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diff --git a/40318-0.txt b/40318-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4c4af59 --- /dev/null +++ b/40318-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,13610 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 40318 *** + +Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this + file which includes the original illustrations. + See 40318-h.htm or 40318-h.zip: + (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/40318/40318-h/40318-h.htm) + or + (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/40318/40318-h.zip) + + + Images of the original pages are available through + Internet Archive. See + http://archive.org/details/bookofcheese00thomrich + + +Transcriber's note: + + Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). + + Text enclosed by plus signs is in bold face (+bold+). + + + + + +THE BOOK OF CHEESE + + * * * * * + + The Rural Text-Book Series + + EDITED BY L. H. BAILEY + + + _Carleton_: THE SMALL GRAINS. + + _B. M. Duggar_: THE PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANT PRODUCTION. + + _J. F. Duggar_: SOUTHERN FIELD CROPS. + + _Gay_: BREEDS OF LIVE-STOCK. + + _Gay_: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF JUDGING LIVE-STOCK. + + _Goff_: PRINCIPLES OF PLANT CULTURE. + + _Guthrie_: BOOK OF BUTTER. + + _Harper_: ANIMAL HUSBANDRY FOR SCHOOLS. + + _Harris and Stewart_: PRINCIPLES OF AGRONOMY. + + _Hitchcock_: TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES. + + _Jeffery_: TEXT-BOOK OF LAND DRAINAGE. + + _Jordan_: FEEDING OF ANIMALS. Revised. + + _Livingston_: FIELD CROP PRODUCTION. + + _Lyon_: SOILS AND FERTILIZERS. + + _Lyon, Fippin and Buckman_: SOILS, THEIR PROPERTIES AND MANAGEMENT. + + _Mann_: BEGINNINGS IN AGRICULTURE. + + _Montgomery_: THE CORN CROPS. + + _Morgan_: FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT. + + _Mumford_. THE BREEDING OF ANIMALS. + + _Piper_: FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE. + + _Sampson_: EFFECTIVE FARMING. + + _Thom_ and _Fisk_: THE BOOK OF CHEESE. + + _Warren_: THE ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE. + + _Warren_: FARM MANAGEMENT. + + _Wheeler_: MANURES AND FERTILIZERS. + + _White_: PRINCIPLES OF FLORICULTURE. + + _Widtsoe_: PRINCIPLES OF IRRIGATION PRACTICE. + + * * * * * + + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--A cheese laboratory in the New York State +College of Agriculture at Cornell University.] + + +THE BOOK OF CHEESE + +by + +CHARLES THOM + +Investigator in Cheese, Formerly at Connecticut +Agricultural College + +and + +WALTER W. FISK + +Assistant Professor of Dairy Industry (Cheese-Making), +New York State College of Agriculture +at Cornell University + + + + + + + +New York +The Macmillan Company +1918 +All rights reserved + + +Copyright, 1918, +By the Macmillan Company. + +Set up and electrotyped. Published July, 1918. + +Norwood Press +J. S. Cushing Co.--Berwick & Smith Co. +Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. + + + + +PREFACE + + +Certain products we associate with the manufactures of the household, so +familiar and of such long standing that we do not think of them as +requiring investigation or any special support of science. The older +ones of us look back on cheese as an ancient home product; yet the +old-fashioned hard strong kind has given place to many named varieties, +some of them bearing little resemblance to the product of the kitchen +and the buttery. We have analyzed the processes; discovered +microorganisms that hinder or help; perfected devices and machines; +devised tests of many kinds; studied the chemistry; developed markets +for standardized commodities. Here is one of the old established farm +industries that within a generation has passed from the housewife and +the home-made hand press to highly perfected factory processes employing +skilled service and handling milk by the many tons from whole +communities of cows. This is an example of the great changes in +agricultural practice. Cheese-making is now a piece of applied science; +many students in the colleges are studying the subject; no one would +think of undertaking it in the old way: for these reasons this book is +written. + +This book is intended as a guide in the interpretation of the processes +of making and handling a series of important varieties of cheese. The +kinds here considered are those made commercially in America, or so +widely met in the trade that some knowledge of them is necessary. The +relation of cheese to milk and to its production and composition has +been presented in so far as required for this purpose. The principles +and practices underlying all cheese-making have been brought together +into a chapter on curd-making. A chapter on classification then brings +together into synoptical form our knowledge of groups of varieties. +These groups are then discussed separately. The problems of factory +building, factory organization, buying and testing milk, and the proper +marketing of cheese, are briefly discussed. + +Such a discussion should be useful to the student, to the beginner in +cheese-making, as a reference book on many varieties in the hands of +makers who specialize in single varieties, and to the housekeeper or +teacher of domestic science. The material has been brought together from +the experience of the writers, supplemented by free use of the +literature in several languages. Standard references to this literature +are added in the text. + +No introduction to the subject of cheese should fail to mention the work +of J. H. Monrad, who has recently passed away. Mr. Monrad never +collected his material into a single publication, but his contributions +to cheese-making information, scattered widely in trade literature over +a period of thirty years, form an encyclopedia of the subject. + +Bulletins of the Agricultural Experiment Stations and United States +Department of Agriculture have been quoted extensively, with citation of +the sources of the material. Personal assistance from Professor W. A. +Stocking and other members of the Dairy Department of Cornell +University, and C. F. Doane of the United States Department of +Agriculture, is gladly acknowledged. + +Students cannot learn out of books to make cheese. They may, however, +be aided in understanding the problems from such study. To make cheese +successfully they must have intimate personal touch with some person who +knows cheese. Sympathetic relations with such a teacher day by day in +the cheese-room are essential to success in making cheese which, at its +best, is one of the most attractive of food-products. + + + THE AUTHORS. + + + + +TABLE OF CONTENTS + + + CHAPTER I + + PAGES + + GENERAL STATEMENT ON CHEESE 1-4 + + Nature of cheese, 1; Cheese-making as an art, 2; + Cheese-making as a science, 3; Problems in cheese-making, + 4; History, 5. + + + CHAPTER II + + THE MILK IN ITS RELATION TO CHEESE 5-28 + + Factors affecting the quality, 6; Chemical composition, 7; + Factors causing variation in composition, 8; Milk + constituents, 9; Water, 10; Fat, 11; Casein, 12; + Milk-sugar, 13; Albumin, 14; Ash, 15; Enzymes, 16; The + flavor of feeds eaten by the cow, 17; Absorption of odors, + 18; Effect of condition of the cow, 19; Bacteria in the + milk, 20; Groups of bacteria in milk, 21; Acid + fermentation of milk, 22; Bacterium lactis-acidi group, + 23; Colon-aërogenes group, 24; Acid peptonizing group, 25; + Bacillus bulgaricus group, 26; Acid cocci or weak + acid-producers, 27; Peptonizing organisms, 28; Inert + types, 29; Alkali-producing bacteria, 30; Butyric + fermenting types, 31; Molds and yeasts, 32; Bacterial + contamination of milk, 33; Germicidal effect of milk, 34; + Sources and control of bacteria in milk, 35; The cow, 36; + Stable air, 37; The milker, 38; Utensils, 39; The factory, + 40; The control of bacteria, 41; Fermentation test, 42; + The sediment test, 43. + + + CHAPTER III + + COAGULATING MATERIALS 29-40 + + Ferments, 44; Nature of rennet, 45; Preparation of rennet + extract, 46; Pepsin, 47; Chemistry of curdling, 48; Use + of acid, 49; Robertson's theory, 50; Rennet curd, 51; + Hammarsten's theory, 52; Duclaux theory, 53; Bang's + theory, 54; Bosworth's theory, 55. + + + CHAPTER IV + + LACTIC STARTERS 41-54 + + Acidifying organisms, 56; Starter, 57; Natural starter, + 58; Commercial starter or pure cultures, 59; + Manufacturer's directions, 60; Selecting milk, 61; + Pasteurization, 62; Containers, 63; Adding cultures, 64; + Cleanliness, 65; "Mother" starter or startoline, 66; + Examining starter, 67; Second day's propagation, 68; + Preparations of larger amount of starter, 69; Amount of + mother starter to use, 70; Qualities, 71; How to carry the + mother starter, 72; Starter score-cards, 73; Use of + starter, 74; The amount of starter to use, 75; Starter + lot-card, 76. + + + CHAPTER V + + CURD-MAKING 55-80 + + The composition of the milk, 77; Cheese color, 78; The + acidity factor, 79; Acidity of milk when received, 80; The + acid test, 81; Rennet tests, 82; Marschall rennet test, + 83; Comparison of acid and rennet test, 84; Control of + acid, 85; Acidity and rennet action, 86; Acidity and + expulsion of the whey, 87; Acidity in relation to cheese + flavor, 88; Acidity in relation to body and texture of + cheese, 89; Acidity in relation to cheese color, 90; + Control of moisture, 91; Relation of moisture to + manufacture and quality, 92; Relation of moisture to + acidity, 93; Setting temperature, 94; Strength of + coagulating materials, 95; Amount of coagulating materials + to use, 96; Method of adding rennet, 97; The curdling + period, 98; Cutting or breaking the curd, 99; Curd knives, + 100; Heating or "cooking," 101; Draining, 102; Application + to cheese, 103. + + + CHAPTER VI + + CLASSIFICATION 81-88 + + Basis of classification, 104; Processed cheeses, 105; Whey + cheeses, 106; Soft and hard cheeses, 107; Relation of + moisture to classes, 108; Relation of heat to classes, + 109. + + + CHAPTER VII + + CHEESES WITH SOUR-MILK FLAVOR 89-110 + + Skim series, 110; Cottage cheese, 111; Household practice, + 112; Factory practice, 113; Buttermilk cheese, 114; + Neufchâtel group, 115; Domestic or American Neufchâtel + cheeses, 116; The factory, 117; Cans, 118; Draining racks, + 119; Cloths, 120; Molding machinery, 121; Milk for + Neufchâtel, 122; Starter, 123; Renneting or setting, 124; + Draining, 125; Cooling Neufchâtel, 126; Pressing, 127; + Working and salting Neufchâtel, 128; Storage, 129; + Molding, 130; Skimmed-milk Neufchâtel, 131; Baker's + cheese, 132; Domestic Neufchâtel, 133; Partially skim + Neufchâtel, 134; Cream cheese, 135; Neufchâtel + specialties, 136; Gervais, 137; European forms + occasionally imported, 138. + + + CHAPTER VIII + + SOFT CHEESES RIPENED BY MOLD 111-133 + + Hand cheese and its allies, 139; Pennsylvania pot cheese, + 140; Appetitost (Appetite cheese), 141; Ripened + Neufchâtel, French process, 142; The Camembert group, 143; + Camembert cheese, 144; Description of Camembert, 145; + Conditions of making and ripening, 146; Outline of making + process, 147; Acidity, 148; Ripening the cheese, 149; + Composition, 150; Factory, 151; Economic factors, 152; + French Brie, 153; Coulommiers, 154. + + + CHAPTER IX + + SOFT CHEESES RIPENED BY BACTERIA 134-148 + + The Isigny group, 155; Raffiné, 156; Liederkranz cheese, + 157; Limburger cheese, 158; The milk, 159; Making the + cheese, 160; Draining and salting, 161; Ripening, 162; + Marketing and qualities of Limburger, 163; Yield and + composition of Limburger, 164; Münster cheese, 165. + + + CHAPTER X + + SEMI-HARD CHEESES 149-171 + + The green mold group, 166; Roquefort cheese, 167; Cow's + milk or Façons Roquefort, 168; Outline of making + Roquefort, 169; Ripening of Roquefort, 170; Gorgonzola, + 171; Stilton cheese, 172; Gex, 173; Bacterially-ripened + series, 174; Brick cheese, 175; Making of brick cheese, + 176; Ripening brick cheese, 177; Qualities of brick + cheese, 178; Composition and yield, 179; Port du Salut + cheese, 180. + + + CHAPTER XI + + THE HARD CHEESES 172-183 + + The Danish group, 181; The Dutch group, 182; Edam cheese, + 183; Method of manufacture, 184; Salting and curing Edam, + 185; Equipment for making Edam cheese, 186; Qualities and + yield of Edam cheese, 187; Gouda cheese, 188; Method of + manufacture, 189; Equipment for Gouda cheese, 190; + Composition and yield, 191. + + + CHAPTER XII + + CHEDDAR CHEESE-MAKING 184-221 + + The lot-card, 192; The milk, 193; Ripening the milk, 194; + Setting or coagulating, 195; Cutting, 196; Heating or + "cooking" the curd, 197; Removing the whey, 198; Hot-iron + test, 199; Firmness of the curd, 200; Gathering the curd + together, 201; Matting or cheddaring, 202; Milling the + curd, 203; Salting, 204; Hooping the curd, 205; Pressing + the curd, 206; Dressing the cheese, 207; Handling + over-ripe and gassy milk, 208; Qualities of Cheddar + cheese, 209. + + + CHAPTER XIII + + COMPOSITION AND YIELD OF CHEDDAR CHEESE 222-246 + + Composition of milk, whey and cheese, 210; Relations of + fat to casein in normal milk, 211; Influence of fat in + milk on yield of cheese, 212; Fat loss in cheese-making, + 213; Effect of bacterial-content of milk on yield of + cheese, 214; Factors affecting the moisture-content of + Cheddar, 215; Variations of the Cheddar process, 216; + Cheddar-type cheese from pasteurized milk, 217; Club + cheese, 218; The stirred-curd or granular process, 219; + California Jack cheese, 220; The washed-curd process, 221; + English dairy cheese, 222; Pineapple cheese, 223; Leyden, + 224; Cheddar cheese with pimientos, 225; Sage cheese, 226; + Skimmed-milk cheese, 227; Full skimmed-milk Cheddar + cheese, 228; Half skimmed-milk Cheddar cheese, 229; Yield + and qualities of skimmed-milk Cheddar cheese, 230. + + + CHAPTER XIV + + CHEDDAR CHEESE RIPENING 247-275 + + Fat, 231; Milk-sugar, 232; The salts, 233; Gases, 234; + Casein or proteins, 235; Causes of ripening changes, 236; + Action of the rennet extract, 237; The action of the + bacteria, 238; Conditions affecting the rate of cheese + ripening, 239; The length of time, 240; The temperature of + the curing-room, 241; Moisture-content of the cheese, 242; + The size of the cheese, 243; The amount of salt used, 244; + The amount of rennet extract, 245; The influence of acid, + 246; Care of the cheese in the curing-room, 247; + Evaporation of moisture from the cheese during ripening, + 248; Paraffining, 249; Shipping, 250. _Defects in Cheddar + cheese_: Defects in flavor, 251; Feedy flavors, 252; Acid + flavors, 253; Sweet or fruity flavors, 254; Defects in + body and texture, 255; Loose or open texture, 256; Dry + body, 257; Gassy textured cheese, 258; Acidy, pasty or + soft body and texture, 259; Defects in color, 260; Defects + in finish, 261. _Cheddar cheese judging_: Securing the + sample, 262; How to determine quality, 263; Causes of + variations in score, 264; The score-card, 265. + + + CHAPTER XV + + THE SWISS AND ITALIAN GROUPS 276-292 + + _Swiss cheese_: The Swiss factory, 266; The milk, 267; + Rennet extract, 268; Starter, 269; The making process, + 270; Curing Swiss, 271; Block Swiss, 272; Shipment, 273; + Qualities of Swiss cheese, 274; Composition and yield, + 275; _The Italian group_: Parmesan, 276; Regianito, 277. + + + CHAPTER XVI + + MISCELLANEOUS VARIETIES AND BY-PRODUCTS 293-296 + + Caciocavallo, 278; Sap sago, 279; Albumin cheese, 280; + Mysost, Norwegian whey cheese, 281; Whey butter, 282. + + + CHAPTER XVII + + CHEESE FACTORY CONSTRUCTION, EQUIPMENT, ORGANIZATION 297-310 + + Locating the site, 283; The building, 284; Heating plant, + 285; Curing-rooms, 286; Light, 287; Ventilation, 288; + Boiler-room, 289; whey tanks, 290; Store-room, 291; The + floors, 292; Arrangement of machinery and rooms, 293; + Arrangements for cleanliness, 294; Equipment and supplies + list, 295; Factory organization, 296. + + + CHAPTER XVIII + + HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHEESE INDUSTRY IN AMERICA 311-326 + + The factory system, 297; Introduction of factory system in + Canada, 298; Introduction of cheddaring, 299; Introduction + of Swiss and Limburger, 300; Number and distribution of + cheese factories, 301; Total production of cheese in the + United States, 302; Rank of the leading cheese-producing + states, 303; Exportation and importation of cheese by the + United States, 304; Average yearly price of cheese, 305; + Canadian cheese statistics, 306; Introduction of + cheese-making into new regions, 307. + + + CHAPTER XIX + + TESTING 327-342 + + The fat test, 308; Sampling the milk, 309; Adding the + acid, 310; Centrifuging, 311; Reading the test, 312; + testing whey for fat, 313; testing cheese for fat, 314; + Reading the test, 315; The Hart casein test, 316; Solids + in the milk, 317; the lactometer, 318; Calculating the + solids not fat in the milk, 319; Testing cheese for + moisture, 320. + + + CHAPTER XX + + MARKETING 343-361 + + Buying milk, 321; Cheese yield basis of buying milk, 322; + Fat basis for payment of milk, 323; Weight basis or + pooling method for payment of milk, 324; Fat-plus-two + method for payment of milk, 325; Comparison of methods, + 326; Laws governing the production and sale of milk, 327; + Marketing of cheese, 328; Mercantile exchanges, 329; + Marketing perishable varieties, 330; Distribution of + price, 331; Standards, 332; Laws relating to cheese + marketing, 333. + + + CHAPTER XXI + + CHEESE IN THE HOUSEHOLD 362-381 + + Food value of cheese, 334; Digestibility of cheese, 335; + Cheese flavor, 336; Relation to health, 337; Cheese + poisoning, 338; Proper place in the diet, 339; Care of + cheese, 340; Food value and price, 341; Methods and + recipes for using cheese, 342. + + + + +THE BOOK OF CHEESE + + + + +CHAPTER I + +_GENERAL STATEMENT ON CHEESE_ + + +Cheese is a solid or semi-solid protein food product manufactured from +milk. Its solidity depends on the curdling or coagulation of part or all +of the protein and the expulsion of the watery part or whey. The +coagulum or curd so formed incloses part of the milk-serum (technically +whey) or watery portion of the milk, part of the salts, part or all of +the fat, and an aliquot part of the milk-sugar. The loss in manufacture +includes a small fraction of the protein and fat, the larger proportion +of the water, salts and milk-sugar. + ++1. Nature of cheese.+--Milk of itself is an exceedingly perishable +product. Cheese preserves the most important nutrient parts of the milk +in condition for consumption over a much longer period. The duration of +this period and the ripening and other changes taking place depend very +closely on the composition of the freshly made cheese. There is an +intimate relation between the water, fat, protein and salt-content of +the newly made cheese and the ripening processes which produce the +particular flavors of the product when it is ready for the consumer. +This relation is essentially biological. A cheese containing 60 to 75 +per cent of water, as in "cottage cheese" (the sour-milk cheese so +widely made in the homes), must be eaten or lost in a very few days. +Spoilage is very rapid. In contrast to this, the Italian Parmesan, with +30 to 32 per cent of water, requires two to three years for proper +ripening. + +The cheeses made from soured skim-milk probably represent the most +ancient forms of cheese-making. Their origin is lost in antiquity. The +makers of Roquefort cheese cite passages from Pliny which they think +refer to an early form of that product. It is certain that cheese in +some form has been familiar to man throughout historic times. The +technical literature of cheese-making is, however, essentially recent. +The older literature may be cited to follow the historical changes in +details of practice. + ++2. Cheese-making as an art+ has been developed to high stages of +perfection in widely separate localities. The best known varieties of +cheese bear the geographical names of the places of their origin. The +practices of making and handling such cheeses have been developed in +intimate relation to climate, local conditions and the habits of the +people. So close has been this adjustment in some cases, that the +removal of expert makers of such cheeses to new regions has resulted in +total failure to transplant the industry. + ++3. Cheese-making as a science+ has been a comparatively recent +development. It has been partly a natural outgrowth of the desire of +emigrant peoples to carry with them the arts of their ancestral home, +partly the desire to manufacture at home the good things met in foreign +travel. Its development has been largely coincident with the development +of the agricultural school and the science of dairy biology. Even now +we have but a limited knowledge of a few of the 500 or more varieties of +cheese named in the literature. It is desirable to bring together the +knowledge of underlying principles as far as they are known. + +No technical description of a cheese-handling process can replace +experience. Descriptions of appearances and textures of curd in terms +definite enough to be understood by beginners have been found to be +impossible. It is possible, however, to lay down principles and +essentials of practice which are common to the industry and form the +foundation for intelligent work. Cheese-making will be a science only as +we depart from the mere repetition of a routine or rule-of-thumb +practice and understand the underlying principles. + ++4. Problems in cheese-making.+--Any understanding of these problems +calls for a working knowledge of the very complex series of factors +involved. These include the chemical composition of the milk, the nature +of rennet and character of its action under the conditions met in +cheese-making, the nature of the micro-organisms in milk, and the +methods of controlling them, their relation to acidity and to the +ripening of the cheese. To these scientific demands must be added +acquaintance with the technique of the whole milk industry, from its +production and handling on the farm through the multiplicity of details +of factory installation and organization, to those intangible factors +concerned with the texture, body, odor and taste of the varied products +made from it. Some of these factors can be adequately described; others +have thus far been handed on from worker to worker but have baffled +every effort at standardization or definition. + ++5. History.+--The recorded history of the common varieties of cheese is +only fragmentary. Practices at one time merely local in origin followed +the lines of emigration. Records of processes of manufacture were not +kept. The continuance of a particular practice depended on the skill and +memory of the emigrant, who called his cheese after the place of origin. +Other names of the same kind were applied by the makers for selling +purposes. The widely known names were thus almost all originally +geographical. Some of them, such as Gorgonzola, are used for cheeses not +now made at the places whose names they bear. Naturally, this method of +development has produced national groups of cheeses which have many +common characteristics but differ in detail. The English cheeses form a +typical group of this kind. + +Emigration to America carried English practices across the Atlantic. The +story of cheese-making in America has been so closely linked with the +development of the American Cheddar process that the historical aspects +of the industry in this country are considered under that head in +Chapter VIII. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +_THE MILK IN ITS RELATION TO CHEESE_ + + +The opaque whitish liquid, secreted by the mammary glands of female +mammals for the nourishment of their young, is known as milk. The milk +of the cow is the kind commonly used for cheese-making in America. + ++6. Factors affecting the quality.+--The process of cheese-making begins +with drawing the milk from the udder. The care and treatment the milk +receives, while being drawn, and its subsequent handling, have a decided +influence on its qualities. The process of cheese-making is varied +according to the qualities of the milk. There are five factors that +influence the quality of the milk for cheese-making: (1) its chemical +composition; (2) the flavor of feed eaten by the cow; (3) the absorption +of flavors and odors from the atmosphere; (4) the health of the cow; (5) +the bacteria present. The first factor is dependent on the breed and +individuality of the cow. The other four factors are almost entirely +within the control of man. Of these factors, number five is of the most +importance, and is the one most frequently neglected. + ++7. Chemical composition.+--The high, low and average composition of +milk is approximately as follows: + + TABLE I + + COMPOSITION OF MILK + + --------+-------+------+--------+-------+---------+----- + | WATER | FAT | CASEIN | SUGAR | ALBUMIN | ASH + | PER | PER | PER | PER | PER | PER + | CENT | CENT | CENT | CENT | CENT | CENT + --------+-------+------+--------+-------+---------+----- + High | 88.90 | 5.50 | 3.00 | 5.00 | .72 | .73 + Low | 85.05 | 3.00 | 2.10 | 4.60 | .70 | .70 + Average | 87.47 | 3.80 | 2.50 | 4.80 | .71 | .72 + --------+-------+------+--------+-------+---------+----- + ++8. Factors causing variation in composition.+--The composition of cow's +milk varies according to several factors. The composition of the milk of +different breeds differs to such a degree that whole series of factories +are found with lower or higher figures than these averages on account of +dominant presence of particular kinds of cattle. + +The following table shows the usual effect of breed on fat and total +solids of milk: + + TABLE II + + THE USUAL EFFECT OF BREED OF COWS ON FAT AND TOTAL + SOLIDS OF MILK + + ------------------+------------------------ + | AVERAGES + BREED OF COWS +----------+------------- + | Fat | Total Solids + | Per Cent | Per Cent + ------------------+----------+------------- + Jersey | 5.62 | 14.74 + Guernsey | 5.34 | 14.70 + Shorthorn | 4.17 | 13.41 + Ayrshire | 3.61 | 12.72 + Holstein-Friesian | 3.30 | 11.89 + ------------------+----------+------------- + +The figures[1] in Tables I and II are compiled and averaged from a large +number of analyses made at different agricultural experiment stations. + +This variation not only affects the fat, but all constituents of the +milk. While there is a difference in the composition of the milk from +cows of different breeds, there is almost as wide variation in the +composition of the milk from single cows[2] of the same breed. With the +same cow the stage of lactation causes a wide variation in the +composition of the milk.[3] As the period of lactation advances, the +milk increases in percentage of fat and other solids. + ++9. Milk constituents.+--From the standpoint of the cheese-maker, the +significant constituents of milk are water, fat, casein, milk-sugar, +albumin, ash and enzymes. These will be discussed separately. + ++10. Water.+--The retention of the solids and the elimination of the +water are among the chief considerations in cheese-making. Water forms +84 to 89 per cent of milk. Cheese-making calls for the reduction of this +percentage to that typical of the particular variety of cheese desired +with the least possible loss of milk solids. This final percentage +varies from 30 to 70 per cent with the variety of cheese. The water has +two uses in the cheese: (1) It imparts smoothness and mellowness to the +body of the cheese; (2) it furnishes suitable conditions for the action +of the ripening agents. To some extent the water may supplement or even +replace fat in its effect on the texture of the cheese. If the cheese is +properly made, the water present is in such combination as to give no +suggestion of a wet or "leaky" product. + ++11. Fat.+--Fat is present in the milk in the form of suspended small +transparent globules (as an emulsion). These globules vary in size with +the breed and individuality of the cow and in color from a very light +yellow to a deep yellow shade as sought in butter. Milk with small fat +globules is preferred for cheese-making, because these are not so easily +lost in the process. Milk-fat is made up of several different compounds +called glycerids,[4] which are formed by the union of an organic acid +with glycerine as a base. + +Fat is important in cheese-making for two reasons: (1) Its influence on +the yield of cheese; (2) its effect on the quality of the cheese. Many +of the details of cheese-making processes have been developed to prevent +the loss of fat in manufacture. The yield of cheese is almost directly +in proportion to the amount of fat in the milk; nevertheless, because +the solids not fat do not increase exactly in proportion to the fat, the +cheese yield is not exactly in proportion to the fat. The fat, however, +is a good index of the cheese-producing power of the milk. + ++12. Casein.+--Cheese-making is possible because of the peculiar +properties of casein. This is the fundamental substance of cheese-making +because it has the capacity to coagulate or curdle under the action of +acid and rennet enzymes. Casein is an extremely complex organic +compound.[5] Authorities disagree regarding its exact composition, but +it contains varying amounts of carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, +phosphorus and sulfur, and it usually is combined with some form +of lime or calcium phosphate. It belongs to the general class of +nitrogen-containing compounds called proteins. It is present in milk in +the form of extremely minute gelatinous particles in suspension. Casein +is insoluble in water and dilute acids. The acids, when added, cause a +heavy, white, more or less flocculent precipitate. Rennet (Chapter III) +causes the casein to coagulate (curdle), forming a jelly-like mass +called curd, which is the basis of manufacture in most types of cheese. +In the formation of this coagulum (curd), the fat is imprisoned and +held. The casein compounds in the curd hold the moisture and give +firmness and solidity of body to the cheese. Casein contains the protein +materials in which important ripening changes take place. These changes +render the casein more soluble, and are thought to be the source of +certain characteristic cheese flavors. + ++13. Milk-sugar.+--Milk-sugar (lactose) is present in solution in the +watery part of the milk. It forms on the average about 5 per cent of +cow's milk. Since it is in solution, cheese retains the aliquot part of +the total represented by the water-content of the cheese, plus any part +of the sugar which has entered into combination with the milk solids +during the souring process. The larger part of the lactose passes off +with the whey. Lactose[6] is attacked by the lactic-acid bacteria and by +them is changed to lactic acid. Cheeses in which this souring process +goes on quickly, soon contain a large enough percentage of acid to check +the rotting of the cheese by decay organisms. Without this souring, most +varieties of cheese will begin to spoil quickly. For each variety there +is a proper balance between the souring, which interrupts the growth of +many kinds of putrefactive bacteria, and the development of the forms +which are essential to proper ripening. + ++14. Albumin.+--This is a form of protein which is in solution in the +milk. Albumin forms about 0.7 per cent of cow's milk. It is not +coagulated by rennet. Most rennet cheeses, therefore, retain only that +portion of the total albumin held in solution in the water retained, as +in the case of milk-sugar. Albumin is coagulated by heat, forming a film +or membrane upon the surface. There are certain kinds of cheese, such +as Ricotte, made by the recovery of albumin by heating. + ++15. Ash.+--The ash or mineral constituents make up about 0.7 per cent +of cow's milk. This total includes very small amounts of a great many +substances. The exact form of some of the substances is still unknown. +Of these salts, the calcium or lime and phosphorus salts are most +important in cheese-making. They are partially or completely +precipitated by pasteurization. After such precipitation rennet fails to +act[7] or acts very slowly; hence pasteurized milk cannot be used for +making rennet cheese unless the lost salts are replaced, or the +condition of the casein is changed by the addition of some substance, +before curdling is attempted. + ++16. Enzymes.+--Milk also contains enzymes. These are chemical ferments +secreted by the udder. They have the power to produce changes in organic +compounds without themselves undergoing any change. Minute amounts of +several enzymes are found in milk as follows: Diastase, galactase, +lipase, catalase, peroxidase and reductase. Just what part they play in +cheese-making is not definitely known. + ++17. The flavor of feeds eaten by the cow.+--Undesirable flavors in the +milk are due many times to the use of feed with very pronounced flavors. +The most common of these feeds are onions, garlic, turnips, cabbage, +decayed ensilage, various weeds and the like. These undesirable flavors +reach the milk because the substances are volatile and are able to pass +through the tissues of the animal. While feed containing these flavors +is being digested, these volatile substances are not only present in +the milk, but in all the tissues of the animal. By the time the process +of digestion is completed, the volatile flavors have largely passed +away. Therefore, if the times of milking and feeding are properly +regulated, a dairy-man may feed considerable quantities of +strong-flavored products, such as turnip, cabbage and others, without +any appreciable effect on the flavor of the milk. To accomplish this +successfully, the cows should be fed immediately before or immediately +after milking, preferably after milking. This allows time for the +digestive process to take place and for the volatile substances to +disappear. If, however, milking is performed three or four hours after +feeding, these volatile substances are present in the milk and flavor +it.[8] + +In the case of those plants which grow wild in the pasture, and to which +the cows have continued access, it is more difficult to prevent bad +flavor in the milk. The cows may be allowed to graze for a short time +only, and that immediately after milking, without affecting the flavor +of the milk. This will make it necessary to supplement the pasture with +dry feed, or to have another pasture where these undesirable plants do +not grow. + +Undesirable flavors are usually noticeable in the milk when the cows are +turned out to pasture for the first time in the spring; and when they +are pastured on rank fall feed, such as second growth clover. + ++18. Absorption of odors.+--Milk, especially when warm, possesses a +remarkable ability to absorb and retain odors from the surrounding +atmosphere.[9] For this reason, the milk should be handled only in +places free from such odor. Some of the common sources of these +undesirable odors are bad-smelling stables, strong-smelling feeds in the +stable, dirty cows, aërating milk near hog-pens, barn-yards and swill +barrels. The only way to prevent these undesirable flavors and odors is +not to expose the milk to them. The safest policy is to remove the +source of the odor. + ++19. Effect of condition of the cow.+--Any factor which affects the cow +is reflected in the composition and physiological character of the milk. +(1) Colostrum. Milk secreted just before or just after parturition is +different in physical properties and chemical composition from that +secreted at any other time during the lactation period. This milk is +known as colostrum. It is considered unfit for human food, either as +milk or in products manufactured from the milk. Most states[10] consider +colostrum adulterated milk, and prohibit the sale of the product for +fifteen days preceding and for five days after parturition. (2) Disease. +When disease is detected in the cow, the milk should at once be +discarded as human food. Some diseases are common both to the cow and to +man, such as tuberculosis, foot-and-mouth disease. If such diseases are +present in the cow, the milk may act as a carrier to man. Digestive +disorders of any sort in the cow are frequently accompanied by +undesirable flavors in the milk. These are not thought to be due to the +feed, but to the abnormal condition of the cow. When the normal +condition is restored, these undesirable flavors disappear. + ++20. Bacteria in the milk.+--Bacteria are microscopic unicellular +plants, without chlorophyll. Besides bacteria, there are other forms of +the lower orders of plants found in milk, such as yeasts and molds. +While the bacteria are normally the more important, frequently yeasts +and molds produce significant changes in milk and other dairy products. +Bacteria are very widely distributed throughout nature. They are so +small that they may easily float in the air or on particles of dust. +Many groups of bacteria are so resistant to adverse conditions of growth +that they may be present in a dormant or spore stage, and, therefore, +not be easily recognized; when suitable environments for growth are +again produced, development begins at once. They are found in all +surface water, in the earth and upon all organic matter. There are a +great many different groups of bacteria; some are beneficial, and some +are harmful. As they are so small, it is difficult to differentiate +between the beneficial and harmful kinds, except by the results +produced, or by a careful study in an especially equipped laboratory. +The bacteria multiply very rapidly. This is brought about by fission; +that is, the cell-walls are drawn in at one place around the cell, and +when the walls unite at the center, the cell is divided. There are then +two bacteria. In some cases, division takes place in twenty to thirty +minutes. Like other plants, they are very sensitive to food supply, to +temperature and to moisture, as conditions of growth. Inasmuch as the +bacteria are plant cells, they must absorb their food from materials in +solution. They may live on solid substances, but the food elements must +be rendered soluble before they can be used. Most bacteria prefer a +neutral or slightly acid medium for growth, rather than an alkaline +reaction. Ordinary milk makes a very favorable medium for the growth of +bacteria, because it is an adequate and easily available food supply. + +In milk, certain groups of bacteria are commonly present, but many +others which happen to get into it live and multiply rapidly. A +favorable temperature is very necessary for such organisms to multiply. +There is a range of temperature, more or less wide, at which each group +of bacteria grows and multiplies with the greatest rapidity. This range +varies with the different groups, but most of them find temperatures +between 75° F. and 95° F. the most favorable for growth. Excessive heat +kills the bacteria. Low temperatures stop growth, but kill few if any +bacteria. Temperatures of 50° F. and lower retard the growth of most +forms of bacteria found commonly in milk. Many forms will slowly +develop, however, below 50° and some growth will occur down to the +freezing point. Milk held at 50° F. or lower will remain in good +condition long enough to be handled without injury to quality until +received in the cheese factory. In the place of seeds, some groups of +bacteria form spores. The spores are exceedingly resistant to +unfavorable conditions of growth, such as heat, cold, drying, food +supply and even chemical agents. This property makes it difficult to +destroy such bacteria. + ++21. Groups of bacteria in milk.+--Milk when first drawn usually shows +an amphoteric reaction; that is, it will give the acid and alkaline +reactions with litmus paper. Under normal conditions, milk soon begins +to undergo changes, due to the bacteria. Changes produced in this way +are called "fermentations"; the agents causing them, "ferments." +Normally the acid fermentation takes place first, and later other +fermentations or changes begin, which, after a time, so decompose the +milk that it will not be suitable for cheese-making or human +consumption. + +The following grouping of the organisms in milk is based on their +effects on the milk itself[11]: + + I. Acid-producing types. + II. Peptonizing types. + III. Inert types. + IV. Alkali-producing types. + V. Butyric fermenting types. + +Each type of bacteria produces more or less specific changes in the +milk. As a general rule, the predominance of one of these types is an +aid in the interpretation of the quality of the product at the time of +analysis, such as the age, the temperature at which it has been held, +the conditions under which it was produced and, in some cases, the +general source of the contamination. The reaction due to certain +bacteria is utilized in the manufacture and handling of dairy products; +other groups have deleterious effects. (See Fig. 2.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Effect of different fermentations of milk: _U_, +Curd pitted with gas holes; _G_ and _O_, gassy curds which float; _K_, +smooth, solid desirable curd.] + ++22. Acid fermentation of milk.+--By far the most common and important +fermentation taking place in milk is due to the action of the lactic +acid-forming bacteria on the milk-sugar or lactose. The bacteria that +bring about this fermentation may be divided into several groups on the +basis of their morphology, proteolytic activity, gas production, +temperature adaptation and production of substances other than lactic +acid. The larger number of organisms producing lactic acid in milk also +produce other organic acids in greater or less abundance. Inasmuch as +lactic acid is the principal substance produced, they are called lactic +acid organisms. This group contains different kinds of organisms which +may be subdivided into small groups as follows: + + (a) _Bacterium lactis-acidi_ group. + (b) _Bacterium colon-aërogenes_ group. + (c) Acid peptonizing group. + (d) _Bacillus bulgaricus_ group. + (e) Acid cocci or weak acid-producing group. + ++23. Bacterium lactis-acidi group.+--There are many strains or varieties +in this group which are closely related in their activities. They are +universally present in milk and are commonly the greatest causal agent +in its souring. They are widely distributed in nature. At a temperature +of 65° F. to 95° F., these bacteria grow and multiply very rapidly; at +70° F. (approximately 20° C.) these forms usually outgrow all others. +The total amount of acid produced in milk by these organisms varies from +0.6 of one per cent to 1 per cent acid calculated as pure lactic acid. +These forms coagulate milk to a smooth curd of uniform consistency. In +addition to the lactic acid, there are produced traces of acetic, +succinic, formic and proprionic acids, traces of certain alcohols, +aldehydes and esters. Substances other than lactic acid are not produced +by organisms of this group to such an extent as to impart undesirable +flavors to the milk. The action of this group on the milk proteins is +very slight. They produce no visible sign of peptonization. The _B. +lactis-acidi_ group of organisms are essential to the production of the +initial acidity necessary in most types of cheese. The practical culture +and utilization of them for this purpose under factory conditions are +discussed in Chapter IV, entitled "Lactic Starters." + ++24. Colon-aërogenes group.+--This group takes its name from a typical +species, _Bacterium coli communis_, which is a normal inhabitant of the +intestines of man and animals, and from _Bacterium coli aerogenes_, +which is similar in many respects to _B. coli communis_. The initial +presence of these bacteria in milk is indicative of fecal contamination +or unclean conditions of production. These organisms, however, grow and +develop in milk very rapidly at high temperatures of handling. The total +acidity produced by these forms is less than that by the _Bacterium +lactis-acidi_ group. Of the acid produced, less than 30 per cent is +lactic acid; the other acids are formic, acetic, proprionic and +succinic. The large percentage of these acids, with comparatively large +amounts of certain alcohols, aldehydes and esters, invariably impart +undesirable flavors and odors to the milk. Members of this group +uniformly ferment the lactose with the production of the gases, carbon +dioxide and hydrogen. The milk is coagulated into a lumpy curd, +containing gas pockets. + ++25. Acid peptonizing group.+--These are often associated with colon +organisms. The group includes those bacteria which coagulate milk with +an acid curd and subsequently partly digest it. They grow and multiply +rapidly at a temperature between 65° and 98° F. They impart undesirable +flavors and odors to the milk, which appear to be due to the formation +of acids other than lactic acid, and to action on the milk proteins. + ++26. Bacillus bulgaricus group.+--These organisms grow best at a +temperature of 105° to 115° F. They will develop at lower temperatures, +but not so rapidly. They survive heating to 135° F. without loss of +vigor, as occurs in Swiss cheese-making. They produce from 1 to 4 per +cent of acid in milk, which is practically all lactic acid. They do not +produce gas. They impart no undesirable flavors to the milk. + ++27. Acid cocci or weak acid-producers.+--This group of organisms is not +very well defined. It consists mostly of coccus forms, commonly found +in the air and in the udder. Their presence in the milk may indicate +direct udder contamination. These are regarded as of little importance, +unless in very large number, and they have been only partially studied. +They produce little or no lactic acid, and small amounts of acetic, +proprionic, butyric and caproic acids. These forms rarely create enough +acid to coagulate milk. + ++28. Peptonizing organisms.+--This group includes all bacteria which +have a peptonizing effect on the milk. It includes the acid peptonizing +organisms, although they are of primary importance in the acid type of +bacteria, because the acid-producing power is greater than the +peptonizing power. Some of the specific organisms in this class are +_Bacillus subtilis_, _Bacterium prodigiosus_ and _Bacterium +liquefaciens_. These are commonly found in soil water and in fecal +material. The presence of these organisms denotes contamination from +such sources. + ++29. Inert types.+--As the name indicates, these are organisms not known +to have an appreciable effect on milk. The ordinary tests fail to +connect them with important processes; hence they appear to feed upon, +but not to affect the milk in any serious way. Milk ordinarily contains +more or less of these organisms, but no particular significance is +attached to their presence. + ++30. Alkali-producing bacteria.+--This group of organisms has only +recently been studied in relation to its action on milk. Investigators +still disagree as to the usual percentage in the normal milk flora. +Their presence in milk has been considered to be relatively unimportant. + ++31. Butyric fermenting types.+--Organisms causing butyric fermentation +may be present in the milk, but seldom become active, because they are +commonly anaërobic and so will not develop in milk kept under ordinary +conditions, and the rapid growth of the lactic acid-forming bacteria +prevents their growth. These organisms act on the milk-fat, decomposing +it. Butyric acid fermentations are more common in old butter and cheese. +In these, the fermentation causes a rancid flavor. + ++32. Molds and yeasts.+--The cattle feed and the air of the barn always +contain considerable numbers of yeasts and mold spores. Yeasts have been +found by Hastings[12] to cause an objectionable fermentation in +Wisconsin cheese. No further study of this group as factors in +cheese-handling has been reported. Mold spores, especially those of the +blue or green molds (Penicillum sp.) and the black molds (Mucors), are +always abundant in milk. These spores are carried into all cheeses made +from unpasteurized milk, in numbers sufficient to cover the cheeses +with mold if they are permitted to grow. Pasteurization[13] kills +most of them. The border-line series commonly referred to as the +streptothrix-actinomyces group are also very abundant in all forage and +are carried in large numbers into all milk and its products. + ++33. Bacterial contamination of milk.+--When drawn from the cow, milk is +seldom if ever sterile. Organisms usually work their way from the tip of +the teat into the udder and multiply there. The fore milk usually +contains more organisms than does that drawn later. Most of the +bacterial contamination of the milk is due to the handling after it is +drawn from the cow. + ++34. Germicidal effect of milk.+--Authorities agree that when a +bacterial examination of the milk is made, hour by hour, beginning as +soon as it is drawn from the cow, there is no increase in the number of +organisms for a period of several hours at first, but an actual +reduction not infrequently takes place. This is called the +"germicidal"[14] property of milk. The lower the temperature of the +milk, the longer and less pronounced is the germicidal action; the +higher the temperature, the shorter and more pronounced is this action. + +This is explained as either: (1) a period of selection within which +types of bacteria entering by accident and unadapted for growth die off; +or (2) an actual weak antiseptic power in the milk-serum itself; or (3) +the forming of clusters by the bacteria and so reducing the count. + +In working on a small scale or on an experimental basis, this property +at times introduces a factor of difficulty or error which is not to be +lost sight of in the selection of the milk for such purposes. + ++35. Sources and control of bacteria in milk.+--Most of the bacterial +infection of milk is due to lack of care in handling. Some of the common +sources[15] of contamination are: the air in the stable; the cow's body; +the milker; the utensils; the method of handling the milk after it is +drawn from the cow; unclean cheese factory conditions. + +Since bacteria cause various kinds of fermentation, not only in the +milk but in the products manufactured from it, the question of their +control is of prime importance. There are two ways in which the +bacterial growth in milk used for cheese-making may be controlled: (1) +prevention of infection; (2) the retardation of their development when +present. The former is accomplished by strict cleanliness, the latter by +adequate cooling. + ++36. The cow.+--The body of the cow may be a source of bacterial +contamination. Bacteria adhere to the hair of the animal, and to the +scales of the skin, and during the process of milking these are very +liable to fall into the milk. To prevent this, the cow should be curried +to remove all loose material and hair. Just before milking, the udder +and flank should be wiped with a damp cloth; this removes some of the +material, and causes the remainder to adhere to the cow. + ++37. Stable air.+--If the air of the stable is not clean, it will be a +source of contamination. Particles of dust floating in the air carry +more or less bacteria, and these fall into the milk during the process +of milking. To keep the stable air free from dust at milking time, all +operations which stir up dust, such as feeding, brushing the cows, +cleaning the floor, should be practiced after milking or long enough +before so that the dust will have settled. It is a good plan to close +the doors and to sprinkle the floor just before milking. + ++38. The milker+ himself may be a source of contamination. He should be +clean and wear clean clothing. The hands should not be wet with milk +during milking. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Types of small-top milk pails.] + ++39. Utensils.+--The utensils are an important source of bacterial +contamination. The bacteria lodge in the seams and corners unless these +are well-flushed with solder. From these seams they are not easily +removed. When fresh warm milk is placed into such utensils, the bacteria +begin to grow and multiply. All utensils with which milk comes in +contact should first be rinsed with cold water and then thoroughly +washed and finally scalded with boiling water, and drained or blown +absolutely dry. They should then be placed in an atmosphere free from +dust until wanted for use again. If an aërator is used, this should be +operated in pure air, free from odors and dust. One of the greatest +sources of bacterial contamination of cheese milk is the use of the +milk-cans to return whey to the farms for pig feed. Frequently, sour +whey is left in the cans until ready to feed. These cans are then not +properly washed and scalded. The practice of pasteurizing the whey at +the cheese factory is a great help in preventing this source of +infection and the spreading of disease. + +The use of a small-top milk pail[16] is to be especially recommended in +preventing bacterial contamination. Because of the small opening, +bacteria cannot easily fall into the milk in as large numbers as when +the whole top of the pail is open. (See Fig. 3.) + +If a milking machine[17] is used, great care must be exercised to see +that all parts that come in contact with the milk are cleaned after each +milking, and then put in a clean place until ready to use again. + ++40. The factory.+--Another source of contamination is the cheese +factory itself. The cheese-maker should keep his factory in the cleanest +condition possible, not only because of the effect on the milk itself, +but as a stimulus for the producers to follow his example. All doors and +windows in the factory should be screened to keep out flies. + ++41. The control of bacteria.+--If, in spite of preventive measures, +bacteria get into the milk, their growth can be retarded by controlling +the temperature. If the temperature of the milk, as soon as drawn, can +be reduced below that at which the bacteria grow and multiply rapidly, +it will retard their development. In general, all milk should be cooled +to 50° F. or below. In cooling the milk, it should not be exposed to +dust or odors. One of the best methods of cooling is to set the can +containing the milk into a tub of cold running water, and then stir. If +running water is not available, cold well-water[18] may be used, but the +water should be changed several times. If the milk is not stirred during +the cooling process, it will not cool so rapidly, because the layer of +milk next the can will become cold and act as an insulator to the +remainder in the center of the can. + +One way to destroy many of the bacteria in milk is by pasteurization. +This consists in heating the milk to such a degree that the bacteria are +killed, and then quickly cooling it. After pasteurization, the milk is +so changed that some kinds of cheese cannot be made successfully. + ++42. Fermentation test.+--When a cheese-maker is having trouble with gas +in his cheese, or bad flavors, he can generally locate the source of +difficulty. This can be done by making a small amount of cheese from +each patron's milk, called a fermentation test.[19] Pint or quart fruit +jars or milk bottles make suitable containers. They should be thoroughly +washed and scalded, to be sure they are clean and sterile, and then +covered to prevent contamination. As the milk is delivered to the +factory, a sample is taken of each patron's milk. The best way to secure +the sample is to dip the sterile jar in the can of milk as delivered and +fill two-thirds full of milk. + +The jars are then set in water at 110° F. to bring the temperature of +the milk to 98° F. The jar should be kept covered. A sink or wash-tub +makes a convenient place in which to keep the jars. When the temperature +of the milk is 98° F., ten drops of rennet extract or pepsin is added to +each jar. A uniform temperature of 98° F. should be maintained in the +jars. This will necessitate the addition of warm water occasionally to +the water surrounding the jars. When the milk is coagulated, the curd is +broken up with a sterile knife. Precaution should be taken to sterilize +the knife after using it in one jar before putting it into another. The +best way to do this is to hold the knife for a minute in a pail of +boiling water, after taking it out of each jar. The same precaution +should be observed with the thermometer. Unless care is taken, +contamination is liable to be carried from one jar to the other. After +cutting, the whey is poured off. The temperature should be kept at 98° +F. so that the organisms will have a suitable temperature for growth. +The whey should be poured from the jars occasionally, usually about +every half hour. + +As the fermentation takes place, different odors will be noticed in +different jars. In ten to twelve hours the jar should be finally +examined for odors and the curd taken out and cut to examine it for gas +pockets. By this means, bad flavors and gas in the cheese can be traced +to their sources. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--A gang sediment tester, one tester removed.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.--A single sediment tester.] + ++43. The sediment test.+--The presence of solid material or dirt in the +milk is always accompanied by bacterial contamination. By means of the +sediment test, the amount of solid material can be determined. The test +consists of filtering the milk through a layer of cotton; the foreign +material is left on the cotton filter. Various devices for filtering the +milk have been manufactured. (Figs. 4 and 5.) In order to be able to +compare the filters from the different dairy-men's milk, the same amount +of each patron's milk is filtered, usually about a pint. These tests are +usually made once or twice a month at the factory and the filters placed +on a card where the dairy-men can see them. Much improvement in the +quality of the milk has been accomplished by the use of the sediment +test. The purpose of this test may be and often is defeated by the use +of efficient strainers. Milk produced in an unclean way may be rendered +nearly free from sediment if carefully strained. It must be remembered +that the strainer takes out only the undissolved substances and that +bacteria and soluble materials which constitute a very large part of the +filth pass through with the milk. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +_COAGULATING MATERIALS_ + + +At the present time, two substances are used to coagulate milk for +cheese-making,--rennet extract and commercial pepsin.[20] Many +substances will coagulate milk, such as acids and other chemicals. +Enzymes in certain plants will also coagulate it. + +The curing or ripening of the cheese seems to depend on the physical and +chemical properties of the curd, on the activity of certain organisms +and on enzymes produced by them or in the milk. Rennet extract and +pepsin are the only known substances which will produce curd of such +character as will permit the desired ripening changes to take place. +Until recently, rennet extract was principally used to coagulate the +milk, but because of the scarcity, pepsin is now being substituted. + ++44. Ferments.+--Many of the common changes taking place in milk are due +to fermentations. The souring of milk is one of the most familiar cases +of fermentation. The important change taking place is the formation of +lactic acid from the milk-sugar. The change is brought about by certain +living organisms, namely, the lactic acid-forming bacteria. Another +familiar case of fermentation is the coagulation of milk by rennet +extract or pepsin. In this case, the change is produced by a chemical +substance, not a living organism. Fermentation may be defined as a +chemical change of an organic compound through the action of living +organisms or of chemical agents. + +There are two general classes of ferments: (1) living organisms, or +organized ferments; (2) chemical, or unorganized ferments. Organized +ferments are living microorganisms, capable, as a result of their +growth, of causing the changes. Unorganized ferments are chemical +substances or ferments without life, capable of causing marked changes +in many complex organic compounds, while the enzymes themselves undergo +little or no change. These unorganized ferments are such as rennin, +pepsin, trypsin, ptyalin. The rennet and pepsin must, therefore, be very +thoroughly mixed into the milk to insure complete and uniform results, +because they act by contact, and theoretically, if they could be +recovered, might be used over and over again. Practically, the amount +used is so small a percentage that recovery would be impractical even if +possible. + ++45. Nature of rennet.+--Two enzymes or ferments are found in rennet +extract, rennin and pepsin. They are prepared from the secreting areas +of living membranes of the stomachs of mammalian young. For +rennet-making, these stomachs are most valuable if taken before the +young have received any other feed than milk. Rennin at this stage +appears to predominate over pepsin which is already secreted to some +extent. With the inclusion of other feed, the secretion of pepsin comes +to predominate. Rennin has never been separated entirely from pepsin. +Both of these enzymes are secreted by digestive glands in the same area, +perhaps even by the same glands. They are so closely related that many +workers have regarded them as identical. In practical work the +effectiveness of rennet preparations has been greatest when stomachs +which have digested feed other than milk are excluded. The differences, +therefore, however difficult to define, appear to be important in the +commercial preparation of rennet. + +It was the practice until a few years ago for each cheese-maker to +prepare his own rennet extract. Each patron was supposed to supply so +many rennets. Now commercial rennet extract and pepsin are on the +market; however, some Swiss cheese-makers prefer to make their own +rennet extract. For sheep's and goat's milk cheese, some makers hold +that rennet made from kid or lamb stomachs is best for handling the milk +of the respective species. The objection to the cheese-maker preparing +his own rennet extract is that it varies in strength from batch to batch +and is liable to spoil quickly. Taints and bad odors and flavors develop +in it and so taint the cheese. + ++46. Preparation of rennet extract.+--This extract may be manufactured +commercially from digestive stomachs of calves, pigs or sheep. An animal +is given a full meal just before slaughtering; this stimulates a large +flow of the digestive juices, containing the desired enzymes. + +The stomach is taken from the animal, cleaned, commonly inflated and +dried. It may be held in the dry condition until needed for use. Such +stomachs are usually spoken of as "rennets" in the trade. Such old +rennets may be seen to-day hanging from the rafters of some of the older +cheese factories. When wanted for use, rennets are placed in oak barrels +and covered with water. Before placing them in the barrel, they are cut +open so that the water may have easy access. Salt is usually added to +the water at the rate of 3 to 5 per cent. They are stirred and pounded +in this solution from five to seven days. At the end of this time, they +are wrung through a clothes-wringer to remove the liquid. The rennets +are put back into a fresh solution of salt and water, the object being +to obtain all the digestive juices possible. They are usually soaked +from four to six weeks. At the end of this time, most of the digestive +juices will have been removed. The liquid portion is passed through a +filter made of straw, charcoal and sand. When clean, an excess of salt +is added to preserve it. + +Such extracts cannot be sterilized by heat because the necessary +temperature would destroy the enzyme. Effective disinfectants cannot be +used in food products. The extract, therefore, should be kept cool to +retard bacterial growth. The extract is kept in wooden barrels, stone +jugs or yellow glass bottles to protect it from light, which is able to +destroy its activity. Rennet extract should be clear, with a clean salty +taste and a distinct rennet flavor. There should be no cloudy appearance +and no muddy sediment in properly preserved rennet. Rennet extract is on +the market in the form of a liquid and a powder, the former being much +more common. The commercial forms of rennet have the advantage in the +skill used in their preparation and standardization. The combined +product from large numbers of stomachs may not be as effective a +preparation as the most skillfully produced sample from the very +choicest single stomach, but it gives a uniformity of result which +improves the average product greatly. + ++47. Pepsin.+--Pepsin is on the market in several commercial forms, as a +liquid, scale pepsin and in a granular form known as spongy pepsin. Some +commercial concerns put out a preparation which is a mixture of rennet +extract and commercial pepsin. + ++48. Chemistry of curdling.+--The chemistry of casein[21] and of curd +formation under the influence of acid and rennet extract and pepsin has +been the subject of many years' research. While many points remain +unsettled, the general considerations together with a large mass of +accepted facts may be presented and some of the unsolved problems +pointed out as left for future researches. + +Casein is a white amorphous powder, practically insoluble in water. It +is an acid and as such readily dissolves in solutions of the hydroxides +or the carbonates of alkalies and alkaline earths by forming soluble +salts. + +Pure casein salt solutions and fresh milk do not coagulate on boiling, +but in the presence of free acid coagulation may take place below the +boiling temperature. The coagulum formed in the case of milk includes +fat and calcium phosphate. The slight pellicle which coats over milk +when it is warmed is of the same composition. + ++49. Use of acid.+--A commonly accepted explanation of the precipitation +of casein by acids is that the casein is held in solution by chemical +union with a base (lime in the case of milk); that added acid removes +the base, allowing the insoluble casein to precipitate; and that excess +of acid unites with casein, forming a compound which is more or less +readily soluble. + ++50. Robertson's theory.+--According to Robertson's conception, in a +soluble solution of a protein or its salt, the molecules of the protein +unite with each other to a certain extent, in this way forming polymers. +The reaction is reversible, and the point of equilibrium between the +compound and its polymeric modification varies under the influence of +whatever condition affects the concentration of the protein ions. +Addition of water, or of acid, alkali or salt, or the application of +heat has such an effect, and consequently alters the relative number of +heavier molecule-complexes. Robertson's experiments give evidence that +one of the effects of increase of temperature on a solution of casein is +a shifting of the equilibrium in the direction of the higher complexes. +He explains coagulation as being a result of these molecular aggregates +becoming so large as to assume the properties of matter in mass and to +become practically an unstable suspension and then a precipitate. The +acid curd then is casein or some combination of casein with the +precipitant acid. + ++51. Rennet curd.+--Rennet extract and pepsin coagulation differs from +coagulation by acids, and cannot be looked on as a simple removal of the +base from a caseinate. The presence of soluble calcium salts (or other +alkaline earth salts) seems to be essential, and the precipitate formed +is not casein or a casein salt, but a salt of a slightly different +nucleoalbumin called "paracasein." Many writers, following Halliburton, +call this modification produced by rennin the "casein" and that from +which it is derived, "caseinogen." Foster and a few others have used the +term "tyrein" for the rennet clot. + +A number of investigations have been made on the conditions essential or +favorable to formation of the coagulum, especially with regard to the +effects of the degree of acidity and of conditions affecting the amount +of calcium present, either as free soluble salt or bound to the casein. +Soluble salts of calcium, barium and strontium favor or hasten +coagulation, while salts of ammonium, sodium and potassium retard or +prevent coagulation. + +The bulk of the coagulum from milk is a calcium paracaseinate, but it +carries down with it calcium phosphate and fat, both of which bodies +have been helped to remain in their state of suspension in milk by the +presence of the casein salt. Lindet (1912) has concluded that about +one-half of the phosphorus contained in the rennet curd is in the form +of phosphate of lime (probably tricalcic), the other half being +organically combined phosphoric acid. + ++52. Hammarsten's theory.+--According to Hammarsten (1877, 1896), whose +view has been commonly held, the distinctive effect of the ferment is +not precipitation but the transformation of casein into paracasein. This +is evidenced by the fact that if rennet be allowed to act on solutions +free from lime salts no precipitate occurs; but there is an invisible +alteration of the casein, for now, even if the ferment be destroyed by +boiling the solution, addition of lime salts will cause immediate +coagulation. (See also Spiro, 1906.) Hence the process of rennet +coagulation is a two-phase process; the first phase is the +transformation of casein by rennin, the second is the visible +coagulation caused by lime salts. + +Furthermore, if the purest casein and the purest rennin were used, +Hammarsten always found after coagulation that the filtrate contained +very small amounts of a protein. This protein he designated as the "whey +protein." + +In accordance with these observations, Hammarsten (1911) explains the +rennin action "as a cleavage process, in which the chief mass of the +casein, sometimes more than 90 per cent, is split off as paracasein, a +body closely related to casein, and in the presence of sufficient +amounts of lime salts the paracasein-lime precipitates out while the +proteose-like substance (whey-protein) remains in solution." + +By continued action of rennin on paracasein, a further transformation +has been found in several cases (Petry, 1906; Van Herwerden, 1907; Van +Dam, 1909), but perhaps due to a contamination of the rennin with +pepsin, or to the identity of these two enzymes. The action which forms +paracasein and whey-protein takes place in a short time (Hammarsten, +1896; Schmidt-Nielson, 1906). The composition and solubilities of +paracasein have received considerable attention. (See Loevenhart, 1904; +Kikkoji, 1909; Van Slyke and Bosworth, 1912.) It is more readily +digested by pepsin-hydrochloric acid than is casein (Hosl, 1910). + ++53. Duclaux theory.+--Duclaux (1884) and Loevenhart (1904) and others +do not accept Hammarsten's theory; but to most workers it seems +probable, at least, that the action of the rennin is to cause a cleavage +of casein with formation of paracasein. However, the chemical and +physical differences observed between casein and paracasein appear to be +so slight that Loevenhart and some others think that they are only +physical, perhaps differences in the size of the colloid or solution +aggregates. Loevenhart conceives of a large part of the work of the +rennet (or of the acid, in acid and heat coagulation) as being a freeing +of the calcium to make it available for precipitation. Some think that +the aggregates of paracasein are larger than those of casein, but there +is more evidence of their being smaller, which idea corresponds with the +findings of Bosworth, though he looks on the change as a true cleavage. + ++54. Bang's theory.+--Another description of the precipitation is given +by Bang (1911), who studied the progress of the coagulation process by +means of interruptions at definite intervals. His observations confirm +the idea that rennin causes the formation of paracasein, and that the +calcium salt serves only for the precipitation of the paracasein; the +rennin has to do also with the mobilizing of lime salts. According to +Bang, before coagulation occurs, paracaseins with constantly greater +affinity for calcium phosphate are produced. These take up increasing +amounts of calcium phosphate, until finally the combination formed can +no longer remain in solution. + ++55. Bosworth's theory.+--By a very recent work of L. L. Van Slyke and +A. W. Bosworth (Van Slyke and Bosworth, 1912, 1913; and Bosworth and Van +Slyke, 1913), in which ash-free casein and paracasein were compared as +to their elementary composition, and as to the salts they form with +bases, and the properties of these salts, it is indicated that the two +compounds are alike in percentage composition and in combining +equivalent, the paracasein molecule being one-half of the casein +molecule. Moreover, Bosworth (1913) has shown that, if the rennin +cleavage be carried out under conditions which avoid autohydrolysis, no +other protein is formed; also that, if the calcium caseinate present be +one containing four equivalents of calcium, the paracaseinate does not +precipitate, save in the presence of a soluble calcium salt, while, if +the calcium caseinate be one of two equivalents of base, rennin does +cause immediate coagulation. Bosworth concludes that the rennin action +is a cleavage (probably hydrolytic) of a molecule of caseinate into two +molecules of paracaseinate, the coagulation being a secondary effect due +to a change in solubilities, dicalcium paracaseinate being soluble in +pure water but not in water containing more than a trace of calcium +salt, and the monocalcium caseinate being insoluble in water. The alkali +paracaseinates, as well as caseinates, are soluble. This explanation +seems to promise to harmonize the observations with regard to acidity +and the effects of the presence of soluble salts. This theory +represents, therefore, many years of continuous work at the New York +Experiment Station centered primarily on American Cheddar cheese. +Disputed points remain for further study but these workers have +contributed much toward a clear description of the chemical constitution +of casein as affected by rennet action and bacterial activity. + +The investigations of these authors and of Hart with regard to the +changes which the paracasein, the calcium and the phosphorus undergo +during the ripening of cheese (Van Slyke and Hart, 1902, 1905; Van Slyke +and Bosworth, 1907, 1913; Bosworth, 1907) contributed to this +interpretation. + + BANG, IVAR, Ueber die chemische Vorgang bei der + Milchgerinnung durch Lab, Skand. Arch. Physiol. 25, pages + 105-144; through Jahresb. u. d. Fortsch. d. Thierchem. + 41, pages 221-222, 1911. + + BOSWORTH, A. W., The action of rennin on casein, N. Y. + Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 31, 1913. + + BOSWORTH, A. W., Chemical studies of Camembert cheese, N. + Y. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 5, 1907. + + BOSWORTH, A. W., and L. L. VAN SLYKE, Preparation and + composition of basic calcium caseinate and paracaseinate, + Jour. Biol. Chem. Vol. 14, pages 207-210, 1913. + + DUCLAUX, ÉMILE, Action de la présure sur le lait, Compt. + Rend. Acad. Sci. 98, pages 526-528, 1884. + + HAMMARSTEN, OLOF, Zur Kenntnis des Caseins und der + Wirkung des Labfermentes, Nova. Acta Regiae Soc. Sci. + Upsaliensis in Memoriam Quattuor Saec. ab Univ., + Upsaliensi Peractorum, 1877. + + HAMMARSTEN, OLOF, Ueber das Verhalten des Paracaseins zu + dem Labenzyme, Zeit. physiol. Chem. 22, pages 103-126, + 1896. + + HAMMARSTEN, OLOF, A text book of physiological chemistry, + from the author's 7th German edition, 1911. + + HOSL, J., Unterschiede in der tryptischen und peptischen + Spaltung des Caseins, Paracaseins und des + Paracaseinkalkes aus Kuh- und Ziegenmilch, Inaug. Diss. + Bern., 31 pp., 1910. + + KIKKOJI, T., Beitrage zur Kenntniss des Caseins und + Paracaseins, Zeit. physiol. Chem. No. 61, pages 130-146, + 1909. + + LINDET, L., Solubilité des albuminoides du lait dans les + éléments du sérum; rétrogradation de leur solubilité sous + l'influence du chlorure, Bul. Soc. Chim. (ser. 4) 13, + pages 929-935. + + LINDET, L., Sur les éléments mineraux contenus dans la + caseine du lait, Rep. Eighth Internat. Congr. of Applied + Chem. 19, 199-207, 1912. + + LOEVENHART, A. S., Ueber die Gerinnung der Milch, Zeit. + physiol. Chem. 41, pages 177-205, 1904. + + PETRY, EUGEN, Ueber die Einwirkung des Labferments auf + Kasein, Beitrage z. Chem. Physiol. u. Path. 8, pages + 339-364, 1906. + + ROBERTSON, T. BRAILSFORD, On the influence of temperature + upon the solubility of casein in alkaline solutions, + Jour. Biol. Chem. 5, pages 147-154, 1908. + + SCHMIDT-NIELSON, SIGVAL, Zur Kenntnis des Kaseins und der + Labgerinnung, Upsala läkaref. Förh. (N. F.) No. 11, + Suppl. + + Hammarsten Festschrift No. XV, 1-26; through Jahresb. u. + d. Fortschr. d. Thierchem. No. 36, pages 255-256, 1906. + + SPIRO, K., Beeinflussung und Natur des Labungsvorganges, + Beitrage z. Chem. Physiol. u. Path. 8, pages 365-369, + 1906. + + VAN DAM, W., Ueber die Wirkung des Labs Auf. + Paracaseinkalks, Zeit. physiol. Chem. No. 61, pages + 147-163, 1909. + + VAN HERWERDEN, M., Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Labwirkung + auf Casein, Zeit. physiol. Chem. 52, pages 184-206, 1907. + + VAN SLYKE, L. L., and A. W. BOSWORTH, I. Some of the + first chemical changes in Cheddar cheese. II. The acidity + of the water extract of Cheddar cheese, N. Y. Exp. Sta. + Tech. Bul. 4, 1907. + + VAN SLYKE, L. L., and A. W. BOSWORTH, Composition and + properties of some casein and paracasein compounds and + their relations to cheese, N. Y. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 26, + 1912. + + VAN SLYKE, L. L., and A. W. BOSWORTH, Method of preparing + ash-free casein and paracasein, Jour. Biol. Chem. Vol. + 14, pages 203-206, 1913. + + VAN SLYKE, L. L., and A. W. BOSWORTH, Preparation and + composition of unsaturated or acid caseinates and + paracaseinates, _Ibid._ Vol. 14, pages 211-225, 1913. + + VAN SLYKE, L. L., and A. W. BOSWORTH, Valency of + molecules and molecular weights of casein and paracasein, + _Ibid._ Vol. 14, pages 227-230, 1913. + + VAN SLYKE, L. L., and A. W. BOSWORTH, Composition and + properties of the brine-soluble compounds in cheese, + Jour. Biol. Chem. 14, pages 231-236, 1913. + + VAN SLYKE, L. L., and E. B. HART, A study of some of the + salts formed by casein and paracasein with acids; their + relations to American Cheddar cheese, N. Y. Exp. Sta. + Bul. 214, 1902. + + VAN SLYKE, L. L., and E. B. HART, Casein and paracasein + in some of their relations to bases and acids, American + Chem. Jour. 33, pages 461-996, 1905. + + VAN SLYKE, L. L., and E. B. HART, Some of the relations + of casein and paracasein to bases and acids, and their + application to Cheddar cheese, N. Y. Exp. Sta. Bul. 261, + 1905. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +_LACTIC STARTERS_ + + +Acidity in cheese-making arises almost exclusively from the lactic acid +produced from the fermentation of milk-sugar (lactose) by bacteria. +Hydrochloric acid is used in the Wisconsin[22] process of making +pasteurized milk cheese and sometimes for making skimmed-milk curd for +baking purposes. It is regularly used in precipitating casein not for +food but for manufacturing purposes. + ++56. Acidifying organisms.+--Many species of bacteria have been shown to +possess the power to produce lactic acid by fermenting lactose. In +practice, however, the cheese-maker seeks to control this fermentation +by the actual introduction of the desired organisms and by the +production of conditions which will insure this dominance through +natural selection. For this purpose the initial souring for most types +of cheeses is produced by some variety of the species originally +described by Esten[23] and commonly referred to as _Bacterium +lactis-acidi_, but variously named as _B. acidi-lactici_, _Streptococcus +lacticus_, _B. guntheri_ by different authors. Organisms of this series +dominate all other species in milk which is incubated at 70° F. They +produce a smooth solid mass without a sign of gas holes and without the +separation of whey from the curd, and develop in milk a maximum acidity +of about 0.90 of one per cent when titrated as lactic acid. (For +titration see Chapter V.) This species is usually present in small +numbers in fresh milk. There are many varieties or strains of the +species with differing rates of activity and measurable differences in +acid produced but with approximately the same qualitative characters. +Most commercial starters for cheese- and butter-making belong to this +group of species, although special mixtures with other organisms are +prepared for special purposes. In addition to this group, most varieties +of cheese contain some members of the colon-aërogenes group. When the +milk is in proper condition, the activity of this group should be held +in check by the early and rapid development of acid. Free development of +members of this group usually shows itself in the presence of gas holes +in the curd. + ++57. Starter.+--The practice of using pure cultures in cheese-making has +brought about the development of factory methods of producing day by day +cultures of the organisms desired, in quantities sufficient to inoculate +the total quantity of milk used in manufacture. For this purpose milk is +mostly used and the product is known as "starter." For cheese-making +purposes, a starter is a substance used in the manufacture of dairy +products having a predominance of lactic acid-forming microorganisms in +an active state. There are two general classes of starter: (1) Natural +starter; (2) commercial starter. + ++58. Natural starter.+--Milk, or other similar substance, which has +become sour or in which large numbers of lactic acid-forming organisms +are present, is called a natural starter when used in the manufacture of +dairy products. To secure clean-flavored milk, the cheese-maker usually +selects the milk of some producer who usually brings good milk and +allows it to sour naturally for use the next day. There is often a +variation from day to day in the milk delivered by the same producer, so +that the cheese-maker is not certain of a uniform quality in his +fundamental material. While the lactic acid-forming organisms are +developing, other organisms may also be present in numbers sufficient to +produce bad flavors. If a starter has any objectionable flavor, it +should not be used. Natural starters very commonly develop objectionable +flavors which at first are very difficult to recognize. When natural +starters with objectionable but not easily recognizable odors are used, +the effect may be seen on the cheese. Milk, sour whey and buttermilk are +materials commonly used as natural starter. A common difficulty in +skimmed-milk cheese is caused by the use of buttermilk as a starter. + ++59. Commercial starter or pure cultures.+--The alternative practice +consists in the introduction of pure cultures of known strains of lactic +bacteria into special milk to make the starter. Since these cultures +must be prepared by a bacteriologist, commercial laboratories have +developed a large business in their production. Many such commercial +brands are manufactured under trade-marked names. Some of these cultures +represent races of lactic bacteria cultivated and cared for efficiently, +hence uniformly valuable over long periods of time. Others carelessly +produced are worthless, or even a peril to the user. + +These organisms are usually shipped in small quantities in bottles of +liquid or powder, or in capsules of uniform size. The contents may be +either the culture medium upon which the organisms grew or inert +substance designed merely to hold the bacteria in inactive form. In +either solid or liquid form, the producer of the culture should +guarantee its activity up to a plainly stated date. + +It is the problem[24] of the cheese-maker or butter-maker to increase +this small amount of lactic acid-forming organisms to such numbers and +in such active condition that it may be used in the factory; while being +built up, these organisms must be kept pure. The usual practice is to +allow them to develop in some material, usually whole milk or +skimmed-milk; dissolved milk powder may be used in the place of milk. + ++60. Manufacturer's directions.+--The manufacturer usually sends +directions with his starter preparation, telling how it should be used +to secure the best result. These directions apply to average conditions +and must be varied to suit the individual instances so that a good +starter will be the result. The directions usually state the amount of +milk necessary for the first inoculation. It is usually a small amount, +one or two quarts. After the specific amount has been selected, this +milk should be pasteurized. + ++61. Selecting milk.+--The milk for use in starter-making should be +selected with very much care. Only clean-flavored sweet milk, free from +undesirable micro-organisms, should be used in the preparation of +starter. The milk is ordinarily chosen from a producer whose milk is +usually in good condition. The quality of the milk can be determined by +the use of the fermentation test. (See Chapter II.) It is better to +choose only the morning's milk for the making of starter, because the +bacteria have not had so much opportunity to develop. In no case should +the mixed milk be used in the preparation of starter, as this eliminates +all opportunity for selection. The flavor of the starter will be the +same as that of the milk from which it is made. + ++62. Pasteurization+ is the process of heating to a high temperature for +a given length of time and quickly cooling. It kills most of the +micro-organisms in the milk. In other words, it makes a clean seed-bed +for the pure culture. The temperatures of pasteurization recommended for +starter-making differ with the authority. A temperature of 180° F. for +thirty minutes or longer seems to be very satisfactory, since under +these conditions nearly all the micro-organisms in the milk are killed. + ++63. Containers.+--Various kinds of containers may be used for +starter-making. One-quart glass fruit jars or milk bottles make very +satisfactory containers, because the condition of the starter may be +seen at any time. They are also easily cleaned. They have the +disadvantage, however, of being easily broken, if the temperature is +suddenly changed, or if severely jarred. Tin containers may also be +used. Such containers are not easily broken, but they are harder to +clean and must be opened to examine the contents; hence the liability of +contamination is very much greater. + +This small amount of milk may be pasteurized by placing the container in +water heated to the desired temperature. A very satisfactory arrangement +is to cut of a barrel, and place a steam pipe in it. The barrel can then +be filled partly full of water and heated by steam. The bottles of milk +to be pasteurized are hung in the water in the barrel. Two or three +more bottles should be prepared than it is expected will be used as some +of the bottles are liable to be broken while cooling or heating. The +bottles should be filled about two-thirds full. This leaves room enough +to add the mother starter and later to break up the starter to examine +it. It is desirable not to have the milk or starter touch the cover +since contaminations are more likely. It is a good plan when +pasteurizing to have one bottle as a check. This may be filled with +water and left open and the thermometer placed in it. A uniform +temperature may be obtained by shaking the bottles. + ++64. Adding cultures.+--After being pasteurized, the milk should be +cooled to a temperature of 80° F. This is a suitable temperature for the +development of the lactic acid-forming organisms. The commercial or pure +culture should now be added to the milk at the rate specified in the +directions. Care should be exercised in opening bottles not to put the +covers in an unclean place. A sterile dipper is a good place to put +them. After the culture has been added to the milk, it should be mixed +thoroughly by shaking the bottle. This should be repeated every fifteen +or twenty minutes for four or five times. This is done to make certain +that the culture is thoroughly mixed with the milk. The milk should be +placed in a room or incubator as near 80° F. as possible, in order to +have a uniform temperature for the growth of the organisms. The bacteria +in the pure culture are more or less dormant so that a somewhat higher +temperature than the ordinary is necessary to stimulate their activity. +This milk should be coagulated in eighteen to twenty-four hours, +depending largely on the uniformity of the temperature during +incubation. + ++65. Cleanliness.+--To produce a good starter, great care should be +exercised that all utensils coming in contact with the milk are sterile. +After the milk is in the container in which the starter is made, it +should be kept covered as continuously as possible. Thermometers should +not be put into it to ascertain the temperature. When examining the +starter, do not dip into it, but pour out, as this prevents +contamination. The cover, when removed from the container, should be put +in a sterile place in such way that the dirt will not stick to it and +later get into the starter. + ++66. "Mother" starter or startoline.+--The thickened sour milk obtained +by inoculating the sweet pasteurized milk with pure culture of lactic +acid-forming bacteria is known as "mother starter" or "startoline." + ++67. Examining starter.+--This starter should be examined carefully as +to physical properties, odor and taste. The coagulation should be +smooth, free from whey and gassy pockets or bubbles. Sometimes the first +few inoculations from a new culture will show signs of gas, but, +usually, this will quickly disappear, and not injure the starter. It +should have a clean sour cream odor and clean, mild, acid flavor. After +breaking up it should be thick and creamy, entirely free from lumps. +This starter may have an objectionable flavor, due to the media in which +the organisms were growing when shipped. In such cases it is necessary +to carry the starter one or two propagations to overcome the flavor, to +enliven the micro-organisms and to secure the quantity desired. + ++68. Second day's propagation.+--For the second day, the milk for the +starter is selected as on the first day. It is pasteurized, and this +time cooled to 70° F. The milk is cooled a trifle colder the second day +than the first, because the organisms have become more active and hence +do not require as high a temperature to grow. Instead of inoculating +with powder, as was done the first day, the mother starter prepared the +first day is used. This requires only a very small amount, perhaps a +tablespoonful to a quart bottle. It should be thoroughly mixed with the +milk. This starter may have the flavor of the media used in the +laboratory culture, therefore may need to be carried one or two days +more to eliminate it. After the flavor has become normal, the mother +starter is ready for commercial use. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.--An improved starter-can.] + ++69. Preparation of larger amount of starter.+--The first thing to +determine is the quantity of starter required. As much milk should be +carefully chosen as the amount of starter desired. This milk should then +be pasteurized. An improved starter-can (Fig. 6) may be used in the +pasteurization of the milk and the making of starter, or a milk-can +(Fig. 7) placed in a tub of water in which there is a steam pipe. The +former requires mechanical power to operate the agitator, but the latter +can be used where mechanical power is not available. In the latter the +milk and starter are stirred by hand. This is the kind of apparatus more +often found in cheese factories. + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.--A simple device for the preparation of starter.] + +If possible, this milk should be pasteurized to 180° F. for thirty +minutes; this kills most of the bacteria and spores. The milk should be +cooled to 60°-65° F., the temperature of incubation. This temperature +may be varied with conditions, so that the starter will be ready for use +at the desired time. The higher the temperature, the less time is +required to ripen the starter. + ++70. Amount of mother starter to use.+--The mother starter prepared the +day before is now used to inoculate the starter milk. The amount to use +will depend on: + +1. Temperature of milk when mother starter is added; + +2. Average temperature at which the milk will be kept during the +ripening period; + +3. Time allowed for starter to ripen before it is to be used; + +4. Vigor and acidity of the mother starter added. There is a very wide +range as to the amount of mother starter required, from 0.5 of one per +cent to 10 per cent being used under different conditions. + +Some operators prefer to add the mother starter while the milk is at a +temperature of about 90° F., before it has been cooled to the incubating +temperature. This reduces the amount of mother starter necessary. + +If an even incubating temperature can be maintained, it will require +less mother starter than if the temperature goes down. + +If the ripening period is short, it will require a larger amount of +mother starter, than if the ripening period is longer. If the starter +has a low acidity or weak body indicating that organisms are of low +vitality, it will require more mother starter. + ++71. Qualities.+--The starter, when ready to use, may or may not be +coagulated; a good idea of the quality of the starter may be gained by +the condition of the coagulation. The coagulation should be jelly- or +custard-like, close and smooth, entirely free from gas pockets and +should not be wheyed off. + +When broken up, the starter should be of a smooth creamy texture and +entirely free from lumpiness or wateriness. It should have a slightly +pronounced acid aroma. The starter should be free from taints and all +undesirable flavors; the flavor should be a clean, mild acid taste. + ++72. How to carry the mother starter.+--Some mother starter must be +carried from day to day to inoculate the large starter. This may be +carried or made in several ways: + +1. Independently: By this method a mother starter is made and carried +entirely separately from the large starter. It requires more time and +work, but is by far the best method. With a good mother starter, there +is not so much danger of the larger starter becoming poor in quality. + +2. Mother starter may be made by dipping pasteurized milk from that +prepared for the large starter with sterile jars and then inoculating +these jars separately. By this method, if the milk selected for the +large starter is poor, the mother starter for the next day will be the +same. It is very difficult by this method to carry a uniform, high +quality mother starter. + +There is danger that the container used for the mother starter may not +be sterile, and there is also danger of contamination in transferring +the milk. + +3. Another practice is to hold over some of the large starter used +to-day for mother starter. This is by far the easiest method. By this +practice, there is no certainty of the quality of the starter, because +there is little or no control of the mother starter. If the large +starter is for some reason not good, there is no separate reserve of +mother starter on which to rely. + ++73. Starter score-cards.+--The use of a score-card tends to analyze the +observations in such a way as to emphasize all the characteristics +desired in the starter. Such an analysis seeks to minimize the personal +factor and produce a standardization of the quality. The score-card +finally reduces the qualities of the starter to a numerical basis for +ease of comparison. Many score-cards have been proposed but the one +preferred by the authors is that used by the Dairy Department of the New +York State College of Agriculture, which is as follows: + + + CORNELL SCORE-CARD + + Flavor 50 Clean, desirable acid. + + Aroma 20 Clean, agreeable acid. No undesirable aroma. + + Acidity 20 0.6 per cent-0.8 per cent. + + Body 10 Before breaking up: jelly-like, close, + absence of gas holes. No free + whey. After breaking up: + smooth, creamy, free from granules + or flakes. + +The qualities mentioned in this score-card can be quickly and easily +determined by examining and tasting the starter and by making an acid +test of a sample. The acid test is conducted as with milk (see Chapter +II) except the starter must be rinsed out of the pipette with pure +water. Some starter score-cards call for a bacterial examination and +counting of the starter organisms. This takes a considerable period of +time and is not entirely necessary. The physical properties and acid +test are closely correlated with the presence of the desired organisms. + ++74. Use of starter.+--If all milk could be clean and sweet and the only +fermentation from it were the clean acid type, a starter would be +useless. Such milk is hard to obtain; therefore, a starter is used to +overcome the bad fermentation. This improves the flavor, body and +texture of the cheese. The common contaminations which the starter will +tend to correct are: + + 1. Gas-producing bacteria. + 2. Yeasts. + 3. Bad flavors or taints. + +The length of time a starter may be carried depends on the accuracy and +carefulness of the maker. This calls for scrupulous attention to the +temperature, the selection of milk and keeping out contaminations. The +maker must remember that a starter is not merely milk, but milk full of +a multitude of tiny plants, very sensitive to food, temperature, clean +surroundings and the quantity of their own acid. + + + NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY + + +STARTER LOT-CARD+ +Department of Dairy Industry.+ + ================================================================== + Day and Date_____________________ + + +MILK:+ + + Kind________________ % fat_____% solids not fat_____ + + Flavor__________________________________ + + Amount of milk____________ Hours old______________ + + +PASTEURIZATION:+ + + Method______________________________________________ + + Milk when received: Temperature_____ ° + + Acidity_____ % + + Heating: Turning on heat__________ APM. + + Desired temp. reached__________ APM. + + Turning off heat__________ APM. + + Length of time at desired temp.__________ + + Beginning to cool__________ + + Cooled__________ APM; to__________ ° + + Acidity: After pasteurization__________ + + When inoculated________________ + + +INOCULATION:+ + + Time__________ Temperature__________ + + Amount__________ lbs. __________% + + +INCUBATION:+ + + Temperature__________ Time__________ + + +MOTHER STARTER USED:+ + + Source_____________________________________ % used_______________ + + Times propagated___________________________ Acidity______________ + + Amount used________________________________ Appearance___________ + + Flavor_______________________________ + + Comments__________________________________________________________ + + +STARTER:+ + + Time of examining__________ + + Temperature________________ + + +SCORE-CARD:+ + + Flavor__________50| Clean, desirable acid. + | + Aroma___________20| Clean, agreeable acid. No undesirable aroma. + | + Acidity_________20| 0.6%-0.75%. + | + Body____________10| Before breaking up: jelly-like, close, + | absence of gas holes. No free whey. + ____| ___After breaking up: smooth, creamy, free from + | granules or flakes. + Total_________ 100| + ----------------------------------- + The above is a tentative score-card. + + +COMMENTS:+____________________________________________________ + _______________________________________________________________ + _______________________________________________________________ + _______________________________________________________________ + + +Work and observation by+______________________________________ + + ++75. The amount of starter to use+ depends on the amount of acid desired +in the milk for any particular kind of cheese. The great abuse of +starter is the practice of using too much. It is better and safer to add +starter a little at a time and several times than to add too much at +once. When starter is added to milk for cheese-making, it should be +strained to remove any lumps; otherwise an uneven color is likely to +result. + ++76. Starter lot-card.+--For certain dairy operations, a permanent +record is desired. This is especially true in the making of starter and +certain varieties of cheese. A lot-card not only serves as a record but +also points out the succeeding steps of the operation. This latter is +especially useful for beginners and students. Page 53 shows a desirable +lot-card to be used when making starter. Each operation has been +referred to the page in the text where it is discussed. This makes this +particular lot-card an index to the whole process of starter-making as +here treated. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +_CURD-MAKING_ + + +Aside from the purely sour-milk cheeses, the coagulum or curd resulting +from rennet action is the basis of cheese-making. The finished cheese, +whatever its final condition, is primarily dependent on a particular +chemical composition and fairly definite physical characters in the +freshly made curd mass. These characters are determined by a series of +factors under control of the cheese-maker. Assuming the milk to be +normal in character, success depends on the use of a proper combination +of these factors. The possible variations in each factor together with +their number makes an almost infinite series of such combinations +possible. The essential steps in the process are, therefore, presented +as underlying all cheese-making. The special adaptations of each factor +are considered in the discussion of the varieties group by group. + +These factors follow: + + _A._ The coagulation group: + + 1. Fat-content of the milk. + 2. The acidity of the milk. + 3. The temperature of renneting. + 4. The effective quantity of rennet. + 5. Curdling period or the time allowed for rennet action. + + _B._ The handling group: + + 6. Cutting or breaking the curd. + 7. Heating (cooking) or not heating. + 8. Draining (including pressing, grinding and putting into hoops + or forms). + ++77. The composition of the milk.+--The fat percentage in the milk in +the cheese-vat should be known to the cheese-maker and be strictly under +his control. The fat tester and the separator make this clearly +possible. He can go further. Milk from particular herds whose quality is +a matter of record from the routine test of each patron's milk may be +selected and brought together for the manufacturer of cheese of special +quality. Control of casein or lactose, on the contrary, is not nearly so +practicable. The purchase of milk on the fat test has become so well +established in most dairy territories, as to insure the presence and +constant use of the tester. A fat test of the mixed product in the +cheese-vat in connection with established tables thus insures an +accurate knowledge of the materials which go into each day's cheese. For +some varieties of cheese, whole milk should always be used. For other +varieties, the addition or removal of fat is regularly recognized as +part of the making process. The presence of added fat or the removal of +fat affects the texture of the product and the details of the process of +making. + ++78. Cheese color.+--An alkaline solution of annatto is usually used as +a cheese color. This colors both casein and fat in contrast to butter +color which is an oil solution of the dye and mixes only with the fat. +Cheese color is added to the milk in making some varieties of cheese, +and not for others. When lactic starter is used, the color should be +added after the starter and just before the addition of the rennet. The +amount is determined by the color desired in the cheese. The usual +amount varies from one to four ounces to each thousand pounds of milk. +Before adding, the color should be diluted in either milk or water, +preferably water. It should then be mixed thoroughly with the milk. + ++79. The acidity factor.+--Milk as drawn shows a measurable acidity when +titrated to phenolphthalein with normal sodium hydroxide. This figure +varies with the composition of milk. Casein itself gives a weakly acid +reaction with this indicator. Calculated as lactic acid, this initial +acidity varies within fairly wide limits, records being found from 0.12 +to 0.21 of one per cent or even more widely apart. Commonly, however, +such titration shows 0.14 to 0.17 per cent. Some forms of cheese +(Limburger, Swiss, Brie) are made from absolutely fresh milk. Acidity +from bacterial activity is important as a factor in the making of most +types of cheese and probably in the ripening of all types. + +Increasing the acidity of the milk hastens rennet action and within +limits produces increased firmness of the curd. If carried too high, +acidity causes a grainy or sandy curd. Normally fresh milk is +sufficiently acid in reaction when tested to phenolphthalein to permit +rennet to act, but the rate of action increases rapidly with the +development of acid. Increase of acidity may be accomplished: (_a_) by +the addition of acid as has been done by Sammis[25] and Bruhn in +pasteurized milk for Cheddar cheese; or (_b_) by the development of acid +through the activity of lactic organisms, which is the usual way. For +renneting, the acidity necessary for particular cheeses runs from that +of absolutely fresh milk still warm (as in French Brie, Limburger, +Swiss, Gorgonzola) through series calling for increase of acidity, +hundredth by hundredth per cent calculated as lactic acid. This ranges +from 0.17 to 0.20 per cent as is variously used in American factory +Cheddar to about 0.25 to 0.28 per cent as obtained by adding acid in +Sammis' method. This method is discussed under the heading "Cheddar +Cheese from Pasteurized Milk" (p. 229) since it requires special +apparatus and has not thus far been used with other types of cheese. For +the development of acidity by the action of bacteria, lactic starter is +almost universally used. This may be added in very small quantities and +the acidity secured by closely watching its development or by adding +starter in amount sufficient to obtain the required acidity at once. In +either case, the cheese-maker needs to know the rate of action of the +culture to insure the proper control of the process. The amount of acid +already present when the rennet is added affects not only the texture of +the curd as first found, but within limits indicates also the rate at +which further acidity may be expected to develop. + +A series of experiments in making Roquefort were tabulated to show the +rate of acidification from various initial points. In the graphs (Fig. +8) the curves for acid development are parallel after the determination +reaches 0.30 per cent. These experiments were made at a temperature 80° +to 84° F. Milk at the lowest acidities tried developed titratable acid +very slowly. A period of several hours was required to produce +sufficient acid to affect the curd texture. When the acid reached 0.25 +per cent by titration, the further rise was rapid and all the lines +became almost straight and parallel after the titration reached 0.30 +per cent. If this rapid souring occurred after the completion of the +cheese-making process, the texture of the experimental cheese was not +measurably affected. In those cases, however, in which 0.30 per cent was +reached before the cheese reached its final form in the hoop, the +texture of the ripened cheese was entirely different from that desired +for this variety under experiment. These curves apply directly to but +one cheese process in which a particular combination of acidity, rennet +and time is used to obtain a very delicately balanced result. In other +varieties it is equally important to obtain exactly the adjustment of +these factors which will bring the desired result. + +[Illustration: FIG. 8.--The acidification of Roquefort cheese.] + ++80. Acidity of milk when received.+--If proper care has been taken, +milk should be delivered to the factory fresh, clean and without the +development of acid. If the milk has not been handled properly, the +early stages of souring or some other unfavorable fermentation will have +developed. Such milk may develop too much acid, or gas, or any one of +several objectionable flavors during the making and ripening of the +cheese. Some cheese-makers become very expert in detecting the first +traces of objectionable qualities, but most makers are dependent on +standardized tests to determine whether milk shall be accepted or +rejected, and when accepted to determine the rate at which it may be +expected to respond during the cheese-making process. + +Various tests have been devised to determine the amount of acid present +in milk. There are two tests commonly used in cheese-factories. One is +known as the "acid test" and the other the "rennet test." + ++81. The acid test+[26] is made by titrating a known amount of milk +(Fig. 9) against an alkali solution of known strength, using +phenolphthalein as an indicator. The object of the indicator is to tell +the condition of the milk, whether it is acid, alkaline or neutral. The +indicator does not change in an acid solution but turns pink when the +solution is or becomes alkaline. To make the test, a known quantity of +the material to be tested is placed in a white cup, and to this several +drops of indicator are added. As an indicator, a 1 per cent solution of +phenolphthalein in 95 per cent alcohol is commonly used. As an alkali +solution, sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is used in the standardized strength +usually either tenth (N/10) normal or twentieth (N/20) normal. This +solution should be obtained in some one of the standardized forms +commercially prepared. The alkali is added, drop by drop, from a +graduated burette until a faint pink color appears. This shows that the +acid in the milk has been neutralized by the alkali. The amount of +alkali that has been used can be determined from the burette. Knowing +the amount of milk and alkali solution used, it is easy to calculate the +amount of acid in the substance tested. The results are usually +expressed either as percentages of lactic acid or preferably as cubic +centimeters of normal alkali required to neutralize 100 or 1000 c.c. of +milk. This kind of test is on the market under different names, such as +Mann's, Publow's, Farrington's and Marschall's. + +[Illustration: _FIG. 9._--An acid tester.] + ++82. Rennet tests.+--Several rennet tests have been devised, but the one +most widely used is the Marschall (Fig. 10). This consists of a 1 c.c. +pipette to measure the rennet extract, a small bottle in which to dilute +the extract, a special cup to hold the milk and a spatula to mix the +milk with the rennet extract. This cup has on the inside from top to +bottom a scale graduated from 0 at the top to 10 at the bottom. There is +a hole in the bottom to allow the milk to run out. + +[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Marschall rennet test.] + ++83. Marschall rennet test.+--To make a Marschall rennet test, 1 c.c. of +rennet extract is measured, with the 1 c.c. pipette, and placed in the +bottle. Care should be exercised to rinse out the pipette. The bottle is +then filled to the mark with cold water. After the milk has been heated +to the setting temperature, 84°-86° F., the cup is filled with milk and +set on the edge of the vat so that the milk running out through the hole +in the bottom of the cup will flow into the vat. Just as the surface of +the milk reaches the 0 mark on the cup, the diluted rennet extract is +added and thoroughly mixed with the milk, using the small spatula to +stir it. The rennet and milk should be mixed until it has run down at +least one-half space on the scale in the cup. As the rennet begins to +coagulate the milk, it runs slower from the hole in the bottom of the +cup, until it finally stops. When it stops, the point on the scale +indicated by the surface of the coagulated milk is noted. The test is +recorded by the number of spaces the surface of the milk lowers from the +time the rennet is added until it is coagulated. This test depends on +three factors: the strength of the rennet extract, the temperature of +the milk, the acidity of the milk. The more acid, the quicker the milk +will coagulate. To measure any one of these factors, the other two must +be constant. The variable factor is the acidity of the milk. This test +will not indicate the percentage of acid in the milk, but is simply a +comparative test to be used from day to day; for example, if the rennet +test to-day shows three spaces, and the operator makes that milk into +cheese and the process seems to be normal, it shows that for good +results in this factory, milk should be ripened to show three spaces +every day. If the next day the milk showed four spaces, it should be +allowed to ripen more until it shows three spaces. If it shows only two +spaces, this indicates that the milk has too much acid development or is +over-ripe. A cheese-maker will have to determine at what point to set +his milk, because the test will vary from one factory to another. + ++84. Comparison of acid and rennet test.+--Each of these tests has its +advantages and disadvantages. The advantage of the acid test is that it +can be made as well of warm as cold milk. This is of great importance in +determining whether the milk delivered by any patron is too ripe to be +received. The acidity of other materials, such as whey and starter, can +be determined as well as that of milk. The disadvantages are that it is +difficult to get the alkali solution of the proper strength and the +solution is liable to deteriorate on standing. It requires a careful +exact operator to make the test. + +The advantages of the rennet test are that it is easy to make, and it +requires no materials that are hard to replace. The disadvantage is that +the milk must be warmed to the same temperature before a comparative +test can be made. The size of the outlet in cups varies. It does not +indicate the percentage of acid present in the milk. It is simply a +comparative test. To obtain the best result, both tests should be used +in conjunction. + ++85. Control of acid.+--The control of acidity in curd and cheese is +dependent on the control of the moisture or water-content. The control +of both factors is very important in relation to the quality[27] of the +cheese. Often acidity is spoken of when moisture is really intended, and +vice versa. The close relation between the moisture and acidity is due +to the presence of the milk-sugar in solution in the milk-serum which +becomes the whey of cheese-making. Water or moisture in cheese consists +of the remnant of this whey which is not expelled in the making process. +During manufacture and the ripening process, the milk-sugar is changed +to lactic acid. A cheese may be sweet when first made and after a time +become sour because it contains too much moisture in the form of whey. +Excess of whey carries excess of milk-sugar from which fermentation +produces intense acidity. + +Various tests have been devised to determine the amount of acid +developed at the different stages of manufacture. These tests are +described on page 61. By the use of such tests, the development of acid +during the manufacturing process can be very accurately determined. +There is no quick, accurate test to determine the amount of moisture in +the curd. The cheese-maker has to rely on his own judgment, guided +largely by the appearance, feeling and condition of the curd. + +After the rennet extract has been added, all control of the acid +development is lost. The cheese-maker can determine rather accurately +how fast the acid will develop during the ripening of the milk. This +shows the importance of the proper ripening. The amount of acid +developed during the different stages of the manufacturing process can +be approximately followed with the various acid tests. The manufacturing +process should then be varied to obtain the proper relation between the +moisture and the acid present. The only time that the acidity may be +controlled is when the milk is being ripened. If too much acid is +developed before the rennet is added, there is apt to be too much acid +at each stage of the manufacturing process. This is liable to hurry the +cheese-making process and to cause a loss, both in quality and quantity +of cheese, and may cause a high acid or sour cheese. If sufficient acid +is not developed at the time the rennet is added or if the milk is not +sufficiently ripened, the acid is liable not to develop fast enough so +that there will not be sufficient at each step in the cheese-making +process. Such a cheese is called "sweet." There are several conditions +which will cause an over-development of acid. Such a cheese is called +"acidy" or "sour." These factors are within the control of the +cheese-maker, hence should be avoided. A sour cheese shows lack of skill +and care on the part of the cheese-maker. + +_Conditions causing an acidy or sour cheese:_ + + Receiving sour or high acid milk at the cheese-factory. + Use of too much starter. + Ripening the milk too much before the rennet is added. + Removing the whey before the curd is properly firmed, hence leaving + it with too much moisture. + Development of too much acid in the whey before the whey is removed. + Improper relationship between the moisture and acidity at the time + of removing the whey. + +_Conditions causing deficient acid:_ + + Adding the rennet before sufficient acid has developed. + Not using sufficient starter. + Not developing sufficient acid in the whey. + ++86. Acidity and rennet action.+--The rennet extract acts only in an +acid medium. The greater the acid development, within certain limits, +the faster the action of the rennet. If enough acid has developed to +cause a coagulation of the casein, the rennet will not coagulate the +milk. This is one reason why Cheddar cheese cannot be made from sour +milk. + ++87. Acidity and expulsion of the whey.+--The contraction of the curd +and expulsion of the whey are so closely related that they may be +treated under the same heading. The more acid, the faster the whey +separates from the curd, other conditions being uniform. The relation of +acidity and firmness of the curd to temperature of the curd is another +important factor in the successful manufacture of cheese. The higher the +acidity, the faster the temperature of the curd can be raised without +any harmful effects. If the temperature is raised too fast in relation +to the acidity, the film surrounding each piece of curd will become +toughened so that the moisture will not be able to escape. When this +condition exists, the curd will feel firm but when the pieces are +broken open the inside is found to be very soft. This results in a large +loss later or may cause a sour cheese. It usually causes an uneven +texture and color in the cheese. + ++88. Acidity in relation to cheese flavor.+--Just what part the acid +plays in the development of cheese flavor is not known. If a certain +amount of acid is not present, the characteristic cheese flavor does not +develop. If too much acid is developed, it gives the cheese a sour +flavor which is unpleasant. If sufficient acid is not developed, the +other undesirable factors seem to be more active, causing very +disagreeable flavor and may cause the cheese to putrefy. A cheese with a +low acid usually develops a very mild flavor, and if carried to +extremes, as in the case of some washed curd cheese, the true cheese +flavor never develops. + ++89. Acidity in relation to body and texture of cheese.+--If a cheese is +to have a close, smooth, mellow, silky body and texture, a certain +amount of acid development is necessary. If too much acid is developed, +the body and texture will be dry, harsh, sandy, mealy, corky. If the +acid is not sufficient the cheese may be soft or weak bodied, and is +usually characterized by "Swiss curd holes," which are spaces of various +sizes usually more or less round and very shiny on the inside. + ++90. Acidity in relation to cheese color.+--An over-development of +acidity affects the color of a cheese. If this development of acidity is +uniform throughout the cheese, it causes the color to become pale or +bleached. If this development is uneven, due to the uneven distribution +of moisture, the color will be bleached in spots, causing a mottled +effect. + ++91. Control of moisture.+[28]--The cheese-maker must use skill and +judgment in regulating the amount of moisture in relation to the +firmness of the curd and the acid. Since there are no quick accurate +tests to determine the amount of moisture, this is left entirely to the +judgment of the operator. Certain methods of handling the curd reduce +the moisture-content, while others increase it. The cheese-maker must +decide how to handle the curd. If the curd becomes too dry, methods +should be employed to increase the moisture, and vice versa. + +_Causes of excessive moisture:_ + + Cutting the curd coarse. + Cutting the curd after it has become too hard. + Setting the milk at a high temperature. + Use of excessive amount of rennet extract. + Low acid in the curd at the time of removing the whey. + Not stirring the curd with the hands as the last of the whey is + removed. + High piling of the curd during the cheddaring process. + Piling the curd too quickly after removing the whey. + Use of a small amount of salt. + Holding the curd at too low a temperature after the whey is removed. + Soaking the curd in water previous to salting. + Allowing the curd to remain in the whey too long so that it reabsorbs + the whey. + Heating the curd too rapidly. + +_Causes of insufficient moisture:_ + + Cutting the curd too fine or breaking up the pieces with the rake into + too small pieces. + Cutting the curd too soft. + Stirring the curd too much by hand as the last of the whey is being + removed. + Developing high acid in the curd at the time of removing the whey. + Insufficient piling of the curd during the cheddaring process. + Using a large amount of salt. + High temperature and low humidity in the curing room. + ++92. Relation of moisture to manufacture and quality.+--(1) _Flavor:_ If +the cheese contains too much moisture, it is likely to develop a sour or +acidy flavor. A cheese with a normally high moisture-content usually +ripens or develops a cheese flavor much faster than one with a lower +moisture-content, other conditions being uniform. A cheese with a high +moisture-content is much more liable, during the curing process, to +develop undesirable flavors than is one with a lower moisture-content. +(2) _Body and texture:_ A cheese containing too much moisture is very +soft and is difficult to hold in shape. Such a product breaks down very +rapidly and is usually pasty and sticky in texture. If too little +moisture is present, the cheese is very dry and hard, and cures or +ripens very slowly because of the lack of moisture together with +milk-sugar from which acid may be formed. Dry cheeses are usually harsh, +tough and rubbery in texture. Such cheeses also have poor rinds. (3) +_Color:_ If the ideal conditions exist, the moisture will be evenly +distributed throughout the cheese. The spots containing more moisture +will be lighter in color. If a cheese contains so much moisture that it +becomes "acidy," the effect is the same as when too much acid is +developed, that is, the color becomes pale from the action of the acid. +(4) _Finish:_ A cheese containing too much moisture is usually soft. A +good rind does not form. Such a cheese loses its shape very easily, +especially in a warm curing room. (5) _Quality:_ A cheese with a high +moisture-content is usually marketable for only a very short period. +Such a product usually develops flavor very quickly in comparison to a +dry cheese. It must be sold very soon because if held too long, the +flavor becomes so strong as to be undesirable, and objectionable flavors +are liable to develop. In some cases, such cheeses rot. + ++93. Relation of moisture to acidity.+--From the preceding discussion, +it is evident that the relation between the moisture and acidity is very +close, in fact so intimate that in some cases it is difficult to +distinguish one from the other when the quality of the cheese is +considered. The proper relation of the moisture and the acidity +determines the quality of the resulting cheese. If too much acid is +developed during the manufacturing process, the product will be sour. If +too much moisture is retained in the form of whey, the cheese will be +sour. The less acid in the curd, the more moisture in the form of whey +may be retained in the curd without causing a sour cheese. The proper +relationship between the moisture and the acidity must be maintained or +a sour cheese will result. + +The relation of the moisture to the acidity also has an influence on the +curing. If the cheese has a low development of acidity and a low +moisture-content, it will cure very slowly. The increasing of either the +acidity or moisture usually increases the rate of cheese ripening, other +factors being the same. + +The relation of the acidity and the moisture is so important that it +cannot be neglected without injuring both the quality and quantity of +cheese. This knowledge can be obtained only by experience. + ++94. Setting temperature.+--The temperature of renneting makes very much +difference in the texture of the product. The enzyme rennin is sensitive +to very slight changes in temperature. Below 70° F., its rate of action +is very slow. Beginning with approximately 20 per cent of its maximum +effectiveness at 70° F. (the curdling point for Neufchâtel), it has +risen to 65 per cent at 84° F., to 70 per cent at 86° F., as used in +Cheddar, to about 80 to 85 per cent at 90-94° F., as used in Limburger. +At 105° F. it reaches its maximum effective working rate to fall from +that efficiency to about 50 per cent at 120° F. Curdling at low +temperature lengthens the time required for the same amount of rennet to +curdle a given quantity of the same milk. The texture of curd produced +at temperatures between 70° F. and 84° F. is soft, jelly-like, friable +rather than rubbery. At 86° F. it begins to show toughening or rubbery +characters which become very marked at 90° F. to 94° F. as used in +Limburger. With the increased vigor of action as it passes its maximum +rate of action at 105° F., the texture tends to become loose, floccose +to granular. Aside from the Neufchâtel group, the working range of +temperatures for the renneting period runs from about 84° F. to about +94° F., a range of barely 10° F., or the use of 65 per cent to 80 or +possibly 85 per cent of the maximum efficiency of the rennet. Within +this range of temperature, the curd has the physical characters demanded +for making most varieties of cheese. + ++95. Strength of coagulating materials.+--Rennet and pepsin preparations +vary in strength and in keeping quality. With a particular stock, +changes go on to such a degree that the last samples from a barrel of +rennet are much weaker than the earlier ones. Each sample, barrel, keg +or bottle should be tested before used. In continuous work the results +of each day's work furnish the guide for the next day's use of a +particular lot of rennet. + ++96. Amount of coagulating materials to use.+--For most varieties of +cheese, sufficient rennet extract or pepsin is added to the milk to give +a firm curd in twenty-five to forty minutes. Of the ordinary commercial +rennet extract, this requires from two and one-half to four ounces to +one thousand pounds of milk. This gives a maximum of one part rennet for +each four to six thousand parts of milk. The great strength of the +rennet extract is thus clearly shown. + ++97. Method of adding rennet.+--Before rennet is added to the milk, it +is diluted in about forty times its volume of cold water, which chills +the enzyme and retards its action until it can be thoroughly mixed with +the milk. If the material is added without such dilution, the +concentrated extract produces instant coagulation in the drops with +which it comes in contact, forming solid masses from which the enzyme +escapes only slowly to diffuse throughout the mass. Uniform coagulation +thus becomes impossible. After the rennet extract has been diluted with +cold water, it should be distributed the entire length of the vat in an +even stream from a pail. It should then be mixed with the milk by +stirring from top to bottom for about three to four minutes. For this +purpose, either a long-handled dipper or a wooden rake may be used. A +dipperful should be drawn from the gate and stirred into the vat, +otherwise the milk in the gate will fail to coagulate properly because +the rennet diffuses too slowly to reach and affect all the milk at that +point. The milk should be stirred on the top, preferably with the bottom +of a dipper, until signs of coagulation begin to appear. This stirring +keeps the cream from rising. There are various ways or signs to indicate +when the coagulation has gone to the stage at which the mix is about to +become thick: (1) The milk becomes lazy or thicker as the finger is +passed through it; (2) bubbles caused by moving the finger remain on the +milk longer, usually until one can count ten when ready to thicken. + +If the milk is stirred too long or after it begins to thicken, the +result is a granular sort of curd, and there will be an abnormally large +loss of fat in the manufacturing process. The addition of the rennet and +subsequent stirring require the exercise of great care and constant +attention to details. The cheese-maker can do nothing else for those few +minutes. When through stirring, it is a good plan in cold weather to +cover the vat with a cloth as this will keep the surface of the curd +warm. In summer the same cover will keep out the flies. + +_Causes of a delayed coagulation:_ + + (1) Weak rennet extract or too small an amount. + (2) Low temperatures due to inaccurate thermometers. + (3) Pasteurized milk. + (4) Presence of abnormal bacterial ferments. + (5) Presence of preservatives. + (6) Heavily watered milk. + (7) Use of badly rusted[29] cans. + (8) Milk containing small amounts of casein or calcium salts. + +_Causes of uneven coagulation:_ + + (1) Uneven temperature of the mix in the vat, due to lack of + agitation. + (2) Uneven distribution of the rennet extract. + (3) Adding rennet to vat too soon after heating, while the sides and + bottom are still hot, causes curd to stick to sides and bottom + of the vat making cutting difficult. + (4) Sloshing after the milk begins to thicken breaks the curd and + causes it to whey off. + ++98. The curdling period.+--The time allowed for rennet action also +affects the texture of the curd. The enzymes of rennet (rennin and +pepsin) do not cease acting with the thickening of the milk. In many +cheeses, the handling process begins as soon as the curd has become +solid enough to split cleanly before a finger thrust into it. If let +stand further, the same curd mass will continue to harden with the +progressive separation of whey; this shows first as drops ("sweating") +on its surface, which then increase in number and size until they run +together and form a sheet of whey. The limit of such action is difficult +to measure. The solidifying process ceases in a period of hours. The +further action of the enzymes is digestive in character and goes on +slowly. It requires a period of weeks or even months to accomplish +measurable results at the working temperatures in use in the trade. +Other ripening agents with more rapid action intervene to shape the +final result. It follows that the rennet factor in the ripening changes +found at the end of the period is almost negligible for most varieties +of cheese, although it appears to be measurable in some varieties. + ++99. Cutting or breaking[30] the curd.+--As soon as curd is formed, +separation of whey begins upon the surface and perhaps around the sides +of the vessel. This is accompanied by shrinkage and hardening of the +mass. If the curd remains unbroken, the separation is extremely slow. In +cheese-making practice, such curd masses may be dipped at once into +hoops as in Camembert, dumped in mass into cloths for drainage as in +Neufchâtel or, as in the larger number of cheeses, cut or broken in some +characteristic manner. After the curd mass is firm, the rate at which +subsequent changes take place depends largely on the size of the +particles into which the curd is cut. The smaller the particles, the +quicker the water is expelled. Consequently the development of the +acidity and other changes take place more slowly. For this reason the +curd should be cut into pieces of uniform size. If the work is not +properly performed, the pieces of curd of various sizes will be at +different stages of development. The fine particles will be firm and +elastic while the larger particles are still soft and full of whey and +may be developing too much acid. The knives should be inserted into the +curd obliquely so that they will cut their way into the curd and not +break it. The horizontal knife is used lengthwise of the vat and cuts +the curd into layers of uniform thickness. The perpendicular knife then +is used lengthwise and crosswise of the vat. It first cuts the curd +into strips and then into cubes. The knives may have wire blades or +steel blades, some operators preferring one and some the other. +Whichever is used, the blades should be close enough together to give +the fineness of curd desired. + +After the knife passes through, the cut faces quickly become covered +with a smooth coating, continuous over all exposed areas. This surface +has the appearance of a smooth elastic coating or film. This can be seen +by carefully breaking a piece in the hand. It is this film which holds +the fat within the pieces of curd. If the film is broken, some of the +fat globules are lost because the rennet extract acts only on the casein +and that in turn holds the fat. All the fat globules which come in +contact with the knives as they pass through the curd will be left +between the pieces of curd and will pass off in the whey. If care is +exercised in cutting, the loss of fat will be confined to what may be +called a mechanical loss. This is similar to the loss of the sawdust +when sawing a board. This loss in American Cheddar is about 0.3 per cent +and cannot be avoided. If it is greater than this, it is due to +negligence on the part of the cheese-maker or the poor condition of the +milk. The cutting of the curd into small pieces may be considered a +necessary evil. If the moisture could be expelled from the whole mass +without disturbing it, this fat loss could be prevented. The cutting, +breaking or turning should be done with the greatest care, that the loss +may be as small as possible. + ++100. Curd knives.+--For cutting curd, special knives have been devised +(Fig. 11). They consist of series of parallel blades fixed in a frame to +make cuts equidistant. The blades run vertically in one, horizontally +in another. They are spaced according to the demands of the variety of +cheese to be made. Wires stretched in a frame take the place of blades +in some makes of curd knife. + +[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Blade and wire curd knives: horizontal, +perpendicular, horizontal, perpendicular.] + ++101. Heating or "cooking."+--Curdling by rennet has already been shown +to be markedly hastened by moderate heating. After the coagulum or curd +is formed, the making process may be completed without the application +of further heat, as in Neufchâtel, Camembert and related forms (Fig. 12) +and in some practices with Limburger. In other forms and especially in +the hard cheeses in which cutting of curd is a prominent part of the +process, the curd after being cut is reheated or "cooked." The cooking +process hastens the removal of the whey, thus shortening the time +required to reduce the water-content of the mass to the percentage most +favorable for the type of cheese desired. The process also produces +marked changes in the physical character of the curd mass. With the rise +in temperature the casein becomes elastic first, then approaches a +melting condition and assumes a tough, almost rubbery consistency. The +final texture is the result of the combination of the amount of rennet +added, the temperature, the acidity reached during the process, and the +final water-content of the mass. + +[Illustration: FIG. 12.--The heat relation. See pages 77 and 87.] + ++102. Draining+ (including grinding, putting into hoops or forms and +pressing).--The reduction of the water in the curd begins almost as soon +as the curd becomes firm. It is aided by cutting or breaking, by the +retention of the heat applied before renneting and by the secondary +heating or cooking used in making certain groups of cheeses. In many +varieties special apparatus is provided in the form of draining boards, +draining racks or bags to hasten the removal of the whey as fast as it +separates. The draining process continues until the cheese has reached +its final form and weight. The intervening process of matting in the +Cheddar group involves a combination of a souring process with the +removal of whey, during which the cubes of curd become fused into +semi-solid masses. If such masses are formed, they must be ground up +before the cheese can be given its final form in the hoop. The draining +process, therefore, may take any one of many forms varying from the +direct transfer of freshly formed curd into hoops in which the entire +draining process is completed, to an elaborate series of operations +which end in pressing curd drained to approximately its final condition +before it is placed in the hoop. + ++103. Application to cheese.+--From the discussion of these factors, it +is evident that the cheeses produced will differ widely with the +differences in manipulation. If one considers essential constituent +substances separately, the water-content of the finished product is +found to vary from 30 per cent in Parmesan to 75 per cent in cottage +cheese. The fat-content runs from a trace in some varieties to 60 per +cent in some cream cheeses. The texture of the casein, which gives +character to the product, varies from the tough or glue-like consistency +of freshly made Swiss to the buttery condition of a cream or Neufchâtel +cheese. Inside such limits the tastes of different peoples have led to +the manufacture of many kinds of cheese. Each of these varieties +represents some particular combination of curd-making factors and +ripening conditions which produces a cheese suited to the taste of the +maker and consumer of that country or community. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +_CLASSIFICATION_ + + +The literature of cheese-making contains reference to more than 500 +names for varieties of cheese. Many of these can be thrown readily into +great groups or families in which there are variations in unessential +detail without modifying the characteristic texture and flavor of the +product. Many varietal names are attached to the product of single +factories or factory groups. Such varieties frequently differ only +slightly in size or shape, or in stage of drainage or of ripening, from +widely known varieties or other similar local forms. The descriptions +recorded for such varieties commonly emphasize minor differences in +manipulation without showing differences in essential factors. Vessels +of particular size are prescribed to be made of wood, earthenware, or of +a special metal. These details specify the exact size and shape of +hoops, the use of particular styles of cutting or breaking instruments +and of certain stirring tools, the material and construction of mats and +draining racks. + +The descriptions themselves are very commonly inadequate. The variable +factors in cheese-making are fat-content of the milk, acidity, +temperature of setting, amount of rennet, time allowed for curdling and +the method of draining the curd. The differences in practice lie, with +few exceptions, in the amount or intensity of particular factors, not +differences in kind or quality of treatment. Such contrasts are +quantitative, not qualitative. A great number of combinations is +possible by small variations of these factors. + +Varieties selected as types of groups give marked contrasts in +character, but comparison of large numbers of forms shows that almost +every gradation from group to group can actually be found. Within groups +frequently the same physical results in texture and flavor can be +obtained by combinations or adjustments of factors for the purpose of +offsetting or counteracting the effects of one change in practice by the +manipulation of other factors. In ripening, an equally large range of +practices makes possible the development of very different qualities in +mature cheeses from the same lot. + +Only a few of the large number of described varieties have obtained even +national importance; fewer still are known outside the country of +origin. In spite of the success of special products when properly +advertised, the largest place in the market is clearly accorded to the +standard forms which are widely known. + ++104. Basis of classification.+--A series of these widely known forms +has been chosen as typical of groups in a system of classification +adapted from the French of Pouriau. No completely satisfactory scheme of +classifying all of these varieties has been devised. The grouping +proposed here is based on the principles of curd-making already +discussed together with consideration of the ripening processes to be +discussed with each group. The factors that actually influence the +quality of the final product are separated as completely as possible +from non-essential operative details. + +The common use of the terms "soft" and "hard" cheese is based on the +single arbitrary fact of texture. The term "semi-hard" cheese may be +conveniently applied to a miscellaneous group of unrelated families +which are intermediate in texture between such soft forms as Neufchâtel +or Camembert and really hard cheeses like Cheddar or Parmesan. Although +these terms are not made the main basis of the proposed grouping, their +application to sections is indicated. Classification based on the +essential facts of manufacture is, however, really helpful. + + + ANALYTICAL TABULATION OF GROUPS + + Section I. Cheeses with sour milk flavor only (Eaten fresh). + (Soft cheeses 45 to 75% water) PAGE + + 1. Curdled by souring, Cottage cheese and its + allies in America, many related varieties + in Europe 90 + + 2. Curdled by souring and rennet--the Neufchâtel group 95 + + a. Skim--Skim-milk Neufchâtel 105 + + b. Part skim to whole milk--American or + Domestic Neufchâtel 106 + + c. With fat added--the cream cheeses of + the Neufchâtel group (both American + and European)--such as Cream, Gervais, + Malakoffs, etc. 108 + + Section II. Cheeses ripened. + + Subsection A. Soft cheeses (40 to 50% water). + + 1. Curdled by souring, heated, then ripened. + + Hand cheese, Pennsylvania pot cheese, + Harz, etc. 112 + + 2. Curdling by souring and rennet, ripened + + Ripened (French) Neufchâtel 114 + + 3. Curdled primarily by rennet. + + a. Ripened by mold--Camembert, Brie + and their allies 117 + + b. Ripened by bacteria. + + * Made from soft or friable + curd--d'Isigny, Liederkranz, etc. 134 + + ** Made from firm or tough + curds--Limburger and allies 139 + + Subsection B. Semi-hard cheeses, firm, well-drained + (38 to 45% water) + + a. Curd not cooked, ripened by molds. + * Made from friable curd--Roquefort 150 + + ** Made from firm or tough + curd--Gorgonzola, Stilton and + such French forms as Gex, + Septmoncel 158 + + b. Curd cooked and ripened by + bacteria,--brick, Munster, Port + du Salut (Oka) 164 + + Subsection C. Hard cheeses, cooked and pressed (30 to + 40% water). + + a. Ripened without gas holes. + 1. Dutch--Edam, Gouda 173 + 2. Danish. + 3. The Cheddar group. + * English--Cheddar and numerous + related forms known principally + in Great Britain 184 + ** American--the factory Cheddar of + United States and Canada 184 + + b. Ripened with the development of + gas holes. + * Holes large--Swiss-Emmenthal, + Gruyère, American Swiss 276 + + ** Holes small--Parmesan and related + varieties 288 + +Such a classification brings together series of products in which there +is essential similarity in the final output, however great the +differences in manipulation. It does not consider all varieties and +specialties. Some of these groups are important enough to demand special +mention. + ++105. Processed cheeses.+--Cheese of any group may be run through mixing +and molding machines and repackaged in very different form from that +characteristic of the variety. In such treatment, the texture and +appearance may be so changed as to give the effect of a new product. +Substances (such as pimiento) are added to change the flavor. Or the +product may be canned and sterilized with equally great change of +flavor and texture. One thus finds Club made from Cheddar; Pimiento +from Cream, Neufchâtel or Cheddar; similarly olive, nut and other +combinations are made. The possible variations are numerous. + ++106. Whey cheeses.+--Several products bearing cheese names are made +from whey. These take the forms of the recovery of the albumin and +casein separately or in a single product, and the recovery of the +milk-sugar either alone or with the albumin. Whey cheeses have been +especially developed by the Scandinavian people, although some of them +have their origin in the south of Europe. Certain of these varieties are +produced on a limited scale in America. + +There are a number of forms fairly widely known that are difficult to +place in this scheme of groups. Among these are Caciocavallo, Sap Sago. + ++107. Soft and hard cheeses.+--Another commonly used classification +makes two groups: (1) soft cheeses; (2) hard cheeses. In such a +classification the semi-hard group presented here is included with the +soft cheeses. Some cheeses of this group are soft in texture. This is +correlated with high water-content, high fat-content or both together. + ++108. Relation of moisture to classes.+--In this classification the +water-content reflected in the texture of the cheese assumes first +place. To carry the analysis somewhat further by showing the correlation +between water-content and certain factors, a tabulation of well-known +varieties of typical groups is presented (Table III). In this table the +series of typical dairy products are first arranged according to +water-content of the final product. Approximate limits of percentages of +milk-fat are also given, because milk-fat frequently affects texture to +a degree almost equal to water. Column 4 gives the period within which +the more quickly perishable cheeses are usable, and the length of the +ripening for the more solid forms. The correlation between +water-content, texture and the time of keeping is clearly shown for most +varieties. + + TABLE III + + CORRELATION WATER- AND FAT-CONTENT WITH RIPENING + + ------------------+--------+--------+-------------+-------------- + | PER | PER | | + VARITY OF | CENT | CENT | PERIOD | RIPENING + | WATER | FAT | REQUIRED | AGENT + ------------------+--------+--------+-------------+-------------- + Cheese: Soft, | | | | + Cottage | 70 | trace | a few days | Bacteria + Skim Neufchâtel | 70 | trace | a few days | Bacteria + Neufchâtel | 50-60 | 12-28 | a few days | Bacteria + Camembert | 50 | 22-30 | 3-5 weeks | Molds + Cream cheese | 40-50 | 35-45 | a few days | Primarily + | | | | bacteria + | | | | + Semi-hard: | | | | + Limburger | 40-45 | 24-30 | 3-6 months | Bacteria + Roquefort | 38-40 | 31-34 | 3-6 months | Mold + Brick | 37-42 | 31-35 | 3-6 months | Bacteria + | | | | + Hard: | | | | + Cheddar | 30-39 | 32-36 | 6-12 months | Bacteria + Swiss | 31-34 | 28-31 | 9-18 months | Bacteria + | | | | and yeasts + Parmesan | 30-33 | | 2-3 years | Bacteria + ------------------+--------+--------+-------------+-------------- + +The soft cheeses are quickly perishable products. Bacteria and molds +find favorable conditions for growth in products with 45 to 75 per cent +of water. If such growth is permitted, enzymic activities follow quickly +with resultant changes in appearance, texture, odor and taste. +Refrigeration is necessary to transport such cheeses to the consumer, +if properly ripened. Trade in these forms may continue throughout the +year in cool climates and in places where adequate refrigeration is +available. Practically, however, outside the large cities this trade in +America is at present limited to the cold months; inside the large +cities much reduced quantities of these cheeses continue to be handled +through the year. + +In the stricter sense, the soft group of cheeses falls naturally into +two series: (1) the varieties eaten fresh; and (2) the ripened soft +cheeses. Those eaten fresh have a making process which commonly involves +the development of a lactic acid flavor by souring, but no ripening is +contemplated after the product leaves the maker's hands. In the ripened +series, after the making process is completed, the essential flavors and +textures are developed by the activity of micro-organisms during +ripening periods varying in length but fairly well-defined for each +variety. + +In contrast to the soft cheeses, the hard kinds are low in +water-content, ripen more slowly and may be kept through much longer +periods. They retain their form through a wider range of climatic +conditions. They develop flavor slowly and correspondingly deteriorate +much more slowly. Such cheeses are in marketable condition over longer +periods. In their manufacture the cooking of the curd takes a prominent +place. + ++109. Relation of heat to classes.+--The close relation between the heat +applied and the product sought forms the basis of a striking series of +graphs (Fig. 12, page 78). These show the changes hour by hour in the +heat relation during the making process of a series of widely known +forms, each of which is chosen as typical. In some of these forms, heat +is applied but once to bring the milk to the renneting temperature +typical for the variety. Subsequent manipulations are accompanied by a +steady fall in temperature. In other forms, the curd when solid is +specially heated or "cooked" to bring about the changes characteristic +of the variety. These contrasts are clearly brought out by the graphs +which represent practices well recognized for the varieties. The +detailed process for these groups is considered in succeeding chapters. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +CHEESES WITH SOUR-MILK FLAVOR + + +The cheeses with flavor of sour milk are probably more widely used than +any other group. Historically and to a very large degree at present, +they are farm cheeses.[31] No estimate of volume of such production in +the household has ever been made. The utilization of surplus milk in +this way is of ancient origin. + +With the introduction of the factory system of handling milk, the +manufacture of such cheese in the household was largely dropped. The +rise in price of all food substances and increasing appreciation of the +food value of milk products have made the recovery of all surplus milk +in some form very necessary. The manufacture of cottage, Neufchâtel and +cream cheese is one of the best forms of such recovery which may be +adapted to utilize any grade from skimmed-milk to cream. Large +quantities of skimmed-milk have frequently been lost from the total of +human food by the manufacture of casein for industrial uses, and by use +as stock feed. + ++110. Skim series.+--The kinds of cheeses eaten fresh have in common a +very soft texture and the flavor of sour milk, principally lactic acid. +The group falls naturally into two sections: (1) the cheeses made from +milk curdled by souring; (2) those for which the milk is curdled by +souring and rennet. In the latter group both agencies are necessary to +the resulting product. The time required to curdle by souring alone is +longer than when rennet is used; this period is usually longer than +necessary for the cream to rise by gravity; hence the cream is either +skimmed off or removed with the separator beforehand. The curd, +therefore, is essentially a skimmed-milk curd. Casein curdled in this +way tends to become granular or "rough," to feel "sandy" when rubbed +between the fingers. Heating is commonly necessary to lower the +water-content of the mass even to 75 per cent. Such curd tends to become +hard or rubbery when heat is applied. In this group, the best known form +is variously called "cottage" cheese, "clabber" cheese, schmierkäse. + ++111. Cottage cheese+ is made from skimmed-milk, soured by lactic +bacteria until a curd is formed. This is done preferably at about 20° C. +(70° F.), because at this temperature the purely lactic type of organism +has been found to outgrow competing forms which may be present. Starter +containing the desired culture, if properly used, saves much time in the +curdling period. Such curdling requires at least twelve to twenty-four +hours, frequently much longer unless abundant starter is introduced. + ++112. Household practice.+--The details of cottage cheese making in the +home differ widely in separate sections and even in different families +in the same part of the country. The essentials of the practice, common +to all, include: (1) curdling the whole milk by natural souring; (2) +removing the sour cream which is usually used for butter-making; (3) +scalding the curdled skimmed-milk either by slowly heating it in the +original vessel surrounded by hot water or by actually pouring an +approximately equal volume of boiling water into the curdled mass; (4) +bagging and draining the mass until it reaches the desired texture; (5) +the kneading of the mass with the addition of salt and cream. The +resulting product varies greatly in quality. Unfavorable fermentations +frequently affect the flavor.[32] The "scalding" varies from a +temperature of 90° F. almost to boiling with a resultant texture varying +from almost the smooth buttery consistency of Neufchâtel to hard coarse +granular lumps. The best practice, using clean well-cared-for milk and +draining at low temperature, produces a very attractive cheese. Such +cheese is heated to 90° to 100° F. on the maker's judgment, drained +carefully, kneaded well by hand or by machine with the addition of cream +to give it an attractive texture and flavor. + ++113. Factory practice.+--When cottage cheese is made in the +factory,[33] separated milk is taken; it should be pasteurized and then +soured by a lactic starter. The souring can be accelerated by the use of +a starter, which may be added at the rate of 0.5 to 5 per cent of the +skimmed-milk used, depending on the amount of starter that can be made. +Generally, the more starter added, the more rapid will be the +coagulation and the better will be the flavor of the cheese. As soon as +the milk has thickened, the curd is ready to be broken up and separated +from the whey. This separation is hastened by the application of heat. +Usually the temperature of the curd is raised slightly before it is +broken up; since this makes the curd firmer, there will be a smaller +loss of curd particles in the whey. The curd may be cut with coarse +Cheddar cheese knives or broken with a rake. The temperature of the curd +should be raised very slowly, at least thirty minutes being taken to +reach the desired final temperature. No set rule can be given as to the +exact temperature to which the curd should be heated. The temperature +should be raised until a point is reached at which the curd, when +pressed between the thumb and the fingers, will stick together and not +go back to the milky state. This temperature is usually from 94° to 100° +F., but the cheese-maker must use his own judgment in this respect. If +the curd is heated too much, it will be hard and dry; on the other hand, +if it is not heated sufficiently, the whey will not separate from the +curd and the latter will be very soft and mushy. + +When the curd has been heated sufficiently and has become firmed in the +whey, it should be removed from the whey. This may be done either by +letting down one end of the vat and piling the curd in the upper end, or +by dipping out the curd into a cloth bag and allowing the whey to drain, +which it does very rapidly. No treatment can prevent the "roughness" of +an acid curd (this is a fine gritty feeling when rubbed between the +fingers), but the coarse hard grainy texture and lumps characteristic of +the highly heated curd do not develop. Experimental workers have agreed +that to have the proper texture, such curd should contain when finished +about 70 to 75 per cent of water. It should have a mild but clean acid +flavor. Such a cheese will carry about 1 to 2 per cent of salt, without +an objectionably salty taste. This cheese is commonly sold by measure, +sometimes in molds or cartons. The manufacture of all forms of cottage +cheese has been largely superseded by the making of skimmed-milk +Neufchâtel or Baker's cheese. + +The yield from one hundred pounds of skimmed-milk runs up to fourteen to +nineteen pounds of cheese, when made very wet or from pasteurized milk. +The yield varies with the moisture-content of the cheese, being greater +for cheese with a high content. Too much moisture or whey should not be +left in the curd, however, as this will render it too soft to be +handled. + +Cottage cheese made by either the home or factory practice is a quickly +perishable article. Although the acid restrains bacteria at first, the +high percentage of water favors the growth of molds which tolerate +acidity, especially _Oidium (Oospora) lactis_ and the Mucors or black +molds. These molds destroy acidity rapidly and thus permit the bacteria +of decay to develop and to produce objectionable taste and odors. +Spoilage in these products is accelerated by the kneading process which +distributes air throughout the mass and with it all forms of microbial +contamination. + ++114. Buttermilk cheese.+--A cheese closely resembling cottage may be +made from buttermilk. If the buttermilk came from cream which was +churned before it became sour, the process is the same as that already +described for the making of cottage cheese from skimmed-milk. If the +buttermilk came from sour cream the process of manufacture is much more +difficult. The casein of sour cream has already been coagulated with +acid and broken during churning into very minute rather hard particles. +These fine particles are difficult to recover. They are so fine that +they pass through the draining cloth or at other times clog it and +prevent drainage. They do not stick together at ordinary temperatures. +They cannot be collected by the use of acid because they have already +been coagulated with acid. After casein has been coagulated with acid, +rennet extract will not recoagulate the particles. The buttermilk may be +mixed with sweet skimmed-milk; then as the latter coagulates, it locks +in the casein of the buttermilk so that it can be collected. If +buttermilk from soured cream is used alone, the casein may be +collected[34] by neutralizing and heating to 130 to 150° F., and holding +until the casein gathers together. The whey can then be drawn off. Often +there is further difficulty in getting the casein to collect, since the +pieces remain so small that they go through the strainer. + +Cheese made entirely from buttermilk is sandy in texture and often not +palatable. If the buttermilk with good flavor is mixed with +skimmed-milk, it makes a good cheese closely resembling cottage. + ++115. Neufchâtel group.+[35]--The Neufchâtel process originated in +northern France where a number of varieties are included under this as a +group name. Among these are Bondon, Malakoff, Petit Suisse, Petit Carré. +The name designates a general process of curd-making which is applied to +skimmed-milk, whole milk or cream. Some of the resultant cheeses are +ripened; some are eaten fresh. The Neufchâtel cheeses of France gained +such wide recognition for quality that the process of making has become +widely known. In America the manipulations of the French process were +early dropped. The essentials were made the basis of a successful +factory practice which has been widely adopted. The American factory +practice is discussed here and the French process briefly considered +under the heading Ripened Neufchâtel. (See Chapter VIII.) + ++116. Domestic or American Neufchâtel cheeses+ are soft, have clean sour +milk (lactic acid) flavor and are quickly perishable. In all but the +coldest weather, they require refrigeration to reduce deterioration and +loss. They range in fat-content from traces only to 50 per cent and +more; in water from 40 to 75 per cent, according to the milk used. In +texture Neufchâtel is smooth, free from gas, free from lumps or +roughness when rubbed between the fingers. This flavor and texture is +obtained by a combination of slow rennet curdling with developing +acidity. No further ripening is permitted. + ++117. The factory.+--Neufchâtel factories require the standard dairy +equipment for receiving, weighing, testing, separating, heating, +pasteurizing and cooling the milk. Since many factories produce several +products, the same general dairy equipment may serve for all. In +addition to such equipment, Neufchâtel requires a curdling apparatus +which can be held at 70-75° F. This may be a room properly controlled, +or a tank where temperature control is obtained by water and steam. For +draining, a room kept at 60° F. gives nearly the ideal temperature, +which must be supplemented by relative humidity high enough to prevent +the exposed surface of curd from drying during periods of twelve to +twenty-four hours. This requires almost a saturated atmosphere. A room +with special molding machinery is required and tables for wrapping, +labeling and boxing the product are necessary. Box-making machinery is +usually an economic necessity for work on a large scale. Adequate +refrigeration is requisite both to chill the curd before molding and to +preserve it after packaging. + +[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Neufchâtel draining racks.] + ++118. Cans.+--For curdling, the "shot-gun" can, about nine inches in +diameter and twenty inches deep, is generally used. This holds thirty to +forty pounds of milk. Increased capacity is dependent, therefore, on the +number of units installed, not on changes in the units themselves. + +[Illustration: FIG. 14.--Detail of a Neufchâtel draining rack.] + ++119. Draining racks.+--A draining rack is required for each can of +curd. These racks also are standardized units whose number limits the +capacity of the factory. The design of these racks (Figs. 13, 14) and +their arrangement in the draining room are taken from Bulletin 78 of the +Storrs Agricultural Experiment Station: "The racks are rectangular, +thirteen inches wide, thirty-six inches long and ten inches deep. The +corner posts extend one and one-half inches beyond the strips at top and +bottom with the tops rounded as a rule as seen in the photograph. The +bottom slats fit loosely into notches, hence are removable for washing +purposes. The materials required are four corner posts one and one-half +by one and one-half inches; nine strips one by three-eighths by +thirty-six inches; six strips one by three-eighths by thirteen inches, +two strips one by three-eighths by twelve and a quarter inches, notched +to receive the bottom slats; all made from pine." + ++120. Cloths.+--For each draining rack, a cloth one yard wide and one +and one-half yards long is required. Cotton sheeting is satisfactory for +the purpose; "even-count, round-thread, unmercerized voile" is suggested +by Dahlberg.[36] + +[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Neufchâtel and cream cheese molds.] + ++121. Molding machinery.+--For work on a large scale, special power +machines[37] are regularly used. These consist of a hopper and worm +delivering a standard size stream of curd through a proper size and +shape of delivery tube. This curd stream is cut by an automatic device +into the proper lengths to form the standard cheese. In this way a +uniform size of cheeses is obtained. Experimental work with hand +apparatus showed that a worm six inches in diameter is required to +deliver curd in a smooth column one and one-half inches square. If the +pressure is not sufficient, the column will frill at the edges. Such +irregular surfaces cannot be wrapped smoothly enough to delay spoilage. + +On a small scale, a fair grade of product can be molded through a tin +tube (see Fig. 15) one and three-quarters inches in diameter and ten +inches long in which the curd is compressed by a close fitting plunger +operated by hand. + ++122. Milk for Neufchâtel+ should be clean, free from gas and taint. +Such milk should preferably be not more than twelve hours old when +received and in no case show higher than 0.20 per cent lactic acid by +titration. Milk testing 4 per cent fat or higher will produce a higher +quality of product than lower grade milk, although every grade from +skimmed-milk to cream is used in producing some form of Neufchâtel. This +milk should be pasteurized unless shown to be free from tuberculosis by +proper test of the cattle. Evidence[38] that the organism of +tuberculosis will withstand the regular handling process for cheeses of +this group and retain its ability to cause disease in experimental +animals makes the introduction of pasteurization necessary in this whole +group of cheeses. Any effective pasteurization may be used, but +temperatures of 140-145° F. for thirty minutes have been effective with +less changes in the milk than higher temperatures for shorter periods. +The milk should be cooled to curdling temperature and the starter and +rennet added and stirred into the milk in bulk. The milk may then be +quickly distributed into the curdling cans with a hose or from the gate +valve of the mixing vat. + ++123. Starter.+--To insure the development of a clean acid flavor, a +small amount of lactic starter should be used. The quantity to use +depends on the quality of the milk. With skimmed-milk, a pint for each +thirty-pound can is recommended by Matheson and Cammack[39] and by +Dahlberg. (See page 98.) For whole-milk Neufchâtel, 2 c.c. to a +thirty-pound can of milk commonly gives good results. On this basis 2 +ounces of starter would be sufficient if properly stirred into about +1000 pounds of milk. Too slow development of acid is preferable to +over-rapid souring. + ++124. Renneting or setting.+--The milk should be cooled after +pasteurizing to between 70° and 75° F. Rennet is added at the rate of +1/3 c.c. to a thirty-pound can (roughly 1/3 ounce to 1000 pounds). This +will thicken the milk sufficiently in the first few hours to reduce the +separation of the cream. For completion of the curdling and souring +process, twelve to eighteen hours are required. Usually the cans stand +overnight at uniform temperature. When ready to drain, the curd should +be firm, smooth and mildly acid. Whey separating from it should not +titrate above 0.35 per cent titrated as lactic acid. + ++125. Draining.+--A cloth is spread over a draining rack and the +contents of one "shot-gun" can poured upon the cloth with as little +breaking as possible. In this way a large surface is exposed. The room +must be kept wet to prevent the surface of the curd drying to form +crusts which stop draining. A temperature of 60° F. is favorable to the +maintenance of proper texture and humidity without the development of +objectionable organisms, especially _Oidium lactis_, which tends to +cover every exposed surface in such rooms. Draining may be hastened by +turning the curd or changing the position of the cloth. In factory +practice, the large draining surface reduces the necessity of handling +the curd and reduces the loss of fat. About twelve hours are required +upon the draining racks. + +On a small scale with a few cans of curd in the home, any form of +draining rack may be used, such as a potato or berry crate, or the +corners of the cloth may be brought together, tied and the mass hung up. +The curd must be turned by pulling up the corners of the cloth to +prevent drying at the edges and stoppage of draining from the center of +the mass. Such treatment produces much more rapid drainage than the +factory practice and involves proportionately more labor and larger fat +losses. + ++126. Cooling Neufchâtel.+--When whey ceases to separate readily, the +corners of the cloth are loosed from the rack, folded diagonally or +tied, and the curd cooled on ice or in refrigerators. When thoroughly +chilled the bags of curd are put into presses, where light but +increasing pressure forces more whey out of the mass. Tests at this time +should show about 0.60 per cent acid in the whey. With low-fat curd +every step of the process may be hastened, but with high-fat care must +be exercised to prevent loss of fat during pressing especially. Any +pressing device permitting continuous pressure with ease of manipulation +may be used. + ++127. Pressing.+--The ideals of the maker must determine the extent of +pressing. A high yield is obtained by leaving whey in the curd. If +immediate consumption is certain, such cheese may be satisfactory, but +if the cheese is to be held some days the extra whey carrying more +milk-sugar favors increased acid development. This produces very sour +cheese with much more danger of other fermentations which cause +objectionable flavor. Too much water favors more active bacterial growth +as well as produces cheese too soft for the necessary handling in the +market. + +In the press, several bags of curd may be piled together. The press +should be released and the bags turned from time to time to insure even +drainage. Several hours of pressing are usually required. The danger of +insufficient pressing is due to the difference of texture between the +worked and unworked curd. Before working, curd carrying 10 per cent +excess moisture resembles the finished product sufficiently to deceive +any but the experienced maker. But if this curd is transferred to the +worker and to the molding machine, it is found to become soft, pasty and +sticky, to lack "body," hence to make very unsatisfactory packages and +to spoil very quickly. The masses of curd should come out of the press +as dry and hard flat cakes. + +[Illustration: FIG. 16.--Working Neufchâtel.] + ++128. Working and salting Neufchâtel.+--The cakes of curd go from the +press to the working table. Here they are broken by hand or by a +butter-worker or kneading machine (Fig. 16). Salt at the rate of one +and one-half pounds to 100 pounds of curd is added. If the curd is not +sufficiently pressed, the masses become mushy or pasty during the +working process. The working is continued until the whole mass is +uniformly smooth and buttery. + ++129. Storage.+--The draining and working processes permit the +contamination of the curd with organisms from the air and from the +apparatus. These are distributed throughout the mass. Air is also worked +thoroughly into the curd. Such a product spoils quickly. Distributing +houses find the Neufchâtel trade uncertain in volume from day to day, +hence many of them store the cheese in bulk and package only fast enough +to fill orders. This minimizes the loss due to spoilage. Such curd may +be packed into tubs and kept for considerable time in cold storage. If +molded for the retail trade, it is more quickly perishable. When packed +solidly in mass, curd is largely protected from spoilage by the +exclusion of air and perhaps the quick exhaustion of free oxygen through +the respiration of the micro-organisms present and by its acidity. This +must be supplemented by low temperature to reduce the loss to a minimum. +Even when spoilage begins, it is easily confined to the slight growth of +_Oidium lactis_ or green mold and bacteria on exposed areas. These can +be removed with minimum loss and damage to the mass. On the other hand, +such curd molded into the commercial package of 3 to 6 ounces and +wrapped in paper, with tin-foil or carton for protection, still presents +enormously increased surface for the growth of aerobic forms--especially +_Oidium lactis_, green mold (Roquefort mold is the usual green species) +and accompanying bacteria. Curd in tubs may be kept some days; in +commercial packages lowering of quality (flavor) begins almost at once. + ++130. Molding.+--When the standard molding machine (Fig. 17) is +provided, curd is brought directly from the refrigerator to the machine. +If permitted to become warm, the mass becomes sticky; when cold it is +more readily handled. The machine is fitted with the special delivery +tube for the variety to be handled, cylindrical for Neufchâtel in its +various forms, rectangular in section for cream. Enough workers should +be provided to wrap and label the cheese without leaving it exposed to +contamination or heat. Parchment paper and tin-foil cut the proper size +for each variety and bearing printed labels are readily obtainable. Each +cheese should be wrapped with paper and tin-foil and put directly into a +flat box which holds a standard number (usually 12 or 24) of the special +product. + +[Illustration: FIG. 17.--Molding Neufchâtel.] + +In working with the hand molding tube (Fig. 15) the same care is +required. Chilled curd is forced into a firm smooth mass with the +plunger. It is removed and wrapped when it reaches the regular size of +the variety. + +All forms when molded go directly into the boxes and then back to the +refrigerators until demanded for actual use. The details of the process +differ according to the form made. + ++131. Skimmed-milk Neufchâtel.+--Separator skimmed-milk is frequently +made into curd by the Neufchâtel process. The absence of fat eliminates +the largest element of loss in manufacture. Each stage of the making +process, therefore, may be shortened. The demand that the curd shall be +smooth and buttery in texture rather than rough or gritty requires the +exercise of care in curdling of milk. The draining and pressing of the +curd may be accomplished much more rapidly than in the fatty cheeses. +The final product should differ from cottage cheese in smoother texture, +milder acidity and, as a rule, cleaner flavor. In composition, the +absence of fat must be largely compensated by leaving more water in the +cheese. Such a product reaches the market with 65 to 75 per cent of +water and perhaps 1.25 per cent of salt. Casein forms 20 to 30 per cent +of the mass. + +These cheeses are very perishable on account of their high +water-content. The destructive effect of microorganisms both in the +interior of the cheese and upon its surface is rapid. + +Cheeses of this description may be found in the trade as cottage cheese, +Neufchâtel style, and as Neufchâtel made from skimmed-milk; skimmed-milk +Neufchâtel would be a strictly proper labeling. + ++132. Baker's cheese.+--There is considerable market for skimmed-milk +curd as Baker's cheese. This product is essentially skimmed-milk +Neufchâtel curd, partially drained and sold in bulk. When the bakery is +near by, the curd is frequently shoveled into milk-cans in very wet +condition and sent directly from the factory to the bakery. If the +distance is such as to require considerable time for transportation, +the same care is frequently given as for Neufchâtel curd packed in bulk +for storage and transportation. + +Great variations in practice are found among the makers of this type of +product. In some cases low grade skimmed-milk is handled on a large +scale. Curdling is done quickly and little care is given to the details +of flavor and texture in the curd. Working in this manner, two men are +able to make a ton of such curd, and ship it out in milk-cans each day. +The resulting product, although very deficient in flavor and texture, +goes into manufactured specialties which conceal its deficiencies if +considered as cheese. + ++133. Domestic Neufchâtel.+--The name Neufchâtel, unless limited clearly +by the label, should designate a cheese made from fresh whole milk. +Cheeses of this group are produced in a small number of well-equipped +factories scattered widely through the dairy states of the North and +Northeast. Every factory uses one or more trade names for its product. +The same product is frequently relabeled by the distributor who uses his +own trade name instead of that of the maker. + +The usual form of package is cylindrical, about 1¾ inches in diameter +and 2½ inches long, or sometimes rectangular 2½ by 1½ by 1½ +inches. The cheese is protected by wrapping in parchment paper closely +surrounded by tin-foil. These packages vary from 2½ to 4 ounces. In +some cases screw-topped glass jars are substituted for the tin-foil +package. They are objectionable, first, because of cost and, second, +because they are so commonly associated with less perishable products as +to mislead either dealer or consumer into holding the product for too +long a time. The paper or tin-foil package can be kept only at +refrigerator temperature, hence automatically keeps its possessor +reminded of the perishable nature of its contents. + +Neufchâtel of the best quality made from whole milk testing about 4 per +cent fat may be expected to fall within the following limits;[40] many +grades contain more water than this at the expense of flavor and keeping +quality: + + Water 50-55 per cent + Fat 23-28 per cent + Casein 18-21 per cent + Salt 0.5-1.25 per cent + Yield 12-14 lb. per 100 lb. of milk. + ++134. Partially skim Neufchâtel.+--Brands of Neufchâtel made from milk +that would test every gradation from whole milk to separator +skimmed-milk may be found. The quality of the product varies with the +skill of the maker from brands no better than cottage cheese to products +scarcely distinguishable from the best whole-milk Neufchâtel. Many +factories that produce more than one quality of Neufchâtel use labels of +different color, different design or both to separate them; for example, +blue labels usually stand for whole milk, red labels represent lower +grades. Sometimes the difference in material is indicated by a clear cut +grade mark. Frequently color, a design of label or both are the only +definite marks upon the cheese. The consumer unfamiliar with the trade +practice commonly has no means of knowing the quality of the product +offered. Such cheeses vary in water-content from 55 to 70 per cent; in +fat from 10 to 25 per cent; in casein from 18 to 25 per cent. + ++135. Cream cheese.+--The Neufchâtel process is also used to make cream +cheese. The material utilized is commonly what has been called double +cream. This is produced by separating about half of a given volume of +milk and running the cream into the other half. Usually cream cheese is +made in the same factory as various grades of Neufchâtel. No material is +lost. In some instances, cream cheese is prepared by working thick cream +into the Neufchâtel type of curd from practically skimmed-milk. In +working with high percentages of fat in curd, care must be taken to +avoid loss of fat in draining and pressing. The curd is carefully +chilled before pressing to reduce this loss. This may be done under +refrigeration or upon cracked ice. Otherwise the manipulations of the +process are unchanged. The cheeses are commonly molded in the Neufchâtel +machine into square cakes weighing about 4 ounces and measuring +approximately 3 by 2¼ by 7/8 inches. These are wrapped in paper and +tin-foil and handled exactly as Neufchâtel. + +Cream cheese of high quality made from reënforced milk testing 7 to 9 +per cent fat may be expected to test approximately as follows:[41] + + Water 38-43 per cent + Fat 43-48 per cent + Protein 13-16 per cent + Salt 0.5-1.25 per cent + Yield 16-18 lb. per 100 lb. of cream. + +Increases of water, hence greater yields, are very common but usually +associated with loss in quality both as to flavor and texture, and in +more rapid spoilage; certain brands regularly carry 50 to 60 per cent of +fat but their increased cost of manufacture and sale restricts them to +the rôle of specialties with closely limited distribution. Trade names +such as Philadelphia Cream, Cow Brand, Eagle Brand, Square Cream, Blue +Label and many other factory brands are on the market. + ++136. Neufchâtel specialties.+--Neufchâtel or cream cheese curd is +frequently mixed with some flavoring substance, such as pimiento +(pickled Spanish peppers), olives, nuts, spices or other cheeses, such +as Roquefort. These bear appropriate trade names and form a very +attractive addition to our varieties of cheese. Among the names found +are Pimiento, Olive, Nut, and Pim-olive or Olimento. + ++137. Gervais+ is a brand of cream cheese made in Paris and sold widely +in France and even in other continental countries. It occasionally comes +to America. As made in Paris, these cheeses are flat cakes containing +approximately 40 per cent water and 35-45 per cent fat. It clearly +differs only in detail from the square cream cheeses made in America. +The name Gervais is the property of a particular company. Since the +cheese differs in no essential feature from other cream cheeses, this +name should not be applied to a domestic cream brand. + ++138. European forms occasionally imported.+--Among the cheeses related +to Neufchâtel as they reach the market are the "White" cheeses of +southern Europe. These differ greatly in quality according to their +source and to their content of cow, sheep, goat's milk or some +combination of these. This texture and flavor link them with unripened +Neufchâtel. The time required for importation puts a minimum possible +period of ten to fifteen days between production and consumption with a +probable period of at least one month for most samples. As they come to +America, these forms usually show fermentive changes beyond those +tolerated in the domestic product. This may take either of several +forms: (1) intensification of acid flavor with the intensification of +the characteristic flavors of the particular brand; (2) the development +of old or rancid flavors; (3) the development of Oidium and partial +softening of the mass through its agency; (4) the growth of Roquefort +mold and development of the flavor associated with that organism. This +last form was found in a shipment of Hungarian Briuse which showed about +40 per cent fat, 14 per cent protein and 43 per cent water. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +_SOFT CHEESES RIPENED BY MOLD_ + + +The ripened soft cheeses include a series of groups of varieties which, +in addition to initial souring, have been subjected to special ripening +processes, and which in the ripened condition are soft in texture and +mostly have high flavors. The varieties in each group have in common +some essential principles of manufacture together with a ripening +process dominated by a characteristic group of organisms. In certain +groups, the ripening is dominated by a yellowish or orange viscid +surface slime containing _Oidium lactis_ and bacteria; in another +series, the characteristic organism is a mold of the genus Penicillium +(_P. Camemberti_). Referring to the analysis of groups (page 83), the +ripened soft cheeses are found to fall into three well-marked groups, +one of which may perhaps be subdivided as indicated. The series curdled +by souring alone begins with approximately cottage cheese curd and +develops high flavors by ripening, as in "hand" cheese. Ripened +Neufchâtel curdled by souring and rennet together finds its basis in +Neufchâtel curd also but modifies the final product until the familiar +flavor and texture of the unripened form are no longer recognizable. +Among the forms curdled by rennet alone the Camembert series contains +one form, Coulommiers, which is occasionally used unripe, but represents +in general a mold-ripened group of highly flavored forms. The series of +soft rennet cheeses ripened by bacteria may be broadly designated the +Limburger group. + ++139. Hand cheese and its allies.+--Among skim cheeses, there is a +series of forms largely German in origin in which curd not far removed +from cottage cheese is the basis of the product. Harz cheese is one of +the best-known of these forms as studied by Eckles and Rahn.[42] One of +these forms, hand cheese,[43] is manufactured on a commercial basis in +farm dairies among families of German descent principally in +Pennsylvania, and on a factory basis in a few places in New York, +northern Illinois and Wisconsin. On the small scale, curd is made by +natural souring or by use of starter, heated to expel water, cooled and +molded by hand into cakes two to three inches in diameter and one-half +to three-quarters inch in thickness. The freshly formed cakes are placed +upon a shelf to dry. There they are turned daily until fairly firm, then +packed in rolls into wooden boxes and ripened in a cool damp room. In +this ripening there is a prompt development of a heavy viscous slime, +which consists of Oidium and bacteria. Other molds forming loose cottony +mycelium are brushed off if they appear. The proper consistency of this +slimy covering depends on a close adjustment of water-content in the +cheese with temperature and relative humidity in the ripening room. If +conditions are too dry, the cheeses harden quickly or if less dry they +are attacked by green or blue-green molds. If too wet, the slimy +covering becomes too soft and watery, or secondarily covered with loose +shimmering masses of mold (Mucor sp.). Ripening should proceed slowly +and occupy a period of six to eight weeks. + ++140. Pennsylvania pot cheese.+--A form of "pot" cheese is made in +certain counties of Pennsylvania, principally for local use. Production +of this cheese on a factory basis is now being attempted. The steps in +manufacture are about as follows:[44] (1) The home-made type of cottage +cheese curd is prepared, put into a crock or pot and covered carefully; +(2) kept in a warm place (in kitchen usually); (3) stirred from time to +time, until it has ripened to a semi-liquid condition. This occurs very +rapidly under the attack of _Oidium lactis_ accompanied by bacteria. +Within a period of three to seven days, according to the temperature and +to the water-content of the mass, the granules of curd become covered +with a wrinkled gelatinous almost viscid mass of mold mycelium beneath +which is a layer of semi-liquid curd with a strong characteristic odor +and taste. This ripened or semi-liquid part reaches about half the total +mass in four or five days at favorable temperatures. (4) The vessel is +then placed in a larger vessel of water and heated over the fire with +constant stirring until the whole mass is melted and smooth. (5) Butter +or cream, and salt or other flavor is finally added, stirred in and the +liquid cheese poured into molds or jelly glasses to cool. If properly +made and cooked, the resultant cheese has a soft buttery consistency +with an agreeable flavor, which frequently resembles that of Camembert +cheese. + ++141. Appetitost (Appetite cheese).+--A Danish buttermilk cheese is made +under this name. Sour buttermilk is heated, by some to boiling +temperature but others (Monrad[45]) prefer 120° F., stirred thoroughly +and allowed to settle. The whey is removed as far as possible. The +semi-liquid mass is covered and set in a warm place. Fermentation +becomes active. This tends to make the curd more viscous or sticky. It +is then kneaded and allowed to ferment again. This process is repeated +until the mass is yellowish and soft but tough or viscous. When +thoroughly fermented, the mass is again heated to 120° F., and 6 per +cent salt is added together with spice; both are worked in and the +cheese is formed into fancy shapes for sale. + ++142. Ripened Neufchâtel, French process.+--Neufchâtel as a ripened +cheese is made rather widely in France but it is produced on an +especially large scale in Seine-Inferieure.[46] Some factories use whole +milk, or milk with added cream, others skimmed-milk.[47] The whole-milk +brands of Neufchâtel are those which have the widest reputation. For +making this cheese, the working room is held as closely as possible at +15-16° C. (58-60° F.). The milk is strained into earthen vessels holding +twenty liters. Rennet is added to the freshly drawn milk at about 30° C. +(86° F.) in amount sufficient to produce coagulation in about +twenty-four hours. Draining racks of various forms are covered with +cloth. The vessels of curd are dumped upon the racks. The whey separates +slowly and drains off through the cloth. About twelve hours are allowed +for this process. The corners of the cloth are then brought together +and folded in or tied and the mass pressed to complete the drainage. The +finished curd is worked or kneaded to produce a smooth and uniform +texture. This process of curd-making is essentially the same as the +American factory process of making Neufchâtel. The ripening process has +been entirely dropped in America. The curd is finally molded in metal +forms 5 cm. (2 inches) in diameter and about 6.7 cm. (about 3 inches) +high, open at both ends. These molds are filled, the freshly formed +cheeses are pressed out with a plunger or piston and their surfaces +smoothed with a wooden knife. + +After molding is completed, the cheeses are salted by sprinkling the +entire surface with fine dry salt as the cheese is held in the hand. In +this way each cheese receives and absorbs 3 to 4 per cent salt. After +salting, the cheeses are arranged upon boards and allowed to drain +twenty-four hours. They are then removed to the first or drying room. +The frames of the drying room (secherie) are covered with straw and the +cheeses are placed carefully upon the straw to avoid contact with each +other. They are turned each day to present a fresh surface to the straw +during a period of two to three weeks in the drying room (secherie). +Mold begins to show as white cottony mycelium after five to six days, +and slowly turns to "blue" (bluish green). When the cheeses are well +covered with this moldy rind, they are removed to the ripening cellar. +In the ripening cellar also the cheeses stand upon straw. They are +turned over every three or four days at first, then allowed to stand for +a longer period. + +When ripe, a Neufchâtel cheese so made weighs about 125 grams. One +liter of milk makes 225 grams of such cheese. The ripening of Neufchâtel +has never been fully studied, but a series of these cheeses were +obtained by one of the authors; cultures were made and examined.[48] The +salt-content in the first place was found to be so high that _Oidium +lactis_ was eliminated as an active factor in the ripening. The mold +proved to be on some cheeses _Penicillium Camemberti_, the typical mold +of Camembert as it is made in Normandy, on others _P. Camemberti_ var. +_Rogeri_, the pure white form as used under the patents of M. Georges +Roger in the region of Seine-et-Marne to the eastward of Paris and +called by him and by Mazé _P. candidum_. The physical condition of the +ripened curd and the flavors encountered were those associated with +these two species by many hundreds of experiments during the Camembert +investigation in Connecticut.[49] These facts justify the conclusion +that ripened Neufchâtel is first soured by lactic organisms, then so +salted as to eliminate or reduce to a minimum the characteristic +activities of _Oidium lactis_, while the proteolytic action and the +physical changes are closely similar to those of Camembert which is +ripened primarily by the same molds. + ++143. The Camembert group.+--The soft cheeses ripened by molds are +French in origin. Their manufacture has spread into Germany, Italy and +America. Of the series, the most widely known is Camembert, which will +be described as typical for the group. Brie, Coulommiers, Robbiola and +Ripened Neufchâtel belong to this series. + ++144. Camembert cheese.+--The origin of Camembert is given by French +authorities as 1791 in the Commune of Camembert near Vimoutiers in Orne, +France. From a very restricted production at first, Camembert-making has +spread through the region from Caen in the west to Havre, Rouen and a +considerable area east of Paris. In America Camembert began to be made +in one factory about 1900. Several other factories followed by 1906. The +difficulties and losses encountered led to the abandonment of these +undertakings, until at the outbreak of the European war in 1914 but one +factory was making Camembert and that only on an experimental scale. +Meanwhile the United States Department of Agriculture and the Storrs +Experiment Station had taken up and solved, on an experimental basis, +most of the problems arising in these commercial failures. A shortage of +product at the outbreak of the war brought about the re-establishment of +a series of factories. The product as put on the market indicates that a +permanent establishment of Camembert-making is entirely practicable. + +Camembert cheese is made from cow's milk either whole or very slightly +skimmed; the removal of about 0.5 per cent of fat has been found to be +desirable if not actually necessary. + ++145. Description of Camembert.+[50]--These cheeses are made in sizes +2½ to 4½ inches in diameter and 1¼ to 1½ inches in thickness. They are +ripened by the agency of molds and bacteria which form a felt-like rind +over their whole surface, 1/16 to 1/8 of an inch in thickness. This rind +may be dry and gray or grayish-green, consisting of a felt-like surface +of mold on the outside, below which a harder portion consists of mold +embedded in partially dried cheese, or the moldy part may be more or +less completely overgrown or displaced by yellowish or reddish slime +composed mainly of bacteria. Good cheeses may have either appearance. + +Inside the rind, the cheese is softened progressively from the rind +toward the center from all sides, so that a fully ripe cheese has no +hard sour curd in the center, but is completely softened. No mold should +be visible inside the rind, but the moldy rind itself is necessary +because the ripening is caused by the enzymes secreted by the organisms +of the rind into the cheese. As the curd ripens, the changed portion +assumes a slightly deeper color than the unripe curd as a result of +chemical changes. Well-ripened cheeses vary from nearly a fluid texture +to the consistency of moderately soft butter. The ripening of Camembert +is finished in wooden boxes which protect the cheeses from breaking +after they become soft and during the market period. + ++146. Conditions of making and ripening.+--These processes depend on a +very close adjustment between the composition of the freshly made cheese +and the temperature and humidity of the rooms in which the cheeses are +made and ripened. Very slight failures in control bring loss in ultimate +results. The room for making Camembert should be maintained between 60° +and 70° F. and should be wet enough to reduce drying to a minimum. The +essentials of apparatus are comparatively inexpensive. Work on a factory +basis calls, however, for the installation of special tables and other +apparatus to utilize space and labor to advantage. Rooms are protected +from change of weather by double sash in the windows. Flies must be +excluded by close-meshed screens for all doors and windows with movable +sash. The equipment installed in such a room is shown in Fig. 18. +Curdling cans are ranged on a shelf a few inches above the floor along +one side of the room below an open tin trough with side branches. This +open trough brings the milk from the mixing vat to the curdling cans. +(The open tin trough offers no lodgment for dirt.) The cans hold about +200 pounds of milk, are about 12 inches in diameter at bottom, and 20 to +24 inches at top. They are heavily tinned. Iron trucks as high as the +shelf and with tops the same diameter as the bottoms of the cans form a +convenient method of bringing cans of curd to the very edge of the +draining tables. + +[Illustration: FIG. 18.--Camembert cheese-making room in an American +factory.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 19.--Draining mat for Camembert cheese.] + +The wooden draining tables are placed about 32 inches above the floor; +they are usually made of 2-inch lumber, have raised edges and slope +slightly toward the wall. Whey and wash water are thus carried to a +draining trough along the wall. For cheese-making, each is covered with +a strip of matting consisting of wooden strips held together by thread +(Fig. 19). The strip of matting should be exactly the width and length +of the table. The hoops used are heavy tin, with edges turned and +soldered, about 5 inches high, 4-5/8 inches in diameter with three rows +of holes about 1/12 inch in diameter and 2 inches apart in the row. +These hoops are placed as thickly as possible upon the mats. + ++147. Outline of making process.+--The making process[51] is summarized +as follows (Thom, 1909): + +_Starter._--From 0.5 to 1.0 per cent of active starter is added to milk +kept overnight below 60°F. + +_Acidity at renneting._--Milk titrated to phenolphthalein should test +0.20 to 0.23 per cent calculated as lactic acid. + +_Temperance of renneting._--84°-86° F. is used for Camembert. + +_Rennet._--From 3 to 5 oz. of standard rennet extract to 1000 lb. milk +(10-15 c.c. per 100 lb. milk) produces a curd of proper texture. + +_Curdling time._--To reach the proper condition for handling, 1¼ to +1½ hours or longer is required. This is indicated by the onset of +"sweating" or the separation of large drops of whey on the surface of +the solid curd. + +_Dipping._--A long-handled dipper is used to transfer curd from cans to +hoops. This can be lowered into the hoop. This transfer is to be done +with the least possible breaking. One dipperful is transferred at a time +to each of a series of hoops. By the time the series is covered, some +drainage has occurred and a second dipperful is added to the contents of +the hoop. In this way the hoop is filled within a period of two to four +hours. + +_Draining._--Hoops when properly filled have taken in approximately 2 +quarts of milk each. No pressure is used. Cheeses drain by gravity. They +stand unturned until the following morning when they should be firm +enough to permit turning without removing the hoops. The cheeses when +firm enough to handle (usually on the third morning) are salted by +dusting the entire surface with coarse salt and permitting all that +adheres to remain. The cheeses should then be removed to a room at about +58°F. to prevent too rapid leakage of water and salt from their +surfaces. Ripe cheeses of good quality show a total salt-content varying +from 2.25 to 3 per cent with an average of about 2.5 per cent. When so +handled there is slight, if any, loss of water and salt in the salting +period of twenty-four to forty-eight hours. At the end of the salting +period such cheeses should carry 55 to 57 per cent water or slightly +more. + ++148. Acidity.+--The essential biological factor in the making period of +Camembert is proper souring. The milk should be free from gassy +organisms. The lactic starter required should introduce the typical +lactic organism (_Streptococcus lacticus_) in numbers sufficient to +suppress all other forms during the next twenty-four hours. The amount +of acid starter introduced, however, plus the acid resulting from growth +during the curdling period, should not produce a grainy acid curd. The +temperatures of handling are such as to favor this group of organisms if +properly introduced and permit the development of nearly 1 per cent of +acid (estimated as lactic) by the second morning. Cheeses with such acid +are fairly free from further danger from bacterial activity. Members of +the high-acid group (_B. Bulgaricus_ and allies) may be found in these +cheeses but do not appear to develop in numbers sufficient to affect the +cheese to any marked degree. + +[Illustration: FIG. 20.--Halloir, the first ripening room for Camembert +in an American factory.] + + CAMEMBERT CHEESE RECORD + + Date_______________ Set__________ No._____ + + Amt. milk___________ No. cheese_____ Milk per cheese________ + + Producer of milk_______________ + + Apparent cleanliness of milk_______________ + + +Acidity:+ + + Before adding starter____________________ + + After adding starter____________________ + + After acidity period____________________ + + Whey at dipping_______________ + + +Starter:+ + + Kind_______________ Age_____ Amt_____ + + +Color:+ + + Amount_______________ + + +Curdling:+ + + Temperature used__________ + + Amount of rennet__________ + + Time at which rennet is added__________ + + Time at which milk is curdled__________ + + Time of curdling__________ + + Quality of curd____________________ + + +Dipping:+ + + Cut or uncut_______________ + + Amt. of cutting_______________ + + +Draining:+ + + Temperature of room during__________ + + Condition of cheese after____________________ + + +Salting:+ + + Time of_____ Total amt. of salt used_____ Kind of salt_____ + + Amt. of salt per cheese_____ + + +Mold inoculation:+ + + Form of culture used_______________ + + Method of inoculation______________ + + Time of inoculation__________ + + +Remarks on making:+ + + +Curing:+ + + Transfer of curing rooms_________________________ + + Condition of cheese______________________________ + + Rooms____________________________________________ + + Dates____________________________________________ + + +Mold growth:+ + Date of first appearance____________________ + Purity and vigor____________________________ + Date of changing color______________________ + + +Surface of slimy growth:+ + Extent of___________________________________ + General character of________________________ + + +Surface contamination:+ + Mold________________________________________ + Oidium______________________________________ + Yeast_______________________________________ + Bacterial___________________________________ + + +Wrapping:+ + Date_______________ Material____________________ + Condition of cheese_________________________ + + +Ripening:+ + Rapidity of_________________________________ + Texture_____________________________________ + + +Flavor:+ + Ripened curd________________________________ + Unripened curd______________________________ + + +Special treatment and reasons for same:+ + + Record of treatment by days____________________ + + Room__________ Date__________ Observations.____________________ + + 1 D_____ 16 D_____ + 2 D_____ 17 D_____ + 3 D_____ 18 D_____ + 4 D_____ 19 D_____ + 5 D_____ 20 D_____ + 6 D_____ 21 D_____ + 7 D_____ 22 D_____ + 8 D_____ 23 D_____ + 9 D_____ 24 D_____ + 10 D_____ 25 D_____ + 11 D_____ 26 D_____ + 12 D_____ 27 D_____ + 13 D_____ 28 D_____ + 14 D_____ 29 D_____ + 15 D_____ 30 D_____ + 31 D_____ + ++149. Ripening the cheese.+--The cheese is now ready for the ripening +rooms (Fig. 20). For this process temperatures between 52° and 58°F. are +desirable; lower temperatures only delay the process; higher +temperatures favor undesirable fermentations. The cheeses rest upon +coarse matting (Fr. clayons) consisting of round wooden rods about the +size of a pencil separated 1-1¼ inches and held in position by wire +strands. Assuming cheeses of optimum composition as indicated above, the +relative humidity of the ripening rooms should be 86 to 88 per cent. +Higher humidities produce too rapid development of slimy coatings; too +low humidity is indicated by drying, shrinkage and the growth of green +molds on the surface. A slight and very slow evaporation is demanded; by +this the water-content of the cheeses is reduced 3 to 6 per cent in two +weeks. During the first two weeks of ripening, the cheeses commonly show +some growth of yeast and _Oidium lactis_ first, followed by cottony +white areas of Camembert mold (_Penicillium Camemberti_). This mold must +be introduced by inoculation in new factories but once firmly +established in the factory will propagate itself if conditions are kept +favorable. Climatic conditions in most dairy sections of America have +been sufficiently unfavorable to make more or less continuous use of +pure cultures desirable. At the end of two weeks, Camembert cheeses +should show a well-established rind, consisting of a well-matted felt +work of mold hyphæ through the outer 2 mm. (1/12 inch) of the whole +surface of the cheese. More or less of the pale gray-green fruit of the +characteristic _Penicillium Camemberti_ can usually be seen. Beginning +at about twelve to fourteen days,[52] a softening of the curd is first +directly detectable under the rind. This is preceded by the +disappearance of the acidity of the curd, which progresses inward. The +softening of the curd follows closely the lowering of the acidity. Thus +a litmus test taken along the cut face of a Camembert cheese at any +stage of softening will always show a sharp acid reaction in the solid +sour portion which changes to alkaline just before the softening due to +proteolytic action becomes noticeable. These two changes appear to be +due to enzymes secreted by the mycelium of the _Penicillium Camemberti_ +and _Oidium lactis_ which constitute the most active factors in the +ripening. Some accessory bacterial action is indicated but of minor +importance in the changes found. + +To avoid loss from breaking, after the softening of the curd has fairly +begun, the cheeses must be removed from the coarse matting to smooth +boards where they are watched and turned repeatedly, or as in the more +common practice, wrapped at once in parchment paper and boxed. The +ripening may be completed in either way. The conditions necessary are +such as to favor the extension of slimy areas of bacteria over part or +all of the rind to the exclusion of further development of gray-green +fruiting areas of mold. + +Complete softening may occur in three weeks in cheeses in which +evaporation has gone on too slowly. Such cheeses are found to contain 51 +to 55 per cent of water when ripe and decay very quickly. If handled +properly, the water-content should fall from about 57 per cent at the +beginning of ripening to 48 per cent at its completion which should +require a minimum period of about four weeks. It is more desirable that +a cheese four weeks old show a thin core of sour curd in the center than +that it be entirely liquid at that age. + +[Illustration: FIG. 21.--Very soft Camembert cheese.] + ++150. Composition.+--Properly ripe Camembert shows about the following +range of composition: Water 47 to 49 per cent; fat 25 to 28 per cent; +protein 18 to 21 per cent; salt 2.2 per cent to 2.8 per cent. Variations +outside these limits are usually associated with less desirable +qualities. The approximate limits and characters outlined for Camembert +still leave a considerable latitude for variations in practice which +characterize the output of particular factories in a producing group. At +one extreme are brands of Camembert cheese which are very soft (Fig. +21), some of them actually liquid when ripe, and which have very strong +odor and taste; one such brand has held first place in the trade of +certain American cities for years. Another popular brand when fully ripe +is well covered with yellow-orange viscid slime[53] but is fairly firm +in texture with high flavor; still others show dry moldy surfaces and +mild flavors. The product of certain factories is always characterized +by the presence and characteristic ammoniacal odor of _Penicillium +brevicaule_. + +Each of these forms seems to appeal to some classes of consumers, so +that in handling imported Camembert the trade comes to assign the +product to specific groups of purchasers according to the conditions +observed at its arrival from Europe. + +[Illustration: FIG. 22.--Camembert cheese factory at Lisieux, France. +The square windows are seen in the second-floor rooms.] + ++151. Factory.+--The type of factory to be used in making and ripening +Camembert must be adjusted to the climate. This product originated in +the Normandy section of France which is but a few feet above sea level, +is swept by winds from the Gulf Stream, and has a narrow range of +temperature, with highly humid conditions. In that region, every effort +must be made to secure ventilation to carry off the necessary amount of +evaporation water. In contrast, most of the dairy sections of America +have land instead of sea breezes, much higher altitudes, much greater +extremes of temperature and a lower range of relative humidities. The +conditions of an upstairs room full of windows in Normandy (Fig. 22) are +most readily reproduced in rooms partly or completely below ground in +this country. The industry calls for the production and maintenance of a +specific set of working conditions. These are furnished by nature in +northern France, probably also in certain Pacific coast areas, but must +be artificially obtained where the climate is unfavorable. + ++152. Economic factors.+--Camembert cheeses show a yield of about 13 +pounds to 100 pounds of milk testing 4 per cent fat. At roughly one-half +pound each, the number of cheeses will be approximately twenty-six. +Assuming no losses and a wholesale price of 15 cents each, the wholesale +value of 100 pounds of milk would be $3.90. The labor cost of production +is high, the package represents (box, wrapping and label) at least 1½ +cents a cheese. The time between the purchase and the consumption of the +cheese will average about one month. Few cheeses actually remain this +length of time in the possession of the maker. This short investment +period, therefore, is a distinct advantage of Camembert. Among +disadvantages, however, the extremely perishable character of the fully +ripe cheese makes provision of an adequate and constant market +essential. Losses due to failures in manufacturing or ripening +conditions are also frequent. Excessive heat in summer and very cold +periods in winter are both unfavorable. The Camembert-maker cannot, +therefore, use the cheapest milk of the summer months at all and the +losses entailed by failure of control in winter fall on the most costly +milk of the year. Camembert requires, therefore, careful selection of +the location for manufacture and ripening, effective control of +conditions throughout the period and adequate marketing facilities. +Camembert at its best is one of the finest of all cheeses; when bad, it +becomes quickly inedible and is a total loss. + ++153. French Brie.+[54]--Brie cheese has its center of production in +Seine-et-Marne, east of Paris in northern France. The apparatus, +arrangement of the factories and details of manipulation differ from +those described for Camembert, but the final product is in flavor and +texture closely related to Camembert. Brie cheeses are the same +thickness as Camembert, 1 to 1¼ inches; in diameter, however, there +are three or more sizes varying from 8 to 16 inches, or even greater. +The largest cheeses weigh 5 to 6 pounds. As in Camembert, practices of +making and ripening vary to such a degree as to produce various +qualities of product. These run from whole milk through all shades of +skimming. Perhaps the best established practice puts the cheese-making +room next to the stalls of the cows. The milk is drawn, strained +directly into the curdling cans and renneted while still warm,--86-92° +F. (30-33° C.). No lactic starter is added and no ripening period is +given to the milk. The other manipulations differ only in detail from +Camembert. Ripening of Brie follows the same course with the same +organic agents, namely, Camembert mold (_Penicillium Camemberti_) and +_Oidium lactis_ with the accompaniment of a mixture of slimy organisms +upon the surface of the cheese. The process admits of many minor +modifications each capable of affecting the product in a characteristic +way. The judgment and skill of the maker is given a wide opportunity to +establish and work toward a particular ideal of appearance and texture +and flavor. Brands with characteristic qualities, therefore, command +their own market. + +Brie as known in France must not be confused with the American +"d'Isigny," or with the particular sizes of that type which have been +called Brie on account of diameter only. Very little Brie as known in +France has been made in America and only a limited amount has been +imported for very restricted trade. + ++154. Coulommiers.+--Another member of the Camembert group is called, +from its place of origin, Coulommiers. This form is made at the same +thickness as Camembert and about 5¼ inches in diameter. It appears as +either a ripened or unripe cheese. As a ripened cheese, Coulommiers is +not essentially different from Camembert except that some brands are +made without salting. As a cheese eaten unripe, it has certain +advantages over the other cheeses with the flavor of sour milk only. The +cottage and (American) Neufchâtel group of cheeses comprises the best +known forms with the acid flavor. These cheeses are very perishable in +nature. On the other hand, Coulommiers as eaten fresh can be held and +used over a much longer time without loss. Coulommiers[55] in this sense +is simply a fresh Camembert. Such a cheese, when ready for the salting +process, is a firm sour mass, close textured, almost impervious to air +and but slowly permeable to liquids. Spoilage in such a cheese begins +only on the outside, and not throughout the mass as in cottage cheese or +Neufchâtel. Successive portions of such a cheese can be removed daily +over a considerable period with no loss of substance aside from slight +scraping at times and little or no change in flavor. This product has +very tangible merit for manufacture and use on the farm in many sections +of America. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +_SOFT CHEESES RIPENED BY BACTERIA_ + + +A bacterially-ripened series of cheeses parallels the mold-ripened group +as typified by Camembert. Although the varieties overlap, these may be +roughly grouped as: (1) those made from friable or soft curd; (2) those +made from firm or rubbery curd. In the first group, the curd is set at +86° F., or below; in the second, the rennet is added at 90° F. or above. +In the first, the lower temperature and long curdling time with ripened +milk gives a soft friable curd which may be toughened somewhat by +cutting and stirring in the whey. This section is typified by d'Isigny, +American Brie, Liederkranz. In the second, curdling of unripened milk at +temperatures of 90° F. or above insures a smooth elastic curd which +fuses more or less completely into the firm rubbery mass typified by +freshly made Limburger. + ++155. The Isigny group.+--A series of names, d'Isigny, Brie, Brie +d'Isigny, combined with trade names, are used for a domestic cheese, +made in a small number of factories distributed over New York, +Pennsylvania, Michigan, Illinois, Wisconsin, Iowa and California. The +cheeses sold under the separate varietal names differ only in diameter; +their thickness is fairly uniform; the process of manufacture and +ripening with resultant textures and flavors furnishes no fundamental +varietal characters, although the products of the several factories show +noticeable differences in market quality. D'Isigny, while the name of a +French town famous for butter production, is not used to designate a +cheese in France. It may, therefore, be accepted as a French name +arbitrarily applied to a domestic product. Brie as used in France is a +markedly different cheese (p. 131), and the name should be dropped from +this form as made in America. As used for a member of this series made +in America, it merely means cheese 7 to 15 inches in diameter. The +cheese partakes of the characters of French Livarot, and of Pont +l'Eveque without exactly reproducing either form. + +The milk varies from separator skim to whole milk, with resultant +differences in quality. Freedom from gas is essential to the best +results. The milk is curdled at 85° to 86° F. with sufficient rennet to +produce a very firm curd within a period of one and one-half hours. Curd +is then cut in two directions, allowed to stand a few minutes or gently +agitated to produce a very slight toughness or "worked" condition, then +scooped into hoops 4½ to 5 inches in height and varying in diameter +from 2½ to 15 inches according to the size selected for manufacture. +To aid in the escape of whey, three rows of holes 1/12 inch in diameter +and 2 inches apart in the row are made in each hoop. The hoops are +arranged upon draining tables with more or less corrugated surface, +which for best drainage should be covered with matting. The cheeses are +allowed to drain without pressure. They are commonly turned the second +morning, although they are sometimes solid enough to turn within the +first day. When fully drained, the cheeses are salted by rubbing coarse +salt on the surface, after which they stand an extra day. They are then +arranged upon shelves in a ripening room held between 50° and 60° F. +with humidity so high that evaporation is kept at a minimum. In this +room, a surface slime develops quickly. This consists of bacteria of +several forms, yeasts, _Oidium lactis_ and accidental species of other +molds. During this ripening, the cheeses are turned, rubbed with the +hands, washed with salt water and scraped if infected with molds which +produce colored colonies. In the course of ripening, the slimy surface +layer acquires a yellowish orange color with the strong odor and taste +characteristic of the series. + +Brands of d'Isigny are made from every grade between separator skim and +whole milk. They reach the market in condition all the way from "Kosher" +forms[56] which are eaten entirely unripe, to brands which approximate +the qualities of Limburger and others which approach Port du Salut. + +The biology and chemistry of the ripening of this type of cheese have +not been completely followed. An initial souring process always takes +place quickly. _Oidium lactis_ is always present in some degree on the +surface, but the organisms in the yellowish to orange slime on the +surface of the cheese appear to produce the characteristic odor and +taste. These appear to be due to the development of volatile fatty +acids, such as valerianic and caproic, which diffuse throughout the +cheese, even penetrating the unripened sour portions. The same odor and +taste in varying intensity are present in Limburger, Brick, and a long +series of German varieties not handled in America. + +High-flavored cheeses such as these, form an acceptable part of the meal +in cases in which the intensity of other flavors is such as to mask +entirely the milder flavors of Camembert or cream cheese. + +In composition, a characteristic whole-milk brand of this group showed +the following analysis:[57] water, 45.5 per cent; fat, 25.28 per cent; +protein, 18.22 per cent. + ++156. Raffiné.+[58]--This cheese is made in the French settlement of the +Isle of Orleans in the St. Lawrence River. The practice seems to have +been brought from France and represents an intermediate product between +Camembert and perhaps Livarot, a cheese on the borderline between +Camembert and Isigny as made in America. The outline of the making +process as given follows: Milk freshly drawn is curdled without cooling, +at approximately 90° F. The rennet is prepared on the farm. About +one-half hour is required for curdling. The curd is cut into 2-inch +cubes. Whey is removed as fast as it separates. About two hours are +required for draining. The curd then goes into the hoops. The metal +hoops, which are closed at one end, are 6 inches high, 4½ inches in +diameter, with holes about 1/16 inch at intervals of about ½ inch, and +stand upon three legs about 1 inch in height. When filled, the cheeses +are left on a draining table. Some salt is put on top while draining. +When the volume is reduced to one-half, the cheese is turned. The +draining room is kept at about 70° F. After they are firm enough to +handle, drainage is completed on racks covered with rush matting. These +are arranged on special racks. The cheeses are turned twice a day, and +washed in slightly salted water every two days. After each washing, they +are drained for two hours on cloth, and placed on clean matting. This +treatment continues about fifteen days. + +After fifteen days on the matting, the cheeses are ready for ripening. +They are first covered with cold brine and let stand twenty-four hours. +The cheeses are packed in rolls or tiers in boxes, covered with cloth +and ripened at 45° F. They must be kept moist; if signs of drying +appear, moisture must be added. If the cheeses develop yellow slime, +they are washed with clear water and rinsed in water with salt added. +After a ripening period of three weeks, the cheeses should begin to be +soft when pressed with the finger. The growth of molds must be prevented +by washing the boxes, cloths, and washing and scraping the cheeses if +necessary. When the cheeses are ready for the market, they are scraped +clean and white, wrapped separately in cheese-cloth or parchment paper +and packed into the boxes. Ripe cheeses are about 5 inches in diameter, +1 inch thick and weigh a little over 5 ounces. + +The outline of the Raffiné process follows: + + coagulation by rennet 30 minutes + cutting and draining curd 2 hours + draining in hoops 10 hours + stand on mats 15 days + ripening in boxes 21 days + Total period 36 days + +The treatment described closely resembles the handling of Livarot cheese +in the department of Calvados, France. + ++157. Liederkranz cheese.+--Among the specialties in the bacterial group +is Liederkranz, made from curd with the soft friable texture of a +Camembert, molded in rectangular blocks of about 4 ounces in weight and +ripened very completely. Although this name is the private brand of a +single factory, it has become widely known with the effect of creating a +type name in the American market. Analysis of this brand of cheese +gives about 55 per cent water, 25 per cent fat, 17 per cent protein, +which indicates a whole milk cheese. + ++158. Limburger cheese+[59] derives its name from the town of Limburg in +Belgium. The manufacture of this cheese is now widely practiced in +Europe and in certain parts of the United States, especially in New York +and Wisconsin. Practically no cheese of this name is at present +imported, and the practices described are limited to those in American +factories. + ++159. The milk.+--Limburger cheese is probably best known on account of +its pronounced odor. Because of this characteristic pungent smell, it is +often thought that the cheese is made in dirty or unsanitary places. On +the contrary, Limburger cheese is usually made in small factories which +are clean and sanitary. Because of the constant attention required, a +cheese-maker can handle only about 2000-2500 pounds of milk a day, and +then some help is necessary to care for the cheeses in the curing +room.[60] The discussion of the milk given in Chapter II applies to that +to be made into Limburger cheese; however, Limburger requires sweeter +milk than do some of the other types. To be sure of obtaining very sweet +milk, it is the usual practice for the milk to be delivered without +cooling morning and evening at the cheese factory. The cheese is made +twice a day. Because the milk must be delivered twice daily, it is +obtained from only a few producers near the factory. A factory usually +does not have more than eight to twelve patrons. Because of the small +number of patrons, it is comparatively easy to obtain a supply of fresh +clean milk. + +[Illustration: FIG. 23.--A common type of Limburger cheese factory.] + +The factories are variously built. A common type takes advantage of +sloping ground so that the floor at one end may be on the ground level +and run backward into a hillside until the other end is a cellar with +small windows at the ceiling opening at the ground level (Fig. 23). The +family of the cheese-maker often lives in the same building above the +factory. + ++160. Making the cheese.+--Limburger cheese is made from the whole milk. +When the milk is received at the factory, it is placed in the cheese +vat. As the milk is delivered both morning and evening without cooling, +it reaches the factory at a temperature of 90 to 96° F. In some cases +the night's and morning's milk is mixed and then warmed to about 94° F. +This practice is not recommended but is frequently adopted, when the +supply of milk becomes too small to work in two lots. As soon as all of +the milk has been delivered, the cheese-making process begins. No +starter is used. The milk is not ripened because no acid development +during the making process is desired. The milk is set or curdled at the +temperature at which it is received at the factory, usually from 90 to +96° F. Sufficient rennet extract is used to give a firm coagulation in +twenty to thirty minutes. This usually requires 2½ to 3 ounces of +rennet extract for each 1000 pounds of milk: This is diluted in about +forty times its own volume of cold water and added to the milk. (For +method of adding rennet extract to milk, see Chapter V.) When the +coagulum has become firm so that it will split clean over the finger, +the curd is ready to cut. Coarse Cheddar cheese knives are used. +Sometimes only the perpendicular knife is employed, and the curd is +broken up while being stirred with the hands and rake. This usually +causes a large fat loss. After cutting, the curd is stirred first by +hand and later with an ordinary wooden hay rake. Usually the curd is not +"cooked" or heated after setting, though occasionally it is brought up +as high as 96° F. to 98° F. If the curd does not firm up, the +temperature may be raised to 98° to 100° F. to aid in expelling the +moisture. + +When ready to dip, the curd should still be in large soft shiny pieces. +It requires from one hour to an hour and thirty minutes from the time +the rennet extract is added until the curd is ready to dip. When, in the +judgment of the cheese-maker, the curd has become sufficiently firmed in +the whey, the whey is drawn down to the surface of the curd. The curd is +then dipped into the Limburger molds. These molds are 5 inches square by +8 inches deep without top or bottom. Usually there are five or six of +these molds built together into a section. These molds are placed on a +draining table beside the vat and the curd is ladled into them with a +large tin ladle. The draining table has strips on both sides and one end +and slants toward the other end so that the whey will drain from the +curd and yet not go on the floor except at the one end. This makes it +easy to save and catch the whey for stock feed. + ++161. Draining and salting Limburger.+--In some factories, a clean piece +of burlap is put on the draining table and the molds and curd placed on +the burlap. This aids in the rapid draining of the whey from the curd +and prevents the loss of curd particles. The curd should be turned +frequently in the mold to obtain uniform draining. The molds are +transferred to the salting room as soon as well drained, usually in +about twelve hours, but sometimes they are left until the following +morning. Here they are placed on another draining table, which has +strips about 5 inches high on the sides and one end. The cheeses are +placed along this board, each cheese being separated by a piece of board +4 inches high and 5 inches wide. When the row is filled, a long strip +the length of the table is placed against the row. Another row is laid +down against this strip in the same manner as the first, and so on until +several rows are on the table. The last long strip is held firmly in +place by sticks wedged between it and the opposite side of the table. +These strips and pieces form a mold for each cheese while draining. +Usually the cheeses are turned several times in this period to obtain a +uniform expulsion of whey. In about twenty-four hours the cheeses are +ready to be salted. This is done by applying the salt to the outside of +the cheese. The edges are rolled in a box of salt and the salt then +rubbed on the two broad surfaces. Any excess salt is brushed from the +cheese with the hand. The cheeses are then laid on a draining table in +single layers. The second day, they are salted again in the same way and +piled two deep; they are salted again the third day and piled three or +four layers deep. The salting room or cellar should have a temperature +of 60° F. and be fairly damp. The amount of salt used is very important. +The tendency is to use too much salt. This retards the ripening process +and in extreme cases gives the cheese a salty taste. If not enough salt +is used, the cheese will deteriorate very rapidly on account of the +development of undesirable types of fermentation. The cheeses when +salted are then placed in the curing room, which is a cellar, usually +beyond the salting room. This cellar should have a temperature of 58° to +64° F. and a relative humidity of 95 per cent of saturation. In winter +it is necessary to have a fire to keep the rooms warm, otherwise the +cheese would cure very slowly or not at all. In some factories the +curing and salting cellars are a single room. + ++162. Ripening Limburger.+--When first placed in the curing cellar, the +cheeses are put on edge close together, and as they cure are gradually +separated. While in the curing cellar, the cheese must be rubbed +frequently by hand and washed, usually with salt water. The object of +the rubbing is to keep the surface of the cheese moist and prevent the +growth of molds. The drier the cheese and the more mold, the oftener the +cheeses must be rubbed. The drying or the evaporation from the cheese +can be retarded by sprinkling the floor of the cellar with water. When +first placed in the curing cellar, they are usually rubbed daily; after +a few days they are rubbed every other day and finally as often as the +cheese-maker can find time to work at them. The more the cheeses are +rubbed, the better the rind. + +In the curing of Limburger cheese, protein compounds are attacked by the +micro-organisms. Certain highly-flavored fatty acids are commonly +produced.[61] This change works most rapidly near the outside and more +slowly toward the center of the cheese. The stage of ripening can be +determined by examining the cheese. When first made, a cheese is harsh +and hard and the outside is more or less white: as the curing changes +take place, the cheese becomes soft and pasty or buttery. The outside +color changes from a whitish to a yellowish and finally even a reddish +brown. It requires considerable time for the ripening agents to work +from the outside to the center of the cheese. As ripening progresses, +Limburger cheeses tend to become soft enough to break in handling. If +such cheeses are wrapped in manila paper after three to four weeks of +ripening and packed in boxes, losses from handling are eliminated. One +loose board is left on each box and the boxes remain in the ripening +cellar until the cheese-maker decides by removal and examination of +cheeses from time to time that they are ready for shipment. When fully +ripe, the cheese spoils very quickly. Unless handled very carefully, the +outer part may actually rot before the interior is fully ripe. The +cheeses are shipped from the factory when they are eight to ten weeks +old. They are then placed in cold storage, which checks the action of +the ripening agents and so lengthens the commercial life of the cheese. + ++163. Marketing and qualities of Limburger.+--As shipped from the +factory, each cheese is wrapped in heavy manila paper and frequently +also in tin-foil. The cheeses are packed in boxes which hold +forty-eight. Each cheese weighs about two pounds. + +Limburger cheese should be regular in shape. The rind should not be +cracked or broken nor the sides bulged, nor should it be lopsided. It +should have the pronounced characteristic flavor, without other +objectionable flavors due to undesirable fermentations. The body should +be uniform throughout. It is common to find cheeses that have not a +uniform body, due to lack of curing; a small part of the interior at the +center will be hard and not cured, while the remainder of the cheese +will be soft and buttery. The color should be uniform. When not entirely +cured, the uncured part at the center is usually of a lighter color. + +The cheese should contain the proper amount of salt. The most common +defect is in the flavor. If the milk is not free from bad odors and +flavors, these are apt to be more pronounced in the cheese than in the +milk. (For care of milk see Chapter II.) Gas-forming fermentations are +very bad in this variety of cheese as they cannot be controlled and give +the cheese a bad flavor and a "gassy body." When a cheese is gassy, the +sides are most liable to be bulged and the body is full of gas holes or +pockets. Another defect is a sour cheese. This is caused by the +development of too much acid in the milk or during the manufacturing +process. A sour cheese usually cures slowly and has a pronounced sour +taste. The body is hard and bitter. + +If the cheese contains too much moisture, it will cure rapidly and the +body will be very soft and pasty. In extreme cases it will be so soft +that it will run when the rind is broken. On the other hand if the +cheese does not contain sufficient moisture, it will cure very slowly +and the body will be hard and dry and sometimes crumbly. There is no +standard score-card for judging Limburger cheese. The Wisconsin +Cheese-makers Association[62] uses the following score-card for +Limburger: + + Flavor 40 + Texture 40 + Color 10 + Salt 5 + Style 5 + --- + Total 100 + ++164. Yield and composition of Limburger.+--The yield of cheese depends +on: (1) the amount of fat and other solids in the milk from which it is +made; (2) the amount of moisture incorporated into cheese; (3) the loss +of solids during the manufacturing process. + +The yield varies from 12 to 14 pounds of cheese from 100 pounds of milk. +The more fat and other solids in the milk, the more cheese can be made +from 100 pounds of the milk. The more moisture incorporated into the +cheese, the larger the yield. The quality of the cheese and the amount +of solids determine the amount of moisture that can be incorporated into +the cheese. The greater the losses during the manufacturing process, the +less is the yield. The composition of Limburger cheese is affected by +the same factors as the yield. The average cheese probably carries from +40 to 42 per cent of moisture. Limburger cheeses will vary in +composition from this analysis about as follows: water 38 to 44 percent, +protein 21 to 25 percent, fat 25 to 30 percent. The differences in +practice in factory groups are considerable. Certain markets call for +more solid brands, others for the very soft forms. + ++165. Münster cheese+ originated in Germany near the city whose name it +bears. There is a limited demand for this variety in America; therefore +it is not extensively made. It is usually manufactured from whole milk +in a Limburger or Brick cheese factory. The process of manufacture is +between that of these two varieties in temperatures used, firmness of +curd and amount of moisture in the curd and cheese. The process is +probably more like that of Limburger. The curd is firmed more in the +whey than for Limburger, and more acid is developed. The cheeses are +pressed or drained in round forms 7 inches in diameter and 6 inches +high. The hoops are lined with cloth to prevent the loss of curd +particles while draining. When the cheeses are sufficiently drained, +until they are firm enough to hold their shape, the cloths are removed. +The cheese is salted by rubbing dry salt on the surface or soaking the +cheese in brine. The product is handled in the curing room very much the +same as Limburger or Brick cheese. When sufficiently ripe, each cheese +is wrapped in parchment paper and placed in a separate wooden box. This +cheese, when cured, has a characteristic flavor which is between that of +Limburger and Brick. The body is more or less open. The essential factor +in the manufacture of Münster cheese is clean milk. Bad fermentations, +such as produce gas and bad flavors, seriously interfere with the +manufacture and sale of the product. The cheese is usually made in the +late fall and winter, when it is difficult to manufacture Limburger. + + + + +CHAPTER X + +SEMI-HARD CHEESES + + +Between the quickly perishable soft cheeses and the typical hard group, +are two series of varieties, one ripened by green mold and best known by +Roquefort, the other ripened by bacteria and typified by Brick cheese. +These cheeses are fairly firm, hold their shape well, ripen over a +period varying from a few weeks to several months and their marketable +period is comparatively long. In texture they are intermediate between +the conditions known as "soft" and "hard." In water-content, they range +at their best from 37 to 45 percent. Outside these limits, the cheeses +are often marketable but they lose in quality[63] and trueness to type. + ++166. The green mold group.+--There are three well-known semi-hard +cheeses ripened by green or blue-green mold.[64] The mold is an +incidental factor in certain other forms but none of these forms has won +larger than local or purely national recognition. French Roquefort, on +the contrary, is probably the most widely known of all cheeses. Stilton, +to a small degree at least, has followed the English to the many lands +they inhabit. Gorgonzola, although made in Italy alone, has a large +market in other parts of Europe and in America. In the manipulations of +manufacture, these forms are not closely related but they resemble each +other in that each becomes streaked or marbled by the growth of green +mold (_Penicillium Roqueforti_) through open spaces within the cheese. +The "blue-veined" or marbled cheeses have a characteristic taste which +is developed in its most typical form in Roquefort. + ++167. Roquefort cheese.+--This is a rennet cheese made from sheep's milk +(with occasional and minor admixture of goat's and cow's milk) in the +section of southern France centering about Roquefort in Aveyron. The +practices are standardized and controlled by a few companies, thus +reaching exceptional uniformity. Roquefort is uncolored, open, made from +firm but brittle or crumbly, not tough or waxy curd. Each cheese is +about 7¼ inches (20 cm.) in diameter and 3¼ inches (9 cm.) in +thickness without a definite rind, and when ripe enough for market is +scraped carefully, closely covered with tin-foil and kept in +refrigerators. The cut cheese shows extensive open spaces which are +lined with green mold. This cheese, in addition to a strong cheesy odor +and taste, has a peppery or burning quality which according to +Currie[65] is due to the formation of volatile fatty acids such as +caproic, caprylic and capric from the butter-fat of the sheep's milk +used. A series for Roquefort cheeses selected for excellent quality was +found by Dox[66] to show the following composition: + + TABLE IV + + COMPOSITION OF ROQUEFORT CHEESE + + ========================================================= + | WATER | FAT | PROTEIN | ASH | SALT + | PER | PER | PER | PER | PER + | CENT | CENT | CENT | CENT | CENT + --------------+--------+-------+---------+------+-------- + Average | 38.69 | 32.31 | 21.39 | 6.14 | 4.14 + Minimum | 37.49 | 31.50 | 19.14 | 5.18 | 3.64 + Maximum | 40.10 | 33.53 | 23.06 | 6.81 | 4.88 + ========================================================= + +The composition of the sheep's milk of the Roquefort producing region is +reported by Marre:[67] + + TABLE V + + COMPOSITION OF SHEEP'S MILK + + ============================================================= + | WATER | CASEIN | FAT | LACTOSE | ASH + | PER | PER | PER | PER | PER + | CENT | CENT | CENT | CENT | CENT + -------------+-------+--------+----------+---------+--------- + Range | 76-83 | 5-8 | 5.5-10.5 | 4 to 5 | 0.8-1.2 + Average | 79.5 | 6.5 | 8.0 | 4.5 | 1.0 + ============================================================= + +The cheeses when properly made in the local factories are transported to +Roquefort for ripening in the famous caves which have made possible the +development of a great industry. + +The Roquefort caves were originally natural openings leading back into +the face of a cliff until they reached a deep, narrow fault or crack in +the rock leading to the plains above. The cooler air from the plains +came down this crack over moist and dripping rocks and issued through +these clefts in a cold moisture-laden current which kept the caves about +50 to 55° F. and moist enough to ripen the cheeses without shrinkage. As +the business outgrew the natural caves, great cellars, some of them five +or six floors deep, were excavated and tunnels were dug back to the +crack so that the strong ventilating current reaches every part of the +cellars and keeps both temperature and relative humidity favorable to +the ripening of the cheeses. + ++168. Cow's milk or Façons Roquefort.+--The supply of Roquefort is +automatically limited by the supply of sheep's milk. The sheep gives +milk only about five months in the year and at best a scant average of +about a pint a day to a sheep. Sheep's milk for cheese-making is not +produced, therefore, outside of very limited regions. Some cow's and +goat's milk unavoidably finds its way regularly into the industry +itself. Attempts were naturally made to substitute cow's milk. Outside +the controlled area, factories were established for this purpose. The +quality of the product did not equal that of the Roquefort factories, +and French courts decreed that the name Roquefort should not be used for +such products. Although some local success was obtained, not much +progress was made against the intrenched Roquefort industry. Similar +attempts to make such a product in Germany[68] were tried on an +extensive scale but failed. More recently, under the inspiration of +Conn, the United States Department of Agriculture and the Storrs +Experiment Station have studied the possibilities of such an industry. +Although the work is not completed, the preliminary reports[69] have +indicated the fundamental principles which must underlie such +development. + ++169. Outline of making Roquefort.+--Some of the results of these +experiments are summarized in the following paragraphs: + +_Milk._--Clean-flavored fresh milk testing 4-4.2 per cent fat and up to +2.8 per cent casein gives the best results. The milk with a high +percentage of cheese-making solids forms a firmer curd, hence works up +better in the process than milk of lower quality. + +_Acidity._--The milk is ripened by lactic starter up to an acidity of +0.23 per cent titrated as lactic acid at the time rennet is added. This +gives a firm curd, which drains to the desired water-content but is low +enough to prevent the toughening effect of too high acid. A very slight +increase in initial acid--1 to 2 hundredths per cent--combined with the +rate at which acidity is developing introduces such physical changes in +texture as to make the final texture of Roquefort impossible. + +_Temperature._--Rennet is added at or below 84° F. Every degree of heat +adds definitely to the efficiency of rennet. Below 82° F., curdling +becomes slower and the coagulum softer and more difficult to drain. The +sheep's milk curd is made from 76° to 84° F. but sheep's milk has about +twice the cheese solids found in cow's milk. It was found necessary to +raise the temperature as high as texture would permit. However, at 86° +F. the physical character of the curd tends to become tough or waxy in +handling. At 84° F. the curd remains brittle and crumbly. It was, +therefore, necessary to keep the curdling temperature down to 84° F. + +_Renneting or setting._--Rennet at a rate of 3 to 4 ounces of standard +liquid rennet to 1000 pounds (10 to 12 c.c. to 100 pounds) was found to +give the best curd under experimental conditions. + +_Curdling time._--One and one-half to two hours gave most satisfactory +results in forming curd. This should be very firm and stand until it +begins to "sweat," until beads of whey have begun to collect upon its +surface. + +_Cutting._--The cow's milk curd gave best results when cut in two +directions with the half-inch curd knife. The resulting columns, a half +inch square in cross-section, may be handled without excessive losses. + +_Draining._--The cut curd is dipped to a draining rack covered with +cloth with as little breaking as possible. During the draining process, +a certain amount of turning is necessary to facilitate the separation +and escape of the whey. If handled too much, losses of fat are increased +and the curd becomes tough or waxy instead of remaining brittle or +crumbly. When properly handled, not over 0.35 per cent of fat is lost. +Under favorable conditions, four-ninths to two-thirds of the original +weight of curd will separate and run off as whey in twenty to thirty +minutes. The curd meanwhile is exposed to the air of the room and cools +toward room temperature. If cooling goes too far, further drainage is +interfered with. Hence the curd is put into the hoop and the drainage +completed while the cheese is reaching its final form. + +_Hoop._--Hoops for cow's milk Roquefort must be 7½ inches in diameter +and about 5¾ inches high to hold curd enough to produce a cheese the +size of the standard Roquefort when completely drained. Sheep's milk +with its higher percentage of solids does not require such high hoops. +The curd as it goes into the hoop should be a soft, pulpy mass with no +suggestion of toughness. + +_Inoculation with mold._--The mold for Roquefort cheese (_Penicillium +Roqueforti_[70]) is readily grown in pure culture in ordinary loaves of +bread. For this purpose loaves hot from the oven are quickly drenched +with or immersed in hot paraffine to form an impervious crust to retain +moisture as well as to keep out contaminations. It is then allowed to +cool. The interior of each loaf is inoculated by drawing a suspension of +_P. Roqueforti_ spores in water into a sterile pipette (10 c.c.) which +is then thrust through the paraffined crust to the center of the loaf of +bread and allowed to empty there. The hole is sealed up with paraffine. +These loaves are incubated for about a month at room temperature. When +cut, every open space should be found lined with the green spores of the +mold. When dry enough, the mass may be powdered, and put into an +ordinary pepper box. When the curd is ready to go into the hoop, this +mold powder is sprinkled upon it from the pepper box. + +_Handling._--Freshly made cheeses are turned within the first hour to +insure the proper smoothness of both sides. Further draining is best +accomplished in a room at about 64° F. with a relative humidity of 85 to +90 per cent. If the surface of the cheese becomes too dry, a rind is +formed. No real rind is permitted on Roquefort. If the temperature is +too high, slime forms quickly and unfavorable fermentation may occur. +Slime (bacteria and _Oidium lactis_ usually) must be scraped when it +becomes too heavy. + +_Salting._[71]--Experimental cheeses were found to give the best results +when at the end of about three days' drainage they contained about 50 +per cent water. Such cheeses were salted by sprinkling the entire +surface lightly, replaced upon the drain boards for one day, salted +again and piled in two's. After another day they received the third +salting and were piled in three's for two days longer. A total of about +10 per cent by weight of salt was used to secure an absorption of 4 per +cent. At the same time the water-content dropped to 40 to 43 per cent. +After salting is completed, the cheeses are brushed and punched with +holes to permit oxygen to enter.[72] They are then ready for ripening. + ++170. Ripening of Roquefort.+--The ripening of experimental Roquefort +has required four to six months at a relative humidity of 85 to 90 per +cent. This relative humidity is just below the equilibrium relative +humidity of the cheese, hence permits a shrinkage of 2 to 4 per cent in +the water-content of the cheese. This makes it possible to control the +amount of surface slime developed. + +If the relative humidity goes too high, the surface slime of bacteria +and yeasts becomes very heavy, soft and almost liquid, and follows the +openings into the cheese with resultant damage to appearance and flavor. +Even under the conditions at Roquefort, this slime must be removed by +rubbing or scraping several times to avoid injury to the cheeses, +together with the production of bad odor and taste. If the humidity +becomes too low, the surface becomes dry, hard and cracks open, the +friable crumbly texture is injured, and there is considerable loss in +weight. Salt forms about 4 per cent of the cheese. This is in solution +in the water present, which is about 40 per cent, and makes a brine of +about 10 per cent strength. This strength of brine does not prevent the +growth of the Roquefort mold (_Penicillium Roqueforti_) but does hinder +the development of _Oidium lactis_ in the open spaces within the cheese. +Accurate adjustment of temperature and relative humidity in the ripening +rooms to salt and water-content in the cheese is essential to proper +ripening. These conditions are furnished by the unique natural +conditions of the caves of Roquefort. The production of such cheeses +elsewhere depends either on the discovery of another locality with +closely similar conditions or on the artificial production and control +of the necessary temperature and relative humidity. This has been done +on an experimental basis by the use of cold storage apparatus combined +with proper humidifiers. + +The differences between working with sheep's and with cow's milk lie in +the making process rather than in the ripening. Sheep's milk freshly +drawn shows a higher acidity than cow's milk, probably on account of the +acid reaction of its greater casein content. With nearly double the +total solids of cow's milk, the yield to one hundred pounds is much +greater, consequently the drainage of the curd is much more easily +handled. + +Once made and salted, the cheeses require very nearly the same +conditions of ripening. The resultant products are alike in appearance +and texture. In flavor, cow's milk Roquefort differs in character from +sheep's milk cheese to such a degree as to be recognized by taste. The +difference was found by Currie[73] to be due to an actual difference in +the combination of fatty acids present. + +Although these differences in character are recognizable by the expert +in testing the cheese, as well as by chemical analysis, cow's milk +Roquefort would satisfy that large proportion of consumers who use such +cheese only in connection with other fairly high flavored foods. The +demands for technical skill and factory equipment are not naturally +greater than for many other lines of cheese-making. The gradual +development of a cow's milk Roquefort may be anticipated. + +[Illustration: FIG. 24.--Gorgonzola ripening establishment in valley +near Lecco.] + ++171. Gorgonzola+[74] is a rennet cheese made from fresh whole cow's +milk, in northern Italy. It takes its name from the village of +Gorgonzola, a few miles from Milan, but the manufacture of the cheese +has spread over a wide area. The cheeses are made on farms and in +factories from which they are transported for ripening to cool valleys +of the Alps, principally near Lecco (Fig. 24). Boeggild introduced the +making of a cheese after the Gorgonzola process into Denmark about 1885. +This industry has been successful on a small scale since that time. +Gorgonzola cheeses are about 30 cm. (12 inches) in diameter and 18 cm. +(7 inches) thick and weigh 15 to 20 pounds. As exported they are usually +heavily coated[75] with a mixture usually barite, tallow and lard +colored with annatto or other cheese color. This coating prevents +shrinkage or mold on the surface of the cheese in transit. When cut +these cheeses vary greatly. All show marbling with mold (Roquefort +mold). During their ripening they become very slimy at the surface. To +open up air spaces for mold growth, this slime is scraped off and holes +are punched into the cheeses. These holes are readily seen in the final +product. Some show crumbly texture, well distributed mold, as in +Roquefort, with flavor approaching that cheese; in others the texture is +waxy rather than crumbly, a condition correlated regularly with +different character in the flavor. Frequently in whole areas or in small +pockets, slime consisting of bacteria and Oidium has followed the +openings into the cheese and affects its odor and taste. + +Experimental Gorgonzola cheeses comparable with the Italian product were +made with cow's milk ripened as for Roquefort or higher, to 0.25-0.30 +per cent (titrated as lactic acid), curdled at 86° F. (30° C.), cut into +cubes and slightly stirred, then dipped to a draining board for about +one-half hour, and put into the hoop. The cheeses drained quickly to +about 50 percent water and developed a surface rind as in the harder +cheeses. Cut surfaces showed a fairly open cheese in which mold grew +readily. These cheeses were salted to taste, not to a specified +percentage. They ripened with the same irregular results and the +characteristic range of flavors found in Gorgonzola. To avoid the +rotting of the cheese by surface growths, they were exposed to low +humidities for a time and cracks opened at the surfaces, as seen in the +ripening rooms at Lecco (Fig. 24). The texture was more or less waxy or +tough, which was correlated with the slightly higher heat at renneting +together with the stirring or "working" of the curd. Comparative +analyses of a series of imported cheeses confirm the interpretation that +the salt-content of Roquefort, 4 per cent approximately, prevents the +invasion of the interior of the cheese by Oidium. No complete study of +the ripening of Gorgonzola has been made. As far as followed, it +consists in an initial souring process followed by ripening by molds and +slime organisms. At its best, Gorgonzola is nearly equal to Roquefort +but the percentage of such quality is low. In spite of its irregular +quality, England has used larger amounts of Gorgonzola than of +Roquefort. Considerable quantities have been imported for the Italian +trade in the United States. + +[Illustration: FIG. 25.--Gorgonzola cheese curing-room.] + ++172. Stilton cheese+ bears the name of an English village[76] in which +it was first sold. It is made from cow's milk and is typically a whole +milk cheese, although part skim cheeses are regularly made and sold as +lower grades. In the Stilton-making counties, the milk from Shorthorn +cattle testing about 3.5 to 4.0 per cent fat is preferred to richer or +poorer grades. Such milk is curdled with rennet at about 86° F. in about +one hour; the curd is cut, dipped to a draining table covered with cloth +and drained slowly over a period of several hours, commonly overnight. +During this period considerable acidity is developed. The curd is then +milled or broken by hand, salted, packed into hoops 15 to 16 inches high +and 7 inches in diameter. These hoops are made from heavy tin (Fig. 26) +with four rows of holes about 3/10 inch in diameter. The freshly filled +hoops are allowed to stand and drain without pressure in a room at about +70° F. (Fig. 26). Such cheeses are turned every day for several days. +When solid enough to stand the hoops are removed, the cheeses are +scraped or rubbed with a knife until the surface is smooth, and commonly +wrapped with a cloth bandage to maintain the shape, if the cheese is +still too soft to stand firmly. In the factories, several rooms are used +with varying temperature and relative humidities, which makes it +possible to place each cheese under the condition best suited to its +texture and condition of ripeness. In general, the dairy sections of +England are much more humid than those of America and there are less +violent changes in temperature. Stilton cheese-making has grown up to +take advantage of this climatic factor in handling the product. +Transplantation of such an industry necessitates a mastery not only of +the manipulations but a grasp of the fundamental principles underlying +the process and a readjustment of practices to preserve those +principles. + +[Illustration: FIG. 26.--Stilton cheeses in hoops, draining.] + +Stilton is, then, a soured curd cheese in whose ripening a very +prominent part is played by the green mold (usually some strain of _P. +Roqueforti_) which grows throughout the cavities of its mass[77]. At +its best, it has attractive texture and flavor. Much of it fails to +reach high quality on account of the invasion of bacteria, _Oidium +lactis_, and very frequently myriads of cheese mites. The following +analysis was furnished as typical for ripe cheese by Miles Benson,[78] +late professor of dairying at Reading, England: Water 31 per cent, fat +36 per cent, casein 29 per cent, mineral constituents including salt +about 4 per cent. Approximately the same figures are given by Primrose +McConnell (Agricultural Note Book). The low percentage of salt is +another factor of uncertainty in the control of this Stilton product, as +in Gorgonzola, since these cheeses are commonly high in water-content at +first and are thus subject to invasion by Oidium. + +Stilton has been made on a small scale in Canada[79] and occasionally +attempted in the United States. No serious effort to develop an industry +of commercial importance has been made in America. Comparative study of +the cheeses ripened by green mold tends to the conviction that the +adaptation of the Roquefort practice to the use of cow's milk offers a +more satisfactory basis for experiment than efforts to establish a +Stilton or a Gorgonzola industry. + ++173. Gex.+--A cheese under this name made in southern France resembles, +in its general character as a ripened cheese, the English Stilton and +Italian Gorgonzola. Although it has no commercial importance, reference +is made to this cheese to show that mold-ripened cheeses have been +developed entirely independently in different countries to bring about +the same general character of product. + ++174. Bacterially ripened series.+--The semi-hard cheeses ripened by +bacteria stand half-way between true Limburger and the hard forms. In +fact, brands of Limburger are readily found which approach the texture +and ripening of Brick cheese. In the same way, Brick cheeses are often +found which have the appearance, texture and much of the flavor of the +Cheddars with only a trace of the taste of Limburger. Port du Salut, +Oka, Münster, in France Livarot, in the Balkan regions Kascoval, belong +in this series. + ++175. Brick cheese.+--The name of this cheese is probably due to the +finished product being about the size and shape of a brick. It is +similar to the German cheese Bäckstein and may have been developed from +it. It is typically a sweet-curd cheese, made from milk freshly drawn, +without permitting the development of appreciable quantities of acidity +until after the curd has been put into the hoop. In the making process, +it is intermediate between Limburger and the cheeses of the Cheddar +group. Some cheese-makers use an ordinary cheese vat, others a copper +kettle in manufacturing. + +It is the usual practice to deliver the milk to the cheese factory both +morning and evening, without cooling. Cheese is made twice a day. In +some cases the milk is delivered only once a day, and extra precautions +must then be taken to care for the milk properly. + +The discussion of the care of milk in Chapter II applies to that for +Brick cheese. For the best quality of cheese, the milk in the vat +should show about 0.15 of 1 per cent acidity and never above 0.18 of 1 +per cent.[80] + ++176. Making of Brick cheese.+[81]--The milk is received at the cheese +factory at a temperature of about 92° to 96° F. For the best results, +the acidity should be determined (by the acid test) to decide on the +amount of starter to use. Few Brick cheese-makers use an acid test or a +starter but these precautions would improve the product of many +factories. For method of using the acid test, see Chapter V. Chapter IV +discusses the preparation and use of starter. Usually 0.25 to 0.50 of 1 +per cent of starter is the amount required. A small amount of starter is +used to aid the development of lactic acid and for the beneficial effect +it has on the flavor. A very small development of acid is desired after +adding the starter; therefore the change in acidity should be very +carefully watched with the acid test. The vat is usually set when the +acid test shows 0.16 of 1 per cent acidity. The more acid in the milk, +the less starter should be employed. Sufficient rennet extract should be +used to give a coagulation suitable for cutting in thirty to thirty-five +minutes. For method of adding the rennet extract, see Chapter V. When +the coagulum is firm enough for the curd to break clean over the finger, +it is ready to cut. The curd is cut with coarse knives into 3/8- or +½-inch cubes. After cutting, the curd is let stand three to five +minutes, then stirred with the hands for a few minutes until the whey +begins to separate and then stirred with the rake. Some makers do not +stir by hand but use the rake directly after cutting. When this is done, +great care must be exercised to stir the curd without breaking up the +pieces, because this causes a loss of fat. After cutting the curd is +stirred for twenty to thirty minutes before the steam is turned on. The +curd is heated very slowly at first and more rapidly during the last +stages of cooking. The curd is cooked to a temperature of 110° to 115° +F. The lower the temperature that can be used to produce firm curd, the +better the texture of the cheese. After cutting and during the cooking, +the curd must be constantly stirred so that lumps will not form. When +the curd forms lumps, the moisture is not evenly expelled. This results +in uneven texture and curing. Sometimes some salt is added to the curd +in the vat to restrain souring. The curd is stirred after cooking until +it is sufficiently firm. It remains usually in the whey for a total +period of one and one-fourth to one and one-half hours from the time of +cutting. It is then dipped into forms 10 inches long by 5 inches wide by +8 inches deep. The forms are without top or bottom and are placed on a +draining table. This table is so constructed that the whey can be saved +for stock feed. When ready to "dip," the whey is drawn down to the +surface of the curd in the vat, then the curd is dipped into the forms +or hoops. Care must be taken to get the same amount of curd into each +form to produce the cheeses of uniform size. Each cheese is turned +several times to insure even draining and even reduction of the +temperature. While draining, a follower is placed in each hoop and a +weight placed on each cheese. Usually a brick is used for this weight. A +cheese is allowed to drain or press for ten to fifteen hours. It is +then placed on the salting table and rubbed with coarse salt. While on +the salting table, a cheese is placed on its broad side. Some +cheese-makers prefer to salt their cheeses by soaking them in a salt +brine. This brine should be strong enough to float an egg. Salting +requires three days. The cheeses are then brushed free from excess salt +and taken to the cellar to cure or ripen. + ++177. Ripening Brick cheese.+--For this process, the cellars are kept at +about 90 percent relative humidity and a temperature of 60° to 65° F. +Some prefer a temperature for curing as high as 68° F. During the +curing, the surfaces of the cheese are kept moist and mold growths kept +down by rubbing or brushing the cheese with pure water or salt and +water. In the curing cellars the cheeses are placed on shelves; at first +they are set close together and as they cure, they are separated. During +curing, the color changes from a whitish to a reddish brown. The cheese +cures from the outside toward the center. When first made, the product +is harsh and hard in texture but during the ripening process it becomes +mellow and smooth. The cheeses remain on the curing shelves for four to +six weeks, after which they are wrapped in heavy waxed paper and boxed. +A cheese ready for market usually weighs about five pounds. A Brick +cheese box is 5 inches deep by 20 inches wide by 3 feet long, and holds +110 to 115 pounds of cheese. + ++178. Qualities of Brick cheese.+--The cheeses should be neat and +attractive and the rind not cracked or broken. The sides should be +square and not bulged. The cheese should have a clean, characteristic +Brick cheese flavor. The body and texture should be mellow and smooth +and when rubbed between the thumb and forefinger, should break down +like cold butter. The color should be uniform. The cheese should contain +the proper amount of salt and moisture. One of the worst faults with +Brick cheese is bad flavor. This is many times due to the cheese-maker +not using clean flavored starter. It may also be due to bad flavored +milk. A Brick cheese-maker has no means of controlling gassy +fermentations. These show themselves in the bad flavor of the cheese and +in the porous body. They also cause the cheese to bulge. If detected, +gassy milk should be rejected. If too much acid is developed, a sour +cheese is the result. This will not cure normally and usually has a sour +flavor. The body will be brittle and mealy. If too much salt is used, +the cheese may have a salty taste and it will cure very slowly. If not +enough salt is used, the cheese may cure too rapidly and undesirable +flavors and fermentations develop. The cheese must have the proper +moisture-content; if too much moisture is present, the cheese cures too +fast and is soft and pasty in body; if not enough moisture, then the +reverse is true. Tabulation of cheeses of special quality, as submitted +in scoring contests, show an average water-content of 37 to 38 per cent, +with occasional cheeses verging toward Limburger in texture and flavor +with 40 to 42 per cent water, and others indistinguishable from Cheddar, +with water-content as low as 34 per cent. + +The Wisconsin Cheese-makers Association uses the following score-card +for the judging of Brick cheese on a scale of 100: + + Flavor 40 + Texture 40 + Color 10 + Salt 5 + Style 5 + --- + 100 + ++179. Composition and yield.+--The composition of Brick cheese varies +within wide limits. The average cheese probably contains from 37 to 39 +per cent of water, although many cheeses are above and below this +average; Doane and Lawson[82] give the fat as 28.86 per cent, proteins +23.8 per cent and total ash 4.20 per cent. + +The composition and yield are both affected by: (1) the moisture-content +of the cheese; (2) composition of the milk from which made; and (3) +losses during the manufacturing process. The average yield of Brick +cheese is 11 to 13 pounds to 100 pounds of milk. + ++180. Port du Salut cheese.+--The Trappist monks originated this type of +cheese in their monasteries in France. Under the name of their community +Oka, it has been made and sold widely by the Trappist Fathers of Quebec. +In recent years, factories independent of the order have made such +cheese both in America and in Europe. + +The following outline of the making process indicates the close +relationship between Port du Salut and Brick cheeses. Whole milk or milk +not over one-fifth skimmed is ripened to medium acidity, then heated to +90° to 95° F. according to season and acidity. Rennet enough is added +(see Chapter V) to curdle in thirty to forty minutes, although some +makers shorten the time to twenty minutes. When formed, the curd is cut +into small cubes and excess of whey is dipped away. The constantly +stirred mass is then heated or cooked to 100° to 105° F. within a period +of ten to twelve minutes or according to some makers twenty to thirty +minutes. It is allowed to stand a few minutes to settle. Most of the +whey is then drawn and the mass is stirred vigorously to prevent fusion +of the curd granules. The curd is ready for the hoop when the particles +are about the size of grains of wheat and do not stick together when +squeezed with the hand. The individual grains of curd should crumble +easily between the fingers. The hot curd is transferred directly to the +hoops without cooling. For this purpose, a hoop is set upon the table +covered with a cloth and the curd dipped into the cloth. The edges of +the cloth are then folded over. In this condition the cheese is +transferred to the press where gradually increasing pressure begins with +3 to 4 pounds and reaches about 70 pounds. To insure proper shape, +cheeses are turned and put into fresh cloths at the end of the first +hour and turned subsequently several times during the pressing period of +about twelve hours.[83] + +Port du Salut cheeses are salted by rubbing fine salt on the surface by +hand at the rate of 1.2 to 2 per cent of the weight of the cheese. After +about two days in the salting process, they are put into the ripening +cellars. The cellars are wet, since they reach 90 to 95 per cent +relative humidity at a temperature of about 55° F. After two days in the +cellar, the cheeses are plunged into a tank of saturated brine to which +a trace of cheese color has been added. As they come out of these tanks, +they are yellowish and greasy or slimy. They are returned to the +shelves where they are rubbed every day with a cloth or by hands wet in +brine. After about one week they are again plunged in the brine. +Treatment with brine tends to insure a firm rind. The cheeses are rubbed +more or less regularly with brine through the whole ripening period. + +After six weeks, such cheese may be eaten. The cut surface of Port du +Salut is creamy in color, may or may not show small holes. In texture it +is soft enough to spread readily under pressure without losing its shape +in handling. In flavor the cheese is a mild form belonging to the +Limburger group. + +Port du Salut cheeses as imported from France usually are firm round +cakes about 1½ inches thick, weighing about 3 pounds. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +_THE HARD CHEESES_ + + +The hard cheeses form a great series of groups, whose most prominent +physical character is their firm or hard texture. This is correlated +with comparatively low water-content, which is usually between 30 and 40 +per cent. Although certain varieties occasionally test above 40 per cent +water, this deviation is accompanied by quick ripening and rapid +spoilage. These varieties of cheese are staple products with long +marketable periods; therefore they may be handled in large lots, +shipped, carted and stored freely without the losses such treatment +would entail in soft cheese. The retailer frequently buys hard cheese by +the ton, not by the cheese or by the box. + +In making, these varieties are characterized as cooked and pressed +cheeses. Although both the heating of a curd and the pressing of a newly +made cheese occur among semi-hard forms, these practices appear in their +most typical forms in the hard cheeses. + +The hard cheeses show two types of texture. A cut cheese may appear +smooth, free from holes or with a few angular cracks or seams, or it may +show round holes or "eyes." In the smooth textured forms every effort is +made to prevent gassy fermentations, usually by controlling the +fermentation of the curd in the making process. When "eyes" are present, +the end sought has been a development of a particular form of gassy +fermentation which gives this appearance and brings about the +characteristic ripening texture and flavor. + +The hard cheeses have been developed in groups of national varieties. +The best known of these groups are those which may be represented by +English Cheddar, American Factory Cheddar, Danish, the Edam of Holland, +Swiss and Parmesan with many related varieties in Italy and neighboring +countries of southern Europe. + ++181. The Danish group.+--The Danish cheeses are related in appearance +and flavor to the English group represented by Cheddar. The demand for +butter in Europe has been so great that the Danish cheese-makers have +developed skim and part skim varieties largely to the exclusion of the +whole milk form. Skillful handling of their process has resulted in a +product which has had a very large and appreciative market in England +and Germany. + ++182. The Dutch group.+--Edam and Gouda are the two forms of cheese made +in Holland and most widely known among other peoples. Both reach America +in considerable quantities; both are shipped in large amounts to +tropical countries. Although attempts have been made to manufacture them +in America, no commercial production of these cheeses has been +successful. Although whole milk grades of these cheeses are known, they +are to a large measure part skim in manufacture. The presence of one or +both of these forms in every large market in America makes the general +facts of their production of general interest. Parts of a report on +experimental work in the making of Edam and Gouda are, therefore, given +here. + ++183. Edam cheese+[84] is a sweet-curd type, made from partially +skimmed-milk. It comes to the market in the form of round red balls, +each weighing from 3½ to 4 pounds when cured. It is largely +manufactured in northern Holland and derives its name from a town famous +as a market for this kind of cheese.[85] Milk from which one-fourth to +one-third of the fat has been removed is used. Too great pains cannot be +taken in regard to the condition of the milk. It should be fresh, free +from every trace of taint; in brief, it should be in as perfect +condition as possible. + ++184. Method of manufacture.+--The following paragraphs give the steps +in the manufacture of Edam cheese: + +_Treatment of milk before adding rennet._--The temperature of the milk +should be brought up to a point not below 85° F. nor much above 88° F. +When the desired temperature has become constant, the coloring matter +should be added. Cheese color is used at the rate of 1½ to 2 ounces +for 1000 pounds of milk. The coloring matter should, of course, be added +to the milk and thoroughly incorporated by stirring before the rennet is +added. + +_Addition of rennet to milk._--The rennet should not be added until the +milk has reached the desired temperature (85° to 88° F.) and this +temperature has become constant. + +When the temperature reaches the desired point and remains there +stationary, the rennet extract is added. Rennet extract may be used, +4½ to 5½ ounces being taken for 1000 pounds of milk, or enough to +coagulate the milk in the desired time, at the actual temperature used. +The milk should be completely coagulated, ready for cutting, in about +twelve to eighteen minutes from the time the rennet is added. The same +precaution observed in making Cheddar cheese should be followed in +making Edam cheese with reference to care in adding the rennet, such as +careful, accurate measurement, dilution with pure water before addition +to milk. + +_Cutting the curd for Edam._--When the curd breaks clean across the +finger, it should be cut; it is cut a very little softer than in the +Cheddar process as ordinarily practiced. As stated, this stage of +hardness in the curd which fits it for cutting should come in twelve to +eighteen minutes after the rennet is added. First, a vertical knife is +used and the curd is cut lengthwise, after which it is allowed to stand +until the slices of curd begin to show the separation of whey. Then the +vertical knife is used in cutting crosswise, after which the horizontal +knife is at once used. Any curd adhering to the bottom and sides of the +vat is carefully removed by the hand, after which the curd-knife is +again passed through the mass of curd lengthwise and crosswise, +continuing the cutting until the curd has been cut as uniformly as +possible into very small pieces. + +_Treatment of Edam curd after cutting._--When the cutting is completed, +one commences at once to heat the curd up to the temperature of 93° to +96° F. The heating is done as quickly as possible. While the heating is +in progress, the curd is kept constantly agitated to prevent settling +and consequent overheating. As soon as the curd shows signs of +hardening, which the experience of the worker will enable him to +determine, the whey is drawn off until the upper surface of the curd +appears, when one should commence to fill the press molds. + +[Illustration: FIG. 27.--Edam cheese mold.] + +_Filling molds, pressing and dressing Edam._--The molds, which are +described later in detail, are well soaked in warm water previous to +use, in order to prevent too sudden chilling of curd and consequent +checking of separation of whey. As soon as whey is drawn off, as +indicated above, one begins to fill the pressing molds (Fig. 27). The +filling should be done as rapidly as possible to prevent too great +cooling of curd. When the curd has been put into the molds, its +temperature should not be below 88° F. Unless care is taken to keep the +curd covered, the portion that is last put into the molds may become too +much cooled. In making Edam cheese on a small scale, it is a good plan +to squeeze the moisture out with the hands as much as possible and then +break it up again before putting in the molds, when the curd should be +pressed into the mold firmly by the hands. The molds should be filled as +nearly alike as possible. The cheese should weigh from 5 to 5¼ pounds +each when ready for the press. When the filling of molds is completed, +they are put under continual pressure of 20 to 25 pounds for about +twenty-five or thirty minutes. While the cheese is being pressed, some +sweet whey is heated to a temperature of 125° or 130° F., and this whey +should not be allowed to go below 120° F. at any time while it is being +used. When the cheeses are taken from their molds, each is put into the +warm whey for two minutes, then removed and dressed. For dressing Edam +cheese, the ordinary cheese bandage cloth is used. This is cut into +strips, which should be long enough to reach entirely around the cheese +and overlap an inch or so, and which should be wide enough to cover all +but a small portion of the ends of the cheese when put in place. Before +putting on the bandage, all rough projections should be carefully pared +from the cheese. In putting on, the cheese is held in one hand and the +bandage is wrapped carefully around the cheese, so that the whole is +covered, except a small portion on the upper and lower surface of the +cheese. These bare spots are covered by small pieces of bandage cloth of +a size sufficient to fill the bare surface. The bandage is kept wet with +the warm sweet whey, thus facilitating the process of dressing. After +each cheese is dressed, it should be replaced in the dressing mold, care +being taken that the bandage remains in place and leaves no portion of +the surface of the cheese uncovered and in direct contact with the mold. +The cheese is then put under continual pressure of 60 to 120 pounds and +kept for six to twelve hours. + ++185. Salting and curing Edam.+--There are two methods which may be +employed in salting,--dry and wet. In dry-salting, when the cheese is +finally taken from the press, it is removed from the press mold, its +bandage is removed completely, and the cheese placed in another mold, +quite similar, known as the salting mold. Each cheese is placed in a +salting mold with a coating of fine salt completely surrounding it. The +cheese is salted in this way once each day for five or six days. Each +day the cheese should be turned when it is replaced in the mold, so that +it will not be rounded on one end more than the other. + +In the method of wet-salting, the cheese is placed in a tank of salt +brine, made by dissolving common salt in water in the proportion of +about 1 pound of salt to 2½ quarts of water. Each cheese is turned +once a day and should be left in the brine seven or eight days. When +the cheese is taken from the salting mold or salt bath, it is placed in +warm water and given a vigorous, thorough brushing in order to remove +all slimy or greasy substances that may have accumulated on the outer +surface. When the surface is well cleansed, the cheese is carefully +wiped dry with a linen towel and placed upon a shelf in the curing-room. +In being put on the shelves, the cheeses should be placed in contact so +as to support one another, until they have flattened out at both ends so +much that they can stand upright alone. Then they are moved far enough +apart to allow a little air space between them. Another method of +securing the flattened ends is to support each cheese on opposite sides +by wedge-shaped pieces of wood. After being placed on the shelves in the +curing-room, they are turned once a day and rubbed with the bare hand +during the first month, twice a week during the second month and once a +week after that. When any slimy substance appears on the surface of the +cheese, it should be washed off at once with warm water or sweet whey. +The special conditions of the curing-room will be noticed in detail +below. When the cheeses are about two months old, they can be prepared +for market in the following manner: They are first made smooth on the +surface by being turned in a lathe or in some other manner, after which +the surface is colored. For coloring, some carmine is dissolved in +alcohol or ammonia to secure the proper shade, and in this color-bath +the cheeses are placed for about one minute, when they are removed and +allowed to drain, and as soon as they are dry the outside of each cheese +is rubbed with boiled linseed oil, in order to prevent checking. They +are then wrapped in tin-foil, which is done very much like the +bandaging. Care must be taken to put on the tin-foil so that it presents +a smooth, neat appearance. The cheeses are finally packed in boxes, +containing twelve cheeses in each box, arranged in two layers of six +each with a separate partition for each cheese. + ++186. Equipment for making Edam cheese.+--Careful attention must be +given to the moisture and temperature of the curing-room. This room +should be well ventilated, quite moist and its temperature kept between +50° and 65° F. These are conditions not easy to secure in any ordinary +room. Some form of cellar is best adapted for these conditions. The +amount of moisture can be determined by an instrument known as a +hygrometer. In a curing-room suited for Edam cheese, the moisture should +be between 85 and 95 per cent, or a little short of saturation. When the +temperature is between 50° and 65° F., the moisture is between 85 and 95 +per cent if the wet-bulb thermometer is from 1 to 2° F. (or ½ to 1° +C.) below the dry-bulb thermometer. Cheese will check or crack and be +spoiled for market, if the degree of moisture is not kept high enough. + +Aside from the molds, press and salting vat, the same apparatus that is +used in making Cheddar can be used for Edam cheese. The pressing mold is +turned preferably from white wood or, in any case, from wood that will +not taint. Each mold consists of two parts; the lower constitutes the +main part of the mold, the upper portion is simply a cover. The lower +portion or body of the mold has several holes in the bottom, from which +the whey flows when the cheese is pressed. Care must be taken to prevent +these holes being stopped up by curd. This part of the mold is about six +inches deep and six inches in diameter across the top. The salting mold +has no cover and the bottom is provided with only one hole for the +out-flow of whey; in other respects it is much like the pressing mold. + ++187. Qualities and yield of Edam cheese.+--The flavor of a perfect Edam +cheese is difficult to describe. It is mild, clean, and pleasantly +saline. In imperfect Edams, the flavor is more or less sour and +offensive. In body, a perfect Edam cheese is solid, rather dry and mealy +or crumbly. In texture, it should be close and free from pores. In the +experiments here reported the amount of fat in 100 pounds of the +partially skimmed-milk varied from 2.45 to 3.20 pounds and averaged 2.77 +pounds. Of this amount, from 0.30 to 0.51 pound of fat was lost in the +whey, with an average of 0.39 pound. The yield of cheese from 100 pounds +of milk varied from 9.60 to 11.82 pounds and averaged 10.56 pounds. + ++188. Gouda cheese.+[86]--This Dutch variety is a sweet-curd cheese made +from whole milk. In shape, the Gouda cheese is somewhat like a Cheddar +with the sharp edges rounded off and sloping toward the outer +circumference at the middle from the end faces. They usually weigh 10 or +12 pounds, though they vary in weight from 8 to 16 pounds. They are +largely manufactured in southern Holland, and derive their name from the +town in which they were first made. Fresh sweet milk that has been +produced and cared for in the best possible manner should be used. + ++189. Method of manufacture.+--The processes of manufacturing Gouda +cheese are as follows: + +_Treatment of milk before adding rennet._--The temperature of the milk +should be brought up to a point not below 88° F. nor much above 90° F. +When the desired temperature has been reached and has become constant, +the coloring matter is added. One ounce of cheese color for about 1200 +pounds of milk may be used. The coloring matter should be thoroughly +incorporated by stirring before the rennet is added. + +_Addition of rennet to milk._--The rennet should not be added until the +milk has reached the desired temperature (88 to 90° F.) and this +temperature has become constant. The milk should be completely +coagulated, ready for cutting, in fifteen or twenty minutes. The same +precautions should be used in adding rennet as those previously +mentioned in connection with the manufacture of Edam cheese. + +_Cutting the curd._--The curd should be cut when it is of about the +hardness generally observed for cutting in the Cheddar process. The +cutting is done as in the Cheddar process except that the curd is cut a +little finer in the Gouda cheese. Curd should be about the size of peas +or wheat kernels when ready for press and as uniform in size as +possible. + +_Treatment of curd after cutting._--After the cutting is completed, +heating and stirring is begun at once. The heating and constant stirring +is continued until the curd reaches a temperature of 104° F., which +should require from thirty to forty minutes. When the curd becomes +rubber-like in feeling, the whey should be run off. The whey should be +entirely sweet when it is removed. + +_Pressing and dressing Gouda._--After the whey is off, the curd is put +in molds at once without salting (Fig. 28). Pains should be taken in +this process to keep the temperature of the curd as near 100° F. as +possible. Each cheese is placed under continuous pressure amounting to +ten or twenty times its own weight and kept for about half an hour. The +first bandage is put on in very much the same manner as in Edam cheese +making. The cheese is then put in press again for about one hour. The +first bandage is then taken off and a second one like the first put on +with great care, taking pains to make the bandage smooth, capping the +ends as before. The cheese is then put in press again and left twelve +hours or more. + +[Illustration: FIG. 28.--Gouda cheese mold.] + +_Salting and curing._--When Gouda cheese is taken from the press, the +bandage is removed and it is placed for twenty-four hours in a +curing-room like that used for Edam cheese, as previously described. +Each cheese is then rubbed all over with dry salt until the salt begins +to dissolve, and this same treatment is continued twice a day for ten +days. At the end of that time, each cheese is carefully and thoroughly +washed in warm water and dried with a clean linen towel. The cheeses are +then placed on the shelves of the curing-room, turned once a day and +rubbed. The temperature and moisture are controlled as described in the +curing process of Edam cheese. If the outer surfaces of the cheese +become slimy at any time, they are carefully washed in warm water and +dried with clean towels. Under these conditions, cheese ripens in two or +three months. + ++190. Equipment for Gouda cheese.+--The molds, press and curing-room +are the only equipment needed in the making of Gouda cheese that differ +from that employed in making Cheddar cheese. The mold used for Gouda +cheese consists of two portions, which are shown separately in Fig. 28. +These molds are made of heavy pressed tin. The inside diameter at the +middle is about 10 inches, that of the ends about 6½ inches. The +height of the mold is about 5½ inches, and this represents the +thickness of the cheese, but by pushing the upper down into the lower +portion, the thickness can be decreased as desired. + ++191. Composition and yield of Gouda.+--In work with milk averaging 4.2 +per cent of fat there were lost in the whey from 0.29 to 0.43 per cent +with an average of 0.35 per cent of fat. The loss of fat appears to be +not much greater than the average loss met with in cheese factories in +making Cheddar cheese. From 100 pounds of milk, there were made from +11.60 to 13.35 pounds of green cheese, with an average of 12.50 pounds. +The percentage of water in the experimental cheese varied from 41.25 to +45.43 per cent and averaged 43.50 per cent. + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +_CHEDDAR CHEESE-MAKING_ + + +Cheddar is the best known cheese throughout the United States and the +one most commonly made in factories. The Cheddar process was brought to +America by English immigrants. Similar to Cheddar cheese are Pineapple, +English Dairy, Sage cheese, skimmed-milk and California Jack cheese made +in this country, and Derbyshire, Leicestershire, Wensleydale and +Cheshire made in England. The Cheddar cheese process as employed in the +factories to-day has been modified and improved since it was first +introduced into this country by the early immigrants. The following +description[87] includes only the practices as found in the factories +to-day if whole milk is used. Skimmed-milk Cheddar cheese is discussed +later. + ++192. The lot-card.+--The Cheddar process involves several hours of +manipulation and includes many details which should be closely and +accurately observed and recorded. The necessity of carrying observations +of several different factors at the same time makes a scheme of +recording data essential to convenient work. For this purpose, a +lot-card for Cheddar cheese is introduced here and the pages given to +particular factors are indicated in the space intended for the recording +of observations. The manufacture of Cheddar cheese is a complicated +process, because several factors must be given attention at the same +time. A careful record of the observations of each step in the +successive handling of each lot of milk puts the operator in possession +of a permanent record of his experience. This record has several uses. +It may help to convince patrons of the importance of eliminating faults +in the milk; it furnishes the cheese-maker a cumulative record of his +experiences in handling milk with special qualities, such as high or low +fat-content, over-acidity or taints. Since Cheddar ripening covers a +period of weeks and months, no operator can remember particular lots of +milk sufficiently well to be able to use his experience on the +interpretation of the qualities found in the ripened product. + +[Illustration: FIG. 29.--Delivering milk to the cheese factory.] + ++193. The milk.+--It is the usual practice to deliver the milk to the +cheese factory each morning (Fig. 29). The night's milk is cooled and +kept clean and cold until delivered at the factory. It is advisable not +to mix the cold night's milk and the warm morning's milk, but to deliver +them in separate cans to the cheese factory at the same time. The milk +is weighed, sample for fat test taken and then run into the vat (Fig. +30). The receiving or taking in of the milk is one of the most important +parts of the cheese factory work. It is practically as important as the +actual manufacturing of the cheese. + + +21 CHEESE.+ This card must remain with lot ........... from the milk room + until the finished product is ready to leave the building, then it should + be handed to instructor. + + +MAKING+ Day and Date ................................ Vat ............... + +Milk | | + Used+ | | +Milk+ + ........................|............| Appearance of Milk ................ + ........................|............| Odor .............................. + ........................|............| Taste ............................. + Total pounds |............| Weather conditions ................ + ------------------------+------------+------------------------------------ + ...........% fat ...........lbs. fat | +Starter+ + | Kind used.......................... + ....% solids not fat ....lbs. s.n.f. | Flavor............................. + | Acidity............................ + ....% casein ....lbs. casein. | Amount used.......... % used....... + -------------------------------------+------------------------------------ + +Time of Minutes+ | +% Acid+ | +Temperature+ + adding starter }...... | _In Milk_ | of milk when received + } | | when starter added... + adding rennet }...... | when received............| when rennet added.... + } | before adding starter....| when whey removed.... + coagulation }...... | after adding starter.....| at pressing.......... + } | when rennet added........+---------------------- + cutting }...... | | +Rennet Test+ + } | | when milk received... + turn'g on steam }...... | _In Whey_ | after adding starter. + } | after curd is cut....... | when rennet added.... + turn'g off steam}...... | at dipping.............. +---------------------- + } | at packing.............. | +Hot Iron Test+ + dipping }...... | at milling | at dipping........... + } | at milling | at packing........... + packing }...... | at salting | at salting........... + } +--------------------------+---------------------- + milling }...... | +Condition of Curd+ + } | + salting }...... | when cut........................................ + } | when packed..................................... + hooping }...... | when milled..................................... + } | when salted..................................... + pressing }...... | when pressed.................................... + } +------------------------------------------------- + dressing }...... | Amount per | +Color+ | +Rennet+ | +Salt+ + | 1000 lbs. milk |.........|..........|........ + Total time from }....| | | | + setting to pressing} | Total Amount |.........|..........|........ + ------------------------+-------+-----------+---------+----------+-------- + % fat in lbs. fat estimated | If comments are added on + .......whey ....... so lost. | reverse side, put cross here............ + % of total milk | Work and + ....fat lost in whey | Observations by......................... + Assisted by............................................................... + -------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +YIELD+ Day and Date......................... Time....................... + Serial + Weight of cheese when removed from press to curing room,......lbs. No.... + lbs. milk for Kind of cheese made lbs. cheese per + ..........one lb. cheese. ................... ......100 lbs. milk + lbs. cheese for one No. of cheese made. lbs. cheese for one + ..........lb. fat in milk. ................... ....lb. total solid + If comments are added on reverse side put cross here........... + Work and observations by.................................................. + -------------------------------------------------------------------------- + Arranged by W. W. Hall. + +[Illustration: FIG. 30.--Receiving, sampling, weighing and running the +milk into the cheese vat.] + +Any milk high in acid or with a bad flavor should be avoided. It is +often bad policy to reject the milk, for a neighboring factory will +accept it and the factory not only loses the milk but also the patron. +Factories should have an agreement to prevent this. The acidity can be +determined by the acid test, but the detection of flavors must be made +by the cheese-maker himself with the aid of smell and taste. Many of +the bad flavors in the cheese can be traced to the poor quality of the +milk. One of the worst qualities in milk and cheese is the presence of +gas-producing organisms.[88] Any milk which shows gassy fermentation +should be rejected, for it is difficult to make cheese from this and at +best there will be a large loss during the manufacturing process. The +cheese may have a bad flavor and develop "pin-holes" and in extreme +cases may puff up like a ball. The person receiving the milk should talk +to the farmers or dairy-men about the proper care of the utensils and +milk. He must see that the cans are kept clean. One very bad practice is +to deliver milk and take home whey in the same cans. The cans, as they +are brought back from the cheese factory full of whey, are often left in +the barn or near a hog-pen until the whey is fed. Unless such cans are +emptied immediately on returning to the farm and then rinsed out with +cold water, thoroughly washed and scalded, bad flavors may develop in +the cheese. It is thought that this causes "fruity" or sweet flavor, +which resembles that of fruits such as raspberries, strawberries or +pineapples. + ++194. Ripening the milk.+--A slight development of acidity is required: +(_a_) to obtain the formation of a firm curd; and (_b_) to establish +immediate dominance of a desirable type of lactic organism which will +produce the large amount of acid required later in the cheddaring +process. The development of this acidification before the addition of +rennet is known as the ripening of the milk. The extent of ripening +advised by different schools of makers has varied from an acidity of +0.20 of 1 per cent or even slightly higher percentage titrated as lactic +acid, to about 0.17 of 1 per cent as now preferred by some of the most +successful groups of workers. The ripeness of the milk can also be +determined by the use of the rennet test. + +The milk may be ripened by allowing the lactic organisms already present +in the milk to develop naturally. This requires considerable time and +while the lactic acid-forming bacteria are developing, other and +undesirable fermentations may be taking place, so that the good results +which should follow the uninterrupted development of the lactic +acid-forming organisms are lost. Starter is commonly used to produce the +desired ripening of the milk. (For the preparation of starter see +Chapter IV.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 31.--Steel cheese vat.] + +Some makers put the starter into the empty vat (Fig. 31) and add the +milk as it is received; others add it to the total volume of cold milk +and then begin to heat it. Whenever the starter is used, it should be +strained to remove lumps. These lumps might cause a mottled color in the +cheese. The best practice calls for an acidity or a rennet test of the +mixed milk after it has been brought to the setting temperature in the +vat. With milk tested at this stage and the volume of milk in the vat +known, the cheese-maker is able to calculate closely the amount of +starter needed. When the quantity of starter to use is in doubt, the +amount added should be under rather than over the estimate, since the +need of more can be determined by making frequent rennet and acid tests +in a very few minutes without damage to the cheese. If too much starter +has been used, acid or sour cheese is usually obtained, with loss in +market quality. + +An over-development of acidity at any stage of the manufacturing process +affects the flavor, body and texture, color and finish of the cheese. +The product is known as a sour cheese, and can usually be identified by +its sour taste and smell. A sour cheese while curing will seldom develop +a normal Cheddar flavor and the texture will be hard and harsh and very +brittle. The body will not be smooth but harsh and grainy. The +over-development of acid will show by fading or bleaching the color. A +sour cheese usually leaks whey for a few days after being placed on the +curing-room shelves. + +Ripening the milk is one of the most important parts of cheese-making. +Proper ripening places the acid fermentations under the control of the +cheese-maker so that he may know what results will follow his labors. +The operator can control the acidity while ripening the milk, but after +the rennet is added all control of the acidity is lost. From that time, +the moisture must be regulated in proportion to the acidity. + +Before setting, the milk should be ripened to such a point as to leave +at least two and one-half hours from the time that the rennet extract is +added until the acid development has reached the stage at which it is +necessary to remove the whey. By the acid test the milk may vary from +0.16 to 0.18 of 1 per cent, but no definite statement can be given for +the rennet test. This can be determined only by comparison from day to +day. For operation of rennet test see Chapter V. During this period of +two and one-half hours, the curd is formed, then cut, and the +temperature is raised from 84° or 86° F. (the temperature at which the +rennet extract is added) to about 98° to 100° F. The curd must be kept +agitated so that the particles will not mat together; this is necessary +to obtain sufficient contraction of the particles of curd with the +proper reduction of water-content. If the milk becomes too ripe (too +sour) before the rennet is added, there will not be sufficient time for +these steps to take place naturally. In such cases special means are +required to firm the curd. These result in a loss of both quality and +quantity of cheese. On the other hand, if the milk is not ripened, but +the rennet extract added, regardless of the acid development, one of the +important natural forces for expelling the moisture is lost. The time +required for the particles of curd to contract is much prolonged, the +expulsion of whey is usually inadequate and the curd remains in a soft +or wet condition. Using too much starter is almost equally bad, for +although it hastens the making process, it produces a sour or acid +cheese. + ++195. Setting or coagulating.+--The milk for Cheddar cheese-making is +heated to 86° to 88° F. or occasionally a slightly lower temperature. +This temperature is found by experiment to give the texture of curd most +favorable for the desired results. Although some cheese-makers work as +low as 84° F., the texture of such curd is too soft and coagulates too +slowly. The very slight change of 2° F. produces curd which coagulates +more quickly and is tougher and firmer. + +If the cheeses are to be colored, the color should be added after all +the starter. It should be thoroughly and evenly mixed with the milk to +insure an even color in the cheese. If the color is added before the +starter, there are likely to be white specks in the cheese, on account +of the coagulated casein in the starter. The amount of color to use +depends on the tint desired in the cheese. It varies from 1/3 to ½ +ounce to 1000 pounds of milk for a light straw color to 1½ to 2 +ounces for 1000 pounds of milk for a deep red color. + +Enough rennet should be used to produce a curd firm enough to cut in +twenty-five to thirty-five minutes. The necessary amount will vary with +the strength of the rennet extract itself, with the acidity, the +temperature, the nature of the lot of milk, and with the individual aims +of the maker in which he adjusts the other factors to his preferences as +to rapidity of rennet action. With the usual commercial extract, the +needed amount ranges from 2.5 to 4 ounces for 1000 pounds of milk. As +for all varieties of cheese, the rennet extract should be diluted in +cold water at about one part rennet to forty parts water and thoroughly +stirred into the milk. (See Chapter V.) + ++196. Cutting.+--The object of cutting is to obtain an even expulsion of +the moisture from the curd. The curd is cut as soon as it becomes firm +enough. To determine this, various tests may be used. Some operators +test it by pressing it away from the side of the vat, considering it +ready to cut when it separates cleanly from the metal. The test most +commonly used is to insert the index finger obliquely into the curd, +then to start to split the curd with the thumb and finally to raise the +finger gently; if ready to cut, the curd will split cleanly over the +finger and clear whey will separate to fill the opened crack. Another +arbitrary but more or less satisfactory rule is that the time from +adding the rennet until cutting should be two and one-half times that +from the addition of rennet until the first sign of coagulation is +observed. + +The condition of the curd itself is the best guide to show when it is +ready to cut. The condition of the curd is constantly changing, so that +in a large vat, if the cutting is not begun until the curd is in the +best condition, by the time the last of the curd is cut it will be too +hard or firm. It is better to begin while the curd is a trifle too soft +so that the cutting will be taking place while the curd is at the proper +stage. At best the last of the curd may become too hard. If too hard, it +will break ahead of the knife instead of cut. Breaking causes more fat +loss than cutting because there is more surface exposed and hence more +fat globules. The softer the curd when cut, the quicker and easier the +moisture can be expelled. + +If the curd is cut when soft, care must be exercised not to stir it too +hard immediately after cutting. Soft curd breaks very easily. When the +curd is cut soft and then stirred vigorously, there is a larger loss of +fat than when the curd becomes hard before it is cut. + +Two knives are used to cut the curd. (See Fig. 11.) These knives may +have either wire or blades for cutting. The space between the wires or +blades varies from 5/16 to ½ inch. Knives used should have blades or +wires close enough together to cut the pieces as small as desired, +without a second cutting. When the curd has to be cut a second time it +usually results in pieces of uneven sizes, because the pieces already +cut cannot be evenly split in two. + +One set of knives has horizontal and the other perpendicular blades or +wires. The curd is cut the long way of the vat with the horizontal knife +and lengthwise and crosswise with the perpendicular knife so that the +result is small cubes or oblongs of curd. Some cheese-makers prefer to +use one knife first and some the other, but the result should be a curd +cut into pieces of uniform size. The smaller the particles of curd or +cubes are cut, the quicker the curd will firm up or cook. If not cut +uniformly, the changes taking place later in the curd particles will not +be uniform,--the small pieces will be hard and dry while the large ones +will be soft and mushy. + +[Illustration: FIG. 32.--The proper way to put the knife into the curd.] + +Care should be taken to let the knife cut its way into the curd (Fig. +32). If the knife is pushed into the curd, it will break it and cause a +large loss of fat. The same is true when taking the knives out of the +curd. The loss of fat due to cutting is very similar to the loss of +sawdust when sawing a board. It may be considered a necessary evil. The +loss due to cutting is about 0.3 of 1 per cent of fat in the whey and +the loss of casein about 0.1 of 1 per cent in the whey. + +[Illustration: FIG. 33.--Acme curd rake.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 34.--McPherson curd agitator.] + ++197. Heating or "cooking" the curd.+--After the curd is cut, the pieces +(cubes) rapidly settle to the bottom of the vat and tend to mat +together. To prevent this, the curd must be kept stirred. When stirring +first begins, the curd is soft and very readily broken. Some +cheese-makers prefer to stir by hand for the first few minutes after +cutting, while the curd is soft. The importance of careful handling can +hardly be over-emphasized. No matter how well the curd has been cut, if +the stirring is performed in a careless manner in the early stages, it +will be broken into uneven sized pieces and a considerable loss of fat +will result. A wooden hay rake or a McPherson curd agitator (Figs. 33, +34) may be used to stir the curd. Mechanical curd agitators are used in +some cheese factories. There are several makes. (See Fig. 35.) These +agitators save much hand labor, although some stirring by hand must be +done in connection with them. The mechanical agitators do not stir the +curd in the corners of the vat; this must be done with the hand rake. It +is the usual practice to stir the curd immediately after cutting for +five to ten minutes before the mechanical agitators are used. This is +necessary to give the curd a slight chance to firm as the mechanical +agitators tend to break it up. After cutting, a thin film forms on each +piece of curd. This film holds the curd particles, especially the fat. +Breaking the films on the cubes causes loss of fat. If lumps form at +the early stage, by matting of the curd particles, violent stirring is +required to separate them. When such lumps are broken up, new cleavage +lines are formed with loss of fat, because the original films +surrounding the soft curd fuse so firmly that the curd cubes do not +separate but actually break. New surfaces are thus formed with +consequent fat loss. Rapid shrinkage with expulsion of whey takes place +during the first few minutes of gentle agitation. Before any heat is +applied to the vat, sufficient whey should have separated or formed to +float each piece of curd separately. This will require ten to fifteen +minutes from the time of cutting. + +[Illustration: FIG. 35.--Two types of mechanical curd agitators.] + +Thus far the first of three distinct factors which expel the moisture +from the curd has been considered: (1) the action of the rennet; (2) the +development of the lactic acid; and (3) the application of heat. These +forces must have time to act naturally. If heat is applied too soon +after the curd is cut or if the temperature is raised too rapidly, it +causes a thick film to form on the pieces of curd which interferes with +the escape of the whey. The outside of the curd becomes firm but the +inside remains very soft. A curd which is cooked on the outside only +feels firm when stirred by hand in the whey, but when a handful is +squeezed the soft centers are noticed. To firm such curd masses requires +violent stirring, which will break the thick tough film. This allows the +moisture to escape and also increases the fat loss. The rapidity of +heating should depend on the condition of the curd and the amount of +acid developed. The heat should keep pace with these. When ready to +raise the temperature, the least amount of steam possible should be +allowed to pass through the valve. This should raise the temperature +very gradually. If heat is applied too quickly at first, it will cause +the curd to lump. A safe rule is to raise the temperature one degree in +the first five minutes after the steam has been turned on. The heating +should progress slowly until the whole mass of curd in the vat has +reached a temperature of 90° to 92° F. The usual temperature to which +the curd is heated or cooked is 98° F. to 100° F. The lower the +temperature that can be used and properly firm the curd, the better will +be the body of the cheese. If the curd is heated too high, it will +become hard, which causes a dry hard "corky" cheese. After this +temperature has been reached, there is not such a tendency for the curd +particles to stick together nor are they so easily broken in stirring. +It should require, under normal conditions, not less than thirty to +forty-five minutes, from the time the steam is turned on, to raise +temperature of the curd from the setting temperature to that necessary +to "firm" the curd. If a shorter time is allowed to raise the +temperature, the curd will not have opportunity to contract naturally. + +The temperature required to expel the moisture properly varies with the +percentage of fat in the milk. If rich in fat (4.5 to 5.5 per cent) milk +requires a temperature of 98° to 104° F. to firm the curd, while the +same result can be accomplished with milk testing 3.0 to 3.5 per cent +fat at a temperature of 94° to 96° F. A higher temperature is needed in +winter than in summer because the milk is usually richer in fat. In a +water-jacketed vat, allowance must always be made for the rise in +temperature due to the water surrounding it. The water may be removed if +there is danger of the temperature going too high. However, it is better +to gauge the heat so that the water may be left, as this helps to hold +the curd at an even temperature, especially in cold weather. In a +steam-heated vat there is not so much danger of the temperature running +up. + +The stirring must be kept up after the steam has been turned off until +the curd has reached such a stage of contraction that it will not +readily pack or mat in the bottom of the vat. After the curd reaches +this stage it may be allowed to settle to the bottom and stirred only +occasionally until it is time to remove the whey. If the cheese room is +not warm and there is danger of the curd cooling, a cover should be +placed on the vat. The curd should not be allowed to settle for more +than fifteen minutes without stirring to keep each piece separate. This +is necessary to obtain uniform contraction of all curd masses. + ++198. Removing the whey.+--To permit the normal changes in the curd to +take place naturally, two and one-half hours from the time the rennet +extract is added is ordinarily required before the whey is drawn. The +time of removing the whey is determined by two factors: one, the acid +development, and the other, the firmness of the curd. For the best +results, it is better to have the firmness of the curd a trifle ahead of +the acid development. When the proper acid development has been reached, +the whey must be removed, regardless of the firmness of the curd. If the +curd has not become firm enough by natural forces, when the acid +development has reached the proper stage to remove the whey, it must be +firmed by other means. If it is not firm enough, either by natural or +artificial means, when the whey is removed, a sour cheese is the result. +The acid development should not be allowed to go beyond 0.16 to 0.19 of +1 per cent acidity in the whey by the acid test or 1/16 to 1/8 of an +inch of acid on the hot-iron test, before the whey is removed. + ++199. Hot-iron test.+[89]--This test is employed to determine the amount +of acid in the curd. A piece of iron, such as an iron pipe two feet +long, is heated in the fire to proper temperature. If the iron is too +hot it will burn the curd, and if not hot enough the curd will not stick +to the iron. When hot, it is taken from the fire and wiped clean with a +cloth. A handful of curd is taken from the vat and squeezed dry, either +in the hand or in a cloth. This curd is carefully pressed against the +hot iron and drawn away. If the iron is at the right temperature and the +curd has sufficient acid development, the curd will stick to the iron +and when pulled away will form fine threads. The length of these threads +determines the amount of acid in the curd. The acid is usually spoken of +in terms of the length of threads, as 1/8 inch of acid, ½ inch of acid +and the like. The curd must have a slight development of acid before it +will stick to the iron. This test takes advantage of the peculiar +properties[90] of curd which are produced by the action of the acid on +the casein. + ++200. Firmness of the curd.+--The cheese-maker must be able to judge the +firmness of the curd by physical examination. The particles of curd +should have shrunken to about one-half their original size and should be +of uniform consistency throughout; they should not have any soft +centers. The curd should be firm and springy. When a double handful is +pressed and suddenly released, the curd particles should spring apart. +The curd should have a "shotty" feeling when in the whey. If the curd +has attained the proper firmness, and the acid has not reached the +correct stage to remove the whey, it may be left in the whey until +sufficient acid development has been attained. This is liable to cause +the curd to become too firm and to result in a hard dry cheese. If there +is no evidence of the presence of undesirable organisms, such as bad +odors, or gas holes in the curd, it is better to remove the whey and +develop the acid when the curd is in the "pack." The pack refers to the +first piling of the curd. + +[Illustration: FIG. 36.--Whey siphon with strainer.] + +The whey may be removed either by means of a faucet or gate in the vat +or by a siphon (Fig. 36). With either form of removal a whey-strainer +(Fig. 37) should be used to prevent loss of curd particles. It requires +considerable time for the whey to escape from a large vat. After the +curd has been heated to the proper temperature, it is well to remove a +portion of the whey. In doing this the surface of the whey should not be +drawn down quite to the top of the curd. When ready, the remaining whey +can be quickly removed. + +[Illustration: FIG. 37.--Whey strainer with spout to fit into the gate +in the vat.] + +If it is decided that the curd is not firm enough, when the whey is +drawn down to the surface of the curd and the acid has developed +sufficiently, the curd should be firmed up in the whey by stirring it +vigorously by hand before the remainder of the whey is removed. This is +commonly called "hand stirring." This difficulty results either from the +use of too much starter or from holding the milk until too much acid +development has taken place before adding the rennet. Hand stirring +accomplishes what natural forces would accomplish if given sufficient +time. If the curd does not firm naturally in the whey, there is a large +loss of fat and other solids, because the pieces of curd will have to be +broken up to allow the water to escape from the soft centers of these +masses. This loss can usually be reduced by firming the curd in the whey +or adding water rather than by stirring without either water or whey. If +the curd is not properly firmed, it carries extra whey into the cheese. +With the increase in whey, the amount of milk-sugar carried into the +cheese increases. This extra milk-sugar attacked by bacteria produces an +excess of lactic acid, which results in "sour" cheeses. This explains +why the curd is placed beyond the danger of over-development of acid by +removing so large a portion of the whey. If the curd is properly firmed +in the whey and the whey is removed before too much acid has developed, +it is impossible to make a sour cheese. + ++201. Gathering the curd together.+--Before the last of the whey has +been removed, the curd should be pushed back from the faucet into the +upper two-thirds of the vat and spread in an even layer. This layer +should be six to eight inches thick. The curd can be pushed back with +the rake or a board which will fit crosswise in the vat, in which are +many holes. As soon as the whey has been removed so that there is not +enough to wash the curd into the lower part of the vat, the vat should +be tilted and a ditch eight to ten inches wide cut in the curd through +the center. The curd from the ditch should be removed to either side and +spread evenly. As soon as all the whey has been removed, the pieces of +curd scattered about in the vat should be gathered up and placed with +the remainder. + +In some factories, instead of matting the curd in the vat, a curd sink +is used. This is a wooden receptacle about the size of the vat but not +so deep, with a slatted false bottom. It is fitted with castors so that +it can be easily moved about. A cloth is placed in the sink and the curd +and whey are dipped upon the cloth. The whey escapes very rapidly +through the cloth. The curd sink is an advantage in those cases in which +it is desirable to remove the whey from the curd quickly, such as high +acid curds which have to be hand stirred to firm the curd. The +disadvantage lies in the work required to keep the sink and the large +cloth clean. + ++202. Matting or cheddaring+ is the distinctive feature of the Cheddar +process. It is the piling and matting of the curd. Whether the curd is +matted in the vat or in the curd sink, the process is practically the +same. The object of cheddaring is three-fold: (1) to control the +incorporation of moisture; (2) to control undesirable ferments, if +present in the curd; (3) to develop the texture desired in the cheeses. + +[Illustration: FIG. 38.--A cheese knife.] + +After the curd in the vat has become matted so that the particles stick +together, the masses on either side of the central channel are cut +crosswise into strips with a cheese knife (Fig. 38). The width of the +strip depends on the water-content of the curd at this stage. The more +water, the smaller should be the pieces of curd. This allows the whey to +drain away much more rapidly. As soon as the strips of curd are cut, +they should be turned over or stood on edge. A drain should be left +along the middle line of the vat and on each side. This permits the whey +to run away freely. If, on the other hand, the outlet is dammed up, the +curd may become "whey-soaked." This produces a soft mushy cheese which +sometimes is "acidy" or sour. After the curd is turned each time, all +crumbs of curd broken off should be brushed underneath the masses of +curd so that they will mat with it. They should never be placed on top +of the curd because they will not unite but will become dry and hard. If +the crumbs are not kept brushed up, they become dry and will cause an +open textured granular cheese and possibly lumps in the cheese. After +the pieces of curd have been turned several times, and the whey has +fairly completely drained away, they may be piled first two deep, then +three deep and so on, the depth of the piling being gauged by the +softness or amount of water in the curd and the temperature. The higher +the curd is piled, the more water it will retain (assimilate), so that +the amount of moisture in the curd is regulated by the size of the +pieces into which it is cut and the rapidity and depth to which it is +piled. + +The curd should not be left too long from the time it is turned until it +is turned again. This period is usually about ten to fifteen minutes. +The moister the curd, the more often it should be turned. In turning, +care should be taken to keep the ends at the same temperature as the +remainder. This can be done by piling them inside, thereby keeping them +warm. There is a tendency for the ends of the pieces of curd to remain +granular and so cause an open-textured cheese. + +During the cheddaring process, the temperature should be reduced +uniformly and gradually. If there is danger of the curd becoming too +cold, the vat should be covered and a pail of hot water may be placed +inside, if it is deemed necessary. The temperature of the curd should +not be allowed to go below 85° to 90° F. If kept too warm, the curd will +become soft and plastic, and if too cold, it will not mat together. + +While the curd is being turned and piled, its physical properties are +changing. The acid develops. When the cheddaring process is completed, +the curd should be elastic, smooth and fibrous. The curd should have the +close meaty texture desired in the cheese. If this step in the process +is neglected, defects may appear later in the body, texture and flavor +of the cheese. Attempts to pile the curd too fast result in a soft, +mushy, open-textured product. Such cheese has mechanical holes, in which +moisture collects, and so is likely to cause rot while curing. + +If gas is detected either before or during the cheddaring process, the +curd should be piled until the gas holes are no longer round but flat. +If the gas holes are not flattened or obliterated during this process, +the cheeses will be very liable to puff on the shelves in the +curing-room. The curd should be handled until the gas holes flatten out +evenly, although this may require considerable time. At best, gassy curd +will never produce the highest grade of cheese. + +Cheddaring or piling the curd is not thoroughly understood by most +cheese-makers. Because the moisture contains the milk-sugar, there is +danger of having so much moisture present in the cheese that it will +become sour from the action of the lactic acid-forming bacteria on the +milk-sugar. A cheese may be sweet when made and later become sour +because it contains too much moisture or milk-sugar. This is known as +"shelf souring." For the proper cheddaring of a curd, it is necessary +that it be properly firmed in the whey. If the moisture is not evenly +incorporated, the cheese will have a mottled color. The pieces that have +the more moisture will be lighter colored. If the proper amount of +moisture is not incorporated, the cheese will be dry and hard, and if +too much, soft and pasty. + ++203. Milling the curd.+--The large pieces formed by the cheddaring +process must be cut into small ones before the curd can be easily put +into the hoop. This is called "milling." Properly milled curd can be +salted evenly, cools more quickly and uniformly and can be distributed +evenly in the hoops. + +The proper time to "mill" the curd is determined by its physical +condition. Some curds will cheddar much more rapidly than others, hence +no definite length of time can be given. Curd, when ready to mill, +should have a fibrous texture somewhat like the white meat of a chicken +breast. The pieces of curd should split very easily. When cut, the curd +should show a close, solid, smooth interior. The amount of lactic acid +developed may vary within rather wide limits. The hot iron may show +strings ½ to 1 inch long. The acidity (by titration of the freshly +separating whey) may be 0.45 to 0.65 of 1 per cent. If the curd has been +properly made, that is, firmed up in the whey with the proper acidity so +far, acid development during the cheddaring process will take care of +itself. The physical condition remains the principal means of +determining the time when the curd should be milled. + +[Illustration: FIG. 39.--Gosselin curd-mill.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 40.--Barnard curd-mill.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 41.--Junker curd-mill.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 42.--Harris curd-mill.] + +There are many kinds and styles of curd-mills on the market. Gosselin, +Barnard, Pohl, Junker, Victor, Harris are well-known kinds (Figs. +39-42). Some are hand, others power mills. Some of these tear the curd +into pieces of unequal size, others cut it into uniform pieces. A mill +that will do the work with the least possible pressure on the curd and +which will cut it into small uniform-sized pieces is most desirable. The +ideal mill should release the least fat and leave the curd in the best +condition to receive the salt. It is impossible to run curd through any +mill without exposing some fat on the freshly cut surfaces, and if the +curd is put under pressure, more fat will be pressed out and lost. +Cutting in the mill, like cutting the curd after coagulation by rennet, +may be called a necessary evil. There is an unavoidable mechanical loss +which may be greater or less according to the mill used. If the curd has +been properly handled so that the water in it has become thoroughly +assimilated (properly incorporated), this loss will be reduced to the +minimum. If the curd contains free moisture and many of the particles +have soft interiors, a stream of white whey will run down the vat as the +curd masses are cut. Some samples of such white whey will test as high +as 15 per cent fat. This not only causes a loss in yield but in quality +of cheese, according to the amount of fat lost. White whey is an +indication of loss of fat. If the proper amount of moisture is present +and is so thoroughly incorporated in the curd that it can be separated +only by evaporation, the ideal condition has been reached. While +milling, the cut curd should be stirred as fast as milled to prevent +matting again and to allow odors to escape. This stirring is usually +performed with a curd fork (Fig. 43). At the same time the temperature +will be lowered. The milled curd should be spread evenly over the upper +three-quarters of the bottom of the vat. The flavor of the curd that has +been made from tainted milk can be very much improved by stirring at +this time so that air can enter. + +[Illustration: FIG. 43.--A curd fork.] + +A gassy curd, which has been held until the holes have become flattened, +should be stirred very frequently during this stage to allow the gas to +escape, thereby improving the flavor. + ++204. Salting.+--Salt is added to Cheddar curd for several purposes: (1) +for its taste; (2) to aid in the removal of the whey and to harden and +shrink the curd; (3) to influence the fermentation by slowing down +acidification, checking the growth of unfavorable organisms and delaying +ripening. The salt should be pure. It should be coarse-grained, because +the large grains dissolve more slowly and permit its absorption to a +much larger extent than the fine-grained salt. Salt that dissolves +slowly is, therefore, to be sought for this purpose. + +The following factors must be considered in determining the amount of +salt to be used: (1) the amount of curd from the milk; (2) the +percentage of water in the curd; (3) the acidity of the curd; (4) the +particular market form of cheese desired. The custom of determining the +quantity of salt by the weight of milk is an inaccurate practice. The +amount of salt should be based on the amount of curd. If the amount of +fat in the milk is known, a fairly accurate estimate of the amount of +curd can be made. It would be more accurate to weigh the curd before +salting, but this is not practicable or necessary to insure a good +quality of cheese. The amount of salt varies from 1½ to 2½ pounds +of salt to the curd from each 1000 pounds of milk. + +The salt should not be added directly after milling because, at that +time, it would cause a large loss of fat. After milling there should be +time before salting for the freshly cut surfaces to dry or "heal over." +When first milled the curd has a dry harsh feeling; when ready to salt +it will feel soft and mellow and some moisture can usually be squeezed +out easily. Fifteen to twenty minutes from the time of milling are +required before the curd is ready for the salt. When ready, the curd +should be spread evenly over the bottom of the vat. The salt should be +carefully weighed, and then applied, evenly, over the surface of the +curd, in two or three applications. The curd should be thoroughly +stirred after each application of salt. While the salt is being +dissolved and absorbed, the curd should be stirred occasionally to +prevent lumps from forming. + +[Illustration: FIG. 44.--Wilson press hoop. _A_, complete hoop; _B_, +bottom cover with wide flange; _C_, top cover with narrow flange; _D_, +closed body; _E_, bandager.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 45.--Fraser press hoop. _A_, complete hoop; _B_, +bandager; _C_, follower; _D_, fibrous press ring.] + ++205. Hooping the curd.+--When the salt has become dissolved and the +curd as soft and mellow as before the salt was added, it is ready to be +put into the hoop. Various sized hoops may be used, depending on the +desired size of the cheese. Two types are the Wilson and the Fraser +(Figs. 44, 45). With either type, a dampened press cloth should be cut +just to fit the bottom of the hoop. A starched circle may or may not be +used; if used, it should be placed on top of the press cloth. The +bandage now commonly employed is the seamless one which comes in the +form of a tube of various sizes for different sized hoops. The lengths +of bandage cut for each hoop or cheese depend on the height of the +cheese plus about one and one-half inches' lap on each end. The bandage, +after being cut the desired length, is placed on the part of the hoop +made to hold it, so that it is suspended about the side of the hoop and +laps about one and one-half inches on the bottom. The bandage should be +free from ravelings and placed squarely in the hoop. + +The hoop is now ready to fill with curd. Enough hoops should be prepared +to hold all the day's curd as fast as it is ready. In order to have all +the cheeses as nearly as possible of the same size, it is advisable to +weigh the curd into the hoops. The curd may be measured into the hoops, +but this is not so accurate. The curd may be dipped with a flat-sided +curd pail or a curd scoop into the hoops (Fig. 46). + +[Illustration: FIG. 46.--Curd scoop and pail.] + ++206. Pressing the curd.+--The natural changes sought in the curd +require a period of at least five hours between the time of setting +(addition of the rennet) and the pressing of the curd. Less time than +this involves loss in yield and quality of the cheese. In other words, +the time requirement for these changes cannot be ignored. The object of +pressing is not primarily to remove whey but to produce the physical +conditions essential to ripening the cheese in a mass and put it in +convenient form for handling. The whey should have been removed during +the cooking and cheddaring. When ready for the press, the temperature of +the curd should be about 80° to 85° F.; it should be brought down to +this point during the milling, salting and hooping processes. If the +curd is put to press too warm or too cold, the following results may be +expected: + +Too high temperature during pressing produces several faults, as: + + (1) Favors the development of undesirable ferments. + + (2) Causes excessive loss of fat. + + (3) Gives the curd pieces a greasy surface so that they + will not readily pass into a compact cheese. If a cheese + is greasy, the bandages will not stick. + + (4) Favors the formation of mechanical holes in the + cheese. + + (5) Causes "seamy" color in the cheese by the collection + of fat between pieces of curd. + +Too low temperature has its difficulties, such as: + + (1) The pieces of curd will not fuse together. + + (2) The rind does not form properly. + + (3) It appears to cause mottled cheese. + +[Illustration: FIG. 47.--Continuous pressure gang cheese-press.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 48.--Filling the hoops and pressing the curd.] + +The commonly used gang press may or may not have an arrangement to cause +continuous pressure to be applied to the cheese (Figs. 47, 48). When +fresh cheeses are first placed in the press, the pressure should be +applied very gradually. The curd, after being cut through the mill, will +have many exposed fat globules. A heavy pressure at first will force +out the whey set free by the extracting power of the salt. The whey will +carry away the exposed fat globules, and therefore reduce the yield. As +soon as white whey starts from the hoops, the increased application of +the pressure should be stopped until the whey regains the appearance of +clear brine. More pressure can then be gradually applied until full +pressure is reached. The cheeses should remain under heavy pressure for +one-half to one hour, when they should be removed from the press and +dressed. + ++207. Dressing the cheese.+--When ready to dress the cheese, the press +is opened and the hoops turned down. The hoops are opened so that the +bandages can be lapped over the top of the cheeses about 1½ inches. +Before turning a bandage down, it should be carefully pulled up to +remove any wrinkles from the sides of the cheese, but not hard enough to +pull it free from the bottom. After it is pulled up, the bandage should +be lapped over the top about 1½ inches, and if not even should be +trimmed with a sharp knife. It should then be sopped down with warm +water. Plenty of warm water to wet the bandage and cloths helps to form +a good rind. If starched circles are used, one should be placed on the +top of the cheese and sopped down with warm water. If not, the press +cloth should be wrung out of warm water and put on smoothly, so there +will be no wrinkles. The hoop is then put together and placed back in +the press under heavy pressure for twelve to eighteen hours. The +pressure should be sufficient to cause the curd particles to unite so +that the surface of the cheese will be smooth. The next day the cheeses +are taken from the hoops and placed in the curing-room. If they do not +come out of the hoop easily, they may be loosened by cutting between the +sides of the cheese and the hoop with a knife. A special thin-bladed +knife for this purpose is called a speed knife (Fig. 49). Care should be +taken not to cut the bandage when trying to loosen the cheese. If +starched circles are used, the press cloths are removed from the cheese, +when they are put in the curing-room. If neither starched circles nor +press cloth are left on the cheese in the curing-room, the rind will +crack on account of drying out on the exposed surface. This allows mold +and insects to enter the cheese. The flavor, body and texture and color +of the cheese are all dependent on the skill of the cheese-maker and the +quality of the milk from which it is made. The finish is dependent +entirely on the skill and carefulness of the maker. An operator should +see that the cheese press is straight so that there will be no crocked +cheese and that the bandage and press cloths are properly put on, +because the finish or appearance of the cheese is an index of his +ability. + +[Illustration: FIG. 49.--Speed knife.] + ++208. Handling over-ripe and gassy milk.+--Because it is sometimes +necessary to make over-ripe[91] or gassy milk[92] into cheese, special +directions or precautions are necessary. The best way is to reject this +milk. When it is necessary to make it into cheese, the losses are much +more than with normal milk. It is a question of making as good a cheese +as possible, and the subject of losses is ignored. + +(1) _Over-ripe milk._--The fact that the milk is over-ripe shows that +there is already too much acid present. Every effort must be made to get +the curd as firm as possible in the whey with the acid development as +low as possible or before the acid has had time to develop any more than +can be helped. Although the milk is over-ripe, it is a good plan to add +about ¼ of 1 per cent of starter just before the rennet. This starter +will not begin to work until the curd is being cheddared and it will +help the flavor, especially if any bad fermentation should be present. + +The rennet is added at 80° F., as this lower temperature tends to check +the acid development. More rennet is used, commonly from 4 to 4½ +ounces to 1000 pounds of milk. This gives a quicker coagulation. The +curd is cut soft, as this tends to expel the moisture more quickly. The +heat is turned on sooner after cutting. The time to turn it on and the +length of time to heat are determined by the amount of acid. A curd +should not be heated in less than fifteen minutes. If the curd has +enough acid and has not begun to firm up much, the whey should be drawn +down to the surface of the curd, water the temperature of the whey and +curd put into the vat, and the curd firmed up in this water. The water +washes the acid out of the curd and because of the lack of milk-sugar +checks the acid development. + +If the milk is not so ripe and the curd nearly firm enough, the whey may +be drawn off and the curd firmed up by hard stirring in the vat or sink. +The curd should not be pushed back enough to be very deep or thick when +ready to cheddar. + +The curd should be cut into very small pieces to cheddar. The smaller +the pieces, the faster the whey drains away. Sometimes it is necessary +to cut the curd into pieces six inches square. The pieces should not be +piled but should be turned often and stood on edge to let the whey drain +away and sometimes pressed with the hands to force the whey out. It is +often all one man can do to keep the curd turned. + +[Illustration: FIG. 50.--At the left is a regular shaped, close, solid +textured cheese; at the right one puffed up with gas.] + +The curd is not cheddared very long but is milled early so that the whey +can escape. If it is thought that the cheese will be sour, the curd +should be washed in cold water to remove the acid and milk-sugar. A +little more salt is sometimes used. A product made from over-ripe milk, +no matter how skillful the cheese-maker, will show traces of a sour +cheese. + +(2) _Gassy milk._--If a cheese-maker knows that there is "gassy" +fermentation, he should add more starter and develop more acid when +ripening the milk to try to overcome this. There are different kinds of +gassy fermentation. Some produce acid and some do not. Some will not +show until the cheeses have been on the curing-room shelves several +days. Others will cause the curd to float in the whey. Usually the gas +shows as pin-holes while the curd is being cheddared. + +[Illustration: FIG. 51.--This shows the same cheeses as in Fig. 50, cut +open to show the solid and gassy texture.] + +The gas causes tiny round holes in the cheese, resulting in the cheese +swelling or puffing out of shape and sometimes breaking open (Figs. 50, +51). The only time to overcome the gas is during the cheddaring process. +The curd is piled and repiled until the holes flatten out. This shows +that the gas-producing organisms have weakened and will not cause any +more holes. Because the curd has to be piled so many times and so long, +the pieces become very thin. The curd is ready to mill when most of the +holes have flattened. After milling, the curd should be stirred and +aired for some time before salting to allow the bad odor to escape. + +Because of the high acid development, it often happens that the cheese +will not be gassy but will be sour. At best a cheese made from milk +having gassy fermentation will have a bad flavor. The quality of the +cheese can be no better than that of the milk from which it is made, +plus the skill of the cheese-maker. + ++209. Qualities of Cheddar cheese.+--The cheese should be neat, clean +and attractive. If unclean, and the bandage not put on the cheese +properly, it shows that the manufacturer is not particular to keep the +curing-room shelves tidy nor careful and painstaking in dressing. The +cheese should not be lopsided or bulged. When cut, it should have a +uniformly colored interior. The principal color defects are too high, or +too light color, mottled or seamy. The texture should be solid and +close. A common defect is mechanical holes or openings and another is +gas pockets. The body can be tested by rubbing the cheese between the +thumb and fingers. It should be smooth and waxy and free from lumps. It +should rub down like cold butter. The common defects are graininess and +lumpiness. Graininess may be caused by too much acid or too much +moisture in the cheese. Lumpiness is due to uneven curing. If too much +moisture is present, the body will be soft and mushy; if not enough +moisture, the body will be hard and dry. + +The cheese should have a pleasant, clean, mild aroma and the +characteristic flavor which is usually somewhat similar to that of nuts +and so is spoken of as a nutty flavor. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +_COMPOSITION AND YIELD OF CHEDDAR CHEESE_ + + +So many factors affect the composition and yield of Cheddar cheese that +no positive or exact statement can be made unless other facts are +definitely known. The following factors affect both the composition and +yield: + + 1. The chemical composition of the milk. + + 2. Amount of moisture incorporated into the cheese. + + 3. The amount of solids lost in cheese-making. + + 4. The skill of the cheese-maker. + + 5. The bacterial-content of the milk. + ++210. Composition of milk, whey and cheese.+--The +following Tables[93] VI, VII, VIII, which are the average +of forty-eight factories for the season of 1893, show the +minimum, maximum and average composition: + + + TABLE VI + + AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF THE MILK + + | Minimum | MAXIMUM | AVERAGE + --------------------|---------|---------|--------- + Water | 86.28 | 88.30 | 87.28 + Total solids | 11.70 | 13.72 | 12.72 + Fat | 3.30 | 4.40 | 3.77 + Casein | 2.20 | 2.85 | 2.48 + Albumin | 0.52 | 0.81 | 0.69 + Sugar and ash, etc. | 5.63 | 5.89 | 5.78 + + + TABLE VII + + AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF THE WHEY + + | Minimum | MAXIMUM | AVERAGE + --------------------|---------|---------|--------- + Water | 92.75 | 93.28 | 93.00 + Total solids | 6.72 | 7.25 | 7.00 + Fat | 0.24 | 0.51 | 0.38 + Casein, albumin | 0.66 | 0.99 | 0.86 + Sugar, ash, etc. | 5.63 | 5.86 | 5.76 + + + TABLE VIII + + AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF THE GREEN CHEESE + + | Minimum | MAXIMUM | AVERAGE + --------------------|---------|---------|--------- + Water | 33.16 | 43.89 | 37.33 + Total solids | 66.84 | 56.11 | 62.67 + Fat | 30.00 | 35.89 | 33.41 + Casein | 20.80 | 25.48 | 23.39 + Sugar, ash, etc. | 4.86 | 7.02 | 5.89 + +Table VI shows the minimum, maximum and average composition of the milk +and Table VIII the composition of the cheese made from that milk. The +average composition of the cheese in Table VIII shows that it contains +37.33 per cent of water. The tendency to-day seems to be for a softer +cheese so that the average would probably be higher. Table VIII also +shows the wide variation in the composition of the cheese. The moisture +and total solids both vary about 10 per cent. In order to judge the +variation in composition, one must know the composition of the milk and +the moisture-content of the cheese and then only a very inaccurate +estimate of the composition of the cheese can be formed. + ++211. Relation of fat to casein in normal milk.+--In order to understand +the relation of the composition of the milk to yield of cheese, one must +be familiar with the relation of the fat to the casein in normal milk. +The following table[94] shows the relation of fat to casein in normal +milk: + + + TABLE IX + + SUMMARY SHOWING THE RELATION OF FAT TO CASEIN + IN NORMAL MILK + + ==================================================================== + | | | | | AVERAGE + | | | AVERAGE | AVERAGE | POUNDS OF + | PER CENT | NUMBER | PER CENT | PER CENT | CASEIN FOR + GROUP | OF FAT IN | OF | OF FAT IN | OF CASEIN | EACH POUND + | MILK | SAMPLES | EACH IN | EACH | OF FAT IN + | | | GROUP | GROUP | MILK + --------+-----------+----------+-----------+-----------+------------ + I | 3.0-3.5 | 22 | 3.35 | 2.20 | 0.66 + II | 3.5-4.0 | 112 | 3.72 | 2.46 | 0.66 + III | 4.0-4.5 | 78 | 4.15 | 2.70 | 0.65 + IV | 4.5-5.0 | 16 | 4.74 | 3.05 | 0.64 + V | 5.0-5.25 | 7 | 5.13 | 3.12 | 0.61 + ==================================================================== + +Table IX shows that the pounds of casein for each pound of fat are not +constant but that the casein does not increase in proportion to the fat +above 4.0 per cent of fat in the milk. + ++212. Influence of fat in milk on yield of cheese.+--The following table +shows the influence which fat in the milk has on the yield of +cheese:[94] + + + TABLE X + + SUMMARY SHOWING RELATION OF FAT IN MILK TO YIELD + OF CHEESE + + ============================================================== + | AVERAGE PER | POUNDS OF GREEN CHEESE | POUNDS OF + GROUP | CENT OF FAT | MADE FROM 100 LB. OF | GREEN CHEESE + | IN MILK | MILK | MADE FOR 1 LB. + | | | OF FAT IN MILK + ------+-------------+------------------------+---------------- + I | 3.35 | 9.14 | 2.73 + II | 3.72 | 10.04 | 2.73 + III | 4.15 | 11.34 | 2.70 + IV | 4.74 | 12.85 | 2.71 + V | 5.13 | 13.62 | 2.66 + ============================================================== + +Table X shows that as the fat in the milk increases, the pounds of +cheese made from 100 pounds of that milk increases; but the amount of +cheese made for each pound of fat in the milk does not increase. This is +due to the fact pointed out in Table IX, namely, that as the fat +increases in the milk the casein does not increase in the rich milk in +proportion to the fat. From Tables IX and X this conclusion may be +drawn: that as the percentage of fat increases in the milk the more +cheese can be made from 100 pounds of that milk, but after the increase +in fat gets above 4 per cent the amount of cheese that can be made for +each pound of fat in the milk is decreased because the casein does not +increase in proportion to the fat. No exact statement of yield can be +made without first stating the moisture-content of the cheese. The +losses also must be considered. + +Van Slyke[95] in the following Table XI shows the effect of the +fat-content of normal milk on the yield of cheese. + +The moisture-content of all the cheeses is reduced to a uniform basis of +37 per cent. (See cut showing yield of cheese, Fig. 52.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 52.--The figures represent the relative yield of +cheese containing different percentages of fat, but all have a uniform +content of 37 per cent water.] + + + TABLE XI + + TABLE SHOWING THE EFFECT OF THE FAT-CONTENT OF + NORMAL MILK ON THE YIELD OF CHEESE + + ----------------+-------------+--------------+------------------- + PER CENT OF FAT | PER CENT OF | AMOUNT OF | AMOUNT OF CHEESE + IN THE MILK | CASEIN IN | CHEESE MADE | MADE FOR EACH + | THE MILK | FROM 100 LB. | POUND OF FAT + | | OF MILK | IN THE MILK + ----------------+-------------+--------------+------------------- + 3.00 | 2.10 | 8.30 | 2.77 + 3.25 | 2.20 | 8.88 | 2.73 + 3.50 | 2.30 | 9.45 | 2.70 + 3.75 | 2.40 | 10.03 | 2.67 + 4.00 | 2.50 | 10.60 | 2.65 + 4.25 | 2.60 | 11.17 | 2.63 + 4.50 | 2.70 | 11.74 | 2.61 + 4.75 | 2.80 | 12.31 | 2.59 + 5.00 | 2.90 | 12.90 | 2.58 + ----------------+-------------+--------------+------------------- + ++213. Fat loss in cheese-making.+--The amount of solids lost in the whey +also affects the yield. The following table gives the amount of fat lost +in whey with normal milk containing different percentages of fat: + + + TABLE XII + + SUMMARY SHOWING AMOUNT OF FAT IN MILK LOST IN + CHEESE-MAKING + + ================================================================= + GROUP | POUNDS OF FAT IN | POUNDS OF FAT LOST | PER CENT OF FAT + | 100 LB OF MILK | IN WHEY FOR 100 | IN MILK LOST + | | LB. OF MILK | IN WHEY + ------+------------------+--------------------+------------------ + I | 3 to 3.5 | 0.32 | 9.55 + II | 3.5 to 4 | 0.33 | 8.33 + III | 4 to 4.5 | 0.32 | 7.70 + IV | 4.5 to 5 | 0.28 | 5.90 + V | 5 to 5.25 | 0.31 | 6.00 + ================================================================= + +Table XII shows that the percentage of fat in the whey is approximately +the same for milk high or low in fat. But the milk low in fat loses a +higher percentage of the total milk-fat in each 100 pounds of whey. + ++214. Effect of bacterial-content of milk on yield of cheese.+--The +bacterial-content[96] of the milk influences the yield by affecting both +the moisture-content and the losses. If the milk is sour or has bad +fermentation, the losses will be increased because the curd cannot be +carefully handled, and the moisture cannot be incorporated to the extent +that it can in clean milk, without injury to the quality. The +proper-cooling of the milk in one instance increased the yield 0.3 pound +of cheese for each 100 pounds of milk. The more moisture that can be +incorporated into the cheese up to the legal limit, the greater the +yield. + ++215. Factors affecting the moisture-content of Cheddar.+--The amount of +moisture that can be incorporated in a curd depends on several +factors.[97] The following increase the moisture-content control of the +cheese: + + 1. Cutting the curd coarse. + + 2. High setting temperature. + + 3. Low acid in the curd at time of removing whey. + + 4. Not stirring the curd with the hand as the last of the whey is + removed. + + 5. Slow pressure. + + 6. High piling of the curd in the cheddaring process. + + 7. Small amount of salt. + + 8. Holding the curd at low temperature after the whey is removed. + + 9. Large amount of rennet. + + 10. Cutting the curd hard. + +The following factors decrease the moisture-content of the cheese: + + 1. Fine cutting. + + 2. Low setting temperature. + + 3. High acid in the curd at time of removing the whey. + + 4. Stirring the curd with the hand as the last of the whey is removed. + + 5. Fast pressure. + + 6. Low piling of the curd in the cheddaring process. + + 7. Large amount of salt. + + 8. Holding the curd at high temperature after the + whey is removed. + + 9. Small amount of rennet. + + 10. Cutting the curd soft. + +From this discussion, it is evident that the yield of cheese from 100 +pounds of milk increases with higher percentages of fat and casein in +the milk, with reduced losses of solids during manufacture, with the +absence of undesirable fermentations, and with the incorporation of +large amounts of water. + ++216. Variations of the Cheddar process.+--The Cheddar process, as +already described, is widely employed in cheese factories. Many +varieties are found, however, and varietal names are used for such +products. A whole series of these forms are either locally or widely +made in England and taught in the English dairy schools. Some of these +varieties resemble the factory Cheddar product fairly closely; others +are clearly different products. A typical series of the variations as +developed in America will be considered. + +In the commercial trade Cheddar cheese is usually designated by some +name which indicates its size. The size of the cheese is determined by +that of the hoops. The hoops vary both in diameter and height. The table +on the following page shows the usual sizes of the hoops and the weight +and name applied to the cheese. + ++217. Cheddar-type cheese from pasteurized milk.+--Sammis and Bruhn[98] +have described a variation of the Cheddar process to overcome the +difficulties of making cheese from pasteurized milk. Such milk curdles in +very unsatisfactory manner unless some chemical is added to compensate +for the salts lost and to offset the other changes resulting from heat. +For this purpose, they found the use of hydrochloric acid satisfactory. + + TABLE XIII + + SIZE OF CHEESE HOOPS, WEIGHT, AND TERM APPLIED TO + CHEESE + + ======================================================================== + DIAMETER OF | HEIGHT OF | WEIGHT OF | TERM APPLIED TO + HOOP | CHEESE | CHEESE | CHEESE + | | POUNDS | + ---------------+-------------------+------------+----------------------- + 6-7 in. | 7-8 in. | 9-11 | Young America + Tapers 5-7 in. | 10-14 in. | 10-16 | Long Horn + 12-14 in. | 3½-4½ in. | 18-24 | Daisy or Picnic + 14-15½ in. | 4-6 in. | 30-40 | Twin (two in same box) + 14-16 in. | 4-7 in. | 35-40 | Flat + 13½-15 in. | 10-12 in. | 40-50 | Cheddar + 14-16 in. | 12-15 in. | 75-90 | Export + ======================================================================== + +"The acidulation of milk with hydrochloric acid after pasteurization is +accomplished without difficulty or danger of curdling by running a small +stream of the acid, of normal concentration, into the cooled milk as it +flows from the continuous pasteurizer into the cheese vat. One pound of +normal-strength acid is sufficient to raise 100 pounds of milk from 0.16 +percent to 0.25 percent acidity (calculated as per cent of lactic acid). +The amount of acid needed each day to bring the milk up to 0.25 per cent +acidity is read from a table or calculated from the weight of the milk +and its acidity, determined by the use of Manns's acid test (titration +with tenth-normal sodium hydrate and phenolphthalein). The preparation +of standard-strength acid in carboy lots for this work and the +acidulation of milk present no great difficulty to any one who is able +to handle Manns's acid test correctly. + +"After the milk is pasteurized and acidulated three-fourths per cent of +first-class starter is added and the vat is heated to 85°. It is set +with rennet, using 2 ounces of rennet per thousand pounds of milk, so +that the milk begins to curdle in 7 minutes and is cut with three-eighth +inch knives in 25 minutes. All portions of the work after adding rennet +are carried out in an unvarying routine manner, according to a +fixed-time schedule every day. As soon as the rennet has been added the +cheese maker is able to calculate the exact time of day when each of the +succeeding operations should be performed, and the work of making the +cheese is thus simplified and systematized. It is possible that the +routine process here described may be varied somewhat with advantage at +different factories." + +This cheese usually lacks characteristic Cheddar flavor or contains it +in very mild form. It therefore satisfies only those who seek very mild +flavored products. Efforts are now being made to find a flavor producing +substance or organism which will bring the flavor of this product more +nearly to that of typical Cheddar. + ++218. Club cheese+ is known by a variety of trade names. It is made from +Cheddar cheese, so that it is especially liked by persons who care for +strong Cheddar flavor. It has a soft texture so that it spreads easily, +and is therefore much used for sandwiches. Well-ripened or old Cheddar +cheese is ground in a food chopper. The older the Cheddar, the stronger +will be the flavor of the club cheese. Cheese of good flavor should be +used. In order to do away with all lumps in the texture, it is sometimes +necessary to run the mixed cheese through the food chopper a second +time. While all lumps must be worked out, care should be taken not to +work the cheese so much that it will become salvy and sticky. + +Usually a little pepper is added, to give the cheese a biting taste. +Some manufacturers add a great variety of substances, but these are not +necessary and destroy the flavor of the cheese. + +Club cheese may be wrapped in tin-foil or put up in air-tight glass +jars. The latter practice, while more expensive, has the advantage of +making the cheese keep longer; but for local trade tin-foil is just as +satisfactory as glass. In filling the glass, care must be taken not to +leave any air spaces between the cheese and the glass, as this is likely +to permit the cheese to mold. A glass jar can be filled and air spaces +prevented by first smearing a very thin layer of cheese over the glass. + ++219. The stirred-curd or granular process.+--The original practice as +brought from England and followed in the farm dairies before the +development of the factory system is now known variously as the +"stirred-curd" or "granular curd" process. With the introduction of the +cheese factory, as known to-day, this system was replaced by the Cheddar +cheese. The old farm process is still used on some farms and in a few +factories. As the name indicates, the curd for such cheeses is kept +stirred so that it remains in granular condition instead of being +allowed to mat as in the Cheddar process. + +The early steps of the two processes are identical. They diverge at the +point at which in the factory Cheddar process the whey is drawn and the +curd is allowed to mat. In some factories the curd and part of the whey +are dipped into a curd sink. This allows the whey to escape more easily +and quickly. In the stirred-curd process, the pieces of curd are kept +separated by stirring and not allowed to mat. The whey is drawn off and +the stirring continued by hand. After stirring fifteen to twenty +minutes, the curd becomes so dry as not to mat easily. As soon as the +curd has reached this stage, the salt is evenly and thoroughly mixed +with it. More salt is added than in the Cheddar process because the curd +is more moist than Cheddar curd at the time of salting. The whey freely +separating carries away much of the salt. The quantity of salt to use +depends on the amount of whey draining from the curd. After salting, the +curd is allowed to cool, with occasional stirring to prevent the +formation of lumps. The advantage of the stirred-curd practice lies in +the shorter time required for making cheese and in the greater yield due +to increased water-content. It has several disadvantages, among them +being: (1) lack of control of undesirable fermentation; if gas organisms +are present, the cheeses more frequently huff than with the Cheddar +system; (2) there is more fat lost while stirring the curd, hence +quality and yield suffer; (3) the water is not so thoroughly +incorporated, which more frequently results in mottled cheeses; (4) the +body is commonly soft and "weak," shows mechanical holes, and cures too +rapidly. These faults are closely correlated with the presence of higher +percentages of water than in cheeses made by the Cheddar process. In +other words, the stirred-curd process usually produces a cheese with +higher water-content, hence more subject to the development of +unfavorable fermentation than the Cheddar cheeses. + ++220. California Jack cheese+[99] is very similar to the stirred-curd or +granular process. This cheese was originally made in Monterey County on +the coast of California, about twenty-five years ago, in small +quantities, but after it was found to sell well other counties started +to manufacture it. As Monterey was the first county to make this +product, it was named "Monterey" cheese. In order to distinguish the +cheese made in other counties from this, it was suggested that it be +given a name and, consequently, it was called "Jack" cheese. This has +been accepted as its true name. The cheese is made mostly by Portuguese +and Italian-Swiss, although some of the best of the variety is now +manufactured near Modesto, California. + +This cheese is adapted for manufacture on small dairy farms, where there +is inexpensive and scanty equipment. The smaller sizes of cheese are +made and ripened quickly. It has become widely used in California. + +The cheese is made every morning, from evening's and morning's milk. The +former is put into the cheese vat at night, and morning's milk is added +as milking is going on. When the milk is all in the vat, it is +immediately warmed to 86° to 88° F. and rennet extract is added (when +milk has 0.2 to 0.21 of 1 per cent acidity) at the rate of 6 to 8 ounces +to 1000 pounds of milk. No coloring matter is used. It is ready for the +curd-knife in thirty to thirty-five minutes, its readiness being +determined the same as in making Cheddar cheese. The curd is first cut +lengthwise of the vat with the horizontal curd-knife and allowed to +stand until the whey rises over and partly covers the curd, when it is +cut again with the vertical curd-knife crosswise of the vat. It is then +hand-stirred, gently at first, and the stirring is finished with the +rake. + +Either a steam-heating or self-heating vat is used (the steam-heating +vat is preferred) and temperature increased about one degree in five +minutes. The curd is heated to 98° F. in winter, and to 105° F. to 110° +F. in summer. After temperature is up, it is stirred occasionally with a +rake until the whey is drawn at 0.14 to 0.15 of 1 per cent acidity. + +The curd is hand-stirred as soon as the whey is nearly drained off, and +raked to each side of the vat to drain more thoroughly, when it is +quickly stirred again to keep it from lumping or matting. Salt is now +added at the rate of 1½ pounds to 100 pounds of curd, and stirred in +thoroughly several times. During the salting process, cold water is +allowed to run under the vat, the hot water having been run off +previously. + +Curd is put into cloths at a temperature of 80° to 85° F. No cheese +hoops are used. Two sets of press cloths are necessary; one set is ready +to use while the other is still on the cheese in the press. These press +cloths are about one yard square. The press cloths are all laid out +evenly one on top of the other, as many as there are cheeses. They are +then taken together and spread out over the top of a large, open tin +milk-pail, and pushed down in the center to the bottom of the pail, with +the edges hanging over the top. A common one-gallon lard pail is used to +measure the curd into the press cloths. A lard pail full will make a +cheese weighing six and one-half pounds, which is the popular size. +After a pailful has been put into the press cloth, the four corners are +caught up with the left hand, while with the right hand the curd is +formed round and the press cloth straightened and the other corners in +turn taken up. The press cloth is now taken up tight over the curd with +the left hand, while the cheese is given a rolling motion on the table +with the right hand, pressing at the same time to expel some of the +whey. This twists the press cloth tight over the curd, where it is tied +with a stout string. After fixing them all (as many as there are +cheeses) in this way, they are ready for the press. + +The cheeses are pressed between two wooden planks, 12 inches wide, 1½ +inches thick, by whatever length is required for the number of cheeses +to be pressed. One plank is nailed on supports at a convenient height +from the floor on a little slant for the whey to drain off better. The +cheeses in the press cloths are placed at the proper distance apart so +they do not touch. Then the other plank is put squarely over the top of +the cheese and levers about four feet long at an interval of five feet +are placed over this plank, from a cleat in the wall, on the other end +of which is placed a heavy weight of about 100 pounds, which acts as an +automatic pressure. The cheeses are left in the press until the next +morning, when they are taken out and put on the shelves in the +curing-room. The cheeses have no bandage or covering, and do not seem to +crock, and they form a very good rind. + +The cheese is a sweet variety, weighs six and one-half pounds cured and +cures in about three weeks ready to ship, and sells at 16 to 25 cents a +pound wholesale. Most of the work seems to lie in forming and rolling +the curd in press cloths before pressing. Trouble is experienced by the +makers, especially in warm climates in summer, in not having the milk at +a uniform acidity when rennet is added. Great improvements could be made +in this cheese by using an acidimeter, paraffining and curing the cheese +in an even temperature, not much over 60° F. + +Old and hard Jack cheese is also employed for grating and cooking, while +the fresh is used for the table. + ++221. The washed-curd process+ has been developed in recent years +largely in the state of New York. In this method, a regular Cheddar curd +is made up to the time of milling. This curd is washed or soaked in cold +water during or directly after milling. The theoretical object of this +washing is to carry away bad flavors and to reduce over-development of +acidity by washing away all traces of whey. However, cheese-makers soon +found that it increased the yield and this led some to carry it to +extremes. + +After the curd has been milled, it is covered with cold water. The +temperature of this water ranges from 50° F. to 70° F. The curd is +stirred in this water for various lengths of time according to the +judgment of the cheese-maker. This time varies from five minutes to one +hour. Sometimes the vat is partly filled with water and the curd milled +directly into the water. This process has certain advantages and +disadvantages. + +The advantages are: if too much acid has developed in the curd, this +washing will reduce it so that the cheese will not be sour. Sometimes +when bad flavors are present in the curd, washing will tend to overcome +or remove them. Its disadvantages are: the larger yield due to excessive +soaking tempts the makers to soak curd beyond the time needed to relieve +the initially sour condition. Curd soaked in this way produces cheeses +containing percentages of water so high as to lower their quality. This +increases the yield sometimes as much as 3 to 5 per cent. Such a cheese +is very soft in texture and does not cure like a Cheddar cheese which +has not been washed. Part of the lactic acid, milk-sugar[100] and the +inorganic salts are removed by this washing. A washed-curd cheese will +sometimes rot, due to the activity of the putrefactive bacteria, and to +the lack of the restraining effect of the lactic acid-forming bacteria. +Some washed-curd cheeses are so soft that they will not retain their +normal shape. + +A washed-curd cheese is never sour because the milk-sugar and lactic +acid have been removed by washing. + ++222. English dairy cheese.+--In some localities cheeses are still made +on the farms. These are mostly produced after the stirred-curd process, +hence are soft-bodied and open-textured. They usually weigh ten to +twelve pounds and are three to four inches thick and twelve inches in +diameter. + ++223. Pineapple cheese.+--This variety derives its name from the fact +that the cheeses are made in about the size and shape of a pineapple. +The curd is made after the Cheddar process from either whole milk or +partly skimmed milk. It is pressed in molds shaped like a pineapple. The +cheeses are then hung in nets to give the checked appearance on the +surface. They are rubbed with linseed oil to prevent the surface +cracking, and finally are shellacked. + ++224. Leyden.+--Among specialties, a cheese called Leyden originating in +Holland is made in Michigan and New York. This is a part skim cheese +heavily spiced with caraway seed. The ripe cheese is colored red as it +goes to market. + ++225. Cheddar cheese with pimientos.+--Recently some Cheddar cheeses +have been made with pimientos added. This gives a mixture of +characteristic Cheddar and pimiento flavors, which seems to be desired +by some persons. An ordinary Cheddar curd is made and the pimientos +added just before salting. The pimientos are ground rather coarsely and +then added to the curd together with the liquid which was with the +pimientos in the can. The pimiento should be thoroughly and evenly +mixed with the curd to insure a uniform distribution and mottled color +in the cheese. The salt is then applied. The remainder of the process is +the same as for ordinary Cheddar cheese. + ++226. Sage cheese+ is a product flavored from the leaves of the ordinary +garden sage. It is made by two methods: one, in which the sage leaves +are used, and the other, in which a part of the curd is colored to +imitate that given by the sage leaves, and sage oil or tea is used to +give the flavor. + +In the leaf method, a regular Cheddar cheese curd is made up to the time +of salting. Just before the salt is added, sage leaves are mixed with +the curd. The leaves should be dried and freed from stems and other +coarse particles and the leaves themselves broken up rather finely. The +leaves are then added at the rate of 3 ounces for every 1000 pounds of +milk. Care must be exercised to see that the leaves are evenly mixed +through the curd or an evenly mottled cheese will not result. The salt +is then added. This sequence seems to increase the absorption of the +flavor by the curd. + +If these cheeses are consumed as soon as well cured, no fault can be +found. On the other hand, if they are held for any length of time, +yellow areas form about each piece of sage leaf; the leaves decay +rapidly and spoil the cheese. This method gives a very true flavored +sage cheese, the only objection being that it cannot be held in storage +for any length of time without a marked deterioration. + +In the other method of making sage cheese, either a vat with a movable +partition or a large and a small vat must be used. In many cases the +receiving can is used as the small vat. After the milk is properly +ripened and ready to set, one-sixth to one-seventh of the milk is put +into the small vat. To this small vat, green coloring matter is added. +Juice from the leaves of corn, clover, or spinach was formerly used as +coloring. Consequently the manufacture of sage cheese by this method was +limited to the seasons of the year when these leaves could be obtained. +Now, however, the dairy supply houses have a harmless green color paste +which is much cheaper and can be secured at any season of the year. The +amount of color paste to use will vary from 30 to 35 c.c. for every 1000 +pounds of total milk. This should be added to the small vat of milk. It +gives a green milk and later a green curd. + +Both vats are worked along together, until the time for removing the +whey. Then the partition in the vat is removed or the small vat is mixed +with the large one. The green curd should then be evenly mixed with the +white one or an even green mottled cheese will not result. The curds +should not be mixed until they are well firmed or the white curd will +take on a greenish cast and spoil the appearance of the cheese. + +After the whey is removed, the curd is allowed to mat as in ordinary +Cheddar but care must be exercised to pile the curd so that it cannot +spread or "draw" out. If it does draw out, the small green spots will be +stretched out and large blotches or patches of green will be the result. +The cheese-maker must watch the curd closely or he may not secure the +much desired small green mottles. When the curd is well matted, it is +milled as in Cheddar. Just before the salt is added, the sage extract is +applied to the curd. + +The sage extract can be obtained from dairy supply houses, or a sage +tea can be made by steeping the sage leaves. In many cases the +commercial extract gives the cheese a strong disagreeable flavor, but +not a true sage flavor. The sage tea gives a flavor more like that of +the leaves themselves. Too much of the extract or the leaves will give a +very rank flavor. The sage extract can best be put on the curd by means +of a sprayer or atomizer with which it can be evenly sprayed over the +entire surface. The extract should be applied two or three times and the +curd well stirred after each application. The amount of the extract to +use depends altogether on its strength; an ounce of the extract or three +ounces of sage tea to 1000 pounds of milk is about the correct amount. +After the extract has been added, the salt is used at the same rate as +with a normal Cheddar curd and the sage curd is carried along the same +as a Cheddar. + +This extract method gives a sage cheese mottled with small green spots +which somewhat resemble the green of sage leaves. A cheese made in this +way can be held for a long time, as nothing has been added which can +decay. The only objection to this method is that the sage extract may +not give a true sage flavor. Therefore, the maker must try to obtain the +best extract possible or make his own from the sage leaves. + ++227. Skimmed-milk Cheddar cheese.+[101]--The process of making +skimmed-milk cheese after the Cheddar process is varied with the amount +of fat left in the milk. Before attempting to make skimmed-milk Cheddar, +one should become familiar with the process for whole-milk Cheddar. +Skimmed-milk cheeses are usually highly colored. + +When part skimmed-milk cheese is manufactured, there is often +difficulty in getting the milk in the vat to test the desired percentage +of fat. Some cheese-makers skim all the milk and then put in the desired +amount of cream. This practice seems wasteful, not only because of the +cost of separation, but because the fat will not mix easily with the +milk but will tend to float on the surface. If the fat floats, there +will be a large loss. After a very few trials an operator can tell about +how much of the whole milk must be skimmed in order to have the mixed +skimmed-milk and whole milk test the desired percentage of fat. The +necessary percentage of fat in the mixed milk to produce cheese of a +certain grade can be determined by testing the cheese by the Babcock +test. (See Chapter XIX.) + ++228. Full skimmed-milk Cheddar cheese.+--In the summer there is not +much demand for full skimmed-milk cheese, but it is made in large +quantity in winter. The method of manufacture is as follows: + +Skimmed-milk as it comes from the separator is at a temperature of about +88° to 90° F.; it is ripened and set at this temperature. It is ripened +rather highly on the acid test, from 0.18 to 0.20 of 1 per cent, and to +correspond on the rennet test which will not be many spaces. In about +twenty-five to thirty minutes it is coagulated ready for cutting. The +curd of skimmed-milk cheese is cut a little softer than is that of +whole-milk cheese. Milk is usually set at 88° to 90° F. The curd is not +ordinarily cooked above this temperature. If the milk was 84° to 86° F. +when set, then the curd should be raised to 88° to 90° F. The curd firms +in the whey very rapidly. When firm enough, it should have a slight +development of acid. On the acid test it should show 0.17 to 0.19 per +cent, and on the hot iron 1/8 to ¼ of an inch. The milk should be ripe +enough or starter enough should have been used, so that the acid will +continue to develop in the "pack" very rapidly. During the cheddaring +process the curd is piled more rapidly and in higher piles than is +customary with whole-milk cheese. This is necessary to incorporate or +assimilate a large percentage of water or whey in the cheese. Therefore +the process of skimmed-milk Cheddar cheese is much shorter. More acid is +developed with the skimmed-milk than with the whole-milk cheese because +it seems necessary to develop proper texture. If the acid is not +developed sufficiently, the cheese will be very rubbery and cure very +slowly, in which case bad fermentation and flavor may and often do +develop. The curd is turned, piled or cheddared in the vat until it +begins to become meaty and fibrous. If there is danger of too much acid, +the curd may be rinsed off with water. It is then milled and salted at +the rate of 1 or 1¼ pounds of salt to the curd from each 1000 pounds +of milk. The remainder of the process is the same as that for making +whole-milk cheese. + ++229. Half skimmed-milk Cheddar cheese.+--No definite directions can be +given for the manufacture of part skimmed-milk cheese, because the +process varies with the amount of fat left in the milk. As the fat is +decreased, the process becomes more like that for making full +skimmed-milk cheese; as the fat is increased, the process becomes more +like that for whole-milk cheese. However, the process of making half +skimmed-milk cheese is about midway between the two. The milk is ripened +more than it would be for whole-milk cheese, usually until it tests from +0.15 to 0.17 of 1 per cent acid. The curd is coagulated and cut the same +as for the other skimmed-milk cheeses. It is cooked to a temperature +just sufficient to firm the curd, usually from 94° to 96° F. The lower +the temperature at which the curd can be cooked and yet become firm, +the better is the texture of the cheese. When the curd has firmed +enough, or when sufficient acid development, from 0.15 to 0.17 of 1 per +cent, has taken place, the whey is removed. The curd is then turned, +piled or cheddared. A skimmed-milk curd may be piled much more rapidly +than a whole-milk curd without danger of injuring it. When the curd +becomes meaty or fibrous, it is milled. It should be salted at the rate +of 1¼ to 2 pounds of salt to the curd from each 1000 pounds of milk. +The remainder of the process is the same as that for making whole-milk +cheese. + +The cheese-maker should observe the following points when making +skimmed-milk cheese: (1) Have clean-flavored sweet milk; (2) use +clean-flavored commercial starter; (3) ripen the milk sufficiently, but +not too much; (4) firm the curd at as low a temperature as possible; (5) +have the curd properly firmed when the whey is drawn; (6) cheddar the +curd faster than the curd from whole milk; (7) make the cheeses all the +same size; (8) keep the cheese neat and clean in the curing-room. + ++230. Yield and qualities of skimmed-milk Cheddar cheese.+--The results +of skimming different percentages of whole milk containing varying +percentages of fat are given in the following table. As the percentage +of fat in the milk decreases, the yield of cheese also decreases, +according to the table. As the percentage of fat decreases in the milk, +the percentage of moisture in the cheese increases, showing that +moisture is substituted for fat. The yield of cheese from 100 pounds of +milk is also given in this table. This yield varies with the amount of +moisture incorporated into the cheese, the amount of solids not fat in +the milk, and the solids lost in the whey. + + + TABLE XIV + + TABLE SHOWING THE COMPOSITION AND YIELD OF SKIMMED-MILK + CHEDDAR CHEESE + + ============================================================================ + | |PERCENTAGE|NUMBER | COMPOSITION OF THE CHEESE + PERCENTAGE|PERCENTAGE|OF FAT IN |OF POUNDS +----------+----------+---------- + OF FAT |OF THE |THE MILK |OF CHEESE |PERCENTAGE| | + IN THE |MILK |IN THE |FROM 100 |OF TOTAL |PERCENTAGE|PERCENTAGE + MILK |SKIMMED |VAT AFTER |POUNDS |OF TOTAL |OF FAT |OF WATER + | |SKIMMING |OF MILK |SOLIDS | | + ----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+---------- + 4.7 | 50 | 2.4 | 9.92 | 54.75 | 22.00 | 45.25 + 4.7 | 60 | 2.0 | 9.74 | 52.46 | 17.50 | 47.54 + 4.7 | 70 | 1.5 | 9.26 | 49.87 | 13.50 | 50.13 + 4.7 | 80 | 1.0 | 8.42 | 48.26 | 10.00 | 51.74 + 4.0 | 50 | 2.0 | 9.70 | 53.29 | 21.00 | 46.71 + 4.0 | 60 | 1.6 | 9.50 | 50.89 | 17.00 | 49.11 + 4.0 | 70 | 1.2 | 9.30 | 48.06 | 13.50 | 51.94 + 4.0 | 80 | 0.9 | 9.20 | 45.24 | 10.50 | 54.76 + 3.5 | 50 | 1.8 | 8.54 | 54.20 | 19.50 | 45.80 + 3.5 | 60 | 1.5 | 8.10 | 51.10 | 16.50 | 48.90 + 3.5 | 70 | 1.1 | 7.44 | 52.62 | 13.00 | 47.38 + 3.5 | 80 | O.9 | 7.00 | 49.64 | 9.54 | 50.36 + 3.4 | 50 | 1.9 | 8.24[102]| 54.50 | 20.00 | 45.50 + 3.4 | 60 | 1.5 | 7.82 | 52.05 | 16.50 | 47.95 + 3.4 | 70 | {1.4 | {7.80 | {49.04 | {14.00 | {50.96 + | | {1.2 | {7.28 | {50.76 | {14.00 | {49.24 + 3.4 | 80 | 0.9 | 7.24 | 47.41 | 10.50 | 52.59 + ============================================================================ + +In some creameries and cheese factories, the milk is skimmed and the +cream made into butter and the skimmed-milk into cheese by the Cheddar +process. In making cheese without the milk-fat, it is difficult to +standardize a method that will produce the flavor and body of the +whole-milk Cheddar cheese. A skimmed-milk cheese lacks the softness and +mellowness of texture of the whole-milk product. It is very likely to be +tough, dry or leathery. It is attempted to remedy this defect by +incorporating more moisture into the skimmed-milk cheese. The added +moisture tends to replace the fat in giving a soft mellow body. It +requires skill on the part of the cheese-maker to incorporate moisture +to take the place of the fat in giving the cheese mellowness and +smoothness of body. + +The grades of skimmed-milk cheese vary between rather wide limits--from +those made entirely of skimmed-milk to those made of milk from which +only a small amount of fat has been removed and which are almost like +whole-milk cheese. Because of the gradations of skimmed-milk cheese, it +is difficult to make anything but general statements and to base +comparisons with whole-milk cheese. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +_CHEDDAR CHEESE RIPENING_ + + +Freshly made Cheddar cheese is hard, tough and elastic and lacks +characteristic cheese flavor. In this condition it is called "green," +unripe or not cured. Before the cheese is ready to be eaten, it passes +through a complex series of changes which are collectively known as +ripening. In the ripening process the texture becomes soft and mellow +and the characteristic cheese flavors develop. Cheese ripening must be +considered from two view-points, first, the changes taking place inside +the cheese and secondly the outside conditions necessary for ripening. +Some of the chemical changes during ripening are known, while others are +not understood. The different agents causing ripening, and the +constituents of the milk, will be discussed. + ++231. Fat.+--Numerous investigations have been made to ascertain what +chemical changes the fat undergoes in the ripening process. Suzuki,[103] +in studying the fat, found no enzyme capable of producing lactic acid or +volatile fatty acids. However, these acids were found in increasing +amounts during the ripening process and after the lactose had +disappeared. Acetic and propionic acids reached a maximum at three +months and then decreased, while butyric and caproic acids continually +increased during the experimental period covered. Formic acid was +detected in the whole-milk cheese only at the five and one-half month +stage. In the judgment of the experimenter the principal source of +acetic and propionic acids was probably lactates. Traces of these acids +may have had their origin in protein decomposition or further +fermentation of glycerine. The principal sources indicated for butyric +and caproic acids were fats and proteins. + +The distillate from the experimental cheese was designated "flavor +solution" and contained alcohols and esters, giving a close resemblance +to the cheese aroma. The "flavor solution" from the mild whole-milk +cheese contained esters made up largely of ethyl alcohol and acetic +acid, while from the more pungent skimmed-milk cheese the esters were +largely compounds of ethyl alcohol and caproic and butyric acids. The +alcohol may have come from the lactose fermentation. It appears to be an +important factor in flavor production. The agencies operative in the +production of volatile acids and syntheses of esters are as yet +undefined. + ++232. Milk-sugar.+--The milk-sugar (lactose) is changed into lactic acid +by the lactic acid-forming organisms, within the first few days after +the cheese is made. This acid is combined with the other constituents as +fast as it is formed. After a few days, the milk-sugar will have +entirely disappeared from the cheese.[104] The relation between the +milk-sugar and lactic acid is very close. It is necessary that +milk-sugar be present in order later to have the lactic acid develop. + ++233. The salts.+--Just what changes the salts[105] undergo or how they +combine with the other compounds is not definitely known. It is supposed +that the calcium salts first combine with the phosphates and later, as +the lactic acid is formed, they combine with the lactic acid, forming a +calcium lactate. + ++234. Gases.+--In the process of cheese ripening, gases are formed, the +commonest being carbon dioxide.[106] Exactly how this gas is formed is +not known. It may be due to the formation of lactic acid from the +milk-sugar or to the living organisms in the cheese. + ++235. Casein or proteins.+--Complex ripening changes in the cheese take +place in the casein compounds or proteins. Because of the complex +chemical nature of the proteins and the various agents acting on them, +it is difficult to follow these changes. This has led to different +opinions regarding the ripening process. The various compounds thought +to be formed from the casein or proteins are as follows:[107] + +_Paracasein_ (formed by the action of the rennet on the casein). +Insoluble in brine and warm 5 per cent salt brine. + +_Protein._ Soluble in warm 5 per cent salt brine. + +_Protein._ Insoluble in warm salt brine or water. + +_Paranuclein._ A protein soluble in water and precipitable by dilute +hydrochloric acid. + +_Caseoses and proteoses._ Protein derivations soluble in water and not +coagulated by heat. + +_Peptones._ Protein derivations simpler than the proteoses, soluble in +water and not coagulated by heat. + +_Amido acids._ Protein derivations soluble in water, least complex +except ammonia. + +_Ammonia._ The simplest protein derivations. + +From the discussion of the constituents in the milk and cheese, it is +evident that practically all the principal ripening changes are +concerned with those taking place in the proteins. + ++236. Causes of ripening changes.+--Authorities disagree as to the exact +agents which cause the ripening changes. Some think they are due to the +action of the enzymes in the rennet and those secreted in the milk. +Others hold that these changes are due entirely to bacterial action. A +combination of the two seems probable. The action of the rennet extract +renders the casein insoluble and in the ripening process the proteins +become soluble, the degree depending on the length of time the cheese is +ripened. The amount of water-soluble proteins and protein derivatives is +used as a measure of the extent of cheese ripening, considered from a +chemical standpoint. + ++237. Action of the rennet extract.+--Some authorities hold that rennet +extract contains two enzymes, rennin and pepsin, while others think it +is a single peptic ferment. These enzymes produce effects[108] closely +related to, if not identical with, those of pepsin in the following +particulars: neither the rennet enzyme nor pepsin causes much, if any, +proteolytic change except in the presence of acid; the quantitative +results of proteolysis furnished by the rennet enzyme and pepsin agree +closely, when working on the same material under comparable conditions; +the classes of soluble nitrogen compounds formed by the two enzymes are +the same, both quantitatively and qualitatively; neither enzyme forms +any considerable amount of amido compounds and neither produces any +ammonia; the soluble nitrogen compounds formed by both enzymes are +confined to the group of compounds known as paranuclein, caseoses and +peptones. + +Rennet exerts a digestive effect on the casein[109] which is intensified +by the development of acid in the curd. The soluble nitrogenous products +formed in Cheddar cheese by the rennet enzymes are the albumoses and the +higher peptones. Experiments show that no flavor develops until the +amido acids and ammonia are formed. When the rennet enzymes were the +only digesting ferments in the cheese, there was no trace of cheese +flavor. This is probably due to the fact that the rennet enzyme changed +the casein into caseoses and peptones but did not form amido acids and +ammonia. Some authorities[110] think that the enzyme galactase carries +the ripening of the protein from this stage. The question arises whether +these intermediate compounds must be found before other agents can form +the amido acids and ammonia. + + + TABLE XV[111] + + SHOWING THE EFFECT OF DIFFERENT AMOUNTS OF RENEET + EXTRACTS ON THE RATE OF FORMATION OF SOLUBLE + NITROGEN COMPOUNDS IN CHEESE RIPENING + + ========================================================= + | PER CENT OF WATER SOLUBLE NITROGEN + QUANTITY OF | COMPOUNDS IN THE CHEESE + RENNET ADDED PER +--------------------------------------- + 1000 LB. OF MILK | Initial | 32 days | 80 days | 270 days + -----------------+---------+---------+---------+--------- + 2 oz. | 0.14 | 0.47 | 0.68 | 1.30 + 4 oz. | 0.16 | 0.75 | 1.13 | 1.74 + 8 oz. | 0.16 | 0.90 | 1.50 | 1.97 + 16 oz. | 0.14 | 1.26 | 1.70 | 2.04 + ========================================================= + +The above table shows that the more rennet extract used the faster the +cheese cures, measured by the amount of water-soluble nitrogen compounds +formed in the cheese. + ++238. The action of the bacteria.+--Authorities[112] disagree as to the +groups of bacteria found in Cheddar cheese. This may be due to lack of +proper classification. Some of the groups are: _Bacterium lactis acidi_, +_B. coli communis_, _B. lactis aerogenes_, _B. casei_, Streptococci, +_B.[113] Bulgaricum_ and Micrococci. Authorities agree that the _B. +lactis acidi_ group is the most prominent. This group makes up 90 per +cent or more of the total bacteria flora of the cheese in the early +stages of ripening. In the course of a few weeks, however, this group is +largely replaced by the _B. casei_ group[114]. + + + TABLE XVI + + SHOWING THE NUMBER OF BACTERIA TO A GRAM IN CHEDDAR + CHEESE AS DETERMINED BY LACTOSE-AGAR PLATE CULTURES + + ==================================================================== + TIME OF | CHEESE NUMBER + PLATING +-------------+---------------+-------------+-------------- + | 580 | 581 | 582 | 583 + ---------+-------------+---------------+-------------+-------------- + Milk | 8,000,000 | 500,000 | 700,000 | 500,000 + ---------+-------------+---------------+-------------+-------------- + Curd at | | | | + salting | 160,000,000 | 326,000,000 | 912,000,000 | 839,000,000 + time | | | | + ---------+-------------+---------------+-------------+-------------- + 12 hours | 332,000,000 | 1,048,000,000 | 623,000,000 | 965,000,000 + ---------+-------------+---------------+-------------+-------------- + 1 day | 586,000,000 | 736,000,000 | 709,000,000 | 569,000,000 + ---------+-------------+---------------+-------------+-------------- + 2 days | 235,000,000 | 405,000,000 | 848,000,000 | 580,000,000 + ---------+-------------+---------------+-------------+-------------- + 4 days | 145,000,000 | 684,000,000 | 522,000,000 | 1,025,000,000 + ---------+-------------+---------------+-------------+-------------- + 6 days | 165,000,000 | 184,000,000 | 853,000,000 | 184,000,000 + ---------+-------------+---------------+-------------+-------------- + 14 days | 51,000,000 | 211,000,000 | 369,000,000 | 401,000,000 + ---------+-------------+---------------+-------------+-------------- + 21 days | 284,000,000 | 290,000,000 | 348,000,000 | 319,000,000 + ---------+-------------+---------------+-------------+-------------- + 28 days | 285,000,000 | 453,000,000 | 314,000,000 | 144,000,000 + ---------+-------------+---------------+-------------+-------------- + 35 days | 104,000,000 | 261,000,000 | 326,000,000 | 504,000,000 + ---------+-------------+---------------+-------------+-------------- + 49 days | 132,000,000 | 228,000,000 | 436,000,000 | 661,000,000 + ---------+-------------+---------------+-------------+-------------- + 70 days | 128,000,000 | 291,000,000 | 193,000,000 | 168,000,000 + ---------+-------------+---------------+-------------+-------------- + 98 days | 114,000,000 | 212,000,000 | 45,000,000 | 55,000,000 + ==================================================================== + + From Wis. Bul. 150. + +The large number of bacteria in the cheese is very striking. The number +as given in the accompanying table is not that actually in the cheese, +as it is very difficult to obtain the sample in suitable condition for +plating.[115] + +The principal action of the lactic acid-forming bacteria in the cheese +ripening is the changing of the milk-sugar or lactose into lactic acid +and the formation of small amounts of other substances, such as acetic, +succinic and formic acids, alcohol, aldehydes and esters and some gases, +carbon dioxide and hydrogen. While the amount of these substances other +than lactic acid is small, it is thought that the effect of these on the +cheese may be important. Heinemann shows[116] that lactic acid exists in +two optical modifications, the levorotatory and dextrorotary acids. In +cheese they are usually found in the inactive or racemic form, the +levorotatory and dextrorotary acids being present in equal amounts. What +importance the question of optical activity of the lactic acid may +assume is not definitely known. Just as some groups of bacteria have a +specific effect on the lactose, producing only one modification of +lactic acid, so bacteria attacking lactic acid may exercise a selective +action and use only one or the other optically active modification. In +other words, the early flora of cheese-ripening bacteria may determine +the later flora by the production of a form of lactic acid attacked by +one group of bacteria and not by another, and the effect on the flavor +will differ accordingly. The amount of lactic acid in the cheese +increases for a time, then decreases. + +The errors in determining lactic acid are considerable. It seems that +the tendency is toward an increase of lactic acid in the cheese long +after the lactose has disappeared. Two explanations are offered: one, +that in the lactic acid fermentation an intermediate compound or +compounds are formed which exist for some time, the conversion into +lactic acid being complete at about three months; the other is that +lactic acid is formed as a product of paracasein proteolysis. + +The lactic acid formed in cheese ripening does not exist in a free state +but reacts with the calcium salts in the cheese and forms calcium +lactates. It is thought that there is sufficient of these salts to +neutralize all the acid formed, and therefore the acid does not enter +into combination with the paracasein salts. It has been found that +lactates are the principal source of acetic and propionic acids. These +are supposed to have some effect on the flavor of the cheese. + +The effect of lactic acid as a determinant of bacterial and enzymic +changes is very important. Early in the ripening process, lactic acid +suppresses the growth of undesirable micro-organisms. It also furnishes +the acid medium necessary for the best action of both the coagulating +and peptic enzymes. + +The importance of the lactic acid bacteria in cheese ripening has been +summed up by Hastings[117] as follows: "The functions of this group of +bacteria in Cheddar cheese are through their by-product lactic acid as +follows: (_a_) To favor the curdling of milk by rennet. (_b_) The +bacteria of the milk are held in great part in the curd. Through the +acid they influence the shrinkage of the curd and expulsion of the whey, +(_c_) The acid so changes the nature of the curd as to cause 'matting,' +or 'cheddaring' of the curd, (_d_) The acid activates the pepsin of the +rennet extract, (_e_) The acid prevents the growth of putrefactive +bacteria in the cheese. (_f_) It has been shown that _Bacterium lactis +acidi_ is able to form acid in the absence of the living cell. (_g_) The +development of _Bacterium lactis acidi_ is followed by the growth of +another group of acid-forming bacteria, the _Bacillus Bulgaricus_ group. +They reach numbers comparable with those of the first group, reaching +their maximum number within the first month of ripening. Since they +develop after the fermentation of the milk-sugar, they must have some +other source of carbon and of energy than milk-sugar." It is also +probable that other groups constantly present contribute to the changes. + +From the preceding discussion it is evident that each of the ripening +agents has its important part to play in the ripening process and a +normal ripening of the cheese is a composite result of these various +agencies. + ++239. Conditions affecting the rate of cheese ripening.+--The rate at +which these agents cause ripening of the cheese depends on several +factors.[118] Most of these factors are within the control of man. They +are as follows: the length of time; temperature of the curing-room; +moisture-content of the cheese; size of the cheese; the quantity of salt +used; the amount of rennet; the influence of acid. + ++240. The length of time.+--The water-soluble nitrogen compounds +increase as the cheese ages, other conditions being uniform. The rate of +increase is not uniform; it is much more rapid in the early than in the +succeeding stages of ripening. + ++241. The temperature of the curing-room.+--Very few cheese factories +have made any provision for regulating the temperature of the +curing-room. Without such provision the temperature follows closely that +of the outside air. In some cases the curing-room is located over the +boiler-room and hence becomes very hot. In the cheese warehouses, +provision has been made to control the temperature very closely. +Experiments show that the soluble nitrogen compounds increase, on the +average, closely in proportion to an increase of temperature, when the +other conditions are uniform. + +The temperature of the curing-room has a material effect on the quality +of the cheese. Cheese made from the same day's milk, and part cured at +40° F., part at 50° F., part at 60° F. show considerable differences, +the greatest seeming to be in the flavor and texture. Those kept at the +low temperature cure more slowly and develop a milder flavor, those at +the higher temperature cure faster and develop undesirable flavors. At +the higher temperature the undesirable organisms seem to be more active. +Some very skillful makers and judges of cheese have always contended +that if Cheddar is properly made, firmed to the body and texture of a +high-class cheese, ripening at 55 to 60° F. gives a higher quality. Such +a cheese must be low in moisture, perhaps 3 to 5 per cent lower than one +cured successfully by the cold process. + +The following tables[119] XVII, XVIII show the effect of different +temperatures of curing cheese on the total score and on the points of +the flavor, body and texture: + + + TABLE XVII + + TABLE SHOWING THE RELATION OF TEMPERATURE OF CURING + TO TOTAL SCORE + + ========================================== + TEMPERATURE OF CURING | TOTAL SCORE + ----------------------+------------------- + 40° | 95.7 + 50° | 94.2 + 60° | 91.7 + ========================================== + + + TABLE XVIII + + TABLE SHOWING THE RELATION OF TEMPERATURE OF CURING + TO SCORE OF BODY AND TEXTURE, AND FLAVOR + + ================================================= + TEMPERATURE OF CURING | 40° F. | 50° F. | 60° F. + ----------------------+--------+--------+-------- + Body and texture | 23.4 | 32.0 | 22.2 + Flavor | 47.4 | 46.4 | 44.8 + ================================================= + +Of the three temperatures of curing, the lowest gave a higher total +score and a higher score for flavor, body and texture. + +The curing temperature should not go low enough to freeze the cheese, as +this lowers the quality. The cheese will cure very slowly and have a +mealy texture. + ++242. Moisture-content of the cheese.+--Other conditions being equal, +there is a larger amount of water-soluble nitrogen compounds in cheese +containing more moisture than in that containing less moisture. +Therefore, a high moisture-content of the cheese causes it to cure +faster. The presence of moisture also serves to dilute the fermentation +products which otherwise would accumulate and thus check the action of +the ripening agents. + ++243. The size of the cheese.+--Cheeses of large size usually cure +faster than smaller ones, under the same conditions. This is due to the +fact that the large cheeses lose their moisture less rapidly by +evaporation and therefore after the early period of ripening have a +higher water-content. + ++244. The amount of salt.+--The relation of salt to the rate of ripening +is more or less directly associated with the moisture-content of the +cheese, since an increase in the amount of salt decreases the moisture. +Thus, cheese containing more salt forms water-soluble nitrogen compounds +more slowly than that containing less salt. The salt also has a direct +effect in retarding one or more of the ripening agents. + ++245. The amount of rennet extract.+--The use of increased amounts of +rennet extract in cheese-making, other conditions being uniform, results +in the production of increased quantities of soluble nitrogen compounds +in a given period of time, especially such compounds as paranuclein, +caseoses and peptones. + ++246. The influence of acid.+--It is necessary that acid be present but +the exact relation of varying quantities of acid to the chemical changes +of the ripening process is not fully known. If too much acid is present, +it imparts a sour taste to the cheese. It also causes the texture of the +cheese to be mealy or sandy instead of smooth and waxy. + +Conditions that may increase the rate of ripening: + + 1. Increase of temperature. + 2. Larger amounts of rennet. + 3. More moisture in the cheese. + 4. Less salt. + 5. Large size of the cheese. + 6. Moderate amount of acid. + +Conditions that may retard ripening: + + 1. Decrease of temperature. + 2. Smaller amounts of rennet. + 3. Less moisture in the cheese. + 4. More salt. + 5. Small size of the cheese. + 6. No acid or an excess of acid. + ++247. Care of the cheese in the curing-room.+--The cheeses need daily +attention while in the curing-room (Fig. 53). They should be turned +every day to prevent sticking and molding to the shelf and to secure an +even evaporation of moisture. If not turned, the moisture will not +evaporate evenly from all surfaces and will result in an uneven +distribution in the cheese, which causes uneven curing, and usually +gives the product an uneven color. + +The surface of the cheese should be watched to see that the cloths +stick. If they do not, the surface will crack, due to the evaporation of +the moisture. If the cloths are loosened, they should be removed and the +surface of the cheese greased with butter. The grease will tend to +prevent the rind from cracking. If the surface of the cheese is not +smooth, due to wrinkles in the bandage, or if it cracks, due to the lack +of cloths, it furnishes the opportunity for insects to lay their eggs +and the larvæ to develop within the cheese. Molds also lodge and grow in +such cracks. + +[Illustration: FIG. 53.--Cheddar cheese curing-room.] + +The cheese should be kept clean while in the curing-room. This means +that the hands of the person handling the cheese must be clean. The +shelves should be washed with good cleaning solution and scalded with +hot water whenever they become greasy or moldy. + +Some means should be provided for regulating the temperature and +humidity of the curing-room. In most factories this is accomplished by +opening the doors and windows at night to admit the cool air and closing +them in the morning to keep out the hot air. Care should be taken to +keep the doors and windows closely secured. The windows should have +shades to keep out the sun. If the room becomes too dry, the floor may +be dampened with cold water. + +The length of time in the curing-room depends on how often shipment is +made to some central warehouse or to the market. This usually varies +from two to six weeks. + +When the surface of the cheese becomes dry and the rind is well formed, +the cheese may be paraffined. It usually requires four to six days after +cheeses are taken from the hoop before they are ready for this process. +The object of paraffining is to prevent the escape of moisture and to +keep the cheese from molding. + ++248. Evaporation of moisture from the cheese during ripening.+--The +losses due to evaporation while the cheeses are curing are a +considerable item. The rate of evaporation depends on the temperature +and humidity of the curing-room, the size of the cheese, the +moisture-content and protection to the surface. + +Table XIX[120] shows the effect of size of cheese and temperature of the +curing-room, on losses while curing. This table shows that the +evaporation of moisture is more as the size of the cheese decreases and +the temperature is increased. This is probably due to the fact that the +smaller cheese has more surface to a pound than a large cheese. The +evaporation increases with temperature, probably because of lowered +relative humidity. The humidity can be tested with an hygrometer. + + + TABLE XIX + + SHOWING THE VARIATION OF LOSSES IN WEIGHT OF CHEDDAR + CHEESE WHILE CURING, DUE TO SIZE OF CHEESE AND TEMPERATURE + OF CURING-ROOM + + ============================================================= + | WEIGHT LOST PER 100 POUNDS OF CHEESE IN 20 + WEIGHT OF CHEESE | WEEKS AT + IN POUNDS +---------------+--------------+------------ + | 40° F. | 50° F. | 60° F. + -----------------+---------------+--------------+------------ + 70 | 2.5 | 2.4 | 4.2 + 45 | 2.7 | 3.7 | 5.1 + 35 | 3.9 | 5.9 | 8.5 + 12½ | 4.6 | 8.1 | 12.0 + ============================================================= + +The higher the moisture-content of the cheese, usually the more rapid is +the evaporation. This is due to several causes: there is more moisture +to evaporate; the moisture is not so well incorporated; a moist cheese +does not form so good a rind. + +249. +Paraffining+[121] consists of dipping the cheese in melted +paraffin at a temperature of about 220° F. for six seconds. Fig. 54 +shows an apparatus for paraffining. This leaves a very thin coat of +paraffin on the cheese; at a lower temperature, a thicker coat would be +left. The thicker coating is more liable to crack and peel off. If the +cheese is not perfectly dry before it is treated, the paraffin will +blister and crack off. + +Before a cheese is paraffined, the press cloth is removed and also the +starched circles, if loose. After a cheese has been paraffined, if the +coating is not broken, the loss due to evaporation is greatly reduced. +The amount of paraffin to coat a 35-pound cheese will depend on the +temperature of the paraffin and the length of time the cheese is +immersed. Usually at 220° F. it requires about 0.15 of a pound for each +35-pound cheese. After the cheeses have been paraffined, they may be +left on the curing-room shelves or boxed ready to ship. + +[Illustration: FIG. 54.--A paraffiner for cheese.] + ++250. Shipping.+--When ready to ship, each cheese should be carefully +and accurately weighed and boxed. Usually these cheeses are boxed after +being paraffined. If press cloths are left on the cheese in the +curing-room, they should be removed just before weighing. These cloths +should not be left in a pile in the factory after being removed as they +have been known to heat and sometimes cause fires. They should be washed +clean and dried ready for use again. If starched circles are used, they +should be left on the cheese. A scale board should be placed on each end +of the cheese to prevent its sticking to the box and also to keep the +box from wearing the surface of the cheese. + +The box should be a trifle larger in diameter than the cheese so that +the latter can be easily placed in it. The sides of the box should be +the same height as the cheese. + +The weight of each cheese should be neatly and accurately marked on each +box. Care should be exercised to keep the boxes clean. + + +DEFECTS IN CHEDDAR CHEESE + +A great number of defects may occur in Cheddar cheese. Certain of these +are due to known causes and proper remedies are definable, while neither +cause nor remedy has been found for other defects. Some of the common +defects and their causes and remedies are discussed under different +headings of the score-card as: defects in flavor, their causes and +remedies; defects in body and texture, their causes and remedies; +defects in color, their causes and remedies; defects in finish and their +causes and remedies. + ++251. Defects in flavor.+--Any flavor differing from the characteristic +Cheddar cheese is a defect. Certain of these defective flavors can be +recognized and causes and remedies given for them, while others may be +distinguished as such but no cause or remedy can be given. + ++252. Feedy flavors.+--Flavors may be characteristic of certain feeding +stuffs. Feeding strong-flavored foods, such as turnips, cabbage, decayed +silage, certain weeds and sometimes rank green feed, give their peculiar +flavors to both milk and cheese. Freshly drawn milk usually absorbs +these odors from the air in barns filled with such foods. Certain of +these materials may be fed just after milking in moderate amounts +without affecting the milk drawn at the next milking. Others should not +be used. Milk should not be exposed to strong volatile odors. Some of +the objectionable odors may be removed by airing the curd for a longer +time after milling before the salt is applied. + ++253. Acid flavors.+--A cheese with an acid flavor has a pronounced sour +smell and taste. This is caused by the over-development of acid which +may be due to any of the following causes: (_a_) receiving milk at the +factory which is sour or has too high development of acid; (_b_) using +too much starter; (_c_) ripening the milk too much before adding rennet; +(_d_) not firming the curd sufficiently in the whey before removing the +latter; (_e_) developing too much acid in the whey before it is removed; +(_f_) retaining too much moisture in the curd. + +The trouble can be reduced or eliminated by one or more of the following +precautions: (_a_) receiving only clean, sweet milk at the cheese +factory; (_b_) maintaining the proper relation between the moisture and +acidity; (_c_) adding the rennet at the proper acidity; (_d_) using less +starter; (_e_) adding the rennet extract so that there will be +sufficient time to firm the curd before the acid has developed to such a +stage that it will be necessary to draw the whey; (_f_) producing the +proper final water-content in the newly made cheese. + ++254. Sweet or fruity flavors.+--These are the sweet flavors +characteristic of strawberry, raspberry and the like. Such flavors are +very objectionable and usually increase with the age of the cheese. They +appear to be caused by: (_a_) carrying both milk and whey in the same +cans without properly cleaning them; (_b_) exposing milk near hog-pens +where whey is fed; (_c_) dirty whey tanks at the cheese factory; (_d_) +micro-organisms which get into the milk through any unclean conditions. + +These troubles can be controlled: (_a_) if milk and whey must be carried +in the same cans, the cans should be emptied immediately on arrival at +the farm and thoroughly washed and scalded; (_b_) the whey vat at the +factory should be kept clean and sweet; (_c_) the starter must have the +proper clean flavor. + +Other defects may be classed as "off flavors," "dirty flavors," "bitter +flavors" and the like. These are undoubtedly due to unsanitary +conditions whereby undesirable organisms get into the milk, even though +the particular organism is often not determined. The flavors may be +improved by the use of a clean-flavored commercial starter and by airing +the curd after milling before salting. The best remedy is to remove the +source of the difficulty. + ++255. Defects in body and texture.+--The body and texture should be +close. A sample rubbed between the thumb and fingers should be smooth +and waxy. Any condition which causes a body and texture other than this +is to be avoided. + ++256. Loose or open texture.+--A cheese with this defect is full of +irregularly shaped holes and usually soft or weak-bodied. This is +serious if the cheese is to be held for some time. Moisture and fat are +likely to collect in these holes and cause the cheese to deteriorate, +thereby shortening its commercial life. + +Several causes may bring about this condition: (_a_) insufficient +cheddaring; (_b_) pressing at too high a temperature; (_c_) inadequate +pressing; (_d_) development of too little acid. + +The corresponding remedies are: (_a_) cheddar the curd until the holes +are closed and the curd is solid; (_b_) cool the curd to 80° F. before +putting to press; (_c_) press the curd longer, possibly twenty-four to +twenty-six hours; (_d_) develop a little higher acid in the whey before +removing the curd. + ++257. Dry body.+--A cheese with this defect is usually firm, hard and +dry, sometimes rubbery or corky. This may result from lack of moisture, +fat or both, and may be due to the following causes: (_a_) making the +cheese from partly skimmed-milk; (_b_) heating the curd in the whey for +too long a time; (_c_) heating the curd too high; (_d_) stirring the +curd too much in the whey or as the last of the whey is removed; (_e_) +using too much salt; (_f_) developing of too much acid in the whey; +(_g_) curing the cheese in too hot or too dry a curing-room; (_h_) not +piling the curd high or fast enough in the cheddaring process. + +The cause should be located and the corresponding remedy found, as +follows: (_a_) make cheese only from whole milk; (_b_) draw the whey +sooner; (_c_) firm the curd at as low temperature as possible in the +whey; (_d_) stir the curd in the whey only enough to keep the curd +particles separated but do not hand-stir it; (_e_) use less salt; (_f_) +develop less acid in the whey; (_g_) cure the cheese in a cool moist +curing-room; (_h_) pile the curd sooner and higher during the cheddaring +process. + +The number of causes which may singly or in combination produce dry +cheese demands experience and technical skill that calls for the +development of a high degree of judgment. + ++258. Gassy textured cheese.+--Gassy cheese has large numbers of very +small round or slightly flattened holes. When round these are called +"pin-holes," and when slightly flattened "fish eye" openings. These are +due to the formation of gas by the micro-organisms in the cheese. When a +cheese is gassy, it usually puffs up from gas pressure as in the rising +of bread. If enough gas is formed, it will cause the cheese to break or +crack open. Instead of being flat on the ends, such a cheese becomes so +nearly spherical as to roll from the shelf at times. + +The gas-producing organisms enter because of unclean conditions +somewhere in the handling of the milk and the making of the cheese. +Some of the common sources of gas organisms are: (_a_) unclean milkers; +(_b_) dirty cows; (_c_) aërating the milk in impure air, especially air +from hog-pens where the whey is fed; (_d_) allowing the cows to wade in +stagnant water or in mud or in filthy barnyards and then not thoroughly +cleaning the cows before milking; (_e_) exposing the milk to the dust +from hay and feed; (_f_) dirty whey tanks; (_g_) drawing milk and whey +in the same cans without afterward thoroughly washing them; (_h_) +unclean utensils in the factory; (_i_) using gassy starter; (_j_) +ripening cheese at high temperatures. + +Some of these causes are within the control of the cheese-maker after +the making process is begun. Many of them are avoided only by eternal +vigilance. Among the recommendations for meeting gassy curd are the +following: use only milk produced under clean sanitary conditions; use a +clean commercial starter. + +If gas is suspected in the milk, a larger percentage of commercial +starter should be used. More acid must be developed before the whey is +removed. If the gas shows while cheddaring, the curd should be piled and +repiled until the holes flatten out before milling. + +The curd should be kept warm during the piling or cheddaring process. +This may be accomplished by covering the vat and setting a pail or two +of hot water in it. After milling, the curd should be stirred and aired +for a considerable length of time before salting. This will aërate the +curd and allow it to cool. The cheese should then be placed in a cool +curing-room. (See handling of gassy milk.) + ++259. Acidy, pasty or soft body and texture.+--A cheese with acidy body +may be either hard and dry or soft and moist. It has a mealy or sandy +feeling when rubbed between the fingers. The causes and remedies are the +same as for cheeses with acid flavors. When rubbed between the fingers, +it is pasty and sticks to the fingers. It is caused by the cheese +containing too much water. (See control of moisture.) + ++260. Defects in color.+--Any color which is not uniform is a defect. +The proper color depends on the market requirement. Some markets prefer +a white and others a yellow cheese; however, if the color is uniform, it +is not defective. + +_Mottled color_ is a spotted or variegated marking of the cheese. +Several causes may give the same general effect: (_a_) uneven +distribution of moisture, the curd having extra moisture being lighter +in color; (_b_) neglecting to strain the starter; (_c_) adding the +starter after the cheese color has been added; (_d_) mixing the curd +from different vats. + +Remedies for this mottled color are: (_a_) to maintain a uniform +assimilation of moisture (see discussion of moisture); (_b_) to strain +the starter to break up the lumps before adding to the milk; (_c_) to +add all of the starter before adding the cheese color; (_d_) not to mix +curds from different vats. + +_Seamy color._--In "seamy" colored cheese, the outline of each piece of +curd may be seen. There is usually a line where the surfaces of the curd +come together. It may be caused by the pieces of curd becoming greasy or +so cold that they will not cement. This may be remedied by having the +curd at a temperature of 80° to 85° F. when put to press. If it is +greasy, this may be removed by washing the curd in cold water. + +_Acid color._--This is a bleached or faded color and is caused by the +development of too much acid. (See acid flavor for causes and remedies, +page 266.) + ++261. Defects in finish.+--Defects of this class differ from those +previously mentioned in being entirely within the control of the +cheese-maker. All are due to carelessness or lack of skill in +manipulation. Anything which detracts from the neat, clean, workmanlike +appearance of the cheese is a defect that may interfere with the sale of +an article intrinsically good. Some of the common defects are: (_a_) +unclean surfaces or dirty cheese; (_b_) cracked rinds; (_c_) moldy +surfaces; (_d_) uneven sizes; (_e_) cracked cheese; (_f_) wrinkled +bandages; (_g_) uneven edges. + + +CHEDDAR CHEESE JUDGING + +Judging of cheese is the comparison of the qualities of one product with +those of another. To make this easier it is customary to reduce the +qualities of the cheese to a numerical basis. This is accomplished by +the use of a score-card, which recognizes certain qualities and gives to +each a numerical value. Each of these score-cards gives a perfect cheese +a numerical score of 100. Two score-cards are used to judge cheese, one +for export and the other for home-trade product. The latter is more +commonly used. + + EXPORT SCORE-CARD HOME-TRADE SCORE-CARD + + Flavor 45 Flavor 50 + Body and texture 30 Body and texture 25 + Color 15 Color 15 + Finish 10 Finish 10 + --- --- + Total 100 Total 100 + +The same qualities are recognized in each score-card, but different +numerical values are given them. + ++262. Securing the sample.+--The sample of cheese to be examined is best +obtained by means of a cheese-trier (Fig. 55). This is a piece of steel +about five or six inches long fitted with a suitable handle. It is +semicircular in shape, about ½ to ¾ of an inch in diameter. The +edges and end are sharpened to aid in cutting. This is inserted into the +cheese and turned around and then drawn out. It removes a long cylinder +of cheese, commonly called a "plug." This plug should be drawn from the +top rather than from the side of the cheese, because when the bandage is +cut it often splits, due to the pressure against it and so exposes the +cheese. + +[Illustration: FIG. 55.--A cheese-trier.] + ++263. How to determine quality.+--As soon as the plug has been removed, +it should be passed quickly under the nose to detect any volatile odors +which are liable to leave the cheese quickly. Next, the compactness of +the plug should be noticed and the color carefully examined. Then the +outer end of the plug should be broken off and placed back in the cheese +in the hole made by the trier. It should be about an inch long and +pushed in so that the surface of the cheese is smooth. This prevents +mold and insects entering the cheese. Usually the cheese will mold after +a short time where the plug has been removed. The remainder of the plug +should be saved for determining the flavor and the body and texture. + +The flavor can be determined by the first odor obtained from the cheese +on the trier and by mixing or crushing a piece of the plug between the +thumb and fore-finger and then noting the odor. Mixing and thoroughly +warming causes the odor to be much more pronounced. The cheese should +seldom be tasted to determine the flavor, for when many are to be +judged, they all taste alike after the first five or six. This is +probably due to the cheese adhering to the teeth, tongue and other parts +of the mouth, making it difficult to cleanse the mouth sufficiently. The +body and texture can be determined by the appearance and the feeling of +the cheese when rubbed between the thumb and fingers. The body and +texture are distinct, yet they are more or less interchanged. The body +refers to the cheese as a whole and the texture to the arrangement of +the parts of the whole. The openness of texture or the holes can be +noted when the plug is first removed. The firmness of body and +smoothness of texture can be determined when the cheese is rubbed +between the thumb and fingers. The color can be judged when the plug is +first removed. The finish or appearance may be noted either before or +after the other qualities by carefully examining the cheese. + +Cheddar cheese should have a neat, clean, attractive appearance; when +cut it should show a close, solid, uniformly colored interior. It should +have a clear, pleasant, mild aroma and a nutty flavor. It should possess +a mellow, silky, meaty texture and when rubbed between the thumb and +fore-finger should be smooth and free from hard particles. + + + CHEESE SCORE-CARD + + _Sample_................ _Date_...................... + + =============================================================== + SCORE REMARKS + ---------+-----+----------+------------------------------------ + Flavor | 50 | ........ | + | | | + Body and | | | + Texture | 25 | ........ | + | | | + Color | 15 | ........ | + | | | + Finish | 10 | ........ | + ---------+-----+----------+ + Total | 100 | ........ | + ---------+-----+----------+ + + Recommendations................................................ + + ............................................................... + + ............................................................... + + ............................................................... + + ............................................................... + + ............................................................... + + ............................................................... + + ............................................................... + + + Name of Judge............................. + --------------------------------------------------------------- + + SUGGESTIVE TERMS + + FLAVOR + + _Desirable_ + + Clean Pleasant Aroma Nutty Flavor + + _Undesirable_ + + +Due to Farm Conditions+ + + Weedy Feedy Cowy Old Milk Bitter + + +Due to Factory Conditions+ + + Too much acid Too little acid + + +Due to either Farm or Factory Conditions+ + + Yeasty Fruity Fishy Rancid Sour Bitter Sweet Tainted + + BODY AND TEXTURE + + _Desirable_ + + Smooth Waxy Silky Close + + _Undesirable_ + + Pasty Corky Acidy Greasy Loose Sweet Curdy + Gassy Watery Mealy Lumpy Yeasty Too dry + + COLOR + + _Desirable_ + + Uniform + + _Undesirable_ + + Streaked White specks Seamy Mottled Wavy Rust spots + Acid cut Too high Too light + + FINISH + + _Desirable_ + + Clean surfaces Neat bandage Attractive + + _Undesirable_ + + Wrinkled bandage Unclean surfaces Cracked rinds + Undesirable size Greasy No end caps Uneven edges + ++264. Causes of variations in score.+--It is very seldom, if ever, that +a cheese is given a perfect score, for it usually has one or more +defects which may be hardly noticeable or very pronounced. The +seriousness of the defect is determined by the individual tastes of the +judges and the market requirements. It is customary for the judge to +pick out several samples and score them in order to fix the standard +and if there are several judges this serves to unify their standard. +Ordinarily judges will vary because of their individual tastes, unless +they begin with a uniform standard. + +Certain markets require cheese with given qualities which on other +markets would be considered defects. For example, the Boston market +requires a very soft, pasty cheese which other markets would consider +undesirable. + +The cheese is constantly undergoing changes due to the ripening agents +so that it may not always be scored the same. For example, a cheese may +have little or no flavor and after several weeks a very considerable +flavor may have developed. This is probably due to the action of the +ripening agents, and therefore the second time it would be scored +differently. + ++265. The score-card.+--When judging several samples of cheese, the type +of score-card on the opposite page is used for each one. + +This gives the date of judging and the sample number, the judge's name +and reasons for cutting the score and recommendations to avoid these +troubles. + + + + +CHAPTER XV + +_THE SWISS AND ITALIAN GROUPS_ + + +Certain varieties of hard cheese of foreign origin are now made to some +extent in this country. If not manufactured in sufficient quantities to +supply the demand, the remainder is imported. These hard cheeses are now +considered. + + +SWISS CHEESE + +Swiss cheese, variously known as Gruyère, Emmenthal, Schweitzer and +Swiss, had its origin in the Alpine cantons of Switzerland. From this +region its manufacture has been carried by Swiss dairy-men and emigrant +farmers into widely separate lands. The Swiss colonies settled in the +United States in the Mohawk Valley and in Cattaraugus County, New York; +in Wayne, Stark, Summit, Columbiana and Tuscarawas counties of Ohio, and +in Green and Dodge counties in Wisconsin. Of all these, the Wisconsin +colonies have become the most extensive. Similar colonies have developed +the making of this type of cheese in Sweden and Finland. + ++266. The Swiss factory.+--Swiss cheese cannot be made in a vat like +other types for reasons that will be explained later. In place of the +vat is used a kettle, generally of copper, and it may or may not be +jacketed for steam or for hot water (Fig. 56). These kettles vary in +capacity from 600 to 3000 pounds of milk. The cheese-maker takes the +best care possible of his kettle, for an unclean utensil is one of the +easiest sources of contamination of the milk. When the kettle is not +jacketed, and it is only in recent years that this has been done, it is +suspended in a fireplace by means of a crane arrangement. + +[Illustration: FIG. 56.--Swiss-cheese kettle.] + +This fireplace uses wood, and is built of brick or stone, so that the +kettle rests on the edge and is provided with a door which swings upon +another crane, and can be closed while the fire is going. When the +kettle is swung on a crane, it is possible to swing it under the +weigh-stand for filling. This requires a lid to swing down over the +fire, and keep the room free from smoke. The chimney generally has a +rather high stack to secure a good draft. This kettle is fastened to the +crane by a large iron band passing around the neck, to which a bail or +handle is attached. The kettle may be raised or lowered by means of a +simple screw on this beam. The crane consists of a heavy beam working in +sockets in the floor and a beam or cross brace, which has another and +shorter beam braced to it, to take the weight of the kettle. + +The weigh-stand, and its efficient location, is a matter of extreme +importance. It is elevated a little above the remainder of the floor to +allow gravity to do the work. The next most important equipment is the +press and draining table. The table is made of wood or stone, and has a +slight slope to allow the whey to drain off. The press is generally a +jack screw which, braced against a beam, will exert an enormous pressure +on the table below. + +Swiss cheeses are made in two styles, the "round" or drum and the +"block" or rectangular forms, each of which has its advantages. For the +round style, which is most commonly made, the forms for hooping are of +metal or of elm wood, and consist of strips of a given width, generally +six inches, but of an undetermined length. These strips are then made +into a circle and held by a cord, which is easily lengthened or +shortened, thus varying the diameter of the hoop. + +Besides these hoops, cheese boards or followers are needed. These are +heavy circular boards, of a size to fit that of the cheese generally +made, and are banded with iron around the edge and cross-braced on the +bottom for rigidity. The small tools of the factory consist of knives to +cut the curd, and of a "Swiss harp" or other similar tool to stir the +curd. Many clean bandages are also needed, and a kettle brake. + ++267. The milk.+--Swiss cheese requires clean sweet milk. Dirt, high +acid and infections with undesirable bacteria involve difficulties of +manufacture and frequent losses of cheese. One common practice rejects +milk if it shows acidity above 0.15 per cent. To secure milk in this +condition, factories are small and located so close to the producing +farms as to secure 1000 to 3000 pounds of milk delivered warm from the +cow twice a day. The cheese is made twice daily from this fresh milk. +If, however, milk is properly cared for, it is possible to mix night's +and morning's milk without bad results. In fact, in working +experimentally with high grade milk and taking precautions against loss +of fat, it has been necessary to skim (separate) part of the milk, thus +reducing the ratio of fat to casein. Analysis of good Swiss cheeses +shows that the desired texture is more uniformly obtained with milk in +which the fat is less than the normal ratio. This assumes that the +manufacturing loss is kept down so that the fat removed offsets the +extra loss from curd-breaking. + ++268. Rennet extract.+--Most Swiss cheese-makers prefer to make their +own rennet extract from the stomach. This results in a product which is +not uniform in strength and so requires good judgment to secure the +desired coagulation in the allotted time. Some cheese-makers roll +fifteen to twenty well salted calves' stomachs together and dry them. +From this they cut off a definite amount each day to be soaked for +twenty-four hours in two to five quarts of whey at 86° F. Four quarts of +this solution added to 2000 pounds of milk at 90° F. should produce a +curd ready for cutting in twenty to thirty minutes. + ++269. Starter.+--Makers do not agree as to the use of "starters" for +Swiss cheese. Those opposed to such use say that a starter will give the +cheese a decided Cheddar flavor, while those in favor of it state that +it will control undesirable fermentations, and that, with the use of a +starter, it is possible to make Swiss cheese throughout the year, and +have uniform success. + +Doane,[122] working with _Bacillus Bulgaricus_ as a starter, found that +these starters did not always overcome the undesirable fermentations. If +a cheese-maker is having difficulty to develop the holes or "eyes," this +may be overcome by making a starter[123] as follows from good cheese and +whey or milk: Select a cheese which has the desirable "eyes" or holes +and a good flavor. Grind up some of this and add about ¼ of a pound +to one gallon of milk or whey. Hold this for twenty-four hours at a warm +temperature (85° to 90° F.). Strain it into the vat of milk just before +the rennet is added. + ++270. The making process.+--The milk is delivered twice a day without +cooling. It usually reaches the factory at a temperature of 92° to 96° +F. It is strained into the kettle, and starter and rennet added at the +same temperature as received. (For method of adding rennet, see Chapter +V.) Enough rennet should be used to give a coagulation ready for cutting +in twenty to thirty minutes. The firmness of the curd is tested by +inserting the index finger in an oblique position, then raising it +slightly and with the thumb of the same hand starting the curd to break +or crack. When the curd is coagulated ready for cutting, it will give a +clear break over the finger. + +It is important to keep the temperature uniform while coagulation is in +process, and this is best accomplished by the use of a little pan +arrangement which fits into the top of the kettle. When this is full of +water at 100° F., the temperature of the air above the milk will be +about 90° F. When the curd is ready for cutting, a scoop may be used and +the top layer carefully turned under to equalize the temperature more +closely. + +_Cutting the curd._--In some cheese factories, knives resembling Cheddar +cheese knives are employed to cut the curd. In other factories, a "Swiss +harp" is used to break the curd. The curd is usually cut or broken into +pieces about the size of kernels of corn. The practice of "breaking" +curd instead of cutting it with sharp curd-knives produces excessive +loss at times. Experimental study has shown that the loss of fat may be +kept as low as 0.3 per cent if modern curd-knives are substituted for +the breaking tool formerly used. Study of Swiss cheeses of all grades +supports the opinion that the removal of a small part of fat from usual +grades of factory milk produces a better quality of product than the use +of rich whole milk. This may be accomplished through the escape of fat +in the whey on account of breaking the curd and stirring it vigorously, +or by skimming a part of the milk which is then curdled, cut and stirred +under such conditions as to minimize the loss of fat. + +_Cooking the curd._--After cutting, the curd is stirred in the whey for +about twenty minutes before the steam is turned on and is then heated to +128° to 135° F. While this heating is in progress, constant stirring +must be given to avoid matting. This excessive stirring breaks the curd +up into pieces about the size of wheat kernels, and accounts for the +large fat loss, which is one of the main sources of loss in making Swiss +cheese. This stirring is accomplished by a rotary motion, and the use of +a brake, which is a piece of wood closely fitting the side of the +kettle. This creates an eddy in the current at that point and gives a +more uniform distribution of temperature. The process of cooking takes +from thirty to forty minutes, and at the end of that time the degree of +toughness may be determined by making a roll of curd in the hand, and +noticing the break when it is given a quick flip. A short sharp break +indicates the desired toughness. + +_Draining and hooping._--In this process, the cheese-makers' skill is +displayed. With the hoop prepared, and the curd at the correct stage of +toughness, the operator takes a press cloth, wets it in whey, slips it +over a flexible iron ring which can be made to fit the shape of the +kettle, gives the contents of the kettle a few swift revolutions, then +suddenly reverses the motion, with the result that the contents form +into a cone, and the ring and bandage are dexterously slipped under this +cone, and drawn up to the surface of the whey with a rope or chain and +pulley. This part of the process is the most important, as a cheese must +have a smooth firm rind, else it will quickly crack. With too large a +batch of milk, the curd can be cut into two pieces and hooped +separately. With the mass of curd at the top of the whey, the piece of +perforated iron plate just the size of the hoop is slipped under the +mass, and attached to the pulley by four chains. Then the top of the +mass is carefully leveled off, because while still in the whey, it +cannot mat badly and so tend to develop a rind crack. Now the mass is +raised clear of the whey, and run along a short track to the drain +table, where it is put in the press. + +_Pressing._--The mass of curd is dropped into the hoop, the edges of the +cloth carefully folded under, and the cloth laid on top, then the +pressure is applied, gradually at first, but increasing until the final +pressure is about fifteen to twenty pounds to a pound of cheese. + +During the first few hours the cloths must be changed frequently, and +the cheese carefully turned over each time, to secure a more uniform +rind. After a time the changes are less frequent, and at the end of +twenty-four hours the cheese is taken to the salting-room. + +_Salting_ may be done by either the brine or dry method. To prepare a +brine bath, add salt to a tank of water until it will float an egg, and +add a pailful or more of salt every few days thereafter to keep up the +strength. The cheese is then placed in this bath and left for three to +five days, depending on the saltiness desired. As the cheese floats with +a little of the rind above the surface, it should be turned a few times +to insure uniformity of salting. With dry salting, the salt is rubbed on +the cheese by hand or with a stiff brush, and any excess carefully wiped +off, leaving only a slight sprinkle on the surface to work into the +cheese. + ++271. Curing Swiss.+--From the salting-room, the cheese goes to the +first one of two curing-rooms, where the unique process of the +development of the characteristic eyes takes place. + +During the curing period of either round or block Swiss, constant +attention must be paid to the cheese. They must be turned every day at +first, and then every second or third day toward the end of the curing +period. Also, great care must be taken that no mold starts growing, as +it will soon work into the cheese, and spoil its flavor. The best way of +preventing mold is by washing the cheese, in either clean or slightly +salted water, as often as possible. A stiff brush is mostly used for +this. + +The development of the "eyes" or holes is the difficult part of the +whole process. It is not known exactly what causes the development, but +it is attributed to micro-organisms or enzymes. The gas in these eyes +has been examined and found to be carbon dioxide and free nitrogen. +Sometimes hydrogen is found. This comes from the original fermentation +of the milk-sugar and remains to contaminate the normal eye. The +nitrogen[124] is included from the original air. Propionic acid is +formed at the same time as the eyes, and they are said to be the result +of a propionic ferment of lactic acid. The interior of the cheese is +anaërobic, due to low permeability and high oxygen-absorbing quality. +This propionic bacterium cannot, however, account for all the carbon +dioxide produced. + +After the eyes have started, their further development depends on +temperature and humidity of the air, and on the moisture of the cheese, +as regulated by the amount of salt used. The first room has a +temperature of 70° F. to start the eyes, which is later lowered in the +second curing-room to about 60° to check the development. When any local +fermentive action starts, it may be checked by rubbing salt on the +affected part. The humidity of the room is very important, because a +cheese will quickly dry out in a dry room, due to evaporation from the +surface. To prevent this, it is well to spray the floor with water, or +to have a steam jet in the room. + +If the curd has been cooked too long the cheese may be too dry. Such +cheeses may be piled two or more deep in the curing-room. It is held by +some cheese-makers that this process causes them to absorb more +moisture. Probably this is due to the checking of evaporation. + +The development of the "eyes" may be watched by trying the following +test: Place the middle finger on the cheese and let the first finger +slip from it, striking the cheese smartly; a dull sound indicates +solidity, while a ring indicates a hole, and an expert maker can tell +the size of the holes by the sound. This requires long practice for the +operator to become proficient. + +After a cheese has remained in the first room for about two weeks and +the holes are well started, it is removed to the second curing-room, +which is held at a cooler temperature and slightly drier atmosphere. The +cheeses are held in this room from three to ten months, depending on +market conditions, and capacity of the curing-rooms. In Switzerland, it +is customary to hold cheese to secure a well ripened product, while in +America most of the cheeses are shipped comparatively green, hence do +not bring so high a price. + ++272. Block Swiss.+--In making block Swiss, the same procedure is +followed through the cooking stage. Then the curd is pressed in a square +form or in one large piece, each form six inches square on the ends and +twenty inches long, and later cut into sections. These are then pressed, +salted and cured in the same way as round forms. In this type of cheese +there is a much smaller cross-section; therefore the development of +holes is much more easily controlled on account of the ease with which +the salt can work into the cheese and control undesirable ferments. As +it is easy to control, this variety is made in the fall and winter when +the ferments are especially hard to keep in check. However, this cheese +has the disadvantage of cutting eye-development short by the rapid +entrance of salt. + +The curing consists of the developing of the flavor and eyes and the +changing in body and texture. Just what causes these changes is not +known. + ++273. Shipment.+--When ready for shipment, the drum cheeses of the same +general diameter are sorted out and packed four to six in a cask. Care +must be taken to put boards between them to prevent sticking. These are +called scale-boards, and are made of thin sections of wood fiber. The +cheeses are crowded into the cask to make a snug fit, and the head +carefully fastened. + ++274. Qualities of Swiss cheese.+--The peculiar Swiss cheese flavor may +be characterized as a hazel-nut taste. It is a trifle sweet and very +tempting. The "eyes" or holes should be about the size of a cherry with +a dull shine to the inner lining. The "eyes" usually contain a small +amount of a briny tasting liquid. These eyes should be uniformly +distributed. The color should be uniform. The cheese should have a neat, +clean, attractive appearance, and the rind should not be cracked or +broken. + +There are several common defects in Swiss cheese. If the milk is not +clean-flavored, the cheese will have the same flavor as the milk. The +greatest difficulty is to produce the eyes or holes. A cheese which does +not have these is called "blind." A product which has many small +pin-holes due to gassy fermentations is called a "niszler"; this means a +cheese with a thousand eyes. If gas forms in the cheese and causes +cracks, it is called "glaesler." If the cheese contains too much +moisture, it will be soft and pasty. Such a cheese does not readily form +eyes. + ++275. Composition and yield.+--A large number of analyses of Swiss +cheese have been made but there is wide variation. This is due to the +fact that the composition and yield are both dependent on the following +factors: composition of the milk, losses during manufacture, amount of +moisture in the cheese. The losses in Swiss cheese are much larger than +with some of the other hard cheeses, such as Cheddar. This is because +more fat is lost in the whey, due to breaking instead of cutting the +curd and the subsequent hard stirring. The possibility of reducing these +excessive losses has already been indicated. + +Swiss cheeses of high grade show about the following range of +composition: + + Water 30-34 per cent + Fat 30-34 per cent + Protein 26-30 per cent + Ash 3-5 per cent + Salt (NaCl) 1-1.4 per cent + +The water-content of this type of cheese is low and the protein-content +is proportionately high. Both conditions lead to firm textures, long +ripening and long keeping periods. + +The following score-card is used to judge both block and drum Swiss +cheese: + + Flavor 35 + Appearance on trier holes 30 + Texture 20 + Salt 10 + Style 5 + ---- + 100 + +The yield of Swiss cheese varies from 8 to 11 pounds to 100 pounds of +milk. The more solids in the milk, the more moisture incorporated in +the cheese; the smaller the loss of solids in the manufacturing process, +the larger will be the yield from a given amount of milk. + + +THE ITALIAN GROUP[125] + +A group of varieties, best known in America by Parmesan, are made in +Italy with related forms in Greece and European Turkey. These forms are +very hard, usually uncolored, with small eyes or holes. They are made in +large cheeses which ripen very slowly. Cow's milk is regularly used for +Parmesan and Grana in northern Italy; other varieties contain goat or +sheep milk or various mixtures. Aside from Parmesan, few of the other +forms are known outside the place of origin except as they are exported +in a small way to satisfy the demand of emigrants from these regions. + ++276. Parmesan.+--One type of Italian cheese, however, the Parmesan, has +become very widely known. In general the consuming trade does not +discriminate between Parmesan, Grana and closely related forms. Parmesan +is made in large cheeses which require one to three years for proper +ripening; in texture it is very hard with small eyes or holes formed by +very slow fermentation. Such cheeses are ripened in large storehouses in +which hundreds and even thousands are brought together and cared for by +experts. The surfaces of these cheeses are kept clean and free from +insects by rubbing with linseed oil. So hard are these forms that the +cheese-trier is not used in testing, but the texture of the surface is +tested by pricking with an awl-like tool and the stage of eye-formation +and associated ripening is determined by the sound given out when the +cheeses are tapped with a hammer. + +When ripe, the cheeses of this group are used in cooking principally. +The broken cheese is grated and added to macaroni, spaghetti and other +cooked cheese dishes. Parmesan is usually made from partly skimmed-milk; +the ratio of fat to protein in analysis runs from 1:2 to 3:4 in contrast +to the normal relation of about 4:3 in whole-milk cheese. In +water-content much variation is found, but ripe Parmesan is usually +about 30 per cent water. Other members of the group are made with +different amounts of skimming, some of them from whole milk. The group +in general represents the requirements of cheese for the trade of warmer +regions (see Mayo and Elling): (1) a low fat-content so incorporated +that the cheese does not become greasy or oily in hot weather; (2) a +water-content low enough to prevent rapid spoilage during the necessary +exposure of handling under warm conditions. + +The equipment for Parmesan manufacture has more resemblance to that of +the Swiss factory than the English and American cheeses. The milk is +curdled in deep copper kettles (Fig. 57), below which there is commonly +a provision for direct heating by fire which is sometimes carried on a +truck, and therefore can be withdrawn when heating is sufficient. The +steam-jacketed kettle has replaced this earlier form to a large measure. + +[Illustration: FIG. 57.--Parmesan cheese kettles.] + +The general character of the manufacturing process is indicated in the +following abstract of one of the methods. Many variations are to be +found. The milk for Parmesan is allowed to stand overnight. Some acidity +is, therefore, developed in contrast to the absolutely fresh condition +of the milk used in Swiss and the acidification developed during the +making of Cheddar (Fascetti). It is then skimmed, heated to 72° to 75° +F. Rennet is added in amount sufficient to produce firm curd in one hour +or slightly less. When the curd is firm, a wood fire is made under the +kettle and the curd is broken with a special implement into small +particles. After breaking, four grains of powdered sulfur to twenty-two +gallons of milk are added. The curd is stirred with a rake. By the time +the temperature rises to 77° F., the curd should be in very small +pieces. Stirring and heating continue until the temperature reaches 131° +F. At this temperature, it stands fifteen minutes, after which it is +removed from the fire (or the fire is drawn). Nine-tenths of the whey is +then drawn. The cheese-maker then collects the curd into a compact lump +under which he slips a cheese cloth. With the aid of an assistant he +removes the mass to a perforated vessel for draining. After this the +curd goes into large wooden hoops, lined with cloth, which stand upon a +slanting draining table until evening. No pressure is used. Before +night they are taken to the cellar. The cloths are removed next day. +After standing four days, they are salted by covering the upper surface +with coarse salt. This is repeated with daily turning for twenty days, +then salted on alternate days for another period of twenty days. At the +end of the forty days' salting, the cheese is removed from the hoop, +scraped, sprinkled with whey and the rind rubbed smooth. A dressing of +linseed oil either with or without bone black is applied. + +[Illustration: FIG. 58.--A typical cheese-market in France.] + +The cheeses are kept in special ripening rooms, and rubbed frequently +with linseed oil to keep the surfaces free from molds and vermin. +Careful grading as to quality of product and consequent response to +ripening conditions produce cheeses of many degrees of excellence. +Those in which a ripening of three to four years is possible are most +highly esteemed. + ++277. Regianito.+--A cheese of the Italian group is now made in +Argentina and imported to the United States under the name Regianito. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI + +_MISCELLANEOUS VARIETIES AND BY-PRODUCTS_ + + +As already discussed in Chapter VI, there are a large number of +varieties of cheese. Very many are entirely unknown in America. A +considerable number of forms are occasionally imported and may be found +by visiting the markets and delicatessen stores in the foreign districts +of our large cities. Certain forms not widely known are made in America +in a few factories or are imported in sufficient quantity to call for +brief discussion. Some of these are brought together here. + +The importance of the by-products of cheese-making has not been +sufficiently recognized, for manufacture on a large scale is only +beginning to be appreciated in America. Certain cheese names, such as +Mysost, are applied to whey products. In addition, milk-sugar is +extensively made and whey-butter has been carefully studied and found to +be practicable under some conditions. + ++278. Caciocavallo+ originated in Italy, but is now made in certain +factories of New York and Ohio. Some factories in Lombardy[126] use +whole milk, others use half-skimmed milk. The latter practice is +probably the more common. In making this cheese, the milk is coagulated +with rennet, cut and firmed in the whey, allowed to settle and the whey +drawn. The curd is then piled on the draining table and allowed to mat +or fuse into fairly solid masses. After several hours of draining and +matting, the curd is cut into strips and placed in a vat of hot water. +In the hot water, the blocks of solid curd melt into taffy-like masses +which are worked and molded by hand into more or less standard shapes. +Indian club or ten-pin forms are most commonly produced. When the proper +shape has been gained, each mass is thrown into cold water which +solidifies it in that form. Cheese masses heat and cool slowly; several +hours of cooling are required to insure a firm cheese. The newly made +cheeses are salted in a brine bath, then hung by a string to ripen. +Sometimes these cheeses are eaten fresh, again they are ripened several +months. They vary in size from one to six pounds. Cornalba gives the +composition of Italian Caciocavallo made from whole milk as water 32 to +34 per cent, fat 34 to 36 per cent, protein 28.5 to 29.5 per cent, salt +1.7 to 1.8 per cent; when made from half skimmed-milk, water 28 per +cent, fat 27 to 28 per cent, protein 35 to 40 per cent, salt 2.2 per +cent. Other analyses vary widely from these figures on account of the +differing fat-content of the milk. No standardized practice has been +established in America. + +_Provolono_ resembles Caciocavallo in method of manufacture and +composition, the main difference being in the shape of the cheese. It is +more or less round and is held by a coarse net made of small rope. The +cheeses are treated while curing the same as Caciocavallo. + ++279. Sap sago.+--This hard green cheese imported from Switzerland is +made in cakes, tapering from perhaps two inches in diameter to a rounded +top with a height of about two inches. These are made from skimmed-milk +curd, partially ripened then mixed with powdered leaves of _Melilotus +coeruleus_, a clover-like plant. The mixture is then pressed into the +market form and dried until very hard. It is handled without special +care since the water-content is so low that fermentations are +exceedingly slow. This low-priced cheese may be used in cooking. + ++280. Albumin cheese.+[127]--In the rennet cheeses, the albumin, which +constitutes about 0.7 per cent of the milk, passes off in the whey. This +albumin is not curdled by rennet. It is, however, coagulated by heating. +The presence of acid hastens such coagulation but does not cause it when +used alone. When the whey is heated to about 200° F., the albumin rises +and may be skimmed off. In this form it is recovered and used. It may be +shaped is hoops under pressure, as Ricotte, an Italian form. This cheese +is pressed firmly and dried. Such albumin is frequently prepared as a +poultry feed. + ++281. Mysost, Norwegian whey cheese.+--The whey contains nearly 5 per +cent of milk-sugar which can be recovered by boiling. The Norwegian +process which produces Mysost consists in raising the whey to the +boiling point, skimming off the albumin as it rises, then concentrating +the remainder of the whey. As it reaches sufficient concentration, the +albumin is thoroughly stirred back into the mass and the mass finally +cooled into forms. Mysost is a brown, hard brittle mass consisting +principally of caramelized milk-sugar. Analysis shows such percentage +composition as follows: water 10 to 20 per cent, protein 10 to 15 per +cent, milk-sugar 30 to 55 per cent. Mysost is found in the larger +markets of the United States. + +_Primost_ is an albumin cheese somewhat similar to Ricotte and Mysost. +It is made by precipitating the albumin by acid and heat. The main +difference is in the firmness of the cheese. This is regulated by +drying. + ++282. Whey butter.+[128]--The loss of a percentage of fat, rarely less +than 0.3 per cent and in some cheeses very much greater, has led to the +making of whey butter. For this purpose a separator is introduced and +all whey is separated daily. The fat recovered in the form of cream is +then ripened and churned. Whey butter is not rated as equal to butter +made from whole milk but a fair market can usually be found for the +product. The recovery of 0.25 per cent fat means two and one-half pounds +of fat to 1000 pounds of whey. This will make about three pounds of +butter. + +Whether whey butter shall be made depends on the volume of business, the +extra equipment required, the extra help necessary and the market for +the product. As a rule, whey butter is economically recoverable only in +large factories. It is not considered advisable to attempt to make it +unless one has the whey from 10,000 pounds of milk. In some instances, +the combination of small cheese factories with one churning plant has +proved to be economical. The objection to the making of whey butter is, +that it stimulates carelessness on the part of the cheese-maker because +he thinks that the fat will be recovered by skimming. He does not +realize that the other milk solids are being reduced in the same +proportion as the fat, to the great loss in yield of cheese. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII + +_CHEESE FACTORY CONSTRUCTION, EQUIPMENT, ORGANIZATION_ + + +The principal factor in determining the location of a cheese factory is +the available supply of milk. This is usually ascertained by making a +canvass, and finding out the number of cows whose milk would be brought +to the factory. The quantity of milk or the number of cows necessary to +insure sufficient milk for the successful operation of the factory, +depends on the variety of cheese to be made. When making types of cheese +for which very sweet milk is necessary, the milk must be delivered twice +a day. This demand limits the area from which the factory can secure its +supply. The length of time the cheeses are held in the curing-room and +the work necessary to care for them also limits the area which the +factory can serve, because a very large amount of milk cannot be handled +when the cheese must be given considerable attention in the +curing-rooms. Swiss, Limburger and Brick cheese factories usually do not +require a large supply of milk; therefore the factories may be built +close together. The size of the Cheddar cheese factories varies but it +is generally considered unprofitable to make Cheddar cheese unless there +are 5000 pounds of milk available daily. Conditions have changed so that +at present different kinds of cheese are made from the surplus milk in +market milk plants. In such cases a uniform supply is not absolutely +necessary. The climate must also be suitable for the industry. + ++283. Locating the site.+--In a farming community, several factory sites +are usually available. It is best to consider carefully the desirable +features of each before trying to make a definite choice. Many of the +present cheese factories were located in hollows because it was easy to +secure a supply of water, but no thought or attention was given to the +disposal of the sewage. The following points should be considered in +choosing a site: + +(1) _Drainage._--A factory should be so located that it has good +drainage. Ground that slopes away from the factory makes the disposal of +sewage easy. Sewage should not be allowed to run out on the ground and +left to decay, thus forming a breeding place for flies, but should run +into a cesspool or septic tank.[129] Even in a porous soil, a cesspool +frequently clogs and gives trouble. The septic tank seems to be the best +method to dispose of the sewage unless the factory is so located that +connection can be made with a city sewage system. + +(2) _Water._--An abundant supply of pure water is essential to a +factory. This may come either from deep wells or springs. The value of a +never-failing water supply cannot be overestimated. + +(3) _Exposure._--The factory should be so located that the receiving +room is away from the prevailing winds. This prevents dust being blown +into the factory. The curing-room should be on the side not exposed to +the sun as this will keep it cool. Fig. 59 shows a clean cheese factory +of the ordinary type. When it is desirable to cure the cheese in a +cellar, it is better to locate the factory on the side of a hill. Then +the receiving and manufacturing room may be on the ground level and the +curing-room, a cellar, back of the manufacturing room and yet all on +the same level. This saves carrying the cheese up and down stairs. + +(4) _Accessibility to market_ should not be overlooked. Often the +quality of the cheese is injured by long hauls. An important item in +marketing both milk and cheese is the use of the automobile. By its use +the products are not so long in transit, and losses from exposure in +delivery are reduced. Both milk and cheese, when exposed to the heat of +the sun for any length of time, become warm. This gives undesirable +organisms chance to develop. + +[Illustration: FIG. 59.--A cheese factory of neat appearance.] + ++284. The building.+--Details of construction or estimates of cost will +be omitted in the present discussion. A local contractor can do this +satisfactorily and also the cost of materials is constantly changing. +Only general considerations as they apply to the manufacture of the +product will be taken up. + +The building may be constructed of wood, stone, various bricks or +concrete. The kind of material will depend on the relative cost of +materials in the local market and on the amount of money available for +building. + ++285. Heating plant.+--Many of the older factories have no heating +plants and some are so poorly constructed that they cannot be warmed. +Means of heating should be provided, either by steam or a stove. The +loss due to freezing is an item which is entirely avoided in factories +properly heated. + ++286. Curing-rooms.+--The size of the curing-rooms will depend on the +amount of cheese to be handled and its location on the variety of cheese +to be manufactured. In every case, some provision should be made to +control humidity and temperature. If the room becomes hot and dry, +evaporation from the cheese will be much more rapid. In a hot +curing-room, undesirable types of ferments are more likely to develop +and to injure the quality of the cheese. + ++287. Light.+--The importance of light should be emphasized. It acts as +a stimulant to keep things clean. It also makes the factory more +cheerful. There should be numerous windows to give plenty of light. A +skylight may often serve both as a source of light and ventilation. + ++288. Ventilation.+--Plenty of ventilation should be provided. This may +be accomplished by means of the windows or skylight. However, it is a +good precaution to have at least one ventilator to carry off the steam +and control the circulation of air. All openings should be carefully +screened to keep out flies. + ++289. Boiler-room.+--The boiler-room should be easily accessible from +the manufacturing rooms. A gauge located in the latter should tell the +steam pressure. Windows or doors should be so located that the flues of +the boiler can be cleaned. The coal supply should be handy. Great care +should be exercised to keep the boiler-room clean for otherwise the dirt +will be tracked all over the factory. + ++290. Whey tanks+ should be kept clean. Daily washing is absolutely +necessary to prevent offensive odors. Pasteurization of whey has been +found requisite to prevent the spread of disease if raw milk is +used.[130] This is required by law in some states. It is sometimes +accomplished by heat with steam coils; in other cases by running live +steam directly into the whey. Whey tanks may be made of wood or steel. +The acid of the whey seems to eat and decompose concrete. + ++291. Store-room.+--There should be a separate room or a place in the +attic where the supplies can be kept. This saves much waste and keeps +the factory cleaner and more tidy. + ++292. The floors.+--The floor is the most important part of the +building. It should be of non-absorbent material, which can be easily +cleaned, and it should not leak. Concrete makes the best floor of any +material used at present. It should slope very gently to the drain. The +corners between the floor and side walls should be rounding to make +cleaning easy. The drain should be provided with bell traps to prevent +the entrance of sewer gas into the factory. If the traps and floor about +them are slightly depressed, it will help to make the floor drain more +quickly. A catch-basin should be provided just outside the factory for +all solid material which might clog the sewer pipe. This should be +cleaned three or four times a year. + +[Illustration: FIG. 60.--A well arranged Cheddar cheese factory, +including the equipment for the manufacture of whey butter.] + ++293. Arrangement of machinery and rooms.+--The rooms and machinery +should be arranged so that the work will follow the natural sequence of +the process with as little inconvenience as possible. Some of the points +to be observed in this connection are: vats should be near the +weigh-can; boiler-room near the work room; cheese presses near the vats; +cheese presses near the curing-rooms and the like. + +Fig. 60 shows a well arranged Cheddar cheese factory. The necessary +machinery and rooms for the manufacture of whey butter are included. In +this plan, the attic contains the store-room and the whey tanks. The +whey is forced from the vats into the tanks with a steam jet and then +runs by gravity to the separator. Slides are provided in the walls of +the ice storage to regulate the flow of air into the curing-room and +butter refrigerator. In order to have a smaller boiler, a gasolene +engine is used to run the separator, churn and curd-mill. The plan can +be modified to use the upstairs for a curing-room so that the size of +the factory may be reduced. The whey butter could be shifted to a small +room where the curing-room now is and the boiler-room added as a +"lean-to" at one side of the building. This would materially reduce the +size of the main building. + +Another plan (Fig. 61) shows the arrangement of a Cheddar cheese factory +without the whey butter apparatus. The location of the drain between the +vats might be criticized. In Fig. 62 is shown the arrangement of a +combined butter and cheese factory. Fig. 63 shows the possible +arrangement of a Limburger factory. The size of this factory could be +reduced by having the salting tables closer together. + +In a Cheddar cheese factory, the curing-room may be over the +manufacturing room. This makes considerable work in carrying the cheese +up and down. A small elevator may be used for this purpose. The same +principle holds in cheese factories in which other varieties of cheese +are made; the floors should be on one level so far as possible. There +is danger of the overhead curing-room becoming too hot and causing the +cheese to leak fat. Shelves or tables should be provided on which to +put and keep the utensils. The utensils should never be placed on the +floor. + +[Illustration: FIG. 61.--Plan of Cheddar cheese factory without whey +butter equipment. 1, Boiler; 2, sink; 3, hot water barrel for scalding +utensils; 4, cheese vats; 5, 6, cheese presses; 7, weigh-can; 8, desk; +9, Babcock tester; 10, shelf; 11, paraffine tank; 12, cheese shelves.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 62.--Combined Cheddar cheese and butter factory. + +1, Boiler; 2, engine; 3, water pump; 4, work bench; 5, wash sink; 6, +press; 7, elevator; 8, cheese vats; 9, separator; 10, milk heater; 11, +milk receiving vat; 12, press; 13, shelf; 14, Babcock tester; 15, +weigh-can; 16, churn; 17, starter; 18, cream ripener and pasteurizer; +19, refrigerator; 20, milk sheet and sample jar; 21, milk pump.] + ++294. Arrangements for cleanliness.+--A sink for washing the utensils +should be provided and boiling water to scald them after washing. After +being scalded, tin utensils dry quickly without rusting. The boiling +water may be obtained by placing a steam pipe in a barrel of water and +turning on the steam. The utensils can then be washed clean, dipped in +this barrel of boiling water and put in their place. Too much emphasis +cannot be laid on keeping the factory itself, the utensils and the +surroundings clean. This will prevent the development of mold. Cases are +known in which the cheese factory was allowed to become very dirty, so +that a red mold developed. This eventually got into the cheese and +caused red spots.[131] They are called rust spots. All doors and windows +should be screened to keep out flies. + +[Illustration: FIG. 63.--A Limburger cheese factory.] + ++295. Equipment and supplies list.+--The following utensils will be +needed in a Cheddar cheese factory to handle 10,000 pounds of milk +daily: 1 5-H. P. boiler; 1 60-gallon weigh-can; 1 conductor head and +trough; 1 platform scale; 1 Babcock tester, glassware and sample +bottles; 2 700-gallon cheese vats; 2 gang cheese presses; 1 curd-mill; 2 +curd-knives; 30 cheese hoops; 1 whey strainer; 1 curd scoop; 1 +long-handled dipper; 1 strainer dipper; 1 siphon; 1 cheese knife; 1 +glass graduate; 1 cheese-trier; 1 speed knife; 1 paraffine tank; 1 +Marschall rennet test; 1 lactometer; 1 milk can hoist; 1 acid test; 1 +sink; 1 40-quart milk can; 3 pails; 3 shot-gun cans for starter; 3 +thermometers; brushes and brooms; 1 Wisconsin curd test or fruit jars +for same; 1 set counter scales; 2 curd rakes. + +If whey butter is made, the equipment should include: Tanks to hold the +whey; separator; cream ripening vat; churn; butter-worker; butter +refrigerator; large boiler and steam engine or gasolene engine. + +The following supplies will be needed for the making of the cheese: +Bandages; boxes; scale boards; starched circles; rennet extract or +pepsin; cheese color; press cloths; paraffine; formaldehyde; alkali; +indicator; sulfuric acid. + +[Illustration: FIG. 64.--A sanitary dipper with a solid handle.] + +When choosing the utensils, the ease of cleaning and sanitary +construction should not be overlooked. One of the most unsanitary +utensils in a factory is a dipper with a hollow handle. Fig 64 shows a +dipper with a solid handle which any tinsmith can make. The seams of all +utensils should be flushed full of solder, to make cleaning easy. When +ready to clean or wash any utensils which have come in contact with milk +or its products, the steps are as follows: rinse in cold water, wash in +warm water in which some washing-soda has been dissolved, rinse clean, +scald in boiling water. Never use a cloth to wash utensils; a brush is +more sanitary. + ++296. Factory organization.+--There are two general classes of +organizations[132] to operate cheese factories, one the proprietary and +the other the coöperative. Unless the kind of organization is what the +dairy-men desire, dissatisfaction is sure to result. + +(1) _Proprietary organization._--Under this form of organization, one +person owns and operates the factory. The dairy-men are paid a stated +price for milk, or the milk is made into cheese for a stated price a +pound. The proprietor receives all profits and assumes all losses. + +So far as the dairy-man is concerned, the stock company is a proprietary +organization. The gains and losses are shared by each member according +to the amount of money invested. + +(2) _Coöperative organization._--In a true coöperative cheese factory +each patron is an owner, as the name indicates. The object of this +organization is to reduce the cost of manufacture rather than pay large +dividends, so that the dairy-man with a large herd and small capital +invested in the factory obtains more returns than the one who owns +considerable capital and has a small herd. Many cheese factories are +coöperative in name only and proprietary in operation. The state of +Wisconsin has a law which tends to stop this defect and defines what +organizations may use the term or name, coöperative. + +The constitution of a coöperative organization should state: 1, Name; 2, +object; 3, officers and duties of officers; 4, manager or other person +to run business; 5, capital stock; 6, meetings; 7, voting power; 8, +amendments. + +Some of the most important statements which should appear in the +constitution are mentioned in the following sentences. A statement +should show what persons are eligible to membership in the organization. +It is a careless plan simply to say that the duties of the officers are +those usually defined in such an organization. This may lead to +confusion and neglect, or both. Direct statements should be made +explaining the exact duties of each officer. The limits of the authority +of the manager or person who runs the business should be explicitly +stated. The manager then knows just what his duties are and what matters +or parts of the business must be considered by other officers or +committees. The amount of capital stock and the number and value of each +share should be exactly stated. The constitution should state when and +where the regular meetings must be held and by whom and when special +meetings may be called. This gives every member ample notice of the +regular meetings. Some method or means should be provided to notify each +member of the special meetings. + +The voting power should be definitely stated, whether it is limited to +shares of capital stock or by members or by number of cows owned by each +member. It is necessary to indicate just how amendments to the +constitution may be made. Each member should know before the final vote +just what changes are being proposed. Types of constitutions may be +found in the following references: + + + ELLIOTT, W. J., Creameries and cheese factories; + organization, building and equipment, Mont. Exp. Sta. Bul. + 53, 1904. + + FARRINGTON, E. H., and G. H. BENKENDORF, Organization and + construction of creameries and cheese factories, Wis. Exp. + Sta. Bul. 244, 1915. + + VAN SLYKE, L. L., and C. A. PUBLOW, The science and + practice of cheese making, pages 447-453, 1909. + + Iowa Exp. Sta. Bul. 139, 1913. Creamery organization and + construction. + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII + +_HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHEESE INDUSTRY IN AMERICA_ + + +Just when the first cheese was made is not known. By the time the first +immigrants came to America, cheese-making was rather generally known in +Europe, so that the early settlers brought with them and practiced +established methods. The countries of Europe developed different kinds +of cheese and have since become noted for such particular varieties, for +example: France, Camembert and Roquefort; Switzerland, Swiss cheese; +England, Stilton and Cheddar; Germany, Limburger; Holland, Edam and +Gouda; Italy, Parmesan and its allies, also Gorgonzola cheese. The +manufacture of these various cheeses has been attempted in this country. +Because of the difference in climatic conditions and in some cases the +use of milk of sheep or goats, it was and still is difficult to +manufacture some of the European cheeses in America. Since the climatic +conditions of this country and certain parts of England are somewhat +similar, the manufacture of the cheeses of England predominated, and +there was also more information on their manufacture. These are probably +the reasons why the United States and Canada have become famous for +Cheddar cheese. + +The first cheeses of the Cheddar group were made on the farms. The work +was usually performed by women, and the process was very simple. The +methods were crude, and the cheeses were made in a more or less +haphazard way. The milk of the evening was placed in a cheese tub in the +dairy room and cooled to a temperature that would prevent souring. In +most cases the cream that had raised to the surface of the night's milk +was removed in the morning. This was considered an act of economy, for +it was thought that in the process of manufacture it would all pass off +in the whey and be lost. The morning's milk was then mixed with that of +the evening and warmed to the setting temperature by placing a portion +in a tin pail and suspending it in a kettle of hot water. When hot, it +was emptied into the tub of cold milk. By transferring back and forth, +the setting temperature was finally reached. Few of these settlers owned +thermometers. Consequently, cheese-makers were obliged to depend on the +sense of feeling to determine temperature. + +One of the serious difficulties of the early manufacture was the +production of rennet of a uniform strength. After the addition of the +rennet and as soon as the coagulated milk became firm enough, it was +broken into as small pieces as could be conveniently made, a wooden +knife being used for the purpose. After standing ten minutes it was +stirred by hand, breaking the pieces finer, and the temperature was +gradually brought to 98° F., aiming as near blood heat as could be +judged by the sense of feeling. It was kept at this temperature until +the moisture was out of the curd and it would squeak between the teeth. +The whey was drawn off and the curd stirred until dry, salted and put to +press. All the curd of one day was made into a cheese. This resulted in +small uneven-sized cheese. Since such cheeses were made from the milk of +single dairies with all the surroundings clean, the flavor was usually +good but the texture was open and soft. The method of caring for the +cheese and marketing was entirely different from that practiced at the +present time. All the cheeses made during the entire season were held +until fall and marketed at one time. They were packed in casks four to +six in a package, one on top of the other. The earliest date when single +boxed cheeses were on the market was 1841. + +Between 1820 and 1840, a small export trade in cheese was started. As +this demand for cheese increased, particularly in England, it became +necessary to change the methods employed in manufacture. The farm dairy +cheese was rather an open-textured sweet curd product. If not, it was +due more to accident than to any intention of the cheese-maker to +improve the quality. One of the early complaints from England was that +the cheeses were too small and uneven in size. The practice of making on +the farm continued until about 1851, when the factory system was +started, although home manufactures continued after that time. Following +are the reasons for the change from the farm to factory system: (1) +England demanded larger cheese; (2) the farm product was not uniform; +(3) the quality of the farm cheese did not suit the English trade; (4) +factories saved much labor on the farms; and (5) could secure higher +prices. + ++297. The factory system.+--Where and by whom the first Cheddar cheese +factory in America was started is not definitely known. Jesse Williams +of Oneida County, New York, is supposed by many to have been the first +to build and operate under the factory system, in 1851. Cheese factories +were opened in Ohio and Wisconsin about 1860. In the period 1860 to +1870, a large number of cheese factories were built in the various +states, especially New York, Ohio and Wisconsin. + ++298. Introduction of factory system in Canada.+--In 1863, Harvey +Farrington of Herkimer, New York, was so impressed with the opportunity +of developing the cheese factory system in Canada that he sold out his +business in New York and established the first Canadian cheese factory +in the town of Norwich, Ontario. It was accepted at once by Canadian +farmers, and factory cheese-making increased rapidly. In 1866, a small +quantity of cheese was exported and from that time the export trade of +Canada has been large and growing. Ontario and Quebec are now the +leading provinces in the production of cheese. + ++299. Introduction of cheddaring.+--The factories at first used the same +process as the farms, namely the stirred-curd process. In 1867, Robert +McAdam introduced the English Cheddar system in a factory near Herkimer, +New York. This is the Cheddar system as known to-day. It produces the +closer bodied cheese demanded by the export trade. This introduction +made Herkimer County famous for its cheese. + ++300. Introduction of Swiss and Limburger.+--In 1870, factories for +Limburger, Swiss and Brick cheese were started and have gradually +increased. In New York such plants are located around Boonville in +Oneida County, and Theresa, in Jefferson County. In Wisconsin, Swiss +cheese-making was begun by a colony of Swiss who came to New Glarus, +Green County. It is now made in Green, Lafayette, Iowa, Grant, Dane and +Rock counties. Limburger and Brick are manufactured in Dodge, Fond du +Lac, Winnebago, Marathon, La Crosse, Buffalo, Trempealeau, Clark, +Washington, Dunn, Barron and Lincoln counties. In the southeastern part +of Ohio Swiss cheese is produced. Ohio and Wisconsin have manufactured +more of these cheeses, especially Swiss, than any other states. This is +probably due to the fact that the conditions are more nearly like those +of Switzerland. + +When the cities in New York began to grow, an increased demand for +market milk was felt. The result was that the dairy-men could not supply +both the cities and the cheese factories with milk. A large part of the +cheese was being exported and most of it had always been partly skimmed. +The amount of skimming, therefore, was largely increased. Then other +animal fats were substituted for the milk-fat. This product was known as +"filled" cheese. The delay in controlling the practice of making +skimmed-milk and filled cheese ruined the export trade. In Canada laws +prohibited the making of filled cheese and as a consequence Canadian +Cheddar cheese is still very popular in England. However, with the +control of skimmed-milk cheese-making and the elimination of filled +cheese, the volume continued to grow and to find outlet in local +consumption. New York probably exported more cheese than any other +state. Wisconsin shipped cheese into other regions, especially the +southern states in which no cheeses were made. Some Wisconsin cheeses +were shipped to the New York market from time to time, but in October, +1913, the first quotations[133] were made in New York City for Wisconsin +products. + ++301. Number and distribution of cheese factories.+--The following list +and maps (Figs. 65, 66) compiled in 1914 by the United States Department +of Agriculture Dairy Division, show the number of cheese factories in +the different states and their location: + +[Illustration: FIG. 65.--Map showing the distribution of cheese +factories in the principal cheese-producing states.] + + Arizona 3 + California 93 + Colorado 8 + Connecticut 2 + Delaware 1 + Illinois 50 + Indiana 13 + Iowa 25 + Kansas 1 + Maine 5 + Michigan 196 + Minnesota 74 + Missouri 4 + Montana 1 + Nebraska 1 + New Hampshire 2 + New York 995 + North Dakota 3 + Ohio 111 + Oklahoma 1 + Oregon 42 + Pennsylvania 106 + South Dakota 1 + Utah 8 + Vermont 35 + Virginia 3 + Washington 15 + West Virginia 1 + Wisconsin 1720 + ---- + 3520 + ++302. Total production of cheese in the United States.+--The following +figures (Table XX) compiled by the United States Census show the total +production of cheese and the amount made on farms and in factories in +the United States by ten-year periods: + + + TABLE XX + + SHOWING THE TOTAL PRODUCTION OF CHEESE AND PART + MADE ON FARMS AND IN FACTORIES IN THE UNITED + STATES BY TEN-YEAR PERIODS + + 1849 Total 105,535,893 pounds + + 1859 Total 103,663,927 pounds + + 1869 Total 162,927,382 pounds + + 1879 Total 243,157,850 pounds + + 1889 On farms 18,726,818 pounds + In factories 238,035,065 pounds + Total 256,761,883 pounds + + 1899 On farms 16,372,330 pounds + In factories 281,972,324 pounds + Total 298,344,654 pounds + + 1909 On farms 9,405,864 pounds + In factories 311,126,317 pounds + Total 320,532,181 pounds + +Comparing the figures of 1899 with those of 1909, it is seen that the +total production of cheese in the United States increased 22,187,539 +pounds, or an increase of 7.4 per cent in 1909 over 1899. During the +same years the amount made on the farms decreased 6,966,454 pounds, or a +decrease of 42.6 per cent, while the amount made in factories increased +29,153,933 pounds or 10.3 per cent. + ++303. Rank of the leading cheese-producing states.+--The rank of the +leading cheese states according to the number of factories in 1914 was: +Wisconsin 1720, New York 995, Michigan 196, Ohio 111, Pennsylvania 106. + +[Illustration: FIG. 66.--Showing the cheese factories in the Pacific +coast states.] + +The table on the opposite page (Table XXI) shows the amount of cheese +produced by the five states with the largest number of factories. This +table indicates that New York led in the production of cheese until some +time between 1899 and 1909. This is probably because, New York having so +many cities, the demand for market milk is so large that it is sold as +such instead of being manufactured into cheese. There is about the same +number of milch cows in New York and Wisconsin. However, Wisconsin is +credited with more cheese in 1909 than New York ever produced and this +output probably will increase, as there are considerable areas of +undeveloped agricultural land in Wisconsin. It is also interesting to +note that Ohio is falling off in cheese production. This may be due to +the increased demand for market milk. On the other hand, production has +increased in Pennsylvania. + + TABLE XXI + + SHOWING THE AMOUNT OF CHEESE MADE IN FIVE LEADING STATES + BY TEN-YEAR PERIODS + + ----------+----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + STATE |YEAR 1859 |YEAR 1869 |YEAR 1879 |YEAR 1889 | + ----------+----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + |Amount in | Amount in |Amount in |Amount in | + | pounds | pounds | pounds | pounds | + | | | | | + | | | | | + | | | | | + Wisconsin | 1,104,300| 3,288,581| 19,535,324| 54,614,861| + | | | | | + New York |48,548,289|100,776,012|129,163,714|124,086,524| + | | | | | + Michigan | 1,641,897| 2,321,801| 3,953,585| 5,370,460| + | | | | | + Ohio |21,618,893| 24,153,876| 32,531,683| 22,254,054| + | | | | | + Penn | 2,508,556| 2,792,676| 8,966,737| 5,457,897| + ----------+----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + + ----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + STATE |YEAR 1899 |YEAR 1909 |YEAR 1914 | + ----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + |Amount in |Amount in |Amount in | + | pounds | pounds |pounds from| + | | |factories | + | | |only | + | | | | + Wisconsin | 79,384,298|148,906,910|205,920,915| + | | | | + New York |130,010,584|105,584,947| 97,614,024| + | | | | + Michigan | 10,753,758| 13,673,336| 13,267,145| + | | | | + Ohio | 19,363,528| 12,473,834| 8,717,996| + | | | | + Penn | 11,124,610| 12,676,713| 14,808,573| + ----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + ++304. Exportation and importation of cheese by the United States.+--The +accompanying table shows the exports and imports of cheese from 1851 to +1916 and their values, in so far as the figures are available. + +[Illustration: FIG. 67.--Showing relationship of total production, +exports and imports of cheese.] + +One noteworthy item in Table XXII is that the exports have gradually +decreased and imports increased. This is probably because immigrants +have demanded the cheeses of their native country which were not made in +America. The exports for the years 1915 and 1916 are interesting as they +show the effect of the war on the cheese industry, the imports being +gradually decreased and the exports greatly increased. + + + TABLE XXII + + SHOWING THE IMPORTS AND EXPORTS OF CHEESE BY THE + UNITED STATES FROM 1851-1916 + + ------+----------------------+-------------------------- + YEAR | IMPORTS | EXPORTS + ------+-----------+----------+-------------+------------ + | Amount | | Amount | + | in | Value in | in | Value in + | pounds | dollars | pounds | dollars + | | | | + 1851 | 603,398 | ---- | 10,361,189 | ---- + 1852 | 514,337 | ---- | 6,650,420 | ---- + 1853 | 874,949 | ---- | 3,763,932 | ---- + 1854 | 969,417 | ---- | 7,003,974 | ---- + 1855 | 1,526,942 | ---- | 4,846,568 | ---- + 1856 | 1,384,272 | ---- | 8,737,029 | ---- + 1857 | 1,400,252 | ---- | 6,453,072 | ---- + 1858 | 1,589,066 | ---- | 8,098,527 | ---- + 1859 | 1,409,420 | ---- | 7,103,323 | ---- + 1860 | 1,401,161 | ---- | 15,515,799 | ---- + 1861 | 1,090,835 | ---- | 32,361,428 | ---- + 1862 | 594,822 | ---- | 34,052,678 | ---- + 1863 | 545,966 | ---- | 42,045,054 | ---- + 1864 | 836,127 | ---- | 47,751,329 | ---- + 1865 | 985,362 | ---- | 53,154,318 | ---- + 1866 | ---- | ---- | 36,411,985 | ---- + 1867 | 1,738,657 | ---- | 52,352,127 | ---- + 1868 | 2,997,994 | ---- | 51,097,203 | ---- + 1869 | ---- | ---- | 39,960,367 | ---- + 1870 | ---- | ---- | 57,296,327 | ---- + 1871 | ---- | ---- | 63,698,867 | ---- + 1872 | ---- | ---- | 66,204,025 | ---- + 1873 | ---- | ---- | 80,366,540 | ---- + 1874 | ---- | ---- | 90,611,077 | ---- + 1875 | ---- | ---- | 101,010,853 | ---- + 1876 | ---- | ---- | 97,676,264 | ---- + 1877 | ---- | ---- | 107,364,666 | ---- + 1878 | ---- | ---- | 123,783,736 | ---- + 1879 | ---- | ---- | 141,654,474 | ---- + 1880 | ---- | ---- | 127,553,907 | ---- + 1881 | ---- | ---- | 147,995,614 | ---- + 1882 | ---- | ---- | 127,989,782 | ---- + 1883 | ---- | ---- | 99,220,467 | ---- + 1884 | 6,243,014 | ---- | 112,869,575 | ---- + 1885 | 6,247,560 | ---- | 111,992,990 | ---- + 1886 | 6,309,124 | ---- | 91,877,235 | + 1887 | 6,592,192 | ---- | 81,255,994 | + 1888 | 8,750,185 | ---- | 88,008,458 | + 1889 | 8,207,026 | ---- | 84,999,828 | + 1890 | 9,263,573 | ---- | 95,376,053 | + 1891 | 8,863,640 | ---- | 82,133,876 | + 1892 | 8,305,288 | ---- | 82,100,221 | + 1893 |10,195,924 | ---- | 81,350,923 | + 1894 | 8,742,851 | ---- | 73,852,134 | + 1895 |10,276,293 | ---- | 60,448,421 | + 1896 |10,728,397 | ---- | 36,777,291 | + 1897 |12,319,122 | ---- | 50,944,617 | + 1898 |10,012,188 | ---- | 53,167,280 | + 1899 |11,826,175 | ---- | 38,198,753 | + 1900 |13,455,990 | ---- | 48,419,353 | + 1901 |15,329,099 | ---- | 39,813,517 | + 1902 |17,067,714 |$2,551,366| 27,203,184 |$2,745,597 + 1903 |20,671,384 | 3,183,224| 18,987,178 | 2,250,229 + 1904 |22,707,103 | 3,284,811| 23,335,172 | 2,452,239 + 1905 |23,095,705 | 3,379,600| 10,134,424 | 1,084,044 + 1906 |27,286,866 | 4,303,830| 16,562,451 | 1,940,620 + 1907 |33,848,766 | 5,704,012| 17,285,230 | 2,012,626 + 1908 |32,530,830 | 5,586,706| 8,439,031 | 1,092,053 + 1909 |35,548,143 | 5,866,154| 6,822,842 | 857,091 + 1910 |40,817,524 | 7,053,570| 2,846,709 | 441,017 + 1911 |45,568,797 | 7,920,244| 10,366,605 | 1,288,279 + 1912 |46,542,007 | 8,807,249| 6,337,559 | 898,035 + 1913 |49,387,944 | 9,185,184| 2,599,058 | 441,186 + 1914 |63,784,313 |11,010,693| 2,427,577 | 414,124 + 1915 |50,138,520 | 9,370,048| 55,362,917 | 8,463,174 + 1916 |30,087,999 | 7,058,420| 44,394,301 | 7,430,089 + ------+-----------+----------+-------------+------------ + +The graph (Fig. 67) represents the total production and the exports and +imports of cheese into the United States. + ++305. Average yearly price of cheese.+--The following table shows the +average yearly price of Cheddar cheese in the United States: + + TABLE XXIII + + SHOWING THE AVERAGE YEARLY PRICE OF CHEESE, 1892-1916 + + YEAR CENTS + 1892 9.4 + 1893 9.4 + 1894 9.7 + 1895 9.1 + 1896 8.4 + 1897 9.1 + 1898 8.6 + 1899 8.6 + 1900 10.2 + 1901 9.9 + 1902 10.1 + 1903 11.9 + 1904 10.5 + 1905 10.7 + 1906 11.7 + 1907 11.6 + 1908 12.9 + 1909 12.6 + 1910 15.5 + 1911 12.4 + 1912 14.2 + 1913 17.0 + 1914 17.1 + 1915 15.3 + 1916 16.7 + +The graph (Fig. 68) shows that the average yearly price has increased +from 9.4 cents a pound to 16.7 cents. + +[Illustration: FIG. 68.--Average yearly price of cheese.] + ++306. Canadian cheese statistics.+--The following statistics show the +development of the industry in Canada. The figures in Table XXIV show +the number of cheese factories, the amount of milk received and the +total production in Canada. + +Table XXIV indicates that the number of cheese factories has decreased +but that the production has increased. Because of the scarcity of +figures, conclusions would not be accurate. + +The figures in Table XXV of the exports and imports show that the +exports gradually decreased and the imports increased. If the production +has increased, as shown in Table XXIV, more cheese must be consumed by +the Canadians. The effect of the war is probably seen in the year 1916, +when the imports are decreased and the exports increased. + + + TABLE XXIV + + SHOWING THE NUMBER OF CHEESE FACTORIES, AMOUNT OF + MILK RECEIVED AND THE FACTORY PRODUCTION OF + CHEESE + + -------+------------+---------------+--------------- + | NUMBER OF | POUNDS OF | FACTORY + YEAR | CHEESE | MILK | PRODUCTION + | FACTORIES | DELIVERED | OF CHEESE + -------+------------+---------------+--------------- + 1900 | ---- | ---- | 220,833,269 + | | | + 1907 | ---- | ---- | 204,788,583 + | | | + 1910 | 2291 | ---- | 199,904,205 + | | | + 1915 | 1871 | 1,501,946,221 | 183,887,837 + | | | + 1916 | 1813 | 1,503,997,215 | 192,968,597 + -------+------------+---------------+--------------- + + + TABLE XXV + + SHOWING THE AMOUNT AND VALUE OF CANADIAN EXPORTS AND + IMPORTS OF CHEESE + + ------+--------------------------+---------------------- + Year | Exports | Imports + ------+-------------+------------+-----------+---------- + | Amount in | Value in | Amount in | Value in + | pounds | dollars | pounds | dollars + ------+-------------+------------+-----------+---------- + 1880 | 40,368,000 | $3,893,000 | | + | | | | + 1890 | 94,260,000 | 9,372,212 | | + | | | | + 1900 | 185,984,000 | 19,856,324 | | + | | | | + 1910 | 180,859,000 | 21,607,692 | 683,778 | ---- + | | | | + 1911 | 181,895,000 | 20,739,507 | 866,653 | ---- + | | | | + 1912 | 163,450,000 | 20,888,818 | 919,189 | ---- + | | | | + 1913 | 155,216,000 | 20,697,000 | 1,495,758 | ---- + | | | | + 1914 | 144,478,000 | 18,866,000 | 1,512,108 | ---- + | | | | + 1915 | 137,601,000 | 19,213,000 | 1,162,456 | ---- + | | | | + 1916 | 168,961,000 | ---- | 971,821 | ---- + ------+-------------+------------+-----------+---------- + +If the total population of the United States is figured at 100 million +and the difference between the exports and imports found and added to +the total production, it shows that the average person must consume +about three and one-half pounds of cheese in a year. + +In the past few years there has been considerable demand for more of the +foreign cheeses, such as Camembert and Roquefort. + ++307. Introduction of cheese-making into new regions.+--The manufacture +of Cheddar cheese is being encouraged in new regions, in the Alleghany +Mountains, in Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee and in +the western states. There has also sprung up a considerable demand for +the lactic acid group of cheeses, especially Neufchâtel and Cottage, so +that while the cheese industry may decline in certain sections, the +total production will probably increase. In the proper locations or +sections, the cheese industry has a very bright future. The development +of the skimmed-milk cheeses will undoubtedly be given considerable +attention in the next few years. + + +REFERENCES + + N. Y. Dept. Agr. Bul. 54, The Dairy Industry in New York State. + + N. Y. Produce Rev. and American Creamery. + Vol. 34, No. 3, page 108. + Vol. 37, No. 16, page 684. + Vol. 37, No. 16, page 666. + Vol. 37, No. 9, page 411. + Vol. 33, No. 11, page 482. + Vol. 36, No. 23, page 1078. + + Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1897, pages 113-149. + + U. S. Census. + + U. S. Dept. Agr. Year Books. + + Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. + + Statistical abstract of the U. S. + + Canadian Dept. Agr. 1915, Report of the dairy and cold storage + commissioner. + + Dominion of Canada, Census and Statistics office, Rept. 1915. + + + + +CHAPTER XIX + +_TESTING_ + + +In connection with marketing, a certain amount of testing of the +products should be practiced, to determine exactly the results and +grades of products. This includes the testing of the whole milk, whey +and cheese for fat, the milk for casein, and the cheese for moisture. In +factories in which the milk is bought on the fat basis, it is necessary +to test each patron's milk for fat. If there is a cheese-moisture law in +the state, it is necessary to test for moisture. The whey should be +tested to learn the loss of fat in the manufacturing process and to +ascertain whether the losses have been reduced to the minimum. + ++308. The fat test.+--The test commonly used to determine the fat in +milk is known as the Babcock. The principle of this test is as follows: +Fat exists in the form of very small globules. Because the fat globules +are lighter than the other milk constituents, under the influence of the +force of gravity most of them rise to the surface. There, mixed with the +other milk substances, these globules form a layer of cream. Babcock +found that by adding to the milk sulfuric acid of proper strength and +temperature, the casein, the milk-sugar and the albumin are decomposed +and the sticky quality of the milk is destroyed. The acid does not +decompose the fat but leaves it free to come to the surface of the +mixture. Under centrifugal force, this fat is quickly brought to the +surface. By using a known quantity of milk and having a scale graduated +in percentage of the amount of milk, the percentage of fat can be +determined. Fig. 69 shows the necessary equipment. + +[Illustration: FIG. 69.--Apparatus necessary to test milk and whey for +fat and total solids.] + +There are three kinds of bottles employed in making the test, one with a +very large neck which is used when testing materials high in fat-content +such as cream, butter and cheese. This is generally called a cream-test +bottle. It is graduated from 0 to 50 per cent. When testing materials +with a small amount of fat such as whey, skim-milk and buttermilk, a +test bottle with two necks is used, one with a small bore for the fat +and the other neck with a larger bore to add the milk, acid, water. It +is graduated from 0 to 0.5 of 1 per cent. There is a third bottle +between the other two to test whole milk. This is known as a whole-milk +bottle. It is graduated from 0 to 8 per cent. All of the glassware +should comply with the laws. + ++309. Sampling the milk.+--One of the most important parts of testing is +to obtain a fair sample of the milk. The milk to be tested may be in a +vat or in a farmer's can or a composite sample jar. If the milk is +bought on the fat basis, that of each patron is not tested daily, but a +small quantity, about half an ounce, is taken each day and placed in a +jar; this is known as a composite sample. It is the usual practice to +number the patrons and have a sample bottle for each patron with his +number on it. Some substance must be added to preserve the milk and to +keep it from souring or coagulating. It is difficult to secure a fair +sample of sour milk. A wide-mouthed jar is preferred for keeping milk +samples. This must be kept closed to prevent evaporation. Each day when +milk is added to the composite sample, the bottles should be shaken to +prevent the cream drying. Composite samples are tested at least twice a +month. The milk may be mixed to obtain a fair sample, by stirring in the +vat or by pouring from one bottle to another. Vigorous shaking should be +avoided as this is likely to cause churning. One should see that all the +cream is removed from the sides of the sample bottle and that it is +evenly distributed through the milk. The sample of milk is now measured +out with the pipette. This is graduated to deliver 18 grams of milk, and +holds 17.6 c.c. Hold the pipette between the thumb and second finger of +the right hand with the tip below the surface of the milk, draw the milk +by suction with the lips until it is filled well above the graduation. +Quickly place the forefinger over the opening and at right angles to the +pipette. By gently and carefully raising the forefinger, allow the milk +to run down until the surface is exactly level with the graduation. To +obtain an accurate reading, the pipette should be on a level with the +eye. Then with the left hand, hold the milk test bottle in a slanting +position and place the tip of the pipette into it about one-third of an +inch and at a slight angle. Now let the milk slowly flow down the side +of the neck of the bottle, making certain that none is blown out by the +escaping air. When all has run out of the pipette, blow out the drop +which remains in the tip. Then measure out another sample in the same +way, as the test should be made in duplicate. + ++310. Adding the acid.+--The sulfuric acid should have a specific +gravity between 1.82 and 1.83. It should be kept in glass-stoppered +bottles or carboys to prevent the absorption of moisture from the air, +which will reduce its strength. Acid that is too strong might burn the +fat. The acid is a strong poison and will burn if it comes in contact +with the flesh or the clothing. In such case, it should be removed by +washing with plenty of water. An alkaline substance such as ammonia or +bicarbonate of soda should be applied to remove any acid not washed +away. + +The acid measure holds 17.5 c.c. and it should be filled to the +graduation. Then this acid should be added to the test bottle. The +bottle should be held at an angle and slowly rotated so that the acid +will rinse down any milk remaining in the neck of the bottle. +Immediately mix the acid and milk by whirling the body of the bottle in +a circle five or six inches in diameter. The mixture should not be +allowed to go into the neck of the bottle while mixing. Continue shaking +for about a minute after all the curd has disappeared. One should avoid +pointing the neck of the bottle toward any person in the mixing +operation. The acid unites with all the milk substances except the fat +and generates much heat. + ++311. Centrifuging.+--There are two machines in common use for +centrifuging, one that runs by mechanical power and the other smaller +and runs by hand. If the machine and atmosphere are very cold, the +apparatus can be warmed by placing hot water in it. This is not +necessary in a steam machine. In a factory where there are a number of +samples to test, a power machine is usually employed. In this machine +there are pockets or cups in which to set the test bottles. The machine +or disk must be balanced by placing bottles in opposite pockets. These +pockets are hinged so that when standing still the bottle is in an +upright position and when the centrifuge is running, it is in a +horizontal position. The machine should then be covered and started +running. It should be run at the speed indicated. After five minutes, +stop the machine and fill the bottles with boiling water up to the neck. +This can be done without taking the bottles out of the machine. A +pipette or slender-spouted vessel may be used to add the water. Whirl +the bottles two minutes, then add more boiling water to bring the fat +column into the graduated part of the neck of the bottle. Then whirl one +minute. The test should be read at once or the bottles kept at a +temperature of 130° to 140° F. until ready to read. + ++312. Reading the test.+--To read the test, subtract the reading at the +bottom of the fat column from that at the highest point. The curved +meniscus which always forms at the top of the fat column should be +included in the reading. Duplicate samples should not vary more than O.2 +of 1 per cent. Standard Babcock test bottles and pipettes should always +be used. In some states the agricultural experiment stations examine all +glassware and mark it to make certain that it conforms to the +requirements of the state law. In New York, glassware found to be +correct is branded "S. B.," which means State Brand. In some states a +person must have a license to test milk or cream, when it is paid for on +the fat test. Such a person must pass an examination to show that he +understands the test before a license, will be granted. The license may +be revoked if the work is not honestly performed. + ++313. Testing whey for fat.+--Because of the small amount of fat in +whey, it is difficult to obtain a representative sample. The best way, +if the entire amount cannot be placed in a vat and stirred, is to catch +a little of the whey at intervals as it is being drawn from the vat. The +sample to be tested is measured with the pipette the same as the milk +and placed in the skimmed-milk test bottle. The same acid is used to +test whey as to test milk but because there are not so many solids to +destroy, not so much is used. If as much acid is used with whey as with +milk, it will burn the fat and so interfere with the reading of the +test. Just enough acid is added to destroy the milk substances except +the fat, or enough to turn the contents of the test bottle dark brown. +This usually requires filling the acid measure one-quarter of an inch +under the graduation. The remainder of the test is the same as for whole +milk. + ++314. Testing cheese for fat.+--The sample of cheese to test for fat is +obtained by removing the sample with a cheese-trier. This sample is +called a "plug." Different plugs from the same cheese will test various +percentages of fat so that it is difficult to secure a representative +sample. The usual practice is to take three plugs, one near the center, +another near the outside and the third between the first two. The plugs +should be put into glass-stoppered bottles to prevent the evaporation of +moisture. These plugs are then chopped up very fine. It is of course +impossible to measure the cheese as with milk and whey, but it is +weighed (Fig. 70). If the cheese is soft it can be stirred with a +spatula until well mixed. A soft cheese usually sticks to the neck of +the test bottle. After being weighed, it can be dissolved in a little +sodium hydroxide and poured into the bottle. Different amounts may be +used, commonly 4½ or 6 grams, but 6 grams is to be preferred. This is +placed in the Babcock cream bottle since there will usually be more fat +than can be read in a milk bottle. After the material has been placed in +the test bottle, about two-thirds of an acid-measure of warm water is +added to assist in dissolving the cheese. + +[Illustration: FIG. 70.--Apparatus necessary to test cheese for fat.] + +The acid is added the same as with the milk. If all the cheese particles +are not destroyed, and therefore do not disappear, a little more acid +will complete the solution. Centrifuging is performed as with the milk. + ++315. Reading the test.+--In a cream-test bottle the neck is so much +wider that there is a much larger meniscus. In order to obtain an +accurate result, the meniscus should be removed. This is done by +carefully adding a substance called glymol, which is a mineral oil +colored red. Usually about one-quarter of an inch of glymol is added to +the fat column. This should not mix with the fat. The bottles should be +placed in a hot water bath 135° to 140° F. for four minutes before +reading. The temperature at reading should be 135° to 140° F. The +reading is then taken from the bottom of the fat column to the line +between this and the glymol. The bottle is graduated for 18 grams of +material, but as only a part of 18 grams of cheese was used for the +test, the reading should be multiplied by the part of 18 grams used. For +example, suppose 6 grams of cheese were used and the test read 12 per +cent fat. Since 6 is one third of 18, the actual percentage of fat is 3 +times 12, or 36 per cent. + ++316. The Hart[134] casein test+ was devised to determine the percentage +of casein in milk. A special test bottle and centrifuge are necessary. +The method of making the test is as follows: Place 2 c.c. of chloroform +in the casein test tube, add 20 c.c. of a 0.25 of 1 per cent solution of +acetic acid at a temperature of 65° to 75° F. This solution of acetic +acid is made by diluting 10 c.c. of glacial acetic acid with 100 c.c. of +water, then dilute 25 c.c. of this solution to 1000 c.c. with water; 5 +c.c. of milk at a temperature of 65° to 75° F. is then run into the +bottle. The bottle is then covered with the thumb and inverted and the +mixture shaken vigorously for exactly twenty seconds. It is then +centrifuged within twenty minutes at a speed of 2000 revolutions a +minute. The bottle should stand ten minutes before reading the +percentage of casein. There are other tests for casein but they are very +complicated. + ++317. Solids in the milk.+--Because not only the fat but all the solids +are utilized in cheese-making, it is important to know the amount of the +solids in the milk. This is ascertained by determining the specific +gravity of the milk and knowing the fat-content; the solids not fat can +then be calculated. + ++318. The lactometer.+--The specific gravity of liquids is measured by +an instrument called a hydrometer. Its use is based on the fact that +when a solid body floats in a liquid, it displaces a volume of liquid +equal in weight to its own. Hydrometers are in many cases so made that +the specific gravity can be read at the point where the scale is even +with the upper surface of the liquid. A hydrometer that is especially +adapted to milk is called a lactometer. There are two lactometers in +common use, the Quevenne and the Board of Health. + +[Illustration: FIG. 71.--A Quevenne lactometer.] + +_The Quevenne lactometer._--This is a long slender hollow piece of glass +weighted at the bottom to make it float in the milk in an upright +position (Fig. 71). The upper end is slender and contains the scale. +This scale is graduated from 15 at the top to 40 at the bottom. Each +reading on the scale corresponds to the point marked specific gravity on +a hydrometer, except that the figures are not complete. For example, 15 +on the Quevenne scale means a specific gravity of 1.015; a reading of +30 on the Quevenne scale means a specific gravity of 1.030, and so on. +The Quevenne lactometer is graduated to give correct results at a +temperature of 60° F. The milk should be at this temperature. If the +temperature is below or above this, a correction must be made to the +reading. The temperature should not be more than 10 degrees above or +below 60° F. The correction for each degree in variation of temperature +can be made by adding 0.1 or subtracting 0.1 from the lactometer +reading, as the case may be. If the temperature is above 60° F., the +correction is added to the lactometer and if it is below 60° F., the +correction is subtracted from the lactometer reading. The reading should +be taken when the lactometer is floating free in the milk. The scale is +read exactly at the surface of the milk. The better lactometers have a +thermometer with the scale just above or opposite the lactometer scale. + +[Illustration: FIG. 72.--A Board of Health lactometer.] + +_The Board of Health lactometer._--This is very similar to the Quevenne +lactometer except that the scale is graduated from 0 to 120 (Fig. 72). +The point on the scale of the lactometer that floats at the surface in +water is represented by 0, and 100 represents the specific gravity of +1.029. On the Board of Health lactometer, the 100 degrees or divisions +from 0 to 100 equal 29 divisions on the Quevenne. Therefore, one +division on the Board of Health equals 0.29 of a division on the +Quevenne. To convert Board of Health reading to Quevenne, multiply by +0.29 and to convert Quevenne to Board of Health, divide by 0.29. The +correction for temperatures above or below 60° F. is made the same as +with the Quevenne, except 0.3 is added or subtracted from the reading +instead of 0.1 as with the Quevenne. + ++319. Calculating the solids not fat in the milk.+--When the lactometer +reading and fat-content of the milk are known, there are several +formulas for calculating the solids not fat. In the following formulas, +L equals Quevenne lactometer reading at 60° F., and F equals the +percentage of fat in the milk: + + L + 0.7 F + --------- = S.N.F + 3.8 + + L + F + ----- = S.N.F. + 4 + + L + - + 0.2 F + 0.14 = S.N.F. + 4 + ++320. Testing cheese for moisture.+[135]--There are two methods of +testing cheese for moisture. The following is a simple test devised by +H. C. Troy: + +The ordinary butter moisture test, in which a metal cup is heated over a +flame, cannot be used for determining the percentage of water in cheese +because the high temperature developed in operating that test drives +from he cheese other substances with the water. Also, particles are lost +by spattering when the cheese is heated with any degree of rapidity in +the shallow butter-moisture cups. To overcome these difficulties, the +new method here described has been developed for the purpose of +determining the percentage of moisture in cheese. The apparatus consists +of: + + 1 double-walled copper drying cup + 1 centigrade thermometer registering to 200° + 1 alcohol lamp + 1 tripod + 1 special flask + 1 scales sensitive to 0.01 gram + 1 set of weights, 0.01 to 100 grams + +The body of the copper drying cup may be made in two parts. One of the +parts is a jacket that forms the outer wall of the apparatus. It has a +flat bottom 4½ inches in diameter, and the perpendicular wall is +4½ inches in height. The inner part of the cup must have a flat +bottom 2¾ inches in diameter and a side wall 3¾ inches high. A +flange attached to the upper rim of the inner part extends out at right +angles to the cup wall and forms a cover for the space between the walls +when the two parts are put together. The flange is bent down around its +outer edge to make it fit snugly over the upper rim of the outer jacket. +It thus holds the inner cup securely in place, leaving a space about ¾ +inch wide for oil between the walls and bottoms, and permits the +apparatus to be taken apart readily. A circular opening about ½ inch +in diameter is made through the flange to permit the insertion of a +thermometer for taking the temperature of the oil or the melted fat +which is used in the space between the walls. Lard or tallow serves best +for use in this space; a readily inflammable oil should not be employed. +The thermometer may be permanently held in place by passing it snugly +through a hole bored in a cork, the cork being then fitted into the +hole through the flange. A flat metal cover is placed on the cup when +making a test. This cover has a hole through the center just large +enough to permit the neck of the drying flask to extend up through it. +The cover assists in keeping the body of the flask at a constant +temperature by preventing the entrance of cold air currents. The +thermometer should register changes in temperature between zero and 200° +C. The alcohol lamp should yield a flame about ¼ inch in diameter and +¾ inch high. The tripod should be about 6 inches high and of proper +diameter at the top to support the oil bath. + +An ordinary flat-bottom glass Erlenmeyer flask, of such a diameter as to +fit neatly into the oil-bath cup, may be used to hold the cheese during +the drying operation; but a special glass flask serves better. It is +made with a flat bottom 2½ inches in diameter, which will fit into +the cup of the drying apparatus. The side walls of this flask should be +perpendicular for about 1 inch, when they should begin to slope in +toward the base of the neck, which should be located about 2 inches +above the bottom. The neck of the flask should be 1 inch in diameter, +with perpendicular walls, and its length should give the flask a total +height of 4¾ inches. When the apparatus (Fig. 73) is put together for +the first time, the melted fat or oil may be placed in the outer jacket +and the inner cup may then be fitted into position, or the parts may be +put together first and the oil then poured into the space between the +cup walls through the opening where the thermometer is to be placed. The +oil should fill the space to within an inch of the top. The cork +through which the thermometer has been passed is then fitted into the +opening. The thermometer bulb should be placed in the oil about half an +inch above the bottom of the outer jacket. The apparatus is then placed +on the tripod over the alcohol lamp. A flame ½ inch in diameter and +¾ inch high will give sufficient heat to hold the bath at the proper +temperature. The temperature may be regulated by raising or lowering the +lamp or by changing the size of the flame by adjusting the wick. +Hundreds of tests may be run without taking the apparatus apart or +changing the oil. The copper drying cup can be made by any tinsmith. The +other parts may be ordered through any dairy or chemical supply company. + + +[Illustration: FIG. 73.--Apparatus necessary to test cheese for +moisture.] + +In operating the test, the alcohol lamp is first lighted, so that the +oil bath may be warming while the test sample is under preparation. A +representative sample of the cheese, which may be taken with a +cheese-trier and held in a glass-stoppered sample jar, is then cut into +particles about the size of kernels of wheat without removing it from +the jar. This may be accomplished with an ordinary table knife that has +had the end squared and sharpened. The clean dry flask is then +accurately balanced on the scales and a 5-gram weight is placed in the +opposite scale pan. Particles of cheese from the prepared sample are put +into the flask until the scales comes to an exact balance. Great care +should be taken to avoid loss of moisture from the cheese in the +preparation of the sample. + +With the thermometer in the oil bath registering between 140° and 145° +C. (or between 284° and 293° F.), the flask is placed in the cup of the +oil bath and the flat disk-shaped cover is adjusted over the apparatus. +The flask should remain in the bath for fifty minutes, the temperature +being kept between 140° and 145° C. all the time. The flask is then +removed, covered and allowed to cool to room temperature in a dry place. +It is then weighed, and the quotient obtained by dividing the loss in +weight by the original weight, multiplied by 100, gives the percentage +of water in the cheese. The following shows the method of computation: + +Problem: Five grams of cheese was heated until the water contained in it +was evaporated. The remaining substance weighed 3.15 grams. What +percentage of water did the cheese contain? + + Answer: 5.00 - 3.15 = 1.85 + 1.85 ÷ 5 = 0.37 + 0.37 × 100 = 37 (percentage of water in cheese) + +A butter-moisture scales with an extra 5-gram weight may be used for +weighing out the 5 grams of cheese. If the scales indicates the amount +of moisture in 10 grams of butter by percentage graduations on its beam +or by percentage weights, then it will be necessary to multiply by 2 the +percentage indicated by such scales or percentage weights when only 5 +grams of cheese is used. + +The moisture may be determined by weighing out a small sample of cheese +and drying it in an oven and calling the loss moisture. Many such ovens +have been devised. + +New York and Wisconsin have laws limiting the amount of water which may +be incorporated in Cheddar cheese. New York places the limit at 39 per +cent and Wisconsin at 40 per cent. If the moisture-content is above +this, the cheese must be branded adulterated. + + + + +CHAPTER XX + +_MARKETING_ + + +Marketing is related to cheese in two ways: First, the purchase of the +raw material, the milk; and secondly the sale of the finished product, +the cheese. + ++321. Buying milk.+--The method of paying for the milk differs in the +various cheese sections and factories. At some factories a stated price +is paid for the milk or the fat. This is usually in terms of 100 pounds +of milk or for each pound of fat. This is the practice with concerns +possessing large capital. Other factories make the milk into cheese and +after each sale, the expenses necessary for operating the factory are +deducted and the remainder of the money divided among the patrons. This +money is divided either on the basis of the number of pounds of milk or +of fat delivered. The question arises as to which is the better method +to buy milk for cheese-making, or the fairest way to divide the money +received from a sale of cheese. + ++322. Cheese yield basis of buying milk.+--Let us suppose that at a +cheese factory there were five patrons: (A) delivered 100 pounds of milk +testing 3 per cent fat; (B) 100 pounds of milk testing 3.5 per cent fat; +(C) 100 pounds of milk testing 4.0 per cent fat; (D) 100 pounds of milk +testing 4.5 per cent fat; and (E) 100 pounds of milk testing 5.0 per +cent fat. Table XXVI shows the actual number of pounds of cheese +containing 37 per cent moisture which 100 pounds of milk containing +different percentages of fat will produce. The cheese sold net for 20 +cents a pound. + + TABLE XXVI + + SHOWING PAYMENTS FOR MILK BASED ON THE ACTUAL YIELD + OF CHEESE + + ===================================================================== + PATRON | POUNDS | PER CENT | YIELD OF CHEESE | PRICE A | AMOUNT + | OF MILK | OF FAT IN | CONTAINING | POUND | DUE EACH + | DELIVERED | MILK | 37% MOISTURE | | PATRON + -------+-----------+-----------+-----------------+---------+--------- + A | 100 | 3.0 | 8.30 | $.20 | $1.66 + B | 100 | 3.5 | 9.45 | .20 | 1.89 + C | 100 | 4.0 | 10.60 | .20 | 2.12 + D | 100 | 4.5 | 11.74 | .20 | 2.348 + E | 100 | 5.0 | 12.90 | .20 | 2.58 + -------+-----------+-----------+-----------------+---------+--------- + Total | 500 | 20 | 52.99 | .20 | 10.598 + ===================================================================== + +This table shows the amount of money each patron should receive if the +money were divided on the basis of the actual yield of cheese. + ++323. Fat basis for payment of milk.+--Let us suppose that the same five +patrons delivered the same quantity of milk testing the same percentages +of fat and that the cheese sold for the same price. A total of 20 pounds +of fat was delivered and the cheese sold for $10.598; by dividing this +amount by the pounds of fat delivered, the price or value of one pound +of fat is found to be $.5299. Multiplying the pounds of fat each patron +delivered by the price a pound would give the amount of money due each +patron. + + + TABLE XXVII + + SHOWING PAYMENTS FOR MILK BASED ON FAT-CONTENT OF + MILK + + =================================================================== + | POUNDS | PER CENT | POUNDS OF | VALUE OF | + PATRON | OF MILK | OF FAT IN | FAT | POUND OF | AMOUNT DUE + | DELIVERED | MILK | DELIVERED | FAT | EACH PATRON + -------+-----------+-----------+-----------+----------+------------ + A | 100 | 3.0 | 3.0 | $.5299 | $1.58 + B | 100 | 3.5 | 3.5 | .5299 | 1.85 + C | 100 | 4.0 | 4.0 | .5299 | 2.12 + D | 100 | 4.5 | 4.5 | .5299 | 2.38 + E | 100 | 5.0 | 5.0 | .5299 | 2.65 + =================================================================== + ++324. Weight basis or pooling method for payment of milk.+--By this +system, each patron would receive an equal price for 100 pounds of milk. +If the same supposition is taken as before, there would be 500 pounds of +milk delivered and the cheese sold for $10.59; each 100 pounds of milk +would be worth $2.12. As each patron delivered an equal weight of milk, +each would receive an equal amount of money, or $2.12. + ++325. Fat-plus-two method for payment of milk.+--Some workers have +thought that by adding two to the fat test, the division of money would +be more nearly the true cheese-producing value of the milk. The amount +due each patron is figured as in the fat basis, except that two is added +to the fat test and this is used as the basis of division. If the same +suppositions were used as before, each patron would receive the amount +shown in Table XXVIII. + ++326. Comparison of methods.+--The best way to judge the different +methods of paying for milk is to compare them with the true value based +on the actual cheese yield as shown in Table XXIX. + + + TABLE XXVIII + + SHOWING PAYMENTS FOR MILK BY FAT-PLUS-TWO METHODS + + =========================================================================== + PATRON | POUNDS | PER CENT | FAT PLUS | POUNDS | VALUE OF | AMOUNT + | OF MILK | OF FAT IN | TWO | OF FAT | POUND OF | DUE EACH + | DELIVERED | MILK | | DELIVERED | FAT | PATRON + -------+-----------+-----------+----------+-----------+----------+--------- + A | 100 | 3.0 | 5.0 | 5.0 | $.353 | $1.76 + B | 100 | 3.5 | 5.5 | 5.5 | .353 | 1.94 + C | 100 | 4.0 | 6.0 | 6.0 | .353 | 2.12 + D | 100 | 4.5 | 6.5 | 6.5 | .353 | 2.29 + E | 100 | 5.0 | 7.0 | 7.0 | .353 | 2.47 + =========================================================================== + + + TABLE XXIX + + SHOWING THE COMPARISON OF THE DIFFERENT METHODS + OF PAYING FOR MILK AT CHEESE FACTORIES + + ================================================================ + | | ERROR IN PAYMENT PER 100 POUNDS OF MILK BY + PATRON | PERCENTAGE +----------------+-----------+-------------- + | OF FAT IN | POOLING SYSTEM | FAT BASIS | FAT-PLUS-TWO + | MILK | | | METHOD + -------+------------+----------------+-----------+-------------- + A | 3.0 | +$0.46 | -$0.08 | +$0.10 + B | 3.5 | +0.23 | -0.04 | +0.05 + C | 4.0 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 + D | 4.5 | -0.23 | +0.04 | -0.05 + E | 5.0 | -0.46 | +0.08 | -0.10 + ================================================================ + +A careful study of the above table shows that the pooling system is in +favor of the dairy-man with the poor milk, and that the fat basis favors +the dairy-man with the rich milk. This is due, of course, to the fact +that the casein does not increase in the milk quite in proportion to the +fat. With the pooling system or fat basis of payment, no account is +taken of the casein; but the fat-plus-two system is an attempt to +recognize the casein, but considers the percentage of casein in all milk +to be the same. This method is in favor of the dairy-man with milk low +in fat, but not to the extent of the pooling system. The latter system +considers the cheese-producing power of all milk to be the same. It +favors the dairy-man with low-testing milk. The fat basis for payment +recognizes only the fat and is an advantage to the dairy-man with the +high-testing milk but not to the extent that the pooling system is in +favor of the low-testing milk. The fat-plus-two method recognizes 2 per +cent of casein in the milk. This favors the dairy-men with low-testing +milk. Other methods[136] of paying for milk have been devised. Because +the actual yield of cheese from the milk of different herds cannot be +easily determined at the cheese factory, this method of payment cannot +be employed. In localities in which all the dairy-men have the same +breed of cattle and there is not a wide variation in the fat percentage, +the fat basis is usually found to be the most satisfactory way to pay +for the milk. + ++327. Laws governing the production and sale of milk.+--Many states have +laws regulating the sanitary conditions under which the milk may be +produced. These laws relate principally to the condition of the stables, +the health of the cow, the food given the cow, and the care of the milk. +The following law[137] of Wisconsin is a good example: + + "Adulterated milk, what constitutes. Section 4607a. In all + prosecutions under the preceding section, or any other + section of these statutes, or laws amendatory thereof or + supplementary thereto, relating to the sale of adulterated + milk or adulterated cream, the term adulterated milk shall + mean: milk containing less than three per centum of milk + fat, or milk containing less than eight and one-half per + centum of milk solids not fat, or milk drawn from cows + within eight days before or four days after parturition, + or milk from which any part of the cream has been + removed, or milk which has been diluted with water or any + other fluid, or milk to which has been added or into which + has been introduced any coloring matter or chemical or + preservative or deleterious or filthy substance or any + foreign substance whatsoever, or milk drawn from cows kept + in a filthy or unhealthy condition, or milk drawn from any + sick or diseased cow or cow having ulcers or other running + sores, or milk drawn from cows fed unwholesome food, or + milk in any stage of putrefaction, or milk contaminated by + being kept in stables containing cattle or other animals. + The term adulterated cream shall mean cream containing + less than eighteen per centum of milk fat, or cream taken + from milk drawn from cows within eight days before or four + days after parturition, or cream from milk to which has + been added or introduced any coloring matter or chemical + or preservative or deleterious or filthy substance or any + foreign substance whatsoever, or cream from milk drawn + from cows kept in a filthy or unhealthy condition, or + cream from milk drawn from any sick or diseased cow or cow + having ulcers or other running sores, or cream from milk + drawn from cows fed unwholesome food, or cream + contaminated by being kept in stables containing cattle or + other animals, or cream to which has been added or into + which has been introduced any coloring matter or chemical + or preservative or deleterious or filthy substance or any + foreign substance whatsoever, or cream in any stage of + putrefaction, provided, that nothing in this act shall be + construed to prohibit the sale of pasteurized milk or + cream to which viscogen or sucrate of lime has been added + solely for the purpose of restoring the viscosity, if the + same be distinctly labeled in such manner as to advise the + purchaser of its true character; and providing that + nothing in this act shall be construed as prohibiting the + sale of milk commonly known as 'skimmed milk,' when the + same is sold as and for 'skimmed milk.' Milk drawn from + cows within eight days before or four days after + parturition, or milk to which has been added or into which + has been introduced any coloring matter or chemical or + preservative or deleterious or filthy substance, or milk + drawn from cows kept in a filthy or unclean condition, or + milk drawn from any sick or diseased cow or cow having + ulcers or other running sores, or milk drawn from cows + fed unwholesome food, or milk contaminated by being kept + in stables containing cattle or other animals and cream + from any such milk, or cream in any stage of putrefaction + are hereby declared to be unclean and unsanitary milk or + unclean and unsanitary cream, as the case may be." + +Most states have laws which determine the legal standard of milk. Any +one selling milk which does not meet this standard is liable to be +fined. The laws of most states prohibit the taking of anything from the +milk or the adding of anything to it. This prohibits the skimming and +watering. Skimmed-milk must be sold as such. + ++328. Marketing of cheese.+--There are many different methods[138] of +selling cheese. Each is adapted to certain conditions and each has its +advantages and disadvantages. In cheese sections, the customary method +of selling is on the board of trade, which is the meeting of the +cheese-buyers and factory salesmen. They meet at a given place at a +certain day and hour each week. Every board has its officers. There are +different ways in which a board of trade may be operated. In some cases +there is a large blackboard divided into columns. In the first column, +the salesman writes the name of the factory and the number and kind of +cheese offered for sale. At the top of the other columns are the names +of the different cheese-buyers. The president usually opens the sale at +a stated time and asks that all cheese be placed on the blackboard. When +this is done he states that they are ready to receive bids on the +cheese. The buyers then write the price a pound they wish to pay +opposite each lot of cheese and in the column headed by their names. +After all the bids have been received and placed on the board, the +presiding officer states that a certain length of time, usually fifteen +minutes, will be given the salesman to withdraw his cheese if he does +not think a high enough price has been offered; this is indicated by the +salesman stepping to the blackboard and erasing the factory name and +number of boxes. At the close of the stated time, the presiding officer +declares the cheese offered on the board sold to the highest bidder. The +purchaser then gives the salesman directions for shipping. + +Sometimes a board of trade has a committee of one member elected by the +factory salesmen and one elected by the cheese-buyers. These two members +elect a third and these three constitute the price committee. This +committee meets each week and determines what the price shall be. This +is known as the ruling. The factory salesmen and cheese-buyers then try +to make private sales. By this method no one, except the persons +concerned, knows exactly what price is paid for the cheese. Usually, a +price above the ruling is paid. + +At Quebec, Canada, there is a cheese-selling organization with +government assistance. On paying a certain fee, any cheese factory may +join. All the factories belonging to the organization ship their cheese +to a central cold storage where the cheeses are examined and graded by a +government inspector. A cheese from each vat is tried. These cheeses are +separated into white and colored lots, then graded according to quality. +When the total number of cheeses in each lot is known, the lots are sold +at auction. The purchaser must accept the cheese as graded. The better +grades of cheese bring about the same price as on the market, but the +advantage lies in the selling of the lower grades. Ordinarily, the +purchaser takes advantage of the salesman when the cheeses are +undergrade. The success of this plan depends on the accuracy of the +person grading the cheese. This method seems to be growing in +popularity, because the cheese-buyer can purchase large amounts of +cheese at one time and be sure of the quality. A small fee, about +one-twelfth of a cent a pound, is charged for handling the cheese. +Similar organizations are in operation in Wisconsin. The boards of trade +and selling organizations deal almost entirely in Cheddar cheese. + ++329. Mercantile exchanges.+--In the larger cities are exchanges where +cheese is bought and sold by jobbers. This cheese is mostly Cheddar. The +prices paid these jobbers tend to fix the daily price of cheese. These +prices are published daily, for example, in New York Price Current. Some +factories ship their cheese directly to these jobbers. The following are +the cheese rules of the New York Mercantile Exchange adopted May 4, +1915: + + CHEESE RULES OF THE NEW YORK MERCANTILE EXCHANGE + + Rule 1. At the first regular meeting of the Executive + Committee in each year, the President shall appoint, + subject to the approval of the Executive Committee, a + Cheese Committee to consist of seven members of the + Exchange, who are known as members of the cheese trade, to + hold office until their successors are appointed. It shall + be the duty of the Cheese Committee to formulate such + rules and regulations as may be necessary for the + government of transactions between members of the + Exchange, and to revise the same as circumstances may + require. Such rules and revisions shall be subject to the + approval of the Executive Committee. + + Rule 2. All transactions in cheese between members of the + Exchange shall be governed by the following rules, but + nothing therein shall be construed as interfering, in any + way, with the rights of members to make such special + contracts or conditions as they may desire. + + Rule 3. If a sale is made from dock, or platform, or to + arrive, the buyer shall assume the same relations toward + the transportation line by which the cheese arrives, as + the seller previously held as regards its removal from the + place of delivery within the time granted by such lines + for that purpose. Transactions between members of this + Exchange shall be governed as follows: Any member + negotiating for any lot of cheese belonging to another + member, the price having been agreed upon, shall examine + such lot of cheese within twenty-four (24) hours after + such negotiation takes place. Failure to examine within + said time releases the seller from any obligations to make + delivery thereafter, if he so wishes. + + Rule 4. In the absence of special agreement, all cheese + purchased "in store" shall be understood as being ready + and designed for immediate delivery, but the buyer shall + have twenty-four hours in which to have the cheese + inspected, and weight tested, and shall not be liable for + the storage and insurance, if removed within two days. + + Rule 5. When cheese are sold to arrive, or from depot or + dock, the cheese must be accepted or rejected within six + business hours after notice of actual arrival to buyer. + Business hours shall be understood to be from 10 A.M. to 4 + P.M. If buyer rejects the same, he shall state the reasons + for rejection. Should the rejection be considered unfair, + the seller shall at once notify the buyer that he declines + to accept such rejection; and he may call for a Committee, + which shall be composed of three members of the cheese + trade; the seller choosing one, the buyer one, and the + third selected from the cheese trade by these two, or, + they failing to agree, the third shall be appointed by the + Chairman of the Committee on Cheese. The Examining + Committee shall at once inspect the lot of cheese in + dispute, sampling not less than five (5) per cent of each + mark or factory, and they shall immediately give their + decision in writing to both parties. Either party failing + to abide by the decision of the Committee may be summoned + by the other party before the Complaint Committee under + Section 24 of the By-laws. The fees for each examination + shall be six ($6) dollars, to be paid by the party + adjudged to be in fault. + + Rule 6. The weight of all cheese shall be tested by a + regularly appointed official weigher, and his certificates + shall accompany the document conveying the title of the + property. Said official weigher to be appointed by the + Committee on Cheese, subject to the approval of the + Executive Committee. + + Rule 7. The weigher's fee shall be twenty-five (25) cents + per factory except where the owner requires more than ten + (10) boxes be tested in which case the fee shall be fifty + (50) cents, which shall be paid by the seller. + + Rule 8. Unless otherwise agreed upon in testing the weight + of cheese, not less than five (5) boxes or more than ten + (10) per cent of the whole lot shall be a test, and said + test shall be considered good for three (3) business days, + including day test is made. + + Rule 9. In testing weights, all over and short weights + shall be taken into the average on each particular + factory. Single Daisies shall be tested on half pounds, + Double Daisies and all other sizes on even pounds. + + Rule 10. Where a lot of cheese is found to test irregular + in weights, either the buyer or seller may require the + entire lot to be reweighed. The charge for same shall be + three (3) cents per box. + + Rule 11. Boxes of cheese which may be found largely at + variance from original weights shall not enter into the + average, but their weight shall be separately ascertained + and certified to by the weigher. + + Rule 12. Where sales are made, and the buyer finds damaged + or sour cheese in excess of fifteen (15) per cent it shall + be optional with him to refuse or receive the remainder of + the lot purchased. But, in the event of his accepting the + remainder of the lot, the sour or damaged cheese shall + revert to the seller. + + Rule 13. The Committee on Cheese shall appoint subject to + the approval of the Executive Committee, a Cheese + Inspector and also a Deputy Inspector, whose duties shall + be, when called upon by members of the Exchange, to + inspect the quality and condition of such lots of cheese + as may be required and to render a certificate of such + inspection. Where the cheese in the lots are reasonably + uniform in quality, the examination of 10 per cent of the + lot shall be considered sufficient, but this shall not + prevent the Inspector examining a larger percentage of the + lot, when he deems it necessary. The fee for inspection + shall be fifty (50) cents for lots consisting of fifty + (50) boxes or less. Lots exceeding fifty (50) boxes shall + be one cent per box, which shall be collected from the + member ordering the inspection. + + Rule 14. The Cheese Inspector's certificate shall be made + to read as follows: + + + NEW YORK MERCANTILE EXCHANGE + + _Cheese Inspector's Certificate_ + + Inspection No.__________ + + This is to certify that I have this day inspected for M___________ + the following cheese, now located at_____________________ + Factory and identification marks_________________________ + Quantity in lot__________________________________________boxes + Quantity inspected_______________________________________boxes + and find as follows: + Flavor_______________________________________________________________ + Body and Texture_____________________________________________________ + Color________________________________________________________________ + Condition____________________________________________________________ + Boxes________________________________________________________________ + Grade________________________________________________________________ + Inspection charges________________ + + _____________________________________Inspector_ + + The certificate to have a blank margin of three inches at + the bottom, for the purpose of inserting specifications of + Institutions, also for cheese sold under the Call, so that + the Inspector may certify that cheese inspected fill the + requirements as specified and the Inspector shall brand + one impression on both boxes and cheese. + + NEW YORK MERCANTILE EXCHANGE + + OFFICIAL INSPECTION + + Number_______________ Date___________________________ + + ____________________________Inspector_ + + Rule 16. The Weigher's Certificate shall be made to read + as follows: + + This is to certify that the following is the actual test of ______ + boxes, out of shipment of ______ boxes + + Factory Mark___________________________________________ + + Marked Weights_________________________________________ + + Actual Weights_________________________________________ + + Loss___________________________________________________ + + Average loss_______________lbs. on________________boxes + + New York_____________________________19______ + + ______________________ _Weigher_ + + and the Cheese Rules numbered 6 to 11 inclusive be printed + on the back thereof. + + Rule 17. Members offering cheese for sale under the Call + shall describe each lot, as to number of boxes, color, + texture (open or close made), body, flavor, size, and how + boxed, section where made, whether whole milks or skims + and the average weight of each lot. Cheese sold under the + Call to be accepted, or rejected, as a good delivery, or + otherwise, based on the description given at the sale. + + Rule 18. When cheese are sold under the Call, unless + otherwise stated, they shall be ready for immediate + shipment. + + Rule 19. All cheese offered under the Call, with + Inspector's Certificate attached, shall be accompanied by + such Certificate and be accepted by the buyer + unconditionally, provided the cheese are branded according + to Rule 13. + + Rule 20. When cheese are offered under the Call, without + Inspector's Certificate, should the buyer not consider the + cheese a good delivery, according to description by + seller, he may notify the seller, and if the seller is + unwilling to make another delivery, the buyer may call + upon the Inspector to decide whether or not the delivery + shall stand. If the Inspector decides it is a good + delivery, the buyer shall accept the cheese. If the + Inspector decides it is not a good delivery, then the + seller shall have twenty-four (24) hours in which to make + a good delivery. But if the seller, after twenty-four (24) + hours, fails to make a good delivery, then the buyer shall + notify the Superintendent of the Exchange, who shall + collect a penalty of three per cent of the amount of the + transaction, the Exchange retaining twenty-five per cent + of this sum, and seventy-five per cent shall be paid to + the buyer. + + Rule 21. Spot sales under the Call shall be for spot cash + unless otherwise agreed. + + Rule 22. All failures in meeting contracts shall be + reported to the Superintendent of the Exchange, and + announced at next regular session of the Exchange. + ++330. Marketing perishable varieties.+--Soft cheeses, such as Cream, +Neufchâtel, Cottage, are usually sold to jobbers or directly to retail +stores. They have a very short commercial life, hence cannot be held +long before delivery to the consumer. From the jobber, cheese usually +goes to the wholesale grocer and then to the retail dealer and finally +the consumer. Most jobbers have cold storages so that they can hold +cheese without injury to quality. (See Fig. 74.) The kind of cheese +marketed in any locality depends on the tastes of the residents. For +example, the South usually desires a highly colored product, thinking +this color indicates more fat; in the Cheddar group New England demands +a soft pasty quick-curing cheese, thinking that softness is a sign of +more fat and richness; England wants a rather dry, well-cured, highly +flavored cheese. Canadian Cheddar cheese has been standardized as far +as possible to appeal to the English market. A long ripening period +keeps capital tied up through the further time required for delivery. +This has led to the sale of much of the cheese almost or entirely +unripe. So much of the product has reached the consumer without +characteristic varietal flavor that large numbers have acquired the +habit of purchasing and even preferring cheese only partly ripe. + +[Illustration: FIG. 74.--A cheese cold storage room.] + +The time during which cheese should be held at the factory depends on +the variety. Some are shipped as soon as made, including those cheeses +with sour-milk flavor only. Others have to be cured in the factory from +six to eight weeks. Cheeses in paper or tin-foil should be neatly +wrapped and carefully put in the boxes. The box of cheese should be +neat, clean and attractive. Cheeses not wrapped should have a firm rind +to hold them in shape. The boxes should be clean and the weight of +cheese neatly and plainly marked. In the case of Cheddar cheese, it may +be paraffined at the factory, but if not, this is usually done at the +cold storage of the jobber. The cheeses usually have some time to cure +or ripen while being handled by the various dealers. + ++331. Distribution of price.+--The final selling price of cheese is a +composite of all the changes that have gone before; or conversely, the +farmer, the maker, the carrier and the distributors (wholesale, jobbing +and retail dealers) must all be paid from the final price of the +product. A study of this problem in Wisconsin has been made by Hibbard, +and Hobson.[139] The general facts as determined for Wisconsin have +fairly wide application to the manufacture and sale of cheese. + +Economic success in handling cheese is dependent on proper provision for +the sale of the product. Where the output is small, a personal market +can be created and maintained. This eliminates all profits intervening +between the maker and the retailer. If the business reaches a volume +beyond the possibilities of direct sale to the retailer, some selling +organization is necessary. Where the number of producers is great and +the selling machinery is well organized, the cheese factory becomes a +producer of a commodity which is turned over to existing selling +agencies. This condition is well established for Cheddar, Swiss, Brick +and Limburger cheese. The soft cheeses other than Limburger have thus +far been handled principally by large companies, each of which has +developed an expensive selling organization. A study of the map (Fig. +65) shows how the cheese industry is localized in particular sections of +certain states. Individual factories have maintained themselves in +widely separated places. This localization is due to the geographical +conditions which make certain regions specially adapted to dairying, +modified by the proximity to markets for milk as milk. There are many +regions, however, well adapted to cheese production in which there is no +development of the industry at present. New developments are now taking +place in the mountain areas of the South, notably North Carolina and +adjacent states, and in several centers of the western mountain states. +Many other areas should develop the making of cheese in some form. + +The actual costs of making and selling cheese were found by the +Wisconsin investigators to vary approximately as follows: (1) cost of +making, 1.2 to 1.75 cents; (2) storage, 1/8 cent a pound a month, or +3/8 to ½ cent for the season; (3) transportation to distant points, +$.20 to $2.50 for 100 pounds according to distance; (4) the local +dealer, about 1 cent a pound; (5) the wholesale dealer, 2 cents; (6) the +jobber or broker who occasionally intervenes, about 1/8 to ¼ cent; and +the retailer, 5.5 to 9 cents. The entire cost of selling at the time +this investigation was made represented about one-half of the retail +price of the cheese. The producer of milk received the other half of +that price. + ++332. Standards.+--Legal standards in the United States are thus far +largely based on the specifications of American Cheddar. In so far as +they are applied to other products, they operate merely to prevent or +reduce the use of skimmed-milk. The analyses and limits proposed in the +discussion of varieties or groups in this book represent the range of +composition actually known to be associated with cheeses of typical +quality. Efforts are now being made to establish definitions and +standards of composition which will limit the use of cheese names to +products conforming to the requirements for such varieties. Practically +the only federal requirement thus far enforced in the United States is +that 50 per cent of the water-free substance of the cheese must be +milk-fat. Various states have local requirements but most of them +include the federal rule as to fat. New York and Wisconsin now restrict +the amount of water in Cheddar cheese to 40 per cent. Most states have +laws regulating the manufacture and sale of skimmed-milk cheese. + ++333. Laws relating to cheese marketing.+--A cheese of foreign origin if +made in this country must be branded to show that it is not imported. +For example, Camembert made in America is labeled Domestic Camembert. +Some manufacturers call it Camembert type of cheese. The same applies to +other varieties of foreign cheese. If a variety is made under a +trade-marked name, this prevents any other manufacturer from using that +name. For example, a concern may make "Philadelphia" cream cheese; other +concerns may make cream cheese, but they must call it by some other +name. + +The committee on definitions and standards for the Association of +Official Agricultural Chemists has now undertaken to define the proper +use of type names. This is intended to determine the proper limits of +composition of cheeses in each variety and such essentials of physical +identification as will insure the proper use of these names. + +Certain states have laws which relate to the branding of the cheese to +denote quality. If the cheese is made from whole milk, a brand may be +applied to show this fact. This is usually called the state brand. If +made from skimmed-milk, the cheese must be branded to show this. The +following[140] illustrate the laws relating to the state brand and +skimmed-milk cheese: + + Sec. 48. Manufacturer's brand of cheese. "Every + manufacturer of whole-milk cheese may put a brand or label + upon such cheese indicating 'whole-milk cheese' and the + date of the month and year when made; and no person shall + use such a brand or label upon any cheese made from milk + from which any of the cream has been taken. The + Commissioner of Agriculture shall procure and issue to the + cheese manufacturers of the state, on proper application + therefor, and under such regulations as to the custody and + use thereof as he may prescribe, a uniform stencil brand + or labels bearing a suitable device or motto, and the + words 'New York state whole-milk cheese.' Every such + brand or label shall be used upon the outside of the + cheese and shall bear a different number for each separate + factory. The commissioner shall keep a book, in which + shall be registered the name, location and number of each + manufactory using the brands or labels, and the name or + names of the persons at each manufactory authorized to use + the same. No such brand or labels shall be used upon any + other than whole-milk cheese or packages containing the + same. (As amended by chapter 207 of the Laws of 1910.) + + Sec. 49. Use of false brand prohibited; branding of + skim-milk cheese regulated. No person shall offer, sell or + expose for sale, in any package, butter or cheese which is + falsely branded or labeled. No person shall sell, offer or + expose for sale cheese commonly known as Cheddar cheese + made from skimmed or partially skimmed milk unless the + same is branded to show that it is skim-milk cheese. All + such cheese so sold, offered or exposed for sale shall be + branded with the words 'skim-milk cheese,' or if such + cheese contains thirteen per centum of milk fat or over, + it may be branded 'medium skim-milk cheese,' or if it + contains eighteen per centum of milk fat or over, it may + be branded 'special skim-milk cheese.' Such branding shall + be upon the sides of both the cheese and the container. + The branding herein provided shall be in block letters at + least one-half an inch square. (As amended by chapter 456 + of the Laws of 1913.)" + +Filled cheeses are those from which the milk-fat has been removed and +other animal fats substituted. The laws of some states prohibit the +manufacture of this product. The federal law relating to filled cheese +permits its manufacture under license, taxes and government inspection. + +The various states have laws regulating the length of time that the +cheese may be held in cold storage. + +Another important law in some states requires the cheese-maker to have a +license. He must pass an examination to show that the principles and +practices of cheese-making are understood. + + + + +CHAPTER XXI + +_CHEESE IN THE HOUSEHOLD_ + + +Although cheese in some form is familiar to every household, it has been +widely regarded in America as an accessory, almost a condimental +substance rather than as a staple food worthy of comparison with meat or +eggs. Statistics of the annual production, importation and exportation +of cheese indicate that the total consumption in the United States is +about 300,000,000 pounds--perhaps three pounds per capita. The household +manufacture and consumption of cottage cheese would add a small amount +to these figures. + +Cheese is used as a staple source of food values among many peoples of +Europe. Such use of cheese increases rather than decreases with the +density of the population. France with a small fraction of the land area +and one-half the population of the United States produces and consumes +about the same amount of cheese. In America, cheese-making has been +developed with the advance of settlement into unoccupied territories +only to be dropped as increasing population produced greater demands for +milk in other forms. If cheese had been accepted as a regular part of +the food supply in such communities, some form of cheese-making would +have survived the economic changes. + ++334. Food value of cheese.+--A consideration of the nutritive +components of cheese shows it to be a rich source of fat, protein or +both, according to the variety under examination. It is low in +carbohydrates, and aside from salt (sodium chloride) compares favorably +with other substances in mineral constituents. The following discussion +with an amplified table is taken from Langworthy and Hunt:[141] + +"In order, however, that the question of the use of cheese in the diet +may be adequately discussed, knowledge of its composition in comparison +with other foods is desirable, and there is an abundance of data +available on this subject, since the composition of cheese and other +foods has often been investigated at the Department of Agriculture, in +experiment station laboratories and in many other places where nutrition +problems are studied. An extended summary of analyses of cheese of +different sorts is included in an earlier publication of this +department.[142] + +"Data regarding the composition of cheese and a few other common foods +are summarized in the following table. + +"It will be seen from the table (Table XXX) that cheese has nearly twice +as much protein, weight for weight, as beef of average composition as +purchased and that its fuel value is more than twice as great. It +contains over 25 per cent more protein than the same weight of +porterhouse steak as purchased, and nearly twice as much fat. + +"As shown by the figures in the following table, cheese contains 3.8 per +cent ash. Of this a considerable part may be salt added in +cheese-making. Like the milk from which it is made, cheese ash is +characterized chiefly by the presence of calcium (lime), magnesium, +phosphorus and iron, the average values as given in earlier bulletins of +the department[145] being 1.24 per cent calcium oxid, 0.049 per cent +magnesium oxid, 1.49 per cent phosphorus pentoxid, and 0.0015 per cent +iron." + + TABLE XXX + + AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF CHEESE AND SOME OTHER COMMON FOODS AS PURCHASED, + AND ALSO ON THE BASIS OF EDIBLE PORTION + + ==================================================================== + | | | | | | + | | | | | | + FOOD MATERIALS | REFUSE | WATER | PROTEIN | FAT | CARBO | + | | | | | HYDRATES | + | | | | | | + ----------------------+--------+-------+---------+------+----------+ + | % | % | % | % | % | + Cheese, American | | | | | | + Cheddar[144] | -- | 34.2 | 25.2 | 33.7 | 2.4 | + | | | | | | + Beef of average | | | | | | + composition | | | | | | + as purchased | 18.6 | 50.5 | 15.2 | 15.5 | -- | + Edible portion | -- | 62.2 | 18.8 | 18.8 | -- | + | | | | | | + Porterhouse steak | | | | | | + as purchased | 12.7 | 52.4 | 19.1 | 17.9 | -- | + Edible portion | -- | 60.0 | 21.9 | 20.4 | -- | + | | | | | | + Loin steak, broiled, | | | | | | + edible portion | -- | 54.8 | 23.5 | 20.4 | -- | + | | | | | | + Dried beef | -- | 53.7 | 26.4 | 6.9 | -- | + | | | | | | + Eggs as purchased | 11.2 | 65.5 | 13.1 | 9.3 | -- | + Edible portion | -- | 73.7 | 13.4 | 10.5 | -- | + | | | | | | + Milk | -- | 87.0 | 3.3 | 4.0 | 5.0 | + | | | | | | + Bread | -- | 35.3 | 9.2 | 1.3 | 53.1 | + | | | | | | + Potatoes as purchased | 20.0 | 62.6 | 1.8 | .1 | 14.7 | + Edible portion | -- | 78.3 | 2.2 | .1 | 18.4 | + | | | | | | + Apples as purchased | 25.0 | 63.6 | .3 | .3 | 10.8 | + Edible portion | -- | 84.6 | .4 | .5 | 14.2 | + ==================================================================== + + + ===================================================== + | | | FUEL + | | FUEL | VALUE + FOOD MATERIALS | ASH | VALUE | COMPARED + | | PER | TO + | | POUND | CHEESE[143] + ----------------------+------+----------+------------ + | % | Calories | + Cheese, American | | | + Cheddar[144] | 3.8 | 1,950 | 1.00 + | | | + Beef of average | | | + composition | | | + as purchased | .7 | 935 | 0.48 + Edible portion | .9 | 1,145 | 0.58 + | | | + Porterhouse steak | | | + as purchased | .8 | 1,110 | 0.57 + Edible portion | 1.0 | 1,270 | 0.65 + | | | + Loin steak, broiled, | | | + edible portion | 1.2 | 1,300 | 0.66 + | | | + Dried beef | 8.9 | 790 | 0.45 + | | | + Eggs as purchased | .9 | 635 | 0.32 + Edible portion | 1.0 | 720 | 0.37 + | | | + Milk | .7 | 310 | 0.16 + | | | + Bread | 1.1 | 1,215 | 0.62 + | | | + Potatoes as purchased | .8 | 295 | 0.15 + Edible portion | 1.0 | 385 | 0.20 + | | | + Apples as purchased | .3 | 190 | 0.10 + Edible portion | .3 | 290 | 0.15 + ===================================================== + + +It is clear from the calculations shown in the last column, that Cheddar +cheese takes first rank among the foods compared as to fuel value. The +estimate of food values in terms of calories may not completely express +the value of that food to a particular individual. It is generally +conceded that one great function of food is the production of energy and +this function is probably more closely determined by the number of +calories produced than in any other known way. Such calculation has +become an essential factor in the preparation of dietaries. The +calculation here given necessarily applies only to Cheddar cheese. By +easy use of the last column, the caloric value of this cheese can be +compared with that of any competing food and the relative economy +determined, whatever the price asked. Another recent calculation with +reference[146] to the same cheese follows: + +"One pound of American Cheddar cheese contains as much protein as-- + + 1.57 pounds of sirloin steak. + 1.35 pounds of round steak. + 1.89 pounds of fowl. + 1.79 pounds of smoked ham. + 1.81 pounds of fresh ham. + +"In order to judge the value of foods fairly not only the protein but +the energy also must be compared. To supply energy cheese is one of the +best of food products. On the basis of energy supplied, 1 pound of +cheese equals-- + + 1.98 pounds of sirloin steak. + 2.61 pounds of round steak. + 2.52 pounds of fowl. + 1.17 pounds of smoked ham. + 1.29 pounds of fresh ham." + +All these discussions have applied to whole-milk Cheddar cheese. With +minor reductions, much the same figures will hold for Swiss, Limburger, +Brick, Munster, Edam. + +On the other hand, very little has been published until recently on the +skimmed-milk cheeses. The food value lost in skimmed-milk has at times +been enormous. Many households purchase milk by the bottle, use the +top-milk as cream and lose a part of the remainder. Similarly creameries +have wasted tons of skimmed-milk. The recovery of the protein of this +milk for human food is both good economy and an important addition to +the dietary. The United States Department of Agriculture has recently +published the following: "Cottage cheese is richer in protein than most +meats and is very much cheaper. Every pound contains more than three +ounces of protein, the source of nitrogen for body building. It is a +valuable source of energy also, though not so high as foods with more +fat. It follows that its value in this respect can be greatly increased +by serving it with cream, as is so commonly done." + +It is an open question whether the decline of cheese-making in America +is not due to our failure to develop the use of skim and part-skim +cheeses. The whole-milk cheeses are very rich in fat. Use of such cheese +in quantity in connection with ordinary foods quickly leads to the +ingestion of too much fat. The skimmed-milk cheeses are primarily +protein food and as such substitutes for lean meat. + +"The following table shows that cottage cheese is much cheaper than +most meats in furnishing protein for the diet. + +"For supplying protein, one pound of cottage cheese equals: + + 1.27 pounds sirloin steak. + 1.09 pounds round steak. + 1.37 pounds chuck rib beef. + 1.52 pounds fowl. + 1.46 pounds fresh ham. + 1.44 pounds smoked ham. + 1.58 pounds loin pork chop. + 1.31 pounds hind leg of lamb. + 1.37 pounds breast of veal. + +"In addition to protein, energy for performing body work must be +furnished by food. As a source of energy also, cottage cheese is cheaper +than most meats at present prices. The following table shows the +comparison when energy is considered. + +"On the basis of energy supplied, one pound of cottage cheese equals: + + 8-1/3 ounces sirloin steak. + 11¼ ounces round steak. + 11¼ ounces chuck rib beef. + 10¾ ounces fowl. + 5½ ounces fresh ham. + 5 ounces smoked ham. + 6 ounces loin pork chop. + 7-1/3 ounces hind leg of lamb. + 12¾ ounces breast of veal." + ++335. Digestibility of cheese.+--Although it has been a staple food with +many races for uncounted years, there is a widespread belief that cheese +is suitable for use chiefly in small quantities as an accessory to the +diet, and that in large quantities it is likely to produce physiological +disturbances. The question of digestibility was made the subject of a +special investigation by the United States Department of +Agriculture.[147] Calorimeter experiments[148] were made to test the +digestibility of several varieties of cheese and some of these varieties +at various stages of ripening. All forms of cheese were found to be +digested as completely as most of the usual forms of food. Approximately +90 per cent of the nitrogenous portion (casein) was retained in the +body. Unripe cheese in these experiments was apparently digested as +completely as the ripened forms. These experiments make clear the +possibility of making cheese a more prominent article in the regular +dietary than is usual in America. They especially point to the +desirability of the use of the skim and partially skim cheeses, which as +cheap sources of protein when properly combined with other foods, may be +made to replace meats as a less costly source of proteins. Cheese is +then to be classed with meat and eggs, not with condiments. An ounce of +Cheddar[149] cheese roughly is equivalent to one egg, to a glass of +milk, or to two ounces of meat. It is properly to be combined with +bread, potatoes and other starchy foods, lacking in the fat in which the +cheese is rich. These experiments included Roquefort, fresh-made and +ripe Cheddar, Swiss, Camembert and Cottage cheese. + ++336. Cheese flavor.+--"Cheese owes its flavor to the fatty acids and +their compounds which it contains and to ammonia-like bodies formed +during ripening from the cleavage of the casein, to salt added to the +curd, and in some varieties, like Roquefort, to bodies elaborated by +molds which develop in the cheese. In the highly flavored sorts some of +the fatty acids of a very marked odor are present in abundance, as are +also the ammonia-like bodies. Indeed, in eating such cheese as Camembert +a trace of ammonia flavor may often be plainly detected. + +"The cleavage of the nitrogenous material of the cheese and other +changes are brought about chiefly by the action of enzymes originally +present in cheese or by micro-organisms and are to be regarded as +fermentative and not as putrefactive changes. + +"The liking for highly flavored cheeses of strong odor is a matter of +individual preference, but from the chemist's standpoint there is no +reason for the statement often made that such cheeses have undergone +putrefactive decomposition." + ++337. Relation to health.+--In connection with the use of cheese as a +food, its relation to the health of the consumer must be considered. The +presence of the bacillus of tuberculosis in milk has led to careful +study of its possible presence in cheese. When American Cheddar cheese +was specially inoculated for this purpose, the living organism was +recovered from it after about five months by Schroeder of the United +States Department of Agriculture. This danger is much greater from +cheeses, such as Cream and Neufchâtel, which are eaten when +comparatively freshly made. The disease has been produced in guinea pigs +from such cheese often enough to emphasize the desirability of +developing methods of making every variety possible from thoroughly +pasteurized milk. This would remove the danger of tuberculosis and with +it eliminate the possibility of transmitting other diseases. + ++338. Cheese poisoning+[150] cases occasionally occur. These take two +main forms: (1) an enteritis (caused by _Bacillus enteritidis_) or some +other member of that series which while painful and accompanied by +purging is rarely fatal; (2) acute toxæmias which, although rare, +usually result in death. From the latter type a variety of _Bacillus +botulinus_, an organism usually associated with meat poisoning, was +isolated by the New York State Department of Health. The occurrence of +such cases is frequent enough to emphasize the desirability of using +every precaution to reduce the number of bacteria that are allowed to +enter milk when drawn and to prevent the development of those which +actually gain access to it. When possible, pasteurization should be +introduced. + ++339. Proper place in the diet.+--It has already been noted that cheese +is used "in general in two ways--in small quantities chiefly for its +flavor and in large quantities for its nutritive value as well as for +its flavor. Some varieties of cheese are used chiefly for the first +purpose, others chiefly for the second. Those which are used chiefly for +their flavor, many of which are high priced, contribute little to the +food value of the diet, because of the small quantity used at a time. +They have an important part to play, however, in making the diet +attractive and palatable. The intelligent housekeeper thinks of them not +as necessities, but as lying within what has been called 'the region of +choice.' Having first satisfied herself that her family is receiving +sufficient nourishment, she then, according to her means and ideas of an +attractive diet, chooses among these foods and others which are to be +considered luxuries. + +"Those cheeses, on the other hand, which are suitable to be eaten in +large quantities and which are comparatively low priced are important +not only from the point of view of flavor, but also from the point of +view of their nutritive value." Among such cheeses are American Cheddar, +Swiss, Brick, Limburger and the lower priced forms of Neufchâtel. + +It is clear that in buying cheese, the housekeeper should know +definitely the dietary purpose of the purchase, and then choose the +variety of cheese best suited. To a very large degree the personal +tastes of the family determine the kinds of cheese which will be +tolerated when served uncooked. In some families, the strong flavors of +Roquefort or Limburger are not acceptable. However, there is a range of +choice in which much judgment can be used. Cheese to be served with +mild-flavored foods should as a rule be also mild-flavored. For most +sandwiches, for example, Cheddar or Swiss is usually very acceptable; +Brick or partly ripe Limburger still hard enough to slice cuts into thin +rectangular slices and is very attractive to many consumers because it +has somewhat more flavor without being too strong. With proper handling +it is good policy to buy the cheapest of these forms for this purpose. +The selection of dessert cheeses offers the widest range. If served with +mild-flavored crackers, very many persons prefer Cream, Neufchâtel or +mild Cheddar; a little stronger taste calls for club cheese, or +Camembert. If tobacco smoke is present, Roquefort, Gorgonzola, Limburger +and related types will satisfy many consumers better than mild cheeses. +The intensity of flavor to be sought in the cheese should thus be +adjusted to the food served with it. A person with an aversion to +strong-smelling or strong-tasting cheese has been frequently known to +approve over-ripe Camembert, or Limburger when served without label but +spread upon a ginger cracker. + +For cooking purposes, some recipes prescribe cheese of special quality. +In large markets, old Cheddar ripened carefully for two or three years +is commonly purchasable for Welsh rabbit. (Ask for "rabbit" cheese.) An +expert housekeeper familiar also with cheese ripening has demonstrated +that almost any cheese, whether ripened to its best, part ripe or +over-ripe, can be used in many cooking formulas without injuring the +acceptability of the product to most consumers. In canning Camembert, it +has been shown[151] that over-ripe cheese so strong as to be +objectionable, when sterilized loses the objectionable flavor of the raw +product. No cheese should be wasted; any not used when served the first +time should be served at a closely following meal or used in cooking. No +matter what the variety, it will add to the food value and palatability +of some one of the common dishes served within forty-eight hours. + ++340. Care of cheese.+[152]--"One of the best ways of keeping cheese +which has been cut is to wrap it in a slightly damp cloth and then in +paper, and to keep it in a cool place. To dampen the cloth, sprinkle it +and then wring it. It should seem hardly damp to the touch. Paraffin +paper may be used in place of the cloth. When cheese is put in a covered +dish, the air should never be wholly excluded, for if this is done, it +molds more readily. + +"In some markets it is possible to buy small whole cheeses. These may be +satisfactorily kept by cutting a slice from the top, to serve as a +cover, and removing the cheese as needed with a knife, a strong spoon, +or a cheese scoop. It is possible to buy at the hardware stores knobs +which inserted in the layer cut from the top make it easy to handle. +The cheese with the cover on should be kept wrapped in a cloth." + ++341. Food value and price.+--There is little relation between the price +and food value of standard varieties of cheese. The higher-priced +varieties claim and hold their place because they possess particular +flavors. These may or may not accompany high comparative food values. +Even among low-priced varieties discrimination into grades is largely +based on flavor. Of the low-priced cheeses, those made from skimmed-milk +commonly command the lowest prices. As noted above, a choice may be +based either on purpose or on price. If the purpose is fixed, the price +should not change the selection. If, however, a particular quality of +cheese is purchasable at a low price, some satisfactory form of +utilizing it is clearly available to the housekeeper. Some standard +recipes are given in the following paragraphs. + ++342. Methods and recipes for using cheese.+--(1) As a meat substitute. +Meat is wholesome and relished by most persons, yet it is not essential +to a well-balanced meal and there are many housekeepers who for one +reason or another are interested in lessening the amount of meat or to +substitute other foods. The problem with the average family is +undoubtedly more often the occasional substitution of other palatable +dishes for the sake of variety, for reasons of economy, or for some +other reason than the general replacement of meat dishes by other +things. + +Foods which are to be served in place of meat should be rich in protein +and fat and should also be savory. Cheese naturally suggests itself as a +substitute for meat, since it is rich in the same kinds of nutrients +that meat supplies, is a staple food with which every one is familiar +and is one which can be used in a great variety of ways. In +substituting cheese for meat, especial pains should be taken to serve +dishes which are relished by the members of the family. A number of +recipes[153] for dishes which contain cheese are given below. They are +preceded by several recipes for cheese sauces which, as will appear, are +called for in the preparation of some of the more substantial dishes. In +the first list of recipes, cheese means Cheddar. + + Cheese Sauce No. 1 + + 1 cupful of milk. + 2 tablespoonfuls of flour. + 1 ounce of cheese (¼ cupful of grated cheese). + Salt and pepper. + + Thicken the milk with the flour and just before serving + add the cheese, stirring until it is melted. + + This sauce is suitable to use in preparing creamed eggs, + or to pour over toast, making a dish corresponding to + ordinary milk toast, except for the presence of cheese. It + may be seasoned with a little curry powder and poured over + hard-boiled eggs. + + + Cheese Sauce No. 2 + + Same as cheese sauce No. 1, except that the cheese is + increased from 1 to 2 ounces. + + This sauce is suitable for using with macaroni or rice, or + for baking with crackers soaked in milk. + + + Cheese Sauce No. 3 + + Same as cheese sauce No. 1, except that two cupfuls of + grated cheese or 8 ounces are used. This may be used upon + toast as a substitute for Welsh rabbit. + + + Cheese Sauce No. 4 + + Same as cheese sauce No. 2, save that 2 tablespoonfuls of + melted butter are mixed with the flour before the latter + is put into the milk. This sauce is therefore very rich in + fat and has only a mild flavor of cheese. + + +Among the recipes for dishes which may be used like meat, the following +give products which, eaten in usual quantities, will provide much the +same kind and amount of nutritive material as the ordinary servings of +meat dishes used at dinner. In several cases there is a resemblance in +appearance and flavor to common meat dishes, which would doubtless be a +point in their favor with many families. + + +(2) For general cooking purposes: + + Cheese Fondue No. 1 + + 1-1/3 cupfuls of soft, stale bread crumbs. + + 6 ounces of cheese (1½ cupfuls of grated cheese or + 1-1/3 cupfuls of cheese grated fine or cut into small + pieces). + + 4 eggs. + + 1 cupful of hot water. + + ½ teaspoonful of salt. + +Mix the water, bread crumbs, salt and cheese; add the yolks +thoroughly beaten; into this mixture cut and fold the whites of +eggs beaten until stiff. Pour into a buttered baking dish and +cook 30 minutes in a moderate oven. Serve at once. + +The food value of this dish, made with the above quantities, +is almost exactly the same as that of a pound of beef of average +composition and a pound of potatoes combined. It contains +about 80 grams of proteids and has a fuel value of about 1300 +calories. + + + Cheese Fondue No. 2 + + 1-1/3 cupfuls of hot milk. + + 1-1/3 cupfuls of soft, stale bread crumbs. + + 1 tablespoonful of butter. + + 4 eggs. + + 1/3 of a pound of cheese (1-1/3 cupfuls of grated cheese + or 1 cupful of cheese cut into small pieces). + + ½ teaspoonful of salt. + + Prepare as in previous recipe. + +The protein value of this dish is equal to that of 1-1/8 pounds of +potato and beef, the fuel value, however, being much in excess of these. + +In making either of these fondues, rice or other cereals may be +substituted for bread crumbs. One-fourth cupful of rice measured before +cooking, or one cupful of cooked rice or other cereals, should be used. + + + Corn and Cheese Soufflé + + 1 tablespoonful of butter. + 1 tablespoonful of chopped green pepper. + ¼ cupful of flour. + 2 cupfuls of milk. + 1 cupful of chopped corn. + 1 cupful of grated cheese, + 3 eggs. + ½ teaspoonful of salt. + + Melt the butter and cook the pepper thoroughly in it. Make + a sauce out of the flour, milk and cheese; add the corn, + cheese, yolks and seasoning; cut and fold in the whites + beaten stiffly; turn into a buttered baking dish and bake + in a moderate oven 30 minutes. + + Made with skimmed-milk and without butter, this dish has a + food value slightly in excess of a pound of beef and a + pound of potatoes. + + + Cheese Soufflé + + 2 tablespoonfuls of butter. + 3 tablespoonfuls of flour. + ½ cupful of milk (scalded). + ½ teaspoonful of salt + A speck of cayenne. + ¼ cupful of grated cheese. + 3 eggs. + + Melt the butter; add the flour and, when well mixed, add + gradually the scalded milk. Then add salt, cayenne and + cheese. Remove from the fire and add the yolks of the + eggs, beaten until lemon colored. Cool the mixture and + fold into it the whites of the eggs, beaten until stiff. + Pour into a buttered baking dish and cook 20 minutes in a + slow oven. Serve at once. + + The proteid of this recipe is equal to that of half a + pound of beef; the fuel value is equal to that of + three-fourths of a pound. + + +Welsh Rabbit + + 1 tablespoonful of butter. + 1 teaspoonful of corn-starch. + ½ cupful of milk. + ½ pound of cheese, cut into small pieces. + ¼ teaspoonful each of salt and mustard. + A speck of cayenne pepper. + + Cook the corn-starch in the butter; then add the milk + gradually and cook two minutes; add the cheese and stir + until it is melted. Season and serve on crackers or bread + toasted on one side, the rabbit being poured over the + untoasted side. Food value is that of about three-fourths + of a pound of beef. + + + Macaroni and Cheese No. 1 + + 1 cupful of macaroni, broken into small pieces. + 2 quarts of boiling salted water. + 1 cupful of milk. + 2 tablespoonfuls of flour. + ¼ to ½ pound of cheese. + ½ teaspoonful of salt. + Speck of cayenne pepper. + + Cook the macaroni in the boiling salted water, drain in a + strainer, and pour cold water over it to prevent the + pieces from adhering to each other. Make a sauce out of + the flour, milk, and cheese. Put the sauce and macaroni in + alternate layers in a buttered baking dish, cover with + buttered crumbs, and heat in oven until crumbs are brown. + + + Macaroni and Cheese No. 2 + + A good way to prepare macaroni and cheese is to make a + rich cheese sauce and heat the macaroni in it. The mixture + is usually covered with buttered crumbs and browned in the + oven. The advantage of this way of preparing the dish, + however, is that it is unnecessary to have a hot oven, as + the sauce and macaroni may be reheated on the top of the + stove. + + +Baked Rice and Cheese No. 1 + + 1 cupful of uncooked rice and + 4 cupfuls of milk; + or, + 3 cupfuls of cooked rice and + 1 cupful of milk. + 2 tablespoonfuls of flour. + ½ pound of cheese. + ½ teaspoonful of salt. + + If uncooked rice is used, it should be cooked in 3 cupfuls + of milk. Make a sauce with one cupful of milk, add the + flour, cheese and salt. Into a buttered baking dish put + alternate layers of the cooked rice and the sauce. Cover + with buttered crumbs and bake until the crumbs are brown. + The proteids in this dish, made with rice cooked in milk, + are equal to those of nearly 1¾ pounds of average beef. + If skimmed-milk is used, the fuel value is equal to nearly + 3½ pounds of beef. Whole milk raises the fuel value + still higher. + + + Fried Bread with Cheese No. 1 + + 6 slices of bread. + 1 cupful of milk. + 2 ounces of cheese, or ½ cupful of grated cheese. + ½ teaspoonful of salt. + ½ teaspoonful of potassium bicarbonate. + Butter or other fat for frying. + + Scald the milk with the potassium bicarbonate; add the + grated cheese, and stir until it dissolves. Dip the bread + in this mixture and fry it in the butter. The potassium + bicarbonate helps to keep the cheese in solution. It is + desirable, however, to keep the milk hot while the bread + is being dipped. + + + Plain Cheese Salad + + Cut Edam or ordinary American cheese into thin pieces, + scatter them over lettuce leaves and serve with French + dressing. + + + Olive and Pimiento Sandwich or Salad Cheese + + Mash any of the soft cream cheeses and add chopped olives + and pimientos in equal parts. This mixture requires much + salt to make it palatable to most palates, the amount + depending chiefly on the quantity of pimiento used. The + mixture may be spread between thin slices of bread or it + may be made into a roll or molded, cut into slices and + served on lettuce leaves with French dressing. + + + Cheese and Tomato Salad + + Stuff cold tomatoes with cream cheese and serve on lettuce + leaves with French dressing. + + + Cheese and Pimiento Salad + + Stuff canned pimientos with cream cheese, cut into slices + and serve one or two slices to each person on lettuce + leaves with French dressing. + + (3) Ways to use cottage cheese. Cottage cheese alone is an + appetizing and nutritious dish. It may also be served with + sweet or sour cream, and some persons add a little sugar, + or chives, chopped onion or caraway seed. + + The following recipes[154] illustrate a number of ways in + which cottage cheese may be served: + + + Cottage Cheese with Preserves and Jellies + + Pour over cottage cheese any fruit preserves, such as + strawberries, figs or cherries. Serve with bread or + crackers. If preferred, cottage cheese balls may be served + separately and eaten with the preserves. A very attractive + dish may be made by dropping a bit of jelly into a nest of + the cottage cheese. + + + Cottage Cheese Salad + + Mix thoroughly one pound of cheese, one and one-half + tablespoonfuls of cream, one tablespoonful of chopped + parsley and salt to taste. First, fill a rectangular tin + mold with cold water to chill and wet the surface; line + the bottom with waxed paper, then pack in three layers of + the cheese, putting two or three parallel strips of + pimiento, fresh or canned, between the layers. Cover with + waxed paper and set in a cool place until ready to serve; + then run a knife around the sides and invert the mold. Cut + in slices and serve on lettuce leaves with French dressing + and wafers or thin bread-and-butter sandwiches. Minced + olives may be used instead of the parsley, and chopped + nuts also may be added. + + + Cottage Cheese Rolls + + (To be used like meat rolls.) + + A large variety of rolls, suitable for serving as the main + dish at dinner, may be made by combining legumes (beans of + various kinds, cowpeas, lentils or peas) with cottage + cheese, and adding bread crumbs to make the mixture thick + enough to form into a roll. Beans are usually mashed, but + peas or small Lima beans may be combined whole with bread + crumbs and cottage cheese, and enough of the liquor in + which the vegetables have been cooked should be added to + get the right consistency; or, instead of beans or peas, + chopped spinach, beet tops or head lettuce may be added. + + + Boston Roast + + 1 pound can of kidney beans, or equivalent quantity of cooked beans. + ½ pound of cottage cheese. + Bread crumbs. + Salt. + + Mash the beans or put them through a meat grinder. Add the + cheese and bread crumbs enough to make the mixture + sufficiently stiff to be formed into a roll. Bake in a + moderate oven, basting occasionally with butter or other + fat, and water. Serve with tomato sauce. This dish may be + flavored with chopped onions cooked until tender in butter + or other fat and a very little water. + + + Pimiento and Cottage Cheese Roast + + 2 cupfuls of cooked Lima beans. + ¼ pound of cottage cheese. + Salt. + 3 canned pimientos chopped. + Bread crumbs. + + Put the first three ingredients through a meat chopper. + Mix thoroughly and add bread crumbs until it is stiff + enough to form into a roll. Brown in the oven, basting + occasionally with butter or other fat, and water. + + + Cottage Cheese and Nut Roast + + 1 cupful of cottage cheese. + 1 cupful of chopped English walnuts. + 1 cupful of bread crumbs. + Salt and pepper. + 2 tablespoonfuls of chopped onion. + 1 tablespoonful of butter. + Juice of half a lemon. + + Cook the onion in the butter or other fat and a little + water until tender. Mix the other ingredients and moisten + with the water in which the onion has been cooked. Pour + into a shallow baking dish and brown in the oven. + + + Cheese Sauce + + (For use with eggs, milk toast or other dishes.) + + One cupful of milk, 1 tablespoonful of cottage cheese, 2 + tablespoonfuls of flour, salt and pepper to taste. + + Thicken the milk with the flour and just before serving + add the cheese, stirring until it is melted. + + This sauce may be used in preparing creamed eggs or for + ordinary milk toast. The quantity of cheese in the recipe + may be increased, making a sauce suitable for using with + macaroni or rice. + + + FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Ont. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1890, pages 237-241. + + Maine Exp. Sta. Rept. 1890, part II, pages 52-57. + + Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Rept. 1886, pages 119-130. + + Vt. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1890, pages 97-100. + + Vt. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1891, pages 61-74. + + N. Y. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1892, pages 299-392. + + N. Y. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1893, pages 39-162. + + Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1890, pages 115-119. + + Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Rept. 1907, pages 152-156. + + N. Y. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1891, pages 139-142. + + N. Y. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1894, pages 31-86, 118-121. + + N. J. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1895, pages 136-137. + + Eckles, C. H., and R. H. Shaw. The influence of breed and + individuality on the composition and properties of milk, + Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 156, 1913. Eckles, C. H., and R. H. + Shaw, Variations in the composition and properties of milk + from the individual cow, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. + Bul. 157, 1913. + + [2] Morrow, G. A., and A. G. Manns, Analyses of milk from different + cows, Ill. Exp. Sta. Bul. 9, 1890. + + [3] Eckles, C. H., and R. H. Shaw, The influence of the stage of + lactation on the composition and properties of milk, U. + S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 155, 1913. N. Y. Exp. + Sta. Rept. 1892, pages 138-140. + + [4] N. Y. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1891, pages 143-162, 316-318. + + Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1890, pages 238-247. + + Van Slyke, L. L., Conditions affecting the proportions + of fat and protein in cow's milk, Jour. Am. Chem. Soc., + 30 (1908), no. 7, pages 1166-1186. + + [5] Van Slyke, L. L., and A. W. Bosworth, Composition and + properties of some casein and paracasein compounds and + their relations to cheese, N. Y. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. + 26, 1912. + + Forbes, E. B., and M. H. Keith, A review of the + literature of phosphorus compounds in animal metabolism, + Ohio Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 5, pages 32-36, 42-45. + + Van Slyke, L. L., and A. W. Bosworth, Condition of + casein and salts in milk, N. Y. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 39. + + [6] Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1901, pages 162-166. + + [7] Sammis, J. L., and A. T. Bruhn, The manufacture of cheese + from pasteurized milk, Wis. Exp. Sta. Research Bul. 27, 1912. + + [8] Baer, U. S., and W. L. Carlyle, Quality of cheese as affected + by food, Wis. Exp. Sta. Bul. 115, 1904. + + [9] King, F. H., and E. H. Farrington, Milk odor as affected by + silage, Wis. Exp. Sta. Bul. 59, 1897. + + [10] N. Y. Agricultural Law, 1913, section 30. + Mich. Agricultural Law, 1915, section 77. + Wis. Agricultural Law, 1913, section 4601. + + [11] Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Rept. 1899, pages 13-68. + + Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Rept. 1903, pages 33-98. + + Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Rept. 1904, pages 27-88. + + Esten, W. M., and C. J. Mason, Sources of bacteria in + milk, Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Bul. 51, 1908. + + Rogers, L. A., and B. J. Davis, Methods of classifying + the lactic acid bacteria, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. + Bul. 154, 1912. + + Bergey, D. H., The colon-aerogenes group of bacteria, + Jour. Med. Research, Boston, Vol. XIX, pages 175-200, + 1908. + + Conn, H. W., Classification of dairy bacteria, Conn. + (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Rept. 1906. + + Rogers, L. A., Bacteria in milk, U. S. Dept. Agr., + Farmers' Bul. 490, 1912. + + [12] Hastings, E. G., Distribution of lactose-fermenting yeasts + in dairy products, Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 23, pages + 107-115. + + [13] Thom, C., and S. H. Ayers, Effect of pasteurization upon + mold spores, Jour. Agr. Research 6 (1916), no. 4, pages + 153-156. + + [14] Hunziker, O. F., Germicidal action of milk, N. Y. (Cornell) + Exp. Sta. Bul. 197. + + Stocking, W. A., Germicidal action of milk, Conn. + (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Bul. 37, 1905. + + U. S. Treasury Dept., Hygienic Laboratory, Bul. 41, + Milk and its relation to the public health, 1908, also + revised as Bul. 56, 1909. + + [15] U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bul. 602, Dairy Division, + Production of clean milk, 1914. + + Lauder, A., and A. Cunningham, Some factors affecting + the bacteriological content of milk, Edinburgh and East + of Scotland Coll. of Agr. Rept. XXVIII, 1913. + + Prucha, M. J., and H. M. Weeter, Germ content of milk, + Ill. Exp. Sta. Bul. 199, 1917. + + Harding, H. A., _et al._, The effect of certain dairy + operations upon the germ content of milk, N. Y. Exp. + Sta. Bul. 365, 1913. + + Fraser, W. J., Sources of bacteria in milk, Ill. Exp. + Sta. Bul. 91, 1903. + + Frandsen, J. H., Care of milk and cream on the farm, + Neb. Exp. Sta. Bul. 133, 1912. + + Conn, H. W., The care and handling of milk, Conn. + (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Bul. 26, 1903. + + Stocking, W. A., Jr., Quality of milk as affected by + certain dairy operations, Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Bul. + 42, 1906. + + [16] Harding, H. A., J. K. Wilson and G. A. Smith, Tests of + covered milk pails, N. Y. Exp. Sta. Bul. 326, 1910. + + Stocking, W. A., Tests of covered milk pails, Conn. + (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Bul. 48, 1907. + + [17] Wing, L. W., Milking machines; their sterilization and their + efficiency in producing clean milk, N. Y. (Cornell) + Exp. Sta. Circ. 18, 1913. + + [18] Ruddick, J. A., and G. H. Barr, The cooling of milk for + cheese making, Ottawa Dept. of Agr. Bul. 22, 1910. + + [19] Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1895, pages 14-150, Fermentation test + for gas-producing bacteria in milk. This is commonly + called the Wisconsin curd test. + + [20] Stevenson, C., Pepsin in cheesemaking, Jour. Agr. (New + Zeal.) 14 (1917), pages 32-34. + + Todd, A., and E. C. V. Cornish, Experiments in the + preparation of homemade rennet, Jour. Bd. Agr. (London) + 23 (1916), no. 6, pages 549-555. + + Besana, C., Lack of coagulating ferment in + cheesemaking, Staz. Sper. Agr. Ital. 49 (1916), pages + 10-12. + + Van Dam, W., Rennet economy and substitutes, Verslag. + Ver. Exploit. Proefzuivelboerderij. Hoorn, 1914, pages + 45-46. + + [21] The paragraphs on the chemistry of casein and on rennet + action have been selected from a complete discussion of + the subject by E. B. Forbes and M. H. Keith in Ohio + Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 5 entitled, "A review of the + literature of phosphorus compounds in animal + metabolism." The original references cited in this + discussion are given at the end of the chapter in the + order of their citation in the text. + + See also, Van Slyke, L. L., and D. D. Van Slyke, I, The + action of dilute acids upon casein when no soluble + compounds are formed; II, The hydrolyses of the sodium + salts of casein, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 3, + pages 75-162, 1906. + + Sammis, J. L., S. K. Suzuki and F. W. Laabs, Factors + controlling the moisture content of cheese curds, U. S. + Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 122, pages 1-61, 1910. + + [22] Sammis, J. L., and A. T. Bruhn, The manufacture of Cheddar + cheese from pasteurized milk, Wis. Exp. Sta. Research + Bul. 27, 1912. + + [23] Esten, W. M., Bacteria in the dairy, Conn. (Storrs) Rept. + 1896, pages 44-52. + + [24] Bushnell, L. D., and W. R. Wright, Preparation and use of + butter starter, Mich. Exp. Sta. Bul. 246, 1907. + + Hastings, E. G., Preparation and use of starter, Wis. + Exp. Sta. Bul. 181, 1909. + + Larsen, C., and W. White, Preparation and use of + starter, S. D. Exp. Sta. Bul. 123, 1910. + + Guthrie, E. S., and W. W. Fisk, Propagation of starter + for butter-making and cheese-making, N. Y. (Cornell) + Exp. Sta. Circ. 13, 1912. + + [25] Sammis, J. L., and A. T. Bruhn, The manufacture of cheese of + the Cheddar type from pasteurized milk, U. S. Dept. + Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 165, pages 1-95, 1913. + + [26] Publow, C. A., An apparatus for measuring acidity in + cheesemaking and buttermaking, Cornell Exp. Sta. Circ. + 7, pages 17-20, 1909. + + Hastings, E. G., and A. C. Evans, A comparison of the + acid test and the rennet test for determining the + condition of milk for the Cheddar type of cheese, U. S. + Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Circ. 210, pages 1-6, 1913. + + [27] Doane, C. F., The influence of lactic acid on the quality of + cheese of the Cheddar type, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. + Ind. Bul. 123, pages 1-20, 1910. + + [28] Fisk, W. W., A study of some factors influencing the yield + and moisture content of Cheddar cheese, Cornell Exp. + Sta. Bul. 334, 1913. + + [29] Olson, G. A., Rusty cans and their effect upon milk for + cheese-making, Wis. Exp. Sta. Bul. 162, pages 1-12, + 1908. + + [30] The term "broken" is included here because the use of some + curd-breaking tool has always formed a step in certain + commercially successful processes. In every case in + which careful experimental work has been done the curd + knife has been successfully substituted for the + breaking tool and has reduced the losses of fat and + casein and in addition aided in obtaining more uniform + cheese. + + [31] Frandsen, J. H., and T. Thorsen, Farm cheese-making, + Univ. Neb. Ext. Serv. Bul. 47, pages 1-16, 1917. + + Michels, J., Improved methods for making cottage and + Neufchâtel cheese, N. C. Exp. Sta. Bul. 210, pages + 29-38. + + Fisk, W. W., Methods of making some of the soft + cheeses, Cornell Exp. Sta. Circ. 30, pages 41-62, 1915. + + [32] Tolstrup, R. M., Cheese that farmers should make, Iowa + Agr. 15 (1914), 2, pages 89-90. + + [33] Van Slyke, L. L., and Hart, E. B., Chemical changes in + the souring of milk and their relations to cottage + cheese, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 245, pages 1-36, + 1904. + + [34] Sammis, J. L., Three creamery methods for making + buttermilk cheese, Wis. Exp. Sta. Bul. 239, 1914. + + [35] Matheson, K. J., C. Thom and J. N. Currie, Cheeses of + the Neufchâtel group, Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Bul. 78, + pages 313-329, 1914. + + [36] Dahlberg, A. O., The manufacture of cottage cheese in + creameries and milk plants, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 576, + pages 1-16, 1917. + + [37] Since the number of factories has continued small, the + manufacture of this type of machine has remained a + monopoly in which each machine is made to order by the + Van Eyck Machine Co. of Holland, Mich. + + [38] Presented by Dr. E. C. Schroeder of the U. S. Dept. + Agr. to the International Association of Dairy and Milk + Inspectors, at Washington, Oct. 17, 1917, published + Jour. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc'n 52, N. S. 5, no. 6, pages + 674-685, 1918. + + [39] Matheson, K. J., and F. R. Cammack, How to make cottage + cheese on the farm, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bul. + 850, pages 1-15, 1917. + + [40] Taken from Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Bul. 78, page 328. + + [41] Taken from Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Bul. 78, page 328. + + [42] Eckles, C. H., and O. Rahn, Die Reifung des Harzkäses, + Centralb. f. Bakt. etc. 2 abt. 14 (1905), pages + 676-680. + + [43] Monrad, J. H., Hand cheese, N. Y. Produce Rev. etc. 25 + (1908), 16, page 644. + + [44] The authors are under obligations to Mrs. E. E. Kiernan + for her description of this process (in the _Somerset + County Leader_, Jan. 10, 1908) and her letters + concerning it. The statement of the process given here + combines the published statement with the results of + our own experiments. + + [45] Monrad, J. H., Appetitost, N. Y. Produce Rev. etc. 25 + (1908), 16, page 644. + + [46] Pouriau, A. F., La Laiterie, sixième ed. par Marcel + Monteran, page 453, Paris, 1908. + + [47] Among the varietal names for Neufchâtel cheese from + whole milk or with added cream are Petits Bondons, + Malakoffs, Carrés affinés. Among low fat or skim forms, + Petit Suisse, Gournay. + + [48] Thom, C., J. N. Currie and K. J. Matheson, Studies + relating to the Roquefort and Camembert types of + cheese, Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Bul. 79, page 392. + + [49] Full discussion of this product is found in U. S. Dept. + Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 115. Camembert cheese problems + in the U. S. also published as Storrs Exp. Sta. Bul. 58 + with the same title. Also a supplementary paper in Bul. + 79 of Storrs Exp. Sta. + + [50] Thom, C., U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Circ. 145 + (1909), page 339. + + [51] Lot record cards for the making and ripening of + Camembert are given on pages 124 and 125. + + [52] Bosworth, A. W., Chemical studies of Camembert cheese, + N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 5, pages 23-39, + 1907. + + Dox, A. W., Proteolytic changes in the ripening of Camembert + cheese, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 109, pages + 1-24, 1908. + + [53] Esten, W. M., and C. J. Mason, Bact. Stud. of Camembert + cheese, Storrs Exp. Sta. Bul. 83 (1915), pages 103-111. + + [54] See page 134 for domestic or American use of the name + Brie. + + [55] McNaughton, J., Coulommier cheese, Dept. Agr. Ottawa, + Canada, Dairy and Cold Storage Ser. Bul. 25, 1910. + + [56] Kosher forms are prepared in compliance with the Mosaic + law as demanded by the Jewish trade. + + [57] Unpublished analysis of the Storrs Exp. Sta. + + [58] Chapais, J. C., Monographie, Le Fromage Raffiné de L'Isle + d'Orléans. Quebec, 1911. Published by Ministry of + Agriculture, pages 1-31. + + [59] The authors acknowledge the assistance of Mr. Louis + Getman in preparing this description. + + [60] Zumkehr, P., Limburger cheesemaking, Wis. Cheese-makers + Association, 15th Annual Meeting, 1907, page 62. + + [61] Currie, J. N., Flavor of Roquefort cheese, Jour. Agr. + Research 2 (1914), no. 1, pages 1-14. + + [62] Wis. Cheese-makers Assoc., 12th Annual Meeting and + Report, 1906, page xxviii. + + [63] Currie, J. N., The relation of composition to quality + in cheese, American Food Jour. 11 (1916), no. 9, page + 458. See also Dox on the True Composition of Roquefort + Cheese, Ztsch. Untersuch. Nahr. u. Genussmtl. 22 + (1911), pages 239-242. + + [64] Thom, C., and Matheson, K. J., Biology of Roquefort + cheese, Storrs Exp. Sta. Bul. 79, pages 335-347, 1914. + + [65] Currie, J. N., Flavor of Roquefort cheese, Jour. Agr. + Research, 2 (1914), 1, pages 1-14, Washington. + + [66] Dox, A. W., Die Zusammensetzung des echten + Roquefort-Käses, in Ztschr. Untersuch. Nahr. u. + Genussmtl. Bd. 22, Heft. 4, pages 239-242, 1911. + + [67] Marre, E., Le Roquefort, Rodez, 1906. This is the + authoritative monograph on Roquefort cheese problems. + + [68] Reported on the word of Prof. Fleischmann. + + [69] Thom, C., J. N. Currie and K. J. Matheson, Studies + relating to the Roquefort and Camembert types of + cheese, Storrs Exp. Sta. Bul. 79, pages 335-394, 1914. + + [70] Thom, C., U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 82, 1905. + + [71] Thom, C., The salt factor in the mold ripened cheeses, + Storrs Exp. Sta. Bul. 79, pages 387-394, 1914. + + [72] Thom, C., and Currie, J. N., The dominance of Roquefort + mold in cheese, Jour. Biol. Chem. 15 (1913), no. 2, + pages 247-258. + + [73] Currie, J. N., The composition of Roquefort cheese fat, + Jour. Agr. Research, 2 (1914), 6, pages 429-434. + + [74] Thom, C., Soft cheese studies in Europe, U. S. Dept. + Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Rept. 22, pages 79-109, 1905. + + [75] Frestadius, A., Nord. Mejeri Tid. 17 (1912), 14, page + 159, Abs. N. Y. Produce Rev. 34 (1912), 2, page 54, and + Cutting, W. B., The use of baritine in cheese rinds, + Mo. Commerce and Trade Repts. 1908, 337, page 144, also + in Practical Dairyman, 2 (1908), 7, page 76. + + [76] Stilton Cheese--J. P. Sheldon--from abs. by New York + Produce Rev. 28 (June 16, 1909), no. 8, pages 362-363. + Stilton is said to have originated with Mrs. Paulet, + Wymondham, Co. of Leicester, and to have been sold by + her brother--Host of the "Bill" at Stilton from which + village it derived its name. + + [77] Percival, J., and G. Heather Mason, The microflora of + Stilton cheese, Jour. Agr. Sci. 5 (1913), part 2, pages + 222-229. See also Thom, C., Soft cheese studies in + Europe, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Rept. 22 (1905), + pages 79-109. + + [78] Benson, Miles, in personal letter from analyses of + cheeses selected for the purpose. + + [79] Dean, H. H., The Creamery Journal, Nov. 1904. + + [80] N. Y. Produce Rev. etc., Vol. 32, no. 14, page 536. + + [81] N. Y. Produce Rev. etc., Vol. 30, no. 5, page 188; Vol. + 30, no. 14, page 534; Vol. 31, no. 5, page 182. + + Marty, G., Brick cheesemaking, Wis. Cheese-makers + Assoc., 15th Annual Meeting, 1907, page 66. + + Wuethrich, F., The manufacture of Brick cheese, Wis. + Cheese-makers Assoc., 14th Annual Meeting, 1906, page + 50. + + Schenk, C., Brick cheesemaking, Wis. Cheese-makers + Assoc., 13th Annual Meeting, 1905, page 38. + + [82] Doane, C. F., and H. W. Lawson, Varieties of cheese, + descriptions and analysis, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. of An. + Ind. Bul. 146, 1911. + + [83] Ligeon, X., Herstellung des Port Salut Käses, Milchztg. + 38 (1909), no. 39, pages 459-460. + + [84] These paragraphs were taken from N. Y. Exp. Sta. Bul. + 56, Experiments in the manufacture of cheese; Part I. + The manufacture of Edam cheese, 1893. See also, + Haecker, T. L., Experiments in the manufacture of + cheese, Minn. Exp. Sta. Bul. 35, 1894. + + [85] Boekhout, F. W. J., and J. J. O. de Vries, Cracking of + Edam, Verslag. Landbouwk. Onderzoek. + Rykslandboupoefstat. (Netherlands), 20 (1917), pages + 71-78, fig. 1. + + Boekhout, F. W. F., and J. J. O. de Vries, Sur le + défaut "Knijpers" dans le fromage d'Edam, Rev. Gen. + Lait, 9 (1913), no. 18, pages 420-427. + + [86] Paragraphs taken from N. Y. Exp. Sta. Bul. 56, + Experiments in the manufacture of cheese; Part II. The + manufacture of Gouda cheese, 1893. See also, Hayward, + H., Method of making Gouda cheese, Pa. Exp. Sta. Rept. + 1890, pages 79-81, and Haecker, T. L., Experiments in + the manufacture of cheese, Minn. Exp. Sta. Bul. 35, + 1894, and Monrad, J. H., in N. Y. Produce Rev. 25 + (1907), no. 8, page 336, where a home process of making + this cheese is given. + + [87] The authors acknowledge here the helpful suggestions + and criticisms of G. C. Dutton, New York State Cheese + Instructor. + + [88] Russell, H. L., Cheese as affected by gas-producing + bacteria, Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1895, pages 139-146. + + Marshall, C. E., Gassy curd and cheese, Mich. Exp. Sta. + Bul. 183, 1900. + + [89] S. M. Babcock, Hot iron test of cheese curd, Wis. Exp. + Sta. Rept. 1895, pages 133-134. + + [90] Van Slyke, L. L., and E. B. Hart, A study of some of + the salts formed by casein and paracasein with acids, + their relation to American Cheddar cheese, N. Y. + (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 214, 1902. + + [91] Decker, J. W., Cheesemaking from sour milk, Wis. Exp. + Sta. Rept. 1898, pages 42-44. + + [92] Russell, H. L., Cheese as affected by gas producing + bacteria, Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1895, pages 139-146. + + Marshall, C. E., Gassy curd and cheese, Mich. Exp. Sta. + Bul. 183, 1900. + + Moore, V. A., and A. R. Ward, Causes of tainted cheese + curds, N. Y. (Cornell) Exp. Sta. Bul. 158, 1899. + + [93] Van Slyke, L. L., Investigations relating to the + manufacture of cheese, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. + 68, 1894. + + [94] Van Slyke, L. L., Investigations relating to the + manufacture of cheese, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. + 62, 1893. + + [95] Van Slyke, L. L., Methods of paying for milk at cheese + factories, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 308, 1908. + + [96] Farm Bur. Exchange, St. Lawrence Co., N. Y., Vol. 1, + no. 9, 1915. Cooling milk before delivery at the cheese + factory. + + [97] Sammis, J. L., et al., Factors controlling the moisture + content of cheese curds, Wis. Exp. Sta. Research Bul. + 7, 1910. + + Ont. Agr. College and Exp. Farm Rept. 1909, pages + 111-124, Cheese making experiments. + + Ont. Agr. College and Exp. Farm Rept. 1910, pages + 111-128, Cheese making experiments. + + Fisk, W. W., A study of some factors influencing the + yield and the moisture content of Cheddar cheese, + Cornell Exp. Sta. Bul. 334, pages 515-537, 1913. + + [98] Sammis, J. L., and A. T. Bruhn, The manufacture of + cheese of the Cheddar type from pasteurized milk, U. S. + Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 165, pages 1-95, 1913. + + [99] New York Prod. Review, Vol. 34, no. 2, page 66. + + [100] Babcock, S. M., _et al._, Cheese ripening as + influenced by sugar, Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1901, pages + 162-167. + + E. G. Hastings, _et al._, Studies on the factors + concerned in the ripening of Cheddar cheese, Wis. Exp. + Sta. Research Bul. 25. + + [101] Fisk, W. W., Skim-milk Cheddar cheese, N. Y. (Cornell) + Exp. Sta. Ex. Bul. 18, 1917. + + [102] Curd was spilled but practically all recovered. + + [103] Suzuki, S. K., _et al._, Production of fatty acids and + esters in Cheddar cheese, Wis. Exp. Sta. Research Bul. + 11. + + [104] Babcock, S. M., _et al._, Cheese ripening as + influenced by sugar, Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1901, pages + 162-167. + + [105] Bosworth, A. W., and M. J. Prucha, Fermentation of + citric acid in milk, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Tech. + Bul. 14, 1910. + + Van Slyke, L. L., and A. W. Bosworth, Condition of + casein and salts in milk, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. + Tech. Bul. 39, 1914. + + Van Slyke, L. L., and E. B. Hart, A study of some of + the salts formed by casein and paracasein with acids; + their relation to American Cheddar cheese, N. Y. + (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 214, 1902. + + Van Slyke, L. L., and E. B. Hart, Some of the + relations of casein and paracasein to bases and acids + and their application to Cheddar cheese, N. Y. + (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 261, 1905. + + Van Slyke, L. L., and O. B. Winter, Cheese ripening + investigations, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. + 33, 1914. + + [106] Van Slyke, L. L., and E. B. Hart, The relation of + carbon dioxide to proteolysis in the ripening of + Cheddar cheese, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 231, + 1903. + + [107] Van Slyke, L. L., and E. B. Hart, Some of the + compounds present in American Cheddar cheese, N. Y. + (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 219, 1902. + + [108] Van Slyke, L. L., _et al._, Action of rennin or + casein, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 31, 1913. + + Van Slyke, L. L., _et al._, Cheese ripening + investigations; rennet enzyme as a factor in cheese + ripening, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 233, 1903. + + [109] Bosworth, A. W., Studies relating to the chemistry of + milk and casein, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. + 37, 1914. + + [110] Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1898, Distribution of galactase + in milk from different sources, pages 87-97. + + Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1903, pages 195-197, 201-205, + 222-223, Action of proteolytic ferments on milk. + + [111] Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1900, pages 102-122. + + [112] Harding, H. A., and M. J. Prucha, The bacterial flora + of Cheddar cheese, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. + 8. + + [113] Bacterium, Bacillus and Lactobacillus are preferred by + different authors as generic placing of the Bulgarian + sour milk species. + + [114] Hastings, E. G., Alice C. Evans and E. B. Hart, The + bacteriology of Cheddar cheese, Wis. Exp. Sta. Bul. + 150, pages 1-52, 1912. + + [115] Harding, H. A., The rôle of the lactic acid bacteria + in the manufacture and in the early stages of ripening + of Cheddar cheese, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 237, + 1903. + + [116] Heinemann, P. G., The kinds of lactic acid produced by + lactic acid bacteria, Jour. Biol. Chem., Vol. 2, pages + 603-608. + + [117] Hastings, E. G., _et al._, The bacteriology of Cheddar + cheese, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 150, 1912. + + [118] Van Slyke, L. L., and E. B. Hart, Conditions affecting + chemical changes in cheese ripening, N. Y. (Geneva) + Exp. Sta. Bul. 236, 1903. + + [119] Van Slyke, L. L., _et al._, Cheese ripening at low + temperatures, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 234, 1903. + + [120] Van Slyke, L. L., _et al._, Cheese ripening at low + temperatures, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 234, 1903. + + [121] Doane, C. F., Methods and results of paraffining + cheese, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Circ. 181, + pages 1-16, 1911. + + [122] Doane, C. F., and E. E. Eldredge, The use of Bacillus + Bulgaricus in starters for making Swiss or Emmenthal + cheese, Dept. of Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 148, 1915. + + [123] N. Y. Produce Rev. and Am. Creamery, Vol. 37, no. 25, + page 1112, Starter for Swiss cheese. + + [124] Clark, W. M., On the formation of "eyes" in Emmenthal + cheese, Jour. Dairy Sci. 1 (1917), no. 2, pages + 91-113. + + Among important studies of Swiss cheese ripening are + the following: Freudenreich, E. v., and Orla Jensen, + Ueber die in Emmentalerkäse stattfindende + Proprionsäuregärung, Centralb. f. Bakt. etc. 2 Abt. + 17, page 529. + + Jensen, Orla, Biologische Studien über den + Käsereifungs-prozess unter spezieller Berucksichtigung + der flüchtigen Fettsäuren, Centralb. f. Bakt. etc. 2 + Abt. 13 (1904), page 161. + + Eldredge, E. E., and L. A. Rogers, The bacteriology of + cheese of the Emmenthal type, Centralb. f. Bakt. 2 + Abt. 40 (1914), no. 1/8, pages 5-21. + + [125] Gorini, C., Studi sulla fabricatione razionale del + fromaggi Grana, Boll. uff. del Ministero Agr. Ind. e + Comm. Anno X, serie C, Fasc. 10, pages 1-7, Roma, + 1911. + + Gorini, C., On the distribution of bacteria in Grana + cheese, Centralb. f. Bakt. etc. 2 Abt. 12 (1904), + pages 78-81. + + Fascetti, G., The technological chemistry of the + manufacture of Grana cheese in Reggio, Staz. Sper. + Agr. Ital. 47 (1914), no. 8, pages 541-568. + + [126] Cornalba, G., Caciocavallo in Lombardy, L'Industria + del Latte 3, page 105, Abs. in Jahresb. f. Tierchemie + 36 (1906), page 250. + + [127] Babcock, S. M., Albumin cheese, Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. + 12 (1895), page 134. + + [128] Doane, C. F., Whey butter, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. + Ind. Circ. 161, pages 1-7, 1910. + + Sammis, J. L., Making whey butter at Cheddar cheese + factories, Wis. Exp. Sta. Bul. 246, 1915. + + Ellenberrger, H. B., and M. R. Tolstrup, Skimming whey + at Vermont cheese factories, Vt. Dept. Agr. Bul. 26, + 1916. + + [129] Farrington, E. H., and G. J. Davis, The disposal of + creamery sewage, Wis. Exp. Sta. Bul. 245, 1915. + + [130] Dotterrer, W. D., and R. S. Breed, Why and how + pasteurize dairy by-products, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. + Bul. 412, 1915. + + [131] Harding, H. A., and G. A. Smith, Control of rust spots + in cheese, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 225, 1902. + + [132] Elliott, W. J., Creameries and cheese factories, Mont. + Exp. Sta. Bul. 53, 1904. + + Farrington, E. H., and E. H. Benkendorf, Origination + and construction of cheese factories and creameries, + Wis. Exp. Sta. Bul. 244, 1915. + + [133] From N. Y. price current. + + [134] Hart, E. B., A simple test for casein in milk and its + relation to the dairy industry, Wis. Exp. Sta. Bul. + 156, pages 1-22, 1907. + + [135] Sammis, J. L., The moisture test in the cheese + factory, Wis. Exp. Sta. Circ. 81, 1917. + + Troy, H. C., A cheese moisture test, N. Y. (Cornell) + Exp. Sta. Ext. Bul. 17, 1917. + + [136] Sammis, J. L., Correct payment for cheese factory milk + by the Babcock test, Wis. Exp. Sta. Bul. 276, 1917. + + [137] Dairy Laws of Wisconsin, 1916, section 4607a. + + [138] Sammis, J. L., The improved system of selling cheese, + Hoard's Dairyman 52 (1916), 15, pages 5, 11-12. + + Hibbard, B. H., and A. Hobson, Markets and prices of + Wisconsin cheese, Wis. Exp. Sta. Bul. 251, pages 1-56, + 1915. + + [139] Hibbard, B. H., and Asher Hobson, Markets and prices + of Wisconsin cheese, Wis. Exp. Sta. Bul. 251, 1915. + + [140] N. Y. Agricultural Laws, Sect. 3, paragraphs 48 and + 49. + + [141] Langworthy, C. F., and C. L. Hunt, Cheese and its + economical uses in the diet, U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' + Bul. 487, 1912. + + [142] See also, Reich, R., Cheese as a food and its judgment + from standpoint of the food chemist, Arch. f. Hyg. 80 + (1913), no. 1/6, pages 169-195. + + [143] This calculation was added by the authors. + + [144] Varietal name added by authors. + + [145] Doane, C. F., and H. W. Lawson, Varieties of cheese, + U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 146. + + [146] U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind., Dairy Div. A. I. 21, + 1917. + + [147] Doane, C. F., _et al._, The digestibility of cheese, + U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Circ. 166, pages 1-21, + 1911. + + [148] Langworthy and Hunt, _loc. cit._ + + [149] U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bul. 487, page 38. + + [150] Levin, W., Cheese poisoning--a toxicogenic bacillus + isolated from cheese, Jour. Lab. Clin. Med. 2 (1917), + page 761. + + [151] Thom, C., Camembert cheese problems in the United + States, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 115. + + [152] Langworthy and Hunt, _loc. cit._ + + [153] Langworthy and Hunt, _loc. cit._ + + [154] U.S. Dept. of Agr. Bur. An. Ind. A. I. 18. + + + + + INDEX + + + Acetic acid in cheese, 247. + + Acid cocci, 19. + + Acid fermentation, 17. + + Acid organisms, 41. + + Acid peptonizing organisms, 41. + + Acidity, + in cheese and curd, 57, 58, 59. + and color, 67. + and rennet action, 66. + and ripening, 255. + and separation of whey, 66. + and texture, 67. + control of, 64. + in milk, 60. + testing, 60, 61. + + Acidy cheese, 66. + + Acme curd rake, 196. + + Albumin, 10. + + Albumin cheese, 295. + + Alcohols in cheese, 248. + + Alkaline bacteria, 20. + + Appetitost, 114. + + Ash of milk, 11. + + Ayers, S. H. (Thom and), 21. + + + Babcock, S. M., 201, 237, 248, 295. + + Babcock test, 327-332. + + Bacillus botulinus, 370. + bulgaricus = Bacterium bulgaricum, 18, 279. + enteritidis, 370. + subtilis, 20. + + Bäckstein cheese, 164. + + Bacteria, 14. + alkali-producing, 20. + control of, 25. + from the air, 23. + from the cow, 23. + from the milker, 24. + from the utensils, 24. + groups of, in milk, 15. + in Cheddar ripening, 252-254. + inert type, 20. + influence on yield of Cheddar, 227. + peptonizing, 20. + sources in milk, 22. + + Bacterium bulgaricum, 18, 19. + aerogenes, 18. + casei, 253. + coli-communis, 18, 252. + guntheri, 41. + lactis acidi, 18, 41, 252, 254. + lactis aerogenes, 252. + liquefaciens, 20. + prodigiosus, 20. + + Baer, U. S., and W. L. Carlyle, 12. + + Baker's cheese, 105. + + Bang, Ivar, 39. + + Bang's theory of casein, 37. + + Barite, baryta, 159. + + Barnard curd mill, 208. + + Benson, Miles, 163. + + Bergey, D. H., 16. + + Besana, C., 29. + + Block Swiss, 285. + + Blue label, 109. + + Blue-veined cheeses, 150. + + Board of Health lactometer, 336. + + Boards of Trade (Cheese), 349, 350. + + Boekhout, J. W. J., and J. J. Ott de Vries, 174. + + Bondon cheese, 94. + + Bosworth, Alfred W., 37-38, 40, 126, 251. + + Bosworth, A. W., and M. J. Prucha, 249. + + Bosworth, A. W., and L. L. Van Slyke, 40. + + Bosworth's theory of casein, 37. + + Branding cheese, 360. + + Breeds of cows, milk from, 6. + + Brick cheese, 86, 136, 164 to 169, 358. + making, 165. + qualities, 167. + ripening, 167. + score-card, 169. + yield, 169. + + Brie, + American, 134-136. + French, 117, 131, 132. + + Brindse, Brinse cheese, 110. + + Bushnell, L. D., and W. R. Wright, 44. + + Buttermilk cheese, 93. + + Butyric acid in Cheddar cheese, 248. + + Butyric organisms, 21. + + Buying milk, 343. + + + Caciocavallo cheese, 293. + + California Jack cheese, 233. + + Calorimeter values, 364. + + Camembert cheese, 86, 111, 117 to 131, 137. + acidity in, 122. + bacteria in, 127. + composition, 128. + described, 117. + domestic, 360. + factory, 129. + group, 117. + lot-card, 124, 125. + making, 118-122. + ripening, 123. + + Caproic acid in cheese, 136. + + Carrés affinés, 114. + + Casein, defined chemically, 33. + acted on by acid, 33. + in cheese ripening, 249. + in milk and cheese, 9. + Robertson's theory, 34. + test (Hart), 334. + + Caseinogen, 35. + + Catalase, 11. + + Chapais, J. C., 137. + + Cheddar cheese, 79, 86, 173, 184 to 275, 358, 368. + acidity test for, 190. + acidy, 266, 270. + American, 230. + body in, 271, 273. + boxes for, 264. + calorimeter studies of, 368. + cheddaring curd for, 204-207. + color in, 270. + composition of, 223. + cooking curd for, 195-200. + corky, 199. + cutting curd for, 193. + defects in, 265. + drawing whey, 200. + dressing, 216. + dry body in, 267. + English, 173. + feedy flavors in, 265. + finish in, 271. + firming curd for, 201-204. + flavor of, 221. + food value of, 362-365. + fruity flavors in, 266. + gas in curd for, 219. + gas in milk for, 217, 219, 269. + gassy, 268. + hooping curd for, 212. + hot-iron test for, 201, 208. + judging, 271. + losses in, 262, 263. + lot-card for, 184, 187. + matting, 204. + milk for, 186. + milling, 207. + moisture content of, 228, 258. + mottled, 221, 270. + packing curd for, 202. + paraffining, 263. + pin-holes in, 189. + pressing, 213. + quality in, 221, 272-273. + ripening milk for, 189 to 192. + ripening of, 247 to 263. + salting curd for, 211. + score-card for, 271, 273, 275. + seamy color in, 214, 221. + setting, 192. + shipping, 264. + starter for, 190, 191. + sweet flavor in, 266. + texture of, 267. + variations of process, 229. + yield, 224, 225. + + Cheese, and health, 369. + and meals, 367. + and price of, 373. + boxes, 357. + canned, 372. + care in home, 372. + choice of, 370-371. + classification of, 81-85. + color, 56. + composition-table, 86, 364. + definition of, 1. + digestibility of, 368. + fondue, 375. + food value of, 362-367. + fuel value of, 365. + history of, 4. + in dietaries, 370-374. + in the household, 361-381, + knife, 205. + names, 81. + poisoning, 370. + price, 323, 357. + problems, 3. + processed, 84. + ripening (_see varietal descriptions_). + roast, 380. + salad, 378, 379. + sandwich, 371, 378. + sauce, 374, 381. + soufflé, 376. + total consumption of, 362. + trier, 272. + varieties, 3. + with sour-milk flavor, 89. + yield basis for buying milk, 343. + + Cheese-making, + an art, 2. + a science, 3. + + Chemistry of rennet action, 33-40. + + Cheshire, 184. + + Clabber cheese, 90. + + Clark, W. M., 284. + + Classification of cheese, 81 to 85. + + Club cheese, 85, 231. + + Cold-storage, 356, 361. + + Colon-aërogenes group, 18. + + Color, 56. + + Colostrum, 18. + + Commercial starter, 43. + + Composition of Brick, 169. + Camembert, 128. + Cheddar, 223. + Cottage, 92. + Cream, 108. + Limburger, 147. + Neufchâtel, 105, 107. + Roquefort, 151. + Swiss, 287. + + Conn, H. W., 16, 23, 152. + + Connecticut (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Rept., 7, 16. + + Constituents of milk, 7. + + Cooking curd, 77. + for Cheddar, 195. + for Swiss, 281. + + Coöperative organizations, 309. + + Cornalba, G., 293. + + Cottage cheese, 2, 86, 368, 379-381. + discussed, 90-93. + + Coulommiers cheese, 111, 117, 131, 132. + + Cow-brand cheese, 109. + + Cream cheese, 108. + + Curd, 9. + breaking, 75. + chemistry of, 33 to 40. + cooking of, 77. + cutting, 75. + draining, 79. + fork, 210. + knives, 77 (Fig. 11), 194, 195. + + Curdling period, 74. + + Curd-making, 55. + factors in, 55. + + Curd mills, 207 to 209. + + Curd pail, 213. + + Curd rakes, 196. + + Curd scoop, 213. + + Curd sink, 204. + + Curd test, 26. + + Currie, James N., 149, 150, 155, 156. + + Cutting, W. B., 159. + + Cutting curd, 75-77. + for Brick, 165. + for Cheddar, 193-195. + for Edam, 175. + for Isigny, 135. + for Limburger, 141. + for Roquefort, 154. + for Swiss, 280-281. + + + Dahlberg, Arnold O., 98. + + Daisies (cheese), 230. + + Danish cheese, 173. + + Davis, B. J. (and L. A. Rogers), 16. + + Dean, H. H., 163. + + Decker, John W., 217. + + Derbyshire, 184. + + Diastase, 11. + + Digestibility of cheese, 367. + + Diseased cows, effect on milk, 13. + + Doane, C. F., 64, 263, 296. + + Doane, C. F., and E. E. Eldredge, 279. + + Doane, C. F., and H. W. Lawson, 169, 365. + + Dotterrer, W. D., and R. S. Breed, 301. + + Dox, Arthur W., 126, 150. + + Draining, 79. + Camembert, 121-122. + Cheddar, 195-206. + Cottage, 91. + Limburger, 142. + Neufchâtel, 97. + Roquefort, 154. + Swiss, 280-282. + + Draining cloths, + for Jack cheese, 235. + for Neufchâtel, 97. + for Swiss, 282. + + Draining rack for Neufchâtel, 97. + + Dressing Cheddar, 216. + + Dry body, 267. + + Duclaux, E., 39, 33-40. + + Duclaux's theory of casein, 36. + + Dutch cheeses, 173. + + Dutton, G. C., 184. + + + Eagle brand, 109. + + Eckles, C. H., and Otto Rahn, 112. + + Eckles, C. H., and R. H. Shaw, 7. + + Edam cheese, 173, 174 to 180, 366. + + Eldredge, E. E., and L. A. Rogers, 284. + + Ellenberger, H. B., and M. R. Tolstrup, 296. + + Elliott, W. J., 310. + + Emmenthal or Emmenthaler, 276 + + English dairy cheese, 238. + + Enzymes, + in cheese-ripening, 250. + in milk, 11. + + Equipment list for Cheddar factory, 307. + + Esten, W. M., 41. + + Esten, W. M., and C. J. Mason, 16, 129. + + Esters in Cheddar cheese, 248, 254. + + Export Cheddar, 230. + + Exportation of cheese, 321. + + + Factory, 297-309. + arrangement, 302-306. + boiler-room in, 301. + building, 299. + cleanliness in, 307. + coöperative, 308. + curing-rooms, 300. + drainage, 298. + equipment list, 307. + heating, 300. + location of, 298, 299. + organization, 308-309. + proprietary, 308. + supplies, list for, 307. + system, 313, 320. + ventilation of, 300. + water in, 298. + + Farm cheese, 133. + + Farrington, E. H., and G. H. Benkendorf, 310. + + Farrington, E. H., and G. J. Davis, 298. + + Farrington, Harvey, 314. + + Farrington's test, 62. + + Fascetti, G., 288. + + Fat-basis for buying milk, 344. + + Fat and casein ratio, 224, 226. + + Fat and cheese yield, 225, 226. + + Fat and water content, 86. + + Fat in cheese-ripening, 86. + + Fat in milk, 8. + + Fat loss, 226-227. + plus two method, 345. + + Fat test, 327-334. + + Feeds, 11. + + Fermentation, 15. + + Fermentation test, 26. + + Ferments, 15, 29. + + Filled cheese, 315, 361. + + Fisk, Walter W., 68, 89, 228. + + "Flats," 230. + + Flavor of cheese, 368, 371. + + Flavor of feeds, 11. + + Fleischmann, W., 152. + + Food value of cheese, 362-367. + + Forbes, E. B., and M. H. Keith, 9, 33 to 40. + + Formic acid in Cheddar, 248. + + Frandsen, J. H., 23, 89. + + Frandsen, J. H., and T. Thorsen, 89. + + Fraser, W. J., 23. + + Fraser hoop, 212. + + Frestadius, A., 159. + + Freudenreich, E. von, and Orla Jensen, 284. + + Full skim Cheddar, 242. + + + Galactase, 11. + + Gang press, 214. + + Gases in cheese-ripening, 249. + + Gassy curd, 146, 220. + + Gassy milk, 219. + + Geographical distribution of cheese factories, 315. + + Germicidal effect of milk, 22. + + Gervais cheese, 109. + + Getman, Louis, 139. + + Gex cheese, 164. + + Glaesler (Swiss), 286. + + Glymol, 334. + + Goat cheese, 109. + + Gorgonzola cheese, 158 to 161. + + Gorini, Constantine, 288. + + Gosselin curd mill, 208. + + Gouda cheese, 173, 180 to 183. + + Gournay cheese, 114. + + Grana cheese, 288. + + Granular curd cheese, 232. + + "Green" cheese, 247. + + Gruyère, 276. + + Guthrie, E. S., and W. W. Fisk, 44. + + + Haecker, T. L., 180. + + Half-skim Cheddar, 243. + + Hall, W. W., 187. + + Halliburton, 35. + + Hammarsten, Olof, 39, 33-40. + + Hammarsten's theory of rennet action, 35. + + Hand cheese, 112. + + Hard cheese, 172. + + Harding, H. A., 23, 254. + + Harding, H. A., and M. J. Prucha, 252. + + Harding, H. A., J. K. Wilson, and G. A. Smith, 25. + + Harding, H. A., and G. A. Smith, 306. + + Harris curd mill, 209. + + Hart, E. B., 38, 40, 91, 201, 249, 253, 255, 256, 334. + + Hart casein test, 334. + + Harz cheese, 112. + + Hastings, E. G., 21, 44, 237. + + Hastings, E. G., and Alice C. Evans, 60. + + Hastings, E. G., Alice C. Evans, and E. B. Hart, 253, 255. + + Hayward, H., 180. + + Heat in cheese-making, 77-78, 87, 91, 195, 281. + + Heinemann, P. G., 254. + + Hibbard, B. H., and A. Hobson, 349, 358-359. + + History of cheese-making, 4, 311. + + Hoops, for Camembert, 121. + for Cheddar, 212. + for Roquefort, 154. + for Swiss, 278. + + Hosl, J., 39. + + Hot-iron test, 201. + + Household, cheese in, 362-381. + + Hunziker, O. F., 22. + + Hydrogen in Cheddar, 254. + + + Importation of cheese, 321. + + Inert bacteria, 20. + + Iowa Exp. Sta. Bull., 310. + + d'Isigny cheese, 132, 134-137. + + Italian cheeses, 288-291. + + + Jack cheese, 184, 233-236. + + Jensen, Orla, 284. + + Junker curd mill, 209. + + + Kascoval cheese, 164. + + Kiernan, Mrs. E. E., 113. + + Kikkoji, 36, 39. + + King, F. H., and E. H. Farrington, 12. + + Kosher cheese, 136. + + + Lactic starter, 41-54. + + Lactometer, 335. + Board of Health type, 336. + Quevenne type, 335. + + Lactose (_see_ Milk-sugar), 10. + + Langworthy, C. F., and C. L. Hunt, 363, 372. + + Larsen, C., and W. White, 44. + + Lauder, A., and A. Cunningham, 22. + + Laws about cheese, 359-361. + + Laws about milk, 347. + + Leicestershire, 184. + + Levin, W., 370. + + Leyden cheese, 238. + + License for cheese-maker, 361. + + Liederkrauz cheese, 134, 138. + + Ligeon, X., 170. + + Limburger, 86, 136, 139 to 147, 358, 371. + factory, 139-140. + making process, 140-143. + qualities, 145. + ripening, 143-145. + wrapping, 145. + yield of, 147. + + Lindet, L., 38, 39. + + Lipase, 11. + + Livarot cheese, 135. + + Loevenhart, A. S., 36, 39. + + Long-horn (Cheddar) cheese, 230. + + Lot-card, for Camembert, 124-125. + for Cheddar, 184, 187. + for starter, 53. + + + Macaroni and cheese, 377. + + Maine Exp. Sta. Rept., 7. + + Malakoff cheese, 94, 114. + + Manns, A. G., 7. + + Manns test, 231. + + Manufacturer's brand, 360-361. + + Marketing, 343-361. + laws concerning, 360. + + Marre, E., 151. + + Marschall test, 62. + + Marshall, C. E., 189, 217. + + Marty, G., 165. + + Matheson, K. J., F. R. Cammack, 100. + + Matheson, K. J., C. Thom, and J. N. Currie, 94. + + Matting, 204. + + Mayo, N. F., and C. G. Elling, 289. + + Mazé, P., 116. + + McAdam, Robert, 314. + + McNaughton, Janet, 132. + + McPherson curd agitator, 196. + + Mercantile exchanges, 351. + + Michels, John, 89. + + Michigan Agr. Law, 13. + + Milk, acid fermentation of, 17. + acidity in, 60. + albumin, 10. + ash, 11. + bacteria in, 21. + bacterial contamination of, 21. + buying, 343. + casein in, 9, 224. + clean, 22. + colostrum in, 13. + composition of, 5, 6, 56, 222. + constituents, 7. + defined, 5. + enzymes in, 11. + fat in, 8, 224. + flavors in, 11. + from diseased cows, 13. + germicidal property, 22. + lactose in, 10. + moisture in, 8. + odors in, 12. + paying for, 343. + quality in, 5. + sugar (lactose), 10. + variation in composition, 6. + + Milking machines, 25. + + Milk-sugar, 10. + + Moisture and acidity, 70. + + Moisture control, 68, 69. + + Moisture limits in cheese, 358. + + Moisture test (Troy's), 337-342. + + Molding machines for Neufchâtel, 98. + + Molding Neufchâtel, 104. + + Molds, + in Cheddar, 271. + in milk, 21. + + Monrad, J. H., 112, 114, 180. + + Moore, V. A., and A. R. Ward, 217. + + Morrow, G. A., and A. G. Manns, 7. + + Mottled Cheddar, 221, 270. + + Mucors, 93. + + Münster, 147, 148, 366. + + Mysost, 293, 295. + + + Natural starter, 43. + + Neufchâtel, 80, 85, 86, 89, 371. + American, 95. + domestic, 95, 106. + factory, 95. + group discussed, 94 to 109. + packages, 98. + ripened form, 114-116, 117. + yield, 107. + + New Jersey Exp. Sta. Rept., 7. + + New York (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Rept., 7, 8, 174. + + New York Mercantile Exchange, 351-356. + + New York Price Current, 315, 351. + + New York Produce Review, 165, 233, 280. + + New York State Department of Agriculture, 13. + + Niszler (Swiss) cheese, 286. + + Nut cheese, 109. + + + Odors absorbed by milk, 12. + + Oidium (Oospora) lactis, 113, 116, 131, 136, 163. + + Oka cheese, 169. + + Olimento cheese, 109. + + Olive cheese, 109. + + Olson, G. A., 74. + + Ontario Agricultural College Bulletins, 7, 228. + + Over-ripe milk, 218. + + + Pails, 24, 25. + + Paracasein, 35, 250. + + Paraffining Cheddar, 263. + + Parmesan cheese, 2, 80, 86, 173, 288-291. + + Pasteurization, 11, 26, 45, 229, 396. + + Pasteurized Cheddar, 229. + + Pasty body, 270. + + Paying for milk, 343-346. + + Penicillium brevicaule, 129. + camemberti, 116, 126, 127, 131. + camemberti var. rogeri, 116. + candidum, 116. + roqueforti, 155, 156, 159, 163. + + Pennsylvania pot cheese, 113. + + Pepsin, 30, 33. + + Peptonizing bacteria, 20. + + Percival, J., and G. Heather Mason, 163. + + Perishable varieties, 356. + + Peroxidase, 11. + + Petit Carré, 94, 114. + + Petite Suisse, 94, 114. + + Petits Bondons, 114. + + Petry, E., 36, 39. + + Philadelphia cream, 109, 360. + + Picnic cheese, 230. + + Pimiento cheese, 85, 101. + + Pimientos in Cheddar, 238. + + Pim-olive cheese, 109. + + Pineapple cheese, 184, 238. + + Pohl curd mill, 208. + + Poisoning by cheese, 370. + + Pont l'Eveque cheese, 135. + + Pooling method, 345. + + Port du Salut cheese, 136, 169 to 171. + + Pot cheese, 113. + + Pouriau, A. F., 82, 114. + + Press cloths, 212. + + Presses, 214, 215. + + Prices, + distribution of, 357-359. + yearly average of, 323. + + Primost, 295. + + Processed cheese, 84. + + Propionic acid in cheese, 247, 248. + + Provolono, 294. + + Prucha, M. J., and H. M. Weeter, 23. + + Ptyalin, 30. + + Publow, C. A., 60. + + Publow's test, 62. + + Pure culture starter, 43. + + + Quality, + in Cheddar, 272-273. + in Edam, 180. + in Limburger, 145. + in milk, 6. + in Swiss, 286. + + Quevenne lactometer, 335. + + + Rabbit cheese, 372. + + Raffiné cheese, 137, 138. + + Recipes for cooking cheese, 375-381. + + Reductase, 11. + + Regianito cheese, 292. + + Reich, R., 363. + + Rennet, 9, 30, 312. + action, 33 to 40. + action, chemistry of, 33 + action delayed by, 73. + adding, 72. + amount to use, 72. + extract, 31, 279. + for Camembert, 121. + for Cheddar, 192. + for Limburger, 141. + for Neufchâtel, 100. + for Roquefort, 153. + for Swiss, 279. + in ripening Cheddar, 250. + strength of, 72. + temperature of using, 71. + test, 62. + + Rennin, 30. + + Rice and cheese, 377. + + Ricotte, 11, 295. + + Robbiola, 117. + + Robertson, T. Brailsford, 38. + + Robertson's theory of casein, 34. + + Roger, Georges, 116. + + Rogers, L. A., 16. + + Rogers, L. A., and B. J. Davis, 16. + + Roquefort cheese, 2, 86, 150, 158, 368, 369, 371. + acidity for, 153. + caves for, 151. + composition of, 151. + curdling for, 153. + cutting curd for, 154. + draining, 154. + from cow's milk, 152. + milk for, 153. + mold for, 154. + ripening of, 156-157. + salting, 155. + setting, 153. + temperature, 153. + + Ruddick, J. A., and G. H. Baur, 26. + + Russell, H. L., 189, 217. + + Rusty spots, 74, 306. + + + Sage cheese, 239-241. + + Salt in Cheddar ripening, 259. + + Salting, + Camembert, 122. + Cheddar, 211. + Limburger, 142. + Neufchâtel, 102. + Roquefort, 155. + Swiss, 283. + + Sammis, J. L., 95, 228, 296, 337, 347, 349. + + Sammis, J. L., and A. T. Bruhn, 11, 41, 57, 229. + + Sammis, J. L., S. K. Suzuki and F. W. Laabs, 33. + + Sammis' method, 229. + + Sap sago, 294. + + Schenk, C., 165. + + Schmidt-Nielson, S., 36, 39. + + Schmierkäse, 90. + + Schroeder, E. C., 99. + + Schweitzer cheese, 276. + + Score-card, + for Brick, 169. + for Cheddar, 271. + for Limburger, 146. + for starter, 51. + for Swiss, 287. + + Sediment test, 27, 28. + + Semi-hard cheeses, 149-171. + + Setting, 71. + + Shaw, R. H. (and C. H. Eckles), 7. + + Sheep's milk, 151, 152. + + Sheep's milk cheese, 150. + + Sheldon, J. P., 161. + + Shot-gun cans, 97. + + Size factor in ripening, 263. + + Skim cheese, 89, 361, 366. + bacteria, 134-147. + Cheddar, 241-246. + Neufchâtel, 105, 107. + ripened by molds, 111. + + Soft cheeses, 82-83, 86. + + Solids not fat, 335-337. + + Speed knife, 217. + + Spiro, K., 36, 39. + + Square cream, 109. + + Standards, 359. + + Starter, 42. + amount to use, 52. + care of milk for, 47. + commercial, 43. + containers for, 45. + for Brick, 165. + for Camembert, 121. + for Cheddar, 189. + for Neufchâtel, 99. + for Roquefort, 153. + for Swiss, 279. + handling, 42-50. + lot-card for, 53. + "mother," 47 + natural, 42. + pasteurization of, 45. + propagation of, 46-48. + qualities of, 50. + score-card for, 51. + + Startoline, 47. + + State brands, 360. + + Stevenson, C., 29. + + Stilton cheese, 161-163. + + Stirred curd cheese, 232. + + Stocking, W. A., Jr., 22, 23, 25. + + Storage of cheese, 103. + + Streptococcus lacticus, 41. + + Streptothrix-actinomyces group, 21. + + Succinic acid, 254. + + Suzuki, S. K., 247. + + Sweet curd cheese, 236. + + Swiss cheese, 80, 86, 173, 276-288, 358, 366, 368, 371. + block, 278. + breaking, 281. + composition, 287. + curing, 283. + cutting, 280. + drum, 278. + eyes in, 283-285. + factories, 276-278. + making process, 280-283. + pressing, 282. + quality in, 286. + rennet for, 279. + salting, 283. + score-card for, 287. + starter for, 279. + testing, Chapter XIX, 327. + + Swiss harp, 278. + + + Tests, + acid, 60, 61. + Babcock, 327-334. + casein, 334. + curd, 26. + fat, 327. + fermentation, 26. + Hart, 334. + hot-iron, 201. + lactometer, 335-337. + moisture in cheese, 337-342. + rennet, 62. + sediment, 27, 28. + solids not fat, 335-337. + Troy's moisture, 337-342. + + Thom, C., 117, 154, 155, 158, 372. + + Thom, C., and S. H. Ayers, 21. + + Thom, C., and J. N. Currie, 156. + + Thom, C., J. N. Currie, and K. J. Matheson, 116, 152. + + Thom, C., and K. J. Matheson, 149. + + Tinfoil wrapping, 145. + + Todd, A., and E. C. V. Cornish, 29. + + Tolstrup, R. M., 91. + + Trappist, 169. + + Trier, 272. + + Troy, H. C., 337. + + Trypsin, 30. + + Twins, 230. + + Tyrein, 35. + + + U. S. Census Report, quoted, 317, 318 to 322. + + U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbooks, quoted, 326. + + U. S. Treasury Dept. Hygienic Laboratory Bulletin, 22. + + Utensils, 24. + + + Valerianic acid in cheese, 136. + + Van Dam, W., 29, 36, 39. + + Van Eyck Machine Co., 98. + + Van Herwerden, M., 36, 39. + + Van Slyke, L. L., 8, 223, 224, 225, 251, 257, 262. + + Van Slyke, L. L., and A. W. Bosworth, 9, 36, 39, 40, 249. + + Van Slyke, L. L., and D. D. Van Slyke, 33. + + Van Slyke, L. L., and E. B. Hart, 38, 40, 91, 201, 249, 256. + + Van Slyke, L. L., and C. A. Publow, 310. + + Van Slyke, L. L., and O. B. Winter, 249. + + Vat, 190. + + Vermont Exp. Sta. Rept., 7. + + Victor curd mill, 208. + + + Ward, A. R., 217. + + Washed curd process, 236. + + Water in milk, 8. + + Welsh rabbit, 377. + + Wensleydale, 184. + + Whey, 222. + + Whey butter, 295. + + Whey cheese, 85, 295. + + Whey siphon, 202. + + Whey strainer, 202, 203. + + Whey tank, 301, 303. + + White cheese, 109. + + Williams, Jesse, 313. + + Wilson hoop, 212. + + Wing, Lois W., 25. + + Wisconsin Agr. Law, 13, 347. + + Wisconsin curd test, 26. + + Wisconsin pasteurized Cheddar, 229. + + Wisconsin Sta. Bul., quoted, 7, 8, 10, 26, 251, 253. + + Working of curd, 102, 135. + + Wuethrich, F., 165. + + + Yeasts, 21. + + Yield of, Brick, 169. + Camembert, 130. + Cheddar, 226. + Limburger, 146. + Neufchâtel (whole milk), 107. + Swiss, 287. + + Young America, 230. + + + Zumkehr, P. 139. + + * * * * * + +The following pages contain advertisements of a +few of the Macmillan books on kindred subjects + + +THE RURAL TEXT-BOOK SERIES + +EDITED BY L. H. BAILEY + +Butter + +BY E. S. GUTHRIE + +Professor in the Dairy Department, New York State College of +Agriculture, Cornell University + +A practical discussion of the general characteristics of butter, and of +all of the problems connected with its manufacture and marketing, +together with a brief history of the product. Among the topics +considered are the history of butter; composition and food value of +butter; cleansing and care of dairy utensils; care of milk and cream; +cream separation; grading milk and cream and neutralizing acidity; +pasteurization; cream ripening; churning, washing, salting and packing +butter; flavors of butter; storage of butter; marketing; whey butter, +renovated and ladled butter; margarine, and testing. + +THE MACMILLAN COMPANY + + Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York + + +A Manual of Milk Products + +BY W. A. STOCKING, JR. + +Professor of Dairy Bacteriology in the New York State College of +Agriculture at Cornell University + +_$2.00_ + +This is the most recent addition to the Rural Manual Series under the +editorship of L. H. Bailey. The work is intended to serve as a reference +book covering the entire subject of milk and its products. There are +chapters on The Chemical Composition of Milk, The Factors Which +Influence Its Composition, Physical Properties, The Various Tests Used +in the Study of Milk, The Production and Handling of Milk, Butter +Making, The Cream Supply, Butter Making on the Farm, Cheese Making, and +the Bacteriology of Dairy Products. + +THE MACMILLAN COMPANY + + Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York + + +The Modern Milk Problem + +BY J. SCOTT MACNUTT + +Lecturer on Public Health Service in the Massachusetts Institute of +Technology + +_With 16 plates and 22 illustrations. Cloth, 12mo, $2.00_ + +Notwithstanding the fact that the milk problem is constantly growing +more acute in many parts of the United States, no book has thus far +appeared treating, in a brief space, its main aspects and stressing the +practical and economic as well as the sanitary factors involved. The +present volume is designed to fill this obvious need by providing a +convenient survey of a perplexing subject--not merely for health +officials and milk inspectors, but also for dairy-men and city milk +dealers, agricultural authorities, legislators charged with the framing +of milk laws, inquiring consumers and members of organizations engaged +in efforts to secure better milk supplies, physicians, and all others +who are interested in the understanding and solution of the milk +problem. The entire work is essentially practical and valuable as a +constant reference. + +THE MACMILLAN COMPANY + + Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York + + +Cooperation: The Hope of the Consumer + +BY EMERSON P. HARRIS + +President of the Montclair Coöperative Society. With an Introduction by +JOHN GRAHAM BROOKS. + + _Cloth, 12mo_ + +The author's purpose has been to discuss coöperative purchasing, to show +why it is desirable, to indicate the evils which it reforms, to present +the operation of a coöperative store and to consider the difficulties +which must be overcome. + +The titles of the four parts into which this work is divided are as +follows: The Failure of Our Middlemanism, Reasons and the Remedy, +Practical Coöperation, Background and Outlook. + + +The Marketing of Farm Products + +BY L. D. H. WELD + + _$1.60_ + +This book aims to set forth the fundamental principles of market +distribution as applied to the marketing of agricultural products. It +begins by pointing out the place that marketing occupies in the general +field of economics, and by applying accepted economic principles to the +marketing process. It then explains the general organization and methods +of marketing, beginning with marketing at country points, and passes on +to a description of the methods and functions of the various classes of +wholesale dealers. After describing the factors affecting the cost of +marketing, illustrated by data concerning the marketing of certain +specific products, a number of special problems are treated, such as +price quotations, future trading, inspection and grading, public +markets, coöperative marketing, etc. + +THE MACMILLAN COMPANY + + Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York + + + + +----------------------------------------------------------------+ + | Transcriber's note: | + | | + | The original text contains a large number of words which occur | + | in hyphenated and spaced forms with comparable frequency. Such | + | inconsistencies have been retained in this version. | + +----------------------------------------------------------------+ + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 40318 *** |