform, it -is not defective. - -_Mottled color_ is a spotted or variegated marking of the cheese. -Several causes may give the same general effect: (_a_) uneven -distribution of moisture, the curd having extra moisture being lighter -in color; (_b_) neglecting to strain the starter; (_c_) adding the -starter after the cheese color has been added; (_d_) mixing the curd -from different vats. - -Remedies for this mottled color are: (_a_) to maintain a uniform -assimilation of moisture (see discussion of moisture); (_b_) to strain -the starter to break up the lumps before adding to the milk; (_c_) to -add all of the starter before adding the cheese color; (_d_) not to mix -curds from different vats. - -_Seamy color._--In "seamy" colored cheese, the outline of each piece of -curd may be seen. There is usually a line where the surfaces of the curd -come together. It may be caused by the pieces of curd becoming greasy or -so cold that they will not cement. This may be remedied by having the -curd at a temperature of 80 deg. to 85 deg. F. when put to press. If it -is greasy, this may be removed by washing the curd in cold water. - -_Acid color._--This is a bleached or faded color and is caused by the -development of too much acid. (See acid flavor for causes and remedies, -page 266.) - -+261. Defects in finish.+--Defects of this class differ from those -previously mentioned in being entirely within the control of the -cheese-maker. All are due to carelessness or lack of skill in -manipulation. Anything which detracts from the neat, clean, workmanlike -appearance of the cheese is a defect that may interfere with the sale of -an article intrinsically good. Some of the common defects are: (_a_) -unclean surfaces or dirty cheese; (_b_) cracked rinds; (_c_) moldy -surfaces; (_d_) uneven sizes; (_e_) cracked cheese; (_f_) wrinkled -bandages; (_g_) uneven edges. - - -CHEDDAR CHEESE JUDGING - -Judging of cheese is the comparison of the qualities of one product with -those of another. To make this easier it is customary to reduce the -qualities of the cheese to a numerical basis. This is accomplished by -the use of a score-card, which recognizes certain qualities and gives to -each a numerical value. Each of these score-cards gives a perfect cheese -a numerical score of 100. Two score-cards are used to judge cheese, one -for export and the other for home-trade product. The latter is more -commonly used. - - EXPORT SCORE-CARD HOME-TRADE SCORE-CARD - - Flavor 45 Flavor 50 - Body and texture 30 Body and texture 25 - Color 15 Color 15 - Finish 10 Finish 10 - --- --- - Total 100 Total 100 - -The same qualities are recognized in each score-card, but different -numerical values are given them. - -+262. Securing the sample.+--The sample of cheese to be examined is best -obtained by means of a cheese-trier (Fig. 55). This is a piece of steel -about five or six inches long fitted with a suitable handle. It is -semicircular in shape, about 1/2 to 3/4 of an inch in diameter. The -edges and end are sharpened to aid in cutting. This is inserted into the -cheese and turned around and then drawn out. It removes a long cylinder -of cheese, commonly called a "plug." This plug should be drawn from the -top rather than from the side of the cheese, because when the bandage is -cut it often splits, due to the pressure against it and so exposes the -cheese. - -[Illustration: FIG. 55.--A cheese-trier.] - -+263. How to determine quality.+--As soon as the plug has been removed, -it should be passed quickly under the nose to detect any volatile odors -which are liable to leave the cheese quickly. Next, the compactness of -the plug should be noticed and the color carefully examined. Then the -outer end of the plug should be broken off and placed back in the cheese -in the hole made by the trier. It should be about an inch long and -pushed in so that the surface of the cheese is smooth. This prevents -mold and insects entering the cheese. Usually the cheese will mold after -a short time where the plug has been removed. The remainder of the plug -should be saved for determining the flavor and the body and texture. - -The flavor can be determined by the first odor obtained from the cheese -on the trier and by mixing or crushing a piece of the plug between the -thumb and fore-finger and then noting the odor. Mixing and thoroughly -warming causes the odor to be much more pronounced. The cheese should -seldom be tasted to determine the flavor, for when many are to be -judged, they all taste alike after the first five or six. This is -probably due to the cheese adhering to the teeth, tongue and other parts -of the mouth, making it difficult to cleanse the mouth sufficiently. The -body and texture can be determined by the appearance and the feeling of -the cheese when rubbed between the thumb and fingers. The body and -texture are distinct, yet they are more or less interchanged. The body -refers to the cheese as a whole and the texture to the arrangement of -the parts of the whole. The openness of texture or the holes can be -noted when the plug is first removed. The firmness of body and -smoothness of texture can be determined when the cheese is rubbed -between the thumb and fingers. The color can be judged when the plug is -first removed. The finish or appearance may be noted either before or -after the other qualities by carefully examining the cheese. - -Cheddar cheese should have a neat, clean, attractive appearance; when -cut it should show a close, solid, uniformly colored interior. It should -have a clear, pleasant, mild aroma and a nutty flavor. It should possess -a mellow, silky, meaty texture and when rubbed between the thumb and -fore-finger should be smooth and free from hard particles. - - - CHEESE SCORE-CARD - - _Sample_................ _Date_...................... - - =============================================================== - SCORE REMARKS - ---------+-----+----------+------------------------------------ - Flavor | 50 | ........ | - | | | - Body and | | | - Texture | 25 | ........ | - | | | - Color | 15 | ........ | - | | | - Finish | 10 | ........ | - ---------+-----+----------+ - Total | 100 | ........ | - ---------+-----+----------+ - - Recommendations................................................ - - ............................................................... - - ............................................................... - - ............................................................... - - ............................................................... - - ............................................................... - - ............................................................... - - ............................................................... - - - Name of Judge............................. - --------------------------------------------------------------- - - SUGGESTIVE TERMS - - FLAVOR - - _Desirable_ - - Clean Pleasant Aroma Nutty Flavor - - _Undesirable_ - - +Due to Farm Conditions+ - - Weedy Feedy Cowy Old Milk Bitter - - +Due to Factory Conditions+ - - Too much acid Too little acid - - +Due to either Farm or Factory Conditions+ - - Yeasty Fruity Fishy Rancid Sour Bitter Sweet Tainted - - BODY AND TEXTURE - - _Desirable_ - - Smooth Waxy Silky Close - - _Undesirable_ - - Pasty Corky Acidy Greasy Loose Sweet Curdy - Gassy Watery Mealy Lumpy Yeasty Too dry - - COLOR - - _Desirable_ - - Uniform - - _Undesirable_ - - Streaked White specks Seamy Mottled Wavy Rust spots - Acid cut Too high Too light - - FINISH - - _Desirable_ - - Clean surfaces Neat bandage Attractive - - _Undesirable_ - - Wrinkled bandage Unclean surfaces Cracked rinds - Undesirable size Greasy No end caps Uneven edges - -+264. Causes of variations in score.+--It is very seldom, if ever, that -a cheese is given a perfect score, for it usually has one or more -defects which may be hardly noticeable or very pronounced. The -seriousness of the defect is determined by the individual tastes of the -judges and the market requirements. It is customary for the judge to -pick out several samples and score them in order to fix the standard -and if there are several judges this serves to unify their standard. -Ordinarily judges will vary because of their individual tastes, unless -they begin with a uniform standard. - -Certain markets require cheese with given qualities which on other -markets would be considered defects. For example, the Boston market -requires a very soft, pasty cheese which other markets would consider -undesirable. - -The cheese is constantly undergoing changes due to the ripening agents -so that it may not always be scored the same. For example, a cheese may -have little or no flavor and after several weeks a very considerable -flavor may have developed. This is probably due to the action of the -ripening agents, and therefore the second time it would be scored -differently. - -+265. The score-card.+--When judging several samples of cheese, the type -of score-card on the opposite page is used for each one. - -This gives the date of judging and the sample number, the judge's name -and reasons for cutting the score and recommendations to avoid these -troubles. - - - - -CHAPTER XV - -_THE SWISS AND ITALIAN GROUPS_ - - -Certain varieties of hard cheese of foreign origin are now made to some -extent in this country. If not manufactured in sufficient quantities to -supply the demand, the remainder is imported. These hard cheeses are now -considered. - - -SWISS CHEESE - -Swiss cheese, variously known as Gruyere, Emmenthal, Schweitzer and -Swiss, had its origin in the Alpine cantons of Switzerland. From this -region its manufacture has been carried by Swiss dairy-men and emigrant -farmers into widely separate lands. The Swiss colonies settled in the -United States in the Mohawk Valley and in Cattaraugus County, New York; -in Wayne, Stark, Summit, Columbiana and Tuscarawas counties of Ohio, and -in Green and Dodge counties in Wisconsin. Of all these, the Wisconsin -colonies have become the most extensive. Similar colonies have developed -the making of this type of cheese in Sweden and Finland. - -+266. The Swiss factory.+--Swiss cheese cannot be made in a vat like -other types for reasons that will be explained later. In place of the -vat is used a kettle, generally of copper, and it may or may not be -jacketed for steam or for hot water (Fig. 56). These kettles vary in -capacity from 600 to 3000 pounds of milk. The cheese-maker takes the -best care possible of his kettle, for an unclean utensil is one of the -easiest sources of contamination of the milk. When the kettle is not -jacketed, and it is only in recent years that this has been done, it is -suspended in a fireplace by means of a crane arrangement. - -[Illustration: FIG. 56.--Swiss-cheese kettle.] - -This fireplace uses wood, and is built of brick or stone, so that the -kettle rests on the edge and is provided with a door which swings upon -another crane, and can be closed while the fire is going. When the -kettle is swung on a crane, it is possible to swing it under the -weigh-stand for filling. This requires a lid to swing down over the -fire, and keep the room free from smoke. The chimney generally has a -rather high stack to secure a good draft. This kettle is fastened to the -crane by a large iron band passing around the neck, to which a bail or -handle is attached. The kettle may be raised or lowered by means of a -simple screw on this beam. The crane consists of a heavy beam working in -sockets in the floor and a beam or cross brace, which has another and -shorter beam braced to it, to take the weight of the kettle. - -The weigh-stand, and its efficient location, is a matter of extreme -importance. It is elevated a little above the remainder of the floor to -allow gravity to do the work. The next most important equipment is the -press and draining table. The table is made of wood or stone, and has a -slight slope to allow the whey to drain off. The press is generally a -jack screw which, braced against a beam, will exert an enormous pressure -on the table below. - -Swiss cheeses are made in two styles, the "round" or drum and the -"block" or rectangular forms, each of which has its advantages. For the -round style, which is most commonly made, the forms for hooping are of -metal or of elm wood, and consist of strips of a given width, generally -six inches, but of an undetermined length. These strips are then made -into a circle and held by a cord, which is easily lengthened or -shortened, thus varying the diameter of the hoop. - -Besides these hoops, cheese boards or followers are needed. These are -heavy circular boards, of a size to fit that of the cheese generally -made, and are banded with iron around the edge and cross-braced on the -bottom for rigidity. The small tools of the factory consist of knives to -cut the curd, and of a "Swiss harp" or other similar tool to stir the -curd. Many clean bandages are also needed, and a kettle brake. - -+267. The milk.+--Swiss cheese requires clean sweet milk. Dirt, high -acid and infections with undesirable bacteria involve difficulties of -manufacture and frequent losses of cheese. One common practice rejects -milk if it shows acidity above 0.15 per cent. To secure milk in this -condition, factories are small and located so close to the producing -farms as to secure 1000 to 3000 pounds of milk delivered warm from the -cow twice a day. The cheese is made twice daily from this fresh milk. -If, however, milk is properly cared for, it is possible to mix night's -and morning's milk without bad results. In fact, in working -experimentally with high grade milk and taking precautions against loss -of fat, it has been necessary to skim (separate) part of the milk, thus -reducing the ratio of fat to casein. Analysis of good Swiss cheeses -shows that the desired texture is more uniformly obtained with milk in -which the fat is less than the normal ratio. This assumes that the -manufacturing loss is kept down so that the fat removed offsets the -extra loss from curd-breaking. - -+268. Rennet extract.+--Most Swiss cheese-makers prefer to make their -own rennet extract from the stomach. This results in a product which is -not uniform in strength and so requires good judgment to secure the -desired coagulation in the allotted time. Some cheese-makers roll -fifteen to twenty well salted calves' stomachs together and dry them. -From this they cut off a definite amount each day to be soaked for -twenty-four hours in two to five quarts of whey at 86 deg. F. Four quarts -of this solution added to 2000 pounds of milk at 90 deg. F. should -produce a curd ready for cutting in twenty to thirty minutes. - -+269. Starter.+--Makers do not agree as to the use of "starters" for -Swiss cheese. Those opposed to such use say that a starter will give the -cheese a decided Cheddar flavor, while those in favor of it state that -it will control undesirable fermentations, and that, with the use of a -starter, it is possible to make Swiss cheese throughout the year, and -have uniform success. - -Doane,[122] working with _Bacillus Bulgaricus_ as a starter, found that -these starters did not always overcome the undesirable fermentations. If -a cheese-maker is having difficulty to develop the holes or "eyes," this -may be overcome by making a starter[123] as follows from good cheese and -whey or milk: Select a cheese which has the desirable "eyes" or holes -and a good flavor. Grind up some of this and add about 1/4 of a pound -to one gallon of milk or whey. Hold this for twenty-four hours at a warm -temperature (85 deg. to 90 deg. F.). Strain it into the vat of milk just -before the rennet is added. - -+270. The making process.+--The milk is delivered twice a day without -cooling. It usually reaches the factory at a temperature of 92 deg. to 96 -deg. F. It is strained into the kettle, and starter and rennet added at -the same temperature as received. (For method of adding rennet, see -Chapter V.) Enough rennet should be used to give a coagulation ready for -cutting in twenty to thirty minutes. The firmness of the curd is tested -by inserting the index finger in an oblique position, then raising it -slightly and with the thumb of the same hand starting the curd to break -or crack. When the curd is coagulated ready for cutting, it will give a -clear break over the finger. - -It is important to keep the temperature uniform while coagulation is in -process, and this is best accomplished by the use of a little pan -arrangement which fits into the top of the kettle. When this is full of -water at 100 deg. F., the temperature of the air above the milk will be -about 90 deg. F. When the curd is ready for cutting, a scoop may be used -and the top layer carefully turned under to equalize the temperature more -closely. - -_Cutting the curd._--In some cheese factories, knives resembling Cheddar -cheese knives are employed to cut the curd. In other factories, a "Swiss -harp" is used to break the curd. The curd is usually cut or broken into -pieces about the size of kernels of corn. The practice of "breaking" -curd instead of cutting it with sharp curd-knives produces excessive -loss at times. Experimental study has shown that the loss of fat may be -kept as low as 0.3 per cent if modern curd-knives are substituted for -the breaking tool formerly used. Study of Swiss cheeses of all grades -supports the opinion that the removal of a small part of fat from usual -grades of factory milk produces a better quality of product than the use -of rich whole milk. This may be accomplished through the escape of fat -in the whey on account of breaking the curd and stirring it vigorously, -or by skimming a part of the milk which is then curdled, cut and stirred -under such conditions as to minimize the loss of fat. - -_Cooking the curd._--After cutting, the curd is stirred in the whey for -about twenty minutes before the steam is turned on and is then heated to -128 deg. to 135 deg. F. While this heating is in progress, constant -stirring must be given to avoid matting. This excessive stirring breaks -the curd up into pieces about the size of wheat kernels, and accounts for -the large fat loss, which is one of the main sources of loss in making -Swiss cheese. This stirring is accomplished by a rotary motion, and the -use of a brake, which is a piece of wood closely fitting the side of the -kettle. This creates an eddy in the current at that point and gives a -more uniform distribution of temperature. The process of cooking takes -from thirty to forty minutes, and at the end of that time the degree of -toughness may be determined by making a roll of curd in the hand, and -noticing the break when it is given a quick flip. A short sharp break -indicates the desired toughness. - -_Draining and hooping._--In this process, the cheese-makers' skill is -displayed. With the hoop prepared, and the curd at the correct stage of -toughness, the operator takes a press cloth, wets it in whey, slips it -over a flexible iron ring which can be made to fit the shape of the -kettle, gives the contents of the kettle a few swift revolutions, then -suddenly reverses the motion, with the result that the contents form -into a cone, and the ring and bandage are dexterously slipped under this -cone, and drawn up to the surface of the whey with a rope or chain and -pulley. This part of the process is the most important, as a cheese must -have a smooth firm rind, else it will quickly crack. With too large a -batch of milk, the curd can be cut into two pieces and hooped -separately. With the mass of curd at the top of the whey, the piece of -perforated iron plate just the size of the hoop is slipped under the -mass, and attached to the pulley by four chains. Then the top of the -mass is carefully leveled off, because while still in the whey, it -cannot mat badly and so tend to develop a rind crack. Now the mass is -raised clear of the whey, and run along a short track to the drain -table, where it is put in the press. - -_Pressing._--The mass of curd is dropped into the hoop, the edges of the -cloth carefully folded under, and the cloth laid on top, then the -pressure is applied, gradually at first, but increasing until the final -pressure is about fifteen to twenty pounds to a pound of cheese. - -During the first few hours the cloths must be changed frequently, and -the cheese carefully turned over each time, to secure a more uniform -rind. After a time the changes are less frequent, and at the end of -twenty-four hours the cheese is taken to the salting-room. - -_Salting_ may be done by either the brine or dry method. To prepare a -brine bath, add salt to a tank of water until it will float an egg, and -add a pailful or more of salt every few days thereafter to keep up the -strength. The cheese is then placed in this bath and left for three to -five days, depending on the saltiness desired. As the cheese floats with -a little of the rind above the surface, it should be turned a few times -to insure uniformity of salting. With dry salting, the salt is rubbed on -the cheese by hand or with a stiff brush, and any excess carefully wiped -off, leaving only a slight sprinkle on the surface to work into the -cheese. - -+271. Curing Swiss.+--From the salting-room, the cheese goes to the -first one of two curing-rooms, where the unique process of the -development of the characteristic eyes takes place. - -During the curing period of either round or block Swiss, constant -attention must be paid to the cheese. They must be turned every day at -first, and then every second or third day toward the end of the curing -period. Also, great care must be taken that no mold starts growing, as -it will soon work into the cheese, and spoil its flavor. The best way of -preventing mold is by washing the cheese, in either clean or slightly -salted water, as often as possible. A stiff brush is mostly used for -this. - -The development of the "eyes" or holes is the difficult part of the -whole process. It is not known exactly what causes the development, but -it is attributed to micro-organisms or enzymes. The gas in these eyes -has been examined and found to be carbon dioxide and free nitrogen. -Sometimes hydrogen is found. This comes from the original fermentation -of the milk-sugar and remains to contaminate the normal eye. The -nitrogen[124] is included from the original air. Propionic acid is -formed at the same time as the eyes, and they are said to be the result -of a propionic ferment of lactic acid. The interior of the cheese is -anaerobic, due to low permeability and high oxygen-absorbing quality. -This propionic bacterium cannot, however, account for all the carbon -dioxide produced. - -After the eyes have started, their further development depends on -temperature and humidity of the air, and on the moisture of the cheese, -as regulated by the amount of salt used. The first room has a -temperature of 70 deg. F. to start the eyes, which is later lowered in -the second curing-room to about 60 deg. to check the development. When -any local fermentive action starts, it may be checked by rubbing salt on -the affected part. The humidity of the room is very important, because a -cheese will quickly dry out in a dry room, due to evaporation from the -surface. To prevent this, it is well to spray the floor with water, or -to have a steam jet in the room. - -If the curd has been cooked too long the cheese may be too dry. Such -cheeses may be piled two or more deep in the curing-room. It is held by -some cheese-makers that this process causes them to absorb more -moisture. Probably this is due to the checking of evaporation. - -The development of the "eyes" may be watched by trying the following -test: Place the middle finger on the cheese and let the first finger -slip from it, striking the cheese smartly; a dull sound indicates -solidity, while a ring indicates a hole, and an expert maker can tell -the size of the holes by the sound. This requires long practice for the -operator to become proficient. - -After a cheese has remained in the first room for about two weeks and -the holes are well started, it is removed to the second curing-room, -which is held at a cooler temperature and slightly drier atmosphere. The -cheeses are held in this room from three to ten months, depending on -market conditions, and capacity of the curing-rooms. In Switzerland, it -is customary to hold cheese to secure a well ripened product, while in -America most of the cheeses are shipped comparatively green, hence do -not bring so high a price. - -+272. Block Swiss.+--In making block Swiss, the same procedure is -followed through the cooking stage. Then the curd is pressed in a square -form or in one large piece, each form six inches square on the ends and -twenty inches long, and later cut into sections. These are then pressed, -salted and cured in the same way as round forms. In this type of cheese -there is a much smaller cross-section; therefore the development of -holes is much more easily controlled on account of the ease with which -the salt can work into the cheese and control undesirable ferments. As -it is easy to control, this variety is made in the fall and winter when -the ferments are especially hard to keep in check. However, this cheese -has the disadvantage of cutting eye-development short by the rapid -entrance of salt. - -The curing consists of the developing of the flavor and eyes and the -changing in body and texture. Just what causes these changes is not -known. - -+273. Shipment.+--When ready for shipment, the drum cheeses of the same -general diameter are sorted out and packed four to six in a cask. Care -must be taken to put boards between them to prevent sticking. These are -called scale-boards, and are made of thin sections of wood fiber. The -cheeses are crowded into the cask to make a snug fit, and the head -carefully fastened. - -+274. Qualities of Swiss cheese.+--The peculiar Swiss cheese flavor may -be characterized as a hazel-nut taste. It is a trifle sweet and very -tempting. The "eyes" or holes should be about the size of a cherry with -a dull shine to the inner lining. The "eyes" usually contain a small -amount of a briny tasting liquid. These eyes should be uniformly -distributed. The color should be uniform. The cheese should have a neat, -clean, attractive appearance, and the rind should not be cracked or -broken. - -There are several common defects in Swiss cheese. If the milk is not -clean-flavored, the cheese will have the same flavor as the milk. The -greatest difficulty is to produce the eyes or holes. A cheese which does -not have these is called "blind." A product which has many small -pin-holes due to gassy fermentations is called a "niszler"; this means a -cheese with a thousand eyes. If gas forms in the cheese and causes -cracks, it is called "glaesler." If the cheese contains too much -moisture, it will be soft and pasty. Such a cheese does not readily form -eyes. - -+275. Composition and yield.+--A large number of analyses of Swiss -cheese have been made but there is wide variation. This is due to the -fact that the composition and yield are both dependent on the following -factors: composition of the milk, losses during manufacture, amount of -moisture in the cheese. The losses in Swiss cheese are much larger than -with some of the other hard cheeses, such as Cheddar. This is because -more fat is lost in the whey, due to breaking instead of cutting the -curd and the subsequent hard stirring. The possibility of reducing these -excessive losses has already been indicated. - -Swiss cheeses of high grade show about the following range of -composition: - - Water 30-34 per cent - Fat 30-34 per cent - Protein 26-30 per cent - Ash 3-5 per cent - Salt (NaCl) 1-1.4 per cent - -The water-content of this type of cheese is low and the protein-content -is proportionately high. Both conditions lead to firm textures, long -ripening and long keeping periods. - -The following score-card is used to judge both block and drum Swiss -cheese: - - Flavor 35 - Appearance on trier holes 30 - Texture 20 - Salt 10 - Style 5 - ---- - 100 - -The yield of Swiss cheese varies from 8 to 11 pounds to 100 pounds of -milk. The more solids in the milk, the more moisture incorporated in -the cheese; the smaller the loss of solids in the manufacturing process, -the larger will be the yield from a given amount of milk. - - -THE ITALIAN GROUP[125] - -A group of varieties, best known in America by Parmesan, are made in -Italy with related forms in Greece and European Turkey. These forms are -very hard, usually uncolored, with small eyes or holes. They are made in -large cheeses which ripen very slowly. Cow's milk is regularly used for -Parmesan and Grana in northern Italy; other varieties contain goat or -sheep milk or various mixtures. Aside from Parmesan, few of the other -forms are known outside the place of origin except as they are exported -in a small way to satisfy the demand of emigrants from these regions. - -+276. Parmesan.+--One type of Italian cheese, however, the Parmesan, has -become very widely known. In general the consuming trade does not -discriminate between Parmesan, Grana and closely related forms. Parmesan -is made in large cheeses which require one to three years for proper -ripening; in texture it is very hard with small eyes or holes formed by -very slow fermentation. Such cheeses are ripened in large storehouses in -which hundreds and even thousands are brought together and cared for by -experts. The surfaces of these cheeses are kept clean and free from -insects by rubbing with linseed oil. So hard are these forms that the -cheese-trier is not used in testing, but the texture of the surface is -tested by pricking with an awl-like tool and the stage of eye-formation -and associated ripening is determined by the sound given out when the -cheeses are tapped with a hammer. - -When ripe, the cheeses of this group are used in cooking principally. -The broken cheese is grated and added to macaroni, spaghetti and other -cooked cheese dishes. Parmesan is usually made from partly skimmed-milk; -the ratio of fat to protein in analysis runs from 1:2 to 3:4 in contrast -to the normal relation of about 4:3 in whole-milk cheese. In -water-content much variation is found, but ripe Parmesan is usually -about 30 per cent water. Other members of the group are made with -different amounts of skimming, some of them from whole milk. The group -in general represents the requirements of cheese for the trade of warmer -regions (see Mayo and Elling): (1) a low fat-content so incorporated -that the cheese does not become greasy or oily in hot weather; (2) a -water-content low enough to prevent rapid spoilage during the necessary -exposure of handling under warm conditions. - -The equipment for Parmesan manufacture has more resemblance to that of -the Swiss factory than the English and American cheeses. The milk is -curdled in deep copper kettles (Fig. 57), below which there is commonly -a provision for direct heating by fire which is sometimes carried on a -truck, and therefore can be withdrawn when heating is sufficient. The -steam-jacketed kettle has replaced this earlier form to a large measure. - -[Illustration: FIG. 57.--Parmesan cheese kettles.] - -The general character of the manufacturing process is indicated in the -following abstract of one of the methods. Many variations are to be -found. The milk for Parmesan is allowed to stand overnight. Some acidity -is, therefore, developed in contrast to the absolutely fresh condition -of the milk used in Swiss and the acidification developed during the -making of Cheddar (Fascetti). It is then skimmed, heated to 72 deg. to 75 -deg. F. Rennet is added in amount sufficient to produce firm curd in one -hour or slightly less. When the curd is firm, a wood fire is made under -the kettle and the curd is broken with a special implement into small -particles. After breaking, four grains of powdered sulfur to twenty-two -gallons of milk are added. The curd is stirred with a rake. By the time -the temperature rises to 77 deg. F., the curd should be in very small -pieces. Stirring and heating continue until the temperature reaches 131 -deg. F. At this temperature, it stands fifteen minutes, after which it is -removed from the fire (or the fire is drawn). Nine-tenths of the whey is -then drawn. The cheese-maker then collects the curd into a compact lump -under which he slips a cheese cloth. With the aid of an assistant he -removes the mass to a perforated vessel for draining. After this the -curd goes into large wooden hoops, lined with cloth, which stand upon a -slanting draining table until evening. No pressure is used. Before -night they are taken to the cellar. The cloths are removed next day. -After standing four days, they are salted by covering the upper surface -with coarse salt. This is repeated with daily turning for twenty days, -then salted on alternate days for another period of twenty days. At the -end of the forty days' salting, the cheese is removed from the hoop, -scraped, sprinkled with whey and the rind rubbed smooth. A dressing of -linseed oil either with or without bone black is applied. - -[Illustration: FIG. 58.--A typical cheese-market in France.] - -The cheeses are kept in special ripening rooms, and rubbed frequently -with linseed oil to keep the surfaces free from molds and vermin. -Careful grading as to quality of product and consequent response to -ripening conditions produce cheeses of many degrees of excellence. -Those in which a ripening of three to four years is possible are most -highly esteemed. - -+277. Regianito.+--A cheese of the Italian group is now made in -Argentina and imported to the United States under the name Regianito. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI - -_MISCELLANEOUS VARIETIES AND BY-PRODUCTS_ - - -As already discussed in Chapter VI, there are a large number of -varieties of cheese. Very many are entirely unknown in America. A -considerable number of forms are occasionally imported and may be found -by visiting the markets and delicatessen stores in the foreign districts -of our large cities. Certain forms not widely known are made in America -in a few factories or are imported in sufficient quantity to call for -brief discussion. Some of these are brought together here. - -The importance of the by-products of cheese-making has not been -sufficiently recognized, for manufacture on a large scale is only -beginning to be appreciated in America. Certain cheese names, such as -Mysost, are applied to whey products. In addition, milk-sugar is -extensively made and whey-butter has been carefully studied and found to -be practicable under some conditions. - -+278. Caciocavallo+ originated in Italy, but is now made in certain -factories of New York and Ohio. Some factories in Lombardy[126] use -whole milk, others use half-skimmed milk. The latter practice is -probably the more common. In making this cheese, the milk is coagulated -with rennet, cut and firmed in the whey, allowed to settle and the whey -drawn. The curd is then piled on the draining table and allowed to mat -or fuse into fairly solid masses. After several hours of draining and -matting, the curd is cut into strips and placed in a vat of hot water. -In the hot water, the blocks of solid curd melt into taffy-like masses -which are worked and molded by hand into more or less standard shapes. -Indian club or ten-pin forms are most commonly produced. When the proper -shape has been gained, each mass is thrown into cold water which -solidifies it in that form. Cheese masses heat and cool slowly; several -hours of cooling are required to insure a firm cheese. The newly made -cheeses are salted in a brine bath, then hung by a string to ripen. -Sometimes these cheeses are eaten fresh, again they are ripened several -months. They vary in size from one to six pounds. Cornalba gives the -composition of Italian Caciocavallo made from whole milk as water 32 to -34 per cent, fat 34 to 36 per cent, protein 28.5 to 29.5 per cent, salt -1.7 to 1.8 per cent; when made from half skimmed-milk, water 28 per -cent, fat 27 to 28 per cent, protein 35 to 40 per cent, salt 2.2 per -cent. Other analyses vary widely from these figures on account of the -differing fat-content of the milk. No standardized practice has been -established in America. - -_Provolono_ resembles Caciocavallo in method of manufacture and -composition, the main difference being in the shape of the cheese. It is -more or less round and is held by a coarse net made of small rope. The -cheeses are treated while curing the same as Caciocavallo. - -+279. Sap sago.+--This hard green cheese imported from Switzerland is -made in cakes, tapering from perhaps two inches in diameter to a rounded -top with a height of about two inches. These are made from skimmed-milk -curd, partially ripened then mixed with powdered leaves of _Melilotus -coeruleus_, a clover-like plant. The mixture is then pressed into the -market form and dried until very hard. It is handled without special -care since the water-content is so low that fermentations are -exceedingly slow. This low-priced cheese may be used in cooking. - -+280. Albumin cheese.+[127]--In the rennet cheeses, the albumin, which -constitutes about 0.7 per cent of the milk, passes off in the whey. This -albumin is not curdled by rennet. It is, however, coagulated by heating. -The presence of acid hastens such coagulation but does not cause it when -used alone. When the whey is heated to about 200 deg. F., the albumin -rises and may be skimmed off. In this form it is recovered and used. It -may be shaped is hoops under pressure, as Ricotte, an Italian form. This -cheese is pressed firmly and dried. Such albumin is frequently prepared -as a poultry feed. - -+281. Mysost, Norwegian whey cheese.+--The whey contains nearly 5 per -cent of milk-sugar which can be recovered by boiling. The Norwegian -process which produces Mysost consists in raising the whey to the -boiling point, skimming off the albumin as it rises, then concentrating -the remainder of the whey. As it reaches sufficient concentration, the -albumin is thoroughly stirred back into the mass and the mass finally -cooled into forms. Mysost is a brown, hard brittle mass consisting -principally of caramelized milk-sugar. Analysis shows such percentage -composition as follows: water 10 to 20 per cent, protein 10 to 15 per -cent, milk-sugar 30 to 55 per cent. Mysost is found in the larger -markets of the United States. - -_Primost_ is an albumin cheese somewhat similar to Ricotte and Mysost. -It is made by precipitating the albumin by acid and heat. The main -difference is in the firmness of the cheese. This is regulated by -drying. - -+282. Whey butter.+[128]--The loss of a percentage of fat, rarely less -than 0.3 per cent and in some cheeses very much greater, has led to the -making of whey butter. For this purpose a separator is introduced and -all whey is separated daily. The fat recovered in the form of cream is -then ripened and churned. Whey butter is not rated as equal to butter -made from whole milk but a fair market can usually be found for the -product. The recovery of 0.25 per cent fat means two and one-half pounds -of fat to 1000 pounds of whey. This will make about three pounds of -butter. - -Whether whey butter shall be made depends on the volume of business, the -extra equipment required, the extra help necessary and the market for -the product. As a rule, whey butter is economically recoverable only in -large factories. It is not considered advisable to attempt to make it -unless one has the whey from 10,000 pounds of milk. In some instances, -the combination of small cheese factories with one churning plant has -proved to be economical. The objection to the making of whey butter is, -that it stimulates carelessness on the part of the cheese-maker because -he thinks that the fat will be recovered by skimming. He does not -realize that the other milk solids are being reduced in the same -proportion as the fat, to the great loss in yield of cheese. - - - - -CHAPTER XVII - -_CHEESE FACTORY CONSTRUCTION, EQUIPMENT, ORGANIZATION_ - - -The principal factor in determining the location of a cheese factory is -the available supply of milk. This is usually ascertained by making a -canvass, and finding out the number of cows whose milk would be brought -to the factory. The quantity of milk or the number of cows necessary to -insure sufficient milk for the successful operation of the factory, -depends on the variety of cheese to be made. When making types of cheese -for which very sweet milk is necessary, the milk must be delivered twice -a day. This demand limits the area from which the factory can secure its -supply. The length of time the cheeses are held in the curing-room and -the work necessary to care for them also limits the area which the -factory can serve, because a very large amount of milk cannot be handled -when the cheese must be given considerable attention in the -curing-rooms. Swiss, Limburger and Brick cheese factories usually do not -require a large supply of milk; therefore the factories may be built -close together. The size of the Cheddar cheese factories varies but it -is generally considered unprofitable to make Cheddar cheese unless there -are 5000 pounds of milk available daily. Conditions have changed so that -at present different kinds of cheese are made from the surplus milk in -market milk plants. In such cases a uniform supply is not absolutely -necessary. The climate must also be suitable for the industry. - -+283. Locating the site.+--In a farming community, several factory sites -are usually available. It is best to consider carefully the desirable -features of each before trying to make a definite choice. Many of the -present cheese factories were located in hollows because it was easy to -secure a supply of water, but no thought or attention was given to the -disposal of the sewage. The following points should be considered in -choosing a site: - -(1) _Drainage._--A factory should be so located that it has good -drainage. Ground that slopes away from the factory makes the disposal of -sewage easy. Sewage should not be allowed to run out on the ground and -left to decay, thus forming a breeding place for flies, but should run -into a cesspool or septic tank.[129] Even in a porous soil, a cesspool -frequently clogs and gives trouble. The septic tank seems to be the best -method to dispose of the sewage unless the factory is so located that -connection can be made with a city sewage system. - -(2) _Water._--An abundant supply of pure water is essential to a -factory. This may come either from deep wells or springs. The value of a -never-failing water supply cannot be overestimated. - -(3) _Exposure._--The factory should be so located that the receiving -room is away from the prevailing winds. This prevents dust being blown -into the factory. The curing-room should be on the side not exposed to -the sun as this will keep it cool. Fig. 59 shows a clean cheese factory -of the ordinary type. When it is desirable to cure the cheese in a -cellar, it is better to locate the factory on the side of a hill. Then -the receiving and manufacturing room may be on the ground level and the -curing-room, a cellar, back of the manufacturing room and yet all on -the same level. This saves carrying the cheese up and down stairs. - -(4) _Accessibility to market_ should not be overlooked. Often the -quality of the cheese is injured by long hauls. An important item in -marketing both milk and cheese is the use of the automobile. By its use -the products are not so long in transit, and losses from exposure in -delivery are reduced. Both milk and cheese, when exposed to the heat of -the sun for any length of time, become warm. This gives undesirable -organisms chance to develop. - -[Illustration: FIG. 59.--A cheese factory of neat appearance.] - -+284. The building.+--Details of construction or estimates of cost will -be omitted in the present discussion. A local contractor can do this -satisfactorily and also the cost of materials is constantly changing. -Only general considerations as they apply to the manufacture of the -product will be taken up. - -The building may be constructed of wood, stone, various bricks or -concrete. The kind of material will depend on the relative cost of -materials in the local market and on the amount of money available for -building. - -+285. Heating plant.+--Many of the older factories have no heating -plants and some are so poorly constructed that they cannot be warmed. -Means of heating should be provided, either by steam or a stove. The -loss due to freezing is an item which is entirely avoided in factories -properly heated. - -+286. Curing-rooms.+--The size of the curing-rooms will depend on the -amount of cheese to be handled and its location on the variety of cheese -to be manufactured. In every case, some provision should be made to -control humidity and temperature. If the room becomes hot and dry, -evaporation from the cheese will be much more rapid. In a hot -curing-room, undesirable types of ferments are more likely to develop -and to injure the quality of the cheese. - -+287. Light.+--The importance of light should be emphasized. It acts as -a stimulant to keep things clean. It also makes the factory more -cheerful. There should be numerous windows to give plenty of light. A -skylight may often serve both as a source of light and ventilation. - -+288. Ventilation.+--Plenty of ventilation should be provided. This may -be accomplished by means of the windows or skylight. However, it is a -good precaution to have at least one ventilator to carry off the steam -and control the circulation of air. All openings should be carefully -screened to keep out flies. - -+289. Boiler-room.+--The boiler-room should be easily accessible from -the manufacturing rooms. A gauge located in the latter should tell the -steam pressure. Windows or doors should be so located that the flues of -the boiler can be cleaned. The coal supply should be handy. Great care -should be exercised to keep the boiler-room clean for otherwise the dirt -will be tracked all over the factory. - -+290. Whey tanks+ should be kept clean. Daily washing is absolutely -necessary to prevent offensive odors. Pasteurization of whey has been -found requisite to prevent the spread of disease if raw milk is -used.[130] This is required by law in some states. It is sometimes -accomplished by heat with steam coils; in other cases by running live -steam directly into the whey. Whey tanks may be made of wood or steel. -The acid of the whey seems to eat and decompose concrete. - -+291. Store-room.+--There should be a separate room or a place in the -attic where the supplies can be kept. This saves much waste and keeps -the factory cleaner and more tidy. - -+292. The floors.+--The floor is the most important part of the -building. It should be of non-absorbent material, which can be easily -cleaned, and it should not leak. Concrete makes the best floor of any -material used at present. It should slope very gently to the drain. The -corners between the floor and side walls should be rounding to make -cleaning easy. The drain should be provided with bell traps to prevent -the entrance of sewer gas into the factory. If the traps and floor about -them are slightly depressed, it will help to make the floor drain more -quickly. A catch-basin should be provided just outside the factory for -all solid material which might clog the sewer pipe. This should be -cleaned three or four times a year. - -[Illustration: FIG. 60.--A well arranged Cheddar cheese factory, -including the equipment for the manufacture of whey butter.] - -+293. Arrangement of machinery and rooms.+--The rooms and machinery -should be arranged so that the work will follow the natural sequence of -the process with as little inconvenience as possible. Some of the points -to be observed in this connection are: vats should be near the -weigh-can; boiler-room near the work room; cheese presses near the vats; -cheese presses near the curing-rooms and the like. - -Fig. 60 shows a well arranged Cheddar cheese factory. The necessary -machinery and rooms for the manufacture of whey butter are included. In -this plan, the attic contains the store-room and the whey tanks. The -whey is forced from the vats into the tanks with a steam jet and then -runs by gravity to the separator. Slides are provided in the walls of -the ice storage to regulate the flow of air into the curing-room and -butter refrigerator. In order to have a smaller boiler, a gasolene -engine is used to run the separator, churn and curd-mill. The plan can -be modified to use the upstairs for a curing-room so that the size of -the factory may be reduced. The whey butter could be shifted to a small -room where the curing-room now is and the boiler-room added as a -"lean-to" at one side of the building. This would materially reduce the -size of the main building. - -Another plan (Fig. 61) shows the arrangement of a Cheddar cheese factory -without the whey butter apparatus. The location of the drain between the -vats might be criticized. In Fig. 62 is shown the arrangement of a -combined butter and cheese factory. Fig. 63 shows the possible -arrangement of a Limburger factory. The size of this factory could be -reduced by having the salting tables closer together. - -In a Cheddar cheese factory, the curing-room may be over the -manufacturing room. This makes considerable work in carrying the cheese -up and down. A small elevator may be used for this purpose. The same -principle holds in cheese factories in which other varieties of cheese -are made; the floors should be on one level so far as possible. There -is danger of the overhead curing-room becoming too hot and causing the -cheese to leak fat. Shelves or tables should be provided on which to -put and keep the utensils. The utensils should never be placed on the -floor. - -[Illustration: FIG. 61.--Plan of Cheddar cheese factory without whey -butter equipment. 1, Boiler; 2, sink; 3, hot water barrel for scalding -utensils; 4, cheese vats; 5, 6, cheese presses; 7, weigh-can; 8, desk; -9, Babcock tester; 10, shelf; 11, paraffine tank; 12, cheese shelves.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 62.--Combined Cheddar cheese and butter factory. - -1, Boiler; 2, engine; 3, water pump; 4, work bench; 5, wash sink; 6, -press; 7, elevator; 8, cheese vats; 9, separator; 10, milk heater; 11, -milk receiving vat; 12, press; 13, shelf; 14, Babcock tester; 15, -weigh-can; 16, churn; 17, starter; 18, cream ripener and pasteurizer; -19, refrigerator; 20, milk sheet and sample jar; 21, milk pump.] - -+294. Arrangements for cleanliness.+--A sink for washing the utensils -should be provided and boiling water to scald them after washing. After -being scalded, tin utensils dry quickly without rusting. The boiling -water may be obtained by placing a steam pipe in a barrel of water and -turning on the steam. The utensils can then be washed clean, dipped in -this barrel of boiling water and put in their place. Too much emphasis -cannot be laid on keeping the factory itself, the utensils and the -surroundings clean. This will prevent the development of mold. Cases are -known in which the cheese factory was allowed to become very dirty, so -that a red mold developed. This eventually got into the cheese and -caused red spots.[131] They are called rust spots. All doors and windows -should be screened to keep out flies. - -[Illustration: FIG. 63.--A Limburger cheese factory.] - -+295. Equipment and supplies list.+--The following utensils will be -needed in a Cheddar cheese factory to handle 10,000 pounds of milk -daily: 1 5-H. P. boiler; 1 60-gallon weigh-can; 1 conductor head and -trough; 1 platform scale; 1 Babcock tester, glassware and sample -bottles; 2 700-gallon cheese vats; 2 gang cheese presses; 1 curd-mill; 2 -curd-knives; 30 cheese hoops; 1 whey strainer; 1 curd scoop; 1 -long-handled dipper; 1 strainer dipper; 1 siphon; 1 cheese knife; 1 -glass graduate; 1 cheese-trier; 1 speed knife; 1 paraffine tank; 1 -Marschall rennet test; 1 lactometer; 1 milk can hoist; 1 acid test; 1 -sink; 1 40-quart milk can; 3 pails; 3 shot-gun cans for starter; 3 -thermometers; brushes and brooms; 1 Wisconsin curd test or fruit jars -for same; 1 set counter scales; 2 curd rakes. - -If whey butter is made, the equipment should include: Tanks to hold the -whey; separator; cream ripening vat; churn; butter-worker; butter -refrigerator; large boiler and steam engine or gasolene engine. - -The following supplies will be needed for the making of the cheese: -Bandages; boxes; scale boards; starched circles; rennet extract or -pepsin; cheese color; press cloths; paraffine; formaldehyde; alkali; -indicator; sulfuric acid. - -[Illustration: FIG. 64.--A sanitary dipper with a solid handle.] - -When choosing the utensils, the ease of cleaning and sanitary -construction should not be overlooked. One of the most unsanitary -utensils in a factory is a dipper with a hollow handle. Fig 64 shows a -dipper with a solid handle which any tinsmith can make. The seams of all -utensils should be flushed full of solder, to make cleaning easy. When -ready to clean or wash any utensils which have come in contact with milk -or its products, the steps are as follows: rinse in cold water, wash in -warm water in which some washing-soda has been dissolved, rinse clean, -scald in boiling water. Never use a cloth to wash utensils; a brush is -more sanitary. - -+296. Factory organization.+--There are two general classes of -organizations[132] to operate cheese factories, one the proprietary and -the other the cooperative. Unless the kind of organization is what the -dairy-men desire, dissatisfaction is sure to result. - -(1) _Proprietary organization._--Under this form of organization, one -person owns and operates the factory. The dairy-men are paid a stated -price for milk, or the milk is made into cheese for a stated price a -pound. The proprietor receives all profits and assumes all losses. - -So far as the dairy-man is concerned, the stock company is a proprietary -organization. The gains and losses are shared by each member according -to the amount of money invested. - -(2) _Cooperative organization._--In a true cooperative cheese factory -each patron is an owner, as the name indicates. The object of this -organization is to reduce the cost of manufacture rather than pay large -dividends, so that the dairy-man with a large herd and small capital -invested in the factory obtains more returns than the one who owns -considerable capital and has a small herd. Many cheese factories are -cooperative in name only and proprietary in operation. The state of -Wisconsin has a law which tends to stop this defect and defines what -organizations may use the term or name, cooperative. - -The constitution of a cooperative organization should state: 1, Name; 2, -object; 3, officers and duties of officers; 4, manager or other person -to run business; 5, capital stock; 6, meetings; 7, voting power; 8, -amendments. - -Some of the most important statements which should appear in the -constitution are mentioned in the following sentences. A statement -should show what persons are eligible to membership in the organization. -It is a careless plan simply to say that the duties of the officers are -those usually defined in such an organization. This may lead to -confusion and neglect, or both. Direct statements should be made -explaining the exact duties of each officer. The limits of the authority -of the manager or person who runs the business should be explicitly -stated. The manager then knows just what his duties are and what matters -or parts of the business must be considered by other officers or -committees. The amount of capital stock and the number and value of each -share should be exactly stated. The constitution should state when and -where the regular meetings must be held and by whom and when special -meetings may be called. This gives every member ample notice of the -regular meetings. Some method or means should be provided to notify each -member of the special meetings. - -The voting power should be definitely stated, whether it is limited to -shares of capital stock or by members or by number of cows owned by each -member. It is necessary to indicate just how amendments to the -constitution may be made. Each member should know before the final vote -just what changes are being proposed. Types of constitutions may be -found in the following references: - - - ELLIOTT, W. J., Creameries and cheese factories; - organization, building and equipment, Mont. Exp. Sta. Bul. - 53, 1904. - - FARRINGTON, E. H., and G. H. BENKENDORF, Organization and - construction of creameries and cheese factories, Wis. Exp. - Sta. Bul. 244, 1915. - - VAN SLYKE, L. L., and C. A. PUBLOW, The science and - practice of cheese making, pages 447-453, 1909. - - Iowa Exp. Sta. Bul. 139, 1913. Creamery organization and - construction. - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII - -_HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHEESE INDUSTRY IN AMERICA_ - - -Just when the first cheese was made is not known. By the time the first -immigrants came to America, cheese-making was rather generally known in -Europe, so that the early settlers brought with them and practiced -established methods. The countries of Europe developed different kinds -of cheese and have since become noted for such particular varieties, for -example: France, Camembert and Roquefort; Switzerland, Swiss cheese; -England, Stilton and Cheddar; Germany, Limburger; Holland, Edam and -Gouda; Italy, Parmesan and its allies, also Gorgonzola cheese. The -manufacture of these various cheeses has been attempted in this country. -Because of the difference in climatic conditions and in some cases the -use of milk of sheep or goats, it was and still is difficult to -manufacture some of the European cheeses in America. Since the climatic -conditions of this country and certain parts of England are somewhat -similar, the manufacture of the cheeses of England predominated, and -there was also more information on their manufacture. These are probably -the reasons why the United States and Canada have become famous for -Cheddar cheese. - -The first cheeses of the Cheddar group were made on the farms. The work -was usually performed by women, and the process was very simple. The -methods were crude, and the cheeses were made in a more or less -haphazard way. The milk of the evening was placed in a cheese tub in the -dairy room and cooled to a temperature that would prevent souring. In -most cases the cream that had raised to the surface of the night's milk -was removed in the morning. This was considered an act of economy, for -it was thought that in the process of manufacture it would all pass off -in the whey and be lost. The morning's milk was then mixed with that of -the evening and warmed to the setting temperature by placing a portion -in a tin pail and suspending it in a kettle of hot water. When hot, it -was emptied into the tub of cold milk. By transferring back and forth, -the setting temperature was finally reached. Few of these settlers owned -thermometers. Consequently, cheese-makers were obliged to depend on the -sense of feeling to determine temperature. - -One of the serious difficulties of the early manufacture was the -production of rennet of a uniform strength. After the addition of the -rennet and as soon as the coagulated milk became firm enough, it was -broken into as small pieces as could be conveniently made, a wooden -knife being used for the purpose. After standing ten minutes it was -stirred by hand, breaking the pieces finer, and the temperature was -gradually brought to 98 deg. F., aiming as near blood heat as could be -judged by the sense of feeling. It was kept at this temperature until -the moisture was out of the curd and it would squeak between the teeth. -The whey was drawn off and the curd stirred until dry, salted and put to -press. All the curd of one day was made into a cheese. This resulted in -small uneven-sized cheese. Since such cheeses were made from the milk of -single dairies with all the surroundings clean, the flavor was usually -good but the texture was open and soft. The method of caring for the -cheese and marketing was entirely different from that practiced at the -present time. All the cheeses made during the entire season were held -until fall and marketed at one time. They were packed in casks four to -six in a package, one on top of the other. The earliest date when single -boxed cheeses were on the market was 1841. - -Between 1820 and 1840, a small export trade in cheese was started. As -this demand for cheese increased, particularly in England, it became -necessary to change the methods employed in manufacture. The farm dairy -cheese was rather an open-textured sweet curd product. If not, it was -due more to accident than to any intention of the cheese-maker to -improve the quality. One of the early complaints from England was that -the cheeses were too small and uneven in size. The practice of making on -the farm continued until about 1851, when the factory system was -started, although home manufactures continued after that time. Following -are the reasons for the change from the farm to factory system: (1) -England demanded larger cheese; (2) the farm product was not uniform; -(3) the quality of the farm cheese did not suit the English trade; (4) -factories saved much labor on the farms; and (5) could secure higher -prices. - -+297. The factory system.+--Where and by whom the first Cheddar cheese -factory in America was started is not definitely known. Jesse Williams -of Oneida County, New York, is supposed by many to have been the first -to build and operate under the factory system, in 1851. Cheese factories -were opened in Ohio and Wisconsin about 1860. In the period 1860 to -1870, a large number of cheese factories were built in the various -states, especially New York, Ohio and Wisconsin. - -+298. Introduction of factory system in Canada.+--In 1863, Harvey -Farrington of Herkimer, New York, was so impressed with the opportunity -of developing the cheese factory system in Canada that he sold out his -business in New York and established the first Canadian cheese factory -in the town of Norwich, Ontario. It was accepted at once by Canadian -farmers, and factory cheese-making increased rapidly. In 1866, a small -quantity of cheese was exported and from that time the export trade of -Canada has been large and growing. Ontario and Quebec are now the -leading provinces in the production of cheese. - -+299. Introduction of cheddaring.+--The factories at first used the same -process as the farms, namely the stirred-curd process. In 1867, Robert -McAdam introduced the English Cheddar system in a factory near Herkimer, -New York. This is the Cheddar system as known to-day. It produces the -closer bodied cheese demanded by the export trade. This introduction -made Herkimer County famous for its cheese. - -+300. Introduction of Swiss and Limburger.+--In 1870, factories for -Limburger, Swiss and Brick cheese were started and have gradually -increased. In New York such plants are located around Boonville in -Oneida County, and Theresa, in Jefferson County. In Wisconsin, Swiss -cheese-making was begun by a colony of Swiss who came to New Glarus, -Green County. It is now made in Green, Lafayette, Iowa, Grant, Dane and -Rock counties. Limburger and Brick are manufactured in Dodge, Fond du -Lac, Winnebago, Marathon, La Crosse, Buffalo, Trempealeau, Clark, -Washington, Dunn, Barron and Lincoln counties. In the southeastern part -of Ohio Swiss cheese is produced. Ohio and Wisconsin have manufactured -more of these cheeses, especially Swiss, than any other states. This is -probably due to the fact that the conditions are more nearly like those -of Switzerland. - -When the cities in New York began to grow, an increased demand for -market milk was felt. The result was that the dairy-men could not supply -both the cities and the cheese factories with milk. A large part of the -cheese was being exported and most of it had always been partly skimmed. -The amount of skimming, therefore, was largely increased. Then other -animal fats were substituted for the milk-fat. This product was known as -"filled" cheese. The delay in controlling the practice of making -skimmed-milk and filled cheese ruined the export trade. In Canada laws -prohibited the making of filled cheese and as a consequence Canadian -Cheddar cheese is still very popular in England. However, with the -control of skimmed-milk cheese-making and the elimination of filled -cheese, the volume continued to grow and to find outlet in local -consumption. New York probably exported more cheese than any other -state. Wisconsin shipped cheese into other regions, especially the -southern states in which no cheeses were made. Some Wisconsin cheeses -were shipped to the New York market from time to time, but in October, -1913, the first quotations[133] were made in New York City for Wisconsin -products. - -+301. Number and distribution of cheese factories.+--The following list -and maps (Figs. 65, 66) compiled in 1914 by the United States Department -of Agriculture Dairy Division, show the number of cheese factories in -the different states and their location: - -[Illustration: FIG. 65.--Map showing the distribution of cheese -factories in the principal cheese-producing states.] - - Arizona 3 - California 93 - Colorado 8 - Connecticut 2 - Delaware 1 - Illinois 50 - Indiana 13 - Iowa 25 - Kansas 1 - Maine 5 - Michigan 196 - Minnesota 74 - Missouri 4 - Montana 1 - Nebraska 1 - New Hampshire 2 - New York 995 - North Dakota 3 - Ohio 111 - Oklahoma 1 - Oregon 42 - Pennsylvania 106 - South Dakota 1 - Utah 8 - Vermont 35 - Virginia 3 - Washington 15 - West Virginia 1 - Wisconsin 1720 - ---- - 3520 - -+302. Total production of cheese in the United States.+--The following -figures (Table XX) compiled by the United States Census show the total -production of cheese and the amount made on farms and in factories in -the United States by ten-year periods: - - - TABLE XX - - SHOWING THE TOTAL PRODUCTION OF CHEESE AND PART - MADE ON FARMS AND IN FACTORIES IN THE UNITED - STATES BY TEN-YEAR PERIODS - - 1849 Total 105,535,893 pounds - - 1859 Total 103,663,927 pounds - - 1869 Total 162,927,382 pounds - - 1879 Total 243,157,850 pounds - - 1889 On farms 18,726,818 pounds - In factories 238,035,065 pounds - Total 256,761,883 pounds - - 1899 On farms 16,372,330 pounds - In factories 281,972,324 pounds - Total 298,344,654 pounds - - 1909 On farms 9,405,864 pounds - In factories 311,126,317 pounds - Total 320,532,181 pounds - -Comparing the figures of 1899 with those of 1909, it is seen that the -total production of cheese in the United States increased 22,187,539 -pounds, or an increase of 7.4 per cent in 1909 over 1899. During the -same years the amount made on the farms decreased 6,966,454 pounds, or a -decrease of 42.6 per cent, while the amount made in factories increased -29,153,933 pounds or 10.3 per cent. - -+303. Rank of the leading cheese-producing states.+--The rank of the -leading cheese states according to the number of factories in 1914 was: -Wisconsin 1720, New York 995, Michigan 196, Ohio 111, Pennsylvania 106. - -[Illustration: FIG. 66.--Showing the cheese factories in the Pacific -coast states.] - -The table on the opposite page (Table XXI) shows the amount of cheese -produced by the five states with the largest number of factories. This -table indicates that New York led in the production of cheese until some -time between 1899 and 1909. This is probably because, New York having so -many cities, the demand for market milk is so large that it is sold as -such instead of being manufactured into cheese. There is about the same -number of milch cows in New York and Wisconsin. However, Wisconsin is -credited with more cheese in 1909 than New York ever produced and this -output probably will increase, as there are considerable areas of -undeveloped agricultural land in Wisconsin. It is also interesting to -note that Ohio is falling off in cheese production. This may be due to -the increased demand for market milk. On the other hand, production has -increased in Pennsylvania. - - TABLE XXI - - SHOWING THE AMOUNT OF CHEESE MADE IN FIVE LEADING STATES - BY TEN-YEAR PERIODS - - ----------+----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ - STATE |YEAR 1859 |YEAR 1869 |YEAR 1879 |YEAR 1889 | - ----------+----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ - |Amount in | Amount in |Amount in |Amount in | - | pounds | pounds | pounds | pounds | - | | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - Wisconsin | 1,104,300| 3,288,581| 19,535,324| 54,614,861| - | | | | | - New York |48,548,289|100,776,012|129,163,714|124,086,524| - | | | | | - Michigan | 1,641,897| 2,321,801| 3,953,585| 5,370,460| - | | | | | - Ohio |21,618,893| 24,153,876| 32,531,683| 22,254,054| - | | | | | - Penn | 2,508,556| 2,792,676| 8,966,737| 5,457,897| - ----------+----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ - - ----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ - STATE |YEAR 1899 |YEAR 1909 |YEAR 1914 | - ----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ - |Amount in |Amount in |Amount in | - | pounds | pounds |pounds from| - | | |factories | - | | |only | - | | | | - Wisconsin | 79,384,298|148,906,910|205,920,915| - | | | | - New York |130,010,584|105,584,947| 97,614,024| - | | | | - Michigan | 10,753,758| 13,673,336| 13,267,145| - | | | | - Ohio | 19,363,528| 12,473,834| 8,717,996| - | | | | - Penn | 11,124,610| 12,676,713| 14,808,573| - ----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ - -+304. Exportation and importation of cheese by the United States.+--The -accompanying table shows the exports and imports of cheese from 1851 to -1916 and their values, in so far as the figures are available. - -[Illustration: FIG. 67.--Showing relationship of total production, -exports and imports of cheese.] - -One noteworthy item in Table XXII is that the exports have gradually -decreased and imports increased. This is probably because immigrants -have demanded the cheeses of their native country which were not made in -America. The exports for the years 1915 and 1916 are interesting as they -show the effect of the war on the cheese industry, the imports being -gradually decreased and the exports greatly increased. - - - TABLE XXII - - SHOWING THE IMPORTS AND EXPORTS OF CHEESE BY THE - UNITED STATES FROM 1851-1916 - - ------+----------------------+-------------------------- - YEAR | IMPORTS | EXPORTS - ------+-----------+----------+-------------+------------ - | Amount | | Amount | - | in | Value in | in | Value in - | pounds | dollars | pounds | dollars - | | | | - 1851 | 603,398 | ---- | 10,361,189 | ---- - 1852 | 514,337 | ---- | 6,650,420 | ---- - 1853 | 874,949 | ---- | 3,763,932 | ---- - 1854 | 969,417 | ---- | 7,003,974 | ---- - 1855 | 1,526,942 | ---- | 4,846,568 | ---- - 1856 | 1,384,272 | ---- | 8,737,029 | ---- - 1857 | 1,400,252 | ---- | 6,453,072 | ---- - 1858 | 1,589,066 | ---- | 8,098,527 | ---- - 1859 | 1,409,420 | ---- | 7,103,323 | ---- - 1860 | 1,401,161 | ---- | 15,515,799 | ---- - 1861 | 1,090,835 | ---- | 32,361,428 | ---- - 1862 | 594,822 | ---- | 34,052,678 | ---- - 1863 | 545,966 | ---- | 42,045,054 | ---- - 1864 | 836,127 | ---- | 47,751,329 | ---- - 1865 | 985,362 | ---- | 53,154,318 | ---- - 1866 | ---- | ---- | 36,411,985 | ---- - 1867 | 1,738,657 | ---- | 52,352,127 | ---- - 1868 | 2,997,994 | ---- | 51,097,203 | ---- - 1869 | ---- | ---- | 39,960,367 | ---- - 1870 | ---- | ---- | 57,296,327 | ---- - 1871 | ---- | ---- | 63,698,867 | ---- - 1872 | ---- | ---- | 66,204,025 | ---- - 1873 | ---- | ---- | 80,366,540 | ---- - 1874 | ---- | ---- | 90,611,077 | ---- - 1875 | ---- | ---- | 101,010,853 | ---- - 1876 | ---- | ---- | 97,676,264 | ---- - 1877 | ---- | ---- | 107,364,666 | ---- - 1878 | ---- | ---- | 123,783,736 | ---- - 1879 | ---- | ---- | 141,654,474 | ---- - 1880 | ---- | ---- | 127,553,907 | ---- - 1881 | ---- | ---- | 147,995,614 | ---- - 1882 | ---- | ---- | 127,989,782 | ---- - 1883 | ---- | ---- | 99,220,467 | ---- - 1884 | 6,243,014 | ---- | 112,869,575 | ---- - 1885 | 6,247,560 | ---- | 111,992,990 | ---- - 1886 | 6,309,124 | ---- | 91,877,235 | - 1887 | 6,592,192 | ---- | 81,255,994 | - 1888 | 8,750,185 | ---- | 88,008,458 | - 1889 | 8,207,026 | ---- | 84,999,828 | - 1890 | 9,263,573 | ---- | 95,376,053 | - 1891 | 8,863,640 | ---- | 82,133,876 | - 1892 | 8,305,288 | ---- | 82,100,221 | - 1893 |10,195,924 | ---- | 81,350,923 | - 1894 | 8,742,851 | ---- | 73,852,134 | - 1895 |10,276,293 | ---- | 60,448,421 | - 1896 |10,728,397 | ---- | 36,777,291 | - 1897 |12,319,122 | ---- | 50,944,617 | - 1898 |10,012,188 | ---- | 53,167,280 | - 1899 |11,826,175 | ---- | 38,198,753 | - 1900 |13,455,990 | ---- | 48,419,353 | - 1901 |15,329,099 | ---- | 39,813,517 | - 1902 |17,067,714 |$2,551,366| 27,203,184 |$2,745,597 - 1903 |20,671,384 | 3,183,224| 18,987,178 | 2,250,229 - 1904 |22,707,103 | 3,284,811| 23,335,172 | 2,452,239 - 1905 |23,095,705 | 3,379,600| 10,134,424 | 1,084,044 - 1906 |27,286,866 | 4,303,830| 16,562,451 | 1,940,620 - 1907 |33,848,766 | 5,704,012| 17,285,230 | 2,012,626 - 1908 |32,530,830 | 5,586,706| 8,439,031 | 1,092,053 - 1909 |35,548,143 | 5,866,154| 6,822,842 | 857,091 - 1910 |40,817,524 | 7,053,570| 2,846,709 | 441,017 - 1911 |45,568,797 | 7,920,244| 10,366,605 | 1,288,279 - 1912 |46,542,007 | 8,807,249| 6,337,559 | 898,035 - 1913 |49,387,944 | 9,185,184| 2,599,058 | 441,186 - 1914 |63,784,313 |11,010,693| 2,427,577 | 414,124 - 1915 |50,138,520 | 9,370,048| 55,362,917 | 8,463,174 - 1916 |30,087,999 | 7,058,420| 44,394,301 | 7,430,089 - ------+-----------+----------+-------------+------------ - -The graph (Fig. 67) represents the total production and the exports and -imports of cheese into the United States. - -+305. Average yearly price of cheese.+--The following table shows the -average yearly price of Cheddar cheese in the United States: - - TABLE XXIII - - SHOWING THE AVERAGE YEARLY PRICE OF CHEESE, 1892-1916 - - YEAR CENTS - 1892 9.4 - 1893 9.4 - 1894 9.7 - 1895 9.1 - 1896 8.4 - 1897 9.1 - 1898 8.6 - 1899 8.6 - 1900 10.2 - 1901 9.9 - 1902 10.1 - 1903 11.9 - 1904 10.5 - 1905 10.7 - 1906 11.7 - 1907 11.6 - 1908 12.9 - 1909 12.6 - 1910 15.5 - 1911 12.4 - 1912 14.2 - 1913 17.0 - 1914 17.1 - 1915 15.3 - 1916 16.7 - -The graph (Fig. 68) shows that the average yearly price has increased -from 9.4 cents a pound to 16.7 cents. - -[Illustration: FIG. 68.--Average yearly price of cheese.] - -+306. Canadian cheese statistics.+--The following statistics show the -development of the industry in Canada. The figures in Table XXIV show -the number of cheese factories, the amount of milk received and the -total production in Canada. - -Table XXIV indicates that the number of cheese factories has decreased -but that the production has increased. Because of the scarcity of -figures, conclusions would not be accurate. - -The figures in Table XXV of the exports and imports show that the -exports gradually decreased and the imports increased. If the production -has increased, as shown in Table XXIV, more cheese must be consumed by -the Canadians. The effect of the war is probably seen in the year 1916, -when the imports are decreased and the exports increased. - - - TABLE XXIV - - SHOWING THE NUMBER OF CHEESE FACTORIES, AMOUNT OF - MILK RECEIVED AND THE FACTORY PRODUCTION OF - CHEESE - - -------+------------+---------------+--------------- - | NUMBER OF | POUNDS OF | FACTORY - YEAR | CHEESE | MILK | PRODUCTION - | FACTORIES | DELIVERED | OF CHEESE - -------+------------+---------------+--------------- - 1900 | ---- | ---- | 220,833,269 - | | | - 1907 | ---- | ---- | 204,788,583 - | | | - 1910 | 2291 | ---- | 199,904,205 - | | | - 1915 | 1871 | 1,501,946,221 | 183,887,837 - | | | - 1916 | 1813 | 1,503,997,215 | 192,968,597 - -------+------------+---------------+--------------- - - - TABLE XXV - - SHOWING THE AMOUNT AND VALUE OF CANADIAN EXPORTS AND - IMPORTS OF CHEESE - - ------+--------------------------+---------------------- - Year | Exports | Imports - ------+-------------+------------+-----------+---------- - | Amount in | Value in | Amount in | Value in - | pounds | dollars | pounds | dollars - ------+-------------+------------+-----------+---------- - 1880 | 40,368,000 | $3,893,000 | | - | | | | - 1890 | 94,260,000 | 9,372,212 | | - | | | | - 1900 | 185,984,000 | 19,856,324 | | - | | | | - 1910 | 180,859,000 | 21,607,692 | 683,778 | ---- - | | | | - 1911 | 181,895,000 | 20,739,507 | 866,653 | ---- - | | | | - 1912 | 163,450,000 | 20,888,818 | 919,189 | ---- - | | | | - 1913 | 155,216,000 | 20,697,000 | 1,495,758 | ---- - | | | | - 1914 | 144,478,000 | 18,866,000 | 1,512,108 | ---- - | | | | - 1915 | 137,601,000 | 19,213,000 | 1,162,456 | ---- - | | | | - 1916 | 168,961,000 | ---- | 971,821 | ---- - ------+-------------+------------+-----------+---------- - -If the total population of the United States is figured at 100 million -and the difference between the exports and imports found and added to -the total production, it shows that the average person must consume -about three and one-half pounds of cheese in a year. - -In the past few years there has been considerable demand for more of the -foreign cheeses, such as Camembert and Roquefort. - -+307. Introduction of cheese-making into new regions.+--The manufacture -of Cheddar cheese is being encouraged in new regions, in the Alleghany -Mountains, in Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee and in -the western states. There has also sprung up a considerable demand for -the lactic acid group of cheeses, especially Neufchatel and Cottage, so -that while the cheese industry may decline in certain sections, the -total production will probably increase. In the proper locations or -sections, the cheese industry has a very bright future. The development -of the skimmed-milk cheeses will undoubtedly be given considerable -attention in the next few years. - - -REFERENCES - - N. Y. Dept. Agr. Bul. 54, The Dairy Industry in New York State. - - N. Y. Produce Rev. and American Creamery. - Vol. 34, No. 3, page 108. - Vol. 37, No. 16, page 684. - Vol. 37, No. 16, page 666. - Vol. 37, No. 9, page 411. - Vol. 33, No. 11, page 482. - Vol. 36, No. 23, page 1078. - - Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1897, pages 113-149. - - U. S. Census. - - U. S. Dept. Agr. Year Books. - - Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. - - Statistical abstract of the U. S. - - Canadian Dept. Agr. 1915, Report of the dairy and cold storage - commissioner. - - Dominion of Canada, Census and Statistics office, Rept. 1915. - - - - -CHAPTER XIX - -_TESTING_ - - -In connection with marketing, a certain amount of testing of the -products should be practiced, to determine exactly the results and -grades of products. This includes the testing of the whole milk, whey -and cheese for fat, the milk for casein, and the cheese for moisture. In -factories in which the milk is bought on the fat basis, it is necessary -to test each patron's milk for fat. If there is a cheese-moisture law in -the state, it is necessary to test for moisture. The whey should be -tested to learn the loss of fat in the manufacturing process and to -ascertain whether the losses have been reduced to the minimum. - -+308. The fat test.+--The test commonly used to determine the fat in -milk is known as the Babcock. The principle of this test is as follows: -Fat exists in the form of very small globules. Because the fat globules -are lighter than the other milk constituents, under the influence of the -force of gravity most of them rise to the surface. There, mixed with the -other milk substances, these globules form a layer of cream. Babcock -found that by adding to the milk sulfuric acid of proper strength and -temperature, the casein, the milk-sugar and the albumin are decomposed -and the sticky quality of the milk is destroyed. The acid does not -decompose the fat but leaves it free to come to the surface of the -mixture. Under centrifugal force, this fat is quickly brought to the -surface. By using a known quantity of milk and having a scale graduated -in percentage of the amount of milk, the percentage of fat can be -determined. Fig. 69 shows the necessary equipment. - -[Illustration: FIG. 69.--Apparatus necessary to test milk and whey for -fat and total solids.] - -There are three kinds of bottles employed in making the test, one with a -very large neck which is used when testing materials high in fat-content -such as cream, butter and cheese. This is generally called a cream-test -bottle. It is graduated from 0 to 50 per cent. When testing materials -with a small amount of fat such as whey, skim-milk and buttermilk, a -test bottle with two necks is used, one with a small bore for the fat -and the other neck with a larger bore to add the milk, acid, water. It -is graduated from 0 to 0.5 of 1 per cent. There is a third bottle -between the other two to test whole milk. This is known as a whole-milk -bottle. It is graduated from 0 to 8 per cent. All of the glassware -should comply with the laws. - -+309. Sampling the milk.+--One of the most important parts of testing is -to obtain a fair sample of the milk. The milk to be tested may be in a -vat or in a farmer's can or a composite sample jar. If the milk is -bought on the fat basis, that of each patron is not tested daily, but a -small quantity, about half an ounce, is taken each day and placed in a -jar; this is known as a composite sample. It is the usual practice to -number the patrons and have a sample bottle for each patron with his -number on it. Some substance must be added to preserve the milk and to -keep it from souring or coagulating. It is difficult to secure a fair -sample of sour milk. A wide-mouthed jar is preferred for keeping milk -samples. This must be kept closed to prevent evaporation. Each day when -milk is added to the composite sample, the bottles should be shaken to -prevent the cream drying. Composite samples are tested at least twice a -month. The milk may be mixed to obtain a fair sample, by stirring in the -vat or by pouring from one bottle to another. Vigorous shaking should be -avoided as this is likely to cause churning. One should see that all the -cream is removed from the sides of the sample bottle and that it is -evenly distributed through the milk. The sample of milk is now measured -out with the pipette. This is graduated to deliver 18 grams of milk, and -holds 17.6 c.c. Hold the pipette between the thumb and second finger of -the right hand with the tip below the surface of the milk, draw the milk -by suction with the lips until it is filled well above the graduation. -Quickly place the forefinger over the opening and at right angles to the -pipette. By gently and carefully raising the forefinger, allow the milk -to run down until the surface is exactly level with the graduation. To -obtain an accurate reading, the pipette should be on a level with the -eye. Then with the left hand, hold the milk test bottle in a slanting -position and place the tip of the pipette into it about one-third of an -inch and at a slight angle. Now let the milk slowly flow down the side -of the neck of the bottle, making certain that none is blown out by the -escaping air. When all has run out of the pipette, blow out the drop -which remains in the tip. Then measure out another sample in the same -way, as the test should be made in duplicate. - -+310. Adding the acid.+--The sulfuric acid should have a specific -gravity between 1.82 and 1.83. It should be kept in glass-stoppered -bottles or carboys to prevent the absorption of moisture from the air, -which will reduce its strength. Acid that is too strong might burn the -fat. The acid is a strong poison and will burn if it comes in contact -with the flesh or the clothing. In such case, it should be removed by -washing with plenty of water. An alkaline substance such as ammonia or -bicarbonate of soda should be applied to remove any acid not washed -away. - -The acid measure holds 17.5 c.c. and it should be filled to the -graduation. Then this acid should be added to the test bottle. The -bottle should be held at an angle and slowly rotated so that the acid -will rinse down any milk remaining in the neck of the bottle. -Immediately mix the acid and milk by whirling the body of the bottle in -a circle five or six inches in diameter. The mixture should not be -allowed to go into the neck of the bottle while mixing. Continue shaking -for about a minute after all the curd has disappeared. One should avoid -pointing the neck of the bottle toward any person in the mixing -operation. The acid unites with all the milk substances except the fat -and generates much heat. - -+311. Centrifuging.+--There are two machines in common use for -centrifuging, one that runs by mechanical power and the other smaller -and runs by hand. If the machine and atmosphere are very cold, the -apparatus can be warmed by placing hot water in it. This is not -necessary in a steam machine. In a factory where there are a number of -samples to test, a power machine is usually employed. In this machine -there are pockets or cups in which to set the test bottles. The machine -or disk must be balanced by placing bottles in opposite pockets. These -pockets are hinged so that when standing still the bottle is in an -upright position and when the centrifuge is running, it is in a -horizontal position. The machine should then be covered and started -running. It should be run at the speed indicated. After five minutes, -stop the machine and fill the bottles with boiling water up to the neck. -This can be done without taking the bottles out of the machine. A -pipette or slender-spouted vessel may be used to add the water. Whirl -the bottles two minutes, then add more boiling water to bring the fat -column into the graduated part of the neck of the bottle. Then whirl one -minute. The test should be read at once or the bottles kept at a -temperature of 130 deg. to 140 deg. F. until ready to read. - -+312. Reading the test.+--To read the test, subtract the reading at the -bottom of the fat column from that at the highest point. The curved -meniscus which always forms at the top of the fat column should be -included in the reading. Duplicate samples should not vary more than O.2 -of 1 per cent. Standard Babcock test bottles and pipettes should always -be used. In some states the agricultural experiment stations examine all -glassware and mark it to make certain that it conforms to the -requirements of the state law. In New York, glassware found to be -correct is branded "S. B.," which means State Brand. In some states a -person must have a license to test milk or cream, when it is paid for on -the fat test. Such a person must pass an examination to show that he -understands the test before a license, will be granted. The license may -be revoked if the work is not honestly performed. - -+313. Testing whey for fat.+--Because of the small amount of fat in -whey, it is difficult to obtain a representative sample. The best way, -if the entire amount cannot be placed in a vat and stirred, is to catch -a little of the whey at intervals as it is being drawn from the vat. The -sample to be tested is measured with the pipette the same as the milk -and placed in the skimmed-milk test bottle. The same acid is used to -test whey as to test milk but because there are not so many solids to -destroy, not so much is used. If as much acid is used with whey as with -milk, it will burn the fat and so interfere with the reading of the -test. Just enough acid is added to destroy the milk substances except -the fat, or enough to turn the contents of the test bottle dark brown. -This usually requires filling the acid measure one-quarter of an inch -under the graduation. The remainder of the test is the same as for whole -milk. - -+314. Testing cheese for fat.+--The sample of cheese to test for fat is -obtained by removing the sample with a cheese-trier. This sample is -called a "plug." Different plugs from the same cheese will test various -percentages of fat so that it is difficult to secure a representative -sample. The usual practice is to take three plugs, one near the center, -another near the outside and the third between the first two. The plugs -should be put into glass-stoppered bottles to prevent the evaporation of -moisture. These plugs are then chopped up very fine. It is of course -impossible to measure the cheese as with milk and whey, but it is -weighed (Fig. 70). If the cheese is soft it can be stirred with a -spatula until well mixed. A soft cheese usually sticks to the neck of -the test bottle. After being weighed, it can be dissolved in a little -sodium hydroxide and poured into the bottle. Different amounts may be -used, commonly 4-1/2 or 6 grams, but 6 grams is to be preferred. This is -placed in the Babcock cream bottle since there will usually be more fat -than can be read in a milk bottle. After the material has been placed in -the test bottle, about two-thirds of an acid-measure of warm water is -added to assist in dissolving the cheese. - -[Illustration: FIG. 70.--Apparatus necessary to test cheese for fat.] - -The acid is added the same as with the milk. If all the cheese particles -are not destroyed, and therefore do not disappear, a little more acid -will complete the solution. Centrifuging is performed as with the milk. - -+315. Reading the test.+--In a cream-test bottle the neck is so much -wider that there is a much larger meniscus. In order to obtain an -accurate result, the meniscus should be removed. This is done by -carefully adding a substance called glymol, which is a mineral oil -colored red. Usually about one-quarter of an inch of glymol is added to -the fat column. This should not mix with the fat. The bottles should be -placed in a hot water bath 135 deg. to 140 deg. F. for four minutes -before reading. The temperature at reading should be 135 deg. to 140 deg. -F. The reading is then taken from the bottom of the fat column to the -line between this and the glymol. The bottle is graduated for 18 grams -of material, but as only a part of 18 grams of cheese was used for the -test, the reading should be multiplied by the part of 18 grams used. For -example, suppose 6 grams of cheese were used and the test read 12 per -cent fat. Since 6 is one third of 18, the actual percentage of fat is 3 -times 12, or 36 per cent. - -+316. The Hart[134] casein test+ was devised to determine the percentage -of casein in milk. A special test bottle and centrifuge are necessary. -The method of making the test is as follows: Place 2 c.c. of chloroform -in the casein test tube, add 20 c.c. of a 0.25 of 1 per cent solution of -acetic acid at a temperature of 65 deg. to 75 deg. F. This solution of -acetic acid is made by diluting 10 c.c. of glacial acetic acid with 100 -c.c. of water, then dilute 25 c.c. of this solution to 1000 c.c. with -water; 5 c.c. of milk at a temperature of 65 deg. to 75 deg. F. is then -run into the bottle. The bottle is then covered with the thumb and -inverted and the mixture shaken vigorously for exactly twenty seconds. -It is then centrifuged within twenty minutes at a speed of 2000 -revolutions a minute. The bottle should stand ten minutes before reading -the percentage of casein. There are other tests for casein but they are -very complicated. - -+317. Solids in the milk.+--Because not only the fat but all the solids -are utilized in cheese-making, it is important to know the amount of the -solids in the milk. This is ascertained by determining the specific -gravity of the milk and knowing the fat-content; the solids not fat can -then be calculated. - -+318. The lactometer.+--The specific gravity of liquids is measured by -an instrument called a hydrometer. Its use is based on the fact that -when a solid body floats in a liquid, it displaces a volume of liquid -equal in weight to its own. Hydrometers are in many cases so made that -the specific gravity can be read at the point where the scale is even -with the upper surface of the liquid. A hydrometer that is especially -adapted to milk is called a lactometer. There are two lactometers in -common use, the Quevenne and the Board of Health. - -[Illustration: FIG. 71.--A Quevenne lactometer.] - -_The Quevenne lactometer._--This is a long slender hollow piece of glass -weighted at the bottom to make it float in the milk in an upright -position (Fig. 71). The upper end is slender and contains the scale. -This scale is graduated from 15 at the top to 40 at the bottom. Each -reading on the scale corresponds to the point marked specific gravity on -a hydrometer, except that the figures are not complete. For example, 15 -on the Quevenne scale means a specific gravity of 1.015; a reading of -30 on the Quevenne scale means a specific gravity of 1.030, and so on. -The Quevenne lactometer is graduated to give correct results at a -temperature of 60 deg. F. The milk should be at this temperature. If the -temperature is below or above this, a correction must be made to the -reading. The temperature should not be more than 10 degrees above or -below 60 deg. F. The correction for each degree in variation of -temperature can be made by adding 0.1 or subtracting 0.1 from the -lactometer reading, as the case may be. If the temperature is above 60 -deg. F., the correction is added to the lactometer and if it is below 60 -deg. F., the correction is subtracted from the lactometer reading. The -reading should be taken when the lactometer is floating free in the milk. -The scale is read exactly at the surface of the milk. The better -lactometers have a thermometer with the scale just above or opposite the -lactometer scale. - -[Illustration: FIG. 72.--A Board of Health lactometer.] - -_The Board of Health lactometer._--This is very similar to the Quevenne -lactometer except that the scale is graduated from 0 to 120 (Fig. 72). -The point on the scale of the lactometer that floats at the surface in -water is represented by 0, and 100 represents the specific gravity of -1.029. On the Board of Health lactometer, the 100 degrees or divisions -from 0 to 100 equal 29 divisions on the Quevenne. Therefore, one -division on the Board of Health equals 0.29 of a division on the -Quevenne. To convert Board of Health reading to Quevenne, multiply by -0.29 and to convert Quevenne to Board of Health, divide by 0.29. The -correction for temperatures above or below 60 deg. F. is made the same -as with the Quevenne, except 0.3 is added or subtracted from the reading -instead of 0.1 as with the Quevenne. - -+319. Calculating the solids not fat in the milk.+--When the lactometer -reading and fat-content of the milk are known, there are several -formulas for calculating the solids not fat. In the following formulas, -L equals Quevenne lactometer reading at 60 deg. F., and F equals the -percentage of fat in the milk: - - L + 0.7 F - --------- = S.N.F - 3.8 - - L + F - ----- = S.N.F. - 4 - - L - - + 0.2 F + 0.14 = S.N.F. - 4 - -+320. Testing cheese for moisture.+[135]--There are two methods of -testing cheese for moisture. The following is a simple test devised by -H. C. Troy: - -The ordinary butter moisture test, in which a metal cup is heated over a -flame, cannot be used for determining the percentage of water in cheese -because the high temperature developed in operating that test drives -from he cheese other substances with the water. Also, particles are lost -by spattering when the cheese is heated with any degree of rapidity in -the shallow butter-moisture cups. To overcome these difficulties, the -new method here described has been developed for the purpose of -determining the percentage of moisture in cheese. The apparatus consists -of: - - 1 double-walled copper drying cup - 1 centigrade thermometer registering to 200 deg. - 1 alcohol lamp - 1 tripod - 1 special flask - 1 scales sensitive to 0.01 gram - 1 set of weights, 0.01 to 100 grams - -The body of the copper drying cup may be made in two parts. One of the -parts is a jacket that forms the outer wall of the apparatus. It has a -flat bottom 4-1/2 inches in diameter, and the perpendicular wall is -4-1/2 inches in height. The inner part of the cup must have a flat -bottom 2-3/4 inches in diameter and a side wall 3-3/4 inches high. A -flange attached to the upper rim of the inner part extends out at right -angles to the cup wall and forms a cover for the space between the walls -when the two parts are put together. The flange is bent down around its -outer edge to make it fit snugly over the upper rim of the outer jacket. -It thus holds the inner cup securely in place, leaving a space about 3/4 -inch wide for oil between the walls and bottoms, and permits the -apparatus to be taken apart readily. A circular opening about 1/2 inch -in diameter is made through the flange to permit the insertion of a -thermometer for taking the temperature of the oil or the melted fat -which is used in the space between the walls. Lard or tallow serves best -for use in this space; a readily inflammable oil should not be employed. -The thermometer may be permanently held in place by passing it snugly -through a hole bored in a cork, the cork being then fitted into the -hole through the flange. A flat metal cover is placed on the cup when -making a test. This cover has a hole through the center just large -enough to permit the neck of the drying flask to extend up through it. -The cover assists in keeping the body of the flask at a constant -temperature by preventing the entrance of cold air currents. The -thermometer should register changes in temperature between zero and 200 -deg. C. The alcohol lamp should yield a flame about 1/4 inch in diameter -and 3/4 inch high. The tripod should be about 6 inches high and of proper -diameter at the top to support the oil bath. - -An ordinary flat-bottom glass Erlenmeyer flask, of such a diameter as to -fit neatly into the oil-bath cup, may be used to hold the cheese during -the drying operation; but a special glass flask serves better. It is -made with a flat bottom 2-1/2 inches in diameter, which will fit into -the cup of the drying apparatus. The side walls of this flask should be -perpendicular for about 1 inch, when they should begin to slope in -toward the base of the neck, which should be located about 2 inches -above the bottom. The neck of the flask should be 1 inch in diameter, -with perpendicular walls, and its length should give the flask a total -height of 4-3/4 inches. When the apparatus (Fig. 73) is put together for -the first time, the melted fat or oil may be placed in the outer jacket -and the inner cup may then be fitted into position, or the parts may be -put together first and the oil then poured into the space between the -cup walls through the opening where the thermometer is to be placed. The -oil should fill the space to within an inch of the top. The cork -through which the thermometer has been passed is then fitted into the -opening. The thermometer bulb should be placed in the oil about half an -inch above the bottom of the outer jacket. The apparatus is then placed -on the tripod over the alcohol lamp. A flame 1/2 inch in diameter and -3/4 inch high will give sufficient heat to hold the bath at the proper -temperature. The temperature may be regulated by raising or lowering the -lamp or by changing the size of the flame by adjusting the wick. -Hundreds of tests may be run without taking the apparatus apart or -changing the oil. The copper drying cup can be made by any tinsmith. The -other parts may be ordered through any dairy or chemical supply company. - - -[Illustration: FIG. 73.--Apparatus necessary to test cheese for -moisture.] - -In operating the test, the alcohol lamp is first lighted, so that the -oil bath may be warming while the test sample is under preparation. A -representative sample of the cheese, which may be taken with a -cheese-trier and held in a glass-stoppered sample jar, is then cut into -particles about the size of kernels of wheat without removing it from -the jar. This may be accomplished with an ordinary table knife that has -had the end squared and sharpened. The clean dry flask is then -accurately balanced on the scales and a 5-gram weight is placed in the -opposite scale pan. Particles of cheese from the prepared sample are put -into the flask until the scales comes to an exact balance. Great care -should be taken to avoid loss of moisture from the cheese in the -preparation of the sample. - -With the thermometer in the oil bath registering between 140 deg. and 145 -deg. C. (or between 284 deg. and 293 deg. F.), the flask is placed in the -cup of the oil bath and the flat disk-shaped cover is adjusted over the -apparatus. The flask should remain in the bath for fifty minutes, the -temperature being kept between 140 deg. and 145 deg. C. all the time. The -flask is then removed, covered and allowed to cool to room temperature in -a dry place. It is then weighed, and the quotient obtained by dividing -the loss in weight by the original weight, multiplied by 100, gives the -percentage of water in the cheese. The following shows the method of -computation: - -Problem: Five grams of cheese was heated until the water contained in it -was evaporated. The remaining substance weighed 3.15 grams. What -percentage of water did the cheese contain? - - Answer: 5.00 - 3.15 = 1.85 - 1.85 / 5 = 0.37 - 0.37 x 100 = 37 (percentage of water in cheese) - -A butter-moisture scales with an extra 5-gram weight may be used for -weighing out the 5 grams of cheese. If the scales indicates the amount -of moisture in 10 grams of butter by percentage graduations on its beam -or by percentage weights, then it will be necessary to multiply by 2 the -percentage indicated by such scales or percentage weights when only 5 -grams of cheese is used. - -The moisture may be determined by weighing out a small sample of cheese -and drying it in an oven and calling the loss moisture. Many such ovens -have been devised. - -New York and Wisconsin have laws limiting the amount of water which may -be incorporated in Cheddar cheese. New York places the limit at 39 per -cent and Wisconsin at 40 per cent. If the moisture-content is above -this, the cheese must be branded adulterated. - - - - -CHAPTER XX - -_MARKETING_ - - -Marketing is related to cheese in two ways: First, the purchase of the -raw material, the milk; and secondly the sale of the finished product, -the cheese. - -+321. Buying milk.+--The method of paying for the milk differs in the -various cheese sections and factories. At some factories a stated price -is paid for the milk or the fat. This is usually in terms of 100 pounds -of milk or for each pound of fat. This is the practice with concerns -possessing large capital. Other factories make the milk into cheese and -after each sale, the expenses necessary for operating the factory are -deducted and the remainder of the money divided among the patrons. This -money is divided either on the basis of the number of pounds of milk or -of fat delivered. The question arises as to which is the better method -to buy milk for cheese-making, or the fairest way to divide the money -received from a sale of cheese. - -+322. Cheese yield basis of buying milk.+--Let us suppose that at a -cheese factory there were five patrons: (A) delivered 100 pounds of milk -testing 3 per cent fat; (B) 100 pounds of milk testing 3.5 per cent fat; -(C) 100 pounds of milk testing 4.0 per cent fat; (D) 100 pounds of milk -testing 4.5 per cent fat; and (E) 100 pounds of milk testing 5.0 per -cent fat. Table XXVI shows the actual number of pounds of cheese -containing 37 per cent moisture which 100 pounds of milk containing -different percentages of fat will produce. The cheese sold net for 20 -cents a pound. - - TABLE XXVI - - SHOWING PAYMENTS FOR MILK BASED ON THE ACTUAL YIELD - OF CHEESE - - ===================================================================== - PATRON | POUNDS | PER CENT | YIELD OF CHEESE | PRICE A | AMOUNT - | OF MILK | OF FAT IN | CONTAINING | POUND | DUE EACH - | DELIVERED | MILK | 37% MOISTURE | | PATRON - -------+-----------+-----------+-----------------+---------+--------- - A | 100 | 3.0 | 8.30 | $.20 | $1.66 - B | 100 | 3.5 | 9.45 | .20 | 1.89 - C | 100 | 4.0 | 10.60 | .20 | 2.12 - D | 100 | 4.5 | 11.74 | .20 | 2.348 - E | 100 | 5.0 | 12.90 | .20 | 2.58 - -------+-----------+-----------+-----------------+---------+--------- - Total | 500 | 20 | 52.99 | .20 | 10.598 - ===================================================================== - -This table shows the amount of money each patron should receive if the -money were divided on the basis of the actual yield of cheese. - -+323. Fat basis for payment of milk.+--Let us suppose that the same five -patrons delivered the same quantity of milk testing the same percentages -of fat and that the cheese sold for the same price. A total of 20 pounds -of fat was delivered and the cheese sold for $10.598; by dividing this -amount by the pounds of fat delivered, the price or value of one pound -of fat is found to be $.5299. Multiplying the pounds of fat each patron -delivered by the price a pound would give the amount of money due each -patron. - - - TABLE XXVII - - SHOWING PAYMENTS FOR MILK BASED ON FAT-CONTENT OF - MILK - - =================================================================== - | POUNDS | PER CENT | POUNDS OF | VALUE OF | - PATRON | OF MILK | OF FAT IN | FAT | POUND OF | AMOUNT DUE - | DELIVERED | MILK | DELIVERED | FAT | EACH PATRON - -------+-----------+-----------+-----------+----------+------------ - A | 100 | 3.0 | 3.0 | $.5299 | $1.58 - B | 100 | 3.5 | 3.5 | .5299 | 1.85 - C | 100 | 4.0 | 4.0 | .5299 | 2.12 - D | 100 | 4.5 | 4.5 | .5299 | 2.38 - E | 100 | 5.0 | 5.0 | .5299 | 2.65 - =================================================================== - -+324. Weight basis or pooling method for payment of milk.+--By this -system, each patron would receive an equal price for 100 pounds of milk. -If the same supposition is taken as before, there would be 500 pounds of -milk delivered and the cheese sold for $10.59; each 100 pounds of milk -would be worth $2.12. As each patron delivered an equal weight of milk, -each would receive an equal amount of money, or $2.12. - -+325. Fat-plus-two method for payment of milk.+--Some workers have -thought that by adding two to the fat test, the division of money would -be more nearly the true cheese-producing value of the milk. The amount -due each patron is figured as in the fat basis, except that two is added -to the fat test and this is used as the basis of division. If the same -suppositions were used as before, each patron would receive the amount -shown in Table XXVIII. - -+326. Comparison of methods.+--The best way to judge the different -methods of paying for milk is to compare them with the true value based -on the actual cheese yield as shown in Table XXIX. - - - TABLE XXVIII - - SHOWING PAYMENTS FOR MILK BY FAT-PLUS-TWO METHODS - - =========================================================================== - PATRON | POUNDS | PER CENT | FAT PLUS | POUNDS | VALUE OF | AMOUNT - | OF MILK | OF FAT IN | TWO | OF FAT | POUND OF | DUE EACH - | DELIVERED | MILK | | DELIVERED | FAT | PATRON - -------+-----------+-----------+----------+-----------+----------+--------- - A | 100 | 3.0 | 5.0 | 5.0 | $.353 | $1.76 - B | 100 | 3.5 | 5.5 | 5.5 | .353 | 1.94 - C | 100 | 4.0 | 6.0 | 6.0 | .353 | 2.12 - D | 100 | 4.5 | 6.5 | 6.5 | .353 | 2.29 - E | 100 | 5.0 | 7.0 | 7.0 | .353 | 2.47 - =========================================================================== - - - TABLE XXIX - - SHOWING THE COMPARISON OF THE DIFFERENT METHODS - OF PAYING FOR MILK AT CHEESE FACTORIES - - ================================================================ - | | ERROR IN PAYMENT PER 100 POUNDS OF MILK BY - PATRON | PERCENTAGE +----------------+-----------+-------------- - | OF FAT IN | POOLING SYSTEM | FAT BASIS | FAT-PLUS-TWO - | MILK | | | METHOD - -------+------------+----------------+-----------+-------------- - A | 3.0 | +$0.46 | -$0.08 | +$0.10 - B | 3.5 | +0.23 | -0.04 | +0.05 - C | 4.0 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 - D | 4.5 | -0.23 | +0.04 | -0.05 - E | 5.0 | -0.46 | +0.08 | -0.10 - ================================================================ - -A careful study of the above table shows that the pooling system is in -favor of the dairy-man with the poor milk, and that the fat basis favors -the dairy-man with the rich milk. This is due, of course, to the fact -that the casein does not increase in the milk quite in proportion to the -fat. With the pooling system or fat basis of payment, no account is -taken of the casein; but the fat-plus-two system is an attempt to -recognize the casein, but considers the percentage of casein in all milk -to be the same. This method is in favor of the dairy-man with milk low -in fat, but not to the extent of the pooling system. The latter system -considers the cheese-producing power of all milk to be the same. It -favors the dairy-man with low-testing milk. The fat basis for payment -recognizes only the fat and is an advantage to the dairy-man with the -high-testing milk but not to the extent that the pooling system is in -favor of the low-testing milk. The fat-plus-two method recognizes 2 per -cent of casein in the milk. This favors the dairy-men with low-testing -milk. Other methods[136] of paying for milk have been devised. Because -the actual yield of cheese from the milk of different herds cannot be -easily determined at the cheese factory, this method of payment cannot -be employed. In localities in which all the dairy-men have the same -breed of cattle and there is not a wide variation in the fat percentage, -the fat basis is usually found to be the most satisfactory way to pay -for the milk. - -+327. Laws governing the production and sale of milk.+--Many states have -laws regulating the sanitary conditions under which the milk may be -produced. These laws relate principally to the condition of the stables, -the health of the cow, the food given the cow, and the care of the milk. -The following law[137] of Wisconsin is a good example: - - "Adulterated milk, what constitutes. Section 4607a. In all - prosecutions under the preceding section, or any other - section of these statutes, or laws amendatory thereof or - supplementary thereto, relating to the sale of adulterated - milk or adulterated cream, the term adulterated milk shall - mean: milk containing less than three per centum of milk - fat, or milk containing less than eight and one-half per - centum of milk solids not fat, or milk drawn from cows - within eight days before or four days after parturition, - or milk from which any part of the cream has been - removed, or milk which has been diluted with water or any - other fluid, or milk to which has been added or into which - has been introduced any coloring matter or chemical or - preservative or deleterious or filthy substance or any - foreign substance whatsoever, or milk drawn from cows kept - in a filthy or unhealthy condition, or milk drawn from any - sick or diseased cow or cow having ulcers or other running - sores, or milk drawn from cows fed unwholesome food, or - milk in any stage of putrefaction, or milk contaminated by - being kept in stables containing cattle or other animals. - The term adulterated cream shall mean cream containing - less than eighteen per centum of milk fat, or cream taken - from milk drawn from cows within eight days before or four - days after parturition, or cream from milk to which has - been added or introduced any coloring matter or chemical - or preservative or deleterious or filthy substance or any - foreign substance whatsoever, or cream from milk drawn - from cows kept in a filthy or unhealthy condition, or - cream from milk drawn from any sick or diseased cow or cow - having ulcers or other running sores, or cream from milk - drawn from cows fed unwholesome food, or cream - contaminated by being kept in stables containing cattle or - other animals, or cream to which has been added or into - which has been introduced any coloring matter or chemical - or preservative or deleterious or filthy substance or any - foreign substance whatsoever, or cream in any stage of - putrefaction, provided, that nothing in this act shall be - construed to prohibit the sale of pasteurized milk or - cream to which viscogen or sucrate of lime has been added - solely for the purpose of restoring the viscosity, if the - same be distinctly labeled in such manner as to advise the - purchaser of its true character; and providing that - nothing in this act shall be construed as prohibiting the - sale of milk commonly known as 'skimmed milk,' when the - same is sold as and for 'skimmed milk.' Milk drawn from - cows within eight days before or four days after - parturition, or milk to which has been added or into which - has been introduced any coloring matter or chemical or - preservative or deleterious or filthy substance, or milk - drawn from cows kept in a filthy or unclean condition, or - milk drawn from any sick or diseased cow or cow having - ulcers or other running sores, or milk drawn from cows - fed unwholesome food, or milk contaminated by being kept - in stables containing cattle or other animals and cream - from any such milk, or cream in any stage of putrefaction - are hereby declared to be unclean and unsanitary milk or - unclean and unsanitary cream, as the case may be." - -Most states have laws which determine the legal standard of milk. Any -one selling milk which does not meet this standard is liable to be -fined. The laws of most states prohibit the taking of anything from the -milk or the adding of anything to it. This prohibits the skimming and -watering. Skimmed-milk must be sold as such. - -+328. Marketing of cheese.+--There are many different methods[138] of -selling cheese. Each is adapted to certain conditions and each has its -advantages and disadvantages. In cheese sections, the customary method -of selling is on the board of trade, which is the meeting of the -cheese-buyers and factory salesmen. They meet at a given place at a -certain day and hour each week. Every board has its officers. There are -different ways in which a board of trade may be operated. In some cases -there is a large blackboard divided into columns. In the first column, -the salesman writes the name of the factory and the number and kind of -cheese offered for sale. At the top of the other columns are the names -of the different cheese-buyers. The president usually opens the sale at -a stated time and asks that all cheese be placed on the blackboard. When -this is done he states that they are ready to receive bids on the -cheese. The buyers then write the price a pound they wish to pay -opposite each lot of cheese and in the column headed by their names. -After all the bids have been received and placed on the board, the -presiding officer states that a certain length of time, usually fifteen -minutes, will be given the salesman to withdraw his cheese if he does -not think a high enough price has been offered; this is indicated by the -salesman stepping to the blackboard and erasing the factory name and -number of boxes. At the close of the stated time, the presiding officer -declares the cheese offered on the board sold to the highest bidder. The -purchaser then gives the salesman directions for shipping. - -Sometimes a board of trade has a committee of one member elected by the -factory salesmen and one elected by the cheese-buyers. These two members -elect a third and these three constitute the price committee. This -committee meets each week and determines what the price shall be. This -is known as the ruling. The factory salesmen and cheese-buyers then try -to make private sales. By this method no one, except the persons -concerned, knows exactly what price is paid for the cheese. Usually, a -price above the ruling is paid. - -At Quebec, Canada, there is a cheese-selling organization with -government assistance. On paying a certain fee, any cheese factory may -join. All the factories belonging to the organization ship their cheese -to a central cold storage where the cheeses are examined and graded by a -government inspector. A cheese from each vat is tried. These cheeses are -separated into white and colored lots, then graded according to quality. -When the total number of cheeses in each lot is known, the lots are sold -at auction. The purchaser must accept the cheese as graded. The better -grades of cheese bring about the same price as on the market, but the -advantage lies in the selling of the lower grades. Ordinarily, the -purchaser takes advantage of the salesman when the cheeses are -undergrade. The success of this plan depends on the accuracy of the -person grading the cheese. This method seems to be growing in -popularity, because the cheese-buyer can purchase large amounts of -cheese at one time and be sure of the quality. A small fee, about -one-twelfth of a cent a pound, is charged for handling the cheese. -Similar organizations are in operation in Wisconsin. The boards of trade -and selling organizations deal almost entirely in Cheddar cheese. - -+329. Mercantile exchanges.+--In the larger cities are exchanges where -cheese is bought and sold by jobbers. This cheese is mostly Cheddar. The -prices paid these jobbers tend to fix the daily price of cheese. These -prices are published daily, for example, in New York Price Current. Some -factories ship their cheese directly to these jobbers. The following are -the cheese rules of the New York Mercantile Exchange adopted May 4, -1915: - - CHEESE RULES OF THE NEW YORK MERCANTILE EXCHANGE - - Rule 1. At the first regular meeting of the Executive - Committee in each year, the President shall appoint, - subject to the approval of the Executive Committee, a - Cheese Committee to consist of seven members of the - Exchange, who are known as members of the cheese trade, to - hold office until their successors are appointed. It shall - be the duty of the Cheese Committee to formulate such - rules and regulations as may be necessary for the - government of transactions between members of the - Exchange, and to revise the same as circumstances may - require. Such rules and revisions shall be subject to the - approval of the Executive Committee. - - Rule 2. All transactions in cheese between members of the - Exchange shall be governed by the following rules, but - nothing therein shall be construed as interfering, in any - way, with the rights of members to make such special - contracts or conditions as they may desire. - - Rule 3. If a sale is made from dock, or platform, or to - arrive, the buyer shall assume the same relations toward - the transportation line by which the cheese arrives, as - the seller previously held as regards its removal from the - place of delivery within the time granted by such lines - for that purpose. Transactions between members of this - Exchange shall be governed as follows: Any member - negotiating for any lot of cheese belonging to another - member, the price having been agreed upon, shall examine - such lot of cheese within twenty-four (24) hours after - such negotiation takes place. Failure to examine within - said time releases the seller from any obligations to make - delivery thereafter, if he so wishes. - - Rule 4. In the absence of special agreement, all cheese - purchased "in store" shall be understood as being ready - and designed for immediate delivery, but the buyer shall - have twenty-four hours in which to have the cheese - inspected, and weight tested, and shall not be liable for - the storage and insurance, if removed within two days. - - Rule 5. When cheese are sold to arrive, or from depot or - dock, the cheese must be accepted or rejected within six - business hours after notice of actual arrival to buyer. - Business hours shall be understood to be from 10 A.M. to 4 - P.M. If buyer rejects the same, he shall state the reasons - for rejection. Should the rejection be considered unfair, - the seller shall at once notify the buyer that he declines - to accept such rejection; and he may call for a Committee, - which shall be composed of three members of the cheese - trade; the seller choosing one, the buyer one, and the - third selected from the cheese trade by these two, or, - they failing to agree, the third shall be appointed by the - Chairman of the Committee on Cheese. The Examining - Committee shall at once inspect the lot of cheese in - dispute, sampling not less than five (5) per cent of each - mark or factory, and they shall immediately give their - decision in writing to both parties. Either party failing - to abide by the decision of the Committee may be summoned - by the other party before the Complaint Committee under - Section 24 of the By-laws. The fees for each examination - shall be six ($6) dollars, to be paid by the party - adjudged to be in fault. - - Rule 6. The weight of all cheese shall be tested by a - regularly appointed official weigher, and his certificates - shall accompany the document conveying the title of the - property. Said official weigher to be appointed by the - Committee on Cheese, subject to the approval of the - Executive Committee. - - Rule 7. The weigher's fee shall be twenty-five (25) cents - per factory except where the owner requires more than ten - (10) boxes be tested in which case the fee shall be fifty - (50) cents, which shall be paid by the seller. - - Rule 8. Unless otherwise agreed upon in testing the weight - of cheese, not less than five (5) boxes or more than ten - (10) per cent of the whole lot shall be a test, and said - test shall be considered good for three (3) business days, - including day test is made. - - Rule 9. In testing weights, all over and short weights - shall be taken into the average on each particular - factory. Single Daisies shall be tested on half pounds, - Double Daisies and all other sizes on even pounds. - - Rule 10. Where a lot of cheese is found to test irregular - in weights, either the buyer or seller may require the - entire lot to be reweighed. The charge for same shall be - three (3) cents per box. - - Rule 11. Boxes of cheese which may be found largely at - variance from original weights shall not enter into the - average, but their weight shall be separately ascertained - and certified to by the weigher. - - Rule 12. Where sales are made, and the buyer finds damaged - or sour cheese in excess of fifteen (15) per cent it shall - be optional with him to refuse or receive the remainder of - the lot purchased. But, in the event of his accepting the - remainder of the lot, the sour or damaged cheese shall - revert to the seller. - - Rule 13. The Committee on Cheese shall appoint subject to - the approval of the Executive Committee, a Cheese - Inspector and also a Deputy Inspector, whose duties shall - be, when called upon by members of the Exchange, to - inspect the quality and condition of such lots of cheese - as may be required and to render a certificate of such - inspection. Where the cheese in the lots are reasonably - uniform in quality, the examination of 10 per cent of the - lot shall be considered sufficient, but this shall not - prevent the Inspector examining a larger percentage of the - lot, when he deems it necessary. The fee for inspection - shall be fifty (50) cents for lots consisting of fifty - (50) boxes or less. Lots exceeding fifty (50) boxes shall - be one cent per box, which shall be collected from the - member ordering the inspection. - - Rule 14. The Cheese Inspector's certificate shall be made - to read as follows: - - - NEW YORK MERCANTILE EXCHANGE - - _Cheese Inspector's Certificate_ - - Inspection No.__________ - - This is to certify that I have this day inspected for M___________ - the following cheese, now located at_____________________ - Factory and identification marks_________________________ - Quantity in lot__________________________________________boxes - Quantity inspected_______________________________________boxes - and find as follows: - Flavor_______________________________________________________________ - Body and Texture_____________________________________________________ - Color________________________________________________________________ - Condition____________________________________________________________ - Boxes________________________________________________________________ - Grade________________________________________________________________ - Inspection charges________________ - - _____________________________________Inspector_ - - The certificate to have a blank margin of three inches at - the bottom, for the purpose of inserting specifications of - Institutions, also for cheese sold under the Call, so that - the Inspector may certify that cheese inspected fill the - requirements as specified and the Inspector shall brand - one impression on both boxes and cheese. - - NEW YORK MERCANTILE EXCHANGE - - OFFICIAL INSPECTION - - Number_______________ Date___________________________ - - ____________________________Inspector_ - - Rule 16. The Weigher's Certificate shall be made to read - as follows: - - This is to certify that the following is the actual test of ______ - boxes, out of shipment of ______ boxes - - Factory Mark___________________________________________ - - Marked Weights_________________________________________ - - Actual Weights_________________________________________ - - Loss___________________________________________________ - - Average loss_______________lbs. on________________boxes - - New York_____________________________19______ - - ______________________ _Weigher_ - - and the Cheese Rules numbered 6 to 11 inclusive be printed - on the back thereof. - - Rule 17. Members offering cheese for sale under the Call - shall describe each lot, as to number of boxes, color, - texture (open or close made), body, flavor, size, and how - boxed, section where made, whether whole milks or skims - and the average weight of each lot. Cheese sold under the - Call to be accepted, or rejected, as a good delivery, or - otherwise, based on the description given at the sale. - - Rule 18. When cheese are sold under the Call, unless - otherwise stated, they shall be ready for immediate - shipment. - - Rule 19. All cheese offered under the Call, with - Inspector's Certificate attached, shall be accompanied by - such Certificate and be accepted by the buyer - unconditionally, provided the cheese are branded according - to Rule 13. - - Rule 20. When cheese are offered under the Call, without - Inspector's Certificate, should the buyer not consider the - cheese a good delivery, according to description by - seller, he may notify the seller, and if the seller is - unwilling to make another delivery, the buyer may call - upon the Inspector to decide whether or not the delivery - shall stand. If the Inspector decides it is a good - delivery, the buyer shall accept the cheese. If the - Inspector decides it is not a good delivery, then the - seller shall have twenty-four (24) hours in which to make - a good delivery. But if the seller, after twenty-four (24) - hours, fails to make a good delivery, then the buyer shall - notify the Superintendent of the Exchange, who shall - collect a penalty of three per cent of the amount of the - transaction, the Exchange retaining twenty-five per cent - of this sum, and seventy-five per cent shall be paid to - the buyer. - - Rule 21. Spot sales under the Call shall be for spot cash - unless otherwise agreed. - - Rule 22. All failures in meeting contracts shall be - reported to the Superintendent of the Exchange, and - announced at next regular session of the Exchange. - -+330. Marketing perishable varieties.+--Soft cheeses, such as Cream, -Neufchatel, Cottage, are usually sold to jobbers or directly to retail -stores. They have a very short commercial life, hence cannot be held -long before delivery to the consumer. From the jobber, cheese usually -goes to the wholesale grocer and then to the retail dealer and finally -the consumer. Most jobbers have cold storages so that they can hold -cheese without injury to quality. (See Fig. 74.) The kind of cheese -marketed in any locality depends on the tastes of the residents. For -example, the South usually desires a highly colored product, thinking -this color indicates more fat; in the Cheddar group New England demands -a soft pasty quick-curing cheese, thinking that softness is a sign of -more fat and richness; England wants a rather dry, well-cured, highly -flavored cheese. Canadian Cheddar cheese has been standardized as far -as possible to appeal to the English market. A long ripening period -keeps capital tied up through the further time required for delivery. -This has led to the sale of much of the cheese almost or entirely -unripe. So much of the product has reached the consumer without -characteristic varietal flavor that large numbers have acquired the -habit of purchasing and even preferring cheese only partly ripe. - -[Illustration: FIG. 74.--A cheese cold storage room.] - -The time during which cheese should be held at the factory depends on -the variety. Some are shipped as soon as made, including those cheeses -with sour-milk flavor only. Others have to be cured in the factory from -six to eight weeks. Cheeses in paper or tin-foil should be neatly -wrapped and carefully put in the boxes. The box of cheese should be -neat, clean and attractive. Cheeses not wrapped should have a firm rind -to hold them in shape. The boxes should be clean and the weight of -cheese neatly and plainly marked. In the case of Cheddar cheese, it may -be paraffined at the factory, but if not, this is usually done at the -cold storage of the jobber. The cheeses usually have some time to cure -or ripen while being handled by the various dealers. - -+331. Distribution of price.+--The final selling price of cheese is a -composite of all the changes that have gone before; or conversely, the -farmer, the maker, the carrier and the distributors (wholesale, jobbing -and retail dealers) must all be paid from the final price of the -product. A study of this problem in Wisconsin has been made by Hibbard, -and Hobson.[139] The general facts as determined for Wisconsin have -fairly wide application to the manufacture and sale of cheese. - -Economic success in handling cheese is dependent on proper provision for -the sale of the product. Where the output is small, a personal market -can be created and maintained. This eliminates all profits intervening -between the maker and the retailer. If the business reaches a volume -beyond the possibilities of direct sale to the retailer, some selling -organization is necessary. Where the number of producers is great and -the selling machinery is well organized, the cheese factory becomes a -producer of a commodity which is turned over to existing selling -agencies. This condition is well established for Cheddar, Swiss, Brick -and Limburger cheese. The soft cheeses other than Limburger have thus -far been handled principally by large companies, each of which has -developed an expensive selling organization. A study of the map (Fig. -65) shows how the cheese industry is localized in particular sections of -certain states. Individual factories have maintained themselves in -widely separated places. This localization is due to the geographical -conditions which make certain regions specially adapted to dairying, -modified by the proximity to markets for milk as milk. There are many -regions, however, well adapted to cheese production in which there is no -development of the industry at present. New developments are now taking -place in the mountain areas of the South, notably North Carolina and -adjacent states, and in several centers of the western mountain states. -Many other areas should develop the making of cheese in some form. - -The actual costs of making and selling cheese were found by the -Wisconsin investigators to vary approximately as follows: (1) cost of -making, 1.2 to 1.75 cents; (2) storage, 1/8 cent a pound a month, or -3/8 to 1/2 cent for the season; (3) transportation to distant points, -$.20 to $2.50 for 100 pounds according to distance; (4) the local -dealer, about 1 cent a pound; (5) the wholesale dealer, 2 cents; (6) the -jobber or broker who occasionally intervenes, about 1/8 to 1/4 cent; and -the retailer, 5.5 to 9 cents. The entire cost of selling at the time -this investigation was made represented about one-half of the retail -price of the cheese. The producer of milk received the other half of -that price. - -+332. Standards.+--Legal standards in the United States are thus far -largely based on the specifications of American Cheddar. In so far as -they are applied to other products, they operate merely to prevent or -reduce the use of skimmed-milk. The analyses and limits proposed in the -discussion of varieties or groups in this book represent the range of -composition actually known to be associated with cheeses of typical -quality. Efforts are now being made to establish definitions and -standards of composition which will limit the use of cheese names to -products conforming to the requirements for such varieties. Practically -the only federal requirement thus far enforced in the United States is -that 50 per cent of the water-free substance of the cheese must be -milk-fat. Various states have local requirements but most of them -include the federal rule as to fat. New York and Wisconsin now restrict -the amount of water in Cheddar cheese to 40 per cent. Most states have -laws regulating the manufacture and sale of skimmed-milk cheese. - -+333. Laws relating to cheese marketing.+--A cheese of foreign origin if -made in this country must be branded to show that it is not imported. -For example, Camembert made in America is labeled Domestic Camembert. -Some manufacturers call it Camembert type of cheese. The same applies to -other varieties of foreign cheese. If a variety is made under a -trade-marked name, this prevents any other manufacturer from using that -name. For example, a concern may make "Philadelphia" cream cheese; other -concerns may make cream cheese, but they must call it by some other -name. - -The committee on definitions and standards for the Association of -Official Agricultural Chemists has now undertaken to define the proper -use of type names. This is intended to determine the proper limits of -composition of cheeses in each variety and such essentials of physical -identification as will insure the proper use of these names. - -Certain states have laws which relate to the branding of the cheese to -denote quality. If the cheese is made from whole milk, a brand may be -applied to show this fact. This is usually called the state brand. If -made from skimmed-milk, the cheese must be branded to show this. The -following[140] illustrate the laws relating to the state brand and -skimmed-milk cheese: - - Sec. 48. Manufacturer's brand of cheese. "Every - manufacturer of whole-milk cheese may put a brand or label - upon such cheese indicating 'whole-milk cheese' and the - date of the month and year when made; and no person shall - use such a brand or label upon any cheese made from milk - from which any of the cream has been taken. The - Commissioner of Agriculture shall procure and issue to the - cheese manufacturers of the state, on proper application - therefor, and under such regulations as to the custody and - use thereof as he may prescribe, a uniform stencil brand - or labels bearing a suitable device or motto, and the - words 'New York state whole-milk cheese.' Every such - brand or label shall be used upon the outside of the - cheese and shall bear a different number for each separate - factory. The commissioner shall keep a book, in which - shall be registered the name, location and number of each - manufactory using the brands or labels, and the name or - names of the persons at each manufactory authorized to use - the same. No such brand or labels shall be used upon any - other than whole-milk cheese or packages containing the - same. (As amended by chapter 207 of the Laws of 1910.) - - Sec. 49. Use of false brand prohibited; branding of - skim-milk cheese regulated. No person shall offer, sell or - expose for sale, in any package, butter or cheese which is - falsely branded or labeled. No person shall sell, offer or - expose for sale cheese commonly known as Cheddar cheese - made from skimmed or partially skimmed milk unless the - same is branded to show that it is skim-milk cheese. All - such cheese so sold, offered or exposed for sale shall be - branded with the words 'skim-milk cheese,' or if such - cheese contains thirteen per centum of milk fat or over, - it may be branded 'medium skim-milk cheese,' or if it - contains eighteen per centum of milk fat or over, it may - be branded 'special skim-milk cheese.' Such branding shall - be upon the sides of both the cheese and the container. - The branding herein provided shall be in block letters at - least one-half an inch square. (As amended by chapter 456 - of the Laws of 1913.)" - -Filled cheeses are those from which the milk-fat has been removed and -other animal fats substituted. The laws of some states prohibit the -manufacture of this product. The federal law relating to filled cheese -permits its manufacture under license, taxes and government inspection. - -The various states have laws regulating the length of time that the -cheese may be held in cold storage. - -Another important law in some states requires the cheese-maker to have a -license. He must pass an examination to show that the principles and -practices of cheese-making are understood. - - - - -CHAPTER XXI - -_CHEESE IN THE HOUSEHOLD_ - - -Although cheese in some form is familiar to every household, it has been -widely regarded in America as an accessory, almost a condimental -substance rather than as a staple food worthy of comparison with meat or -eggs. Statistics of the annual production, importation and exportation -of cheese indicate that the total consumption in the United States is -about 300,000,000 pounds--perhaps three pounds per capita. The household -manufacture and consumption of cottage cheese would add a small amount -to these figures. - -Cheese is used as a staple source of food values among many peoples of -Europe. Such use of cheese increases rather than decreases with the -density of the population. France with a small fraction of the land area -and one-half the population of the United States produces and consumes -about the same amount of cheese. In America, cheese-making has been -developed with the advance of settlement into unoccupied territories -only to be dropped as increasing population produced greater demands for -milk in other forms. If cheese had been accepted as a regular part of -the food supply in such communities, some form of cheese-making would -have survived the economic changes. - -+334. Food value of cheese.+--A consideration of the nutritive -components of cheese shows it to be a rich source of fat, protein or -both, according to the variety under examination. It is low in -carbohydrates, and aside from salt (sodium chloride) compares favorably -with other substances in mineral constituents. The following discussion -with an amplified table is taken from Langworthy and Hunt:[141] - -"In order, however, that the question of the use of cheese in the diet -may be adequately discussed, knowledge of its composition in comparison -with other foods is desirable, and there is an abundance of data -available on this subject, since the composition of cheese and other -foods has often been investigated at the Department of Agriculture, in -experiment station laboratories and in many other places where nutrition -problems are studied. An extended summary of analyses of cheese of -different sorts is included in an earlier publication of this -department.[142] - -"Data regarding the composition of cheese and a few other common foods -are summarized in the following table. - -"It will be seen from the table (Table XXX) that cheese has nearly twice -as much protein, weight for weight, as beef of average composition as -purchased and that its fuel value is more than twice as great. It -contains over 25 per cent more protein than the same weight of -porterhouse steak as purchased, and nearly twice as much fat. - -"As shown by the figures in the following table, cheese contains 3.8 per -cent ash. Of this a considerable part may be salt added in -cheese-making. Like the milk from which it is made, cheese ash is -characterized chiefly by the presence of calcium (lime), magnesium, -phosphorus and iron, the average values as given in earlier bulletins of -the department[145] being 1.24 per cent calcium oxid, 0.049 per cent -magnesium oxid, 1.49 per cent phosphorus pentoxid, and 0.0015 per cent -iron." - - TABLE XXX - - AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF CHEESE AND SOME OTHER COMMON FOODS AS PURCHASED, - AND ALSO ON THE BASIS OF EDIBLE PORTION - - ==================================================================== - | | | | | | - | | | | | | - FOOD MATERIALS | REFUSE | WATER | PROTEIN | FAT | CARBO | - | | | | | HYDRATES | - | | | | | | - ----------------------+--------+-------+---------+------+----------+ - | % | % | % | % | % | - Cheese, American | | | | | | - Cheddar[144] | -- | 34.2 | 25.2 | 33.7 | 2.4 | - | | | | | | - Beef of average | | | | | | - composition | | | | | | - as purchased | 18.6 | 50.5 | 15.2 | 15.5 | -- | - Edible portion | -- | 62.2 | 18.8 | 18.8 | -- | - | | | | | | - Porterhouse steak | | | | | | - as purchased | 12.7 | 52.4 | 19.1 | 17.9 | -- | - Edible portion | -- | 60.0 | 21.9 | 20.4 | -- | - | | | | | | - Loin steak, broiled, | | | | | | - edible portion | -- | 54.8 | 23.5 | 20.4 | -- | - | | | | | | - Dried beef | -- | 53.7 | 26.4 | 6.9 | -- | - | | | | | | - Eggs as purchased | 11.2 | 65.5 | 13.1 | 9.3 | -- | - Edible portion | -- | 73.7 | 13.4 | 10.5 | -- | - | | | | | | - Milk | -- | 87.0 | 3.3 | 4.0 | 5.0 | - | | | | | | - Bread | -- | 35.3 | 9.2 | 1.3 | 53.1 | - | | | | | | - Potatoes as purchased | 20.0 | 62.6 | 1.8 | .1 | 14.7 | - Edible portion | -- | 78.3 | 2.2 | .1 | 18.4 | - | | | | | | - Apples as purchased | 25.0 | 63.6 | .3 | .3 | 10.8 | - Edible portion | -- | 84.6 | .4 | .5 | 14.2 | - ==================================================================== - - - ===================================================== - | | | FUEL - | | FUEL | VALUE - FOOD MATERIALS | ASH | VALUE | COMPARED - | | PER | TO - | | POUND | CHEESE[143] - ----------------------+------+----------+------------ - | % | Calories | - Cheese, American | | | - Cheddar[144] | 3.8 | 1,950 | 1.00 - | | | - Beef of average | | | - composition | | | - as purchased | .7 | 935 | 0.48 - Edible portion | .9 | 1,145 | 0.58 - | | | - Porterhouse steak | | | - as purchased | .8 | 1,110 | 0.57 - Edible portion | 1.0 | 1,270 | 0.65 - | | | - Loin steak, broiled, | | | - edible portion | 1.2 | 1,300 | 0.66 - | | | - Dried beef | 8.9 | 790 | 0.45 - | | | - Eggs as purchased | .9 | 635 | 0.32 - Edible portion | 1.0 | 720 | 0.37 - | | | - Milk | .7 | 310 | 0.16 - | | | - Bread | 1.1 | 1,215 | 0.62 - | | | - Potatoes as purchased | .8 | 295 | 0.15 - Edible portion | 1.0 | 385 | 0.20 - | | | - Apples as purchased | .3 | 190 | 0.10 - Edible portion | .3 | 290 | 0.15 - ===================================================== - - -It is clear from the calculations shown in the last column, that Cheddar -cheese takes first rank among the foods compared as to fuel value. The -estimate of food values in terms of calories may not completely express -the value of that food to a particular individual. It is generally -conceded that one great function of food is the production of energy and -this function is probably more closely determined by the number of -calories produced than in any other known way. Such calculation has -become an essential factor in the preparation of dietaries. The -calculation here given necessarily applies only to Cheddar cheese. By -easy use of the last column, the caloric value of this cheese can be -compared with that of any competing food and the relative economy -determined, whatever the price asked. Another recent calculation with -reference[146] to the same cheese follows: - -"One pound of American Cheddar cheese contains as much protein as-- - - 1.57 pounds of sirloin steak. - 1.35 pounds of round steak. - 1.89 pounds of fowl. - 1.79 pounds of smoked ham. - 1.81 pounds of fresh ham. - -"In order to judge the value of foods fairly not only the protein but -the energy also must be compared. To supply energy cheese is one of the -best of food products. On the basis of energy supplied, 1 pound of -cheese equals-- - - 1.98 pounds of sirloin steak. - 2.61 pounds of round steak. - 2.52 pounds of fowl. - 1.17 pounds of smoked ham. - 1.29 pounds of fresh ham." - -All these discussions have applied to whole-milk Cheddar cheese. With -minor reductions, much the same figures will hold for Swiss, Limburger, -Brick, Munster, Edam. - -On the other hand, very little has been published until recently on the -skimmed-milk cheeses. The food value lost in skimmed-milk has at times -been enormous. Many households purchase milk by the bottle, use the -top-milk as cream and lose a part of the remainder. Similarly creameries -have wasted tons of skimmed-milk. The recovery of the protein of this -milk for human food is both good economy and an important addition to -the dietary. The United States Department of Agriculture has recently -published the following: "Cottage cheese is richer in protein than most -meats and is very much cheaper. Every pound contains more than three -ounces of protein, the source of nitrogen for body building. It is a -valuable source of energy also, though not so high as foods with more -fat. It follows that its value in this respect can be greatly increased -by serving it with cream, as is so commonly done." - -It is an open question whether the decline of cheese-making in America -is not due to our failure to develop the use of skim and part-skim -cheeses. The whole-milk cheeses are very rich in fat. Use of such cheese -in quantity in connection with ordinary foods quickly leads to the -ingestion of too much fat. The skimmed-milk cheeses are primarily -protein food and as such substitutes for lean meat. - -"The following table shows that cottage cheese is much cheaper than -most meats in furnishing protein for the diet. - -"For supplying protein, one pound of cottage cheese equals: - - 1.27 pounds sirloin steak. - 1.09 pounds round steak. - 1.37 pounds chuck rib beef. - 1.52 pounds fowl. - 1.46 pounds fresh ham. - 1.44 pounds smoked ham. - 1.58 pounds loin pork chop. - 1.31 pounds hind leg of lamb. - 1.37 pounds breast of veal. - -"In addition to protein, energy for performing body work must be -furnished by food. As a source of energy also, cottage cheese is cheaper -than most meats at present prices. The following table shows the -comparison when energy is considered. - -"On the basis of energy supplied, one pound of cottage cheese equals: - - 8-1/3 ounces sirloin steak. - 11-1/4 ounces round steak. - 11-1/4 ounces chuck rib beef. - 10-3/4 ounces fowl. - 5-1/2 ounces fresh ham. - 5 ounces smoked ham. - 6 ounces loin pork chop. - 7-1/3 ounces hind leg of lamb. - 12-3/4 ounces breast of veal." - -+335. Digestibility of cheese.+--Although it has been a staple food with -many races for uncounted years, there is a widespread belief that cheese -is suitable for use chiefly in small quantities as an accessory to the -diet, and that in large quantities it is likely to produce physiological -disturbances. The question of digestibility was made the subject of a -special investigation by the United States Department of -Agriculture.[147] Calorimeter experiments[148] were made to test the -digestibility of several varieties of cheese and some of these varieties -at various stages of ripening. All forms of cheese were found to be -digested as completely as most of the usual forms of food. Approximately -90 per cent of the nitrogenous portion (casein) was retained in the -body. Unripe cheese in these experiments was apparently digested as -completely as the ripened forms. These experiments make clear the -possibility of making cheese a more prominent article in the regular -dietary than is usual in America. They especially point to the -desirability of the use of the skim and partially skim cheeses, which as -cheap sources of protein when properly combined with other foods, may be -made to replace meats as a less costly source of proteins. Cheese is -then to be classed with meat and eggs, not with condiments. An ounce of -Cheddar[149] cheese roughly is equivalent to one egg, to a glass of -milk, or to two ounces of meat. It is properly to be combined with -bread, potatoes and other starchy foods, lacking in the fat in which the -cheese is rich. These experiments included Roquefort, fresh-made and -ripe Cheddar, Swiss, Camembert and Cottage cheese. - -+336. Cheese flavor.+--"Cheese owes its flavor to the fatty acids and -their compounds which it contains and to ammonia-like bodies formed -during ripening from the cleavage of the casein, to salt added to the -curd, and in some varieties, like Roquefort, to bodies elaborated by -molds which develop in the cheese. In the highly flavored sorts some of -the fatty acids of a very marked odor are present in abundance, as are -also the ammonia-like bodies. Indeed, in eating such cheese as Camembert -a trace of ammonia flavor may often be plainly detected. - -"The cleavage of the nitrogenous material of the cheese and other -changes are brought about chiefly by the action of enzymes originally -present in cheese or by micro-organisms and are to be regarded as -fermentative and not as putrefactive changes. - -"The liking for highly flavored cheeses of strong odor is a matter of -individual preference, but from the chemist's standpoint there is no -reason for the statement often made that such cheeses have undergone -putrefactive decomposition." - -+337. Relation to health.+--In connection with the use of cheese as a -food, its relation to the health of the consumer must be considered. The -presence of the bacillus of tuberculosis in milk has led to careful -study of its possible presence in cheese. When American Cheddar cheese -was specially inoculated for this purpose, the living organism was -recovered from it after about five months by Schroeder of the United -States Department of Agriculture. This danger is much greater from -cheeses, such as Cream and Neufchatel, which are eaten when -comparatively freshly made. The disease has been produced in guinea pigs -from such cheese often enough to emphasize the desirability of -developing methods of making every variety possible from thoroughly -pasteurized milk. This would remove the danger of tuberculosis and with -it eliminate the possibility of transmitting other diseases. - -+338. Cheese poisoning+[150] cases occasionally occur. These take two -main forms: (1) an enteritis (caused by _Bacillus enteritidis_) or some -other member of that series which while painful and accompanied by -purging is rarely fatal; (2) acute toxaemias which, although rare, -usually result in death. From the latter type a variety of _Bacillus -botulinus_, an organism usually associated with meat poisoning, was -isolated by the New York State Department of Health. The occurrence of -such cases is frequent enough to emphasize the desirability of using -every precaution to reduce the number of bacteria that are allowed to -enter milk when drawn and to prevent the development of those which -actually gain access to it. When possible, pasteurization should be -introduced. - -+339. Proper place in the diet.+--It has already been noted that cheese -is used "in general in two ways--in small quantities chiefly for its -flavor and in large quantities for its nutritive value as well as for -its flavor. Some varieties of cheese are used chiefly for the first -purpose, others chiefly for the second. Those which are used chiefly for -their flavor, many of which are high priced, contribute little to the -food value of the diet, because of the small quantity used at a time. -They have an important part to play, however, in making the diet -attractive and palatable. The intelligent housekeeper thinks of them not -as necessities, but as lying within what has been called 'the region of -choice.' Having first satisfied herself that her family is receiving -sufficient nourishment, she then, according to her means and ideas of an -attractive diet, chooses among these foods and others which are to be -considered luxuries. - -"Those cheeses, on the other hand, which are suitable to be eaten in -large quantities and which are comparatively low priced are important -not only from the point of view of flavor, but also from the point of -view of their nutritive value." Among such cheeses are American Cheddar, -Swiss, Brick, Limburger and the lower priced forms of Neufchatel. - -It is clear that in buying cheese, the housekeeper should know -definitely the dietary purpose of the purchase, and then choose the -variety of cheese best suited. To a very large degree the personal -tastes of the family determine the kinds of cheese which will be -tolerated when served uncooked. In some families, the strong flavors of -Roquefort or Limburger are not acceptable. However, there is a range of -choice in which much judgment can be used. Cheese to be served with -mild-flavored foods should as a rule be also mild-flavored. For most -sandwiches, for example, Cheddar or Swiss is usually very acceptable; -Brick or partly ripe Limburger still hard enough to slice cuts into thin -rectangular slices and is very attractive to many consumers because it -has somewhat more flavor without being too strong. With proper handling -it is good policy to buy the cheapest of these forms for this purpose. -The selection of dessert cheeses offers the widest range. If served with -mild-flavored crackers, very many persons prefer Cream, Neufchatel or -mild Cheddar; a little stronger taste calls for club cheese, or -Camembert. If tobacco smoke is present, Roquefort, Gorgonzola, Limburger -and related types will satisfy many consumers better than mild cheeses. -The intensity of flavor to be sought in the cheese should thus be -adjusted to the food served with it. A person with an aversion to -strong-smelling or strong-tasting cheese has been frequently known to -approve over-ripe Camembert, or Limburger when served without label but -spread upon a ginger cracker. - -For cooking purposes, some recipes prescribe cheese of special quality. -In large markets, old Cheddar ripened carefully for two or three years -is commonly purchasable for Welsh rabbit. (Ask for "rabbit" cheese.) An -expert housekeeper familiar also with cheese ripening has demonstrated -that almost any cheese, whether ripened to its best, part ripe or -over-ripe, can be used in many cooking formulas without injuring the -acceptability of the product to most consumers. In canning Camembert, it -has been shown[151] that over-ripe cheese so strong as to be -objectionable, when sterilized loses the objectionable flavor of the raw -product. No cheese should be wasted; any not used when served the first -time should be served at a closely following meal or used in cooking. No -matter what the variety, it will add to the food value and palatability -of some one of the common dishes served within forty-eight hours. - -+340. Care of cheese.+[152]--"One of the best ways of keeping cheese -which has been cut is to wrap it in a slightly damp cloth and then in -paper, and to keep it in a cool place. To dampen the cloth, sprinkle it -and then wring it. It should seem hardly damp to the touch. Paraffin -paper may be used in place of the cloth. When cheese is put in a covered -dish, the air should never be wholly excluded, for if this is done, it -molds more readily. - -"In some markets it is possible to buy small whole cheeses. These may be -satisfactorily kept by cutting a slice from the top, to serve as a -cover, and removing the cheese as needed with a knife, a strong spoon, -or a cheese scoop. It is possible to buy at the hardware stores knobs -which inserted in the layer cut from the top make it easy to handle. -The cheese with the cover on should be kept wrapped in a cloth." - -+341. Food value and price.+--There is little relation between the price -and food value of standard varieties of cheese. The higher-priced -varieties claim and hold their place because they possess particular -flavors. These may or may not accompany high comparative food values. -Even among low-priced varieties discrimination into grades is largely -based on flavor. Of the low-priced cheeses, those made from skimmed-milk -commonly command the lowest prices. As noted above, a choice may be -based either on purpose or on price. If the purpose is fixed, the price -should not change the selection. If, however, a particular quality of -cheese is purchasable at a low price, some satisfactory form of -utilizing it is clearly available to the housekeeper. Some standard -recipes are given in the following paragraphs. - -+342. Methods and recipes for using cheese.+--(1) As a meat substitute. -Meat is wholesome and relished by most persons, yet it is not essential -to a well-balanced meal and there are many housekeepers who for one -reason or another are interested in lessening the amount of meat or to -substitute other foods. The problem with the average family is -undoubtedly more often the occasional substitution of other palatable -dishes for the sake of variety, for reasons of economy, or for some -other reason than the general replacement of meat dishes by other -things. - -Foods which are to be served in place of meat should be rich in protein -and fat and should also be savory. Cheese naturally suggests itself as a -substitute for meat, since it is rich in the same kinds of nutrients -that meat supplies, is a staple food with which every one is familiar -and is one which can be used in a great variety of ways. In -substituting cheese for meat, especial pains should be taken to serve -dishes which are relished by the members of the family. A number of -recipes[153] for dishes which contain cheese are given below. They are -preceded by several recipes for cheese sauces which, as will appear, are -called for in the preparation of some of the more substantial dishes. In -the first list of recipes, cheese means Cheddar. - - Cheese Sauce No. 1 - - 1 cupful of milk. - 2 tablespoonfuls of flour. - 1 ounce of cheese (1/4 cupful of grated cheese). - Salt and pepper. - - Thicken the milk with the flour and just before serving - add the cheese, stirring until it is melted. - - This sauce is suitable to use in preparing creamed eggs, - or to pour over toast, making a dish corresponding to - ordinary milk toast, except for the presence of cheese. It - may be seasoned with a little curry powder and poured over - hard-boiled eggs. - - - Cheese Sauce No. 2 - - Same as cheese sauce No. 1, except that the cheese is - increased from 1 to 2 ounces. - - This sauce is suitable for using with macaroni or rice, or - for baking with crackers soaked in milk. - - - Cheese Sauce No. 3 - - Same as cheese sauce No. 1, except that two cupfuls of - grated cheese or 8 ounces are used. This may be used upon - toast as a substitute for Welsh rabbit. - - - Cheese Sauce No. 4 - - Same as cheese sauce No. 2, save that 2 tablespoonfuls of - melted butter are mixed with the flour before the latter - is put into the milk. This sauce is therefore very rich in - fat and has only a mild flavor of cheese. - - -Among the recipes for dishes which may be used like meat, the following -give products which, eaten in usual quantities, will provide much the -same kind and amount of nutritive material as the ordinary servings of -meat dishes used at dinner. In several cases there is a resemblance in -appearance and flavor to common meat dishes, which would doubtless be a -point in their favor with many families. - - -(2) For general cooking purposes: - - Cheese Fondue No. 1 - - 1-1/3 cupfuls of soft, stale bread crumbs. - - 6 ounces of cheese (1-1/2 cupfuls of grated cheese or - 1-1/3 cupfuls of cheese grated fine or cut into small - pieces). - - 4 eggs. - - 1 cupful of hot water. - - 1/2 teaspoonful of salt. - -Mix the water, bread crumbs, salt and cheese; add the yolks -thoroughly beaten; into this mixture cut and fold the whites of -eggs beaten until stiff. Pour into a buttered baking dish and -cook 30 minutes in a moderate oven. Serve at once. - -The food value of this dish, made with the above quantities, -is almost exactly the same as that of a pound of beef of average -composition and a pound of potatoes combined. It contains -about 80 grams of proteids and has a fuel value of about 1300 -calories. - - - Cheese Fondue No. 2 - - 1-1/3 cupfuls of hot milk. - - 1-1/3 cupfuls of soft, stale bread crumbs. - - 1 tablespoonful of butter. - - 4 eggs. - - 1/3 of a pound of cheese (1-1/3 cupfuls of grated cheese - or 1 cupful of cheese cut into small pieces). - - 1/2 teaspoonful of salt. - - Prepare as in previous recipe. - -The protein value of this dish is equal to that of 1-1/8 pounds of -potato and beef, the fuel value, however, being much in excess of these. - -In making either of these fondues, rice or other cereals may be -substituted for bread crumbs. One-fourth cupful of rice measured before -cooking, or one cupful of cooked rice or other cereals, should be used. - - - Corn and Cheese Souffle - - 1 tablespoonful of butter. - 1 tablespoonful of chopped green pepper. - 1/4 cupful of flour. - 2 cupfuls of milk. - 1 cupful of chopped corn. - 1 cupful of grated cheese, - 3 eggs. - 1/2 teaspoonful of salt. - - Melt the butter and cook the pepper thoroughly in it. Make - a sauce out of the flour, milk and cheese; add the corn, - cheese, yolks and seasoning; cut and fold in the whites - beaten stiffly; turn into a buttered baking dish and bake - in a moderate oven 30 minutes. - - Made with skimmed-milk and without butter, this dish has a - food value slightly in excess of a pound of beef and a - pound of potatoes. - - - Cheese Souffle - - 2 tablespoonfuls of butter. - 3 tablespoonfuls of flour. - 1/2 cupful of milk (scalded). - 1/2 teaspoonful of salt - A speck of cayenne. - 1/4 cupful of grated cheese. - 3 eggs. - - Melt the butter; add the flour and, when well mixed, add - gradually the scalded milk. Then add salt, cayenne and - cheese. Remove from the fire and add the yolks of the - eggs, beaten until lemon colored. Cool the mixture and - fold into it the whites of the eggs, beaten until stiff. - Pour into a buttered baking dish and cook 20 minutes in a - slow oven. Serve at once. - - The proteid of this recipe is equal to that of half a - pound of beef; the fuel value is equal to that of - three-fourths of a pound. - - -Welsh Rabbit - - 1 tablespoonful of butter. - 1 teaspoonful of corn-starch. - 1/2 cupful of milk. - 1/2 pound of cheese, cut into small pieces. - 1/4 teaspoonful each of salt and mustard. - A speck of cayenne pepper. - - Cook the corn-starch in the butter; then add the milk - gradually and cook two minutes; add the cheese and stir - until it is melted. Season and serve on crackers or bread - toasted on one side, the rabbit being poured over the - untoasted side. Food value is that of about three-fourths - of a pound of beef. - - - Macaroni and Cheese No. 1 - - 1 cupful of macaroni, broken into small pieces. - 2 quarts of boiling salted water. - 1 cupful of milk. - 2 tablespoonfuls of flour. - 1/4 to 1/2 pound of cheese. - 1/2 teaspoonful of salt. - Speck of cayenne pepper. - - Cook the macaroni in the boiling salted water, drain in a - strainer, and pour cold water over it to prevent the - pieces from adhering to each other. Make a sauce out of - the flour, milk, and cheese. Put the sauce and macaroni in - alternate layers in a buttered baking dish, cover with - buttered crumbs, and heat in oven until crumbs are brown. - - - Macaroni and Cheese No. 2 - - A good way to prepare macaroni and cheese is to make a - rich cheese sauce and heat the macaroni in it. The mixture - is usually covered with buttered crumbs and browned in the - oven. The advantage of this way of preparing the dish, - however, is that it is unnecessary to have a hot oven, as - the sauce and macaroni may be reheated on the top of the - stove. - - -Baked Rice and Cheese No. 1 - - 1 cupful of uncooked rice and - 4 cupfuls of milk; - or, - 3 cupfuls of cooked rice and - 1 cupful of milk. - 2 tablespoonfuls of flour. - 1/2 pound of cheese. - 1/2 teaspoonful of salt. - - If uncooked rice is used, it should be cooked in 3 cupfuls - of milk. Make a sauce with one cupful of milk, add the - flour, cheese and salt. Into a buttered baking dish put - alternate layers of the cooked rice and the sauce. Cover - with buttered crumbs and bake until the crumbs are brown. - The proteids in this dish, made with rice cooked in milk, - are equal to those of nearly 1-3/4 pounds of average beef. - If skimmed-milk is used, the fuel value is equal to nearly - 3-1/2 pounds of beef. Whole milk raises the fuel value - still higher. - - - Fried Bread with Cheese No. 1 - - 6 slices of bread. - 1 cupful of milk. - 2 ounces of cheese, or 1/2 cupful of grated cheese. - 1/2 teaspoonful of salt. - 1/2 teaspoonful of potassium bicarbonate. - Butter or other fat for frying. - - Scald the milk with the potassium bicarbonate; add the - grated cheese, and stir until it dissolves. Dip the bread - in this mixture and fry it in the butter. The potassium - bicarbonate helps to keep the cheese in solution. It is - desirable, however, to keep the milk hot while the bread - is being dipped. - - - Plain Cheese Salad - - Cut Edam or ordinary American cheese into thin pieces, - scatter them over lettuce leaves and serve with French - dressing. - - - Olive and Pimiento Sandwich or Salad Cheese - - Mash any of the soft cream cheeses and add chopped olives - and pimientos in equal parts. This mixture requires much - salt to make it palatable to most palates, the amount - depending chiefly on the quantity of pimiento used. The - mixture may be spread between thin slices of bread or it - may be made into a roll or molded, cut into slices and - served on lettuce leaves with French dressing. - - - Cheese and Tomato Salad - - Stuff cold tomatoes with cream cheese and serve on lettuce - leaves with French dressing. - - - Cheese and Pimiento Salad - - Stuff canned pimientos with cream cheese, cut into slices - and serve one or two slices to each person on lettuce - leaves with French dressing. - - (3) Ways to use cottage cheese. Cottage cheese alone is an - appetizing and nutritious dish. It may also be served with - sweet or sour cream, and some persons add a little sugar, - or chives, chopped onion or caraway seed. - - The following recipes[154] illustrate a number of ways in - which cottage cheese may be served: - - - Cottage Cheese with Preserves and Jellies - - Pour over cottage cheese any fruit preserves, such as - strawberries, figs or cherries. Serve with bread or - crackers. If preferred, cottage cheese balls may be served - separately and eaten with the preserves. A very attractive - dish may be made by dropping a bit of jelly into a nest of - the cottage cheese. - - - Cottage Cheese Salad - - Mix thoroughly one pound of cheese, one and one-half - tablespoonfuls of cream, one tablespoonful of chopped - parsley and salt to taste. First, fill a rectangular tin - mold with cold water to chill and wet the surface; line - the bottom with waxed paper, then pack in three layers of - the cheese, putting two or three parallel strips of - pimiento, fresh or canned, between the layers. Cover with - waxed paper and set in a cool place until ready to serve; - then run a knife around the sides and invert the mold. Cut - in slices and serve on lettuce leaves with French dressing - and wafers or thin bread-and-butter sandwiches. Minced - olives may be used instead of the parsley, and chopped - nuts also may be added. - - - Cottage Cheese Rolls - - (To be used like meat rolls.) - - A large variety of rolls, suitable for serving as the main - dish at dinner, may be made by combining legumes (beans of - various kinds, cowpeas, lentils or peas) with cottage - cheese, and adding bread crumbs to make the mixture thick - enough to form into a roll. Beans are usually mashed, but - peas or small Lima beans may be combined whole with bread - crumbs and cottage cheese, and enough of the liquor in - which the vegetables have been cooked should be added to - get the right consistency; or, instead of beans or peas, - chopped spinach, beet tops or head lettuce may be added. - - - Boston Roast - - 1 pound can of kidney beans, or equivalent quantity of cooked beans. - 1/2 pound of cottage cheese. - Bread crumbs. - Salt. - - Mash the beans or put them through a meat grinder. Add the - cheese and bread crumbs enough to make the mixture - sufficiently stiff to be formed into a roll. Bake in a - moderate oven, basting occasionally with butter or other - fat, and water. Serve with tomato sauce. This dish may be - flavored with chopped onions cooked until tender in butter - or other fat and a very little water. - - - Pimiento and Cottage Cheese Roast - - 2 cupfuls of cooked Lima beans. - 1/4 pound of cottage cheese. - Salt. - 3 canned pimientos chopped. - Bread crumbs. - - Put the first three ingredients through a meat chopper. - Mix thoroughly and add bread crumbs until it is stiff - enough to form into a roll. Brown in the oven, basting - occasionally with butter or other fat, and water. - - - Cottage Cheese and Nut Roast - - 1 cupful of cottage cheese. - 1 cupful of chopped English walnuts. - 1 cupful of bread crumbs. - Salt and pepper. - 2 tablespoonfuls of chopped onion. - 1 tablespoonful of butter. - Juice of half a lemon. - - Cook the onion in the butter or other fat and a little - water until tender. Mix the other ingredients and moisten - with the water in which the onion has been cooked. Pour - into a shallow baking dish and brown in the oven. - - - Cheese Sauce - - (For use with eggs, milk toast or other dishes.) - - One cupful of milk, 1 tablespoonful of cottage cheese, 2 - tablespoonfuls of flour, salt and pepper to taste. - - Thicken the milk with the flour and just before serving - add the cheese, stirring until it is melted. - - This sauce may be used in preparing creamed eggs or for - ordinary milk toast. The quantity of cheese in the recipe - may be increased, making a sauce suitable for using with - macaroni or rice. - - - FOOTNOTES: - - [1] Ont. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1890, pages 237-241. - - Maine Exp. Sta. Rept. 1890, part II, pages 52-57. - - Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Rept. 1886, pages 119-130. - - Vt. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1890, pages 97-100. - - Vt. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1891, pages 61-74. - - N. Y. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1892, pages 299-392. - - N. Y. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1893, pages 39-162. - - Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1890, pages 115-119. - - Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Rept. 1907, pages 152-156. - - N. Y. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1891, pages 139-142. - - N. Y. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1894, pages 31-86, 118-121. - - N. J. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1895, pages 136-137. - - Eckles, C. H., and R. H. Shaw. The influence of breed and - individuality on the composition and properties of milk, - Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 156, 1913. Eckles, C. H., and R. H. - Shaw, Variations in the composition and properties of milk - from the individual cow, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. - Bul. 157, 1913. - - [2] Morrow, G. A., and A. G. Manns, Analyses of milk from different - cows, Ill. Exp. Sta. Bul. 9, 1890. - - [3] Eckles, C. H., and R. H. Shaw, The influence of the stage of - lactation on the composition and properties of milk, U. - S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 155, 1913. N. Y. Exp. - Sta. Rept. 1892, pages 138-140. - - [4] N. Y. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1891, pages 143-162, 316-318. - - Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1890, pages 238-247. - - Van Slyke, L. L., Conditions affecting the proportions - of fat and protein in cow's milk, Jour. Am. Chem. Soc., - 30 (1908), no. 7, pages 1166-1186. - - [5] Van Slyke, L. L., and A. W. Bosworth, Composition and - properties of some casein and paracasein compounds and - their relations to cheese, N. Y. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. - 26, 1912. - - Forbes, E. B., and M. H. Keith, A review of the - literature of phosphorus compounds in animal metabolism, - Ohio Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 5, pages 32-36, 42-45. - - Van Slyke, L. L., and A. W. Bosworth, Condition of - casein and salts in milk, N. Y. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 39. - - [6] Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1901, pages 162-166. - - [7] Sammis, J. L., and A. T. Bruhn, The manufacture of cheese - from pasteurized milk, Wis. Exp. Sta. Research Bul. 27, 1912. - - [8] Baer, U. S., and W. L. Carlyle, Quality of cheese as affected - by food, Wis. Exp. Sta. Bul. 115, 1904. - - [9] King, F. H., and E. H. Farrington, Milk odor as affected by - silage, Wis. Exp. Sta. Bul. 59, 1897. - - [10] N. Y. Agricultural Law, 1913, section 30. - Mich. Agricultural Law, 1915, section 77. - Wis. Agricultural Law, 1913, section 4601. - - [11] Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Rept. 1899, pages 13-68. - - Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Rept. 1903, pages 33-98. - - Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Rept. 1904, pages 27-88. - - Esten, W. M., and C. J. Mason, Sources of bacteria in - milk, Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Bul. 51, 1908. - - Rogers, L. A., and B. J. Davis, Methods of classifying - the lactic acid bacteria, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. - Bul. 154, 1912. - - Bergey, D. H., The colon-aerogenes group of bacteria, - Jour. Med. Research, Boston, Vol. XIX, pages 175-200, - 1908. - - Conn, H. W., Classification of dairy bacteria, Conn. - (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Rept. 1906. - - Rogers, L. A., Bacteria in milk, U. S. Dept. Agr., - Farmers' Bul. 490, 1912. - - [12] Hastings, E. G., Distribution of lactose-fermenting yeasts - in dairy products, Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 23, pages - 107-115. - - [13] Thom, C., and S. H. Ayers, Effect of pasteurization upon - mold spores, Jour. Agr. Research 6 (1916), no. 4, pages - 153-156. - - [14] Hunziker, O. F., Germicidal action of milk, N. Y. (Cornell) - Exp. Sta. Bul. 197. - - Stocking, W. A., Germicidal action of milk, Conn. - (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Bul. 37, 1905. - - U. S. Treasury Dept., Hygienic Laboratory, Bul. 41, - Milk and its relation to the public health, 1908, also - revised as Bul. 56, 1909. - - [15] U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bul. 602, Dairy Division, - Production of clean milk, 1914. - - Lauder, A., and A. Cunningham, Some factors affecting - the bacteriological content of milk, Edinburgh and East - of Scotland Coll. of Agr. Rept. XXVIII, 1913. - - Prucha, M. J., and H. M. Weeter, Germ content of milk, - Ill. Exp. Sta. Bul. 199, 1917. - - Harding, H. A., _et al._, The effect of certain dairy - operations upon the germ content of milk, N. Y. Exp. - Sta. Bul. 365, 1913. - - Fraser, W. J., Sources of bacteria in milk, Ill. Exp. - Sta. Bul. 91, 1903. - - Frandsen, J. H., Care of milk and cream on the farm, - Neb. Exp. Sta. Bul. 133, 1912. - - Conn, H. W., The care and handling of milk, Conn. - (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Bul. 26, 1903. - - Stocking, W. A., Jr., Quality of milk as affected by - certain dairy operations, Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Bul. - 42, 1906. - - [16] Harding, H. A., J. K. Wilson and G. A. Smith, Tests of - covered milk pails, N. Y. Exp. Sta. Bul. 326, 1910. - - Stocking, W. A., Tests of covered milk pails, Conn. - (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Bul. 48, 1907. - - [17] Wing, L. W., Milking machines; their sterilization and their - efficiency in producing clean milk, N. Y. (Cornell) - Exp. Sta. Circ. 18, 1913. - - [18] Ruddick, J. A., and G. H. Barr, The cooling of milk for - cheese making, Ottawa Dept. of Agr. Bul. 22, 1910. - - [19] Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1895, pages 14-150, Fermentation test - for gas-producing bacteria in milk. This is commonly - called the Wisconsin curd test. - - [20] Stevenson, C., Pepsin in cheesemaking, Jour. Agr. (New - Zeal.) 14 (1917), pages 32-34. - - Todd, A., and E. C. V. Cornish, Experiments in the - preparation of homemade rennet, Jour. Bd. Agr. (London) - 23 (1916), no. 6, pages 549-555. - - Besana, C., Lack of coagulating ferment in - cheesemaking, Staz. Sper. Agr. Ital. 49 (1916), pages - 10-12. - - Van Dam, W., Rennet economy and substitutes, Verslag. - Ver. Exploit. Proefzuivelboerderij. Hoorn, 1914, pages - 45-46. - - [21] The paragraphs on the chemistry of casein and on rennet - action have been selected from a complete discussion of - the subject by E. B. Forbes and M. H. Keith in Ohio - Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 5 entitled, "A review of the - literature of phosphorus compounds in animal - metabolism." The original references cited in this - discussion are given at the end of the chapter in the - order of their citation in the text. - - See also, Van Slyke, L. L., and D. D. Van Slyke, I, The - action of dilute acids upon casein when no soluble - compounds are formed; II, The hydrolyses of the sodium - salts of casein, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 3, - pages 75-162, 1906. - - Sammis, J. L., S. K. Suzuki and F. W. Laabs, Factors - controlling the moisture content of cheese curds, U. S. - Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 122, pages 1-61, 1910. - - [22] Sammis, J. L., and A. T. Bruhn, The manufacture of Cheddar - cheese from pasteurized milk, Wis. Exp. Sta. Research - Bul. 27, 1912. - - [23] Esten, W. M., Bacteria in the dairy, Conn. (Storrs) Rept. - 1896, pages 44-52. - - [24] Bushnell, L. D., and W. R. Wright, Preparation and use of - butter starter, Mich. Exp. Sta. Bul. 246, 1907. - - Hastings, E. G., Preparation and use of starter, Wis. - Exp. Sta. Bul. 181, 1909. - - Larsen, C., and W. White, Preparation and use of - starter, S. D. Exp. Sta. Bul. 123, 1910. - - Guthrie, E. S., and W. W. Fisk, Propagation of starter - for butter-making and cheese-making, N. Y. (Cornell) - Exp. Sta. Circ. 13, 1912. - - [25] Sammis, J. L., and A. T. Bruhn, The manufacture of cheese of - the Cheddar type from pasteurized milk, U. S. Dept. - Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 165, pages 1-95, 1913. - - [26] Publow, C. A., An apparatus for measuring acidity in - cheesemaking and buttermaking, Cornell Exp. Sta. Circ. - 7, pages 17-20, 1909. - - Hastings, E. G., and A. C. Evans, A comparison of the - acid test and the rennet test for determining the - condition of milk for the Cheddar type of cheese, U. S. - Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Circ. 210, pages 1-6, 1913. - - [27] Doane, C. F., The influence of lactic acid on the quality of - cheese of the Cheddar type, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. - Ind. Bul. 123, pages 1-20, 1910. - - [28] Fisk, W. W., A study of some factors influencing the yield - and moisture content of Cheddar cheese, Cornell Exp. - Sta. Bul. 334, 1913. - - [29] Olson, G. A., Rusty cans and their effect upon milk for - cheese-making, Wis. Exp. Sta. Bul. 162, pages 1-12, - 1908. - - [30] The term "broken" is included here because the use of some - curd-breaking tool has always formed a step in certain - commercially successful processes. In every case in - which careful experimental work has been done the curd - knife has been successfully substituted for the - breaking tool and has reduced the losses of fat and - casein and in addition aided in obtaining more uniform - cheese. - - [31] Frandsen, J. H., and T. Thorsen, Farm cheese-making, - Univ. Neb. Ext. Serv. Bul. 47, pages 1-16, 1917. - - Michels, J., Improved methods for making cottage and - Neufchatel cheese, N. C. Exp. Sta. Bul. 210, pages - 29-38. - - Fisk, W. W., Methods of making some of the soft - cheeses, Cornell Exp. Sta. Circ. 30, pages 41-62, 1915. - - [32] Tolstrup, R. M., Cheese that farmers should make, Iowa - Agr. 15 (1914), 2, pages 89-90. - - [33] Van Slyke, L. L., and Hart, E. B., Chemical changes in - the souring of milk and their relations to cottage - cheese, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 245, pages 1-36, - 1904. - - [34] Sammis, J. L., Three creamery methods for making - buttermilk cheese, Wis. Exp. Sta. Bul. 239, 1914. - - [35] Matheson, K. J., C. Thom and J. N. Currie, Cheeses of - the Neufchatel group, Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Bul. 78, - pages 313-329, 1914. - - [36] Dahlberg, A. O., The manufacture of cottage cheese in - creameries and milk plants, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 576, - pages 1-16, 1917. - - [37] Since the number of factories has continued small, the - manufacture of this type of machine has remained a - monopoly in which each machine is made to order by the - Van Eyck Machine Co. of Holland, Mich. - - [38] Presented by Dr. E. C. Schroeder of the U. S. Dept. - Agr. to the International Association of Dairy and Milk - Inspectors, at Washington, Oct. 17, 1917, published - Jour. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc'n 52, N. S. 5, no. 6, pages - 674-685, 1918. - - [39] Matheson, K. J., and F. R. Cammack, How to make cottage - cheese on the farm, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bul. - 850, pages 1-15, 1917. - - [40] Taken from Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Bul. 78, page 328. - - [41] Taken from Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Bul. 78, page 328. - - [42] Eckles, C. H., and O. Rahn, Die Reifung des Harzkaeses, - Centralb. f. Bakt. etc. 2 abt. 14 (1905), pages - 676-680. - - [43] Monrad, J. H., Hand cheese, N. Y. Produce Rev. etc. 25 - (1908), 16, page 644. - - [44] The authors are under obligations to Mrs. E. E. Kiernan - for her description of this process (in the _Somerset - County Leader_, Jan. 10, 1908) and her letters - concerning it. The statement of the process given here - combines the published statement with the results of - our own experiments. - - [45] Monrad, J. H., Appetitost, N. Y. Produce Rev. etc. 25 - (1908), 16, page 644. - - [46] Pouriau, A. F., La Laiterie, sixieme ed. par Marcel - Monteran, page 453, Paris, 1908. - - [47] Among the varietal names for Neufchatel cheese from - whole milk or with added cream are Petits Bondons, - Malakoffs, Carres affines. Among low fat or skim forms, - Petit Suisse, Gournay. - - [48] Thom, C., J. N. Currie and K. J. Matheson, Studies - relating to the Roquefort and Camembert types of - cheese, Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Bul. 79, page 392. - - [49] Full discussion of this product is found in U. S. Dept. - Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 115. Camembert cheese problems - in the U. S. also published as Storrs Exp. Sta. Bul. 58 - with the same title. Also a supplementary paper in Bul. - 79 of Storrs Exp. Sta. - - [50] Thom, C., U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Circ. 145 - (1909), page 339. - - [51] Lot record cards for the making and ripening of - Camembert are given on pages 124 and 125. - - [52] Bosworth, A. W., Chemical studies of Camembert cheese, - N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 5, pages 23-39, - 1907. - - Dox, A. W., Proteolytic changes in the ripening of Camembert - cheese, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 109, pages - 1-24, 1908. - - [53] Esten, W. M., and C. J. Mason, Bact. Stud. of Camembert - cheese, Storrs Exp. Sta. Bul. 83 (1915), pages 103-111. - - [54] See page 134 for domestic or American use of the name - Brie. - - [55] McNaughton, J., Coulommier cheese, Dept. Agr. Ottawa, - Canada, Dairy and Cold Storage Ser. Bul. 25, 1910. - - [56] Kosher forms are prepared in compliance with the Mosaic - law as demanded by the Jewish trade. - - [57] Unpublished analysis of the Storrs Exp. Sta. - - [58] Chapais, J. C., Monographie, Le Fromage Raffine de L'Isle - d'Orleans. Quebec, 1911. Published by Ministry of - Agriculture, pages 1-31. - - [59] The authors acknowledge the assistance of Mr. Louis - Getman in preparing this description. - - [60] Zumkehr, P., Limburger cheesemaking, Wis. Cheese-makers - Association, 15th Annual Meeting, 1907, page 62. - - [61] Currie, J. N., Flavor of Roquefort cheese, Jour. Agr. - Research 2 (1914), no. 1, pages 1-14. - - [62] Wis. Cheese-makers Assoc., 12th Annual Meeting and - Report, 1906, page xxviii. - - [63] Currie, J. N., The relation of composition to quality - in cheese, American Food Jour. 11 (1916), no. 9, page - 458. See also Dox on the True Composition of Roquefort - Cheese, Ztsch. Untersuch. Nahr. u. Genussmtl. 22 - (1911), pages 239-242. - - [64] Thom, C., and Matheson, K. J., Biology of Roquefort - cheese, Storrs Exp. Sta. Bul. 79, pages 335-347, 1914. - - [65] Currie, J. N., Flavor of Roquefort cheese, Jour. Agr. - Research, 2 (1914), 1, pages 1-14, Washington. - - [66] Dox, A. W., Die Zusammensetzung des echten - Roquefort-Kaeses, in Ztschr. Untersuch. Nahr. u. - Genussmtl. Bd. 22, Heft. 4, pages 239-242, 1911. - - [67] Marre, E., Le Roquefort, Rodez, 1906. This is the - authoritative monograph on Roquefort cheese problems. - - [68] Reported on the word of Prof. Fleischmann. - - [69] Thom, C., J. N. Currie and K. J. Matheson, Studies - relating to the Roquefort and Camembert types of - cheese, Storrs Exp. Sta. Bul. 79, pages 335-394, 1914. - - [70] Thom, C., U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 82, 1905. - - [71] Thom, C., The salt factor in the mold ripened cheeses, - Storrs Exp. Sta. Bul. 79, pages 387-394, 1914. - - [72] Thom, C., and Currie, J. N., The dominance of Roquefort - mold in cheese, Jour. Biol. Chem. 15 (1913), no. 2, - pages 247-258. - - [73] Currie, J. N., The composition of Roquefort cheese fat, - Jour. Agr. Research, 2 (1914), 6, pages 429-434. - - [74] Thom, C., Soft cheese studies in Europe, U. S. Dept. - Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Rept. 22, pages 79-109, 1905. - - [75] Frestadius, A., Nord. Mejeri Tid. 17 (1912), 14, page - 159, Abs. N. Y. Produce Rev. 34 (1912), 2, page 54, and - Cutting, W. B., The use of baritine in cheese rinds, - Mo. Commerce and Trade Repts. 1908, 337, page 144, also - in Practical Dairyman, 2 (1908), 7, page 76. - - [76] Stilton Cheese--J. P. Sheldon--from abs. by New York - Produce Rev. 28 (June 16, 1909), no. 8, pages 362-363. - Stilton is said to have originated with Mrs. Paulet, - Wymondham, Co. of Leicester, and to have been sold by - her brother--Host of the "Bill" at Stilton from which - village it derived its name. - - [77] Percival, J., and G. Heather Mason, The microflora of - Stilton cheese, Jour. Agr. Sci. 5 (1913), part 2, pages - 222-229. See also Thom, C., Soft cheese studies in - Europe, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Rept. 22 (1905), - pages 79-109. - - [78] Benson, Miles, in personal letter from analyses of - cheeses selected for the purpose. - - [79] Dean, H. H., The Creamery Journal, Nov. 1904. - - [80] N. Y. Produce Rev. etc., Vol. 32, no. 14, page 536. - - [81] N. Y. Produce Rev. etc., Vol. 30, no. 5, page 188; Vol. - 30, no. 14, page 534; Vol. 31, no. 5, page 182. - - Marty, G., Brick cheesemaking, Wis. Cheese-makers - Assoc., 15th Annual Meeting, 1907, page 66. - - Wuethrich, F., The manufacture of Brick cheese, Wis. - Cheese-makers Assoc., 14th Annual Meeting, 1906, page - 50. - - Schenk, C., Brick cheesemaking, Wis. Cheese-makers - Assoc., 13th Annual Meeting, 1905, page 38. - - [82] Doane, C. F., and H. W. Lawson, Varieties of cheese, - descriptions and analysis, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. of An. - Ind. Bul. 146, 1911. - - [83] Ligeon, X., Herstellung des Port Salut Kaeses, Milchztg. - 38 (1909), no. 39, pages 459-460. - - [84] These paragraphs were taken from N. Y. Exp. Sta. Bul. - 56, Experiments in the manufacture of cheese; Part I. - The manufacture of Edam cheese, 1893. See also, - Haecker, T. L., Experiments in the manufacture of - cheese, Minn. Exp. Sta. Bul. 35, 1894. - - [85] Boekhout, F. W. J., and J. J. O. de Vries, Cracking of - Edam, Verslag. Landbouwk. Onderzoek. - Rykslandboupoefstat. (Netherlands), 20 (1917), pages - 71-78, fig. 1. - - Boekhout, F. W. F., and J. J. O. de Vries, Sur le - defaut "Knijpers" dans le fromage d'Edam, Rev. Gen. - Lait, 9 (1913), no. 18, pages 420-427. - - [86] Paragraphs taken from N. Y. Exp. Sta. Bul. 56, - Experiments in the manufacture of cheese; Part II. The - manufacture of Gouda cheese, 1893. See also, Hayward, - H., Method of making Gouda cheese, Pa. Exp. Sta. Rept. - 1890, pages 79-81, and Haecker, T. L., Experiments in - the manufacture of cheese, Minn. Exp. Sta. Bul. 35, - 1894, and Monrad, J. H., in N. Y. Produce Rev. 25 - (1907), no. 8, page 336, where a home process of making - this cheese is given. - - [87] The authors acknowledge here the helpful suggestions - and criticisms of G. C. Dutton, New York State Cheese - Instructor. - - [88] Russell, H. L., Cheese as affected by gas-producing - bacteria, Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1895, pages 139-146. - - Marshall, C. E., Gassy curd and cheese, Mich. Exp. Sta. - Bul. 183, 1900. - - [89] S. M. Babcock, Hot iron test of cheese curd, Wis. Exp. - Sta. Rept. 1895, pages 133-134. - - [90] Van Slyke, L. L., and E. B. Hart, A study of some of - the salts formed by casein and paracasein with acids, - their relation to American Cheddar cheese, N. Y. - (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 214, 1902. - - [91] Decker, J. W., Cheesemaking from sour milk, Wis. Exp. - Sta. Rept. 1898, pages 42-44. - - [92] Russell, H. L., Cheese as affected by gas producing - bacteria, Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1895, pages 139-146. - - Marshall, C. E., Gassy curd and cheese, Mich. Exp. Sta. - Bul. 183, 1900. - - Moore, V. A., and A. R. Ward, Causes of tainted cheese - curds, N. Y. (Cornell) Exp. Sta. Bul. 158, 1899. - - [93] Van Slyke, L. L., Investigations relating to the - manufacture of cheese, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. - 68, 1894. - - [94] Van Slyke, L. L., Investigations relating to the - manufacture of cheese, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. - 62, 1893. - - [95] Van Slyke, L. L., Methods of paying for milk at cheese - factories, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 308, 1908. - - [96] Farm Bur. Exchange, St. Lawrence Co., N. Y., Vol. 1, - no. 9, 1915. Cooling milk before delivery at the cheese - factory. - - [97] Sammis, J. L., et al., Factors controlling the moisture - content of cheese curds, Wis. Exp. Sta. Research Bul. - 7, 1910. - - Ont. Agr. College and Exp. Farm Rept. 1909, pages - 111-124, Cheese making experiments. - - Ont. Agr. College and Exp. Farm Rept. 1910, pages - 111-128, Cheese making experiments. - - Fisk, W. W., A study of some factors influencing the - yield and the moisture content of Cheddar cheese, - Cornell Exp. Sta. Bul. 334, pages 515-537, 1913. - - [98] Sammis, J. L., and A. T. Bruhn, The manufacture of - cheese of the Cheddar type from pasteurized milk, U. S. - Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 165, pages 1-95, 1913. - - [99] New York Prod. Review, Vol. 34, no. 2, page 66. - - [100] Babcock, S. M., _et al._, Cheese ripening as - influenced by sugar, Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1901, pages - 162-167. - - E. G. Hastings, _et al._, Studies on the factors - concerned in the ripening of Cheddar cheese, Wis. Exp. - Sta. Research Bul. 25. - - [101] Fisk, W. W., Skim-milk Cheddar cheese, N. Y. (Cornell) - Exp. Sta. Ex. Bul. 18, 1917. - - [102] Curd was spilled but practically all recovered. - - [103] Suzuki, S. K., _et al._, Production of fatty acids and - esters in Cheddar cheese, Wis. Exp. Sta. Research Bul. - 11. - - [104] Babcock, S. M., _et al._, Cheese ripening as - influenced by sugar, Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1901, pages - 162-167. - - [105] Bosworth, A. W., and M. J. Prucha, Fermentation of - citric acid in milk, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Tech. - Bul. 14, 1910. - - Van Slyke, L. L., and A. W. Bosworth, Condition of - casein and salts in milk, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. - Tech. Bul. 39, 1914. - - Van Slyke, L. L., and E. B. Hart, A study of some of - the salts formed by casein and paracasein with acids; - their relation to American Cheddar cheese, N. Y. - (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 214, 1902. - - Van Slyke, L. L., and E. B. Hart, Some of the - relations of casein and paracasein to bases and acids - and their application to Cheddar cheese, N. Y. - (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 261, 1905. - - Van Slyke, L. L., and O. B. Winter, Cheese ripening - investigations, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. - 33, 1914. - - [106] Van Slyke, L. L., and E. B. Hart, The relation of - carbon dioxide to proteolysis in the ripening of - Cheddar cheese, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 231, - 1903. - - [107] Van Slyke, L. L., and E. B. Hart, Some of the - compounds present in American Cheddar cheese, N. Y. - (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 219, 1902. - - [108] Van Slyke, L. L., _et al._, Action of rennin or - casein, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 31, 1913. - - Van Slyke, L. L., _et al._, Cheese ripening - investigations; rennet enzyme as a factor in cheese - ripening, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 233, 1903. - - [109] Bosworth, A. W., Studies relating to the chemistry of - milk and casein, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. - 37, 1914. - - [110] Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1898, Distribution of galactase - in milk from different sources, pages 87-97. - - Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1903, pages 195-197, 201-205, - 222-223, Action of proteolytic ferments on milk. - - [111] Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1900, pages 102-122. - - [112] Harding, H. A., and M. J. Prucha, The bacterial flora - of Cheddar cheese, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. - 8. - - [113] Bacterium, Bacillus and Lactobacillus are preferred by - different authors as generic placing of the Bulgarian - sour milk species. - - [114] Hastings, E. G., Alice C. Evans and E. B. Hart, The - bacteriology of Cheddar cheese, Wis. Exp. Sta. Bul. - 150, pages 1-52, 1912. - - [115] Harding, H. A., The role of the lactic acid bacteria - in the manufacture and in the early stages of ripening - of Cheddar cheese, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 237, - 1903. - - [116] Heinemann, P. G., The kinds of lactic acid produced by - lactic acid bacteria, Jour. Biol. Chem., Vol. 2, pages - 603-608. - - [117] Hastings, E. G., _et al._, The bacteriology of Cheddar - cheese, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 150, 1912. - - [118] Van Slyke, L. L., and E. B. Hart, Conditions affecting - chemical changes in cheese ripening, N. Y. (Geneva) - Exp. Sta. Bul. 236, 1903. - - [119] Van Slyke, L. L., _et al._, Cheese ripening at low - temperatures, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 234, 1903. - - [120] Van Slyke, L. L., _et al._, Cheese ripening at low - temperatures, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 234, 1903. - - [121] Doane, C. F., Methods and results of paraffining - cheese, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Circ. 181, - pages 1-16, 1911. - - [122] Doane, C. F., and E. E. Eldredge, The use of Bacillus - Bulgaricus in starters for making Swiss or Emmenthal - cheese, Dept. of Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 148, 1915. - - [123] N. Y. Produce Rev. and Am. Creamery, Vol. 37, no. 25, - page 1112, Starter for Swiss cheese. - - [124] Clark, W. M., On the formation of "eyes" in Emmenthal - cheese, Jour. Dairy Sci. 1 (1917), no. 2, pages - 91-113. - - Among important studies of Swiss cheese ripening are - the following: Freudenreich, E. v., and Orla Jensen, - Ueber die in Emmentalerkaese stattfindende - Proprionsaeuregaerung, Centralb. f. Bakt. etc. 2 Abt. - 17, page 529. - - Jensen, Orla, Biologische Studien ueber den - Kaesereifungs-prozess unter spezieller Berucksichtigung - der fluechtigen Fettsaeuren, Centralb. f. Bakt. etc. 2 - Abt. 13 (1904), page 161. - - Eldredge, E. E., and L. A. Rogers, The bacteriology of - cheese of the Emmenthal type, Centralb. f. Bakt. 2 - Abt. 40 (1914), no. 1/8, pages 5-21. - - [125] Gorini, C., Studi sulla fabricatione razionale del - fromaggi Grana, Boll. uff. del Ministero Agr. Ind. e - Comm. Anno X, serie C, Fasc. 10, pages 1-7, Roma, - 1911. - - Gorini, C., On the distribution of bacteria in Grana - cheese, Centralb. f. Bakt. etc. 2 Abt. 12 (1904), - pages 78-81. - - Fascetti, G., The technological chemistry of the - manufacture of Grana cheese in Reggio, Staz. Sper. - Agr. Ital. 47 (1914), no. 8, pages 541-568. - - [126] Cornalba, G., Caciocavallo in Lombardy, L'Industria - del Latte 3, page 105, Abs. in Jahresb. f. Tierchemie - 36 (1906), page 250. - - [127] Babcock, S. M., Albumin cheese, Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. - 12 (1895), page 134. - - [128] Doane, C. F., Whey butter, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. - Ind. Circ. 161, pages 1-7, 1910. - - Sammis, J. L., Making whey butter at Cheddar cheese - factories, Wis. Exp. Sta. Bul. 246, 1915. - - Ellenberrger, H. B., and M. R. Tolstrup, Skimming whey - at Vermont cheese factories, Vt. Dept. Agr. Bul. 26, - 1916. - - [129] Farrington, E. H., and G. J. Davis, The disposal of - creamery sewage, Wis. Exp. Sta. Bul. 245, 1915. - - [130] Dotterrer, W. D., and R. S. Breed, Why and how - pasteurize dairy by-products, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. - Bul. 412, 1915. - - [131] Harding, H. A., and G. A. Smith, Control of rust spots - in cheese, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 225, 1902. - - [132] Elliott, W. J., Creameries and cheese factories, Mont. - Exp. Sta. Bul. 53, 1904. - - Farrington, E. H., and E. H. Benkendorf, Origination - and construction of cheese factories and creameries, - Wis. Exp. Sta. Bul. 244, 1915. - - [133] From N. Y. price current. - - [134] Hart, E. B., A simple test for casein in milk and its - relation to the dairy industry, Wis. Exp. Sta. Bul. - 156, pages 1-22, 1907. - - [135] Sammis, J. L., The moisture test in the cheese - factory, Wis. Exp. Sta. Circ. 81, 1917. - - Troy, H. C., A cheese moisture test, N. Y. (Cornell) - Exp. Sta. Ext. Bul. 17, 1917. - - [136] Sammis, J. L., Correct payment for cheese factory milk - by the Babcock test, Wis. Exp. Sta. Bul. 276, 1917. - - [137] Dairy Laws of Wisconsin, 1916, section 4607a. - - [138] Sammis, J. L., The improved system of selling cheese, - Hoard's Dairyman 52 (1916), 15, pages 5, 11-12. - - Hibbard, B. H., and A. Hobson, Markets and prices of - Wisconsin cheese, Wis. Exp. Sta. Bul. 251, pages 1-56, - 1915. - - [139] Hibbard, B. H., and Asher Hobson, Markets and prices - of Wisconsin cheese, Wis. Exp. Sta. Bul. 251, 1915. - - [140] N. Y. Agricultural Laws, Sect. 3, paragraphs 48 and - 49. - - [141] Langworthy, C. F., and C. L. Hunt, Cheese and its - economical uses in the diet, U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' - Bul. 487, 1912. - - [142] See also, Reich, R., Cheese as a food and its judgment - from standpoint of the food chemist, Arch. f. Hyg. 80 - (1913), no. 1/6, pages 169-195. - - [143] This calculation was added by the authors. - - [144] Varietal name added by authors. - - [145] Doane, C. F., and H. W. Lawson, Varieties of cheese, - U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 146. - - [146] U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind., Dairy Div. A. I. 21, - 1917. - - [147] Doane, C. F., _et al._, The digestibility of cheese, - U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Circ. 166, pages 1-21, - 1911. - - [148] Langworthy and Hunt, _loc. cit._ - - [149] U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bul. 487, page 38. - - [150] Levin, W., Cheese poisoning--a toxicogenic bacillus - isolated from cheese, Jour. Lab. Clin. Med. 2 (1917), - page 761. - - [151] Thom, C., Camembert cheese problems in the United - States, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 115. - - [152] Langworthy and Hunt, _loc. cit._ - - [153] Langworthy and Hunt, _loc. cit._ - - [154] U.S. Dept. of Agr. Bur. An. Ind. A. I. 18. - - - - - INDEX - - - Acetic acid in cheese, 247. - - Acid cocci, 19. - - Acid fermentation, 17. - - Acid organisms, 41. - - Acid peptonizing organisms, 41. - - Acidity, - in cheese and curd, 57, 58, 59. - and color, 67. - and rennet action, 66. - and ripening, 255. - and separation of whey, 66. - and texture, 67. - control of, 64. - in milk, 60. - testing, 60, 61. - - Acidy cheese, 66. - - Acme curd rake, 196. - - Albumin, 10. - - Albumin cheese, 295. - - Alcohols in cheese, 248. - - Alkaline bacteria, 20. - - Appetitost, 114. - - Ash of milk, 11. - - Ayers, S. H. (Thom and), 21. - - - Babcock, S. M., 201, 237, 248, 295. - - Babcock test, 327-332. - - Bacillus botulinus, 370. - bulgaricus = Bacterium bulgaricum, 18, 279. - enteritidis, 370. - subtilis, 20. - - Baeckstein cheese, 164. - - Bacteria, 14. - alkali-producing, 20. - control of, 25. - from the air, 23. - from the cow, 23. - from the milker, 24. - from the utensils, 24. - groups of, in milk, 15. - in Cheddar ripening, 252-254. - inert type, 20. - influence on yield of Cheddar, 227. - peptonizing, 20. - sources in milk, 22. - - Bacterium bulgaricum, 18, 19. - aerogenes, 18. - casei, 253. - coli-communis, 18, 252. - guntheri, 41. - lactis acidi, 18, 41, 252, 254. - lactis aerogenes, 252. - liquefaciens, 20. - prodigiosus, 20. - - Baer, U. S., and W. L. Carlyle, 12. - - Baker's cheese, 105. - - Bang, Ivar, 39. - - Bang's theory of casein, 37. - - Barite, baryta, 159. - - Barnard curd mill, 208. - - Benson, Miles, 163. - - Bergey, D. H., 16. - - Besana, C., 29. - - Block Swiss, 285. - - Blue label, 109. - - Blue-veined cheeses, 150. - - Board of Health lactometer, 336. - - Boards of Trade (Cheese), 349, 350. - - Boekhout, J. W. J., and J. J. Ott de Vries, 174. - - Bondon cheese, 94. - - Bosworth, Alfred W., 37-38, 40, 126, 251. - - Bosworth, A. W., and M. J. Prucha, 249. - - Bosworth, A. W., and L. L. Van Slyke, 40. - - Bosworth's theory of casein, 37. - - Branding cheese, 360. - - Breeds of cows, milk from, 6. - - Brick cheese, 86, 136, 164 to 169, 358. - making, 165. - qualities, 167. - ripening, 167. - score-card, 169. - yield, 169. - - Brie, - American, 134-136. - French, 117, 131, 132. - - Brindse, Brinse cheese, 110. - - Bushnell, L. D., and W. R. Wright, 44. - - Buttermilk cheese, 93. - - Butyric acid in Cheddar cheese, 248. - - Butyric organisms, 21. - - Buying milk, 343. - - - Caciocavallo cheese, 293. - - California Jack cheese, 233. - - Calorimeter values, 364. - - Camembert cheese, 86, 111, 117 to 131, 137. - acidity in, 122. - bacteria in, 127. - composition, 128. - described, 117. - domestic, 360. - factory, 129. - group, 117. - lot-card, 124, 125. - making, 118-122. - ripening, 123. - - Caproic acid in cheese, 136. - - Carres affines, 114. - - Casein, defined chemically, 33. - acted on by acid, 33. - in cheese ripening, 249. - in milk and cheese, 9. - Robertson's theory, 34. - test (Hart), 334. - - Caseinogen, 35. - - Catalase, 11. - - Chapais, J. C., 137. - - Cheddar cheese, 79, 86, 173, 184 to 275, 358, 368. - acidity test for, 190. - acidy, 266, 270. - American, 230. - body in, 271, 273. - boxes for, 264. - calorimeter studies of, 368. - cheddaring curd for, 204-207. - color in, 270. - composition of, 223. - cooking curd for, 195-200. - corky, 199. - cutting curd for, 193. - defects in, 265. - drawing whey, 200. - dressing, 216. - dry body in, 267. - English, 173. - feedy flavors in, 265. - finish in, 271. - firming curd for, 201-204. - flavor of, 221. - food value of, 362-365. - fruity flavors in, 266. - gas in curd for, 219. - gas in milk for, 217, 219, 269. - gassy, 268. - hooping curd for, 212. - hot-iron test for, 201, 208. - judging, 271. - losses in, 262, 263. - lot-card for, 184, 187. - matting, 204. - milk for, 186. - milling, 207. - moisture content of, 228, 258. - mottled, 221, 270. - packing curd for, 202. - paraffining, 263. - pin-holes in, 189. - pressing, 213. - quality in, 221, 272-273. - ripening milk for, 189 to 192. - ripening of, 247 to 263. - salting curd for, 211. - score-card for, 271, 273, 275. - seamy color in, 214, 221. - setting, 192. - shipping, 264. - starter for, 190, 191. - sweet flavor in, 266. - texture of, 267. - variations of process, 229. - yield, 224, 225. - - Cheese, and health, 369. - and meals, 367. - and price of, 373. - boxes, 357. - canned, 372. - care in home, 372. - choice of, 370-371. - classification of, 81-85. - color, 56. - composition-table, 86, 364. - definition of, 1. - digestibility of, 368. - fondue, 375. - food value of, 362-367. - fuel value of, 365. - history of, 4. - in dietaries, 370-374. - in the household, 361-381, - knife, 205. - names, 81. - poisoning, 370. - price, 323, 357. - problems, 3. - processed, 84. - ripening (_see varietal descriptions_). - roast, 380. - salad, 378, 379. - sandwich, 371, 378. - sauce, 374, 381. - souffle, 376. - total consumption of, 362. - trier, 272. - varieties, 3. - with sour-milk flavor, 89. - yield basis for buying milk, 343. - - Cheese-making, - an art, 2. - a science, 3. - - Chemistry of rennet action, 33-40. - - Cheshire, 184. - - Clabber cheese, 90. - - Clark, W. M., 284. - - Classification of cheese, 81 to 85. - - Club cheese, 85, 231. - - Cold-storage, 356, 361. - - Colon-aerogenes group, 18. - - Color, 56. - - Colostrum, 18. - - Commercial starter, 43. - - Composition of Brick, 169. - Camembert, 128. - Cheddar, 223. - Cottage, 92. - Cream, 108. - Limburger, 147. - Neufchatel, 105, 107. - Roquefort, 151. - Swiss, 287. - - Conn, H. W., 16, 23, 152. - - Connecticut (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Rept., 7, 16. - - Constituents of milk, 7. - - Cooking curd, 77. - for Cheddar, 195. - for Swiss, 281. - - Cooperative organizations, 309. - - Cornalba, G., 293. - - Cottage cheese, 2, 86, 368, 379-381. - discussed, 90-93. - - Coulommiers cheese, 111, 117, 131, 132. - - Cow-brand cheese, 109. - - Cream cheese, 108. - - Curd, 9. - breaking, 75. - chemistry of, 33 to 40. - cooking of, 77. - cutting, 75. - draining, 79. - fork, 210. - knives, 77 (Fig. 11), 194, 195. - - Curdling period, 74. - - Curd-making, 55. - factors in, 55. - - Curd mills, 207 to 209. - - Curd pail, 213. - - Curd rakes, 196. - - Curd scoop, 213. - - Curd sink, 204. - - Curd test, 26. - - Currie, James N., 149, 150, 155, 156. - - Cutting, W. B., 159. - - Cutting curd, 75-77. - for Brick, 165. - for Cheddar, 193-195. - for Edam, 175. - for Isigny, 135. - for Limburger, 141. - for Roquefort, 154. - for Swiss, 280-281. - - - Dahlberg, Arnold O., 98. - - Daisies (cheese), 230. - - Danish cheese, 173. - - Davis, B. J. (and L. A. Rogers), 16. - - Dean, H. H., 163. - - Decker, John W., 217. - - Derbyshire, 184. - - Diastase, 11. - - Digestibility of cheese, 367. - - Diseased cows, effect on milk, 13. - - Doane, C. F., 64, 263, 296. - - Doane, C. F., and E. E. Eldredge, 279. - - Doane, C. F., and H. W. Lawson, 169, 365. - - Dotterrer, W. D., and R. S. Breed, 301. - - Dox, Arthur W., 126, 150. - - Draining, 79. - Camembert, 121-122. - Cheddar, 195-206. - Cottage, 91. - Limburger, 142. - Neufchatel, 97. - Roquefort, 154. - Swiss, 280-282. - - Draining cloths, - for Jack cheese, 235. - for Neufchatel, 97. - for Swiss, 282. - - Draining rack for Neufchatel, 97. - - Dressing Cheddar, 216. - - Dry body, 267. - - Duclaux, E., 39, 33-40. - - Duclaux's theory of casein, 36. - - Dutch cheeses, 173. - - Dutton, G. C., 184. - - - Eagle brand, 109. - - Eckles, C. H., and Otto Rahn, 112. - - Eckles, C. H., and R. H. Shaw, 7. - - Edam cheese, 173, 174 to 180, 366. - - Eldredge, E. E., and L. A. Rogers, 284. - - Ellenberger, H. B., and M. R. Tolstrup, 296. - - Elliott, W. J., 310. - - Emmenthal or Emmenthaler, 276 - - English dairy cheese, 238. - - Enzymes, - in cheese-ripening, 250. - in milk, 11. - - Equipment list for Cheddar factory, 307. - - Esten, W. M., 41. - - Esten, W. M., and C. J. Mason, 16, 129. - - Esters in Cheddar cheese, 248, 254. - - Export Cheddar, 230. - - Exportation of cheese, 321. - - - Factory, 297-309. - arrangement, 302-306. - boiler-room in, 301. - building, 299. - cleanliness in, 307. - cooperative, 308. - curing-rooms, 300. - drainage, 298. - equipment list, 307. - heating, 300. - location of, 298, 299. - organization, 308-309. - proprietary, 308. - supplies, list for, 307. - system, 313, 320. - ventilation of, 300. - water in, 298. - - Farm cheese, 133. - - Farrington, E. H., and G. H. Benkendorf, 310. - - Farrington, E. H., and G. J. Davis, 298. - - Farrington, Harvey, 314. - - Farrington's test, 62. - - Fascetti, G., 288. - - Fat-basis for buying milk, 344. - - Fat and casein ratio, 224, 226. - - Fat and cheese yield, 225, 226. - - Fat and water content, 86. - - Fat in cheese-ripening, 86. - - Fat in milk, 8. - - Fat loss, 226-227. - plus two method, 345. - - Fat test, 327-334. - - Feeds, 11. - - Fermentation, 15. - - Fermentation test, 26. - - Ferments, 15, 29. - - Filled cheese, 315, 361. - - Fisk, Walter W., 68, 89, 228. - - "Flats," 230. - - Flavor of cheese, 368, 371. - - Flavor of feeds, 11. - - Fleischmann, W., 152. - - Food value of cheese, 362-367. - - Forbes, E. B., and M. H. Keith, 9, 33 to 40. - - Formic acid in Cheddar, 248. - - Frandsen, J. H., 23, 89. - - Frandsen, J. H., and T. Thorsen, 89. - - Fraser, W. J., 23. - - Fraser hoop, 212. - - Frestadius, A., 159. - - Freudenreich, E. von, and Orla Jensen, 284. - - Full skim Cheddar, 242. - - - Galactase, 11. - - Gang press, 214. - - Gases in cheese-ripening, 249. - - Gassy curd, 146, 220. - - Gassy milk, 219. - - Geographical distribution of cheese factories, 315. - - Germicidal effect of milk, 22. - - Gervais cheese, 109. - - Getman, Louis, 139. - - Gex cheese, 164. - - Glaesler (Swiss), 286. - - Glymol, 334. - - Goat cheese, 109. - - Gorgonzola cheese, 158 to 161. - - Gorini, Constantine, 288. - - Gosselin curd mill, 208. - - Gouda cheese, 173, 180 to 183. - - Gournay cheese, 114. - - Grana cheese, 288. - - Granular curd cheese, 232. - - "Green" cheese, 247. - - Gruyere, 276. - - Guthrie, E. S., and W. W. Fisk, 44. - - - Haecker, T. L., 180. - - Half-skim Cheddar, 243. - - Hall, W. W., 187. - - Halliburton, 35. - - Hammarsten, Olof, 39, 33-40. - - Hammarsten's theory of rennet action, 35. - - Hand cheese, 112. - - Hard cheese, 172. - - Harding, H. A., 23, 254. - - Harding, H. A., and M. J. Prucha, 252. - - Harding, H. A., J. K. Wilson, and G. A. Smith, 25. - - Harding, H. A., and G. A. Smith, 306. - - Harris curd mill, 209. - - Hart, E. B., 38, 40, 91, 201, 249, 253, 255, 256, 334. - - Hart casein test, 334. - - Harz cheese, 112. - - Hastings, E. G., 21, 44, 237. - - Hastings, E. G., and Alice C. Evans, 60. - - Hastings, E. G., Alice C. Evans, and E. B. Hart, 253, 255. - - Hayward, H., 180. - - Heat in cheese-making, 77-78, 87, 91, 195, 281. - - Heinemann, P. G., 254. - - Hibbard, B. H., and A. Hobson, 349, 358-359. - - History of cheese-making, 4, 311. - - Hoops, for Camembert, 121. - for Cheddar, 212. - for Roquefort, 154. - for Swiss, 278. - - Hosl, J., 39. - - Hot-iron test, 201. - - Household, cheese in, 362-381. - - Hunziker, O. F., 22. - - Hydrogen in Cheddar, 254. - - - Importation of cheese, 321. - - Inert bacteria, 20. - - Iowa Exp. Sta. Bull., 310. - - d'Isigny cheese, 132, 134-137. - - Italian cheeses, 288-291. - - - Jack cheese, 184, 233-236. - - Jensen, Orla, 284. - - Junker curd mill, 209. - - - Kascoval cheese, 164. - - Kiernan, Mrs. E. E., 113. - - Kikkoji, 36, 39. - - King, F. H., and E. H. Farrington, 12. - - Kosher cheese, 136. - - - Lactic starter, 41-54. - - Lactometer, 335. - Board of Health type, 336. - Quevenne type, 335. - - Lactose (_see_ Milk-sugar), 10. - - Langworthy, C. F., and C. L. Hunt, 363, 372. - - Larsen, C., and W. White, 44. - - Lauder, A., and A. Cunningham, 22. - - Laws about cheese, 359-361. - - Laws about milk, 347. - - Leicestershire, 184. - - Levin, W., 370. - - Leyden cheese, 238. - - License for cheese-maker, 361. - - Liederkrauz cheese, 134, 138. - - Ligeon, X., 170. - - Limburger, 86, 136, 139 to 147, 358, 371. - factory, 139-140. - making process, 140-143. - qualities, 145. - ripening, 143-145. - wrapping, 145. - yield of, 147. - - Lindet, L., 38, 39. - - Lipase, 11. - - Livarot cheese, 135. - - Loevenhart, A. S., 36, 39. - - Long-horn (Cheddar) cheese, 230. - - Lot-card, for Camembert, 124-125. - for Cheddar, 184, 187. - for starter, 53. - - - Macaroni and cheese, 377. - - Maine Exp. Sta. Rept., 7. - - Malakoff cheese, 94, 114. - - Manns, A. G., 7. - - Manns test, 231. - - Manufacturer's brand, 360-361. - - Marketing, 343-361. - laws concerning, 360. - - Marre, E., 151. - - Marschall test, 62. - - Marshall, C. E., 189, 217. - - Marty, G., 165. - - Matheson, K. J., F. R. Cammack, 100. - - Matheson, K. J., C. Thom, and J. N. Currie, 94. - - Matting, 204. - - Mayo, N. F., and C. G. Elling, 289. - - Maze, P., 116. - - McAdam, Robert, 314. - - McNaughton, Janet, 132. - - McPherson curd agitator, 196. - - Mercantile exchanges, 351. - - Michels, John, 89. - - Michigan Agr. Law, 13. - - Milk, acid fermentation of, 17. - acidity in, 60. - albumin, 10. - ash, 11. - bacteria in, 21. - bacterial contamination of, 21. - buying, 343. - casein in, 9, 224. - clean, 22. - colostrum in, 13. - composition of, 5, 6, 56, 222. - constituents, 7. - defined, 5. - enzymes in, 11. - fat in, 8, 224. - flavors in, 11. - from diseased cows, 13. - germicidal property, 22. - lactose in, 10. - moisture in, 8. - odors in, 12. - paying for, 343. - quality in, 5. - sugar (lactose), 10. - variation in composition, 6. - - Milking machines, 25. - - Milk-sugar, 10. - - Moisture and acidity, 70. - - Moisture control, 68, 69. - - Moisture limits in cheese, 358. - - Moisture test (Troy's), 337-342. - - Molding machines for Neufchatel, 98. - - Molding Neufchatel, 104. - - Molds, - in Cheddar, 271. - in milk, 21. - - Monrad, J. H., 112, 114, 180. - - Moore, V. A., and A. R. Ward, 217. - - Morrow, G. A., and A. G. Manns, 7. - - Mottled Cheddar, 221, 270. - - Mucors, 93. - - Muenster, 147, 148, 366. - - Mysost, 293, 295. - - - Natural starter, 43. - - Neufchatel, 80, 85, 86, 89, 371. - American, 95. - domestic, 95, 106. - factory, 95. - group discussed, 94 to 109. - packages, 98. - ripened form, 114-116, 117. - yield, 107. - - New Jersey Exp. Sta. Rept., 7. - - New York (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Rept., 7, 8, 174. - - New York Mercantile Exchange, 351-356. - - New York Price Current, 315, 351. - - New York Produce Review, 165, 233, 280. - - New York State Department of Agriculture, 13. - - Niszler (Swiss) cheese, 286. - - Nut cheese, 109. - - - Odors absorbed by milk, 12. - - Oidium (Oospora) lactis, 113, 116, 131, 136, 163. - - Oka cheese, 169. - - Olimento cheese, 109. - - Olive cheese, 109. - - Olson, G. A., 74. - - Ontario Agricultural College Bulletins, 7, 228. - - Over-ripe milk, 218. - - - Pails, 24, 25. - - Paracasein, 35, 250. - - Paraffining Cheddar, 263. - - Parmesan cheese, 2, 80, 86, 173, 288-291. - - Pasteurization, 11, 26, 45, 229, 396. - - Pasteurized Cheddar, 229. - - Pasty body, 270. - - Paying for milk, 343-346. - - Penicillium brevicaule, 129. - camemberti, 116, 126, 127, 131. - camemberti var. rogeri, 116. - candidum, 116. - roqueforti, 155, 156, 159, 163. - - Pennsylvania pot cheese, 113. - - Pepsin, 30, 33. - - Peptonizing bacteria, 20. - - Percival, J., and G. Heather Mason, 163. - - Perishable varieties, 356. - - Peroxidase, 11. - - Petit Carre, 94, 114. - - Petite Suisse, 94, 114. - - Petits Bondons, 114. - - Petry, E., 36, 39. - - Philadelphia cream, 109, 360. - - Picnic cheese, 230. - - Pimiento cheese, 85, 101. - - Pimientos in Cheddar, 238. - - Pim-olive cheese, 109. - - Pineapple cheese, 184, 238. - - Pohl curd mill, 208. - - Poisoning by cheese, 370. - - Pont l'Eveque cheese, 135. - - Pooling method, 345. - - Port du Salut cheese, 136, 169 to 171. - - Pot cheese, 113. - - Pouriau, A. F., 82, 114. - - Press cloths, 212. - - Presses, 214, 215. - - Prices, - distribution of, 357-359. - yearly average of, 323. - - Primost, 295. - - Processed cheese, 84. - - Propionic acid in cheese, 247, 248. - - Provolono, 294. - - Prucha, M. J., and H. M. Weeter, 23. - - Ptyalin, 30. - - Publow, C. A., 60. - - Publow's test, 62. - - Pure culture starter, 43. - - - Quality, - in Cheddar, 272-273. - in Edam, 180. - in Limburger, 145. - in milk, 6. - in Swiss, 286. - - Quevenne lactometer, 335. - - - Rabbit cheese, 372. - - Raffine cheese, 137, 138. - - Recipes for cooking cheese, 375-381. - - Reductase, 11. - - Regianito cheese, 292. - - Reich, R., 363. - - Rennet, 9, 30, 312. - action, 33 to 40. - action, chemistry of, 33 - action delayed by, 73. - adding, 72. - amount to use, 72. - extract, 31, 279. - for Camembert, 121. - for Cheddar, 192. - for Limburger, 141. - for Neufchatel, 100. - for Roquefort, 153. - for Swiss, 279. - in ripening Cheddar, 250. - strength of, 72. - temperature of using, 71. - test, 62. - - Rennin, 30. - - Rice and cheese, 377. - - Ricotte, 11, 295. - - Robbiola, 117. - - Robertson, T. Brailsford, 38. - - Robertson's theory of casein, 34. - - Roger, Georges, 116. - - Rogers, L. A., 16. - - Rogers, L. A., and B. J. Davis, 16. - - Roquefort cheese, 2, 86, 150, 158, 368, 369, 371. - acidity for, 153. - caves for, 151. - composition of, 151. - curdling for, 153. - cutting curd for, 154. - draining, 154. - from cow's milk, 152. - milk for, 153. - mold for, 154. - ripening of, 156-157. - salting, 155. - setting, 153. - temperature, 153. - - Ruddick, J. A., and G. H. Baur, 26. - - Russell, H. L., 189, 217. - - Rusty spots, 74, 306. - - - Sage cheese, 239-241. - - Salt in Cheddar ripening, 259. - - Salting, - Camembert, 122. - Cheddar, 211. - Limburger, 142. - Neufchatel, 102. - Roquefort, 155. - Swiss, 283. - - Sammis, J. L., 95, 228, 296, 337, 347, 349. - - Sammis, J. L., and A. T. Bruhn, 11, 41, 57, 229. - - Sammis, J. L., S. K. Suzuki and F. W. Laabs, 33. - - Sammis' method, 229. - - Sap sago, 294. - - Schenk, C., 165. - - Schmidt-Nielson, S., 36, 39. - - Schmierkaese, 90. - - Schroeder, E. C., 99. - - Schweitzer cheese, 276. - - Score-card, - for Brick, 169. - for Cheddar, 271. - for Limburger, 146. - for starter, 51. - for Swiss, 287. - - Sediment test, 27, 28. - - Semi-hard cheeses, 149-171. - - Setting, 71. - - Shaw, R. H. (and C. H. Eckles), 7. - - Sheep's milk, 151, 152. - - Sheep's milk cheese, 150. - - Sheldon, J. P., 161. - - Shot-gun cans, 97. - - Size factor in ripening, 263. - - Skim cheese, 89, 361, 366. - bacteria, 134-147. - Cheddar, 241-246. - Neufchatel, 105, 107. - ripened by molds, 111. - - Soft cheeses, 82-83, 86. - - Solids not fat, 335-337. - - Speed knife, 217. - - Spiro, K., 36, 39. - - Square cream, 109. - - Standards, 359. - - Starter, 42. - amount to use, 52. - care of milk for, 47. - commercial, 43. - containers for, 45. - for Brick, 165. - for Camembert, 121. - for Cheddar, 189. - for Neufchatel, 99. - for Roquefort, 153. - for Swiss, 279. - handling, 42-50. - lot-card for, 53. - "mother," 47 - natural, 42. - pasteurization of, 45. - propagation of, 46-48. - qualities of, 50. - score-card for, 51. - - Startoline, 47. - - State brands, 360. - - Stevenson, C., 29. - - Stilton cheese, 161-163. - - Stirred curd cheese, 232. - - Stocking, W. A., Jr., 22, 23, 25. - - Storage of cheese, 103. - - Streptococcus lacticus, 41. - - Streptothrix-actinomyces group, 21. - - Succinic acid, 254. - - Suzuki, S. K., 247. - - Sweet curd cheese, 236. - - Swiss cheese, 80, 86, 173, 276-288, 358, 366, 368, 371. - block, 278. - breaking, 281. - composition, 287. - curing, 283. - cutting, 280. - drum, 278. - eyes in, 283-285. - factories, 276-278. - making process, 280-283. - pressing, 282. - quality in, 286. - rennet for, 279. - salting, 283. - score-card for, 287. - starter for, 279. - testing, Chapter XIX, 327. - - Swiss harp, 278. - - - Tests, - acid, 60, 61. - Babcock, 327-334. - casein, 334. - curd, 26. - fat, 327. - fermentation, 26. - Hart, 334. - hot-iron, 201. - lactometer, 335-337. - moisture in cheese, 337-342. - rennet, 62. - sediment, 27, 28. - solids not fat, 335-337. - Troy's moisture, 337-342. - - Thom, C., 117, 154, 155, 158, 372. - - Thom, C., and S. H. Ayers, 21. - - Thom, C., and J. N. Currie, 156. - - Thom, C., J. N. Currie, and K. J. Matheson, 116, 152. - - Thom, C., and K. J. Matheson, 149. - - Tinfoil wrapping, 145. - - Todd, A., and E. C. V. Cornish, 29. - - Tolstrup, R. M., 91. - - Trappist, 169. - - Trier, 272. - - Troy, H. C., 337. - - Trypsin, 30. - - Twins, 230. - - Tyrein, 35. - - - U. S. Census Report, quoted, 317, 318 to 322. - - U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbooks, quoted, 326. - - U. S. Treasury Dept. Hygienic Laboratory Bulletin, 22. - - Utensils, 24. - - - Valerianic acid in cheese, 136. - - Van Dam, W., 29, 36, 39. - - Van Eyck Machine Co., 98. - - Van Herwerden, M., 36, 39. - - Van Slyke, L. L., 8, 223, 224, 225, 251, 257, 262. - - Van Slyke, L. L., and A. W. Bosworth, 9, 36, 39, 40, 249. - - Van Slyke, L. L., and D. D. Van Slyke, 33. - - Van Slyke, L. L., and E. B. Hart, 38, 40, 91, 201, 249, 256. - - Van Slyke, L. L., and C. A. Publow, 310. - - Van Slyke, L. L., and O. B. Winter, 249. - - Vat, 190. - - Vermont Exp. Sta. Rept., 7. - - Victor curd mill, 208. - - - Ward, A. R., 217. - - Washed curd process, 236. - - Water in milk, 8. - - Welsh rabbit, 377. - - Wensleydale, 184. - - Whey, 222. - - Whey butter, 295. - - Whey cheese, 85, 295. - - Whey siphon, 202. - - Whey strainer, 202, 203. - - Whey tank, 301, 303. - - White cheese, 109. - - Williams, Jesse, 313. - - Wilson hoop, 212. - - Wing, Lois W., 25. - - Wisconsin Agr. Law, 13, 347. - - Wisconsin curd test, 26. - - Wisconsin pasteurized Cheddar, 229. - - Wisconsin Sta. Bul., quoted, 7, 8, 10, 26, 251, 253. - - Working of curd, 102, 135. - - Wuethrich, F., 165. - - - Yeasts, 21. - - Yield of, Brick, 169. - Camembert, 130. - Cheddar, 226. - Limburger, 146. - Neufchatel (whole milk), 107. - Swiss, 287. - - Young America, 230. - - - Zumkehr, P. 139. - - * * * * * - -The following pages contain advertisements of a -few of the Macmillan books on kindred subjects - - -THE RURAL TEXT-BOOK SERIES - -EDITED BY L. H. BAILEY - -Butter - -BY E. S. 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