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diff --git a/40315-8.txt b/40315-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 7d6825b..0000000 --- a/40315-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9513 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Contemporary Review, Volume 36, -December 1879, by Various - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: The Contemporary Review, Volume 36, December 1879 - -Author: Various - -Release Date: July 25, 2012 [EBook #40315] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CONTEMPORARY REVIEW *** - - - - -Produced by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier, Lesley Halamek -and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - -[Transcriber's Note: - -The first part of this volume (September 1879) was produced as Project -Gutenberg Ebook #30048. The relevant part of the table of contents has -been extracted from that document. - -The rest of the Transcriber Notes are at the end of the Book.] - - * * * * * - -_The Contemporary Review, Volume 36, Issue 4_ - -Published December 1879. - - * * * * * - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - DECEMBER, 1879. - PAGE - The Lord's Prayer and the Church: Letters Addressed to the Clergy. - By John Ruskin, D.C.L. 539 - - India under Lord Lytton. By Lieut.-Colonel R. D. Osborn 553 - - On the Utility to Flowers of their Beauty. By the Hon. Justice 574 - - Where are we in Art? By Lady Verney 588 - - Life in Constantinople Fifty Years Ago. By an Eastern Statesman 601 - - Miracles, Prayer, and Law. By J. Boyd Kinnear 617 - - What is Rent? By Professor Bonamy Price 630 - - Buddhism and Jainism. By Professor Monier Williams 644 - - Lord Beaconsfield:-- 665 - - I. Why we Follow Him. By a Tory. - II. Why we Disbelieve in Him. By a Whig. - - Contemporary Life and Thought in France. By Gabriel Monod 697 - - * * * * * - - - - -THE LORD'S PRAYER AND THE CHURCH. - -LETTERS ADDRESSED BY JOHN RUSKIN, D.C.L., - - - - -TO THE CLERGY. - - -The following letters, which are still receiving the careful -consideration of many of my brother clergy, are, at the suggestion of -the Editor, now printed in the CONTEMPORARY REVIEW, with the object -of eliciting a further and wider expression of opinion. In addition -to the subjoined brief Introductory Address, I desire here to say that -every reader of these remarkable letters should remember that they -have proceeded from the pen of a very eminent layman, who has not had -the advantage, or disadvantage, of any special theological training; -but yet whose extensive studies in Art have not prevented him from -fully recognizing, and boldly avowing, his belief that religion is -everybody's business, and _his_ not less than another's. The draught -may be a bitter one for some of us; but it is a salutary medicine, and -we ought not to shrink from swallowing it. - -I shall be glad to receive such expressions of opinion as I may be -favoured with from the thoughtful readers of the CONTEMPORARY REVIEW. -Those comments or replies, along with the original letters, and -an essay or commentary from myself as editor, will be published by -Messrs. Strahan & Co., and appear early in the spring; the volume -being closed by a reply, or Epilogue, from Mr. Ruskin himself. - - F. A. MALLESON, M.A. - - The Vicarage, Broughton-in-Furness. - - -INTRODUCTION. - -The first reading of the Letters to the Furness Clerical Society was -prefaced with the following remarks:-- - -A few words by way of introduction will be absolutely necessary before -I proceed to read Mr. Ruskin's letters. They originated simply in a -proposal of mine, which met with so ready and willing a response, -that it almost seemed like a simultaneous thought. They are addressed -nominally to myself, as representing the body of clergy whose -secretary I have the honour to be; they are, in fact, therefore -addressed to this Society primarily. But in the course of the -next month or two they will also be read to two other Clerical -Societies,--the Ormskirk and the Brighton (junior),--who have acceded -to my proposals with much kindness, and in the first case have invited -me of their own accord. I have undertaken, to the best of my ability, -to arrange and set down the various expressions of opinion, which will -be freely uttered. In so limited a time, many who may have much to say -that would be really valuable will find no time to-day to deliver it. -Of these brethren, I beg that they will do me the favour to express -their views at their leisure, in writing. The original letters, the -discussions, the letters which may be suggested, and a few comments -of the Editor's, will be published in a volume which will appear, I -trust, in the beginning of the next year. - -I will now, if you please, undertake the somewhat dangerous -responsibility of avowing my own impressions of the letters I am -about to read to you. I own that I believe I see in these papers -the development of a principle of the deepest interest and -importance,--namely, the application of the highest and loftiest -standard in the interpretation of the Gospel message _to_ ourselves as -clergymen, and _from_ ourselves to our congregations. We have plenty -elsewhere of doctrine and dogma, and undefinable shades of theological -opinion. Let us turn at last to practical questions presented for our -consideration by an eminent layman whose field of work lies quite as -much in religion and ethics, as it does, reaching to so splendid an -eminence, in Art. A man is wanted to show to both clergy and laity -something of the full force and meaning of Gospel teaching. Many there -are, and I am of this number, whose cry is "_Exoriare aliquis_." - -I ask you, if possible, to do in an hour what I have been for the last -two months trying to do, to divest myself of old forms of thought, to -cast off self-indulgent views of our duty as ministers of religion, -to lift ourselves out of those grooves in which we are apt to run so -smoothly and so complacently, persuading ourselves that all is well -just as it is, and to endeavour to strike into a sterner, harder path, -beset with difficulties, but still the path of duty. These papers will -demand a close, a patient, and in some places, a few will think, an -indulgent consideration; but as a whole, the standard taken is, as I -firmly believe, speaking only for myself, lofty and Christian, to the -extent of an almost ideal perfection. If we do go forward straight -in the direction which Mr. Ruskin points out, I know we shall come, -sooner or later, to a chasm right across our path. Some of us, I hope, -will undauntedly cross it. Let each judge for himself, [Greek: tô -telei pistin pherôn]. - - - - -LETTERS. - - -I. - - BRANTWOOD, CONISTON, - LANCASHIRE, _20th June, 1879_. - -DEAR MR. MALLESON,--I could not at once answer your important letter: -for, though I felt at once the impossibility of my venturing to -address such an audience as you proposed, I am unwilling to fail in -answering to any call relating to matters respecting which my feelings -have been long in earnest, if in any wise it may be possible for me to -be of service therein. My health--or want of it--now utterly forbids -my engagement in any duty involving excitement or acute intellectual -effort; but I think, before the first Tuesday in August, I might be -able to write one or two letters to yourself, referring to, and -more or less completing, some passages already printed in _Fors_ -and elsewhere, which might, on your reading any portions you thought -available, become matter of discussion during the meeting at some -leisure time, after its own main purposes had been answered. - -At all events, I will think over what I should like, and be able, -to represent to such a meeting, and only beg you not to think me -insensible of the honour done me by your wish, and of the gravity of -the trust reposed in me. - - Ever most faithfully yours, - - J. RUSKIN. - - THE REV. F. A. MALLESON. - - -II. - - BRANTWOOD, CONISTON, - _23rd June, 1879_. - -DEAR MR. MALLESON,--Walking, and talking, are now alike impossible to -me;[1] my strength is gone for both; nor do I believe talking on such -matters to be of the least use except to promote, between sensible -people, kindly feeling and knowledge of each other's personal -characters. I have every trust in _your_ kindness and truth; nor do I -fear being myself misunderstood by you; what I may be able to put -into written form, so as to admit of being laid before your friends in -council, must be set down without any question of personal feeling--as -simply as a mathematical question or demonstration. - -The first exact question which it seems to me such an assembly may -he earnestly called upon by laymen to solve, is surely axiomatic: the -definition of themselves as a body, and of their business as such. - -Namely: as clergymen of the Church of England, do they consider -themselves to be so called merely as the attached servants of a -particular state? Do they, in their quality of guides, hold a position -similar to that of the guides of Chamouni or Grindelwald, who, being -a numbered body of examined and trustworthy persons belonging to those -several villages, have nevertheless no Chamounist or Grindelwaldist -opinions on the subject of Alpine geography or glacier walking: but -are prepared to put into practice a common and universal science -of Locality and Athletics, founded on sure survey and successful -practice? Are the clergymen of the Ecclesia of England thus simply the -attached and salaried guides of England and the English, in the way, -known of all good men, that leadeth unto life?--or are they, on the -contrary, a body of men holding, or in any legal manner required, or -compelled to hold, opinions on the subject--say, of the height of the -Celestial Mountains, the crevasses which go down quickest to the pit, -and other cognate points of science--differing from, or even contrary -to, the tenets of the guides of the Church of France, the Church of -Italy, and other Christian countries? - -Is not this the first of all questions which a Clerical Council has to -answer in open terms? - - Ever affectionately yours, - - J. RUSKIN. - - [Footnote 1: In answer to the proposal of discussing the - subject during a mountain walk.] - - -III. - - BRANTWOOD, _6th July_. - -My first letter contained a Layman's plea for a clear answer to the -question, "What is a clergyman of the Church of England?" Supposing -the answer to this first to be, that the clergy of the Church of -England are teachers, not of the Gospel to England, but of the Gospel -to all nations; and not of the Gospel of Luther, nor of the Gospel -of Augustine, but of the Gospel of Christ,--then the Layman's second -question would be: - -Can this Gospel of Christ be put into such plain words and short terms -as that a plain man may understand it?--and, if so, would it not be, -in a quite primal sense, desirable that it should be so, rather than -left to be gathered out of Thirty-nine Articles, written by no means -in clear English, and referring, for further explanation of exactly -the most important point in the whole tenour of their teaching,[1] -to a "Homily of Justification,"[2] which is not generally in the -possession, or even probably within the comprehension, of simple -persons? - - Ever faithfully yours, - - J. RUSKIN. - - [Footnote 1: Art xi.] - - [Footnote 2: Homily xi. of the Second Table.] - - -IV. - - BRANTWOOD, _8th July_. - -I am so very glad that you approve of the letter plan, as it enables -me to build up what I would fain try to say, of little stones, without -lifting too much for my strength at once; and the sense of addressing -a friend who understands me and sympathizes with me prevents my being -brought to a stand by continual need for apology, or fear of giving -offence. - -But yet I do not quite see why you should feel my asking for a simple -and comprehensible statement of the Christian Gospel at starting. -Are you not bid to go into _all_ the world and preach it to every -creature? (I should myself think the clergyman, most likely to do good -who accepted the [Greek: pasê tê ktisei] so literally as at least to -sympathize with St. Francis' sermon to the birds, and to feel that -feeding either sheep or fowls, or unmuzzling the ox, or keeping the -wrens alive in the snow, would be received by their Heavenly Feeder as -the _perfect_ fulfilment of His "Feed my sheep" in the higher sense.) - -That's all a parenthesis; for although I should think that your -good company would all agree that kindness to animals was a kind of -preaching to them, and that hunting and vivisection were a kind of -blasphemy to them, I want only to put the sterner question before -your council, _how_ this Gospel is to be preached either "[Greek: -pantachou]" or to "[Greek: panta ta ethnê]," if first its preachers -have not determined quite clearly what it _is_? And might not such -definition, acceptable to the entire body of the Church of Christ, be -arrived at by merely explaining, in their completeness and life, the -terms of the Lord's Prayer--the first words taught to children all -over the Christian world? - -I will try to explain what I mean of its several articles, in -following letters; and in answer to the question with which you close -your last, I can only say that you are at perfect liberty to use any, -or all, or any parts of them, as you think good. Usually, when I am -asked if letters of mine may be printed, I say; "Assuredly, provided -only that you print them entire." But in your hands, I withdraw even -this condition, and trust gladly to your judgment, remaining always - - Faithfully and affectionately yours, - - J. RUSKIN. - - THE REV. F. A. MALLESON. - - -V. - - BRANTWOOD, _10th July_. - -My meaning, in saying that the Lord's Prayer might be made a -foundation of Gospel-teaching, was not that it contained all that -Christian ministers have to teach; but that it contains what all -Christians are agreed upon as first to be taught; and that no good -parish-working pastor in any district of the world but would be glad -to take his part in making it clear and living to his congregation. - -And the first clause of it, of course rightly explained, gives us the -ground of what is surely a mighty part of the Gospel--its "first and -great commandment," namely, that we have a Father whom we _can_ love, -and are required to love, and to desire to be with Him in Heaven, -wherever that may be. - -And to declare that we have such a loving Father, whose mercy is over -_all_ His works, and whose will and law is so lovely and lovable that -it is sweeter than honey, and more precious than gold, to those who -can "taste" and "see" that the Lord is Good--this, surely, is a most -pleasant and glorious good message and _spell_ to bring to men--as -distinguished from the evil message and accursed spell that Satan has -brought to the nations of the world instead of it, that they have no -Father, but only "a consuming fire" ready to devour them, unless they -are delivered from its raging flame by some scheme of pardon for all, -for which they are to be thankful, not to the Father, but to the Son. - -Supposing this first article of the true Gospel agreed to, how -would the blessing that closes the epistles of that Gospel become -intelligible and living, instead of dark and dead: "The grace -of Christ, and the _love_ of God, and the fellowship of the Holy -Ghost,"--the most _tender_ word being that used of the Father? - - -VI. - - BRANTWOOD, _12th July, 1879_. - -I wonder how many, even of those who honestly and attentively join in -our Church services, attach any distinct idea to the second clause of -the Lord's Prayer, the _first petition_ of it, the first thing that -they are ordered by Christ to seek of their Father? - -Am I unjust in thinking that most of them have little more notion on -the matter than that God has forbidden "bad language," and wishes them -to pray that everybody may be respectful to Him? - -Is it any otherwise with the Third Commandment? Do not most look on -it merely in the light of the Statute of Swearing? and read the words -"will not hold him guiltless" merely as a passionless intimation that -however carelessly a man may let out a round oath, there really is -something wrong in it? - -On the other hand, can anything be more tremendous than the words -themselves--double-negatived: - - "[Greek: ou gar mê katharisêi ... kyrios]"? - -For _other_ sins there is washing;--for this, none! the seventh verse, -Ex. xx., in the Septuagint, marking the real power rather than the -English, which (I suppose) is literal to the Hebrew. - -To my layman's mind, of practical needs in the present state of -the Church, nothing is so immediate as that of explaining to the -congregation the meaning of being gathered in His name, and having -Him in the midst of them; as, on the other hand, of being gathered -in blasphemy of His name, and having the devil in the midst of -them--presiding over the prayers which have become an abomination. - -For the entire body of the texts in the Gospel against hypocrisy are -one and all nothing but the expansion of the threatening that closes -the Third Commandment. For as "the name whereby He shall be called is -the Lord our Righteousness,"--so the taking that name in vain is the -sum of "the deceivableness of _un_righteousness in them that perish." - -Without dwelling on the possibility--which I do not myself, however, -for a moment doubt--of an honest clergyman's being able actually to -prevent the entrance among his congregation of persons leading openly -wicked lives, could any subject be more vital to the purposes of your -meetings than the difference between the present and the probable -state of the Christian Church which would result, were it more the -effort of zealous parish priests, instead of getting wicked _poor_ -people to _come_ to church, to get wicked rich ones to stay out of it? - -Lest, in any discussion of such question, it might be, as it too often -is, alleged that "the Lord looketh upon the heart," &c., let me be -permitted to say--with as much positiveness as may express my deepest -conviction--that, while indeed it is the Lord's business to look upon -the heart, it is the pastor's to look upon the hands and the lips; and -that the foulest oaths of the thief and the street-walker are, in the -ears of God, sinless as the hawk's cry, or the gnat's murmur, compared -to the responses, in the Church service, on the lips of the usurer and -the adulterer, who have destroyed, not their own souls only, but those -of the outcast ones whom they have made their victims. - -It is for the meeting of clergymen themselves--not for a layman -addressing them--to ask further, how much the name of God may be taken -in vain, and profaned instead of hallowed--_in_ the pulpit, as well as -under it. - - Ever affectionately yours, - - J. RUSKIN. - - -VII. - - BRANTWOOD, _14th July, 1879_. - -DEAR MR. MALLESON,--Sincere thanks for both your letters and the -proofs sent. Your comment and conducting link, when needed, will be -of the greatest help and value, I am well assured, suggesting what you -know will be the probable feeling of your hearers, and the point that -will come into question. - -Yes, certainly, that "His" in the fourth line[1] was meant to imply -that eternal presence of Christ; as in another passage,[2] referring -to the Creation, "when His right hand strewed the snow on Lebanon, -and smoothed the slopes of Calvary," but in so far as we dwell on that -truth, "Hast thou seen _Me_, Philip, and not the Father?" we are not -teaching the people what is specially the Gospel of _Christ_ as -having a distinct function--namely, to _serve_ the Father, and do the -Father's will. And in all His human relations to us, and commands to -us, it is as the Son of Man, not as the "power of God and wisdom of -God," that He acts and speaks. Not as the Power; for _He_ must pray, -like one of us. Not as the Wisdom; for He must not know "if it be -possible" His prayer should be heard. - -And in what I want to say of the third clause of His prayer (_His_, -not merely as His ordering, but His using), it is especially this -comparison between _His_ kingdom, and His Father's, that I want to see -the disciples guarded against. I believe very few, even of the most -earnest, using that petition, realize that it is the Father's--not the -Son's--kingdom, that they pray may come,--although the whole prayer is -foundational on that fact: "_For_ THINE is the kingdom, the power, and -the glory." And I fancy that the mind of the most faithful Christians -is quite led away from its proper hope, by dwelling on the reign--or -the coming again--of Christ; which, indeed, they are to look for, -and _watch_ for, but not to pray for. Their prayer is to be for the -greater kingdom to which He, risen and having all His enemies under -His feet, is to surrender _His_, "that God may be All in All." - -And, though the greatest, it is that everlasting kingdom which the -poorest of us can advance. We cannot hasten Christ's coming. "Of the -day and the hour, knoweth none." But the kingdom of God is as a -grain of mustard-seed:--we can sow of it; it is as a foam-globe of -leaven:--we can mingle it; and its glory and its joy are that even the -birds of the air can lodge in the branches thereof. - -Forgive me for getting back to my sparrows; but truly, in the present -state of England, the fowls of the air are the only creatures, -tormented and murdered as they are, that yet have here and there -nests, and peace, and joy in the Holy Ghost. And it would be well if -many of us, in reading that text, "The kingdom of God is NOT meat and -drink," had even got so far as to the understanding that it was at -least _as much_, and that until we had fed the hungry, there was no -power in us to inspire the unhappy. - - Ever affectionately yours, - - J. RUSKIN. - -I will write my feeling about the pieces of the Life of Christ you -have sent me, in a private letter. I may say at once that I am sure it -will do much good, and will be upright and intelligible, which how few -religious writings are! - - [Footnote 1: "Modern Painters."] - - [Footnote 2: Referring to the closing sentence of the third - paragraph of the fifth letter, which _seemed_ to express what - I felt could not be Mr. Ruskin's full meaning, I pointed out - to him the following sentence in "Modern Painters:"-- - - "When, in the desert, Jesus was girding Himself for the work - of life, angels of life came and ministered unto Him; now, - in the fair world, when He is girding Himself for the work of - death, the ministrants come to Him from the grave; but from - the grave conquered. One from the tomb under Abarim, which - _His_ own hand had sealed long ago; the other from the rest - which He had entered without seeing corruption." - - On this I made a remark somewhat to the following effect: that - I felt sure Mr. Ruskin regarded the loving work of the Father - and of the Son to be _equal_ in the forgiveness of sins and - redemption of mankind; that what is done by the Father is - in reality done also by the Son; and that it is by a mere - accommodation to human infirmity of understanding that - the doctrine of the Trinity is revealed to us in language, - inadequate indeed to convey divine truths, but still the only - language possible; and I asked whether some such feeling was - not present in his mind when he used the pronoun "His," in - the above passage from "Modern Painters" of the Son, where it - would be usually understood of the Father; and as a corollary, - whether, in the letter, he does not himself fully recognize - the fact of the redemption of the world by the loving - self-sacrifice of the Son in entire concurrence with the - equally loving will of the Father. This, as well as I - can recollect, is the origin of the passage in the second - paragraph in the seventh letter.--_Editor of Letters._] - - -VIII. - - BRANTWOOD, _9th August, 1879_. - -I was reading the second chapter of Malachi this morning by chance, -and wondering how many clergymen ever read it, and took to heart the -"commandment for _them_." - -For they are always ready enough to call themselves priests (though -they know themselves to be nothing of the sort) whenever there is any -dignity to be got out of the title; but, whenever there is any good, -hot scolding or unpleasant advice given them by the prophets, in that -self-assumed character of theirs, they are as ready to quit it as -ever Dionysus his lion-skin, when he finds the character of Herakles -inconvenient. - -"Ye have wearied the Lord with your words," (yes, and some of His -people, too, in your time): "yet ye say, Wherein have we wearied Him? -When ye say, Every one that doeth evil is good in the sight of the -Lord, and He delighteth in them; or, Where is the God of judgment?" - -How many, again and again I wonder, of the lively young ecclesiastics -supplied to the increasing demand of our west-ends of flourishing -Cities of the Plain, ever consider what sort of sin it is for which -God (unless they lay it to heart) will "curse their blessings, and -spread dung upon their faces," or have understood, even in the dimmest -manner, what part _they_ had taken, and were taking, in "corrupting -the covenant of the Lord with Levi, and causing many to stumble at the -Law." - -Perhaps the most subtle and unconscious way in which the religious -teachers upon whom the ends of the world are come, have done this, is -in never telling their people the meaning of the clause in the Lord's -Prayer, which, of all others, their most earnest hearers have oftenest -on their lips: "Thy will be done." They allow their people to use -it as if their Father's will were always to kill their babies, or do -something unpleasant to them, instead of explaining to them that -the first and intensest article of their Father's will was their own -sanctification, and following comfort and wealth; and that the -one only path to national prosperity and to domestic peace was to -understand what the will of the Lord was, and to do all they could -to get it done. Whereas one would think, by the tone of the eagerest -preachers nowadays, that they held their blessed office to be that, -not of showing men how to do their Father's will on earth, but how to -get to heaven without doing any of it either here or there! - -I say, especially, the most eager preachers; for nearly the whole -Missionary body (with the hottest Evangelistic sect of the English -Church) is at this moment composed of men who think the Gospel they -are to carry to mend the world with, forsooth, is that, "If any man -sin, he hath an Advocate with the Father;" while I have never yet, in -my own experience, met either with a Missionary or a Town Bishop who -so much as professed himself "to understand what the will of the Lord" -was, far less to teach anybody else to do it; and for fifty preachers, -yes, and fifty hundreds whom I have heard proclaiming the Mediator -of the New Testament, that "they which were called might receive the -promise of eternal inheritance," I have never yet heard so much as -_one_ heartily proclaiming against all those "deceivers with vain -words" (Eph. v. 6), that "no covetous person which is an idolator hath -_any_ inheritance in the kingdom of Christ, or of God;" and on myself -personally and publicly challenging the Bishops of England generally, -and by name the Bishop of Manchester, to say whether usury was, or was -not, according to the will of God, I have received no answer from any -one of them.[1] - - _13th August._ - -I have allowed myself, in the beginning of this letter, to dwell on -the equivocal use of the word "Priest" in the English Church (see -Christopher Harvey, Grosart's edition, p. 38), because the assumption -of the mediatorial, in defect of the pastoral, office by the clergy -fulfils itself, naturally and always, in their pretending to absolve -the sinner from his punishment, instead of purging him from his sin; -and practically, in their general patronage and encouragement of all -the iniquity of the world, by steadily preaching away the penalties -of it. So that the great cities of the earth, which ought to be the -places set on its hills, with the Temple of the Lord in the midst of -them, to which the tribes should go up,--centres to the Kingdoms -and Provinces of Honour, Virtue, and the Knowledge of the law of -God,--have become, instead, loathsome centres of fornication and -covetousness--the smoke of their sin going up into the face of Heaven -like the furnace of Sodom, and the pollution of it rotting and raging -through the bones and the souls of the peasant people round them, as -if they were each a volcano whose ashes broke out in blains upon man -and upon beast. - -And in the midst of them, their freshly-set-up steeples ring the crowd -to a weekly prayer that the rest of their lives may be pure and holy, -while they have not the slightest intention of purifying, sanctifying, -or changing their lives in any the smallest particular; and their -clergy gather, each into himself, the curious dual power, and -Janus-faced majesty in mischief, of the prophet that prophesies -falsely, and the priest that bears rule by his means. - -And the people love to have it so. - - BRANTWOOD, _12th August_. - -I am very glad of your little note from Brighton. I thought it -needless to send the two letters there, which you will find at home; -and they pretty nearly end all _I_ want to say; for the remaining -clauses of the prayer touch on things too high for me. But I will send -you one concluding letter about them. - - [Footnote 1: Fors Clavigera, Letter lxxxii., p. 323.] - - -IX. - - BRANTWOOD, _19th August_. - -I retained the foregoing letter by me till now, lest you should think -it written in any haste or petulance; but it is every word of it -deliberate, though expressing the bitterness of twenty years of vain -sorrow and pleading concerning these things. Nor am I able to write, -otherwise, anything of the next following clause of the prayer;--for -no words could be burning enough to tell the evils which have come on -the world from men's using it thoughtlessly and blasphemously, praying -God to give them what they are deliberately resolved to steal. For all -true Christianity is known--as its Master was--in breaking of bread, -and all false Christianity in stealing it. - -Let the clergyman only apply--with impartial and level sweep--to his -congregation, the great pastoral order: "The man that will not work, -neither should he eat;" and be resolute in requiring each member -of his flock to tell him _what_--day by day--they do to earn their -dinners;--and he will find an entirely new view of life and its -sacraments open upon him and them. - -For the man who is not--day by day--doing work which will earn his -dinner, must be stealing his dinner; and the actual fact is that the -great mass of men, calling themselves Christians, do actually live by -robbing the poor of their bread, and by no other trade whatsoever: and -the simple examination of the mode of the produce and consumption of -European food--who digs for it, and who eats it--will prove that to -any honest human soul. - -Nor is it possible for any Christian Church to exist but in pollutions -and hypocrisies beyond all words, until the virtues of a life moderate -in its self-indulgence, and wide in its offices of temporal ministry -to the poor, are insisted on as the normal conditions in which, -only, the prayer to God for the harvest of the earth is other than -blasphemy. - -In the second place. Since in the parable in Luke, the bread asked for -is shown to be also, and chiefly, the Holy Spirit (Luke xi. 13), and -the prayer, "Give us each day our daily bread," is, in its fulness, -the disciples', "Lord, evermore give us _this_ bread,"--the -clergyman's question to his whole flock, primarily literal: "Children, -have ye here any meat?" must ultimately be always the greater -spiritual one: "Children, have ye here any Holy Spirit?" or, "Have ye -not heard yet whether there _be_ any? and, instead of a Holy Ghost the -Lord and Giver of Life, do you only believe in an unholy mammon, Lord -and Giver of Death?" - -The opposition between the two Lords has been, and will be as long -as the world lasts, absolute, irreconcileable, mortal; and the -clergyman's first message to his people of this day is--if he be -faithful--"Choose ye this day whom ye will serve." - - Ever faithfully yours, - - J. RUSKIN. - - -X. - - BRANTWOOD, _3rd September_. - -DEAR MR. MALLESON,--I have been very long before trying to say so much -as a word about the sixth clause of the Pater; for whenever I began -thinking of it, I was stopped by the sorrowful sense of the hopeless -task you poor clergymen had, nowadays, in recommending and teaching -people to love their enemies, when their whole energies were already -devoted to swindling their friends. - -But, in any days, past or now, the clause is one of such difficulty, -that, to understand it, means almost to know the love of God which -passeth knowledge. - -But, at all events, it is surely the pastor's duty to prevent his -flock from _mis_understanding it; and above all things to keep them -from supposing that God's forgiveness is to be had simply for the -asking, by those who "wilfully sin after they have received the -knowledge of the truth." - -There is one very simple lesson also, needed especially by people in -circumstances of happy life, which I have never heard fully enforced -from the pulpit, and which is usually the more lost sight of, because -the fine and inaccurate word "trespasses" is so often used instead of -the simple and accurate one "debts." Among people well educated and -happily circumstanced it may easily chance that long periods of their -lives pass without any such conscious sin as could, on any discovery -or memory of it, make them cry out, in truth and in pain,--"I have -sinned against the Lord." But scarcely an hour of their happy days can -pass over them without leaving--were their hearts open--some evidence -written there that they have "left undone the things that they ought -to have done," and giving them bitterer and heavier cause to cry, -and cry again--for ever, in the pure words of their Master's prayer, -"Dimitte nobis _debita_ nostra." - -In connection with the more accurate translation of "debts" rather -than "trespasses," it would surely be well to keep constantly in the -mind of complacent and inoffensive congregations that in Christ's -own prophecy of the manner of the last judgment, the condemnation is -pronounced only on the sins of omission: "I was hungry, and ye gave me -no meat." - -But, whatever the manner of sin, by offence or defect, which the -preacher fears in his people, surely he has of late been wholly remiss -in compelling their definite recognition of it, in its several and -personal particulars. Nothing in the various inconsistency of human -nature is more grotesque than its willingness to be taxed with any -quantity of sins in the gross, and its resentment at the insinuation -of having committed the smallest parcel of them in detail. And the -English Liturgy, evidently drawn up with the amiable intention of -making religion as pleasant as possible, to a people desirous of -saving their souls with no great degree of personal inconvenience, is -perhaps in no point more unwholesomely lenient than in its concession -to the popular conviction that we may obtain the present advantage, -and escape the future punishment, of any sort of iniquity, by -dexterously concealing the manner of it from man, and triumphantly -confessing the quantity of it to God. - -Finally, whatever the advantages and decencies of a form of prayer, -and how wide soever the scope given to its collected passages, it -cannot be at one and the same time fitted for the use of a body -of well-taught and experienced Christians, such as should join the -services of a Church nineteen centuries old,--and adapted to the needs -of the timid sinner who has that day first entered its porch, or of -the remorseful publican who has only recently become sensible of his -call to a pew. - -And surely our clergy need not be surprised at the daily increasing -distrust in the public mind of the efficacy of Prayer, after having so -long insisted on their offering supplication, _at least_ every Sunday -morning at eleven o'clock, that the rest of their lives hereafter -might be pure and holy, leaving them conscious all the while that they -would be similarly required to inform the Lord next week, at the same -hour, that "there was no health in them!" - -Among the much rebuked follies and abuses of so-called "Ritualism," -none that I have heard of are indeed so dangerously and darkly -"Ritual" as this piece of authorized mockery of the most solemn act of -human life, and only entrance of eternal life--Repentance. - - Believe me, dear Mr. Malleson, - - Ever faithfully and respectfully yours, - - J. RUSKIN. - - -XI. - - BRANTWOOD, _14th September, 1879_. - -DEAR MR. MALLESON,--The gentle words in your last letter referring -to the difference between yourself and me in the degree of hope with -which you could regard what could not but appear to the general mind -Utopian in designs for the action of the Christian Church, surely -might best be answered by appeal to the consistent tone of the prayer -we have been examining. - -Is not every one of its petitions for a perfect state? and is not -this last clause of it, of which we are to think to-day--if fully -understood--a petition not only for the restoration of Paradise, but -of Paradise in which there shall be no deadly fruit, or, at least, no -tempter to praise it? And may we not admit that it is probably only -for want of the earnest use of this last petition that not only the -preceding ones have become formal with us, but that the private and -simply restricted prayer for the little things we each severally -desire, has become by some Christians dreaded and unused, and by -others used faithlessly, and therefore with disappointment? - -And is it not for want of this special directness and simplicity of -petition, and of the sense of its acceptance, that the whole nature of -prayer has been doubted in our hearts, and disgraced by our lips; that -we are afraid to ask God's blessing on the earth, when the scientific -people tell us He has made previous arrangements to curse it; and -that, instead of obeying, without fear or debate, the plain order, -"Ask, and ye shall receive, that your joy may be full," we sorrowfully -sink back into the apology for prayer, that "it is a wholesome -exercise, even when fruitless," and that we ought piously always to -suppose that the text really means no more than "Ask, and ye shall -_not_ receive, that your joy may be _empty_?" - -Supposing we were first all of us quite sure that we _had_ prayed, -honestly, the prayer against temptation, and that we would thankfully -be refused anything we had set our hearts upon, if indeed God saw that -it would lead us into evil, might we not have confidence afterwards -that He in whose hand the King's heart is, as the rivers of water, -would turn our tiny little hearts also in the way that they should go, -and that _then_ the special prayer for the joys He taught them to seek -would be answered to the last syllable, and to overflowing? - -It is surely scarcely necessary to say, farther, what the holy -teachers of all nations have invariably concurred in showing,--that -faithful prayer implies always correlative exertion; and that no man -can ask honestly or hopefully to be delivered from temptation, unless -he has himself honestly and firmly determined to do the best he can -to keep out of it. But, in modern days, the first aim of all Christian -parents is to place their children in circumstances where the -temptations (which they are apt to call "opportunities") may be as -great and as many as possible; where the sight and promise of "all -these things" in Satan's gift may be brilliantly near; and where the -act of "falling down to worship me" may be partly concealed by the -shelter, and partly excused, as involuntary, by the pressure, of the -concurrent crowd. - -In what respect the kingdoms of the world, and the glory of _them_, -differ from the Kingdom, the Power, and the Glory, which are God's for -ever, is seldom, as far as I have heard, intelligibly explained from -the pulpit; and still less the irreconcileable hostility between the -two royalties and realms asserted in its sternness of decision. - -Whether it be, indeed, Utopian to believe that the kingdom we are -taught to pray for _may_ come--verily come--for the asking, it is -surely not for man to judge; but it is at least at his choice to -resolve that he will no longer render obedience, nor ascribe glory and -power, to the Devil. If he cannot find strength in himself to advance -towards Heaven, he may at least say to the power of Hell, "Get thee -behind me;" and staying himself on the testimony of Him who saith, -"Surely I come quickly," ratify his happy prayer with the faithful -"Amen, even so, come, Lord Jesus." - - Ever, my dear friend, - - Believe me affectionately and gratefully yours, - - J. RUSKIN. - - - - -INDIA UNDER LORD LYTTON. - - -Lord Lytton is fond of public speaking, and his more solemn speeches -are remarkable for the stream of abundant piety which runs through -them. Not unfrequently they have taken the form of addresses to some -unknown power, rather than discourses delivered to a mundane audience. -He signalized his accession to office by one of these semi-theological -orations to the members of Council assembled to meet him at Government -House, Calcutta. He said:-- - - "Gentlemen, it is my fervent prayer, that a Power higher - than that of any earthly Government may inspire and bless - the progress of our counsels; granting me, with your valued - assistance, to direct them to such issues as may prove - conducive to the honour of our country, to the authority - and prestige of its august Sovereign, to the progressive - well-being of the millions committed to our fostering care, - and to the security of the chiefs and princes of India, as - well as of our allies beyond the frontier, in the undisturbed - enjoyment of their just rights and hereditary possessions." - -The sequel renders it probable that by a "power higher than any -earthly Government," Lord Lytton understood nothing more remote from -human ken than the will of Lord Beaconsfield. At any rate, the prayer -was rejected; and under the influence of a perverse destiny, the -Viceroy has been singled out to accomplish precisely those acts from -which he entreated to be delivered. The "valued assistance" of -his colleagues in council he has systematically set at nought and -rejected; the "millions committed to his fostering care" he has (as -I shall show) permitted to perish of hunger under circumstances of -peculiar cruelty; and I need not say that he has entirely failed in -his endeavours to preserve "our allies beyond the frontier in -the undisturbed enjoyment of their just rights and hereditary -possessions." - -It is the story of these inconsistencies which I propose to tell in -the following pages. In the reading they can hardly fail to awaken -a smile; but in the acting they have brought suffering, poverty, and -death upon thousands of innocent people. Throughout India they have -shaken the confidence of the people in the humanity, justice, and -truthfulness of the British character; and have, as I believe, brought -our Indian Empire to the verge of a catastrophe, from which nothing -but a complete and immediate reversal of policy will avail to save it. - -The rule that we have set up in India is so hard and mechanical in its -character--it has so entirely failed to strike root in the affections -of the natives--that a very brief period of misgovernment suffices to -provoke an insurrection. This is occasioned mainly by two causes--the -exclusive system on which India is administered, and the absence of -all intercommunion (in any true sense of the word) between the ruling -and the subject races. It is not too much to say that under the -present system every native of ambition, ability, or education, is of -necessity a centre of disaffection towards British rule. For within -the area of British rule the ascendency of strangers makes him an -alien in his native land without scope for his power or hopes for his -ambition; and beyond that area the possession of ability awakens the -distrust and unconcealed dislike of English officialism. On the other -hand, to the great mass of the people, the English official is simply -an enigma. Their relations with him are almost exclusively official. -The magistrate of a district is little more to them than a piece of -machinery possessing powers to kill and tax and imprison. Such pieces -of machinery they behold, as Carlyle would say, in endless succession -"emerging from the inane," killing and taxing for a time, and then -"vanishing again into the inane." But the people know not whence they -come, or whither they go; their voices go for nothing in the selection -of this human machinery which hold their fortunes in its power. The -great administrative mill goes grinding on, impelled by forces of -which they have no knowledge; and the people are merely the passive, -unresisting grist which is ground up year after year. A truly -frightful and unnatural state of things! - -It is impossible that a dominion thus constituted should be otherwise -than transitory. But even for a brief space its peaceful continuance -is possible only under certain conditions. The absence of either -loyalty or thorough understanding in those who are ruled, must be -made good by the plainest rectitude of purpose on the part of the -Government, and thoroughly genuine and successful administration. If -such a Government as we have set up in India does not adhere strictly -to the letter and the spirit of its engagements--if it cannot insure -the physical well-being of its subjects--it is simply good for -nothing; because, from its very nature, it cannot achieve anything -more than this. It was the first of these conditions that Lord -Dalhousie thought he might safely set at nought; and in five years -he brought down upon us the terrible retribution of 1857. But Lord -Dalhousie was, at least, sincerely anxious to secure the "physical -well-being" of the people. He struck at the chiefs and princes -of India because he believed that they stood in the way of that -well-being. He was entirely mistaken; but nevertheless he threw down -only one of the pillars on which our rule is sustained, and when -the Mutiny came upon us, the bulk of the people remained loyal. Lord -Lytton has undermined the foundations of both pillars, and a very -brief continuance of his policy will bring them down with a crash. -How this has been accomplished I have now to relate. I begin with his -policy on the Frontier, because all the other transactions of which -I shall have to speak are connected with that policy, as effects with -their cause. - - -The Negotiations with Shere Ali. - -Despite of all that has been written and said on the subject, to most -people the origin of the war in Afghanistan appears involved in as -great obscurity as ever. Leading Liberal politicians are in this -benighted condition not less than the rank and file of the Tories. -More people than formerly are willing to admit that the Government was -rash and mistaken in its calculations--that the Treaty of Gundamuck -has not fulfilled the expectations it awakened; but a war of some -kind, they believe, was forced upon the Government by the attitude -of Russia and the disposition of the Ameer. This belief is entirely -erroneous. The war was a war of deliberately planned aggression, -entirely unjustified either by the attitude of Russia or the -disposition of the Ameer. Unless we perceive this we are not in a -position to form a sound estimate of the effect wrought in the minds -of the princes and people of India. The wanton character of the war -is, therefore, the first thing I must demonstrate. - -When Lord Lytton reached India, the situation in Afghanistan was as -follows:--The late Ameer Shere Ali had succeeded in establishing a -degree of order throughout Afghanistan, to which the country had -been a stranger for many years. His officers were loyal and devoted; -intrigue and rebellion had everywhere failed to make headway; and -he was on terms of sincere friendship with the Governor-General -at Calcutta. There was, at this time, no fear that the Russians -in Central Asia desired to exercise any unwarrantable influence in -Afghanistan; on the contrary, in the despatch to Lord Northbrook's -Government, in which Lord Salisbury propounded his new policy of -establishing a permanent Embassy at Kabul, he said-- - - "I do not desire, by the observations which I have made, to - convey to your Excellency the impression that, in the opinion - of her Majesty's Government, the Russian Government have any - intention of violating the frontier of Afghanistan.... It is - undoubtedly true that the recent advances in Central Asia have - been rather forced upon the Government of St. Petersburg than - originated by them, and that _their efforts, at present, are - sincerely directed to the prevention of any movement which may - give just umbrage to the British Government_." - -The political horizon was, therefore, cloudless at the moment selected -by Lord Salisbury for a radical change of policy in Afghanistan. This -very fact would have sufficed to arouse the suspicions of the Ameer. -Lord Salisbury has since expressed his conviction that if Lord -Northbrook had made the proposal, the Ameer would have accepted the -permanent Embassy, and both he and we should have been spared the -calamities which resulted from delay. But at the time Lord Salisbury -sent his instructions to the Government of India he thought otherwise. -He had then no doubt that if the Ameer was asked in so many words to -receive a permanent Mission in Afghanistan, the Ameer would refuse. -But he thought it was possible to fasten a Mission on him by means of -a deception. - - "The first step" Lord Salisbury wrote to the Government of - India, "in establishing our relations with the Ameer on a - more satisfactory footing will be to induce him to receive - a temporary Embassy in his capital. It need not be publicly - connected with the establishment of a permanent Mission within - his dominions. There would be many advantages in ostensibly - directing it to some object of smaller political interest, - which it will not be difficult for your Excellency to find, or - if need be, to create. I have, therefore, to instruct you ... - without any delay that you can reasonably avoid, to find some - occasion for sending a Mission to Kabul." - -Lord Northbrook, as is well known, declined to carry out this -ingenious plan for overreaching the Ameer, and breaking the pledge -that we had given not to force English officers upon him. He resigned -almost immediately after the receipt of the despatch setting forth the -new policy, and was succeeded by Lord Lytton. It is generally assumed -that Lord Lytton came to India charged with the execution of no other -policy than that to which Lord Northbrook had declined to assent. But -this assumption is incompatible with the line of action pursued by -Lord Lytton. This much, however, is clear already. The new policy, -whatever it was, was not forced upon the British Government, either by -the alienation of the Ameer or the intrigues of Russia. They entered -upon it at a time when, by their own confession, the sky was clear. -Afghanistan was in the enjoyment of an unprecedented quiet and -prosperity; the Ameer was conducting his foreign policy in accordance -with our wishes; and the efforts of the Government of St. Petersburg -were "sincerely directed to the prevention of any movement which might -give just umbrage to the British Government." So far as India was -concerned, the condition of the country called aloud for a policy -devoted to internal reform and retrenchment. The limit of endurable -taxation had been reached; the army imperatively needed thorough -reorganization; and the people and the land were still being scourged -by famine upon famine of the most appalling character. - -Now, if the English Cabinet had no designs in their frontier policy -except to establish British agents in Afghanistan, without breach of -pre-existing arrangements, and with the free concurrence of the Ameer, -it is plain that for such a policy concealment was unnecessary. Yet, -until the actual outbreak of hostilities, the negotiations with the -Ameer were kept hidden from the English Parliament and the nation. -The fact is, that in the instructions given to Lord Lytton before his -departure from England, Lord Salisbury anticipates the refusal of the -Ameer to agree to the new policy, and points out what, in that case, -is to be done:-- - - "11. If the language and demeanour of the Ameer be such as - to promise no satisfactory result of the negotiations thus - opened, his Highness should be distinctly reminded that he - is isolating himself at his own peril from the friendship and - protection it is his interest to seek and deserve...." - - "28. The conduct of Shere Ali has more than once been - characterized by so significant a disregard of the wishes and - interests of the Government of India, that the irretrievable - alienation of his confidence in the sincerity and power of - that Government is a contingency which cannot be dismissed as - impossible. _Should such a fear be confirmed by the result - of the proposed negotiation, no time must be lost in - reconsidering, from a new point of view, the policy to be - pursued in reference to Afghanistan._" - -These instructions clearly establish the following points:--They show -that the new policy, whatever it was, was expected "irretrievably" -to destroy the confidence of the Ameer "in the sincerity of the -Government;" and that, in that case, the Ameer was to be informed that -he had forfeited our friendship and protection, and a new policy was -immediately to be adopted towards Afghanistan. Here, then, we have -the first note of war. All this time there was no pressure upon the -British Government occasioned by the attitude of Russia. Our relations -with Russia were excellent. On the 5th May, 1876, Mr. Disraeli said in -the House of Commons, "_I believe, indeed, that at no time has there -been a better understanding between the Courts of St. James and St. -Petersburg than at this present moment_, and there is this good -understanding because our policy is a clear and frank policy." So -here we have the proof, that in a season of perfect calm, the Ministry -commenced a policy for the "irretrievable alienation" of the Ameer, -and sent Lord Lytton to India in order to execute it. - -Lord Lytton entered with zest into the spirit of these singular -instructions, and set to work to "alienate" the Ameer with the utmost -vigour. He politely caused him to be informed that he (the Ameer) was -an earthen pipkin between two iron pots; that if he did not come to -a "speedy understanding" with us, the two iron pots would combine -to crush him out of existence altogether. "As matters now stand, -the British Government is able to pour an overwhelming force into -Afghanistan, which could be spread round him as a ring of iron, but if -he became our enemy, it could break him as a reed." "Our only interest -in maintaining the independence of Afghanistan is to provide for -the security of our own frontier." "If we ceased to regard it as -a friendly State, there was nothing to prevent us coming to an -understanding with Russia which would wipe Afghanistan out of the map -for ever." Would any man, I ask, address these insults and menaces to -one whose friendship and confidence he was desirous to gain? It must -be plain to every reasonable person that British officers could only -then be established in Afghanistan with safety to themselves, and -utility to the British Government, when they were admitted with the -free concurrence of the Ameer and his people. A concession of this -nature, if extorted by means of menaces and insults, would be, by -that very circumstance, deprived of all value. And the fact is (as the -reader will perceive immediately) Lord Lytton was not sincere in -the propositions he made to the Ameer. He had no wish that the Ameer -should come to a "speedy understanding" with him; and as soon as he -saw that such a result was impending, he broke off all intercourse -with him. Lord Lytton charged the British Vakeel, Atta Mohammed Khan, -to convey to the Ameer Shere Ali the amenities I have just quoted -about the pipkin, the iron pots, and the rest of it. At the same time, -the Vakeel was instructed to propose a meeting at Peshawur between Sir -Lewis Pelly, as the representative of the Indian Government, and Noor -Mohammed Shah, the Minister of the Ameer. The basis of negotiations -between them was to be the admission of British officers to certain -places in the territories of the Ameer. Unless the Ameer was prepared -to concede this, as a preliminary condition, there was no good in his -sending a representative to confer with Sir Lewis Pelly. Great was the -consternation at the Court of the Ameer when our Vakeel unfolded the -message with which he was charged. They bowed before the storm; and -on December 21, 1876, Atta Mohammed Khan wrote to the Government -of India, that the Ameer, though still disliking to receive -English officers, would on account of the insistence of the British -Government, yield the point; but only after his Minister had, at -the conference, made representations of his views and stated all his -difficulties. - -Behold, then, the Government of India arrived at the goal of its -desires. The Ameer consents to receive English officers if, after -hearing all his reasons, Lord Lytton remains convinced of the -expediency of that policy. But what follows? The conference is begun; -but while the discussions were still unfinished, Noor Mohammed Shah -fell sick, and died; and then what was the action of Lord Lytton? I -quote his own words:-- - - "At the moment when Sir Lewis Pelly was closing the - conference, his Highness was sending to the Mir Akhir - instructions to prolong it by every means in his power; a - fresh Envoy was already on his way from Kabul to Peshawur; - and it was reported that this Envoy had authority to accept - eventually all the conditions of the British Government. _The - Viceroy was aware of these facts when he instructed our Envoy - to close the conference._" - -The closing of the conference was followed by the withdrawal from -Kabul of the British agency which had been established there for more -than twenty years, and the suspension of all intercourse between us -and the Ameer. - -There is but one conclusion possible from these strange proceedings. -The demands made upon the Ameer were made in the hope that he would -refuse to concede them, and so furnish the Indian Government with a -pretext for attacking him. The last thing which Lord Lytton desired -was that the Ameer should accept his demands. And, therefore, as soon -as it became apparent that Shere Ali was prepared to do this rather -than forfeit the protection and friendship of the British Government, -Lord Lytton broke up the conference, which (be it remembered) he had -himself proposed. Lord Lytton, not Shere Ali, without provocation -or ostensible cause, assumes towards Afghanistan "an attitude of -isolation and scarcely veiled hostility;" and Lord Salisbury thus -comments upon the situation (October 4, 1877):-- - - "In the event of the Ameer ... spontaneously manifesting - a desire to come to a friendly understanding with your - Excellency, _on the basis of the terms lately offered to, but - declined by him_, his advances should not be rejected. If, - on the other hand, he continues to maintain an attitude - of isolation and scarcely veiled hostility, the British - Government ... _will be at liberty to adopt such measures for - the protection and permanent tranquillity of the North-West - frontier of her Majesty's Indian dominions as the - circumstances may render expedient, without regard to - the wishes of the Ameer Shere Ali or the interests of his - dynasty_." - -Here, at last, we get at the veritable purpose of this tortuous -policy. As we suspected, the "terms offered to the Ameer, and -unhappily _not_ declined by him," were a mere pretence. The real -object was the "protection of the North-West frontier"--in other -words, the acquisition of a "scientific frontier"--without regard to -the wishes of the Ameer, or the interests of his dynasty. The Ameer -was to be "irretrievably alienated" by menacing his independence; and -then the "irretrievable alienation" was to be made the pretext for -carrying the menace into execution. What the "scientific frontier" -was the reader will find, if he refers to my article on "India and -Afghanistan," in the October number of this REVIEW. - -The threat, however, for reasons I shall state presently, could not -be carried into execution at once. The negotiations at Peshawur were -carefully concealed from the knowledge of the public. Neither in India -nor in England was it known that the British agency was withdrawn from -Kabul. The _Pioneer_--the official journal in India--was instructed -to inform its readers that the Ameer was animated with feelings of -the utmost cordiality towards us; and Lord Lytton made a speech in the -Council Chamber expounding his frontier policy. He glanced first at -the policy of his predecessors. His sensitive spirit was much -grieved by its apathetic character. It seemed to him "atheistic," and -"inhuman," and "inconsistent with our high duties to God and man as -the greatest civilizing Power." Then, warming with his subject, he set -forth his own idea of a frontier policy in the following grandiloquent -fashion:-- - - "I consider that the safest and strongest frontier India - can possibly possess would be a belt of independent frontier - States, throughout which the British name is honoured and - trusted; within which British subjects are welcomed and - respected, because they are subjects of a Government known to - be unselfish as it is powerful, and resolute as it is humane; - by which our advice is followed without suspicion, and _our - word relied on without misgiving_, because the first has been - justified by good results, and _the second never quibbled away - by timorous sub-intents or tricky saving clauses_--a belt of - States, in short, whose chiefs and populations should have - every interest, and every desire, to co-operate with our own - officers in preserving the peace of the frontier, developing - the resources of their own territories, augmenting the wealth - of their own treasuries, and vindicating in the eyes of the - Eastern and Western world their title to an independence, of - which we are ourselves the chief well-wishers and supporters." - -It is hardly credible that the same man who gave expression to these -magnificent sentiments had just caused the Ameer to be informed that -he did not regard the promises made to Shere Ali, by Lords Northbrook -and Mayo, as binding upon the Government of India, because they were -"verbal." "His Excellency the Viceroy," said Sir Lewis Pelly to the -Ameer's Envoy, "instructs me to inform your Excellency plainly, that -the British Government neither recognizes, nor has recognized, the -obligation of these promises." And the official journal called upon -India to rejoice, because one result of the conference had been the -cancelling of these "verbal promises and engagements," which the -Government had found "very embarrassing." - -It is plain from the foregoing that Shere Ali was a doomed man long -before the appearance of a Russian Mission in his capital. We did not -declare war at once, simply because we were then in danger of a war -with Russia in Bulgaria. And the Government were still possessed -of sufficient prudence not to attempt an invasion of Afghanistan -simultaneously with a campaign on the Balkans. But the sore was -carefully kept open by "our attitude of isolation and scarcely veiled -hostility;" and if the Russian Embassy had not appeared in Kabul, -some other pretext for war would indubitably have been found. The -Government of India--or rather Lord Lytton--affected to be greatly -alarmed at the advent of this Russian Mission, but his subsequent -proceedings show that he seized upon the incident with greediness -as enabling him to carry out his long-meditated project for the -destruction of an old and faithful ally. A single fact will suffice to -prove this. What I have already related shows that, up to this time, -the Ameer Shere Ali had given us no cause of quarrel whatever. He had -been desirous, against the dictates of his own judgment, to agree -to what was asked of him rather than forfeit the friendship of the -English Government. The estrangement between him and ourselves was -the result of our policy--not his. Lord Lytton was solely and wholly -responsible for it. The Russian Embassy, as Lord Lytton knew perfectly -well, was due to no overtures made by Shere Ali to the Russians in -Central Asia, but to the silly exhibition of seven thousand Sepoys -at Malta, by means of which we had recently earned the ridicule of -Europe. Moreover, as the Treaty of Berlin was an accomplished fact -before the Russians had appeared in Kabul, their arrival there was -a matter of comparatively trifling significance. How, then, did Lord -Lytton act? He organized a Mission under the command of Sir Neville -Chamberlain to proceed to Kabul; and at the same time directed our -Vakeel, Gulam Hussein Khan, to go before it to Kabul, and obtain the -permission of the Ameer for its entrance to his territories. So far -there is nothing to object to, but mark what follows. - -While yet Sir Neville Chamberlain with his Mission was at Peshawur, -Gulam Hussein Khan, from Kabul, reported to Sir Neville as -follows:--"If Mission will await Ameer's permission, everything will -be arranged, God willing, in the best manner, and no room will be left -for complaint in the future.... Further, that if Mission starts on -18th, without waiting for the Ameer's permission, there would be no -hope left for the renewal of friendship or communication." - -These reports were received by Sir Neville Chamberlain on 19th -September, and on the same day the Viceroy ordered the Mission to -attempt to force its way through the Khyber Pass. All Europe knows -the sequel. The Afghan officer in charge of the fort at Ali Musjid -declined to let the Mission pass; but, while obeying his orders -firmly, behaved, as Major Cavagnari reported, "in a most courteous -manner, and very favourably impressed both Colonel Jenkins and -myself." And then was telegraphed home the shameless fiction that he -had threatened to fire on Major Cavagnari, and that the majesty of the -Empire had been insulted. - -It is hard to write with calmness when one has to speak of actions -like these. It is, I trust, impossible for any Englishman to read of -them without the keenest shame and remorse. What, however, we have -to consider at present is their effect upon the native mind. There is -not, we may be certain, a single native Court throughout India where -they have not been discussed again and again; and there is but one -conclusion which could be drawn from them. It is, that despite of all -we may say, we allow neither pledges, promises, nor treaties to stand -in our way, if we imagine that they are in opposition to the material -interests of the moment. There is not a native prince in India but -will have seen the fate of his descendants in the doom which has -fallen upon the unhappy Shere Ali. It is a fate which no loyalty can -avert--which no treaties are powerful enough to ward off. Shere Ali -was loyal; Shere Ali was fenced about by treaty upon treaty: he and -his father had been our friends and faithful allies for more than -forty years; but none the less, the English Government no sooner -coveted his territory than they determined upon his destruction. For -eighteen months was that Government engaged in secretly weaving the -toils around its victim, and when at last it struck, it struck with a -calumny upon its lips. - -Think, again, of the anger and the bitterness awakened by this war -in the hearts of our Moslem subjects. A few months previously, the -English Government had made appeal to their sympathies on the ground -that it was upholding the integrity and independence of the Sultan's -dominions. They now saw this very Government engaged in the unprovoked -invasion of an independent Muhammadan State. They made no concealment -of their feelings; and when Major Cavagnari and his companions were -murdered at Kabul, the Moslems of Upper India openly expressed their -satisfaction. It is not too much to say, that if Sir Salar Jung had -not been ruling in Hyderabad, the outbreak at Kabul would have been -instantly followed by a similar outbreak in the Deccan. Sir Richard -Temple, writing from Hyderabad in 1867, thus describes the state of -feeling existing there:-- - - "This hostility" (_i.e._, to the English Government) "is even - stronger in the Muhammadan priesthood; with them it literally - burns with an undying flame; from what I know of Delhi in - 1857-58, from what I am authentically informed of in respect - to Hyderabad at that time, I believe that not more fiercely - does the tiger hunger for his prey, than does the Mussulman - fanatìc throughout India thirst for the blood of the white - infidel." - -Lord Lytton's treatment of Shere Ali has been, as it were, the pouring -of oil upon this "undying flame." Henceforth, it will burn more -fiercely than ever. - - -The Famine in the North-West Provinces. - -I shall next proceed to show the manner in which Lord Lytton's -internal administration of India was affected by his policy beyond the -frontier. As every one knows, there have been, of late years, a -series of terrible famines in different parts of India. The desolating -effects of these famines last for many years after the actual dearth -has terminated. Not only has the cattle been swept away, together with -millions of the agricultural population, but those who survive are -without capital and without physical strength. The consequence is that -large tracts of naturally productive land fall out of cultivation, and -remain so for considerable periods of time. There are, moreover, no -poor-laws in India for the relief of the starving and the destitute. -The administration of State relief, therefore, during such seasons -of calamity, is a matter of imperative necessity. In keeping its -agriculturists alive, the State is simply providing for its own -solvency. It sacrifices for this purpose a portion of the wealth it -derives from the land, in order to save the remainder. A combat with -famine is to the State in India an act as much demanded by obvious -expediency, as in the interests of humanity. This relief is afforded -partly by remissions of revenue throughout the stricken districts, and -partly by the opening of public works where the starving and destitute -may find food and employment. In the winter of 1877-78 a terrible -famine fell upon the North-West Provinces. The cultivated land in -these provinces is mainly under two descriptions of crops--the rain -crops, and the cold weather crops. The rain crops are sown towards the -end of June, or shortly after the rains have set in, and are reaped in -October and November. From these crops the people obtain the food -on which they are to subsist during the winter. In 1877 there was -an almost total failure of rain in the North-West Provinces, and the -Lieutenant-Governor--Sir George Couper--reported that the "greater -part of the crops was irretrievably ruined by a scorching west -wind that blew for three weeks." The long and severe winter of the -North-West had to be faced by a population destitute of food. Sir -George Couper reports as follows to the Government of India on the -11th October, 1877:-- - - "The Lieutenant-Governor is well aware of the straits to which - the Government of India is put at the present time for money, - and it is with the utmost reluctance that he makes a report - which must temporarily add to their burdens. _But he sees no - other course to adopt._ If the village communities which form - the great mass of our revenue payers be pressed now, they will - _simply be ruined_.... Cattle are reported to be dying or sold - to the butchers in hundreds, in consequence of the want of - fodder, and this will add very materially to the agricultural - distress and difficulties if they are called on at once to - meet their State obligations." - -In making this appeal for a remission of revenue, Sir George Couper -was asking for no more than what had been granted by every English -Government since British rule was planted in India. But then former -Governments had not adopted a spirited frontier policy to which -reason, justice, and humanity had to be subordinated. This was what -Lord Lytton had done. The hunting to death of an old and faithful -ally was certain to prove a costly operation; and he would need for it -every farthing which could be wrung from the population of India. Sir -George Couper's appeal was therefore rejected, and he was instructed -that these destitute creatures were to be compelled to meet their -State obligations at once, precisely as if there was no dearth in -the land. To this order Sir George Couper returned a long reply, from -which we quote the following remarkable paragraphs:-- - - "If the demand on the zemindars (_landlords_) is not - suspended, the cultivators can neither claim nor expect any - relaxation of the demand for rent; if pressure is put on the - former, they in turn must and will put the screw on their - tenants. All through the dark months of August and September, - zemindars were urged by district officers to deal leniently - with their tenants, and aid them by all means in their power. - Many nobly responded to the call, and it would be rather - inconsistent to subject them now to a pressure which may - compel them to deal harshly with their tenants. These remarks - are offered in no captious spirit.... His Honour trusts that - the realizations will equal the expectations of the Government - of India, but if they are disappointed, his Excellency the - Viceroy ... may rest assured _that it will not be for want of - effort or inclination to put the necessary pressure on those - who are liable for the demand_." - -Is not this passing strange? Sir George knows that these people are -in a state of the direst distress; their cattle dying by hundreds, -themselves penniless and foodless; if this demand is made upon -them, he has reported that they will "simply be ruined;" but at -the exhortations of Lord Lytton he sets to work cheerfully. Neither -inclination nor effort shall be wanting in him to make the people -experience to the full the agony and the bitterness of famine. Thus -it is that a prayerful Viceroy, with the "valued assistance" of his -colleagues, provides for the "well-being of the millions committed to -his fostering care." - -"I have tried," writes one despairing district officer, "to stave off -collecting, but have received peremptory orders to begin. This will -be the last straw on the back of the unfortunate zemindars.... A more -suicidal policy I cannot conceive. I have done what I could to open -the eyes of the Commissioners and the Lieutenant-Governor as to the -state of the place, but without avail. I have nothing to do but to -carry out the orders of Government, which means simply ruin." "The -exaction of the land revenue in Budaon," writes another, "and, I -believe, in other districts as well, involved a direct breach of faith -with the zemindars, which has had the very worst effect on the minds -of the native community.... The people are loud in their complaints of -the faithlessness of Government, and, to my mind, with ample reason." - -But the Government of India having decreed the collection of the land -revenue, were now compelled to justify their rapacity, by pretending -that there was no famine calling for a remission. The dearth and the -frightful mortality throughout the North-West Provinces were to be -preserved as a State secret like the negotiations with Shere Ali. By -this means it was hoped that the famine would work itself out, the -dead be decently interred out of human sight, and Lord Lytton obtain -the funds for his hunting expedition without an unpatriotic opposition -becoming cognizant of the facts either in India or in England. It is a -striking illustration of the enormous space which divides us from -the people of India, that such a scheme should have been thought -practicable, but stranger still--it was very near to success. An -accident may be said to have defeated it. During all that dreary -winter famine was busy devouring its victims by thousands. At the -lowest computation more than a quarter of a million perished of actual -starvation. The number would have to be doubled if it included all -those who perished of disease, the consequence of insufficient food -and exposure to cold; for, in the desperate endeavour to keep their -cattle alive, the wretched peasantry fed them on the straw which -thatched their huts, and which provided them with bedding. The winter -was abnormally severe, and without a roof above them or bedding -beneath them, scantily clad and poorly fed, multitudes perished of -cold. The dying and the dead were strewn along the cross-country -roads. Scores of corpses were tumbled into old wells, because the -deaths were too numerous for the miserable relatives to perform the -usual funeral rites. Mothers sold their children for a single scanty -meal. Husbands flung their wives into ponds, to escape the torment -of seeing them perish by the lingering agonies of hunger. Amid -these scenes of death the Government of India kept its serenity and -cheerfulness unimpaired. The journals of the North-West were persuaded -into silence. Strict orders were given to civilians, under no -circumstances to countenance the pretence of the natives that they -were dying of hunger. One civilian, a Mr. MacMinn, unable to endure -the misery around him, opened a relief work at his own expense. He -was severely reprimanded, threatened with degradation, and ordered to -close the work immediately. - -All this time, not a whisper of the tragedy that was being enacted in -the North-West Provinces had reached Calcutta. The district officials -dared not communicate to the press what they knew, and in India there -are hardly any other means of obtaining information. But in the month -of February Mr. Knight, the proprietor of the Calcutta _Statesman_, -had occasion to visit Agra. He was astonished to find all around him -the indications of an appalling misery. He began to investigate -the matter, and gradually the truth revealed itself. A quarter of a -million of British subjects had perished of hunger, pursued even to -their graves by the pitiless exactions of the Government. - -Mr. Knight made known in the columns of the _Statesman_ what he -had seen, and what he had learned from others in the course of his -inquiries. The guilty consciences of those who were responsible for -this vast suffering smote them. Lord Lytton and Sir George Couper felt -that it was necessary to extinguish Mr. Knight--and that speedily. Sir -George Couper accordingly drew up a long Minute, vindicating himself -from the attacks of Mr. Knight; and this Minute was duly acknowledged -in laudatory terms by the Government of India. The Viceroy in Council -characterized the Minute as "a convincing statement of facts," and -then added that the Government of India needed no such statement to -convince it that the "Lieutenant-Governor had exercised forethought in -his arrangements, and had shown humanity in his orders throughout the -recent crisis." The mortality which Lord Lytton "deplored" with "a -deep and painful regret," in so far "as it was directly the result of -famine, was caused rather by the unwillingness of the people to leave -their homes than by any want of forethought on the part of the local -government in providing works where they might be relieved." Lord -Lytton "unhesitatingly accepted the statement of the local government -that no one who was willing to go to a relief work need have died of -famine, and it is satisfactorily shown in his Honour's Minute that the -relief wage was ample." - -This eulogy on Sir George Couper and all his doings was published on -May 2, 1878, after Mr. Knight had begun publishing his revelations in -the _Statesman_. It is to be noted that neither Sir George Couper nor -the Government of India denies that the famine has been sore in the -land and the mortality excessive. But on February 28--two months -previously, and before Mr. Knight had commenced his inconvenient -disclosures--Sir George Couper reported to the Government of India -that "it may be questioned whether it will not be found hereafter -that the comparative immunity from cholera and fever which, owing -apparently to the drought, the Provinces have enjoyed during the past -year, will not compensate for the losses caused by insufficient food -and clothing, and _make the mortality generally little, if at all, -higher than in ordinary years_." At the time when this letter was -written, the official mortuary returns showed that the mortality in -the North-West was seven and eight times in excess of what it was -in ordinary years. There can, therefore, be no question that the -confession of that "terrible mortality" which Lord Lytton so deeply -"deplored," was wrung from Sir George Couper by the publication of Mr. -Knight's letters. But for them, the official record would have stated -that the "mortality was little, if at all, higher than in ordinary -years." This record is sufficient proof that no adequate arrangements -were made to meet a calamity which, according to Sir George Couper, -did not exist--at least, not until Mr. Knight insisted that it did. At -the same time, it will be as well to give the proof of this in detail, -in order to show what the Government of India is capable of saying. - -In one of his letters to the _Statesman_, Mr. Knight averred that -there were "no relief works worthy of the name till about January -20, and no works sufficient for the people's need till the middle of -February." Sir George Couper replies to this charge as follows:--"The -reports already submitted to the Government are, I think, amply -sufficient to acquit me of this charge.... In October, Colonel Fraser -was again deputed to visit the head-quarters of each division, and, in -consultation with the district officers, settle what works should be -undertaken to give employment to the poor when the inevitable pressure -began." Here Sir George Couper affirms that so far back as October -he had foreseen the "inevitable pressure," and made all the necessary -arrangements. Nevertheless we find him, so late as November 23, -reporting as follows to the Government of India:-- - - "_Although the danger of widespread famine ... has happily - passed away_, it is a matter of extreme importance that - well-considered projects for great public works should be - ready in case of future necessity.... _Very few projects of - this character have been completed for these provinces_, - and the Lieutenant-Governor thinks no time should be lost in - preparing them.... There can be no doubt that the want of such - projects would have been felt as a most serious difficulty - by this Government if relief works on a large scale had been - necessary in the present season." - -Thus, we find that up to the close of November no large relief works -had been sanctioned, because the "danger of widespread famine had -happily passed away." Allowing for official delays, this would make -the date when "relief works worthy of the name" were opened tally with -the time stated by Mr. Knight--namely, January 20. What, again, Sir -George Couper could mean by reporting on November 23, that "danger -of widespread famine has happily passed away," is perplexing, for on -November 26, or just three days subsequently, he writes as follows:-- - - "It appears to his Honour that the Government of India fail to - realize the extent of the damage caused _by the unparalleled - failure of the rain this year_.... The rain did not come until - 6th October, by which time _the greater part of the crops was - irretrievably ruined_.... It is a mistake to suppose that the - autumn crop has escaped in the greater part of the Benares - and Allahabad divisions, and in the south-eastern districts of - Oudh.... _The rice crops_, which are largely grown in most - of the districts in these divisions, _have almost entirely - perished_, and of other crops, the area sown is much less than - usual." - -On October 11 Sir George Couper reported that if the land revenues -was exacted the village communities would be ruined. On November 26 he -reported that the crops had been "irretrievably ruined." Nevertheless, -on November 23, he reported that no large relief works had been -sanctioned because "the danger of widespread famine had passed away." -It follows, from this last report, that for whatever other purpose -Colonel Fraser may have been deputed to visit the head-quarters -of each division, it was not to make satisfactory provision for a -widespread famine. No. As Sir George Couper was well aware at the time -he penned his reply to Mr. Knight, the object of Colonel Fraser's tour -was precisely the opposite of this. These were the instructions he was -charged to enjoin upon civil officers and executive engineers:-- - - "_Please discourage relief works in every possible way._ It - may be, however, that when agricultural operations are over, - some of the people may want work. This, however, except on - works for which there is budget provision, should only be - given if the collector is satisfied that without it the people - would actually starve. _Mere distress is not a sufficient - reason for opening a relief work._ And if a relief work be - started, task-work should be rigorously exacted, _and the - people put on the barest subsistence wage_; so that we may - be satisfied that if any other kind of work were procurable - elsewhere, they would resort to it." - -In accordance with the letter and spirit of these instructions the -famine-stricken multitudes were literally starved off such scanty -works as were open. The "barest subsistence wage" was fined down, -smaller and smaller, until the people abandoned the works in despair, -and returned to their villages to die. Nay, in some places, the -public works which had been duly sanctioned in the yearly budget were -transformed into relief works; and the labourers upon them, instead of -being paid at the ordinary market rates, were reduced to the "barest -subsistence wage, task-work being rigorously exacted." A beneficent -but economical Government took advantage of the dire extremity to -which its subjects were reduced to reap this unexpected profit out of -their miseries. None the less, "the Viceroy in Council unhesitatingly -accepts the statement of the local government, that no one who was -willing to go to a relief work need have died of famine." - - -The License Tax. - -The foregoing is an illustration of the manner in which an Imperial -Viceroy secures "the progressive well-being of the multitudes -committed to his fostering care." I purpose now to illustrate the -manner in which the same Imperial functionary deals with the finances -"committed to his fostering care." The position of "isolation and -scarcely veiled hostility" which, without any provocation, Lord Lytton -had assumed towards the Ameer of Afghanistan rendered a war against -that sovereign a mere question of time and opportunity. Meanwhile, -funds were necessary for its prosecution in addition to those which -had been obtained from the starving population of the North-West. -Accordingly, in his Budget statement for 1878-79, Sir John Strachey -announced that the Indian Government had arrived at the conclusion -that they ought to regard famines as normal occurrences for which -provision should be made in the budgets of each year. Famine -expenditure could not be estimated at a smaller sum than a million -and a half annually. This sum he now proposed to raise by means of a -License Tax on trades and dealings, to be levied throughout India, and -which, it was estimated, would yield £700,000. The remainder of the -sum required was to be obtained by a tax on the agricultural classes -in Northern India and Bengal alone. The peculiar incidence of these -taxes was justified on the ground that the classes taxed were the same -classes which, in periods of famine, had to be supported by the State. -It was therefore only just that they should provide the fund which was -to insure them against famine. This money was in fact a sum raised -for a special purpose, at the expense of certain classes, for whose -benefit it was to be exclusively applied. This was acknowledged by -Lord Lytton with his usual superabundance of emphasis:-- - - "_The sole justification_ for the increased taxation which has - just been imposed upon the people of India, for the purpose - of insuring this Empire against the worst calamities of future - famine ... is the pledge we have given that a sum not less - than a million and a half sterling, which exceeds the amount - of the additional contributions obtained from the people - for this purpose, shall be annually applied to it. We have - explained to the people of this country that the additional - revenue raised by the new taxes is required, not for luxuries, - but the necessities of the State; not for general purposes, - but for the construction of a particular class of public - works; and we have pledged ourselves not to spend one rupee of - the special resources, thus created, upon works of a different - character.... The pledges which my financial colleague was - authorized to give, on behalf of the Government, were explicit - and full as regards these points.... _For these reasons, it is - all the more binding on the honour of the Government to redeem - to the uttermost, without evasion or delay, those pledges, for - the adequate redemption of which the people of India have, - and can have, no other guarantee than the good faith of their - rulers._" - -The ink which recorded this solemn pledge was hardly dry before it had -been broken. The predetermined war with Shere Ali began in the wanton -manner I have told, and the question of cost was mentioned in the -Houses of Parliament. The British Imperialist glories in war when the -chances are all in his favour, but he has an invincible objection to -paying the costs of such transactions. And they are costly. It was -therefore very necessary so to arrange matters, that while the -glory of hunting an ally to death should be appropriated by British -Imperialism, the expenses of the chase should be defrayed by India. -Accordingly, towards the end of November, Lord Cranbrook informed the -House of Lords that India was in possession of a surplus more than -sufficient to defray the costs of the war:-- - - "I am bound to say, that _after looking very carefully into - the financial condition of India_, I believe it will not - be necessary, at least in the initial steps, to call on the - revenues of England. I am in possession of facts which, I - think, would convince your Lordships that, _without unduly - pressing on the resources of India_, there will be no - necessity to call on the English revenues--at least during the - present financial year. It was announced by my noble friend in - another place the other night that, _including the £1,500,000 - of new taxes_, the surplus of Indian revenue will amount to - £2,136,000." - -A fortnight later the "facts" of which Lord Cranbrook professed to -be in possession were discovered not to be facts, and the surplus was -reduced by Mr. Stanhope to a million and a half--in other words, to -exactly the sum which Lord Lytton had solemnly pledged his honour to -apply to no purpose except that of insuring India against the -ravages of famine. On the most elastic system of interpretation, the -acquisition of a fictitious "scientific frontier" cannot be made to -appear as a fulfilment of this pledge. However, on the faith of the -surplus thus created by Lord Cranbrook and Mr. Stanhope, Parliament -voted that the expenses of the Afghan war should be charged upon -India. Mr. Stanhope said,--" The surplus being of the amount he had -mentioned, it must be perfectly obvious that the Indian Government -could pay the whole cost of the war during the present year, without -adding a shilling to the taxation or the debt of the country." - -The intention here is sufficiently obvious. Lord Cranbrook and Mr. -Stanhope were quite prepared to disregard the pledges given to -the people of India, and apply the Famine Insurance Fund to an -illegitimate purpose. They had all the will to do this, but their -desires were frustrated by the fact that there was no such fund in -existence. It had already been spent and disappeared. Lord Lytton thus -calmly announces its extinction in the Budget resolution of March, -1879:-- - - "The insurance provided against future famines has virtually - ceased to exist, and the difficulties in the way of fiscal - and commercial and administrative reform have been greatly - aggravated. Nor can it be in any way assumed that the - evil will not continue and go on increasing. Under such - circumstances, it is extremely difficult to follow any settled - financial policy; for the Government cannot even approximately - tell what income will be required to meet the necessary - expenditure of the State.... For the present the - Governor-General in Council thinks it wise to abstain from - imposing any fresh burdens on the country, and to accept the - temporary loss of the surplus by which it was hoped that an - insurance against famine had been provided." - -That is, that the Government of India having "pledged itself not -to spend one rupee of these special resources," except "for the -construction of a particular class of public works"--having declared -that "the sole justification for the increased taxation" is that it -should be devoted to a particular end--no sooner gets the money into -its possession than it expends the entire sum on something else, -and then "thinks it wise" not to discuss the matter any further. The -Government is very sorry; it really wanted to make an Insurance Fund -against famine; but it finds that it "cannot even approximately tell -what income will be required to meet the necessary expenditure of the -State." Under such circumstances the Government finds it extremely -difficult to follow "any settled financial policy," except that of -spending every shilling which it can get possession of. Thus it is -that an Imperial Government "redeems to the uttermost" the honour of -the British nation, and strengthens the confidence of India in "the -good faith of her rulers." - - -The Cotton Duties. - -I come, lastly, to the action of the Indian Government in respect to -the Cotton Duties. It is, I fancy, generally supposed in England that -the duty on imported cotton was designedly protective--_i.e._, that -it had from the beginning been imposed with the intention of favouring -the Indian manufacturer at the expense of Manchester. This is a -mistake. The duty was imposed at a time when there were no Indian -manufactures to compete with those from England, simply as a source -of revenue. In India there is a great difficulty in so arranging the -incidence of taxation that the well-to-do classes shall contribute -their proper share to the necessities of the State. A light duty -on imported cotton--as being the universally used material for -dress--enabled the Government to reach these classes in a manner that -was effective without being burdensome. Even now that mills are at -work in India, by far the larger part of these duties had nothing -protective in their character, because there is in India no -manufacture of the finer sorts of cotton. Whether, however, the duty -was or was not protective in its character, both the Indian Government -and the House of Commons had repeatedly given pledges that the duty -should not be repealed until the Indian finances were in a position -to justify the loss of revenue thereby occasioned. Lord Lytton, who -throughout his viceroyalty has made a point in all important matters -of making a confession of political faith exactly the opposite of his -subsequent political action, expressed himself on the subject of the -Cotton Duties with his usual copiousness. In reply to an address from -the Calcutta Trades' Association, shortly after his arrival in India, -he said:-- - - "I think that no one responsible for the financial - administration of this Empire would at present venture to - make the smallest reduction in any of its limited sources of - income. Let me, however, take this opportunity of assuring you - that, so far as I am aware, the abolition or reduction of - the Cotton Duties, at the cost of adding one sixpence to the - taxation of this country, has never been advocated, or even - contemplated by her Majesty's Secretary of State for India.... - It is due to myself, and the confidence you express in my - character, that I should also assure you, on my own behalf, - that nothing will ever induce me to tax the people of India - for any exclusive benefit to their English fellow-subjects." - -A short time previously he had told the Bombay Chamber of Commerce -that "he was of opinion that, with the exception of about forty -thousand pounds sterling, the duties were not protective, because -Manchester had no Indian competitors in finer manufactures. He thought -the £800,000 collected yearly as duty, on finer fabrics, a fair item -of revenue. With regard to the duty on coarse goods, he thought it -protective, because Bombay mills competed with Manchester; but he -did not see how it could be abolished, because it would lead to -irregularities in order to evade duty." - -These assurances were given in 1876. In 1879, when the finances of -India were in a state of almost hopeless embarrassment--when the -Famine Insurance Fund had been misappropriated in the way I have -related--when the Indian Government frankly acknowledged that it -was beyond their power to estimate their future expenditure, even -approximately, the Indian Government deliberately sacrificed revenue -to the amount of £200,000 derived from this source. The motives which -persuaded them to this sacrifice may have been as pure as driven snow; -but with Lord Lytton's assurances fresh in their memories, I need -not say that their motives were not so interpreted by those in India. -There the explanation given was this:--The war in Afghanistan, from -which so much had been expected, had resulted, not in success, but -ignominious failure. The Government had been compelled to patch up -a peace without a single element of permanence in it. Despite of the -choral odes which Ministers sang together on the occasion of this -peace, it was impossible that they could have been wholly blind to the -real character of the Treaty of Gundamuck. They felt that discovery -could not be long delayed, and, like the steward who had wasted his -master's goods, they hastened to make themselves friends of the mammon -of unrighteousness. While, therefore, the war was still nominally -unfinished, they sought to propitiate Manchester by throwing its -merchants this sop of £200,000. Like Canning's famous policy of -calling on the New World to redress the balance of the Old, the -prestige of Imperialism, damaged by the failure in Afghanistan, was to -be re-established in Manchester at the expense of the Indian taxpayer. - -If the Indian Government had any better reason than this for their -partial repeal of the Cotton Duties, it is a pity that they did not -communicate it to the world. The reason which they did condescend to -give was simply this--that the finances of the Empire were so heavily -embarrassed, and in such confusion, that it was a matter of no -consequence if they become still further involved to the extent of -£200,000. I give the actual words, that I may not be suspected of -caricaturing the Government:-- - - "The difficulties caused by the increased loss by exchange - are great, but they will not practically be aggravated to an - appreciable extent by the loss of £200,000. If the fresh fall - in the exchange should prove to be temporary, such a loss will - possess slight importance. If, on the other hand, the loss - by exchange does not diminish ... it will become necessary to - take measures of a most serious nature for the improvement of - the financial position; but the retention of the import duties - on cotton goods will not thereby be rendered possible. On - the contrary, such retention will become more difficult than - ever." - -According to the Government of India, it was the peculiarity of -these £200,000 to be simply an incumbrance, happen what might. If the -exchange did _not_ fall, they were reduced to insignificance; if it -did fall, their retention became more difficult than ever. The reader -will not be surprised to learn that these enigmatic propositions were -not accepted in India as a sufficient justification of the act they -were supposed to explain. - -Despotic as an Indian Viceroy is, there are even in India certain -Constitutional checks on his authority, as, for instance, the Members -of Council, the Vernacular and the English press. How was it, the -reader may ask, that these constitutional checks were evaded; for it -cannot be that they all concurred in such a policy as I have described -in the foregoing pages? The principal means of evasion was secrecy. -The negotiations with Shere Ali were kept sedulously hidden from the -public knowledge, and their nature was only to be dimly inferred from -the devout and philanthropic orations of the Viceroy himself. The same -course was adopted with respect to the North-West famine; and but -for the accident of Mr. Knight's visit to Agra, the truth would have -remained hidden to this day. But Lord Lytton did not trust to secrecy -alone. The vernacular press was gagged by a Press Act, which was -hurried through Council, and made a law in the course of a few hours. -The English press could not be gagged precisely in this fashion, -but it was very ingeniously drugged through the agency of a curious -functionary, styled the Press Commissioner. When Mr. Stanhope -was questioned in the House regarding the special duties of this -nondescript official, he replied that he had been appointed to -superintend the working of the Vernacular Press Act. Actually, he -was in operation for several months before that Act had come into -existence, and never has had any duties in connection with it. The -Press Commissioner is attached to the personal staff of the Viceroy, -and may be regarded as a kind of official bard, whose duty it is to -chant the praises of his master, and advertise his political wares. -The description of Lord Lytton as a "specially-gifted Viceroy" is -believed in India to have proceeded from the affectionate imagination -of the Press Commissioner. But, besides this, he is a channel of -communication between the Government of India and the Indian press. -When he was first called into existence, India was informed that a -new era was about to begin, in the relations between the press and the -Government. The Government, anxious that its policy should be fully -discussed by an intelligent press, had appointed a Press Commissioner, -whose duty it would be to keep editors supplied with accurate -information, from the very fountain-head, of all that Government was -doing, or intended to do. It is unnecessary to say that the Press -Commissioner has done nothing of the kind. The greater part of the -matter he communicates to the press is simply worthless, and wholly -devoid of interest to any sane person. If anything of importance -occurs which the Government desires to keep secret, but which it fears -will leak out, the Press Commissioner communicates the matter to the -editors "confidentially," and then it is understood that they are in -honour bound not to allude to the subject in their papers. At distant -intervals, however, the Press Commissioner, of necessity, allows some -interesting scraps of information to escape from him; and it is by -means of these that the English press is drugged. Any newspaper which -offends the Government by criticism of too harsh a character is liable -to have the supply of such morsels suspended until it gives evidence -of amendment. And as there is in India, among the readers of -newspapers, quite an insatiable craving for these morsels of official -gossip, it would be extremely prejudicial to the circulation of a -newspaper if they no longer appeared in its columns. The vengeance -of Lord Lytton and the Press Commissioner has already fallen upon -one journal. The Calcutta _Statesman_, having poured ridicule on this -Press Commissioner, has been deprived of his ministrations. In brief, -the Press Commissionership is simply an agency for bribing the English -Press, which costs the Indian taxpayer the sum annually of £5000. -But the most effective check on the arbitrary authority of the -Governor-General is furnished by his Council. These are selected as -men of long Indian experience, in order to aid the Governor-General -with their advice and special knowledge. The last Governor-General -who set at nought the advice and remonstrances of his Council was Lord -Auckland, when he plunged into the disastrous war in Afghanistan. Lord -Lytton, who in other respects has so carefully trod in the footsteps -of his predecessor, did not fail to imitate him in this. His frontier -policy was carried out in spite of the opposition of the three most -experienced members of his Council; his repeal of the Cotton Duties in -the face of their unanimous opposition, with the single exception of -Sir John Strachey. Thus it is that, under Lord Lytton, British rule -in India has become a tawdry and fantastic system of personal rule. It -might perhaps do well enough if an Empire could be governed by means -of ceremonies, speeches, and elegantly written despatches--"fables in -prose," they might very fitly be called. But an Empire cannot be so -governed, and the result of the experiment has been an amount of -human suffering appalling to contemplate. The Indian air is "full of -farewells for the dying and mournings for the dead," and the path of -the Government can be traced in broken pledges and dead men's bones. -These bones are as dragon's teeth, which Lord Lytton is sowing -broadcast all over India and Afghanistan, and they will assuredly -be changed into armed men if the hand of the sower be not promptly -stayed. - - "Nothing," writes Sir Alexander Arbuthnot, one of the Indian - Members of Council, "would have induced me to have been a - party to the imposition of restrictions on the press, if I - could have foreseen that within a year of the passing of the - Vernacular Press Act the Government of India would be embarked - on a course which, in my opinion, is as unwise and ill-timed - as it is destructive of the reputation for justice upon which - the prestige and political supremacy of the British Government - in India so greatly depend. And here I must remark that - the slight value which in some influential quarters is - now attached to the popularity of our rule with our native - subjects, has for some time past struck me as a source of - grave political danger. _The British Empire in India was not - established by a policy of ignoring popular sentiment, and - of stigmatizing all views and opinions which are opposed - to certain favourite theories, as the views and opinions of - foolish people. Nor will our rule be long maintained if such a - policy is persisted in._" - - ROBERT D. OSBORN. - - - - -ON THE UTILITY TO FLOWERS OF THEIR BEAUTY. - - -The question which I propose to consider in this paper is how far the -beauty of blossoms can be accounted for by the utility of this beauty -to the plant producing them. It is manifestly only one particular case -of a larger inquiry whether the beauty which Nature exhibits can be -accounted for by its utility. - -These questions connect themselves with some of the highest points -of the philosophy of the universe. Is the system of the universe -intellectual, or is it purely material? Is there an ordering mind, or -is there merely blind and struggling matter? Are there final causes as -well as material causes, or are there material causes only? - -These questions have been asked and answered in opposite senses, from -the first dawn of philosophy to the present hour; and during all that -period of time the battle has been raging--and has spread, too, over -the whole realm of Nature. Scarcely any branch of natural science -exists which has not furnished materials for at least a skirmish; so -that it requires an experienced and impartial eye to be able rightly -to understand the true fortunes of the contest over the whole field -of battle. True it is, that for every man the question between the two -theories has to be decided by somewhat simpler considerations than any -such survey. Something in every man seems inevitably to determine him -towards either the intellectual or the material theory of things. - -The existence of beauty in the world is a very remarkable fact. On -the theory of a Divine and beneficent Creator, this fact has seemed -no difficulty; but the theory of a mere blind fermentation of matter -gives no account of it, except as a mere accident, which, on the -doctrine of chances, should be perhaps a very rare and unusual -accident. Hence the existence of beauty has from of old been a -favourite theme of the theistic believers. "Let them know how much -better the Lord of them is," says the author of the Wisdom of Solomon, -speaking of the works of Nature, "for the first Author of beauty hath -created them ... for by the greatness and beauty of the creatures -proportionably the Maker of them is seen."[1] The same familiar view -has lately been presented by the Duke of Argyll in his "Reign of -Law":[2]-- - - "It would be to doubt the evidence of our senses and of our - reason, or else to assume hypotheses of which there is no - proof whatever, if we were to doubt that mere ornament, mere - variety, are as much an end and aim in the workshop of Nature - as they are known to be in the workshop of the goldsmith and - the jeweller. Why should they not? The love and desire of - these is universal in the mind of man. It is seen not more - distinctly in the highest forms of civilized art than in the - habits of the rudest savage, who covers with elaborate carving - the handle of his war-club or the prow of his canoe. Is it - likely that this universal aim and purpose of the mind of man - should be wholly without relation to the aims and purposes of - his Creator? He that formed the eye to see beauty, shall He - not see it? He that gave the human hand its cunning to work - for beauty, shall His hand never work for it? How, then, shall - we account for all the beauty of the world--for the careful - provision made for it where it is only the secondary object, - not the first?" - -But even if beauty be always associated with utility and have in fact -been brought about by its utility, it may nevertheless have been an -object in the mind of a Divine artificer, who may have been minded -to use the one as a means and end to the other. We may therefore, -I think, approach the subject with a perfect freedom from any -theological bias. - -The whole subject will, I believe, be felt by some persons to be a -piece of moonshine,--the whole discussion fit for cloudland, not for -this practical solid world of ours. - -Beauty, such persons would say, is not a real thing, an objective -fact: it is a part of man, not of the world--it is in him who sees, -not in the thing seen: it is seen by one man in one thing--by another -man in another. - -To this it seems a sufficient answer to say that the relation of -any one external thing to any one mind which produces the peculiar -condition which we call the perception of beauty, is _a_ fact, and, -like every other single fact, must have an adequate cause. But when we -find that there are forms of beauty, such as the beauty of sunlight, -which operate alike on all men, and, it would seem, on all sensitive -beings--when we find that the brilliant flowers which attract the -child in the field or the lady in the drawing-room, attract the -insect tribes--we feel ourselves in the presence of a great body of -persistent relations, which it is impossible to pass over as unreal or -as unimportant. - -But, again, there is ugliness in the world; and one ugly thing, it is -suggested, destroys all your deductions from beauty. This, no doubt, -is a very important fact for any one to grapple with who proposes -to give any theoretical explanation of the presence of beauty in the -universe; but for me, who am only inquiring whether and how far beauty -is useful, it is not really material, because there can be no doubt -that beauty, as well as ugliness, exists in the world. This much I -will say in passing, that, to my mind, the balance of things is in -favour of beauty and against ugliness--the tendency is in favour of -beauty, not ugliness, and that tendency may be a very important thing -to think of. - -Furthermore, the fact that we recognize ugliness seems to make our -recognition of beauty more important; for it shows that the -perception of beauty is not mere habit, and that we have an inward -and independent judgment on the matter--we are able to approve the one -thing on the score of beauty, and to reject the other as ugly. - -Even allowing fully for the existence of ugliness, it must be conceded -that the world around us presents a vast mass of beauty--complex, -diverse, commingled, and not easily admitting of analysis. It is -common alike to the organic and the inorganic realms of Nature. The -pageants of the sky at morning, noon, and night, the forms of the -trees, the beauty of the flowers, the glory of the hills, the awful -sublimity of the stars--these, and a thousand things in Nature, fill -the soul with a sense of beauty, which the art neither of the poet, -nor of the philosopher, nor of the painter can come near to depict. We -are moved and overcome, sometimes by this object of beauty, sometimes -by that, but yet more by the complex mass of glory of the universe. - - "For Nature beats in perfect tune, - And rounds with rhyme her every rune; - Whether she work on land or sea, - Or hide underground her alchemy. - Thou canst not wave thy staff in air, - Or dip thy paddle in the lake, - But it carves the bow of beauty there, - And ripples in rhyme the oar forsake." - -As yet no attempt has been made to show the utility of this -promiscuous and multitudinous crowd of beauties--and it seems not -likely that such an attempt can yet be made with success: and the -phenomena of Nature are therefore likely for a long time to come to -impress most men with the sense of beauty for beauty's sake. But in -respect of certain particular and separable instances, the attempt has -recently been made to show that the beauty exhibited is useful to the -structure exhibiting it, and consequently that it may be accounted -for by the strictly utilitarian principle of the survival of the -fittest,--one instance in which this has been most notably attempted -being in respect of the beauty of flowers. Let us consider how far -beauty can thus be accounted for in this particular case. - -There will be a great advantage in this course; for beauty is a -thing about which it is not very easy to argue: it is too subtle, too -evanescent, too disputable, to afford an easy material for the logical -or scientific crucible; and these difficulties we shall best surmount -by in the first place isolating certain beautiful things for our -consideration, and limiting to them our inquiry into how far each of -the rival theories is sufficient to explain their existence. We shall -thus try to narrow the great controversy to very definite and distinct -issues. - - "Flowers," says Mr. Darwin,[3] "rank amongst the most - beautiful productions of Nature, and they have become, - through natural selection, beautiful, or rather conspicuous in - contrast with the greenness of the leaves, that they might - be easily observed and visited by insects, so that their - fertilization might be favoured. I have come to this - conclusion, from finding it an invariable rule that when a - flower is fertilized by the wind it never has a gaily-coloured - corolla. Again, several plants habitually produce two kinds of - flowers: one kind open and coloured, so as to attract insects; - the other closed and not coloured, destitute of nectar, and - never visited by insects. We may safely conclude that, if - insects had never existed on the face of the earth, the - vegetation would not have been decked with beautiful flowers, - but would have produced only such poor flowers as are now - borne by our firs, oaks, nut and ash trees, by the grasses, by - spinach, docks, and nettles." - -No one can doubt who watches a meadow on a summer's day that insects -are attracted by the scent and the colours of the flowers. The whole -field is busy with their jubilant hum. These little creatures have the -same sense of beauty that we have. What room there is for thought in -that fact! There is a subtle bond of mental union between ourselves -and the creatures whom we so often despise. There is a joy widespread -and multiplied beyond our highest calculation. What a deadly blow to -that egotism of man which thinks of all beauty as made for him alone! - -But I return to the argument. We have presented to our notice three -kinds of attraction which operate upon insects--the conspicuousness -of colour and form, the beauty of the smell, and the pleasant taste of -the honey. No one, as I have said, who watches a meadow or a garden on -a summer's day can for a moment doubt the operation of these -causes, or question the direct action of insects in producing the -fertilization of flowers. In that sense the beauty of a flower is -clearly of direct use to the flower which exhibits it. It is better -for it that it should be fertilized by insects than not fertilized at -all; but is it better for it to be fertilized by insects than by the -wind, or by some other agency, if such exist? - -This shall be the subject of inquiry. But before we can answer it, -we must go a little afield and collect some other of the facts of the -case. - -The conclusion that beauty is useful for the fertilization of the -flower does not rest merely on the general phenomena of a summer -meadow. It is confirmed by many other observations. Flowers are -not merely attractive in themselves; they are frequently rendered -attractive by their grouping. Sometimes flowers individually small are -gathered into heads, or spikes, or bunches, or umbels, and so -produce a more conspicuous effect than would result from a more equal -distribution of the flowers; sometimes yet more minute flowers or -florets are gathered together into what appears a single flower, and -often have the outer florets so modified both in shape and colour as -to produce the general effect of one very brilliant blossom, as in the -daisy or the marigold. - -Sometimes the same result is produced by "the massing of small flowers -into dense cushions of bright colour."[4] This, as is well known, is -of common occurrence with Alpine flowers; and this mode of growth, as -well as the great size of many Alpine blossoms as compared with that -of the whole plant, and the great brilliance of Alpine plants as -compared with their congeners of the lowlands, have all been explained -by reference to the comparative rarity of insects in the Alpine -heights, and the consequent necessity, if the plants are to survive, -that they should offer strong attractions to their needful friends.[5] -A similar explanation has been offered for the brilliant colours of -Arctic flowers.[6] - -Furthermore, this curious fact exists, that of flowering plants a -large number do not ripen or put forward their pistils and stamens at -the same periods of their growth: in some cases the pistil is ready -to receive the pollen whilst the anthers are immature and not ready to -supply it: such are called proterogynous. In other cases the anthers -are ripe before the pistil is ready to receive the pollen: these are -proterandrous. In either case the same event happens--that the ovules -can never be fertilized by the pollen of the same blossom, nor without -some foreign agency, generally that of insects. - -Lastly, there is a large number of plants, including a great -proportion of those with unsymmetrical blossoms, of which the -flowers have been shown to be specially adapted by various mechanical -contrivances for insect agency. Nothing, as is well known, is more -marvellous than the variety and subtlety of the arrangements for -the purpose which exist in orchidaceous plants, as explained by the -patience and genius of Mr. Darwin. - -In view of these facts it would be impossible to deny that -conspicuousness is one of the agencies in force for the fertilization -of flowers; that, to use the recent language of Mr. Darwin, "flowers -are not only delightful for their beauty and fragrance, but display -most wonderful adaptations for various purposes."[7] - -So far we have considered the evidence which is affirmative, and in -favour of the explanation of the existence of beauty in flowers; we -have found clearly that beauty, or rather conspicuousness, is in many -cases useful to the plant. But beauty is by no means the only agency -in this necessary process. On the contrary, the agencies actually in -operation are very numerous. - -As Mr. Darwin points out in the passage I have cited, and still more -at large in his work "On the Different Forms of Flowers," a large -proportion of existing plants are fertilized by the action of the -wind; and again, many plants bear two kinds of flowers, the one -conspicuous and attractive to insects, the other inconspicuous and -which never open to admit the activity either of insects or of the -wind. Moreover, there are various other agencies called into play. -Some plants, such as the _Hypericum perforatum_, one of the -commonest of the St. John's Worts, and probably the bindweed, are, -it seems, fertilized by the withering of the corolla, which naturally -brings the stamens into contact with the style, and so transfers the -pollen grains from the one to the other.[8] Other plants, again, -such as the common centaury (_Erythræa centaurium_) and the _Chlora -perfoliata_, are fertilized by the closing of the corolla over the -anthers and stigma, not in the death but in the sleep of the plant.[9] -In the brilliant autumnal _Colchicum_, and in the _Sternbergia_, -again, according to Dr. Kerner, Nature has recourse to a more complex -machinery: the corolla first closes over the anthers, which are at -a lower level than the stigma, and takes off some of the pollen; a -growth of the corolla carries the pollen dust to the level of the -stigma, and a second closing of the corolla transfers the pollen -to the stigmatic surface. The pollen has been made to ascend to its -proper place by an arrangement which reminds one of the man-engine of -a Cornish mine.[10] A similar arrangement is described as occurring in -the bright-flowered _Pedicularis_.[11] - -Let us take another group of beautiful flowers which adorn our -greenhouses and our tables: I mean the _Asclepiadæ_, to which the -_Stephanotis_ and the _Hoya_ belong. The former is distinguished -by the beauty of its scent as well as of its flowers. Both present -flowers not merely conspicuous in themselves from their size, form, -and colour, but conspicuous also by reason of their grouping. Here, -if anywhere, we should expect that beauty should justify itself by its -utility. But the facts appear to be just the other way. The pollen -is collected together into waxy masses, which are arranged in a very -peculiar manner on the pistil; and the pollen tubes pass from the -pollen grains whilst still enclosed within the anthers, and so bring -about fertilization without the intervention of insect agency. It is -difficult to suppose the _Asclepiadæ_ can have become beautiful for -the sake of an agency of which they never avail themselves. - -Our common Fumitory has not very conspicuous flowers, but still they -have considerable attractiveness of form and still more of colour, due -both to the individual blossom and to their grouping together; and yet -_Fumaria_ is said to be self-fertile.[12] - -A much more brilliantly coloured member of the same family is the -_Dicentra (Diclytra) spectabilis_, so familiar in our gardens. Any -one who examines the flowers of this species will continually find the -pollen grains transferred to the stigma without the slightest trace -of the flower ever having opened so as to allow of insect agency. -Dr. Lindley[13] has given an account of the mechanism for -self-fertilization; and this flower has recently been the subject -of an elaborate study by the German botanist, Hildebrand,[14] and -he concurs in the view that the anthers inevitably communicate their -pollen to the pistil, and that as the result of a very complicated and -subtle arrangement of the parts, which it would be useless to attempt -to describe without diagrams. But he believes that in addition to the -arrangements for self-fertilization, another arrangement exists for -producing cross-fertilization by insects; but as the plant has never -produced seed under his observation, he is unable to tell whether -one mode of fertilization is more useful than the other. I think the -evidence of the self-fertilization is far clearer than that of the -cross-fertilization. - -Now, if the _Dicentra_ has become beautiful in order to attract -insects, it must have done so through a long series of developments, -for its adaptation to their agency is of the most complex kind. It is -difficult to suppose either that, side by side with this development -for cross-fertilization, there has been also developed another -complex arrangement for self-fertilization, or that an earlier complex -arrangement for self-fertilization should have survived through the -changes necessary to render the flower fit for insect fertilization. -The co-existence in one organism of two complex schemes for different -objects, and the interlacing of those two schemes in one beautiful -flower (which, if Hildebrand be right, occurs in the _Dicentra_), seem -to be things very improbable if the beautiful flower has become what -it is in the pursuit of one only of those objects. These speculations -may be premature as regards the particular flower; but the -co-existence of two modes of fertilization is not peculiar to -_Dicentra_ and seems to furnish material for important reflection. - -Yet one more plant must be considered. The _Loasa aurantiaca_ is -a creeper which grows freely in our gardens, and has large and -brilliantly coloured scarlet flowers turned up with yellow. Its -seeds set freely in cultivation. The means by which fertilization is -effected are--unless my observations have misled me--very peculiar. -When the flower first unfolds, the numerous stamens are found -collected together in bundles in depressions or folds of the petals; -after a while the anthers begin to move, and one after the other the -stamens pass upwards from their nests in the petals, and gather in -a thick group round the style; subsequently a downward and backward -movement begins, which brings the anthers against the pistils, and -restores the stamens nearly to their old position, but with exhausted -and faded anthers. I have never seen any insects at work on the -flowers, and yet I find the plant to be a free seeder. - -So long ago as 1840 M. Fromond enumerated several conspicuous flowers -in which, according to his observations, fertilization was effected -without the agency of either the wind or insects.[15] And much more -recently an American writer, Mr. Meehan, has given a list of eleven -genera, amongst others, in which he has observed the pistils covered -with the pollen of the plant before the flower has opened, and in the -one case which he submitted to the microscope, it was found that -the pollen tubes were descending through the pistil towards the -ovarium.[16] Amongst the genera he names were _Westaria_, _Lathyras_, -_Ballota_, _Circes Genista_, _Pisum_, and _Linaria_. - -The instances which I have given are mostly from plants familiar -in our fields, our gardens, or our greenhouses. They are, I think, -sufficient to make us pause before we conclude that all conspicuous -flowers are fertilized by insect agency. It may be that Bacon's -warning to attend as carefully to negative as to affirmative instances -has been a little forgotten. Moreover, these instances seem to -show that it would be a great error to suppose that all flowers are -fertilized either by insects or by the wind; and it is probable -that the more the subject is considered the more complex will the -arrangements for fertilization be found to be. - -The agencies to which I have last referred exist, it will be observed, -in beautiful and conspicuous flowers; and yet act independently of -that beauty and that conspicuousness: so that in each instance -these facts are, on the utilitarian theory, unexplained and residual -phenomena. They, therefore, demand earnest inquiry. For the existence -of a single residual phenomenon is notice to the inquirer that he has -not got to the bottom of his subject; that his theory is either not -the truth or not the whole truth. - -Do the facts justify us in concluding that insect fertilization is -more beneficial to the plant than fertilization by the wind or any -other agency? Do they afford any sufficient cause for that change from -the one mode of fertilization to the other which has been suggested? -The facts bearing on these questions are very remarkable; for, as we -have already seen, many plants produce two kinds of blossom, the one -conspicuous and the other inconspicuous; the one visited by insects, -the other self-fertilizing. Recent observation shows that these -cleistogamous flowers, as they are called, are present in a great -variety of plants.[17] In the violet they are found to exist, being -seen in the summer and autumn, when all the more brilliant flowers -have gone. The one flower has everything in its favour--honey and a -beauty of colour and of smell that has passed into a proverb--and it -opens its blue wings to the visits of the insect tribe in the season -of their utmost jollity and life. The other has everything against -it: it is inconspicuous, scentless, ugly, and closed. And yet, which -succeeds the better? which produces the more seed? The cleistogamous, -and not the brilliant flowers: the victory is with ugliness, and not -with beauty. - -The same is true of the _Impatiens fulva_. This is an American plant, -closely akin to the balsam of our gardens, which has now thoroughly -established itself on the banks of some of our rivers, as the Wey, -and the tributary stream that runs through Abinger and Shere. It has -attractive flowers hung on the daintiest flower-stalks. It has also -little green flowers that never open and almost escape attention; -and yet they, and not the large flowers, are the great source of seed -vessels to the plant--the great security that the life of the race -will be continued.[18] Again, ugliness has borne away the palm of -utility from beauty. - -So, too, in America the same happens with the _Specularia perfoliata_: -in shady situations all its flowers are said to be cleistogamous, and -to be wonderfully productive and strong.[19] - -The conditions of the problem in these cases are such as to make them -of the last importance in our inquiry into the utility of beauty; -for in each case we are comparing a conspicuous and an inconspicuous -flower in the very same plant. The conditions seem to exclude the -possibility of error in the result. - -Two explanations have been suggested of the origin of these -cleistogamous flowers: according to the one, they are the earliest -form of the flowers; according to the other view, they are degraded -forms of the more beautiful flowers.[20] For our purpose, it is -immaterial whether of the two explanations is correct; for either the -development of beauty has diminished the utility of the flower, or the -loss of beauty has increased the utility: in either event, utility and -beauty are dissociated the one from the other. - -Another experiment Nature presents us with, in which the conditions -are nearly, if not quite, as rigorously exclusive of error. The vast -majority of orchidaceous plants are, as already mentioned, dependent -on insect agency, for fertilization, and present a marvellous variety -of contrivances for effecting cross-fertilization through their -activity. But one of our orchids (the Bee orchis) is self-fertilized. -I hardly know anything in vegetable life more striking or beautiful -than to see its delicate pollinaria at a certain stage of its -inflorescence descending on to the stigmatic surface and so yielding -their pollen grains to the fertilization of their own blossom; and yet -the Bee orchis has been found by observers to be as free a seeder as -any of its tribe. Here the beauty and conspicuousness of the blossom, -which are very great, are, as far as can be seen, useless; the plant -gains nothing by the attractiveness which it offers, and the colouring -and ornamentation of the blossom are, on the theory of utility, -residual phenomena. - -It is difficult to imagine that the change from wind or -self-fertilization can, so to speak, commend itself to the flower on -the score either of economy or success. If the anemophilous blossom -must produce somewhat more pollen than the entomophilous, it saves -the great expenditure of material and vital force requisite for the -production of the large and conspicuous corolla. The one is fertilized -by every wind that blows; the other, especially in the case of -highly-specialized flowers like the orchids, may be incapable of -fertilization except by a very few insects. The celebrated Madagascar -orchid _Angræcum_ can be fertilized, it is said, only by a moth with -a proboscis from ten to fourteen inches long--a moth so rare or -local that it is as yet known to naturalists only by prophecy. It -is difficult to suppose that it would be beneficial for the plant's -chance of survival to exchange as the fertilizing agent the universal -wind for this most localized insect. - -And here another line of evidence comes in and demands consideration. -The face of Nature, as we now see it, has not been always exhibited -by the world. The flora, like the fauna, of the world has changed: how -has it changed as regards the beauty of the flowers? Does it give any -testimony to that _becoming_ beautiful of the flowers of plants to -which Mr. Darwin refers? The answer is not a very certain one, -by reason of the imperfection of the geological record, of the -probability that beautiful plants, if they had existed, and had been -of a delicate structure, would have perished and left no trace behind. -But so far as an answer can be given, it is in favour of the increase -of floral beauty in the vegetable world. The earliest flower known -(the _Pothocites Grantonii_) occurs in the coal measures; its flowers -cannot have been other than inconspicuous in themselves, though it is -possible that by grouping they were made more attractive to the eye; -in the period of the growth of the coal, when this plant lived, the -vast forests seem principally to have been composed of trees without -conspicuous blossoms, huge club mosses and marestails, and many -conifers; in the earlier periods of this earth we have no trace of -conspicuous blossom, and it is not till the upper chalk that the oaks -and myrtles and _Proteaceæ_ appear as denizens of the forests. In like -manner, if we refer to the appearance of insects on the earth, we have -no clear trace in very early strata of those classes of insects -which now do the principal work of fertilization for our conspicuous -flowers. In the coal measures there have been found insects of the -scorpion, beetle, cockroach, grasshopper, ant, and neuropterous -families; but of a butterfly or moth there is only evidence of great -doubt. It seems probable, then, and one cannot say more, that with -the progress of the ages, flowers, as a whole, have become more -conspicuous and attractive. But if we inquire whether the dull flowers -of one era have grown into the conspicuous flowers of another, the -answer is negative. The conifers of the coal age were anemophilous -then, and are anemophilous still; they show no symptom of becoming -more conspicuous; the same is true of the oaks of the chalk period, -and of all other inconspicuous plants. The difference between -conspicuous and inconspicuous flowers appears a permanent one; and the -page of geology gives no evidence in favour of the supposed change. - -Another observation must yet be made. Comparing flowers fertilized -by insects and by the wind, it has never, so far as I can learn, -been observed that the former are more certain of being set or more -prolific than the latter; and, as already shown, the inconspicuous -flowers are often more fertile than the conspicuous ones. What motive -would there be, then, for the inconspicuous flowers of the early -geologic periods to convert themselves into the brilliant corollas of -our day? - -Carefully considered, the passage which I have cited from Mr. Darwin -does not account for the beauty of the flowers of plants at all; it -accounts only for their conspicuousness, as the writer himself points -out; and the two things are so different, that to account for the one -is not even to tend to account for the other. If any one will consider -the beauty of every inflorescence, whether conspicuous or not--a -beauty which the microscope always makes apparent where the unaided -eye fails to perceive it; or, again, the easily perceived beauty of -many inconspicuous plants; or, lastly, the beauty of many conspicuous -plants which does not tend to their conspicuousness--he will see how -true this is. - -For in many conspicuous flowers there are delicate pencillings and -markings which certainly do not tend to make them such, but which -nevertheless add greatly to their beauty, as we perceive it. In the -regularly shaped flowers these markings often start from the centre -of the blossom like radii, and they may be conceived as guiding the -insects to the central store of honey. Such guidance can hardly be -needful, as the shape of the flower itself generally does all, and -more than all, that the markings can do in the way of guidance. But -it is by no means true that all the markings lead to the centre of -the flower: many are transverse; many are marginal; some are by way of -spot. - -Again, take the irregularly shaped flowers, which are supposed to be -the exclusive subjects of insect fertilization; how infinite are the -beauties of the flower over and above those which make it conspicuous, -or can assist to guide the insect. Take the orchids, for example: the -labellum is generally the landing-place of the insect visitors; but -the other flower-leaves are almost always the subjects of a vast -display of delicate beauty which cannot be accounted for by the -necessity of conspicuousness or guidance. All this beauty is, on the -theory in question, an unexplained fact. - -But, again, take the grasses, which depend for fertilization -exclusively on the wind, and have no need to woo the visits of the -insects. The beauty of the markings of the inflorescence of many -of the grasses is very great, though far from conspicuous: take -the delicately banded flowers of our quaking grasses; take the rich -crimson of the foxtails; take the brilliant yellow of the Canary -_Phaleris_; and it is impossible to refuse the attribute of beauty in -colour to the wind-loving grasses. And all this beauty is unexplained -on the theory in question. - -It is impossible to speak of the grasses and not to have the mind -recalled to the beauty that resides in form as contrasted with colour. -Elegance, grace of form, characterizes most (but not all) plants, -whether fertilized by the wind or by insects; and yet this grace, in -many cases, perhaps in most, adds nothing to their conspicuousness. It -is, on the theory in question, a piece of idle beauty; and yet it is -all-pervading--a persistent, though not universal, characteristic of -the vegetable world. - -But to revert to conspicuousness. It is not true to say that all -self-fertilized plants have inconspicuous flowers. I have adduced the -_Stephanotis_ and _Hoya_ on this point. Nor is it true to say that all -anemophilous flowers are inconspicuous as compared with the green of -their leaves. The large but delicate yellow groups of the male flowers -of the Scotch pine (not to travel beyond very familiar plants) are -very conspicuous in the early summer--much more so, to my eye at -least, than many flowers which are supposed to stake their lives on -attraction by being conspicuous. Hermann Müller has observed on this -same fact, and considers it to be clear that the display of colour can -be of no use to the plant, and must therefore be regarded as "a merely -accidental phenomenon,"[21]--_i.e._, a phenomenon not accounted for by -utility. - -The crimson flowers of the larch, again, are certainly very -conspicuous as well as beautiful on the yet leafless boughs; and yet -they owe nothing to insects. - -One other remark must be made on this passage from Mr. Darwin which -has formed my text. It does not pretend to account for the production -of beauty or even of conspicuousness. It only seeks to account for the -accumulation of that quality in certain plants, and its comparative -absence in others. The tendency in Nature to produce beauty is a -postulate in Mr. Darwin's theory. - -The beauty of mountain blossoms has been referred to as supporting -the utility of beauty: it is not perfectly clear that even this can be -accounted for merely by the need of attracting insects. It is said by -the American writer to whom I have already referred, Mr. Meehan, that -the flowers of the Rocky Mountains are beautifully coloured, produce -as much seed as similar ones elsewhere, and yet that there is a -remarkable scarcity of insect life--so great, I understand him to -mean, as to render it highly improbable that the races of the flowers -can be perpetuated by insect agency. - -We have hitherto, according to promise, been considering the beauty of -flowers as detached from all surrounding facts, and isolated from -all other parts of the plant. But, in fact, this beauty of the -inflorescence of plants is only one phenomenon of a much larger class. -The petals and sepals are only leaves; and it is difficult to argue -about the character of the flower-leaves and omit from thought the -stalk and root-leaves; and these leaves continually possess a wealth -of beauty both of form and colour for which no intelligible utility -has ever been suggested. The use made of conspicuous leaves in the -modern style of bedding-out and the cultivation in hot-houses of what -are called foliage plants, will recall this to every one. In many -cases the stems of plants, often the veins of the leaves, and often -the backs of the leaves, are the homes of distinct and beautiful -colouring, for which, so far as I know, no account can be given on -the score of use. To enlarge our view yet a little more, the brilliant -colours of the fungi and of the lichens, mosses, and sea-weeds, and, -lastly, the outburst of varied colours in the autumn--the crimson of -the bramble, the browns of the oaks, the red of the maple, the gold -of the elm, "the sunshine of the withering fern"--all these present -themselves to us as so closely akin to the painted beauty of flowers -that we cannot think of the one without the other; and we may well -hesitate to accept as satisfactory a theory which can offer no -explanation of phenomena so closely akin to those of flowers, except, -forsooth, that they are merely accidental. Once again, to widen the -range of our mental vision, the beauty of the vegetable world is but a -part of that great and complex mass of beauty from which we agreed -to segregate it; and viewed as part of that, it must have the same -explanation applied to it as the other beautiful phenomena of the -world. - -It is worth while to remember that Beauty is no outcome of a long -period of evolution; it is no late event in the geologic history of -the world. The lowest forms of organic life no less than the highest -are clad in beauty. Many beings that are "simple structureless -protoplasm"--to use the language of Professor Allman as President of -the British Association this year--"fashion for themselves an -outer membraneous or calcareous case, often of symmetrical form -and elaborate ornamentation, or construct a silicious skeleton of -radiating spicula or crystal-clear concentric spheres of exquisite -symmetry and beauty."[22] - -So, too, in the Silurian period, the corals and other marine -structures were, no doubt, endowed with every grace which could -please the eye of man, if he had been there. Beauty is the invariable -companion of Nature. It is difficult, therefore, to account for it -as a result of evolution; and, as for the theory that it was made -for man's delectation only, a single diatom or a single fossil from a -Silurian bed is enough to put the whole vain egotism to flight. - -What are the results fairly deducible from these observations? They -seem to be the following:-- - - 1. That conspicuousness is _a_ step towards fertilization in one - mode, and might, therefore, well be used by an artist loving at - once beauty and fertility. - - 2. That there is no such preponderating advantage in beauty as - should convert the ugly anemophilous flowers into the brilliant - entomophilous flowers. - - 3. That in an infinite number of cases beauty exists, but without - any relation to the mode of fertilization. - - 4. That it is maintained in many cases where the uglier and less - beautiful plant is more useful, as in the case of the violet. - - 5. That even where conspicuousness is useful, it furnishes no - complete account of the whole beauty of the flower. - -Let us apply these facts to the two rival theories. If, on the one -hand, nothing has become beautiful but through the utility of beauty, -beauty will be found where it is useful and nowhere else. But we have -found beauty without finding utility; so that theory, on our present -knowledge, is inadmissible. - -If, on the other hand, there be an artificer in Nature who loves at -once utility and beauty, he may use the one sometimes as a mean to -the other, or he may use beauty without utility; and the presence of -beauty without utility is intelligible. - -And here I conclude. I see in Nature both utility and beauty; but I am -not convinced that the one is solely dependent on the other. I find -a grace and a glory (even in the flowers of plants) which, on the -utilitarian theory, is not accounted for, is a residual phenomenon; -and that in such enormous proportions that the phenomenon explained -bears no perceptible proportion to the phenomenon left unexplained. -Whether this be so or not, it appears to me, for the reasons I have -already given, that we may still entertain the same notions about the -beauty of the world as before. Our souls may still rejoice in beauty -as of old. To some of us this glorious frame has not appeared a dead -mechanic mass, but a living whole, instinct with spiritual life; and -in the beauty which we see around us in Nature's face, we have felt -the smile of a spiritual Being, as we feel the smile of our friend -adding light and lustre to his countenance. I still indulge this -fancy, or, if you will, this superstition. Still, as of old, I feel -(to use the familiar language of our great poet of Nature)-- - - "A presence that disturbs me with the joy - Of elevated thoughts: a sense sublime - Of something far more deeply interfused, - Whose dwelling is the light of setting suns, - And the round ocean, and the living air, - And the blue sky, and in the mind of man; - A motion and a spirit, that impels - All thinking things, all objects of all thought, - And rolls through all things. Therefore am I still - A lover of the meadows and the woods - And mountains; and of all that we behold - From this green earth: of all the mighty world, - Of eye, and ear." - - EDW. FRY. - - [Footnote 1: Wisdom, xiii. 3-5.] - - [Footnote 2: P. 200.] - - [Footnote 3: "Origin of Species" (4th Ed.), p. 239.] - - [Footnote 4: Wallace, "Tropical Nature," p. 232.] - - [Footnote 5: _Ibid._ p. 232.] - - [Footnote 6: _Ibid._ p. 237.] - - [Footnote 7: "Flowers and their Unbidden Guests," by Kerner, - translated by Ogle. Prefatory Letter.] - - [Footnote 8: Henslow, "On Self-Fertilization." Trans. Linn. - Society, 2nd series, "Botany," i. p. 325. _Query_: Is not this - the case with the _Tacsonia_ of our greenhouses?] - - [Footnote 9: Henslow, _ubi sup._ 329.] - - [Footnote 10: Kerner, p. 11. These statements appear to - me, though made by a very accomplished observer, to require - verification. My own observations on the _Colchicum_ (which - have been only very imperfect) would have led me to incline to - a different conclusion.] - - [Footnote 11: Kerner, p. 12.] - - [Footnote 12: Lubbock's "Wild Flowers in Relation to Insects," - p. 56.] - - [Footnote 13: Lindley, "Veg. King." 436.] - - [Footnote 14: "Ueber die Bestaubungsvorrichtungen bei den - Fumariaceen," in Pringsheim's "Jahrbuch," vol. vii. part iv. - p. 423. 1870.] - - [Footnote 15: Link, "Report on Progress of Botany during - 1841," translated by Lankester (Ray Society, 1845), p. 65.] - - [Footnote 16: Meehan, "On Fertilization by Insect Agency." - _Gardeners' Chronicle_, 11 Sept. 1875.] - - [Footnote 17: For the whole subject of these most curious - flowers, see Mr. Darwin's book "On the Different Forms of - Flowers;" Rev. G. Henslow, Tr. Linn. Society, "Botany," 2nd - series, vol. i. p. 317; Mr. Bennett, Journal of Linn. Society, - "Botany," xiii. p. 147, xvii. p. 269.] - - [Footnote 18: Bennett, Journal of Linn. Society, "Botany," - xiii. p. 147.] - - [Footnote 19: Meehan, "On Fertilization," _ubi supra_.] - - [Footnote 20: Mr. Bennett, "On Cleistogamous Flowers," Linn. - Society's Journal, "Botany," xvii. p. 278, has shown that the - latter is probably the correct view.] - - [Footnote 21: _Nature_, ix. 461.] - - [Footnote 22: _Nature_, xx. p. 386.] - - - - -WHERE ARE WE IN ART? - - -"No doubt education is a fine thing!" said I, meditatively, laying -down my thirteenth newspaper. It was a rainy November day, and the -reading-room was nearly empty. I had been told the great fact over and -over again in some form or other in all the "Dailies" and "Weeklies." -It had been repeated in every variety of tone in the little pile of -"Monthlies" at my elbow, of which I had skimmed the cream (no one -in these days can be expected to go through the labour of a whole -article)! The "Quarterlies," in more ponderous fashion, had reiterated -the sentiment. We had got hold of the right thing; all that was wanted -was more and more of the same. Let everybody be served alike; what is -meat for the gander is meat also for the goose, repeated the advocates -of women's education, magniloquently (though not exactly in those -words). Let everybody learn the same thing that I am learning! How -much better and wiser we are than our forefathers! How beautiful for -us to be able to say, as in the old story of the French Minister of -Instruction when he pulls out his watch, "It is ten o'clock; all -the children in the schools in England are doing their sums. It is -half-past eleven, they are all writing their copies!" - -"What everybody says must be true," thought I; "the schoolmaster has -got the better of the world, and rules the roast despotically; but -then how great is the result!" I repeated, with pride. - -Such perfection was rather oppressive, and I could not help yawning a -little as I went upstairs, looking round as I went. The decorations -of the club were wonderfully fine, no doubt, but perhaps an Italian -of the "Cinque-cento" would not have thought them quite successful. -Probably, however, he would have been wrong. He was certainly much -less "instructed" in art than we are. I strolled to the window, and -looked out at a stucco palace on either hand and over the way, with -pillars and pilasters added _ad libitum_, and a glimpse of a long wall -with oblong openings cut in it, stretching the whole length of -the street. One of the abominable regiments of black statues which -disfigure London stood near the corner, the nicely-finished buttons of -whose paletôt, and the creases of whose boots (the originals of -which must have been made by Hoby), had often been my wonder, if not -admiration. - -"Yes, there certainly is a lost art or two, which have somehow made -their escape from this best of all worlds, in spite of our drilling -and double-distilled training," I sighed. - -There was a portfolio of photographs lying on the table, which I -turned over abstractedly. The Venus de Milo, and the Theseus of the -Parthenon; the Raphael frescoes of the great council of the gods in -the Farnesina Palace at Rome; a street in Venice; Durham Cathedral; -the decorations of the Certosa at Pavia; some specimens of old -Japanese porcelain; some coloured patterns of Persian shawls and -prayer-rugs and of Indian inlaid work. Each of them was good and -appropriate of its kind, expressing a national or individual taste and -feeling, or, best of all, a belief. And none of them were the results -of education, but of a kind of instinct of art which no instruction -hitherto has been able to give, of which it seems even sometimes to -deprive a race, as a savage generally loses his accurate perception -of details and his power of memory and artistic perceptions, with -his delicacy of hearing and smell, as a consequence of so-called -civilization. - -The Hindoo arranges colours for a fabric with the same certainty of -intuition that a bird weaves his nest, or a spider its web. His blues -and greens are as harmonious in their combinations as those of Nature -herself; while the "educated" Englishman is now introducing every -species of atrocity in form and colour wherever he goes, ruining -the beautiful native manufactures by instructions from his superior -"standpoint;" forcing the workers to commit every blunder which -he does himself at home, in order to adapt their fabrics to -the abominable taste of the middle classes in England. Even the -missionaries, male and female, cannot hold their hands, and teach the -children in schools and hareems crochet and cross-stitch of the worst -designs and colours, instead of the exquisite native embroidery of -the past. Arsenic greens, magenta and gas-tar dyes, are introduced by -order of the merchants into carpets and cashmere shawls; vile colours -and forms in pottery and bad lacquer-work are growing up, by command, -in China and Japan. There seems to be no check or stay to the -irruption of bad taste which is swamping the whole world by our -influence. The Japanese have even been recommended to make a Museum -of their own beautiful old productions quickly, or the very memory of -their existence, and of the manner in which they were made, would be -lost. - -It is commonly supposed that the taste of the French is better than -our own, and the pretty, the bizarre, the becoming, may indeed be -said to belong to their domain; but high art is not their vocation. -A certain harmony is obtained by quenching colour, as in the "Soupir -étouffé," the "Bismarck malade," the "rose dégradée," the "Celadon" of -the Sèvres china, all eighth and tenth degrees of dilution; but pure -colour, like that of Persia and of the East generally, they never now -dare to dip their hands into. The gorgeous effects of their own old -painted glass, the "rose windows" of the churches at Rouen and in many -other towns of Normandy, are far beyond their present reach. - -The stained glass of all countries in Europe, indeed, belonging to -the good times, is a feast of colour which none of the modern work -can approach. There is a "Last Judgment," said to be from designs by -Albert Dürer, which was taken in a sea-fight on its road to Spain, -and put up in a little church at Fairford, in Gloucestershire, which -dazzles us with its splendour; and the scraps which are still to be -found all over England in village churches (many of which are now -believed to be of home manufacture) are as beautiful as the great -Flemish windows thirty feet high. At the present day the pigments -used, we are told, are finer; the glass is infinitely better rolled, -all the manufacturing processes have made wonderful progress, as -we proudly declare; only the results of it are utterly and simply -detestable--the colours of the great modern windows in Cologne -Cathedral and Westminster Abbey set one's very teeth on edge--the -temptation to use a stone (if it had come under one's hand) would be -frightfully great in front of that at the east end of Ripon. - -There lies before me an old Persian rug, all out of shape and twisted -in the weaving, but full of subtle quantities in colour, perfect in -the proportions of its vivid brilliancy, and a grand new Axminster -carpet alongside, of faultless construction, with a design as hideous -as its colours are harsh. - -It is not only now with productions destined for the English market, -but the degradation of art is beginning to spread all over the -world--the standards of "instructed" European taste are vitiating the -very well-springs of beautiful old work. The "mantilla" of Seville, -and the "tovaglia" of the Roman peasant, are supplanted by frightful -bonnets; the striking old costumes are disappearing alike in Brittany -and in Algiers; in Athens and in Turkey they are giving way to -the abominations of Parisian toilettes for the women, while the -chimney-pot hat is taking the place of the turban and the kalpac for -the men. - -The picturesque quaintness of the narrow Egyptian streets dies away, -as under a frost, under the hand of Western architects; the delicate -pierced woodwork of their projecting balconies is changed for flat -windows with red and green "jalousies;" and the Khedive builds -minarets, it is true, but like enlarged Mordan pencil-cases. The -harmony of the lines in an ancient Arabian fountain or mosque at -Cairo, the interlacing patterns of fretwork in the Saracenic buildings -at Grenada, are marvellous in their exquisite variety; yet the secret -of their construction in their own land is nearly gone, the very -tradition of the old work seems to have perished in the race--they -cannot even imitate their own old creations. "Oh for a touch of a -vanished hand!" we say over the ruined tombs of the Memlook Sultans -in their desolate beauty, standing lonely in the desert near Cairo, or -the wonderful mosques of the deserted city of Beejapore in the Bombay -Presidency, whose photographs have lately been printed. - -Each nation in the old time had an expression of its thoughts in -the buildings in which it housed its gods, its government, and its -individuals, which was as distinctive as its language: a tongue, -indeed, in stone, in colour and in form, as plain as, indeed plainer -than, ever words could frame. - -The Egyptian, with the flat square lines of the gigantic slabs placed -across the forests of enormous rounded pillars closely packed, the -avenues of sphinxes and obelisks leading up (never at right angles, -curiously to our sense of conformity) to the temples--solemn, heavy, -magnificent, mysterious--with a sentiment of dignified repose, though -little of beauty or proportion, but full of symbolism and suggestion -and grandeur. - -The exquisite Greek buildings, where proportion was almost like music -in its scientific harmony of parts, so exact, so modulated, so severe, -so lovely--with sculpture forming an almost necessary portion of the -architectural design when at its highest point of excellence. - -The Saracenic, with its simple grace of construction and delicate -detail of ornament, with holy words and combinations of lines in place -of natural forms, and soaring beauty of domes, and pierced marble -work. - -The Middle Age Italian, with its inlaid and decorated façades and -wealth of columns, and traceries of gay-coloured stones, and contrasts -of brilliant light and dark shadows in the deep-set windows and -doors,--bright and lovely like Giotto's Campanile at Florence, rising -like a flower over the city, or great churches like those of Orvieto -and St. Mark's,[1] with their rich profusion of mosaic and carved -stone and quaint modifications of brickwork. - -Or the buildings of the Gothic nations (our own included), which -often, like those at Mont St. Michel, seem to have so grown out of -the situation--where the Art is so interwoven with Nature, that it is -hardly possible to discover where one begins and the other ends. There -is something also of the manner in which Nature works, in the feeling -with which the curves interlace, seeming almost to grow into each -other, in a Gothic cathedral. In the perspectives of heavy round -arches of Winchester and Durham, in the upward soaring of the -Salisbury spire, there is the same impression--they seem to have -"come" so. It is like a living organism, the parts of which are as -natural and necessary to the whole as is the growth of a tree: like -the recipe of old for a poet, they seem to have been "born, not made." - -All these different races invented for themselves what is called a -"style;" that is to say, an original manner, peculiar and adapted to -their special idiosyncrasies, of fulfilling those wants which every -nation, as soon as it emerges from the savage state, must feel and -provide for in some fashion. - -Even to descend to very inferior work--there is character and -expression in the old King William houses on the river-bank at -Chelsea, in the pretty little Queen Anne Square in Westminster; it -is too neat and pretty to be high art, with its unobtrusive moulded -brick, its shallow projections, and the carved shells over the -doorways; but it is not unlike the poetry of Pope in the delicate -finish and adaptation of its parts, while no one can deny that it has -an individuality which the smart new houses in Grosvenor Place are -totally without, where costly granite and excellent stone seem to have -been employed to show the moral lesson that the best materials are of -little service unless mixed "with brains, sir," as Opie advised. Every -capital of the columns is carved by hand, but of the poorest design -and all alike--it is hardly possible to conceive the poverty of -invention involved in making every house and every ornament an exact -copy of its neighbour, in a situation which invited picturesque -treatment--after too, it had been shown at the Oxford Museum that -carving was done both quicker and better when the workers exerted -their minds in such inventions as they possessed (and some of their -renderings of natural forms were beautiful) than when they merely -followed a stereotyped pattern. - -At present we can as soon invent a new style for ourselves as a new -animal; we copy, we combine--that is, under the Georgian era we added -a Mahometan cupola to Roman columns in the Regent's Park; or, still -later, we made one pediment serve for the whole side of a Belgravian -square--_i.e._, a form intended for a nicely-calculated angle over the -front of a temple with a particular number of columns, is stretched as -on a rack over the roofs of an acre of houses; or we build a portico -designed as a shelter against the cloudless sunshine of the Greek -climate to darken a sunless English dwelling-house. Our last -achievement has been to make a "pasticcio" of the high "mansarde" -Parisian roofs, with hideous little debased Italian porticoes, a -quarter of a mile of which may be seen in the Grosvenor Gardens -district. - -Also we can patch and imitate--that is, rebuild a sham antique--from -which, however ingeniously done, the ineffable charm of the original -has escaped like a gas. Why the portico of the capital at Washington, -or the monument on the Calton Hill at Edinburgh, whose columns -are said to be "an exact copy of those at Athens," are so utterly -uninteresting, it would take too long to explain; but no one will deny -that they are mere lumps of dead stone, while the Parthenon itself, -ruined and defaced, wrecked and ill-used, still stands like a glorious -poem in marble, which no evil treatment can deprive of its charm. -There is mind and soul worked into the material, and somehow -inextricably entangled into it, which no copy, however exact, can in -the least reproduce. - -No doubt we have improved in our street architecture; there are -isolated specimens of red brick, a shop-front in South Audley Street, -and one in New Bond Street, several excellent buildings in the city, -&c, &c, legitimate adaptations of gables, dormers, and windows, -exceedingly good of their kind; but these are not original creations, -only developments of what already exists. - -There is one point in which our present shallow, unintelligent -education has wrought irreparable mischief. We have learnt so much of -respect for art as to desire to preserve the works of our forefathers, -but not so far as to find out how this is to be done. We set to work -to "restore" them. Every inch of the surface of an old church is -historical as to the manner of the handiwork of the men of the -twelfth, thirteenth, or whatever may be the century, and we proceed -to put a new face on it, which, at the best, must certainly be that -of the nineteenth century; we find a defaced portrait statue on an -altar-tomb (as in a church in Devonshire), and we insert a smooth -mask out of our own heads; we find an Early English tower with walls -fourteen feet thick, and think a vestry would be "nicer" in its place, -and the tower is therefore pulled down and rebuilt at the other end of -the nave (as in a church in Bucks); or a curious monument to the fifth -son of Edward III., or a couple of kneeling figures, clad in ruffs and -farthingales, of an old rector and his wife, are within the communion -rails (as in two other churches in Bucks); the incumbents do not -approve of tombs in such "sacred places," and, regardless of -the curious historical fact shown by the very position itself in -pre-Reformation days, they are ruthlessly rooted up, and in the latter -case a flaming brass to the rector's own family substituted. - -Even a little art education would show us that this is not -"restoration;" it may be a much finer and smarter kind of work, as -many people seem to consider it; but the cutting down an inch of the -splendid carved stone porches at Chartres to a new surface is -not "restoring" that which was there before--the face of the -fifteenth-century lady cannot be "restored" without a portrait which -no longer exists--the new tower may be very "pretty," but it is -certainly no longer a specimen of rare old Early English work. Like -the monks of old carefully scratching their invaluable parchment -manuscripts, to put in their own words and notes, we have at one fell -swoop scratched the history of English ecclesiastical art off -the land, and archæologists are inquiring sadly for instances of -unrestored churches, which, alas! now are scarcely to be found. - -What may be the reason why architecture, sculpture, painting, and -even poetry--_i.e._, the combination of stone, brick, marble, metal, -colours, and, lastly, of metrical forms of words--should all suffer by -the advance of our (so-called) civilization and education, is still -a mystery; but few will be found to doubt the fact in detail, though -they may deny the general formula. - -Perhaps our self-consciousness as to our great virtues, our -"progress," our knowledge, the learning of the reason of our work, the -introversion of our present moods of thought, check the development -of an idea, even if we may be fortunate enough to get hold of one. -Self-consciousness is fatal to art; there is a certain spontaneity -of utterance--singing, as the birds sing, because they cannot help -it--"composing," almost as the mountains and clouds "compose," by -reason of their existence itself, not because they want to make a -picture,--which produces natural work, grown out of the man and -the requirements of his nature, to which it seems, with very rare -exceptions, that we cannot now attain. - -In sculpture, a modern R.A. has acquired ten times as much anatomy -as Phidias: dissection was unknown, and not permitted, by the Greeks. -Chemistry has produced for the painter colours which Raphael (luckily -for us) never dreamed of. Yet one cannot help wondering at the strange -daring which permits the honourable society at Burlington House to -hang yearly the works of the ancient masters of the craft on the same -walls where their own productions are to figure a few weeks later, as -if to inform the world most impressively and depressingly from how far -we have fallen in pictorial art; to string up our taste, as it were, -to concert pitch--to give the key-note of true excellence, in order to -mark the depth to which we have sunk. - -We now teach drawing diligently in all European countries, and are -surprised that we get no Michelangelos. Did Masaccio go to a school of -design, or Giotto learn "free-hand" manipulation? Education, as it is -generally defined--meaning thereby a knowledge of the accumulation of -facts discovered by other people--is good for the general public, for -ordinary humanity, but not for original minds, except so far as it -saves them time and trouble by preventing them from reinventing -what has been already done by others. True, there can be but few -"inventors" (in the old Italian sense of creators) in the world at any -one moment, and training must, it will be said, be carried on for the -use of the many; but one might still plead for a certain elasticity in -our teaching, a margin left for free-will among the few who will ever -be able to use it. And, meantime, it is allowable to lament over the -number of arts we have lost, or are in danger of losing, which -can only be practised by the few--whose number seems ever to be -diminishing, under our generalizing processes of turning out as many -minds of the same pattern as if we wanted nail-heads or patent screws -by the million. - -This is not education in its true and highest sense--_i.e._, the -bringing forth the best that is in a man; not simply putting knowledge -into him, but using the variety of gifts, which even the poorest in -endowment possess, to the best possible end. And this seems more and -more difficult as the stereotyped pattern is more and more enforced in -board-schools, endowed schools, public schools, universities; and each -bit of plastic material, while young, is forced as much as possible -into the same shape, the only contention being who shall have the -construction of the die which all alike are eager to apply to every -individual of the nation. - -Of all races which have yet existed there can be no doubt that the -Greek was the one most highly endowed with artistic powers of all -kinds; yet the Greek was certainly not, in our sense of the term, -an educated man at all; his powers of every kind, however, were -cultivated indirectly by the very atmosphere he lived in. His -sensitive artistic nature found food in the forms and colours of -the mountains and the islands, the sea and the sky, by which he -was surrounded; by the human nature about him in its most perfect -development; by every building--his temples, his tombs, his -theatres--every pot and pan he used, every seat he sat upon; whereas -no man's eye can be other than degraded by the unspeakable ugliness of -an English manufacturing town, or, what is almost worse, by the sham -art where decoration of any kind is invented or attempted by the -richer middle class. - -The theory that soil and climate and food produce instincts of beauty, -as well as varieties of beasts and plants, is, however, evidently at -fault in these questions; for if this were the case at one time in the -world's history, why not at another? and the present inhabitants of -Greece are as inapt as their neighbours in sculpture, painting, and -architecture. Nothing, even out of the workshops of Birmingham, can -exceed the ugliness of their present productions--_e.g._, a Minerva's -head without a forehead, done in bead-work on canvas, fastened on to a -piece of white marble, which was given as a precious parting gift from -the goddess's own city to a valued friend. There seems now a headlong -competition in every country after bad art. If we ask for lace and -embroidery in the Greek islands, or silver fillagree in Norway,--if -we inquire for wood-carving from Burmah, or the old shawls and pottery -from Persia and the East,--the answer is always the same: we are told -that there is "none such made at present." It is only what remains of -the old handmade work that is to be obtained; the present inhabitants -"care for none of these things." Sham jewellery from the "Palais -Royal," Manchester goods, stamped leather, and the like, are what the -natives are seeking for themselves, while they get rid of "all those -ugly old things" to the first possible buyer for any price which they -can fetch. - -Manufacturing an article, (whatever be the real derivation of the -word, but) meaning the use of machinery for the multiplication of the -greatest number of articles at the least cost, however admirable for -the comfort of the million, is evidently fatal to art. When each bit -of ironwork, every hinge, every lock scutcheon, was hammered out with -care and consideration by the individual blacksmith, even if he were -but an indifferent performer, it bore the stamp of the thought of -a man's mind directing his hand; now there is only the stamp of a -machine running the metal into a mould. When every bit of decorative -wood-work was "all made out of the carver's brain,"--when the -embroidery of the holiday shirt of a boatman of "Chios' rocky isle" -took half a lifetime to devise and stitch, and was intended to last -for generations of wearers, art found a way, however humble, through -nimble fingers interpreting the fancies of the individual brain. -"Fancy work," as an old Hampshire woman called her stitching of the -fronts and backs of the old-fashioned smock-frocks, each one differing -from the one she made before, as her "fancy" led. It was always -interesting, and almost always beautiful. - -Now the hinges are cast by the ton, all of one pattern; fortunate, -indeed, if the original be a good one (a very hopeful supposition!). -The sewing-machine repeats its monotonous curves of embroidery; the -wood-carving is the result of skilfully-arranged knives and wheels -worked by steam, which only execute forms adapted for them. The -initial thought of their designer must be, not what is in itself -desirable, but that which the machine can best produce. What is right -in a particular place, is the natural object of the workman artist; -how to use what has been already cast or stamped, is the object of -the present ordinary builder; and what he calls "symmetry"--_i.e._, -monotony, every line repeated _ad nauseam_--is the result his -education aims at. Symmetry, in the sense of the repetition of the -infinite variety of exquisitely modulated curves in the two outlines -of the human body, is beautiful and harmonious; but there is neither -beauty nor harmony in the repetition of the self-same horizontal and -perpendicular lines of windows and doors in a London street. A feeling -of what in music are called "contrary motion," "oblique motion," is -all required in the impression produced by really fine architecture. -Yet, if the ordinary builder is asked to vary his hideous row of -houses by an additional window or a higher chimney, he exclaims with -horror at such a violation of "symmetry," his sole rule of beauty -being that all should look alike. - -The effect, indeed, of machine-made work is to impress upon the -tradesman mind the belief that perfection consists wholly in exact and -correct repetition of a pattern, which may be said to be true in -his craft; whereas constant variation and development is the law -of healthy art, the need being expressed by the design. To save the -expense and trouble of fresh drawings, also, as soon as a pattern -becomes popular in one material, it is immediately repeated _ad -nauseam_ in every other, however incongruous. A bunch of fuchsias has -been supposed to look well in a lace curtain; it is then cast in -brass for the end of a curtain-rod; is used for wall-papers and -stone-carving alike. Whereas if a Japanese artist has designed a -flight of cranes on his screen or his paper, it is impossible to -get another exactly the same; to reproduce a sketch exactly being, -generally, as every artist can tell, more laborious than to make a new -one, where the brain assists the fingers in their work. - -There is another result of our present shallow "general" education -which has a most depressing effect upon art. Every one now can read -and write, and it would be considered an infringement of the right -of private judgment to doubt the ability of every writer or reader to -criticize any work of art whatsoever. In the case of buying a kitchen -range or a carriage we should not trust to our own knowledge, but -should apply to the experienced expert; but "every one can tell -whether he likes a picture or not!" - -Now, good criticism in art demands at least as long and severe an -apprenticeship as that in ironmongery--the training of the eye by long -experience, reading, historical, scientific, mechanical--real study of -all the various subjects connected with it; and this can be acquired -only by few. It has been said, with perfect truth, that it will not -do to depend on the fiat of artists themselves for the value of -a picture, statue, or building. With some, the admiration of the -technical part of art is too great; the passionate likes and dislikes -for particular styles or particular men warp the judgments of others; -and this is, perhaps, inherent in the artist nature. But this is only -saying that we must not go to the ironfounder for the character of -his kitchen range; there are other skilled opinions to be had besides -those of the authors of a work. - -At the present time, the art of criticism has got so far beyond our -powers of creation that it becomes more and more difficult to bring -forth a great work of art. The hatching of eggs requires a certain -genial warmth to bring them to perfection; creation is a vital act, -but the reception which any new-fledged production is likely to meet -with is either the scorching fire of fault-finding or the freezing -cold of indifference. - -It was not thus that great works of old were produced; Cimabue's -picture of the Virgin was carried in a triumphal procession through -Florence, from the artist's studio to the church which was to be -honoured by its possession. It was a worthy religious offering to -the goddess Mary, a subject of rejoicing to the whole city, and the -quarter of the town where it was first seen, amid cries of delight, -was called the "Borgo Allegri," a name which it has kept six hundred -years. And the sympathy of the people reacted on the artist, and -helped him to carry out his great conceptions. They were proud of -him, and he worked at his picture as a labour of love to do his nation -honour. - -Now, when a man has spent perhaps years over a religious picture, -working with all his heart and soul and strength, instead of its being -taken into a church, and seen only with the associations for which it -is adapted, it is hung up between a smirking lady, clad in the last -abominations of the fashion, on one side, and a "horse and dog, the -property of Blank, Esq.," on the other; while the artist is fortunate -if the best of the critics, who has just glanced at it as he passes -by, does not entirely ignore his meaning and mistake the expression -of his idea, only discovering that "the drawing of the toe of the -left foot is decidedly awkward." So it may be, and there are probably -faults in it still more considerable; yet the picture, with all these -faults, may be one of great merit. - -Is it possible to conceive the Madonna di San Sisto painted under -such conditions? The cold chill of the indifferent public would have -reacted on the artist, and quenched the fire of his inspiration. The -picture was intended to be the incarnation of the religious feeling -of the whole Christian world, in the divine expression of the infant -Christ gazing into futurity, with those rapt, far-seeing eyes,--in the -holy mother, who carries him so reverently, yet with such power and -purity in her look and bearing. It was honoured sympathetically by all -who had the joy of seeing it borne as a banner through a great city as -an act of the highest worship; not cut up into little morsels and set -on a fork by every man who can write smart articles for a penny paper, -bestowing a little supercilious praise and much wholesome advice on -Holman Hunt and Tennyson, on Stevens[2] and Street alike. - -But the result is that the world is poorer by the want of the work -which only a sense of sympathy between the artist and his public -inspires. "Action and reaction are equal," we are told, in science, -and the artist cannot produce the best that is in him alone, any -more than the most finished musician can play on a dumb piano. The -receivers must do their share in the partnership. Mrs. Siddons once -said that she lost all her power when annihilated by the coldness of -the cream of the cream society of a _salon_, and preferred any marks -of emotion of an unsophisticated if intelligent audience, to the chill -of fashionable indifference; and when we complain of the poorness -of our art, we must remember for how large a share of this we, the -present public, are responsible. It may be all very well for the -skylark to "pour his strains of unpremeditated art" for his own -pleasure and that of the little skylarks; but Shelley must have had -the hope that "the world will listen then, as I am listening now." - -The poet and the painter require intelligent cordial belief and -sympathy, which is just what we have not to give, and therefore -the reign of the highest art is probably at an end: no Phidias or -Michelangelo, no Homer or Shakspeare, are likely again to arise. -This is pre-eminently a scientific age--a time for the collection and -co-ordination of facts; and what imagination we possess we use in the -discovery of the laws by which Nature works, and in the application of -our knowledge to the ordinary wants and comforts and pleasures of -the human race. Electric telegraphs, phonographs, photographs abound; -every possible adaptation of steam in majestic engines (almost, it -seems, as intelligent as man), to promote our means of communication -and locomotion over the surface of the earth, and of production in -every conceivable form; great ships and engines of destruction in war, -and (curious antithesis) ingenious contrivances for the saving of pain -in disease--everything, in short, connected with the comprehension -and subjugation of the material world, is more and more carried to -perfection. Yet in spite of these marvellous achievements, unless we -can manage to secure a supply of good art, there can be no doubt that -there will "have passed away a glory from the earth" which we can ill -afford to lose. - -There is no use in preaching what is called the common sense of the -matter, and telling Keats (though he may have died of consumption, -and not of the _Edinburgh Review_) that the critique on his poems -was flippant and unintelligent; or one artist that the account of his -picture was written by a man who did not understand painting, and the -next by a writer who had no notion of the requisites of true -poetry. The artist is by necessity of his nature a thin-skinned, -impressionable being, with sensitive nerves and perceptions, without -which the power of creation does not exist. He writes and paints and -acts and sculpts--in short, composes, invents, creates--to make the -world feel as he is feeling. Fame is a vulgar word for the sentiment -which inspires him; the longing after sympathy is a much truer -expression of what the true artist desires. That of his own family -and friends is not sufficient; he wants the world at large to hear and -understand and join in what he has to say, whether it be in marble or -on canvas, in music or in words. To grow such a creature to perfection -is very rare in the history of mankind, and when our aloe does flower, -we should make the most of it, and feed it with food convenient. Our -blame depresses him, even stupid,[3] unintelligent blame, more -than our praise elevates him; "he is absurdly sensitive," says the -hard-headed man of the world; but that is the very condition of the -problem with which we have to deal; if he were not so, we should not -have great works of art from him. He is an idealist by nature. If we -declare that it is very absurd of our vines to require so much care -and kindness, and that a little roughing and neglect will do them a -great deal of good, we shall not get many grapes; and, after all, what -we want is grapes--results, great artistic works. - -It is almost pathetic to see the nation doing the best it knows, -offering its patronage and its public buildings, its monuments of -great men and its money, and then to mark the results. It is fortunate -that most of the frescoes are scaling off the walls of the Houses -of Parliament. It is fortunate that Nelson and the Duke of York are -hoisted up so high that they cannot be scrutinized at all; it is -fortunate that most of the public statues are generally so begrimed -with dirt and soot that few can make out their intention. But it is we -who are responsible for half at least of their failures.[4] We have, -as a nation, neither the artistic feeling which delights in the -beautiful with a sort of worship, nor the sensuous religious instincts -which require an outward and visible sign of our inward faith. -Therefore our best chance of great work seems to be when the -common-sense necessity is so large in its demands, that carrying it -out even on merely utilitarian principles may give a grand result -by the force of circumstances, almost without our will,--the very -fulfilment of the working conditions on an enormous scale forcing -a certain grandeur on the work. As, for instance, when a viaduct is -carried over a deep valley and river, upon a lofty series of arches, -as in many Welsh railways and at Newcastle, there are elements of -strength, durability, might, and therefore majesty, which the barest -execution of the requirements cannot take away. The Suspension Bridge -hung high in the air above the ships in the Menai Straits, and that -over the narrow hollow of the Avon, have a beauty of lightness and -grace all their own--Waterloo Bridge, which Canova declared to be -worth coming to England to see--are all specimens of a kind of work -which we may hope to see multiplied, and even improved upon, as -the adaptation of art to the common necessities of our civilization -becomes more common, and is taken in hand by a higher and more -educated class of men. - -Nothing, however, can well be more depressing than the experience of -the United States in respect to this question of art and education. -Here is a country (in their own magniloquent hyperbole) "bounded on -the north by the Aurora Borealis, and on the west by the setting sun," -&c., &c., whose proud boast it is that every man, woman, and child -(born on its soil) can read, write, and something more,--which has -just celebrated its centenary of independent existence, and is in the -very spring-time of its national life when the "sap is rising,"--a -season which among other nations is that of their greatest artistic -vigour, yet which has never produced a poet, painter, sculptor,[5] or -architect above mediocrity. Strangely as it would seem at first sight, -it is originality which is chiefly wanting in their art; it is all an -echo of European models; they have no independent action of thought -or interpretation of Nature. Here, again, it is probably the want -of culture of the public which is to blame. Evidence is difficult -to obtain on such a vast subject as the use made of the reading and -writing so freely imparted at the schools in the United States, but -there is very good testimony showing that, with the exception of great -centres of civilization, like Boston, the nation, as a nation, reads -little but newspapers and story-books; and these clearly would produce -a soil utterly unfit for the growth of real art. - -Lastly, let us not forget Mr. Mill's warning how much the nation, -as well as the individual, must suffer by the stifling of original -thought in the rigid conformity to system which our present mechanism -of Government regulations, of centralized hard-and-fast rules, is -bringing about in education. - -The State has a right to exact a certain amount of training in the -individuals who compose it, but has no right whatever to interfere as -to how that result is obtained. Every encouragement should be held -out to original action of all kinds, tending to develop the -faculties--artistic, scientific, as well as practical--which remain to -be utilized among the millions who are now coming under an influence -hitherto painfully narrow, rigid, and shallow in its operations, -in spite of its magnificent promises and high-sounding notes of -self-satisfaction. - - F. P. VERNEY. - - [Footnote 1: Now, alas! under sentence of "restoration;" - the age of creation in Italy appears to be over, and that of - destruction to have begun.] - - [Footnote 2: The monument to the Duke of Wellington has never - received its due meed of praise. With all his faults, poor - Stevens was a man of true genius.] - - [Footnote 3: "Quoique les applaudissemens que j'ai reçus - m'aient beaucoup flatté, la moindre critique, quelque mauvaise - qu'elle eût été, m'a toujours causé plus de chagrin que toutes - les louanges ne m'aient fait de plaisir," writes Racine to - his son. He was silent for twelve years after the "insuccès - de Phêdre." "Quoique le 'Mercure Gallant' était au dessous de - rien, les blessures qu'il fait n'en sont pas moins cruelles à - la sensibilité d'un poëte," adds the _Revue des Deux Mondes_.] - - [Footnote 4: The group of "Asia," by Foley, in Prince Albert's - Memorial, is one of the few exceptions to the indifferent - character of out-door statues in London.] - - [Footnote 5: Mr. Story may perhaps be considered an exception; - but even the "Cleopatra," and "Sibyl" were produced under the - influence of Rome.] - - - - -LIFE IN CONSTANTINOPLE FIFTY YEARS AGO. - - -It has often been said that the Turk never changes, that he is now -just what he was when he first appeared in Asia Minor. There is very -little truth in this observation, for in fact he is like other men, -and his character has been modified by the circumstances in which -he has been placed, as well as by constant intermarriage with other -races. He has changed in some respects for the better, and in others -for the worse. There is probably no important city in the world, -unless it be Cairo, which has been so radically changed during the -last fifty years as the capital of the Turkish Empire. The dress, the -customs, the people, the Government, have all been transformed under -the influence of European civilization; and these changes have exerted -more or less influence in all parts of the Empire. - -In this impatient age, when men will hardly give a moment to the -consideration of anything but the future, and are always anxiously -waiting for to-morrow's telegrams, it is easy to forget that we cannot -understand either the present or the future without constant reference -to the past. No one can fairly judge the Turks or the Christians of -this Empire, or form any idea of their probable destiny, who is not -acquainted with their condition fifty years ago, in the time of the -last of the Ottoman Sultans; and a brief sketch of Constantinople -as it was at that time cannot fail to suggest some interesting -considerations to those who are watching the course of events in the -East. As contemporary records are even more valuable than personal -reminiscences, I shall quote freely from the private journal of a late -English resident, who was a member of the Levant Company, and, -after its dissolution, for many years the leading English banker in -Constantinople, with a world-wide reputation for integrity, and -in every way a perfect specimen of an English gentleman of the -old school. He came to Constantinople in 1823, and his journal was -continued till 1827. It has never been published. - -The reigning Sultan was Mahmoud II., the Reformer, who came to the -throne in 1808, after the murder of Sultan Selim and the execution of -his brother Moustapha, and after narrowly escaping death himself. The -insurrection in Moldavia and Wallachia had been put down in 1821, and -Ali Pacha, the famous Albanian chief of Janina, had been treacherously -put to death in 1822; but the war of the Greek Revolution was still -in progress, and the battle of Navarino was not fought until 1827. -War was declared against Russia the same year. Halet Pacha had been -strangled in 1822, and Mohammed Selim Pacha was Grand Vizier. Lord -Strangford and Mr. Stratford Canning (Lord Stratford) represented -England at the Sublime Porte during this period. The relation of -the European Powers to the Sultan at this time cannot be better -illustrated than by the following account of the reception of Mr. -Stratford Canning in April, 1826. The ceremony was not so humiliating -as it was in 1621, when Sir Thomas Rowe made such vigorous but -unavailing attempts to have it modified; when the Ambassador was -forced down upon his knees, and compelled to kiss the earth at the -feet of the Sultan; when he was often beaten by the Janissaries on -leaving the palace; or, as in the case of the Ambassador of Louis -XIV., struck in the face by a soldier in the presence of the Grand -Vizier; but although there had been some ameliorations in the -ceremony, its significance was exactly the same in 1826 as in 1621, -and the same religious scruples were advanced as a reason why they -could not be modified in favour of Giaours by the Caliph of Islam. -They were all the more humiliating for those who submitted to them, -from the fact that there was one Power in Europe which had never -recognized them. Even as early as 1499 the Russian Ambassador refused -to submit to any such degradation. In 1514 a new Ambassador was -specially instructed "on no account to compromise his dignity, or -prostrate himself before the Sultan; to deliver his letters and -presents with his own hands, and not to inquire after his health -unless he first inquired after that of the Czar." The Turks seem to -have had an instinctive fear of Russia even at that early day, when -they were strong and Russia was weak. But could Sultan Mahmoud have -looked forward twenty-five years, he would no doubt have treated Lord -Stratford with more respect and consideration. In 1826, however, the -haughty pride of the Caliph was unbroken, and he little thought that -his descendants would reign only by the favour of Europe. - -"After having an audience of the Grand Vizier, the 10th was fixed for -the Ambassador's audience of the Sultan, when he, accompanied by -all the English residents at Constantinople, left the Embassy in -the morning at a quarter before six, in procession, on horseback. At -Topkhana, about five minutes' ride from the Embassy, we embarked in -boats and crossed the harbour to Stamboul. We found horses waiting for -us, but stopped to take coffee, pipes, sherbet, and sweetmeats, with -the _Tchaoush-bachi_ (a Marshal of the Palace), who preceded us to the -entrance of the Porte, where it is usual for Ambassadors to wait under -some large spreading trees until the Grand Vizier passes and precedes -them to the seraglio. Having entered the first gate, we passed -through a large open space, enclosed by low buildings, in which the -Janissaries were drawn up to the number of three thousand. We stopped -on the farther side of the second gate, in a large square chamber -between the second and third gates, within which is the cell where -Grand Viziers and other State prisoners under sentence of death -are confined and beheaded. After waiting here a quarter of an hour, -permission was sent for our entrance. We passed through the third gate -into a large garden, in which stood the divan chamber, and the -front of the seraglio, both very richly painted and gilt, with roofs -projecting four or five feet beyond the walls. As soon as we entered -the garden, the Janissaries all uttered a loud shout and began running -as quick as they could. This was for their _pilaf_, the distribution -of which was a complete scramble. This is a farce always played off -on these occasions to impress foreigners with a respect for this -contemptible soldiery. We then walked forward, for we had left our -horses outside the second gate, to the divan chamber, where the Grand -Vizier was sitting in state, immediately opposite the entrance, on -the centre of a sofa, which extended along the side of the chamber, -covered with the richest silks, at the further ends of which, on each -side of him, sat the judges of Anatolia and Roumelia. The chamber was -small but richly decorated, the ceiling being splendidly painted and -gilt. We walked to one side of the room without making any salutation, -_as no notice was taken of us_. After a time, a number of Turks -entered and ranged themselves in two rows before the judges, who went -through the form of examining them and deciding their suits. This was -intended to impress us with a high sense of their administration of -justice. The payment of the Janissaries is also generally appointed -to take place at the audience of an Ambassador, in whose presence are -piled great bags of money, which are delivered to the troops, in order -to impress foreigners with an exalted idea of Turkish opulence. This -tedious ceremony lasted more than three hours, but it was the last -payment before the destruction of that body. The Grand Vizier had in -the meantime sent a letter to the Sultan, stating in the usual form -that a Giaour Ambassador had come to prostrate himself at the feet of -his sacred Majesty. The royal answer came at length, enclosed in an -envelope. When this was taken off there appeared a quantity of muslin, -in which the letter was wrapped. The Grand Vizier, taking the letter, -kissed it and applied it to his forehead before he read it. The -tenor of this letter was a command to _feed_, _wash_, _and clothe the -Giaours_, and bring them to him. After the Grand Vizier had read this, -two tables were laid (_i.e._, two large tin plates were laid upon -reversed stools), one for the Vizier and the Ambassador, the other -for the rest of us. Washing materials were provided, and a collation -served. All this time the Sultan was looking at us through a latticed -window. After this we went into the garden, and pelisses were -distributed. I was lucky enough to receive one. The Ambassador, with -those who had pelisses, amounting to twenty in all, then followed the -Grand Vizier and entered the palace. At the door each of us was seized -by two _Capoudji-bachis_, who held us by the arms and half-carried us -through an outer hall, in which was drawn up a line, three deep, of -white eunuchs. When we entered the throne-room, we advanced bowing. -The Sultan was sitting on a throne superbly decorated. His turban was -surmounted by a splendid diamond aigrette and feather. His pelisse -was of the finest silk, lined with the most costly sable fur, and his -girdle was one mass of diamonds. The Ambassador recited his speech -in English, which the interpreter translated, and the Grand Vizier -replied to it. This ceremony lasted ten minutes, and we retired." - -This same Mr. Stratford Canning, who waited under a tree for the -Grand Vizier to pass, who had to sit three hours unnoticed while the -Janissaries were paid, who was a Giaour unfit to enter the sacred -presence of the Sultan until he had been fed by his bounty, washed, -and clothed, is still alive, and he remained in Constantinople long -enough to become the _Great Elchi_ who practically governed the Empire -and kept the Sultan under his tutelage. It was an unhappy day for -Turkey when he was removed to please the Emperor of the French. - -Only two months after this audience the Sultan accomplished his -long-cherished plan of destroying the Janissaries, as his Viceroy in -Egypt had fifteen years before destroyed the Mamelukes. It is not easy -at this day to realize how large a place this body filled in the life -of the people of Constantinople. We are accustomed to think of them as -soldiers, as they were in the early history of the Ottoman Turks, the -sad tribute of Christian children exacted by the Mohammedan conqueror -to extend the influence of Islam. But this terrible blood-tax ceased -in 1675, and the Janissaries became a caste or a guild, entrance into -which was eagerly sought by the wealthiest Mohammedan families, and -the majority of them seldom did any military service. In the time of -Mahmoud II. they were at once a source of terror to the Sultan and to -the people of the country. They were above all law, and the lives and -property of the Christians especially were at their mercy. Those who -still remember those days can hardly speak of the Janissaries without -a shudder. They lived in constant fear of them; night and day, at -any hour, they might enter the house, strip it of its furniture, and -torture the family until every place of concealment was revealed and -every valuable given up. They were universally feared and hated, and -it was this fact which made it possible for the Sultan to destroy -them. He proceeded with caution, for he could not hope to destroy them -by the cruel and treacherous means adopted by the Pacha of Egypt. He -obtained a _Fetva_ from the Sheik-ul-Islam approving of the drafting -of a certain number of Janissaries into a new military force which -was organized on the principle of European armies. These men -rebelled against the strict discipline, and some of them were -quietly strangled. Finally, on the 14th of June, 1826, the whole body -revolted, murdered their officers, plundered the palace of the Grand -Vizier, and prepared to attack the Sultan next day if he did not yield -to their demands. - -"They displayed a spirit of determination which they never manifested -but in extreme cases. All their soup-kettles were solemnly brought to -the Atmeidan (Hippodrome) and inverted in the centre of the area. -Soon 20,000 men were assembled around them. The crisis had now arrived -which the Sultan both feared and wished for, and he immediately -availed himself of all those resources which he had previously -prepared for such an event. He first ordered the small military -force which he had organized to hold itself in readiness to act at -a moment's notice. He then summoned a council, explained to them the -mutinous spirit and insubordination of the Janissaries, and declared -his intention of either ruling without their control, or passing over -into Asia, and leaving Constantinople and European Turkey to their -mercy. He proposed to them to raise the sacred standard of Mahomet, -and summon all good Mussulmans to rally around it. This proposal -met with unanimous applause. The sacred relic had not been seen in -Constantinople for fifty years before. It was now taken from the -Imperial Treasury to the Mosque of Sultan Achmet. The Ulema and the -Softas walked before, and the Sultan with all his Court followed it. -Public criers spread the solemn news all over the city. No sooner was -it announced than thousands rushed from their homes and joined the -procession with fiercest enthusiasm. When they entered the mosque, the -Mufti planted the standard on the pulpit, and the Sultan, as Caliph, -pronounced an anathema against all who should refuse to range -themselves under it. Just at this time the artillery arrived under -the walls of the seraglio. The marines and gardeners joined it. Four -officers of rank were then sent to offer a pardon to the Janissaries -if they would desist from their demands and disperse. The experience -of centuries had taught them that they had only to persist in their -demands to have them conceded. In this conviction, they at once -murdered the four officers who had proposed submission to them. This -was done in sight of the mosque. They then peremptorily demanded that -the Sultan should for ever renounce his plan of innovation, and that -the heads of the principal officers of Government should be sent to -them. The Sultan then demanded and received from the Sheik-ul-Islam a -_Fetva_ authorizing him to put down the rebellion. It was now twelve -o'clock, and a large force of the new troops had been collected who -could be relied upon. Orders were given to attack the Janissaries. -The Agha Pacha surrounded the Atmeidan, where they were tumultuously -assembled with no apprehension of such a measure, and the first -intimation that many of them had of their situation was a murderous -discharge of grape-shot from the cannon of the Topdjis. This continued -some time, and vast numbers were killed on the spot. The survivors -retired to their barracks on one side of the square. Here they -barricaded themselves, and to dislodge them the building was set on -fire. The flames were soon seen from Pera, bursting out in different -places. The discharge of artillery continued without intermission; as -it was determined to exterminate them utterly, no quarter was given, -and the conflagration and fire of the cannon continued until night. -The Janissaries, notwithstanding the surprise and their comparatively -unprepared state, defended themselves with desperate fierceness and -intrepidity. The troops suffered severely, and the Agha Pacha was -wounded. Opposition ceased only when no one was left alive to make it. -The firing ceased, the flames died out, and the next morning presented -a frightful scene of burning ruins slaked in blood, a huge mass of -mangled flesh and smoking ashes. - -"During the next two days the gates continued closed, with the -exception of one to admit faithful Mussulmans from the country to pay -their devotion to the sacred standard. The Janissaries who had escaped -the slaughter of the Atmeidan were thus shut in, and unremittingly -hunted down and destroyed, so that the streets and barracks were full -of dead bodies. During these two days no Christian was allowed, under -any pretence, to pass over to Stamboul; but, though the two places -are separated only by a narrow channel, the most perfect tranquillity -reigned in Pera. The people would have known nothing of the tremendous -convulsion on the other side if it had not been for the blaze of -the fire and the report of cannon. On the fourth day I went, from -curiosity, under the charge of a high Turk, to see how matters were -going on, and was pleased at the appearance of the splendid encampment -of the Grand Vizier, which was found at the Porte, and was at the same -time the chief tribunal for the condemnation of the Janissaries, who -were constantly being brought in, and, after undergoing a nominal -trial of a few seconds, were taken to the front of the gate and -beheaded; but the numbers so taken off, though amounting in this one -place from 300 to 500 daily, were but few in comparison with those who -were strangled privately at night on the Bosphorus. The Agha Pacha had -his camp at the old palace, and was employed there in the same work. -Carts and other machines were constantly employed in conveying the -bodies to the sea. These executions continued for several months. -The whole number destroyed at this time was 25,000: 40,000 more were -banished to the interior of Asia, many of whom never reached their -destination." - -This account differs materially from that given by Creasy, on the -authority of Ranke; but the author was a resident in Constantinople at -the time, and in a position to know the facts as well as any Christian -in the city. There are also inherent improbabilities in Creasy's -account. The Sultan no doubt avoided, in appearance, the treachery -of the Pacha of Egypt, but in substance the destruction of the -Janissaries was accomplished in much the same way as the massacre -of the Mamelukes. But whatever may be thought of the wisdom or the -morality of this wholesale slaughter, it was as great a relief to the -Christian population as it was to the Sultan himself, and it changed -the whole spirit of life in Constantinople. The destruction of the -Janissaries was followed by a violent persecution of the sect of -Bektachi dervishes, whose founder, Hadji Bektach, had consecrated the -first recruits. This was a powerful order, and possessed of immense -wealth and influence; but its members were killed or exiled, and its -_tékés_ demolished. It is not easy, however, to destroy a religious -sect, with a secret organization; and the Bektachis are almost as -numerous and powerful to-day as they were fifty years ago, especially -in Albania. They are not true Mussulmans, but are generally liberal, -enlightened, and inclined to cultivate friendly relations with the -Christians. They are frequently attacked by the Turkish newspapers as -heretics, but they occupy many important positions in the Government. -The famous Mahmoud Neddim Pacha belongs to this sect. Sultan Mahmoud -probably attacked these dervishes, not so much because he feared -them, as to prove himself a devoted Mohammedan, and to conciliate -the fanatics who were indignant at the slaughter of so many true -believers. He soon afterwards issued a _Hatt_ proclaiming his devotion -to Islam, and ordering the authorities to inflict the severest -punishment upon any Mussulman who should neglect his religious duties. - -The discussion on the Greek question which has been going on since the -war adds new interest to those scenes of the Greek Revolution which -fifty years ago aroused the sympathy of the world for a long-forgotten -nation, and resulted in the creation of the little kingdom of Greece -which now seeks an extension of her territory. The condition of the -Greeks in Constantinople during the war was melancholy enough. It was -all in vain that the Patriarch proclaimed their entire and absolute -devotion to the Sultan, just as the Fanariote Greeks are doing to-day. -It was in vain that he solemnly excommunicated and anathematized -all who took part in the revolution. He was hung at the door of his -church, and his body given to the Jews to be dragged about the streets -of the city. All the prominent Greeks here were put to death, and all -Mohammedans, even children, were ordered to arm themselves and destroy -the Greeks whenever they could be found. All who could escape from the -capital did so, and many were conveyed in foreign ships to Russia. - -"Many of those who remained were protected and concealed in European -houses. The property and the lives of the others were entirely at the -mercy of the Government and the populace, and the distressing scenes -which in consequence daily occurred in the streets are not easily -described. Notwithstanding this disagreeable state of things, the -Europeans enjoyed perfect security. The escapes from death which some -of the rich Greeks had during this period were very extraordinary, and -none more so than that of Signor Stephano Ralli, a rich merchant -of Scio, who, with nine others, was sent at the commencement of the -revolution to Constantinople, as a hostage for the peaceable conduct -of the inhabitants of that island, when the Samiotes, soon after -landing and butchering the few Turks on the island, so exasperated -the Turkish Government that they immediately beheaded all the hostages -except Signor Ralli, who found sufficient interest with one of the -Ministers to escape. He was, however, immediately made a hostage for -the tranquillity of Smyrna, and was again, by his acquaintance with -and large bribes to the executioner, the only one who escaped death. -When the disturbances commenced at the capital, in order to strike -terror into the minds of the Greeks, twenty-four of the richest -merchants were destined to be seized and executed, and the presence of -Signor Ralli was demanded with the rest at the Porte. But, suspecting -the consequence of such attendance, he cunningly informed the guard -who found him that his master was at the next house, and that he would -immediately send him in. Signor Ralli, then leaving the room, sent in -his own servant, who was at once seized, conveyed to the Porte, and -without further question executed in place of his master. Signor Ralli -was then concealed in the house of an Englishman. He was found and -arrested again in 1827, and again escaped with the loss of half his -property; but this had such an effect upon his constitution that he -died soon after." - -The Bulgarian massacres which excited the indignation of the world -a few years ago were insignificant in comparison with the terrible -slaughter of the Greeks which went on for years in all parts of the -Empire. Their effect upon public opinion in Europe was greater -and more immediate, chiefly because Turkey was no longer a really -independent Power, but was committing these atrocities under the -protection of Europe, and especially of England. Fifty years ago the -Sultan was responsible for his acts only to his own people; but -even then Christian Europe was finally roused to put an end to these -barbarities, and the battle of Navarino, October 20th, 1827, was the -result. In justice to Sultan Mahmoud, however, it should be said -that some of his most ferocious acts were not committed without great -provocation on the part of the Greeks, who manifested equal ferocity -when the opportunity offered. The news of the battle of Navarino -roused the Sultan to proclaim a holy war. - -"The design of the Giaours," he said in his proclamation, "is to -destroy Islamism, and tread under foot the Mussulman nation. Let all -the faithful, rich and poor, great and small, know that war is a duty -for all. Let no one dream of receiving any pay. Far from this, we -ought to sacrifice our persons and our property, and fulfil with zeal -the duty which is imposed upon us by the honour of Islam. We must -unite our efforts, give ourselves, body and soul, to defend our -faith, even to the day of judgment. Mussulmans have no other means of -obtaining safety in this world or the next." - -This holy war resulted in nothing better than the independence of -Greece and the treaty of Adrianople. It was just at this period that -Lord Beaconsfield spent a winter at Constantinople; but, as far as is -known, his visit had no political object or influence. - -The Greeks were not the only Christians who suffered at this time. -The Catholic Armenians were persecuted with almost equal ferocity, -although their only offence was that a number of them had left Turkey -and settled in Russia under Russian protection. Irritated by this -demonstration of attachment to the Czar, the Sultan expelled the whole -sect from Constantinople, to the number of 27,000. They were allowed -only ten days for preparation, and were then driven off _en masse_ -into Asia Minor. They were mostly wealthy families, living in luxury, -and their sufferings were so great that but few lived to reach the -place of exile. They perished at sea, died of hunger on the roads, -and froze to death in the snow on the mountains. It was not a pleasant -thing in those days to be a Christian subject of the Sultan, even when -that Sultan was Mahmoud, the great Reformer. - -Next to the Janissaries, the thing best remembered by the people -of Constantinople is the plague. It seems to have been regularly -domiciled here, and people made provision for it in all their domestic -arrangements. It was only at certain times, when it raged with -terrible severity, that it excited general alarm. It of course -occupies a large place in the private journal from which I have -already quoted; and all Europe has so recently been frightened out of -its good sense by a rumour of its existence in Russia, that it is well -to see how coolly a man can write about it who lived in the midst of -it, and who is devoutly thankful that it is the plague, and not the -cholera or the yellow fever, to which he is exposed. - -"The plague is a disease communicating itself chiefly, if not solely, -by contact. Hence, though it encircle the house, it will not affect -the persons within if all are uniformly discreet and provident. Iron, -it is observed, and like substances of a close, hard nature, do not -retain and are not susceptible of the contagion. In bodies soft or -porous, and especially in paper, it lurks often undiscovered but -by its seizing some victim. The preservatives are fumigations, and -washing with water and vinegar. Meat and vegetables are washed in -water, and all paper is fumigated. The disease is usually observed -to break out after times of famine, and it is a well-known fact that -those are most subject to it who live badly and whose blood is in -a low and impoverished state, for which reason it may be considered -rather a disease of the poor than the rich. The Turks are the greatest -victims, on account of their religious tenets and their abstinence -from wine, although it is very rare to hear of a rich Turk who dies -of it, for many of these drink wine and spirit secretly, and live upon -substantial and nutritious food. The Greeks are more cautious than -the Turks, but die in great numbers, which may be attributed to their -numerous fasts, which they observe for at least half of the year, and -during these they live on bad and unwholesome food. The first symptoms -are debility, sickness at the stomach, shivering, followed by great -heat, violent pains in the head, giddiness, and delirium. In a more -advanced stage, the disease shows itself in dark-coloured spots, and -sometimes in tumours on the glandular parts, which often suppurate and -break, and then the patient escapes. A few days brings this dreadful -malady to a crisis after the spots have appeared. - -"There is a contradiction in this disorder, difficult to account for; -so easy to catch that a bit of wood or cotton can retain it for years, -and convey it with all its horrible symptoms. On the contrary, some -are proof against the most violent contagion. The wife of Mr. W. was a -lady born in the country, and notwithstanding she took more than usual -precaution, she caught the infection, without being able to assign any -cause. Most of her family and servants immediately left the house, but -her husband and her father attended her until she died, having had -her infant at the breast to the last moment. No one of them caught -the disease. My predecessor, Mr. B., having been forty-one years at -Constantinople, had not the least fear of the plague. A few years -since, as he was returning from Cyprus, his fellow-passenger fell ill -and was put ashore at the Dardanelles. Mr. B. occupied his friend's -bed, as it was better than his own, and wore his friend's nightcap. -The next morning he went ashore to see him, and found that he had died -during the night of the plague. Another time, two of his servants died -of the disease in his house; but in neither case did he experience any -inconvenience. The Europeans, and more particularly the English, take -the usual precautions at the first appearance of the disease, but have -little apprehension from it, living in the country in the summer, -and in a very different manner from the natives, both as to food and -cleanliness. It is a great satisfaction to know that not one English -gentleman has died of the plague during the last thirty years. How -inferior it is in its ravages to the cholera and the yellow fever, -which are not known in this country!" - -Unhappily, the cholera has become very well known here since, and has -proved quite as fatal as the plague. In 1865 the city was decimated by -it, some 75,000 dying in two months, a loss of life almost as great as -in the great plague seasons of 1812 and 1837. These great epidemics of -plague were, however, in some respects more terrible than the cholera, -for they continued many months. Life became a burden. The wealthiest -often suffered for want of food and clothing, as they remained shut -up in their houses for fear of contagion. Those who were forced to go -out, dressed in long oil-cloth cloaks, and carefully avoided touching -anything. Every one entering a house was fumigated with sulphur, in -a sort of sentry-box kept for the purpose at the door. All ties of -family and society were broken. But even in these great epidemics very -few Europeans died, while in the cholera epidemics there has been no -exemption. It is now forty years since the last appearance of plague -at Constantinople, and, whatever theorists may say, no one here who -remembers the old times has any doubt that its disappearance was due -to the strict enforcement of quarantine regulations, which before that -time the Turks would not accept. - -There was another source of constant anxiety for the people of -Constantinople fifty years ago, in regard to which there has -unfortunately been but little change. The city was often visited by -terrible conflagrations. In those days they were generally attributed -to the Janissaries, who always improved such opportunities to enrich -themselves by wholesale plunder. To this day it is often suspected -that the Government itself is responsible for these fires, especially -as they frequently occur in quarters where it is proposed to widen -the streets. Sometimes, on the other hand, they are supposed to have a -political significance, as a manifestation of popular discontent; but -probably, then as now, they generally resulted from carelessness, -and when once they had commenced there were no adequate means for -extinguishing them. Only two months after the destruction of the -Janissaries, at the moment when the sacred standard of the Prophet was -being taken back from the mosque, a fire broke out in Stamboul which -raged for thirty-six hours, destroying the bazaars and about an eighth -part of the city, including the richest Turkish quarters. The people -universally attributed this to the friends of the Janissaries, and the -discontent with the Sultan was general; but he acted with the greatest -vigour. He opened his palaces for the reception of those who had no -shelter, distributed food and clothing, and undertook to rebuild the -bazaars. At the same time, he sent his spies into every public place, -and every one who was heard complaining of the Government was at once -arrested and decapitated. Even the women were not spared, but many -were strangled and thrown into the Bosphorus, without any form of -trial. These vigorous measures soon put an end to all complaints, but -unhappily did not prevent the burning of Pera in 1831, when 10,000 -houses were destroyed, a calamity which the Mussulmans attributed -to the wrath of God against the Europeans for the destruction of -the Turkish fleet at Navarino, but which the Christians naturally -attributed to the wrath of the Mohammedans themselves. It is probable -that both these fires were accidental, as were those which burned over -almost the same ground in 1865 and 1870; but the alarm and suffering -of the people were as real and as great as they would have been if -these fires had resulted from the cause to which they were attributed. -It is a very curious fact that, in both cases, just five years -intervened between the destruction of Stamboul and of Pera. - -Another characteristic of the time of which we write was the -insecurity of property. There were no regular taxes at that time -in Constantinople, for all the residents of the Imperial city were -considered to be the guests of the Sultan. It is only within ten -years that this pleasant fiction has been altogether abandoned. But -in Constantinople, as well as in other parts of the Empire, the people -were liable to be called upon to contribute "voluntarily" to meet the -wants of the Government. This system of voluntary contributions has -not yet been altogether abandoned, but was enforced during the late -war all through the Empire, in addition to the regular taxes. Even -foreigners were made very uncomfortable if they refused to contribute. -The financial system of Mahmoud II. was like that of his ancestors. -There was no national debt, there were no budgets, and yet there was -no lack of money even for such long and expensive wars as were carried -on all through the reign of this Sultan. With what envy Abd-ul-Hamid -must look back upon those happy days! The system was a simple one. -Whatever money the Sultan needed he took from the people. Orders were -sent to the governor of such a town to send so much to Constantinople, -or to such a Pacha. He summoned the principal men, informed them that -the Sultan needed so much money as a free gift from each of them. The -unhappy contributors entered into private negotiations with him, and -bribed him to reduce their quota and increase that of some one else. -He took the bribes and rapidly accumulated wealth, but he did not fail -to secure and forward the money demanded by the Sultan. What is more, -the Sultan looked upon the governor himself as nothing better than a -sponge. As soon as it was known that he had absorbed a large amount of -wealth, he was squeezed for the benefit of the Imperial Treasury. He -was disgraced, and his property confiscated. It was very seldom that -a Pacha bequeathed much of his ill-gotten wealth to his children. -Unfortunately, this custom has been abandoned of late years, and the -Treasury no longer derives any benefit from the plunder of the people. -But this system of confiscation was not confined to the Pachas who had -robbed the people. The wealthy men of Constantinople, especially the -Christians, were never safe. Their property might be seized any day, -and they might consider themselves happy if by giving it up without -reserve they escaped the bow-string. They feared the Sultan as much -as they feared the Janissaries. The Armenians suffered less than any -other nationality from these extortions, because they acted as the -bankers of the Government and of individual Pachas who found it for -their interest to protect them. They understood the Turkish character, -and had acquired infinite skill in managing them; but even they lived -in constant fear. When a man heard a knock at his door in the night, -he at once took it for granted that his last hour had come, bade -farewell to his family, and, if possible, escaped from his house with -what jewels he could carry. I have heard many very amusing stories of -this kind resulting from evening visits of belated friends as well as -many very sad ones, where the end was the bow-string for the father -and a life of poverty for the family. The change in the financial -system of the Empire, which led to regular taxation and foreign loans, -destroyed the influence of the Armenians, and threw the Turks into the -hands of the Greeks and Europeans. It is hardly probable that they can -ever recover their former importance under Turkish rule. Another means -adopted by the Government to raise money was the old expedient of -debasing the coinage, which was perhaps quite as honest as the modern -plan of issuing paper-money and then repudiating it. The Turkish -piastre is said to have been originally the same as the Spanish, worth -four shillings and sixpence. In the time of Mahmoud II. it was worth -fourpence, and the silver piastre is now worth twopence, while the -copper piastre is worth only a farthing and a half. - -The comparative cost of living in Constantinople in 1827 and 1879 may -be seen from the following Table, the prices being reduced to English -money:-- - - 1827. 1879. - Mutton, the oke (2-3/10 lbs.) 4_d._ 1_s._ 6_d._ - Bread " 4_d._ 4_d._ - Fish " 4_d._ 1_s._ 4_d._ - Grapes " 1/2_d._ 4_d._ - Figs " 1/2_d._ 4_d._ - Geese, each 6_d._ 5_s._ 0_d._ - Turkeys " 6_d._ 5_s._ 0_d._ - Wine, the oke 2_d._ 6_d._ - - Game was also very abundant and very cheap in 1827. - -This Table tends to prove that, so far as Constantinople is concerned, -the old system of "voluntary contributions" and confiscations was much -more favourable to production than the present ill-conceived system -of taxation. My impression is that the same was true in other parts of -the Empire. Prices were unusually high in 1827, on account of the war -and the general confusion in the Empire, and the increase in fifty -years can only be explained by the destructive system of taxation -adopted by the Government, which falls almost exclusively upon the -agriculturist. The price of bread is the same, but Constantinople -now depends upon Russia for its wheat, and the price depends upon the -harvests in other countries. Everything produced here has increased in -price enormously, and the result is that bread is now almost the sole -food of the poor. Fifty years ago for one oke of bread a man might -have one oke of meat, or eight okes of fruit or two okes of wine. Now -he can obtain only about one-fifth of an oke of meat, or one oke -of fruit, or two-thirds of an oke of wine, and this in spite of the -improved communications by steamer and railway with other parts of -the Empire. Then the Bosphorus was lined with vineyards, and it was -profitable to cultivate them, to exchange eight okes of grapes or two -okes of wine for one of bread. Now it is unprofitable to raise grapes -at eight times the former price, and the vineyards have almost -all disappeared. They have been destroyed by unwise and vexatious -taxation. The condition of the rich, especially of the rich Turkish -Pachas, has greatly improved; but it may well be doubted whether the -poor, those who had nothing to fear from the jealousy of the Turks or -the confiscations of the Sultan, can live as well now as they could -fifty years ago. The poor Mussulmans have certainly gained nothing, -and the Turkish population of Constantinople was probably never in -so wretched a condition as it is now. With the Christian poor it is -different. In many respects their condition has greatly improved. -Then they had no rights which a Turk was bound to respect. They -were sometimes shot down in their vineyards, like dogs, by passing -Mussulmans who wished to try their guns. Their children were kidnapped -with impunity. They were forced to wear a peculiar dress, which marked -them everywhere as an inferior race. They were insulted and abused in -the streets, and trembled at the sight of a Turk. They find it harder -now to get food, but they can eat it in peace. The poor Turks have -gained no such advantages. They are no freer than they were then, and -have not the satisfaction which they then had of domineering over a -subject race. The Christians are still treated as inferiors and suffer -under many disabilities, but in Constantinople their lives, their -families, and their property are comparatively secure, and they are -seldom maltreated because they are Christians. They no longer fear to -look a Turk in the face. The change for them is certainly a happy one, -and it is not strange that the Turks who remember the old times feel -that the power of Islam is waning, and that reform has gone quite -far enough. It is this old Turkish spirit which inspires the present -Government to choose the most inopportune moment to proclaim to the -world its determination to repress all free thought among Mohammedans. -A Turkish Khodja has just been condemned to death for assisting an -English missionary to translate the English Prayer Book and some -Tracts into Turkish. This is not done secretly. The Turkish papers -have discussed the case, and one of the most liberal of them speaks of -his offence as follows:--"The abject author of this act of profanation -has been drawn into his sin by Satan and by his own evil heart, and -has thus dared to commit a sacrilege, by which he is condemned to -the curse of God and to eternal torture. We demand that the miserable -creature may receive an overwhelming punishment, so that he may, -by his example, deter others from selling their religion for a few -pence." This is an act of intolerance and barbarity worthy of the -bloody days of Mahmoud II., and is far less excusable than it would -have been then. It remains to be seen whether it will be approved by -those Powers who maintain the Turkish Empire. - -In one respect Constantinople has undoubtedly suffered by the changes -of the last fifty years. It is no longer the picturesque Oriental city -that it was then. Its natural beauties remain, but in everything else -it has become less interesting as it has become more European. The -steamers, whose smoke clouds the clear air of the Bosphorus and -blackens the white palaces, are no doubt very convenient; but they are -a sad contrast to the tens of thousands of gay caiques which used to -give life to the transparent waters of the strait. Ugly north-country -colliers are no doubt profitable to their owners, but there is very -little interest in watching their passage in comparison with the -wonderful displays which were formerly seen when, after a long north -wind, a southerly gale would take hundreds of vessels, under full -sail, through the Bosphorus in a single day. I have counted over three -hundred in sight at once. The square walls and narrow eaves of -modern Turkish houses may be more European, but they do not compare -favourably with the light Moorish architecture and gilded arabesques -of the olden time. German ready-made clothing may be very cheap, and -the European style of dress may be adapted to active pursuits; but it -is not likely to rouse the enthusiasm of a lover of the picturesque -who remembers the gorgeous costumes of fifty years ago, when the -streets of Constantinople were crowded with gay and fantastic dresses, -as in a perpetual carnival, and each rank, profession, and creed -had its own peculiar costume. Even the Sultan is now no longer worth -looking at, with his little red fez in place of the magnificent turban -with plume and diamonds, and his tight black coat in place of his -flowing sable robe, his attendants covered with tawdry brass in place -of the gorgeous robes of the olden time. The pachas are pachas no -longer in appearance: you may see them running for steamers, or -sitting on crowded benches on the deck reading their daily papers. -What a contrast to the stately pacha of seven tails, who lived fifty -years ago, whose very title was picturesque, who could not read at -all, and if he had ever heard of a newspaper looked upon it as a -device of Satan; but who never ran for anything, and who never wore a -red cap or a black coat. A graceful caique, with many oarsmen, awaited -his convenience; richly caparisoned Arab horses stood at his door; -when he appeared--with slow and dignified step--with turban, robes of -silk, and Cashmere or diamond girdle--his slaves kissing the ground at -his feet, his pipe-bearers and guards behind him--he was an ornament -to the city, and perhaps quite as great an ornament to the State as -his successor, without any tails to his title, who reads newspapers -and wears black clothes, but who has no fear of being bow-strung and -thrown into the Bosphorus if he betrays the interests of the State for -a consideration, or plunders the people for his own profit. Even the -bazaars are no longer Oriental, although the buildings remain. They -are little more than storehouses for the Manchester goods which have -destroyed native manufactures. The only relics of the olden time are -the Turkish women; but even they have become less picturesque. They -are not so attractive, when crowded like sheep into the stern of a -Bosphorus steamer, as they were when they rode in lofty arabas drawn -by white oxen; and their dress is gradually changing in spite of the -frequent decrees of the Sheik-ul-Islam, who declared two years ago -in one of these that the disasters of the war were due, among other -things specified, to the fact that the women wore French boots in -place of heelless yellow slippers. Constantinople has lost all the -peculiar charm of an Oriental city without having as yet attained the -regularity, cleanliness, and elegance of a European capital; just as -the Government has ceased to be an Oriental despotism, careless of -human life and individual rights, without having as yet learned the -principles of European civilization; just as the individual Turk has -ceased to be a fanatical Mussulman, with the peculiar virtues which -once belonged to his religion, without having as yet acquired anything -but the vices of European society. - -If we seek the cause of these changes which fifty years have wrought -in life in Constantinople, they may be summed up as the result of -the constantly increasing influence of the European Powers at -Constantinople and the corresponding decay of the Ottoman Empire. -Sultan Mahmoud II. was one of the greatest as well as one of the most -unfortunate of the sovereigns of Turkey; but he was a Sultan of the -old school, whose many attempts at reform had no other object than to -revive the power of Islam and restore his Empire to its former rank. -He did not wish to Europeanize his people, as Peter the Great did, but -simply to adopt such improvements, especially in the organization of -his army, as would enable him the better to maintain himself against -his European enemies. But, unhappily, he had to contend against Moslem -as well as Christian foes, and to save himself from the former he -had to call in the aid of the latter. His dynasty was saved by the -intervention of Europe; but when Sultan Abd-ul-Medjid ascended the -throne at the death of his father it was by the favour and under the -protection of Europe, and from that day Turkey ceased to be the old -Empire of the Ottoman Turks. Mahmoud was the last of the Sultans. -Nothing remained to his successors but the shadow of a great name. -Europe is undoubtedly responsible for the evils which have befallen -the Empire since that day. She has neither allowed the Turks to rule -in their own way, with fire and sword, as their ancestors did, -nor forced them to emancipate the Christians and establish a civil -government in place of their religious despotism. She has sought to -maintain the Empire, but to maintain it as a weak and decaying Empire. -Austria and Russia, and at times other Powers, have sought to hasten -the process of disintegration, and the limits of the Empire have been -gradually narrowed until they now approach the capital itself. The -Turks are abused for their stupidity, as if it were all their fault; -and no doubt they have done and are doing many unwise things; but -after all they are not to be too harshly condemned. They have probably -done what seemed to them wise and politic, and they have often -outwitted the keenest statesmen; but they have been doomed by Europe -to struggle against the inevitable. Turkey can never again be what -she was fifty years ago, and as a Mohammedan despotism, ruled by Turks -alone, she can never become a great or even a civilized Power and -command the respect of Europe. She must soon disappear. But with the -full emancipation of the Christians, the abolition of the present -system of religious government, and the support of Western Europe, she -might settle the Eastern Question for herself, win the loyal support -of her own subjects and the respect of the world. - - AN EASTERN STATESMAN. - - - - -MIRACLES, PRAYER, AND LAW. - - -In the following remarks I assume the existence of God, All-knowing -and All-powerful; and of a spirit in men which is not matter. I do not -say that either is demonstrated or can be demonstrated, still less -do I presume to define either, but I address only those who already -assent to both. - -Many, however, of those who give such assent are troubled about the -ways of God and the nature of man's relation to Him. On the one hand -is the Bible, which declares that all things on earth as well as in -heaven are regulated by Divine will at every moment, which records -frequent miracles, and which bids men ask from Him whatsoever they -would, in absolute confidence that they shall have their desires. -On the other hand stands the Book of Nature, as Divine as that of -Revelation, being in fact another revelation of God, which tells of -an unchanging sequence of events, of laws incapable of modification -by isolated acts of will, laws which, indeed, if subject to such -modification, would fall into disorder. Which of these revelations -shall they believe? Or can they be reconciled so that both are -credible? - -The tendency of recent belief in those who have studied the Book of -Nature, and perhaps most decidedly in those who have only turned some -of its pages, is that the two revelations are irreconcilable. The -immutability of Nature's laws is to them a gospel taught by every -stone, by every plant, by every animated being. All that they have -learnt to know of matter rests on the assurance that its properties -are absolutely fixed. The progress of science, of art, of -civilization, of the human race, depends on the fact that what has -been found to be true will be always true, that there is an ordered -sequence of events which may be trusted to be invariable, to which we -must conform our lives if we would be happy, and which, if we cross -it in ignorance or defiance, will revenge the outrage by inevitable -penalties. Those laws, which some call of matter, may by others be -called laws of God, and the most devout minds find in their fixity -only a confirmation of their faith in His unchanging promises. But if -thus fixed, it seems to many who are devout as well as to many who -are sceptical, that it becomes impossible to believe that their Author -should ever set them aside by what are called miracles; still less -that He should bid men pray for events which are, in fact, not -regulated by wish or will, but by what has gone before up to the -beginning of time. To meet this dilemma there seem to such minds only -two courses, either to believe that Scripture is not the word of a God -at all, or to give to its language an interpretation which is not -the natural sense of the words, and which was certainly not meant or -understood by those who first wrote or first heard it. - -Yet it is not possible to abandon the conviction that the words and -the acts of God cannot really be at variance. Before surrendering His -words contained in the Scripture, as either spurious or misunderstood, -no effort can be too often reiterated to show them to be compatible -with what we have learned of His works. I propose to make one more -such effort, based on the closest examination of what both really -tell, or imply. - -Let us first understand accurately what it is we are to deal with, -both as facts and as expressed in language. The inquiry is to be -limited (with exceptions which will be noted as they occur) to the -laws of matter. It will be assumed that matter exists as our ordinary -perceptions inform us, but if it shall hereafter be proved to be only -a form of motion, or of force, the arguments will still be applicable. -By laws, we shall understand what in a different expression we call -the properties of matter. The advantage of thus explaining law is that -it excludes some other senses of a vague and misleading character, -while it includes the sense in which alone law can properly be applied -to physical nature. Thus, the law of gravity is the same thing as the -property of matter which we call weight, and if there be any matter or -ether which is imponderable, then the law of gravity does not apply -to it. So the law of attraction, in its different forms, expresses the -property of cohesion, and of capillary ascent, and so on; the law of -chemical affinities expresses the property of the combination of one -species of matter with another in definite proportions; the laws of -sound, light, or electricity express the properties of vibrations, -either of air or of subtler forms of matter, as they affect our -senses. In thus limiting the meaning of law, it is therefore obvious -that we embrace all which the materialist can desire to include when -he insists that law is permanent and unchangeable. - -This, in fact, is the first proposition which we must all accept. No -human being can add to or subtract a single property of any species of -matter. To do so were, indeed, to create. For matter is an aggregate -of properties; each species of matter is differentiated only by its -properties, and could we alter one of these we should really turn it -into different matter. It is true there are what are called allotropic -forms, such as oxygen and ozone, the yellow and red phosphorus, the -forms of sulphur as modified by heat, and a considerable number of -organic compounds, and we can by certain arrangements turn the one -into the other. But when we ask what allotropism is, we find that it -is itself one of the properties (however obscure to us) of the matter -we deal with. Oxygen would not be oxygen, but something else, if -it had not the inherent property of becoming ozone under certain -conditions. Given these conditions, and there is nothing we can do -which will prevent the change occurring. If, as chemists believe, -allotropism depends on the different arrangement of the ultimate atoms -of matter, then the capacity of assuming two arrangements in its atoms -is clearly one of the ultimate properties of that species of matter. - -It follows, then, that if a miracle were really a suspension of a -physical law, or a change, temporary or permanent, of any property -of matter, it would really be an act of creation--the creation of -something having different properties from any matter that before -existed. If iron were to float on water by suspension of the law of -gravity, it would be in fact the creation of something having (at -least for the time required) the physical and chemical properties -of iron, but with a specific gravity less than water--and therefore -something not iron. - -But, without creation, man has enormous power over Nature. He can, -and daily does, overpower her laws, or seemingly make them work as -he pleases. Despite the law of gravity, he ascends to the sky in a -balloon; he makes water spring up in fountains; he makes vessels, -weighing thousands of tons, float on the seas. Despite cohesion, he -grinds rocks to powder; despite chemical affinity, he transmutes -into myriads of different forms the few elements of which all matter -consists; despite the resistless power of the thunderbolt, he tames -electricity to be his servant or his harmless toy. With water and fire -he moulds into shape mighty masses of metal; he shoots, at a sustained -speed beyond that of birds, across valleys and through mountain -ranges; he unites seas which continents had separated; there is -nothing in the whole earth which he has not subdued, or does not hope -to subdue, to his use. There is hardly a physical miracle which he -does not feel he can, or may yet, perform. - -But all this wonderful, this boundless, power over material laws is -gained by these laws. He alters no property of matter, but he uses one -property or another as he needs, and he uses one property to overpower -another. It is by knowing that gravity is more powerful in the case of -air than in the case of hydrogen gas, that he makes air sustain him -as he floats, beneath a bag of hydrogen, above the earth; it is by -knowing that it is more powerful in water than in air that he sails -in iron ships; it is by knowing chemical affinity or repulsion that he -makes the compounds or extracts the simple elements he desires; it is -by knowing that affinity is force, and that force is transmutable -into electricity, that he makes a messenger of the obedient lightning -shock; it is by knowing that heat, itself unknown, causes gases -to expand, that he makes machines of senseless iron do the work of -intelligent giants. He subdues Nature by understanding Nature. He -creates no property; he therefore performs no miracle, though he does -marvels. - -By what means, then, does man bring one property, or law, into play -instead of, or against, another? By one means only, that of changing -the position of matter. - -This is Bacon's aphorism (Nov. Org. Book i. 4): "Man contributes -nothing to operations except the applying or withdrawing of natural -bodies: Nature, internally, performs the rest." - -In order to trace and recognize the truth of this fact, let us follow -in rough and rapid outline the operations by which man effects his -purposes. We will begin at the beginning, and suppose him to have only -reached the stage when a knowledge of the effects of fire enables -him to work with metals. He produces fire by friction--that is, by -bringing one piece of wood to another, and rapidly moving the one on -the other; or else by striking two flints on each other, which also -is merely rapid motion and shock. He carries the wood to a hearth, he -brings to it the lump of crude metal or the ore; he urges the fire -by a blast of air--still his acts are only those of imparting motion. -Then the fire acts on the metal, it excites some affinities and -enfeebles other affinities, which result in removing impurities; it -softens the purified metal. Then the workman lifts it on a stone, and -by beating it with another stone--still motion--he moves its particles -so that it assumes the form of a hammer, an axe, a chisel, or a file. -Then by rubbing with a rough stone--still motion--he moves away some -particles from the edge, and makes it sharp and fit for cutting. By -plunging it in water when hot--still only motion--he tempers it to -hardness. With the edge thus obtained he cuts wood into the forms he -requires for various purposes, and by degrees he learns how to fashion -other pieces of metal into other and more elaborate tools. Yet all -this is done by no other means than giving motion to the material on -which, or by which, he works. From tools he advances to machines, by -which his power of giving motion is increased, and as he learns more -of the properties of matter he constructs engines, by which these -properties work for him in the directions in which he guides them. -Meantime he has learned that clay, when heated, becomes hard as stone, -and the arts of pottery take their rise; while glass-making follows on -the discovery that ashes and sand fuse into a transparent mass. Yet, -whether in their rude beginning or finished elegance, man in these -arts does no more than bring together the rough materials and apply -to them heat, then their own inherent properties effect the result. -Science--that is, knowledge of natural laws of matter--guides his -hand, but his hand only moves matter; it gives no property and takes -away none; it does not even enable one property to work; it does -absolutely nothing except to place matter where its own laws work, to -bring or to remove matter which is needed, or to remove matter which -is superfluous. Let us analyze every complicated triumph of human -knowledge and skill, and we shall find it all reduced to the knowledge -of what the properties of matter are, and the skill which imparts to -it motion just sufficient to permit these properties to operate. Man's -power over Nature is therefore limited to the power of giving motion -to matter, or of stopping or resisting motion in matter. - -Now, to give motion or to resist motion is itself either a breach or -a use of a law of Nature, according as we express that law. The law is -(as usually expressed), that matter at rest remains at rest till moved -by a force, and that matter in motion continues in motion till stayed -by a force. This is the law of inertia. If we consider that rest or -motion when once established is the normal state of matter, then the -force which causes a change causes a breach of the law of inertia. -But if we consider that the liability to be moved, or to have motion -stopped by force, is itself a property of matter, then the application -of force with such result is merely calling into operation the law of -inertia. It really does not signify which view we take, so long as we -recognize that such are the facts. But since it is more familiar to -associate rest with inertia, it will perhaps be most convenient and -simple to consider rest and motion as the laws of matter, till the law -is interfered with. Therefore in what follows we shall say, that when -matter at rest is moved, or when matter in motion is stayed, or its -movement by a natural force is prevented, a breach of the law of -inertia is committed. - -We come, then, to these propositions:--1st, That human power is -utterly unable to break any law of matter except the law of inertia. -2nd, That when, by breaking only the law of inertia--_i.e._, by moving -or by resisting the motion of matter--any operation is accomplished, -no other law of matter is broken. 3rd, That to break the law of -inertia by Force, directed by Will, is no interference with the -properties of matter. 4th, That by breaking the law of inertia -only, man has power to call into play properties which make matter -subservient to his objects. - -Nor is this man's power only. Inferior animals can also move matter, -and by moving it can cause prodigious results. A minute insect, by -secreting lime from sea waters, makes a coral reef, or aids in forming -a cliff of chalk. A beaver cuts down a tree, and forms a swamp that -changes the climate of a district; a bird carries a seed, and makes -a forest on an island. Inanimate life has the same power. The plant -opens its leaves to the sun, and abstracts the carbon that forms -fruitful soils and beds of coal. Matter itself can by motion work on -matter. The great physical powers, heat and electricity, are modes of -motion. Radiation of heat causes freezing, and freezing crumbles rocks -into soil, or it forms the clouds in the air, whose deluges hollow -valleys; while electricity cleaves and splinters the summits of the -mountain peaks. Everywhere motion, sharp or slow, works with matter; -everywhere the law of inertia is broken; and everywhere the miracles -of Nature are wrought out by Nature's unbroken laws, set in action or -withheld by only the movement which matter has received, be it from -Will in man or beast, or be it from forces which themselves are part -of matter's properties. - -Now, since we have started from the assumption that God does exist, it -is impossible to make Him an exception to the rule which holds of -the spirits of inferior creatures, and even of inanimate matter. If, -therefore, He can cause or stop movement, He can, without further -breach of any law of Nature, bring into play the laws of Nature. Or, -to state the same proposition conversely, we must admit that whatever -wonders God may cause by bringing into operation a law of Nature -through the means of affecting motion in matter, cannot be called a -breach of the laws of Nature. It is, of course, understood that this -proposition is limited to the results of motion; it does not affirm -that the cause of the motion may not be a breach of a law of Nature. -This question will remain for future examination; at present it is -neither affirmed nor denied. - -Let us in the meantime, however, consider what we have reached by the -proposition above stated. What are called miracles may be divided into -three classes. The first are purely spiritual, affecting mind without -the intervention of matter, such as visions (though these _may_ -originate in the brain, and therefore belong to the next class), gifts -of tongues, inspirations, mental resolutions. The second affect mind -in connection with matter, such as, perhaps, the healing of paralytic -or epileptic affections, and certainly the restoration of life to -the dead. The third affect matter solely; they include the healing -of wounds, or of corporeal disease, such as blindness, or fever; the -dividing of waters; the walking on water, or raising an iron axe-head -from the bottom of water; the falling of walls or trees; the opening -of prison-doors, and such like. - -The first two classes we may, in any discussion limited to the laws of -Nature, leave out of view, because it cannot be said that we know any -laws of Nature affecting mind by itself, or even mind in relation to -matter. Metaphysicians have interested themselves in trying to trace -the origin or sequence of intellectual processes, but I hardly think -any would assert they had discovered or defined what can properly be -called a law; and certainly, if any do assert it, the accuracy of the -assertion is controverted by as many philosophers on the other side. -Any direct influence of God on mind cannot, therefore, be charged with -being in violation of natural law. Nor can it even be declared to -be contrary to universal experience, since in this case the negative -evidence of those who have not experienced it would only be set -against the positive evidence of innumerable persons who affirm that -they have experienced it. - -The influence of mind on matter, and matter on mind, are also so -obscure, that it cannot be affirmed that anything which mental -operation can effect on one's own body is contrary to natural law. -No physiologist will assert that mental resolution, or conviction, -tending towards recovery from sickness, is without some power to bring -that result to pass. They will admit also that this is peculiarly the -case in regard to those disorders which, in pure ignorance of their -actual source, they are fain to call hysterical, neuralgic, or -generally nervous. They are all acquainted with many cases in their -own experience of recovery from such disorders in which no physical -cause for recovery can be imagined. If, then, God should convey to -the mind of a patient an impression which brings about recovery, -there would clearly be no violation of natural law. With regard to the -restoration of life, it is quite true that this is beyond the ordinary -power of man's volition. Nevertheless, at each moment of our lives -there is a communication of life to the dead matter which has formed -our food, but which, after digestion, becomes a part of our living -organs; and this is true even in the nutrition of plants. How or -at what moment the mind enters or becomes capable of affecting our -frames, we do not know. But this happens at some moment before or -during birth; its doing so at a subsequent period is, therefore, not -a breach of natural law, but is only an instance of natural law coming -into operation, by the same cause, at a period differing from that -which is customary. The _act_, whatever it is, is not exceptional, but -ordinary. The _time_ is alone exceptional. - -We have now to consider the strictly physical phenomena to which the -name of miracles is in this discussion confined, and to which the -objection that they are contrary to natural laws is commonly stated. - -A very large number of these are at first glance seen to be only -instances of inertia being affected. To walk on water, to make water -stand in a heap, to raise a body from the ground, to cast down walls, -or move bolts and doors, are obviously exertions of simple mechanical -force such as we ourselves daily employ. Their effective cause is -neither more nor less than an interference with the law of inertia, -and by the previous demonstration they are therefore not to be -reckoned as breaches of any law of Nature. - -Let us try if this can be made clearer by an example. It has been -stated before that if iron were made to swim on water by modification -of the law of gravity it would be creation of a new substance -differing from iron in being of less specific gravity. At the -same time, the original iron of normal specific gravity would have -disappeared. These processes of creation and destruction would be -so unprecedented that we should justly call them violations of the -ordinary laws of nature. But at least we should then expect that the -light iron thus created would be permanently light, and we should -call it another breach of the laws of nature if on lifting it from the -water we found it heavy. But if we were to hold a magnet of suitable -power over the original heavy iron, when at the bottom of the water, -we might see it rise and float, although not touched or upheld by -any visible substance, and although its specific gravity remained -constant. In this case it would be moved by a power which overcomes -gravity, but there would be no creation nor destruction of any -property, and no natural law would be broken. But if now we substitute -for "magnetic" "Divine" power, there is still no breach of a natural -law, for no property is created or destroyed. In both cases the acting -agent is a power outside the iron, invisible and unknown, except by -the effects. The effect of both is the same: it is to give motion to -matter, and nothing more. Hence, neither violate any law of nature -except that of inertia. - -Proceeding to another class of miracles, which seem at first to -be creative, we shall find that they also come within the range of -familiar human potentiality. The making of bread, or meal, or oil, -or wine, are instances of chemical synthesis. These substances are -composed of three or four elements, all gaseous except carbon (to -be absolutely accurate, we must add minute quantities of eight other -elements), which no chemist has yet succeeded in uniting in such -forms. But chemists have succeeded in forming certain substances by -bringing together their elements, of which water is the simplest type, -and others of greater complexity are every year being attained. These -are formed by moving into proximity, or admixture, the elementary -ingredients, under circumstances favourable to their union in -the desired combination, and the combination then proceeds by the -operation of natural laws. No one would be surprised to hear that -some chemist had thus attained to form starch or gluten, the main -ingredients of bread; or oil, or spirit, or essences; for if it were -announced we should all know that he had only discovered some new -method of manipulation by which circumstances were arranged so as -to favour the natural laws which effect the union of the necessary -elements. Therefore, if these substances are formed by Divine power, -it is not creation--it is only the chemist's work, adopting natural -laws for its methods, and bringing them into play by transposition of -material substances. - -Meteorological processes--such as lightning, rain, drought, winds--are -sometimes made the immediate cause of "miracles," as when the wind -caused the waters of the Red Sea to flow back, or brought the flights -of quails, or locusts. These are effects which we know wind is quite -capable of producing, and does produce naturally. Was there then any -breach of natural laws (beyond that of inertia) in causing such winds -to blow? or in bringing up thunder-clouds? or in causing an arid -season? We cannot, indeed, say that there was not; but as little can -we say that there was. For since we ourselves have acquired such -power over lightning, the most inscrutable and irresistible of all -meteorological agencies, as to be able to lead it where we will, how -shall we say that God's infinite knowledge has not the same power over -the winds and the clouds, by employing only natural agencies for His -work, and employing these only by the operation of motion given to -matter. - -With regard to the healing of diseased matter, conjectures also can -only be offered, because of the source of diseases we know so little. -Sight is restored in cataract by simple removal of an abnormal -membrane. Many fevers, if the germ theory or the poison theory be -correct, are cured when the germs die, or the poison is eliminated. A -power that could kill the germs, or remove them or the poison from the -system, would then effect immediate cure in accordance with natural -laws. It does not seem necessarily beyond man's reach to effect -this when he shall understand natural laws more fully; it cannot, -therefore, be a breach of natural laws if God should effect it by laws -as yet unknown to man, provided they are brought into play with no -other agency than the motion of matter. - -It would be folly as well as impiety to assert that it is in such ways -only that miracles are performed. No such assertion is made. But -when, on the other side, it is asserted that the miracles narrated -in Scripture cannot be true because they must involve a breach of the -immutable laws of Nature, the answer is justifiable and is sufficient, -that they do not necessarily involve any breach of any law, save of -that one law of inertia which at every instant is broken by created -things, without any disturbances being introduced into the serene -march of Nature's laws. The scientific revelation is reconciled with -the written revelation when it is shown that neither necessarily -implies the falsity of the other. - -But supposing the argument thus far to be conceded, it will be urged -that the real "miracle" remains yet behind. When man moves matter, -his hand is visible: when an animal gnaws a tree, its teeth are seen -working; when a river flows down a valley, its force is heard and -felt. How different, it will be said, is God's working, where there is -no arm of flesh, no sound of power, no sign of presence. - -Unquestionably it is a deep marvel and a mystery, that impalpable -spirit should act upon gross matter; but it is a mystery of humanity -as well as of Godhead. What moves the hand? Contraction of the -muscles. But what causes contraction of the muscles? The influence -transmitted from the brain by the nerves. But what sends that -influence? It is mind, which somewhere, somehow, moves animal -tissues--tissues consisting of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, -phosphorus, and sulphur. At some point of our frames, we know not yet -where, mind does act directly on matter. It is a law of Nature that it -should so act _there_. But if God exists, His mind must, by the same -law, act on matter _somewhere_. Can we call it an offence against law -if it acts on matter elsewhere than in that mass of organized pulp -which we call brains? If no possibility of communication between -mind and matter could anywhere be found in Nature, we might call such -communication contrary to natural law. In other words, if it were one -of the properties of matter that it could not receive motion from -that which is not matter, its motion without a material cause would -be supernatural. But since it is of the very essence of existence that -matter in certain combinations should be capable of being endowed with -life, and by such endowment become capable of being affected in motion -by mind, it is indisputable that such capability is one of matter's -properties, and that its being so affected falls within and not -without Nature's laws. - -It may be objected that, since it is only living substance which can -be acted on by the human mind, it is contrary to law that dead matter -should be acted on by Divine mind. But this is a simple begging of -the question at issue. It is constructing a law for the purpose of -charging God with breaking it. Where do we find evidence in Nature -that matter cannot be moved by the Divine mind? Science reveals no -such law. Science is simply silent on the subject; it admits its utter -ignorance, and declares the question beyond its scope. Undoubtedly it -does not pronounce that God does move matter, but it equally abstains -from asserting that God does not. For when it traces back material -effects from cause to cause, it comes at last to something for which -it has no explanation. When we say that an acid and an alkali combine -by the law of affinity, that a stone falls by the law of gravity, we -merely generalize facts under a name, we do not account for them. What -causes affinity, what causes gravity? Suppose we say the one is polar -electricity, the other is the impact of particles in vibration (both -of which statements are unproved guesses), what do we gain? The next -question is only, what causes electricity and what causes vibration? -Suppose, again, we answer that both are modes of motion, we only come -to the further question, what causes motion? And since motion is a -breach of the law of inertia, what is it that first excited motion in -this dead matter? Carry back our analysis as far as we will or can, -at last we reach a point where matter must be acted upon by something -that is not matter. This something is Mind; and God also is Mind. - -Again, when any one affirms that only living matter can be acted on by -mind, whether human or Divine, we may fairly ask him, not indeed -what is life, which is a problem as yet beyond science; but how life -changes matter, which is a question strictly within the range of -science dealing with matter. But to this inquiry we shall get no -answer. The cells in an organism, the protoplasm in the cells, are -living when the organism is living, dead when the organism is dead, -and, as matter, no difference is discoverable between them in -the state of living and dead. The cells consist of cellulose, the -protoplasm of some "protein" compounds; no element is added or -subtracted, no compound is altered, when it lives or when it dies. Nor -can science even tell us when an organic compound becomes alive, or -dead. Every instant crude sap is becoming living plants, every instant -crude chyle is becoming living blood, every instant living organisms -die and are expelled from plants by the leaves, from animals by the -lungs, the skin, and the kidneys. Yet no physician can say at _what_ -moment any of these carbon compounds become living, or when they cease -to have life. Since of this perpetual birth and death in all nature -we know absolutely nothing, it is manifestly unreasonable to lay -down laws respecting them. If life and death make (as far as we can -discover) absolutely no immediate physical change in the matter which -they affect, how can we propound as a dogma of physical science that -God cannot move "dead" matter, when our own experience tells us that -our spirits can move "living" matter? - -It is clear that if we are not warranted in making a law, we are not -warranted in saying that it is broken. Our concern with laws is to see -that such as we do know are uniform, for this is the basis of science. -But true science repudiates dogmas on subjects of which it avows its -ignorance. - -Let us sum up the argument as it has now been stated. The propositions -are the following:-- - - 1. Matter is subject to unalterable laws, which express its - properties. No created being can originate, alter, or destroy any of - these properties. - - 2. It is possible, however, for one property to overpower the action - of another property, either in the same matter or in other matter. - - 3. By placing matter in a position in which one or other property - has its natural action, man, as well as animals and inanimate - matter, can overpower a law of Nature with almost boundless power. - - 4. The sole means by which such results are effected, are by - affecting the law of inertia. Therefore, whatever is effected by - natural laws, without other interference than by affecting inertia, - is consistent with the uniformity of natural law. - - 5. All strictly physical "miracles" recorded in the Bible are - capable of being effected by natural law, without other interference - than by affecting inertia, and therefore are consistent with the - uniformity of natural law. - - 6. It is consistent with natural law that created minds should - affect the inertia of certain forms of matter directly. - - 7. It is not inconsistent with natural law that Divine mind should - affect the inertia of other forms of matter directly. - - * * * * * - -The bearing of these conclusions upon prayer, in so far as it affects -physical conditions, may now be briefly shown. It has been argued -that, in the light of modern discovery, prayer ought to be restricted -to spiritual objects, and that at all events it can have none but -spiritual effects. It has for example been asserted that to pray -for fine weather, for bodily health, for removal of any plague, for -averting of any corporeal danger is asking God to change the laws of -Nature for our benefit, that this is what He never does, what would -produce endless confusion if He should, and consequently what He -certainly will not do. - -But if in point of fact God can confer on us all these gifts which we -ask from Him without breaking a single law by which Nature is bound, -we are restored to the older confidence that He will, provided that -such gifts are at the same time consonant with our spiritual good. - -Now as it has been shown that God can affect matter to the full extent -for which we ever petition by means of Nature's own laws, set in -operation by no other agency than the mere communication of motion to -matter, it has been shown that He will break no law in giving what we -ask. - -For example, what is fine weather? It is the result of the due motion -of the winds, which bear the clouds on their bosom, and carry the -warmth of equatorial sunshine to the colder north. It is still as true -as eighteen hundred years ago, "The wind bloweth where it listeth, and -ye hear the sound thereof, but cannot tell whence it cometh or whither -it goeth." But if it be no breach of law to give motion to the air, it -is in God's power to bring us favourable winds. But the winds we wish -are not necessarily moved immediately by God's breath. They depend -probably on certain electric repulsions, which make the colder or -the warmer current come closer to the surface of the earth. And -electricity is motion. It may be directly, it may be indirectly, -through electricity; it may be by some cause still further back, that -God sends forth the winds; but, if He can give motion, He can direct -their currents, and by such agency give to His creatures the weather -best suited for their wants. - -Or what is disease? Probably, in many cases, germs; let us then -suppose germs, because it is what the latest science tells us. But -germs need a suitable nidus, and we know that merely what we call -"change of air" is one of the most potent means of defending or -restoring our bodies from the assault of germs to which it is exposed. -We change our air, by moving to another place; what violation of law -would there be if God, to our prayer, were to change our air by moving -a different air to us? That is but a rude illustration; the marvellous -economy of the body suggests a thousand others, none of which may be -true, but which yet all agree in this, that they would work our cure -by strictly natural laws, set in action merely by motion given to -matter. - -That even an impending rock should not fall upon us would be a -petition involving no further disturbance of natural law. Had we -appliances to enhance our force we could uphold it, without breaking -natural law. God has superhuman force, and if He upholds it by an arm -we cannot see, He will break no law. - -It were needless to pursue examples; but the subject must not be -dismissed without reference to the spiritual laws, which we are bound -to regard in praying for aught we may desire. - -These are expressed and summed in the command, "Ask in my name." There -is a prevalent misunderstanding of these words, arising out of the -theological dogma which interprets them as if they were written, "for -my sake." It is unnecessary here to enter into the inquiry how far any -prayer is granted because of the merits or for the sake of Christ. It -is sufficient that the words here used mean something else. When we -desire another person to ask anything from a superior in our name, we -mean to ask as if we asked. It must be something then which we should -ask for personally. Therefore, Christ desiring us to ask in His name, -limits us to ask those things which we can presume He would ask for -us. - -It is obvious how this interpretation defines the range of petition. -It must be confined to what He, all-knowing, knows to be for our good. -It must be, in our ignorance, subject to the condition that He should -see it best for us. It utterly excludes all seeking for worldly -advantage, for which He would never bid us pray. It equally excludes -all spiritual benefits which are not those of a godly, humble spirit. -Above all, it excludes all things which would be suggested by Satan as -a tempting of the Lord our God. To ask, as some scientific men would -have us do, for something in order to see if God would grant it, would -be an experiment which, applied to an earthly superior, would be -an insult--to God is impiety. To such prayers as these there is no -promise made, for they cannot be in Christ's name. - -Neither can those prayers be in His name which come from men -regardless of His precepts. These are contained in the Book of Nature -as well as in the Bible, and to both alike we owe reverence. We are -bound to learn His will as far as our powers extend, we are bound to -inform ourselves as fully as we can of the physical as well as of the -moral laws set for our guidance, and having learned we are bound to -obey. It were vain to pray for help in an act of wrong-doing, and -equally vain to pray for relief from consequences of our own neglect -or defiance of such rules of the government of nature as we have -learned, or as with due diligence we might have learned. No man so -acting can presume to think that he may ask in Christ's name for -succour. Christ could not ask it for such as he. - -But to what we can truly ask in His name there is no limit set. We may -ask for all worldly and all spiritual good, which we can conceive -Him to ask for us, in assurance that it will be given, if He sees it -really to be for our good. How it may be reconciled with good to other -men is not for us to inquire. The Omnipotent rules all, and He who can -do all is able to do what is best for us as well as for every other -creature He has made, without breach of one of these laws which He has -set as guides for all. - - J. BOYD KINNEAR. - - - - -WHAT IS RENT? - - -The public mind of the country is at the present hour largely occupied -with thinking about rent. The severe agricultural depression has -generated painful effects on the feelings and the fortunes of the -people of England. The various classes who are connected with the -cultivation of land are visited with much suffering, and we cannot be -surprised if they are found discussing whether their relations towards -each other, as well as the system of agriculture prevailing in these -islands, are precisely what they ought to be. The various methods of -dealing with the land and the population that devote themselves to -its tillage, have been the subjects of keen debate for ages: failing -harvests, low prices, and heavy losses, are well suited to impart -energy and even violence to such discussions. In some portions of the -kingdom, even agricultural revolution has made its appearance on the -scene. The law itself is openly and avowedly defied. The debtor, it is -decreed, shall determine at his own pleasure how much he shall pay of -the debt to which he is pledged. If the owner of the property let on -hire repels such an adjudication of his rights, he is plainly warned -that they shall be swept away altogether, and the insolvent debtor -be made the owner of what he borrowed. The very structure of society -itself is imperilled. "To refuse to pay debt violently," it has -been well said, "is to steal, and to permit stealing, is not only to -dissolve, but to demoralize society: accumulation of property, and -civilization itself would become impossible." - -Amidst such agitated passions it was inevitable that rent should -speedily come to the front. Those who had contracted to pay rent, in -the expectation that the produce of their labour would enable them -to redeem their pledge, had been plunged into losses, more or less -severe, by the badness of the seasons; their means were reduced; to -pay was inconvenient; and it was a simpler method to take the matter -into their own hands, and rather than appeal to the feelings of their -landlords for a considerate diminution of their rents, to call rent -itself into judgment, and to suppress it altogether. When, then, -matters have reached the pass that an anti-rent agitation, based on -the confiscation of property and the repudiation of contracts, has -sprung up, and is swiftly spreading among an excitable people, it -becomes important, in the highest degree, that the true nature of rent -should be clearly understood by the whole country. Whatever may be -ultimately decided about rent, let every man first know accurately -what it is. To advocate a system of agriculture which shall abolish -the possession of land by a class who are owners and not cultivators -of the soil, and thus extinguish the charge for the loan of it to -farmers, is perfectly legitimate. Let the merits and demerits of -such a tenure be freely investigated; let peasant-proprietorship be -counter-examined over against it; but let the conviction be brought -home to every mind that no just or intelligent conclusion can be -reached, unless every element of the problem has been fully and -honestly weighed. A reduction of rents may very possibly be called -for by necessity and by reason; but to place the position itself of -landlord in an invidious light, as that of a man who exacts from the -labour of others that for which he has neither toiled nor spun, is -a most unwarrantable process of argumentation, and can lead to no -trustworthy result in a matter of such transcendant importance to the -nation. - -What then is rent? The true answer to this very natural question, -obvious and easy though it may seem to be, has been grasped by few -only. Let the question be put to a mixed company, and the incapacity -to explain the real nature of rent will be found most surprising. -One's first impulse is to appeal to Political Economy for an answer, -for indisputably rent belongs to its domain; but unhappily Political -Economists, for the most part, instead of enlightening have obscured -this inquiry for the public mind. Some few amongst them have perceived -the true character of rent; but most other economical writers have -been led astray into a wrong path by Ricardo. Ricardo's theory of rent -was accepted as the orthodox doctrine; but it was a theory from -which the common world, landlords and farmers alike, turned away -as unworkable. Ricardo was dominated by the passion of giving to -Political Economy a strictly scientific treatment, and the explanation -of rent he hailed as an excellent instrument for accomplishing his -purpose. He built the amount of rent payable by different lands, -on the varying fertilities of the soil. Land A paid no rent; its -productive powers were unequal to such an effort; it must content -itself with rewarding the cultivator alone. Land B presented itself as -something better; a feeble rent it could supply. C, D, and E -continued the ascending scale; the rents they yielded assumed grander -dimensions, till the maximum of fertility and remunerating power -was reached. The array wore a splendidly scientific air; it almost -rivalled the great law of the inverse square of the distances. But, -alas, as Ricardo himself dimly saw, rent bowed to other forces besides -mere fertility. Varying distances from manures and markets, dissimilar -demands for horsepower for the attainment of the same crops, unequal -pressure of rates and taxes, and other like causes compelled rent to -sway upwards and downwards in contradiction of the law of fertility; -and that was not scientific. But it was true in fact, and Ricardo, -under the pressure of necessity, summed up these disturbing causes -under the general word situation. Like Mill, he had to recognise -that Political Economy, as he and Mill posed it, was "an hypothetical -science," and that the stern world of material realities was under the -dominion of influences which were not hypothetical nor scientific.[1] - -If Ricardo and Mill had contented themselves with laying down what the -amount of rent was, governed by the quality of the soil's fertility -and by the forces which they feebly recognised by the word situation, -no harm would have been done. They would have given a tolerably fair -description of the causes on which the magnitude of rent depends. -It would not indeed have explained what rent is, but it would have -expressed truths with which the common agricultural mind was familiar, -and they might have retained the command of agricultural ears. -But scientific ambition would not be satisfied with so simple and -unpretending a statement. It was resolved that the explanation of rent -should take the shape of a scientific doctrine; and with this object -it invented an addition to it of whose scientific character there -could be no doubt. "It converted the land," in the words of Mr. Mill, -"which yields least return to the labour and capital employed on -it, and gives only the ordinary profit of capital, without leaving -anything for rent, into a standard for estimating the amount of rent -which will be yielded by all other land. Any land yields as much more -than the ordinary profits of stock, as it yields more than what is -returned by the worst land in cultivation." This worst land, which -had no rent to give, was erected into a standard which should -measure rents as accurately as a yard measures distances, and a pound -avoirdupois weights. Most useful indeed is the yard which tells us how -far it is to Dover, and the lb. weight which informs us how heavy the -load of coals is which has reached our door; and delightful truly, -would be an instrument which should tell a disputing landlord and -tenants, with unerring precision, how much rent exactly each farm was -bound to pay. But this "margin of calculation," this land which pays -no rent--what landlord or what farmer has ever inquired for it in the -calculation of their rents? Has it ever occurred to the thoughts, or -passed the lips, of a single practical agriculturist, in these days -of excitement, and anger, and unceasing declamations in the press and -tribune on rent? And if it had been found, what possible help could it -have brought to a single agriculturist? Such land could be no measure -to measure by. A measure must either be a given portion of the thing -measured, as a yard of length, or else be an effect of a given force, -as the height of the barometer of the pressure of the atmosphere. -A piece of land which yields no rent cannot measure one that does, -because the non-payment of rent is not the effect of a single force -but of many diverse ones. A particular farm may pay no rent because -it is isolated by want of roads, or is in a lonely spot, or is far -off from manures, or is burdened with excess of taxation, as a -whole parish in Buckinghamshire which was said to have gone out of -cultivation because no man would face the burden of its poor-rates. -What facility for calculation could such a parish furnish to a farmer -in Middlesex or Lancashire? The selection of such a standard was a -purely illogical process; it confounded effect with cause. The forces -which determine rent decree that such a farm cannot pay rent, that is -an effect; but its paying no rent could be no cause, by the mere fact -alone that it did not yield sufficient net profit, why other lands -should pay no rent. The margin of calculation was framed at a -particular locality, under its own circumstances, but it could say -nothing about the circumstances of another farm and their effects. - -The moral to be derived from the examination of Ricardo and -Mill's theories of rent is clear. The sooner that their margin of -cultivation, their standard of the amount of rent, disappears, the -better will it be for the interests of society and of Political -Economy. It has driven away all agricultural audience from the talk of -Political Economy about rent; it is felt to lie altogether outside of -the practical world. Let the land which is cultivated without being -able to pay rent be inquired into by all means, whenever there is a -call for so doing. Let the impeding causes and all their circumstances -be explored, but let the inquiry and its results be kept apart from -all rent-paying land. The forces which determine that one farm can pay -rent and another none are the same for both, either by their presence -or their absence; but the two farms have no connection with each -other, except as suffering effects from common causes. When this great -truth is seen and acknowledged, and when Political Economy has ceased -to talk of the non rent-paying land regulating the amount of all rent, -the world which it addresses, and for whom it exists, will be won over -to listen to its teaching on rent and to think it real. - -And now let us face the question, simply, What is rent? It is -necessary to distinguish here between two different meanings of the -word rent. It is a legal word, connected with the hire of land or -forms of real property connected with land, as houses, rooms, and the -like. Agricultural rent is different in nature from the rent of -rooms. The rents paid for a house or rooms in a large building such as -Gresham House have no relation to any particular business carried on -in them, much less do they depend on the success of that business. -Agricultural rent, on the contrary, is given for the very purpose of -engaging in a distinct business, agriculture; and the profits of -that business enter largely, in the settlement of rent, into the -calculations of the lender and the hirer of the land. It is of -agricultural rent exclusively that we are speaking on the present -occasion. - -In order to make a correct analysis of the subject, let us place -ourselves in the position of a farmer who is offered the tenancy of a -particular farm. It is necessary, further, to form a clear conception -of the fact, and to bear it constantly in mind, that in all acts of -selling or hiring, it is the purchaser or hirer, not the seller or the -lender, who ultimately decides whether an exchange shall take place. -Whatever be the price asked, be it high or be it low, the buyer by -giving or refusing it decrees whether a commercial transaction shall -be carried out. It is not the landlord but the tenant who will in the -last resort determine what the rent shall be. The landlord may select -amongst competing farmers the man who will pay the highest rent; still -it will be the judgment of that tenant that will decide at last, not -only what the amount of the rent shall be, but even whether the farm -shall be let at all. The inquiry thus becomes, What are the thoughts, -and what the feelings consequent on those thoughts, which traverse the -mind of the farmer? He is seeking to borrow the use of land in order -to engage in the agricultural business; his motive is profit, such an -amount of profit as will, after repaying all his outlay of every kind, -yield him the fitting reward for his efforts and his skill. His object -is to gain a living out of his farm; and his calculations turn on the -inquiry, on what terms of borrowing the use of the land he shall be -able to obtain the ordinary profits of trade. Let us accompany him in -these calculations. - -The landlord opens the debate by naming the rent which he requires -for the farm. The question for the tenant becomes, Can the farm afford -such a rent? Here, obviously, the productive power of the soil will -present itself as the first and most momentous subject of inquiry. -It is a productive machine that the farmer is seeking to hire. The -strength of that machine, its capacity to turn out much and good work, -is the great point to ascertain. The quality of the soil itself is -clearly a most important element of the problem; but it is far from -being the only force which constitutes the productive power of a farm. -What the climate is at the particular locality is a consideration of -great weight. Good land in a rainy district will yield an inferior -rent to land of the same quality under a more genial sun and a drier -atmosphere. Then the water connected with the farm will come under -examination. Will it be capable of creating water-meadows, which have -such a lifting power for rent in many parts of England? The fertility, -too, of the several fields of the farm will differ. The intelligent -tenant will feel himself called upon to estimate what amount of crop, -what quantity of food for cattle, with his skill and capital, he -may reasonably expect to produce. This is the basis of the whole -computation--the quantity and quality of the produce that he can -fairly reckon on obtaining. And he will not be governed solely by the -then existing state of the land. If he is an able agriculturist, he -will form a shrewd guess of what he will be able to make it yield by -proper treatment. And it is very probable that he will prefer to pay -a high rent for good land rather than a lower rent for inferior soil, -because he may feel a well-founded confidence in his own resources -to work up the greater power of a strong, if even obstinate, farm to -larger results. - -Having completed the first stage, and formed his estimate of the crops -and cattle which the land will yield, the tenant will now address -himself to the very grave question of the cost which his manufacturing -industry will entail. Here he will encounter forces which pay small -respect to the beautiful symmetry of hypothetical economic science, -and often influence the amount of rent far more powerfully than the -fertility of the land. Will his farm be amongst the light and sunny -hills of Surrey; or will it be embedded in the stubborn clay of the -Sussex weald? Will he need four horses or two only for each of his -ploughs? The crop may be the same for both, but the cost will be -widely different, and may create much resistance to the landlord's -rent. If he appeals to steam-power for help, he must ask himself how -far off he will be from the coal-field, how near to him will be the -station at which he will buy his coals. So, again, with his manure. -Will the lime and the marl be close to his borders, or must he send -his carts long distances to the pit or the railway? Then comes the -serious question of the place where his buyers dwell; how far he is -from his market; what expense of carriage he will be put to. It may be -his good fortune to be offered a farm in the neighbourhood of London, -or some great manufacturing town. A weighty rent, it is true, may be -demanded of him, even some ten or fifteen pounds an acre; but this -will not extinguish the attractiveness of such a farm. Better markets, -abundant supplies of manure, cultivation by the spade, and high -prices, may possess higher claims in his eyes than a small rent in a -rural region. - -But the computing farmer's arithmetic is not yet over; he has very -formidable figures still to face. His land may be burdened with heavy -charges of an exceptional kind. His tithe may be unusually large; his -poor-rate peculiarly severe; and the school-rate may acutely try his -temper and his purse. Worse still, agricultural wages in his locality -may be inordinately high, for wide are the discrepancies between wages -in different parts of England, and the worth of the wage may not be -repaid by labourers demoralized by trade unions. The long arithmetical -array of heavy burdens will be duly noted by the incoming tenant, and -carefully placed to the debit of the debated rent; but one thing he -will not do--he will not search out the position of the farm offered -in the brilliant series of ascending fertility, and comfort himself -with the reflection that economical science furnishes him with the -assurance that a farm standing so high above the margin of cultivation -must necessarily be able to pay the rent attached to that position, -all these exceptional charges of cost of production notwithstanding. - -One item of cost still remains, which the intelligent tenant will -investigate before he contracts to take the farm. He will inquire into -the condition of the farm--into the outfit, so to speak, which it will -require for the full performance of the work which it is fitted to -perform. He will endeavour to ascertain the amount of draining which -has been effected, the number and state of the farm-buildings, as -well as the amount of unexhausted improvements of various kinds which -either the landlord or the previous tenant has laid out upon the land. -These constitute no real part of the land's fertility, though they -increase its power to produce: they are fixed capital in the carrying -out of the agricultural business. And here it is important to note -that the tenant will not inquire into the amount of money, as such, -which the landlord has spent upon his land. He will not pay an -additional pound of rent because the landlord can appeal to large -figures denoting the capital he has laid out on his fields. This, by -itself alone, does not concern the tenant; but it does concern him -greatly to learn the actual condition of the farm; and beyond doubt -the landlord will be able to demand increased rent, and the tenant -will be perfectly willing to pay it, to the extent that the outlay on -draining and other improvements has augmented the actual produce -of the farm. The tenant looks solely to the working power of the -agricultural machine and the results which he may obtain from it; -outside of this consideration he takes no account of what outlay the -landlord has incurred, any more than of the price which he has given -for the property. The tenant will be well aware that if that machinery -does not exist, it must be provided by means of an understanding with -the landlord, necessarily involving some cost for himself: if he finds -it on the ground and at work, he will set down in his calculation an -increased estimate of produce without any debit against rent for -cost of construction--he will feel that he is hiring a more powerful -machine. - -The calculating tenant has now formed an estimate of what he may -assume as the amount of produce which he can procure from the farm, -as also of the cost which the obtaining of that produce in the -given locality will entail. He thus reaches the third stage of his -investigation--the price which he may reckon on realizing for the -products he has raised. Here the peculiar nature of the agricultural -business reveals itself. A man who enters upon a new industry, or -erects a new mill, or opens a fresh mine, will not inquire for a -particular price which he may adopt as the basis of his computations. -He will think only of the extent of the demand which exists for -the articles that he intends to manufacture. If it is strong and -increasing, he will feel sure that the consumers will repay the whole -cost of production, interest and capital included, and in addition -the legitimate profit attached to the business. If he hires or buys -machinery, he will pay the price belonging to it in its own market as -a manufactured article, precisely as if he were making purchases in -shops; the seller of a steam-engine will not ask how much profit the -engine will create for the factory. No doubt, if a site must be bought -or hired for the erection of the mill, a higher price for the land -will be encountered, in consequence of the prosperity of trade in the -particular town or district; but the rate of profit will not rise in -the discussion between the landowner and the trader. The price of the -land will be regulated by the force of the existing demand for land, -a demand which, of course, will gather strength from the swelling -profits realized in the trade. - -The position of the farmer who is seeking to discover what is the -proper consideration for the hire of a farm is radically different -from that of an ordinary manufacturer. As all land in England can be -said to pay rent, it is clear that its products are sold at such a -profit as enables the tenant to reward his landlord for his loan. The -sale of what he makes is therefore certain, but the price which -it will fetch is anything but certain. His business is subject to -influences which very materially affect the quantity of his products, -and still more the prices which they will command. He is dominated -by the seasons; but it may be argued that their fluctuations may be -guarded against by basing the calculation on their average character. -The statement is well founded, and every sensible farmer will take the -average season as his rule in computing; yet even the average season, -as recent experience has too sadly shown, may sweep over a large cycle -of years with very disturbing results. But there are other and very -formidable difficulties which the farmer is called upon to face. The -price which his produce will command depends on forces of great and -varying power which are entirely beyond his own control, and often -are incapable of being estimated beforehand. He is necessarily met by -foreign competition; and that competition itself is stronger or weaker -according to the commercial position of the countries which bring -it to bear. Further, the state of the home market itself cannot be -prejudged. The produce of English land will certainly be demanded -and sold; but its price is vastly influenced by the prosperity or -adversity of English trade. The rate, for instance, at which meat will -be sold will vary prodigiously according as the multitudes of British -workmen are earning high or low wages. The fortunes of foreign nations -will weigh on the cultivating farmer; they are buyers of English -wares, and their financial condition will act on British manufactures -and recoil, for good or evil, on British agriculture. - -The combined action of these manifold and diverse forces generates a -special and very important effect. It imprints on the hire of land -a distinct and unique feature of its own; it imparts its peculiar -characteristic to rent. The position of the farmer is not that of a -man engaged in a business, and buying or hiring a machine which is -required for carrying it on; it is rather the situation of one who is -examining whether he can reasonably enter upon the business at all. -One feeling governs that situation; the tenant must be able to live by -it by means of a natural profit after all expenses have been repaid. -Thus, the payment for the use of the land takes the form of handing -over to the landowner all excess of profit above the fitting reward -for the farmer. This seems manifestly the best method for giving the -required security to the tenant, whilst it provides the lender of -the use of the land a reward just in itself and compatible with the -continuous cultivation of the soil. Such a system is not unacceptable -to the landlord; he cannot hope to maintain a fixed rent which the -returns yielded by the agricultural business do not furnish. To insist -upon such a condition would be simply to compel the farmer to renounce -the farm. And he will not obtain such a rent from any other tenant; -for the one he dismisses has no other motive for leaving except the -fact that the farm will not provide such a rent. On the other hand, if -he is dissatisfied with the rent offered by the tenant, he has in the -competition of tenants desirous of hiring the farm a sure test for -ascertaining whether the offer is just or deficient. - -It follows, from the preceding analysis, that rent depends on the -prices realized by agricultural produce compared with the cost of -their production, the farming profits included. A high price does -not in every case imply a correspondingly high rent, for the cost of -raising agricultural produce varies immensely in different localities; -still, as a rule, elevated prices will raise up rents with them. The -same truth holds good of every business: it must yield repayment -of all cost of manufacturing, and reward the manufacturer with the -necessary profit, or it will cease to exist. But agricultural price -encounters two serious embarrassments not to be found to an equal -degree in other trades. It is, in the first place, powerfully acted -upon by the vicissitudes of the weather: a bountiful harvest, coming -in contact with great commercial profits, brings a full and often an -augmented price, to the great advantage of the farmer; a poor -harvest, falling on a depressed trade, often fails to reap a price -corresponding with the diminution of the supply. There is but one -remedy wherewith to meet the fluctuations of such a market--a remedy, -unfortunately, too little heeded by most farmers. The great law of the -average harvest must be ever borne in mind, ought ever to govern the -conduct of the intelligent farmer: he is bound, by the very nature -of his business, to reserve the excess of profits of the good year to -balance the deficient return of the failing crop. His rent ought -to be, probably is, founded on this principle; his practice often -exhibits profuse self-indulgence under the temptations of the -prosperous time, in utter thoughtlessness about the future. - -We have now reached the full explanation of rent. It is surplus -profit--that is, excess of profit after the repayment of the whole -cost of production, beyond the legitimate profit which belongs to the -tenant as a manufacturer of agricultural produce. The interest which -he would have reaped from placing capital which he has devoted to the -farm in some safe investment, such as consols or railway debentures, -forms necessarily a portion of the cost of production. He would have -realized some 4 per cent. on the investment without risk or effort -of any kind. This interest constitutes no reward for engaging in -agriculture. - -It remains now to consider certain important consequences which flow -from this explanation of rent. In the first place, it is evident that -three separate incomes are derived from agriculture, whilst two only -make their appearance in all other industries. In common with -them agriculture furnishes reward or income for two classes of -persons--wages for labourers and profit for the employer. There the -similarity ends. A third income makes its appearance for a third -person--rent for the landlord. This rent is not an ordinary -consideration for hiring some useful machine; if it were a -compensation of this nature, it would necessarily take its place -amongst the items composing the cost of production. It is a part of -the profit won, dependent in no way on the value of the property nor -on the price at which it was bought, but purely and simply on the -degree of the profit realized. It is a part of that profit, estimated -and paid as what remains over--a surplus. - -But how comes it to pass that an ordinary manufacture does not yield -or pay any such third income? For a simple and decisive reason. A -Manchester manufacturer cannot permanently earn a higher profit than -belongs to his trade. If we suppose 10 per cent. to be the natural -profit of that trade, and he persistently realizes 18, other mills -will be opened by new men entering into the business, and this process -will be continued till his profits are reduced to their legitimate -level. It is otherwise with farming. If a tenant reaps 10 per cent. -continuously from his farm, when competitors are willing to be content -with 8, the landlord will quickly make the discovery, and will add the -surplus 2 to the rent he requires. He will obtain the income, because -8 per cent. is judged by the farming world to be an adequate reward -for engaging in agriculture, and because no additional land is to be -found for the agricultural business. - -2. It is clear that tithes, poor-rates, and other permanent charges, -fall upon the landlord's rent, and not on the farmer's profit. -They diminish rent. This is a point on which much misunderstanding -prevails. A loud outcry is raised amongst tenants at this time of -agricultural suffering against the heavy payments demanded of them -for special taxes imposed upon land; a strong agitation is rising to -obtain their repeal, as being unjustifiable wrongs inflicted on the -most meritorious of industries. It is not perceived that these -charges figured as items in the cost of production when the farmer -was calculating what rent the farm would warrant him to pay: they -diminished the rent at the cost of the landlord. Tithes and rates took -their places in the estimate of the debit side quite as really as -the number of horses, or the quantity of manure, which the farm would -require. We have seen that rent makes its appearance only after every -expense has been provided for, and a legitimate profit secured; then, -and not till then, the calculation of the rent begins. If the farming -world succeeds in removing these burdens, wholly or in part, from -the shoulders of the tenants, there can be no doubt that rents will -proportionately rise. The landlords would argue, with entire justice, -that all other circumstances remaining the same, the collective -farming profit had become larger by the disappearance of these taxes, -and as the tenant was entitled only to his natural rate of profit, the -increase of surplus would legitimately belong to him. If the tenant -repelled such a claim, the landlord would be easily able to obtain the -rent he claimed from competing farmers who would be satisfied with the -natural profit of the business. - -One exception, however, must be allowed to this conclusion--the case, -namely, of a tenant who, upon a long lease, had contracted to pay a -definite rent for many years. Such a tenant has taken upon himself the -chances of the cost of production during a lengthened period, it -may be nineteen or twenty-one years, being larger or smaller. If it -diminishes during the interval, he gains: if it increases, he loses. -Practically he has insured the landlord's rent, during the continuance -of the lease, against diminution. For all increase or diminution of -rates he fares as if he were the landlord. - -3. A third very important deduction follows from the nature of the -process which determines rent. Rent does not increase the price of -agricultural produce; it does not make bread dearer. Rent is the -consequence, not the creator, of price. Here the difference between -agriculture and manufacturing trades is vital. The hire or purchase -of machinery forms necessarily a part of the cost of manufacturing the -goods: it must be paid for by the price realized, or the goods will -not be made. On the other hand, the consideration to be given for the -use of the land does not enter into the tenant's estimate of his cost -of production. He does not direct his inquiry to the right rent till -after he has ascertained what the farm will produce, the cost of -obtaining it, and the price it will fetch. He then discovers what the -profit will be: from it he takes his own necessary share; what is over -he hands to the landlord as rent. He does not, like the manufacturer, -insist upon a price which must be obtained, for otherwise he would not -be able to pay for the use of the machine he borrows; he simply takes -the price which he finds in the market, makes himself reasonably sure -of the profit which rewards him, and the landlord must take the chance -of what rent will remain over, whether large or small. Rent exists -because a selling price is found which yields a surplus, an excess -of profit beyond what the tenant requires. If price gives no surplus -profit, the landlord will get no rent, and he must farm the land -himself, or sell it to a farmer. - -But there is a peculiarity in the agricultural market which exercises -a very powerful influence in raising rents. Most manufactured articles -can be dispensed with, or their consumption greatly lessened, if -their cost of production is largely increased, or the means of buying -diminished. It is otherwise with food: it must be had, must be bought, -if any means of purchasing it exist. The effect of this force on a -country situated like England is very marked. England cannot supply -food for more than half of her population; the other half must be -procured from abroad. Now, the principle which governs the price of -indispensable food is the law, that the price paid for the dearest -article--say, a loaf of bread--which must and will be bought, will -impose itself on all like articles which are actually purchased. When -the loaf made in England was cheaper than any imported from abroad, -then the price of the English loaf rose to the price of the dearest -foreign loaves which were sold and purchased in the English markets. -This extra-addition of price was a pure surplus of profit received by -the English grower of wheat; the cost of production was not changed, -nor his requirement of profit for himself augmented. The gain he thus -realized, being absolutely surplus profit, passed to the landowner. -The need of foreign corn raised his rent. But the picture has a -reverse side. It may well happen that the foreign corn landed in -England will be saleable at a lower price than the English. If the -supply can be furnished in sufficient quantity to provide bread enough -for all England, the English corn in that case must inevitably sink to -the level of the foreign--its price will fall, the profit realized -on its sale may indefinitely sink, and a great reduction of rents -throughout England may well be the inevitable consequence. The -only weapon wherewith to fight off the disaster would be such a -modification of British agriculture as would lead to the cultivation -of other crops than wheat. - -Here it seems desirable to notice briefly some remarks addressed by -Professor Thorold Rogers to the _Daily News_, of October 30th, 1879; -for though they are in the main true, they might easily give rise to -mischievous misconception. He writes--"There is no doubt that rent is -wealth to the recipient, and a means of profit to those who trade with -the recipient; but except in so far as it represents the advantageous -outlay of capital, it is no more national wealth than the public funds -are." Surely this is to ignore the fact that the sources from -which rent and the dividends on the public funds are derived differ -radically in nature. The dividends on consols are the fruit of taxes -levied on the whole people of England, and distributed as such to -national creditors, which they may consume as they please. Rent is -part of a profit earned by an industry useful to the country. A tax -and a profit are not necessarily the same thing. No doubt a profit -swollen by a monopoly price is equivalent to a tax: and a rent derived -from "the price of the produce of land, raised by excessive demand and -stinted supply," would be a forced contribution from consumers. But -is all rent the child of monopoly? May it not well happen, does it -not constantly happen, that rents are high by the side of cheap -corn, because the agricultural business is largely productive through -efforts made by landlords in improving the powers of the soil? Are -they to be limited down in their reward to the pure interest which -they could have obtained for their capital from investments in bonds -and debentures? Is not part of the profit realized legitimately due -to them, as profit accomplished by a commercial enterprise? If the -returns on improvements made by landowners on their estates were -limited to the interest which they could have obtained from consols, -would not the motive for making such improvements be sadly wanting? -It would sound strange in great manufacturing towns to be told that -flowing profits are no increase of the public wealth, that they are -taxes resembling the public funds, and must be swept away down to the -lowest sum compatible with the existence of the industry. - -And what must be said of the ugly word, monopoly, which is so freely -flung against the owners of rent? There is a sound of unfairness in -it; of unearned gains won without effort from the fortunes of others. -How is such a reproach to be repelled? To parry the blow does not -seem to be so difficult. There is, indeed, a kind of monopoly which -is susceptible of no defence, a monopoly of manufacture conferred on -a favoured few, by the arbitrary decree of the law, founded on no -superior claim of merit or capacity, and resulting in inflated prices -and inferiority of service rendered. Such were the monopolies whose -abolition an indignant public opinion extorted from Queen Elizabeth. -But a superior advantage of production or sale attached by nature -to particular individuals or societies belongs to a wholly different -class. Life is full of such monopolies. They are inherent and -indestructible. The vineyards of France possess a monopoly of -incomparable wine which will for all time earn amazing profits paid by -voluntary buyers. England enjoys a like monopoly in the juxtaposition -of her coal and iron, which have created a trade that no other nation -can rival. The eloquent barrister, the acute physician, the brilliant -artist, the quick-eyed inventor of machines, the soul-stirring singer, -all are endowed with a personal monopoly resulting in great wealth. -Are the men and nations who reap the splendid fruit of such a -superiority to be stigmatized as despoilers of their fellow-citizens? -Is rent, the offspring of a like advantage, to be painted as a tribute -exacted from fellow-countrymen compelled to buy food? - -But it will be said, change the tenure of the land, and the wrong -will disappear. But what system will clear away superior produce and -increased price? Certainly not a universal peasant-proprietor class. -Such peasants would still possess the command of higher prices -conferred by fertility and situation, and by means of such prices they -would gather up swollen profits which would in reality be rent. Then -let the land be owned by the whole community in common possession, -exclaim French Socialists, and let its fruits be distributed in equal -shares to every inhabitant. But even in such an extreme case it would -be impossible to efface monopoly. The able-bodied man who received the -same share of produce as the weak dwarf, the clever artisan who was -unable to earn a special reward for his fructifying intelligence, -would inevitably reap a diminution of labour and time. His higher -faculties would earn a monopoly benefit in leisure. - -The conclusion to be drawn is evident. Nature has scattered monopolies -broadcast, higher profits, over the world. She has ordained that they -shall ever exist. It is futile to stigmatize rent as an exceptional -offender against equality. - -4. Finally, one more truth comes forth from this explanation, which -has a most important bearing on the efficient cultivation of land. The -landowner and the tenant are joint partners in a common business. They -share a common profit--the first portion belongs to the farmer, the -remainder to the landlord. They are both interested in promoting the -success of the agriculturist. If the cultivation of the soil thrives -even under the shortest leases, the rent is not quickly raised in -consequence of the rising profit--whilst under a long lease very -considerable gains may be won before a new settlement of the rent can -come up for discussion. This partnership brings a powerful motive to -act on the landlord to give help in developing the efficiency of the -farming. He knows that if he invests capital in draining and other -improvements, he increases the productive power of his land, he is -laying the foundation of enlarged results, and he cannot fail to -perceive that land thus improved must yield a bigger profit, of which -the surplus part, the rents, must necessarily be greater. Thus, an -important benefit is acquired, not only for the joint partners, but -also for the whole population of the country. Such processes generate -more abundant and cheaper food. The landlord who never visits his -farms, never thinks of them except on rent day, is blind to his own -interest, is forgetting that ownership of land is a partnership in a -business. He neglects his own enrichment, and leaves needed resources -for the nation unused. The active and intelligent landlord, on the -contrary, watches the march of agriculture. He observes where the -machine, the soil, requires improvement, he notices the farming -qualities of the tenant, he lives on friendly relations with him, and -deliberates with him on expanding the productive power of the farm. -His rent becomes larger--not only by obtaining interest on the capital -laid out, but also by sharing in the additional profit which that -capital is sure to engender; and that addition will not be grudged by -the tenant. He, too, will have prospered by the help of more powerful -machinery in his trade, for he is certain of getting an augmented -profit from the capital laid out by the landlord. Whatever may be said -of the system of land-revenue which prevails in England, one merit -it certainly possesses: it tends to bring the capital of a wealthy -landowner to take part in enlarging the power of the land and the -amount of its produce. - - BONAMY PRICE. - - [Footnote 1: It is much to be regretted that Professor Jevons - in his "Primer of Political Economy" should have omitted in - his explanation of rent the action of the forces which Ricardo - and Mill sum up in the word situation. He affirms "that rent - arises from the fact that different pieces of land are not - equally fertile," and that "the rent of better land consists - of the surplus of its produce over that of the poorest - cultivated land." How is it then that inferior land near great - towns pays a much higher rent than very good land in the - heart of a rural district, far away from railways or canals, - burdened with high poor-rates, and sorely in want of lime or - other distant manures? Ricardo himself admits, and so does - Mill, that if all lands were equally fertile, and, it may be - added, equally well situated as to other forces, they would - still pay rent to their owners.] - - - - -BUDDHISM AND JAINISM. - - -In previous papers I have traced the progress of Indian religious -thought through the various stages of Vedism, Br[=a]hmanism, -Vaishnavism, S´aivism, and S´[=a]ktism, and have pointed out that -all these systems more or less run into, and in a manner overlap, one -another. We have seen that among the primitive [=A]ryans the air, -the fire, and the sun, were believed to contain within themselves -mysterious and irresistible forces, capable of effecting tremendous -results either for good or evil. They were therefore personified, -deified, and worshipped. Some regarded them as manifestations of -one Supreme Controller of the Universe; others as separate cosmical -divinities with separate powers and attributes. - -If the religion of the ancient Indo-[=A]ryans was a form of Theism, -it was a Theism of a very uncertain and unsettled character. It was a -religious creed based on a vague belief in the sovereignty of unseen -natural forces. Such a creed might fairly be called monotheism, -henotheism, polytheism, or pantheism, according to the particular -standpoint from which it is regarded. But it was not, in its earliest -origin, idolatry. Its simple ritual was the natural outcome of each -man's earnest effort to express devotional feelings in his own way. -Unhappily it did not long retain its simplicity. The Br[=a]hmans -soon took advantage of the growth of religious ideas among a people -naturally pious and superstitious. They gradually cumbered the -simplicity of worship with elaborate ceremonial. They persuaded the -people that propitiatory offerings of all kinds were needed to secure -the favour of the beings they worshipped, and that such sacrifices -could not be performed without the repetition of prayers by a -regularly ordained and trained priesthood. But this was not all. -They developed and formulated a pantheistic philosophy, based on the -physiolatry of the Veda, and overlaid it with subtle metaphysical and -ontological speculations. They identified the Supreme Being with -all the phenomena of Nature, and maintained that the Br[=a]hmans -themselves were his principal human manifestation, the sole -repositories and exponents of all religious and philosophical truth, -the sole mediators between earth and heaven, the sole link between men -and gods. This combination of ritualism and philosophy, which -together constituted what is commonly called Br[=a]hmanism, gradually -superseded the simple forms of Vedic religion. In process of time, -however, the extravagance of Br[=a]hmanical ceremonial, and the -tyranny of priestcraft, led to repeated reactions. Efforts after -simplicity of worship and freedom of thought were made by various -energetic religious leaders at various periods. More than one reformer -arose, who attempted to deliver the people from the bondage of -a complex ceremonial, and the intolerable incubus of an arrogant -sacerdotalism. - -It was natural that the most successful opposition to priestcraft -should have originated in the caste next in rank to the Br[=a]hmans. -Gautama (afterwards called "the Buddha") was a man of the military -class (Kshatriya). He was the son of a petty chief who ruled over a -small principality called Kapila-vastu, north of the Ganges; but he -was not the sole originator of the reactionary movement. He had, -in all probability, been preceded by other less conspicuous social -reformers, and other leaders of sceptical inquiry. Or other such -leaders may have been contemporaneous with himself. We have already -pointed out that the philosophy he enunciated was not in its general -scope and bearing very different from that of Br[=a]hmanism. The -Br[=a]hmans called their system of doctrines "Dharma,"[1] and the -Buddha called his by the same name. He recognised no distinguishing -term like Buddhism. His simple aim was to remove every merely -sacerdotal doctrine from the national religion--to cut away every -useless excrescence, and to sweep away every corrupting incrustation. -His own doctrines of liberty, equality, and general benevolence -towards all creatures, ensured the popularity of his teaching; while -the example he himself set of asceticism and self-mortification, -secured him a large number of devoted personal adherents. For it is -remarkable that just as the Founder of Christianity was Himself a Jew, -and required none of His followers to give up their true Jewish creed, -or Jewish usages, so the founder of Buddhism was himself a Hind[=u], -and did not require his adherents to give up every essential principle -of ordinary Hind[=u]ism, or renounce all the religious observances of -their ancestors.[2] - -Yet it cannot be denied that Buddhism was very different from -Br[=a]hmanism, and it is a remarkable fact that, with all his personal -popularity, the atheistic philosophy of Gautama was unsuited to the -masses of the people. His negations, abstractions, and theories of -the non-eternity and ultimate extinction of soul, never commended -themselves to the popular mind. - -It seemed, indeed, probable that Buddhism was destined to become -extinct with its founder. The Buddha died, like other men, and, -according to his own doctrine, became absolutely extinct. Nothing -remained but the relics of his burnt body, which were distributed -in all directions. No successor was ready to step into his place. No -living representative was competent to fill up the void caused by his -death. Nothing seemed more unlikely than that the mere recollection -of his teaching and example, though perpetuated by the rapid -multiplication of shrines, symbols, and images of his person,[3] -should have power to secure the continuance of his system in his own -native country for more than ten centuries, and to disseminate his -doctrines over the greater part of Asia. What, then, was the secret -of its permanence and diffusion? It really had no true permanence. -Buddhism never lived on in its first form, and never spread anywhere -without taking from other systems quite as much as it imparted. The -tolerant spirit which was its chief distinguishing characteristic -permitted its adherents to please themselves in adopting extraneous -doctrines. Hence it happened that the Buddhists were always ready -to acquiesce in, and even conform to, the religious practices of the -countries to which they migrated, and to clothe their own simple -creed in, so to speak, a many-coloured vesture of popular legends and -superstitious ideas. - -Even in India, where the Buddha's memory continued to be perpetuated -by strong personal recollections and local associations, as well as -by relics, symbols, and images, his doctrines rapidly lost their -distinctive character, and ultimately, as we have already shown, -merged in the Br[=a]hmanism whence they originally sprang. - -Nor is there any historical evidence to prove that the Buddhists were -finally driven out of India by violent means. Doubtless, occasional -persecutions occurred in particular places at various times, and it -is well ascertained that fanatical, enthusiastic Br[=a]hmans, such as -Kum[=a]rila and S´ankara, occasionally instigated deeds of blood and -violence. But the final disappearance of Buddhism is probably due -to the fact that the two systems, instead of engaging in constant -conflict, were gradually drawn towards each other by mutual sympathy -and attraction; and that, originally related like father and child, -they ended by consorting together in unnatural union and intercourse. -The result of this union was the production of the hybrid systems of -Vaishnavism and S´aivism, both of which in their lineaments bear -a strong family resemblance to Buddhism. The distinctive names of -Buddhism were dropped, but the distinctive features of the system -survived. The Vaishnavas were Buddhists in their doctrines of liberty -and equality, in their abstinence from injury (_a-hins[=a]_), in -their desire for the preservation of life, in their hero-worship, -deification of humanity, and fondness for images; while the S´aivas -were Buddhists in their love for self-mortification and austerity, -as well as in their superstitious dread of the power of demoniacal -agencies. What, then, became of the atheistical philosophy and -agnostic materialism of the Buddhistic creed? Those doctrines were no -more expelled from India than were other Buddhistic ideas. They found -a home, under changed names, among various sects, but especially in -a kindred system which has survived to the present day, and may be -conveniently called Jainism.[4] Here, then, we are brought face to -face with the special subject of our present paper: What are the -peculiar characteristics of the Jaina creed? - -To give an exhaustive reply to such a question will scarcely be -possible until the sacred books of Buddhists and Jainas (or, as they -are commonly called, Jains) have been more thoroughly investigated. -All that I can do at present is to give a general outline of Jaina -doctrines, and to indicate the principal points in which they either -agree with or differ from those of Buddhists and Br[=a]hmans.[4] -Perhaps the first point to which attention may be directed is that -recent investigations have tended to show that Buddhism and Jainism -were not related to each other as parent and child, but rather as -children of a common parent, born at different intervals, though at -about the same period of time, and marked by distinct characteristics, -though possessing a strong family resemblance. Both these systems, in -fact, were the product of Br[=a]hmanical rationalistic thought, which -was itself a child of Br[=a]hmanism. Both were forms of materialistic -philosophy engendered from separate kindred germs. - -For there can be no doubt that different lines of philosophical -speculation were developed by the Br[=a]hmans at a very early period. -All such speculations were regarded by them as legitimate phases of -their own religious system. In some localities where Br[=a]hmanism -was strong and dominant, rationalism was restrained within orthodox -limits. In other places it diverged into unorthodox sceptical -inquiries. In others into rank heresy and schism. Buddhism and Jainism -represented different schools of heretical philosophical speculation -which were in all likelihood nearly synchronous in their origin. That -is to say, Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, and P[=a]rs´van[=a]tha, -the probable founder of Jainism, may have lived about the same time -in different parts of India. Nor is it unreasonable to conjecture -that both these freethinkers may have followed closely on Kapila, the -reputed founder of the S[=a]nkhya system and typical representative of -rationalistic Br[=a]hmanism.[5] By far the most popular of the three -was Gautama, commonly called the Buddha. The influence of his personal -character, combined with the extraordinary persuasiveness of his -teaching, was irresistible. His system spread with his followers and -admirers in every direction, and threw all kindred systems into the -shade. Very soon Buddhistic doctrines leavened the religions of the -whole Indian peninsula, from Afgh[=a]nist[=a]n to Ceylon. They found -their way into every home. They became domesticated in the cottages of -peasants and palaces of kings. As to Jainism, centuries elapsed before -it emerged from the obscurity to which the greater popularity of -Buddhism had consigned it. Nor, even when its rival was extinguished, -did it ever rise above the rank of an insignificant sect. At present -the total number of Jainas in all India does not exceed 400,000, at -least half of whom are found in the Bombay Presidency. - -Yet it is not impossible that the first opposition to sacerdotalism -may have been due to Jaina influences, and that Indian rationalistic -speculation may have been inaugurated by early Jaina leaders. We know -that the Buddhist king As´oka, in his inscriptions--which are referred -to the third century B.C.--mentions the Jainas under the name of -Nirgrantha, as if well established and well known in his time. We -know, too, what has happened in our own country. Not long ago there -was a reaction from extreme Evangelical religious thought in England. -But because that reactionary movement is called by the name of a -particular leader, it by no means follows that he was chronologically -the first to set it in action. In the same way it may possibly turn -out to be a fact that the Jaina P[=a]rs´van[=a]tha, rather than the -Buddha Gautama, was the first excogitator of the heretical ideas and -theories common to both. It seems to me, indeed, not improbable that -Jainism, which is now at length assimilating itself to Hind[=u]ism, -maintained its ground more persistently in India, not only because, -unlike Buddhism, it sullenly refused to fraternize with Br[=a]hmanism, -and to court converts from other creeds, but because the lines of -demarcation which separated it from the orthodox system were in some -essential points more sharp and decided than those which separated -Buddhism. It is, at any rate, a fact that the Jainas claim for their -system a prior origin to that of Buddhism, and even affirm that -Gautama Buddha was a pupil of their chief Jina, Mah[=a]v[=i]ra. Nor -will it surprise us that the legendary history of Mah[=a]v[=i]ra, who -succeeded Pars´van[=a]tha, and was the first real propagator of -the Jaina creed, favours the theory of such a priority. True, -Mah[=a]v[=i]ra is described as the son of Siddh[=a]rtha, which is an -epithet given to the Buddha. But he is also said to have had a pupil -named Gautama, and his death is fixed by the concurrent testimony of -both parties of Jainas, who follow different reckonings, at a date -corresponding to about B.C. 526 or 527, the usual date assigned by -modern research to the Nirv[=a]na or death of Buddha being 477 or 478. - -But it must not be supposed that P[=a]rs´van[=a]tha and his successor -Mah[=a]v[=i]ra, are regarded by the Jainas as their first supreme -Jinas. They were preceded by twenty-two other mythical leaders -and patriarchs, beginning with Rishabha,[6] whose fabulous lives -protracted to millions of years, and whose fabulous statures, -proportionally extended, were probably invented in recent times, that -the Jaina system might not be outdone by that of either Br[=a]hmans or -Buddhists. - -It is well known that the code of Manu--which is the best exponent -of Br[=a]hmanism--supposes a constant succession of religious guides -through an infinite succession of cycles. These cycles are called -Kalpas. Every Kalpa or Æon of time begins with a new creation, and -ends with a universal dissolution of all existing things--including -Brahm[=a], Vishnu, S´iva, gods, demons, men, and animals--into -Brahm[)a], or the One sole impersonal self-existent Soul of the -Universe. In the interval between each creation and dissolution there -are fourteen periods, presided over by fourteen successive patriarchs -or progenitors of the human race called Manus, who, as their name -implies, are the authors of all human wisdom, and who create a -succession of Sages and Saints (Rishis and Munis), for mankind's -guidance and instruction. - -The Buddhists, also, have their cycles of time, presided over by -twenty-four Buddhas, or 'perfectly enlightened men,' Gautama being -(according to the Northern reckoning) the seventh of the series. -Similarly the Jainas have their vast periods superintended by -twenty-four Jinas, or 'self-conquering sages.' The notion is that -alternate periods of degeneracy and amelioration succeed each other -with symmetrical regularity. Each cycle embraces vast terms of years; -for in the determination of the world's epochs Indian arithmeticians -anticipated centuries ago the wildest hypotheses of modern European -science. A single Kalpa, or Æon, of the Br[=a]hmans consists of -4,320,000,000 years. It is divided into a thousand periods of four -ages (called Satya, Treta, Dv[=a]para, and Kali), under which there is -gradual degeneration until the depths of degeneracy are reached in the -Kali age. The Buddhist Kalpas are similar, but the Jaina cycles have -a distinctive character of their own. They proceed in pairs, one -of which is called 'descending,' (_Avasarpin[=i]_), and the other -'ascending,' (_Utsarpin[=i]_). Of these the descending cycle has six -stages, or periods, each comprising one hundred million years, and -called 'good-good,' 'good,' 'good-bad,' 'bad-good,' 'bad,' 'bad-bad,' -during which mankind gradually deteriorates; while the ascending cycle -has also six similar periods called 'bad-bad,' 'bad,' 'bad-good,' -'good-bad,' 'good,' 'good-good,' during which the human race gradually -improves till it reaches the culminating pinnacle of absolute -perfection. In illustration we are told to imagine a vast serpent, -whose body, coiled round in infinite space in an endless circle, -supports and guides the movement of the earth in its eternal progress. -The head and tail of the serpent meet, and the notion is that the -earth's movement alternates after the manner of the oscillating motion -of a balance-wheel acted on by the coiling and uncoiling of a steel -spring. First the earth moves from the head towards the tail in a -downward course, and then reversing the direction moves upwards -from the tail to the head. At present we are supposed to be in the -descending cycle. Twenty-four Jinas have already appeared in this -cycle, while twenty-four were manifested in the past ascending cycle, -and twenty-four will be manifested in the future. - -In Br[=a]hmanism, Buddhism, and Jainism, the idea seems to be that the -tendency to deterioration would very soon land mankind in a condition -of hopeless degeneracy unless counteracted by the remedial influences -of great teachers, prophets, and deliverers. In the legendary -history of the Buddha Gautama, he is described in terms which almost -assimilate his character to the Christian conception of a Redeemer: -he is even reported to have said--"Let all the evils (or sins) flowing -from the corruption of the fourth or degenerate age (called _Kali_) -fall upon me, but let the world be redeemed." - -And what are the precise character and functions of a Jina? This -inquiry must, of course, form an important part of our present -subject, and the reply is really involved in the answer to another -question: What is the great end and object of Jainism? Briefly, it -may be stated that Jainism, like Br[=a]hmanism and Buddhism, aims at -getting rid of the burden of repeated existences. Three root-ideas may -be said to lie at the foundation of all three systems:--first, that -personal existence is protracted through an innumerable succession of -bodies by the almighty power of man's own acts; secondly, that mundane -life is an evil, and that man finds his perfection in the cessation -of all acts, and the consequent extinction of all personal -existence; thirdly, that such perfection is alone attained through -self-mortification, abstract meditation, and true knowledge. In these -crucial doctrines, the theory of Br[=a]hmanism is superior to that of -Buddhism and Jainism. According to the Br[=a]hmans, the living soul of -man has an eternal existence both retrospectively and prospectively, -and only exists separately from the One Supreme Eternal Soul because -that Supreme Soul wills the temporary separate personality of -countless individual spirits, dissevering them from his own essence -and causing them to pass through a succession of bodies, till, after a -long course of discipline, they are permitted to blend once more with -their great Eternal Source. With the Br[=a]hmans existence in the -abstract is not an evil. It is only an evil when it involves the -continued separation of the personal soul from the impersonal Eternal -Soul of the Universe. - -Very different is the doctrine of Buddhists and Jains. With them there -is no Supreme Being, no Supreme Divine Eternal Soul, no separate -human eternal soul. Nor can there be any true soul-transmigration. A -Buddhist and a Jaina believe that the only eternal thing is matter. -The universe consists of eternal atoms which by their own inherent -creative force are perpetually developing countless forms of being -in ever-recurring cycles of creation and dissolution, re-creation and -re-dissolution. This is symbolized by a wheel revolving for ever in -perpetual progression and retrogression.[7] - -What then becomes of the doctrine of transmigration of souls, which -is said to be held even more strongly by Buddhists and Jains than -by Hind[=u]s? It is thus explained. Every human being is composed of -certain constituents (called by Buddhists the five Skandhas). These -comprehend body, soul, and mind, with all the organs of feeling and -sensation. They are all dissolved at death, and absolute extinction -would follow, were it not for the inextinguishable, imperishable, -omnipotent force of _Karman_ or Act. No sooner are the constituents -of one stage of existence dissolved than a new set is created by -the force of acts done and character formed in the previous stage. -Soul-transmigration with Buddhists is simply a concatenation of -separate existences connected by the iron chain of act. A man's own -acts generate a force which may be compared to those of chemistry, -magnetism, or electricity--a force which periodically re-creates the -whole man, and perpetuates his personal identity (notwithstanding the -loss of memory) through the whole series of his separate existences, -whether it obliges him to ascend or descend in the scale of being. -It may safely be affirmed that Br[=a]hmans, Buddhists, and Jains all -agree in repudiating the idea of vicarious suffering. All concur in -rejecting the notion of a representative man--whether he be a Manu, a -Rishi, a Buddha, or a Jina--suffering as a substituted victim for the -rest of mankind. Every being brought into the world must suffer in -his own person the consequences of his own deeds committed either in -present or former states of being. It is not sufficient that he be -rewarded in a temporary heaven, or punished in a temporary hell. -Neither heaven nor hell has power to extinguish the accumulated -efficacy of good or bad acts committed by the same person during a -long succession of existences. Such accumulated acts must inevitably -and irresistibly drag him down into other mundane forms, until -at length their potency is destroyed by his attainment of perfect -self-discipline and self-knowledge in some final culminating condition -of being, terminated by complete self-annihilation. - -And thus we are brought to a clear understanding of the true character -of a Jina or self-conquering Saint (from the Sanskrit root _ji_, to -conquer). A Jina is with the Jains very nearly what a Buddha is with -the Buddhists. - -He represents the perfection of humanity, the typical man, who has -conquered self and attained a condition so perfect that he not only -ceases to act, but is able to extinguish the power of former acts; -a human being who is released from the obligation of further -transmigration, and looks forward to death as the absolute extinction -of personal existence. But he is also more than this. He is a being -who by virtue of the perfection of his self-mortification (_tapas_) -has acquired the perfection of knowledge, and therefore the right -to be a supreme leader and teacher of mankind. He claims far more -complete authority and infallibility than the most arrogant Roman -Pontiff. He is in his own solitary person an absolutely independent -and infallible guide to salvation. Hence he is commonly called a -_T[=i]rthan-kara_, or one who constitutes a T[=i]rtha[8]--that is -to say, a kind of passage or medium through which bliss may be -attained--a kind of ford or bridge leading over the river of life to -the elysium of final emancipation. Other names for him are _Arhat_, -"venerable;" _Sarva-jna_, "omniscient;" _Bhagavat_, "lord." - -A Buddha with the Buddhists is a very similar personage. He is a -self-conqueror and self-mortifier (_tapasv[=i]_), like the Jina, -and is besides a supreme guide to salvation; but he has achieved -his position of Buddhahood more by the perfection of his meditation -(_yoga, sam[=a]dhi_) than by the completeness of his self-restraint -and austerities. - -Both Jainas and Buddhists--but especially Jainas--believe in the -existence of gods and demons, and spiritual beings of all kinds, whom -they often designate by names similar to those used by the Hind[=u]s. -These may possess vast supernatural and extra-mundane powers in -different degrees and kinds, which they are capable of exerting for -the benefit or injury of mankind; but they are inferior in position to -the Jina or Buddha. They are merely powerful beings--temporary rulers -in temporary heavens and hells. - -They may be very formidable and worthy of propitiation, but they are -imperfect. They are liable to pass through other stages of existence, -or even to be born again in mundane forms, until they are finally -extinguished by the same law of dissolution as the rest of the -universe. - -Very different is the condition of the perfect saint. He is in a far -higher position, for he has but one step to take before plunging -into the ocean of non-existence. He is on the verge of the bliss of -extinction, and can guide others to it. He can never be dragged down -again to earthly imperfection and sin. He alone is a worthy object of -adoration. All other beings--divine and demoniacal--are to be dreaded, -not worshipped. "There is no god superior to the Arhat," says the -Kalpa-s[=u]tra (Stevenson, p. 10). True worship, indeed, is not -possible with Jainas any more than with Buddhists. They have no -supreme Eternal Being, omniscient and omnipresent, ever at hand to -answer prayer, ever living to be an object of meditation, devotion, -and love to his creatures. - -Yet a Jaina who acts up to the principles of his faith is a slave to a -ceaseless round of religious duties. - -The late Bishop of Calcutta told me that he once asked a pious Jaina, -whom he happened to meet in the act of leaving a temple after a long -course of devotion, what he had been asking for in prayer, and to whom -he had been praying? He replied, "I have been asking for nothing, -and praying to nobody." The fact was he had been meditating on the -perfections of some extinct Jina, doing homage to his memory, and -using prayer as a mere mechanical act, not directed towards any higher -Power capable of granting requests, but believed to have an efficacy -of its own in determining the character of his subsequent forms of -existence. - -It may be said that the Br[=a]hmanical idea of a saint is much the -same as that of Buddhists and Jainas. But with Br[=a]hmans the -perfect saint is not so solitary and independent in his spiritual -pre-eminence. He is one of a numerous band of similar sainted -personages. He has endless names and epithets (such as Rishi, Muni, -Yog[=i], Tapasv[=i], Jitendriya, Yatendriya, Sanny[=a]s[=i]), all of -which indicate that he, like the Buddha and Jina, has attained -the perfection of knowledge and impassiveness, either by abstract -meditation (_yoga_), or self-mortification (_tapas_), or mastery over -his sensual organs (_yama_). He may also combine the functions of a -true teacher and guide to salvation (_T[=i]rtha_). He may even, -like the Buddha and Jina, have acquired such powers that any of the -secondary gods, including Brahm[=a], Vishnu, and S´iva, may be subject -to him. Finally, he may be himself worshipped as a kind of deity. Yet -radically there is an important distinction between the Br[=a]hman -and the Jaina saint, for the Br[=a]hman saint makes no pretence to -absolute finality and supremacy. However lofty his position, he -can never be exalted above the One Supreme Being (Brahma), in whose -existence his own personal existence is destined to become absorbed, -and union with whose essence constitutes the object of all his hopes, -and the aim of all his aspirations. - -Nothing, perhaps, better illustrates the difference between -Br[=a]hmanism, Buddhism, and Jainism than the daily prayer used in all -three systems. That of the Br[=a]hmans is in Sanskrit (from Rig-veda -iii. 62. 10), and is addressed to the Supreme Being as giver of -life and illumination. It is a prayer for greater knowledge and -enlightenment: thus, "Let us meditate on that excellent glory of the -divine Vivifier. May He stimulate our understandings." That of -the Jainas, also called by them G[=a]yatr[=i], is in M[=a]gadh[=i] -Pr[=a]krit, and is in five short clauses to the following effect:--"I -venerate the sages who are worthy of honour (_arhat_). I venerate the -saints who have achieved perfection. I venerate those who direct our -religious worship. I venerate spiritual instructors. I venerate holy -men (_s[=a]dhus_) in all parts of the world." This is obviously no -real prayer, but a mere formula, expressive of veneration for human -excellence, like that used by the Buddhists, which is perhaps the -simplest of all,--"Reverence to the incomparable Buddha;" or (as in -Thibet), "Reverence to the jewel in the lotus."[9] - -Br[=a]hmans, Jains, and Buddhists all alike aim at the attainment of -perfect knowledge; but the Br[=a]hman, by his G[=a]yatr[=i] prayer, -acknowledges his dependence on a Supreme Being as the source of all -enlightenment; while the formulas of Jains and Buddhists are simply -expressive of their belief in the divinity of humanity--the efficacy -of human example, and the power of unassisted human effort. - -It will be evident from the foregoing outline of the first principles -of Jainism, that the whole system hinges on the efficacy of -self-mortification (_tapas_), self-restraint (_yama_), and asceticism. -Only twenty-four supreme saints and T[=i]rthan-karas can appear in -any one cycle of time, but every mortal man may be a self-restrainer -(_yati_). Every one born into the world may be a striver after -sanctity (_s[=a]dhu_), and a practiser of austerities (_tapasv[=i]_). -Doubtless, at first there was no distinction between monks, ascetics, -and ordinary men, just as in the earliest days of Christianity there -was no division into bishops, priests, and laity. All Jainas in -ancient times practised austerities, but among such ascetics an -important difference arose. One party advocated an entire abandonment -of clothing, in token of complete indifference to all worldly ideas -and associations. The other party were in favour of wearing white -garments. The former were called Dig-ambara, sky-clothed, the latter -S´vet[=a]mbara (or, in ancient works, S´veta-pata), white-clothed.[10] -Of these the Dig-ambaras were chronologically the earliest. They were -probably the first to form themselves into a regular society. The -first Jina, Rishaba, as well as the last Jina, Mah[=a]v[=i]ra, are -said to have been Dig-ambaras, and to have gone about absolutely -naked. Their images represent two entirely nude ascetics, whereas the -images of other Jinas, like the Buddhist images, are representations -of a sage, generally seated in a contemplative posture, with a robe -thrown gracefully over one shoulder. - -It is not improbable that the S´vet[=a]mbara division of the Jainas -were merely a sect which separated itself from the parent stock in -later times, and became in the end numerically the most important, at -least in Western India. The Dig-ambaras, however, are still the most -numerous faction in Southern India, and at Jaipur in the North.[11] - -And, indeed, it need scarcely be pointed out that ascetics, -both wholly naked and partially clothed, are as common under the -Br[=a]hmanical system as among Jainas and Buddhists. The god S´iva -himself is represented as a Dig-ambara, or naked ascetic, whenever he -assumes the character of a Mah[=a]-yog[=i]--that is to say, whenever -he enters on a long course of austerity, with an absolutely nude -body, covered only with a thick coating of dust and ashes, sitting -motionless and wrapped in meditation for thousands of years, that -he may teach men by his own example the power attainable through -self-mortification and abstract contemplation. - -It is true that absolute nudity in public is now prohibited by -law, but the Dig-ambara Jainas who take their meals, like orthodox -Hind[=u]s, in strict seclusion, are said to remove their clothes -in the act of eating. Even in the most crowded thoroughfares the -requirements of legal decency are easily satisfied. Any one who -travels in India must accustom himself to the sight of plenty of -unblushing, self-asserting human flesh. Thousands content themselves -with the minimum of clothing represented by a narrow strip of cloth, -three or four inches wide, twisted round their loins. Nor ought it -to excite any feeling of prudish disgust to find poor, hard-working -labourers tilling the ground with a greater area of sun-tanned skin -courting the cooling action of air and wind on the burning plains -of Asia than would be considered decorous in Europe. As to mendicant -devotees, they may still occasionally be seen at great religious -gatherings absolutely innocent of even a rag. Nevertheless, they are -careful to avoid magisterial penalties. In a secluded part of the city -of Patna, I came suddenly on an old female ascetic, who usually sits -quite naked in a large barrel, which constitutes her only abode. When -I passed her, in company with the collector and magistrate of the -district, she rapidly drew a dirty sheet round her body. - -In the present day both Dig-ambara and S´vet[=a]mbara Jainas are -divided into two classes, corresponding to clergy and laity. When the -two sects increased in numbers, all, of course, could not be ascetics. -Some were compelled to engage in secular pursuits, and many developed -industrious and business-like habits. Hence it happened that a large -number became prosperous merchants and traders. - -All laymen[12] among the Jainas are called S´r[=a]vakas, "hearers or -disciples," while the Yatis,[13] or "self-restraining ascetics," -who constitute the only other division of both Jaina sects, are the -supposed teachers (_Gurus_). Many of them, of course, never teach at -all. They were formerly called Nirgrantha, "free from worldly ties," -and are often known by the general name of S[=a]dhu, "holy men." -All are celibates, and most of them are cenobites, not anchorites. -Sometimes four or five hundred live together in one monastery, -which they call an Up[=a]s´raya,[14] "place of retirement," under -a presiding abbot. They dress, like other Hind[=u] ascetics, in -yellowish-pink or salmon-coloured garments.[15] There are also female -ascetics (_S[=a]dhvin[=i]_, or, anciently, _Nirgranth[=i]_), who may -be seen occasionally in public places clothed in dresses of a similar -colour. When these good women draw the ends of their robes over their -heads to conceal their features, and cover the lower part of their -faces with pieces of muslin to prevent animalculæ from entering their -mouths, they look very like hooded Roman Catholic nuns. I saw -several threading their way through the crowded streets of Ahmedabad, -apparently bent, like sisters of mercy, on charitable errands. - -Of course, in Jainism anything like a Br[=a]hmanical priesthood would -be an impossibility. Jainas reject the whole body of the Veda, Vedic -sacrifices and ritual, and hold it to be a heinous sin to kill an -animal of any kind, even for religious purposes. They have, however, -a Veda of their own, consisting of a series of forty-five sacred -writings, collectively called [=A]gamas. They are all in the Jaina -form of the M[=a]gadh[=i] dialect (differing from, yet related to, -the P[=a]l[=i] of the Buddhists, the M[=a]gadh[=i] Pr[=a]krit of -Vararuchi, and the Pr[=a]krit of the plays), and are classed under -the different heads of Anga, Up[=a]nga, P[=a]inna (Sanskrit, -_Prak[=i]rnaka_), M[=u]la, Chheda, Anuyoga, and Nandi. Of these the -eleven Angas are the most esteemed, but the whole series is equally -regarded as S´ruti, or divine revelation. The M[=a]gadh[=i] text -is sometimes explained by Sanskrit commentaries, and sometimes by -commentaries in the M[=a]rw[=a]r[=i] dialect, very common among -merchants in the West of India. Some of the best known Angas and -Up[=a]ngas were procured by me when I was last at Bombay, through the -kind assistance of Dr. Bühler; but it appears doubtful whether -they would repay the trouble which a complete perusal and thorough -examination of such voluminous writings would entail. It may safely be -affirmed that their teaching, like that of the Pur[=a]nas, is anything -but consistent or uniform, and that they deal with subjects--such as -the formation of the universe, history, geography, and chronology--of -which their authors are profoundly ignorant. - -The Indian commentator, M[=a]dhav[=a]ch[=a]rya, in his well-known -summary of Hind[=u] sects (called Sarva-dars´ana-sangraha) has given -an interesting sketch of the Jainas from his own investigation -of their sacred writings. Their philosophers are sometimes called -Sy[=a]d-v[=a]dins, "asserters of possibility," because their -system propounds seven modes of reconciling opposite views -(_sapta-bhanga-naya_) as to the possibility of anything existing -or not existing. All visible objects--all the phenomena of the -universe--are distributed under the two principles (_tattva_) or -categories of animate (_j[=i]va_), and inanimate (_a-j[=i]va_). Again, -all living beings comprised under the former are divided into three -classes: (1) eternally perfect, as the Jina; (2) emancipated from the -power of acts; (3) bound by acts and worldly associations. Or, again, -nine principles are enumerated--namely, life, absence of life, merit -(_punya_), demerit, passion, helps to restraint, helps to freedom -from worldly attachments, bondage, emancipation. Inanimate matter is -sometimes referred to a principle (_tattva_) called Pudgala, which it -is easier for Jaina philosophers to talk about than to explain. - -When we come to the Jaina moral code, we find ourselves transported -from the mists of fanciful ideas and arbitrary speculation to a -clearer atmosphere and firmer ground. The three gems which every Jaina -is required to seek after with earnestness and diligence, are right -intuition, right knowledge, and right conduct. The nature of the first -two may be inferred from the explanations already given. Right -conduct consists in the observance of five duties (_vratas_), and the -avoidance of five sins implied in five prohibitions. The five duties -are:--Be merciful to all living things; practise almsgiving and -liberality; venerate the perfect sages while living, and worship their -images after their decease; confess your sins annually, and mutually -forgive each other; observe fasting. The five prohibitions are:--Kill -not; lie not; steal not; commit not adultery or impurity; love not the -world or worldly honour. - -If equal practical importance were attached to these ten precepts, -the Jaina system could not fail to conduce in a high degree to the -happiness and well-being of its adherents, however perverted their -religious sense may be. Unfortunately, undue stress is laid on the -first duty and first prohibition, to the comparative neglect of -some of the others. In former days, when Buddhism and Jainism were -prevalent everywhere, "Kill not" was required to be proclaimed by -sound of trumpet in every city daily.[16] - -And, indeed, with all Hind[=u]s respect for life has always been -regarded as a supreme obligation. Ahins[=a], or avoidance of injury -to others in thought, word, and deed, is declared by Manu to be the -highest virtue, and its opposite the greatest crime. Not the smallest -insect ought to be killed, lest the soul of some relation should be -there embodied. Yet all Hind[=u]s admit that life may be taken for -religious or sacrificial purposes. Not so Buddhists and Jainas. With -them the sacrifice of any kind of life, even for the most sacred -purpose, is a heinous crime. In fact, the belief in transmission -of personal identity at death through an infinite series of animal -existences is so intense that they live in perpetual dread of -destroying some beloved relative or friend. The most deadly serpents -or venomous scorpions may enshrine the spirits of their fathers or -mothers, and are therefore left unharmed. The Jainas far outdo every -other Indian sect in carrying the prohibition, "not to kill," to the -most preposterous extremes. They strain water before drinking, sweep -the ground with a silken brush before sitting down, never eat or drink -in the dark, and often wear muslin before their mouths to prevent the -risk of swallowing minute insects. They even object to eating figs, -or any fruit containing seed, and would consider themselves eternally -defiled by simply touching flesh-meat with their hands. - -One of the most curious sights in Bombay is the Panjara-pol, or -hospital for diseased, crippled, and worn-out animals, established by -rich Jaina merchants and benevolent Vaishnava Hind[=u]s in a street -outside the Fort. The institution covers several acres of ground, and -is richly endowed. Both Jainas and Vaishnavas think it a work of the -highest religious merit to contribute liberally towards its support. -The animals are well fed and well tended, though it certainly seemed -to me, when I visited the place, that the great majority would be more -mercifully provided for by the application of a loaded pistol to their -heads. I found, as might have been expected, that a large proportion -of space was allotted to stalls for sick and infirm oxen, some with -bandaged eyes, some with crippled legs, some wrapped up in blankets -and lying on straw beds. One huge, bloated, broken-down old bull in -the last stage of decrepitude and disease was a pitiable object -to behold. Then I noticed in other parts of the building singular -specimens of emaciated buffaloes, limping horses, mangy dogs, -apoplectic pigs, paralytic donkeys, featherless vultures, melancholy -monkeys, comatose tortoises, besides a strange medley of cats, rats -and mice, small birds, reptiles, and even insects, in every stage of -suffering and disease. In one corner a crane, with a kind of wooden -leg, appeared to have spirit enough left to strut in a stately manner -amongst a number of dolorous-looking ducks and depressed fowls. The -most spiteful animals seemed to be tamed by their sufferings and the -care they received. All were being tended, nursed, physicked, and fed, -as if it were a sacred duty to prolong the existence of every living -creature to the utmost possible limit. It is even said that men are -paid to sleep on dirty wooden beds in different parts of the building, -that the loathsome vermin with which they are infested may be supplied -with their nightly meal of human blood. - -Yet I observed on other occasions that both Jainas and Hind[=u]s are -sometimes very cruel to animals used for domestic purposes, believing -that the harshest treatment involves no sin provided it stops short of -destroying life. The following story, which I have paraphrased freely, -from the Jaina Kalpa-s[=u]tra (Stevenson, p. 11) may be taken as an -illustration:[17]-- - - "There was a certain Br[=a]hman in the city of Pushpavat[=i] - whose father and mother died. In process of time both parents - were born again in their own son's house, the father as - a bullock, the mother as a female dog. By-and-by the - S´r[=a]ddha, or festive-day for the worship of deceased - parents and forefathers, came round. In the morning the son - set the bullock to labour hard, that a supply of rice and milk - might be ready for the priests invited to the festival. When - they were about to begin eating, the female dog, in which was - the mother's soul, seeing something poisonous fall into the - milk, snatched it away with her mouth. Upon that her son, not - understanding the dog's action, flew into a passion and almost - broke her back with a stick. In the evening the bullock was - tied up in a cowhouse, but no food given to him after his - day's toil. Both animals had become conscious of their - previous state of existence, and the bullock, looking at the - female dog, exclaimed, 'Alas! what have we both suffered this - day through the cruelty of our wicked son!'" - -As to the other precepts of the Jaina moral code, it is noteworthy -that the practice of confessing sins to a priestly order of men -probably existed in full force among the Jainas long before its -introduction into the Christian system. A pious Jaina ought to confess -at least once a year, or if his conscience happens to be burdened by -the weight of any recent crime--such, for example, as the accidental -killing of a noxious insect--he is bound to betake himself to the -confessional without delay. The stated observance of this duty is -called Pratikramana, because on a particular day the penitent repairs -solemnly to a priestly Yati, who hears his confession, pronounces -absolution, and imposes a penance. - -The penances inflicted generally consist of various kinds of fasting; -but it must be observed that fasting is with Jainas a duty incumbent -on all. It is a duty only second to that of not killing. Fasting -(_upav[=a]sa_) is also practised by Hind[=u]s and Buddhists, and held -to be a most effective means of accumulating religious merit. Orthodox -Hind[=u]s fast twice a month, on the eleventh day of each fortnight, -as well as on the birthday of Krishna (_Janm[=a]shtam[=i]_), and the -night sacred to S´iva (_S´iva-r[=a]tri_). On some fast days fruits may -be eaten, but no cooked food of any kind. - -With Buddhists and Jainas the season of fasting, religious meditation, -and recitation of sacred texts, far outdoes our Lenten period. The -Buddhists in some parts of the world call their fasting season Wasso -(corrupted from the Sanskrit _Upav[=a]sa_). That of the Jainas is -called Pajj[=u]san or Pachch[=u]san (for Sanskrit _Paryushana_). The -S´vet[=a]mbara Jainas fast for the fifty days preceding the fifth of -the month Bh[=a]dra, the Dig-ambaras for the seventy following days. -In both cases the Pajj[=u]san corresponds generally to the rainy -season or its close. Possibly the practice of fasting during that -period may be intended as an expiation for the supposed guilt incurred -by the unintentional destruction of damp-engendered insects. - -In regard to the duty of worshipping images, this also, like the last -duty, is incumbent on all. But it is worthy of remark that images were -at first only used as memorials or as simple decorations, in places -consecrated to pure forms of worship. Idolatry has always been a later -innovation. It has never belonged to the original constitution of any -religious system. One or two differences between Hind[=u], Buddha, and -Jaina images should be noted. Hind[=u] images (excepting that of the -ascetic form of S´iva) are often profusely decorated, while Buddha and -Jaina idols are always left unadorned, though sometimes cut out of -the finest marble, and often having a nimbus[18] round their heads. -Twenty-two of the Jina images, as well as the seven Buddhas, are -represented with a coarse garment thrown over the left shoulder, the -other shoulder being bare. Those of the first and last Jinas (Rishabha -and Mah[=a]v[=i]ra) are completely nude; and Jina images, like some -of those of the Buddha, are often erect. Moreover, the idols of the -Buddha Gautama represent him in four principal attitudes. He is -(1) seated in deep contemplation; or (2) is seated while engaged in -teaching, with the tip of the forefinger of one hand applied to the -fingers of the other hand; or (3) he is a mendicant ascetic in a -standing posture; or (4) he is recumbent just before his decease. In -the first or contemplative attitude, he is indifferent to everything -except intense concentration of thought on the problem of perfect -knowledge. According to others, he is supposed to be thinking of -nothing, or, if that is impossible, his thoughts are concentrated on -the tip of his nose, till he does not even think of that. Or there may -be a modification of this meditative attitude, in which his mind is -apparently engaged in ecstatic contemplation of the short distance -which still separates him from the goal of annihilation. The first -contemplative attitude is by far the commonest. The sage is seen -seated (generally on a full-blown lotus) with his legs folded under -him, the left palm supinate on his lap, and the right hand extended -over the right leg. He has pendulous ears, curly hair, and a top-knot -on the crown of his head. His garment is thrown gracefully over -the left shoulder, leaving the right bare. The modification of this -attitude, representing the sage in ecstatic contemplation, has both -the palms resting one above the other on the lap, and occasionally -holding a circular object, the meaning of which is not well -ascertained. In the second or teaching attitude, the great teacher is -supposed to be marking off the points of his discourse, or emphasizing -them on his fingers. This attitude expresses an important peculiarity, -already pointed out, as distinguishing Buddhism from Jainism--namely, -that it lays more stress than Jainism on the acquisition and imparting -of knowledge. I have never seen a Jina image in a teaching attitude. -The recumbent attitude of Buddha is supposed to represent him in the -act of dying, and attaining Nirv[=a]na. Pious Buddhists regard -this supreme moment in the life of their great leader with as much -reverence as Christians regard the death of Christ on the cross. -Through the kindness of Sir William Gregory, I was taken to see -a colossal recumbent statue of the Buddha, at least thirty feet -long,[19] in the celebrated temple of Kelani, not far from Columbo, -in Ceylon. The image appeared to be highly venerated by numerous -worshippers, who presented offerings at the shrine. On each side were -colossal images of attendants and doorkeepers (_dv[=a]ra-p[=a]la_), -and in other parts of the temple figures of Buddha's demon enemies, -besides idols of the Hind[=u] deities, Vishnu, S´iva, and Ganes´a. -All around the walls of the temple were fresco representations -of incidents in the life of the Buddha. A huge bell-shaped Dagoba -(_Dh[=a]tu-garbha_), of massive masonry, covered with chunam, was in -the garden, on the right side of the temple. It doubtless enshrined -ashes or relics of great sanctity. But in all these Dagobas there is -no passage to any interior chamber: whatever relics they contain have -been bricked up for centuries, and no record is preserved of their -history or nature. On the left of the temple were the residences of -the high priests and monks, in a well-kept garden overshadowed by -an immense P[=i]pal tree, supposed to represent the sacred tree of -knowledge. Both Buddha and Jina images have always certain objects -or symbols (_chihna_) connected with them. Those of the Buddha are -generally associated with the tree of knowledge, or a hooded serpent, -or a wheel, or a deer.[20] The seventh T[=i]rthan-kara of the Jainas -is specially associated with the Svastika cross--an auspicious symbol -common to Hind[=u]ism, Buddhism, and Jainism. Worshippers in Buddhist -and Jaina temples may be seen arranging their offerings in the form of -this symbol, which is shaped like a Greek cross, with the end of each -of the four arms bent round in the same direction. The question as to -the origin of the emblem has called forth many learned dissertations -from various scholars and archæologists. For my own part, I am -inclined to regard it as a mere rude representation of the four arms -of Lakshm[=i], goddess of good fortune, the bent extremities of the -arms denoting her four hands. - -With regard to the adoration of relics, one or two points of -difference between the systems may be pointed out. The Hind[=u]s -wholly object to the Buddhist practice of preserving and worshipping -the ashes, hair, or teeth of their departed saints. I remarked in -the course of my travels that articles of clothing, especially wooden -shoes and cloth slippers, used by holy men during life, are sometimes -preserved by the Hind[=u]s in sacred shrines, and held in veneration. -They must, of course, be removed from the person before actual death -has supervened; for it is well known that in the minds of Hind[=u]s -an idea of impurity is always inseparable from death. Contamination is -supposed to result from contact with the corpses of even their dearest -relatives. The mortal frame is not held in veneration as it was by -the ancient Egyptians, and as it generally is in Christian countries. -Every part of a dead body ought to be got rid of as soon as possible. -Hence, it is burnt very soon after death, and the ashes scattered on -the surface of sacred rivers or on the sea. Nevertheless, the bodies -of great ascetics are exempted from this rule. They are generally -buried, not burnt; not, however, because the mere corporeal frame is -held in greater veneration, but because the most eminent saints are -supposed to lie undecomposed in a kind of trance, resulting from the -intense ecstatic meditation (_sam[=a]dhi_) to which during life they -were devoted. In former days great ascetics were not unfrequently -buried alive, and that, too, with their own consent. A crowd of -admiring disciples was always ready to assist at the entombment, and -it might be said in excuse that the holy men really appeared to be -dead, though they were merely speechless, motionless, and senseless, -in a kind of meditative catalepsy. - -The Jainas hold views similar to those of the Hind[=u]s in regard to -the treatment of dead bodies. They never preserve the ashes of their -saints in St[=u]pas, Chaityas, or Dagobas, or worship them, as the -Buddhists do. - -In connection with this subject I may remark, that what may be called -"foot-worship" (_p[=a]duk[=a]-p[=u]j[=a]_), or the veneration of -footprints, seems to be common to Hind[=u]s, Buddhists, and Jainas. -Even during life, when a Hind[=u] wishes to show great respect for -a person of higher rank or position than himself, he reverentially -touches his feet. The idea seems to rest on a kind of _a fortiori_ -argument. If the feet, as the lowest members of the body, are treated -with honour, how much more is homage rendered to the whole man. -Children honour their parents in this manner. They never kiss the -faces of either father or mother. In some families, sons prostrate -themselves at their fathers' feet. The arms are crossed just above the -wrist, both feet are touched, and the hands raised to the forehead. - -The notion of honouring the feet as the highest possible act of homage -runs through the whole Hind[=u] system. Small shrines may often be -observed in different parts of India, sometimes dedicated to holy men, -sometimes to Sat[=i]s, or faithful wives who have burnt themselves -with their husbands. They appear to be quite empty. On closer -inspection two footprints may be detected on a little raised altar -made of stone. These are called P[=a]duk[=a], "shoes," but are really -the supposed impression of the soles of the feet. In the same way, the -wooden clog of the god Brahm[=a] is worshipped at a particular shrine -somewhere in Central India, and we know that the footprint of both -Buddha and Vishnu at Gay[=a], and that of Buddha at Adam's Peak, are -objects of adoration to millions. - -Analogous ideas and practices prevail in Roman Catholic countries. -There is a wooden image of Christ on the cross in a church at Vienna, -which is so venerated that, although it is a little elevated, some -worshippers stand on tiptoe to kiss its feet, while others touch its -feet with their fingers, and then raise their fingers to their mouths. -Similarly, at Munich, in Bavaria, numbers of worshippers may be seen -kissing the feet of an image of the Virgin Mary, and most travellers -can testify that images of St. Peter, not to mention the living -representative of St. Peter, are treated in a similar manner. - -Nothing, however, comes up to the veneration of footprints among -Jainas. I visited the magnificent temple erected by H[=a]thi-Singh at -Ahmedabad, as well as the underground shrine dedicated to [=A]dinath, -and another great Jaina temple at Kaira. The first consists of a large -quadrangle, approached by a beautifully carved marble gateway. The -principal shrine is in the centre. All around the quadrangle is a -kind of cloister, in which are about thirty subordinate shrines, each -containing the image of a particular Jina or T[=i]rthan-kara. All the -images appeared to me to be of one type, and to resemble those of -the contemplative (Dhy[=a]n[=i]) Buddha. All are carved out of fine -marble, generally of a light colour, and all represent the ascetic, -in his sitting posture, wrapped in profound meditation, indifferent -to all external phenomena--calm, serene, and imperturbable. The -attendants of the temple were either very ignorant or very unwilling -to impart information. No one could tell me whether all the -twenty-four Jinas had a place in the shrines. One image of perfectly -black marble was described to me as that of P[=a]rs´van[=a]th. - -The other temples were not very remarkable, except as affording good -illustrations of "foot-worship." In one shrine I saw 1880 footprints -of Nemi-n[=a]th's disciples. In another, 1452 footsteps of the -disciples of Rishabha. They were covered with offerings of grain and -money. All the names of these holy disciples are given in the Jaina -sacred works, and it may be remarked that the disciples of Jinas, -however celebrated, are never represented by images. That privilege is -reserved for the twenty-four supreme Jinas themselves. I noticed that -many Hind[=u] idols were placed outside the shrines. - -Certainly Jainism, when regarded from the stand-point of a Christian -observer, is the coldest of all religions, if, indeed, it deserves -to be called a religion at all. Yet the number of temples in certain -centres of Jainism far exceeds the number of churches and chapels in -the most religious Christian districts. Every Jaina who lays claim to -an excess of piety or zeal builds a temple of his own. It never enters -into his head to repair the temples of other religious people. At -P[=a]lit[=a]na, in K[=a]thi[=a]w[=a]r, there is a whole city of Jaina -temples, some new, others decaying, and others quite dilapidated. It -is by no means necessary or usual that every temple should possess -either priests or worshippers. I can certify that I saw fewer -worshippers even in the most celebrated Jaina temples than in any of -the Buddhist temples at Columbo or Kandy. Those who came contented -themselves with bowing down before the idols, and placing flowers or -grains of rice and corn on the footprints of the saints. - -The Yatis have a kind of liturgy, partly in Sanskrit, partly in the -Jaina form of M[=a]gadh[=i] Pr[=a]krit, partly in a kind of archaic -Gujar[=a]t[=i]. No real prayers are offered, but stories of the -twenty-four Jinas and their disciples are recited, with singing and -an accompaniment of noisy instrumental music and beating of cymbals. -Religious festivals and processions are also common. I witnessed one -in the town of Kaira, on the anniversary of the death of a celebrated -Yati. An immense multitude of men and women paraded the streets, -preceded by a very demonstrative band of musicians. In the centre -was an apparently empty palanquin, borne by six men. It contained the -supposed footprints of the deceased Yati in whose honour the festival -was held. - -A few short extracts from the Kalpa-s[=u]tra (Stevenson, p. 103) will -give some idea of the rules of discipline by which the lives of the -Yatis are required to be regulated, as follow:-- - - "Self-restraint is to be exercised by each man individually. - Self-control is the chief of all religious exercises. If a - quarrel arise, mutual forgiveness is to be asked. Three daily - cleansings are enjoined, morning, mid-day, and evening. A - period of rest and fasting is to be observed yearly in the - four months of the rainy season. During this period, male - and female ascetics should by no means partake of rice, - milk, curds, fresh butter, melted butter, oil, sugar, honey, - spirits, and flesh. They must never use any angry or provoking - language, on pain of being expelled from the community. - Ascetics must carefully avoid contact with minute insects, - small animals, small seeds, small flowers, small vegetables, - &c. No ascetic must do anything whatever, or go out for any - purpose whatever, without first asking permission of the - Superior of the Convent. The head must be shaved, or the hair - constantly clipped. No ascetic must wear hair longer than that - which covers a cow." - -With regard to the last injunction, it may be mentioned that the -ceremony of initiation (_d[=i]ksh[=a]_) usually takes place at the -age of twelve or thirteen, and that part of the rite once consisted in -forcibly pulling out every hair of the head (_kes´a-lunchana_). In the -present day ashes are applied, and a few hairs torn out by the roots -before the scissors are used. - -It remains to state that the Jainas of the present period are leaning -more and more towards Hind[=u] ideas and practices. They have their -purificatory rites (_sansk[=a]ras_), and a modified caste system. -Not unfrequently Br[=a]hman priests are invited to take part in -their marriage ceremonies. Indeed, it is by no means uncommon for -intermarriages to take place between lay Jainas (_s´r[=a]vakas_) and -lay Vaishnavas, especially in cases when both belong to the Baniya or -merchant caste. - -In short, Jainism, like Buddhism, is gradually drifting into the -current of Hind[=u]ism which everywhere surrounds it, and, like -every other offshoot from that system, is destined in the end to be -reabsorbed into its source. - -I must reserve the subject of the Indo-Zoroastrian creed, and modern -P[=a]rs[=i] religious usages, for treatment in my next paper. - - MONIER WILLIAMS. - - [Footnote 1: If an orthodox Br[=a]hman is asked to describe - his religion, he calls it [=A]rya-dharma, that is, the system - of doctrines and duties held and practised by the [=A]ryas. He - never thinks of calling it by the name of any special founder - or leader. Be it noted, however, that Dharma implies more than - a mere religious creed. It is a far more comprehensive term - than our word "religion."] - - [Footnote 2: In many images of the Buddha he is represented - with the sacred thread over the left shoulder and under the - right arm, according to orthodox Br[=a]hmanical usage.] - - [Footnote 3: Since the Buddha became absolutely extinct, and - since his system recognised no Supreme Soul of the Universe, - there remained nothing for his followers to venerate except - his memory. The mass of his converts, however, did not long - rest satisfied with enshrining him in their minds. First they - made pilgrimages to the Bodhi-tree, or "Tree of Knowledge," - at Gay[=a], under which their great teacher obtained supreme - wisdom. There they erected tumuli, or graves (variously - called dagobas, chaityas, and st[=u]pas), over his relics, and - worshipped, these. Then adoration was paid to his foot-prints, - and to the wheel or symbol of the Buddhist law. Finally, - images of his person in different attitudes (to be described - subsequently) were multiplied everywhere. Temples, at first, - were unknown. There were rooms, or places of meeting, for - Buddhist congregations to hear preaching; but it was not till - a later period that these were used to enshrine images and - relics. A vast period of development separates the original - Sangha-griha from such a temple as that erected over the - eye-tooth of Buddha, at Kandy, in Ceylon, which is a costly - edifice, containing images and a library, as well as the - far-famed relic shrine behind thick iron bars.] - - [Footnote 3: The expression, Jainism, corresponds to - Vaishnavism and S´aivism just as the term Jaina does to - Vaishnava or S´aiva. Of course consistency would require - the substitution of Bauddhism and Bauddha for Buddhism and - Buddhist, but I fear the latter expressions are too firmly - established to admit of alteration.] - - [Footnote 4: There is one place in India where the growth of - Vaishnavism out of Buddhism, and their near relationship, are - conspicuously demonstrated. I mean Buddha-gay[=a], with the - neighbouring Vishnu temple of the city of Gay[=a].] - - [Footnote 5: In the Caves of Ellora, Br[=a]hmanism, Buddhism, - and Jainism, may be seen in juxtaposition, proving that at - one period, at least, they existed together, and were mutually - tolerant of each other.] - - [Footnote 6: Their names at full are:--1. Rishabha; 2. Ajita; - 3. Sambhava; 4. Abhinandana; 5. Sumati; 6. Padma-prabha; - 7. Sup[=a]rs´va; 8. Chandra-prabha; 9. Pushpa-danta; 10. - S´[=i]tala; 11. S´reyas; 12. V[=a]sup[=u]jya; 13. Vimala; 14. - Ananta; 15. Dharma; 16. S´[=a]nti; 17. Kunthu; 18. Ara; - 19. Malli; 20. Suivrata; 21. Nimi; 22. Nemi; 23. - P[=a]rs´van[=a]tha; 24. Mah[=a]v[=i]ra, or Vardham[=a]na. The - first of these lived 8,400,000 years, and attained a stature - equal to 500 bows' length. The age and stature of the second - was something less. The twenty-third lived a hundred years, - and was little taller than an ordinary man. The twenty-fourth - lived only forty years, and was formed like a man of the - present day. The Buddhists hold that their Buddha Gautama was - much above the usual height.] - - [Footnote 7: When Buddhism merged in Vaishnavism, its symbol - of a wheel (_chakra_) was adopted by the worshippers of - Vishnu.] - - [Footnote 8: The word T[=i]rtha may mean a sacred ford or - crossing-place on the bank of a river, or it may mean a holy - man or teacher.] - - [Footnote 9: This is by some interpreted to mean--Reverence to - the creative energy inherent in the universe.] - - [Footnote 10: The actual colour of an ascetic's dress is a - kind of yellowish-pink, or salmon colour. Pure white is not - much used by the Hind[=u]s, except as a mark of mourning, when - it takes the place of black with us.] - - [Footnote 11: There is also a very low, insignificant, and - intensely atheistical sect of Jainas called Dhundhias. They - are much despised by the Hind[=u]s, and even by the more - orthodox Jainas]. - - [Footnote 12: This term, as well as Up[=a]saka, is also used - to designate the Buddhist laity.] - - [Footnote 13: From the Sanskrit root, _yam_, to restrain. The - Buddhists call their monks S´ramanas; from the root _S´ram_, - "men who work hard at austerities," or Bhikshus, "mendicant - friars." Their laymen are S´r[=a]vakas, like the Jaina laymen, - but are also called Up[=a]sakas.] - - [Footnote 14: Also written Ap[=a]s´raya.] - - [Footnote 15: When so attired they may be called - P[=i]t[=a]mbaras, or Kash[=a]y[=a]mbaras, though they belong - to the S´vet[=a]mbara, or white-clothed party.] - - [Footnote 16: Dr. Stevenson conjectures that As´oka's famous - edicts were similar proclamations, embodying all the commands - and prohibitions of Buddhism and Jainism, engraved on stone to - secure their permanence.] - - [Footnote 17: It is doubtless intended as a Jaina satire on - the worship of deceased parents and ancestors enjoined by - the Br[=a]hmanical system, and commonly practised by true - Hind[=u]s.] - - [Footnote 18: The idea of encircling the heads of saints - with a disc of light probably existed in India long before - Christianity.] - - [Footnote 19: Buddhists believe that the stature of the - Buddha far exceeded that of ordinary men. Muslims have similar - legends about the stature of Moses.] - - [Footnote 20: There is a legend that the Buddha taught first - in a deer-park near Benares.] - - - - -LORD BEACONSFIELD. - -I.--WHY WE FOLLOW HIM. - - -A writer in the last number of this REVIEW, when giving a portraiture -of Mr. Gladstone, pointed out that that right honourable gentleman was -a bundle of persons rather than one. It will not, I hope, be thought -a very gross plagiarism if I say that Lord Beaconsfield's fame may be -divided into four or five distinct reputations, any one of which, -in the case of a smaller man, would be thought enough for enduring -celebrity. If Mr. Disraeli had never succeeded in making his way into -Parliament, he would still, without needing to add another volume to -the books he has written, have had to be taken account of as one of -our foremost men of letters. Supposing that, having entered the House -of Commons, he had not attained office, he would yet have always been -remembered as the keenest Parliamentary debater of his time. If his -public life had ended in 1852--that is, more than a quarter of a -century ago--without his having become a Minister, he would have stood -recorded as the most skilful leader of an Opposition which our history -has known. Had he never passed a measure through Parliament, he -must have been referred to by all political thinkers as a strikingly -original critic of our Constitution. Such trifles as that, being -born in the days of dandyism, he ranked among the leaders of fashion -directly after he was out of his teens, and that he has been a leading -social wit his whole life through, may be thrown in without counting. -But add the above items together, and fill in the necessary details, -and what a startling result we have! - -It is very obvious that I cannot here trace Lord Beaconsfield's career -in detail. The chronicle is much too rich for that. The better plan -will be to make the subject group itself around three or four chief -topics--say these: His public consistency; his personal relations with -Peel and other leaders; his political and social views regarded as a -system; and his recent foreign policy. - -A single paragraph may, however, be interposed, just to bring the -principal dates together in a way of prospective summary. Within four -years' time from his entering the House of Commons, which, after vain -attempts at High Wycombe, Marylebone, and Taunton, he did in 1837 -for the borough of Maidstone, Mr. Disraeli was at the head of a -party--"The New England Party." The group, if not very numerous, drew -as much public attention as if it had been of any size we like to -name. Lord John Manners and Mr. G. S. Smythe had the generosity of -heart and the keenness of insight to be the first won over by him, and -that against the prejudices of their families. Who has not heard of -their courageous pilgrimage to the Manchester Athenæum to explain to -Cottonopolis how they proposed to re-make the nation? Then came -the "Young England" novels, with which all Europe was shortly -ringing--"Coningsby" in 1844, "Sybil" in 1845, "Tancred" in 1847. In -the meantime Mr. Disraeli had associated himself heart and soul with -Lord George Bentinck, attacked Peel, and done far more than any other -in reorganizing the shattered Conservative party within the House as -well as outside it. By the last-named year, too, Mr. Disraeli had, -after a voluntary exchanging of Maidstone for Shrewsbury, become -member for Buckinghamshire, a seat which he was to keep so long as he -remained in the House of Commons. Suddenly Lord George Bentinck died -(much too early for his country), and very soon after that event, -owing to the generous standing aside of Lord Granby and Mr. Herries, -Mr. Disraeli, within a dozen years of his first entry into Parliament, -stood forth as the recognized leader of the Conservatives. The -publication of the famous Biography of Lord George Bentinck was at -once his noble tribute to the memory of his friend and a valuable help -to the party. Five years later, when Lord Russell fell and the first -Derby Administration was formed, Mr. Disraeli--never having held an -inferior post--became Chancellor of the Exchequer. Shortly followed -Lord Palmerston's triumphant reign, to be succeeded, after a further -resignation of Lord Russell, by the second Derby Ministry, in which -Mr. Disraeli, once more Chancellor of the Exchequer, found time, in -addition to his Budget-making, to dish the Whigs by a final Reform -Bill. By-and-by the nation lost the Earl of Derby, and the last -promotion of official dignity fell naturally to Mr. Disraeli, -who became Prime Minister of England. Mr. Gladstone succeeded in -preventing the Cabinet from having a very long life, and Mr. Disraeli -kept mental self-composure enough, after losing office, to sit down -and write "Lothair." By-and-by his political turn again came: 1874 saw -him Premier for the second time, and this present year of grace still -beholds him in the post, only in the Upper House, instead of the -Lower, as Lord Beaconsfield, and with a Parliamentary majority -scarcely diminished by five years of an imperial rule which brings -back memories of England's most majestic days. He has visited Berlin, -and more than held his own in a Council of the greatest modern -diplomatists; has received a welcome back in London city such as no -living Minister can boast; and has had the high honour of entertaining -his Queen as a guest under his own roof. - -Now I may go back to the first of the texts I have chosen. - -It is certain that Lord Beaconsfield has always most tenaciously -insisted that he has from first to last been politically consistent. -His opponents, for very good reasons of their own, have unceasingly -affirmed that this assertion is his chiefest, in fact his culminating -audacity. But all the facts favour Lord Beaconsfield's view. In the -first place, he has never held office but on one side, and he is the -only Prime Minister during the last half century who could plead that -circumstance. Earl Russell could not say it; certainly Lord Palmerston -could not; it is quite out of Mr. Gladstone's power to urge it; even -the late Earl of Derby could not make the claim. Next, it is now about -thirty-two years since Mr. Disraeli was formally recognized as the -leader of the Tory party, and he is still at the head of them, without -their confidence having been for a moment shaken or withdrawn. Men, -in fact, have been born and have grown up to middle life with Mr. -Disraeli all the time remaining at the head of the Conservatives. His -inconsistency during at least this somewhat lengthened period must -have been of a strange kind, since it has always coincided with the -wishes and the interests of his party, for he has never split them, -and he has thrice led them into power, But we may go ten years further -back than the dates we have named. From first to last, he never sat -in Parliament but as an avowedly Tory member for a Tory constituency; -during nearly thirty years he sat for one and the same county. If you -sift what his enemies, have to say, you will find that it refers to -something which took place about forty-five years ago, and is to the -effect that he was for five minutes a member of the Westminster -Reform Club, and was willing in his first candidatures to accept -the assistance of Mr. Hume or of any other of the Radicals. Lord -Beaconsfield has the plainest and, as I think, the most sufficient -explanation to give of it all. - -He says that he came forward at High Wycombe and afterwards offered -himself to Marylebone as an opponent of the Whigs, determining to do -all he could to bring the Tories into better accord with the masses -of the people by re-establishing the natural social bonds between the -latter and the aristocracy. Certainly, this is exactly what he has -done; it is what he openly said that he aimed at doing from the -very beginning. Moreover, the Tories so understood it from the first -moment. They gave him their support at High Wycombe before he went to -Taunton, and political support cannot be kept very secret. His name -was a popular toast at agricultural banquets, and he was sure of -a welcome at any muster of the Conservatives. Supposing that the -Radicals had not had penetration enough to comprehend the position he -took up, who would have been to blame for that? But the fact is that -it has suited them to pretend in this case to be more stupid than -they were. No Radical constituency ever elected Mr. Disraeli. The -newspapers of the party never spoke of him as one of their sort; and -Messrs. Hume and O'Connell were in a great hurry to withdraw their -letters of recommendation, which had reached the candidate unsought. -It is not denied by Lord Beaconsfield's most rabid defamer that he -presented himself as an Anti-Whig, and it is admitted that long before -he was in the House he was a supporter in public of Lord Chandos, -and a eulogist of Sir Robert Peel. In his address to the Marylebone -electors he described himself as an Independent. But it is really -hardly worth while to discuss Mr. Disraeli's politics on this narrow -basis. - -The case may be put into a nutshell thus: if he had postponed seeking -a seat till he went to Taunton, which was in 1835--that is to say -forty-four years ago--no one would have been able to say, even in -a way of cavil, that he had been ever any other than a most openly -understood Tory. It is true that the Radicals would still have been -able to complain that he had been bold enough to pass a Reform Bill -giving household suffrage in the towns, and so spoiled once for all -their party tactics. But that is an allegation of inconsistency which -his Conservative supporters whom it has placed in office need not -be very anxious to defend him against. The other side had made the -question of Reform cease to be one of fair politics; Parliament after -Parliament they were trading upon it in the most huckstering spirit. -Mr. Disraeli's own first narrower proposals were scoffed at by them. -The Bill that was finally passed was avowedly a piece of party tactic, -and admirably it answered its end. Of course, since it succeeded so -well, Lord Beaconsfield's rivals will never forgive him for it. - -However, a more rational use of my space will be to ask at what stage -of his career Mr. Disraeli developed the leading political principles -which came to be recognized as characteristically his? That is the -only mode in which it is worth while to discuss a man's consistency. -Lord Beaconsfield has himself done it all in the preface to "Lothair," -but I may recall a few details. In the very first election address -he ever issued, he styled the Whigs "a rapacious, tyrannical, and -incapable faction." That may be taken, one would suppose, as pretty -clearly marking his point of political departure. At his second -candidature for Wycombe, he quoted Bolingbroke and Windham as his -models; and it was as far back as 1835, in his "Vindication of the -English Constitution," that he first applied the term "Venetian" -to our Constitution, as the Whigs had transformed it. The very -peculiarities of theoretical opinion which are most individually his, -can be traced back into what in respect of a living man's career might -almost be termed antiquity--it is something like two-thirds of half -a century ago since he first spoke of the "Asian Mystery." Nobody's -sayings live as Mr. Disraeli's have done. The truth is, that so far -from his political system having been hatched piecemeal in a way of -after-thought to serve exigencies of personal ambition, he started -with it ready made. His critics themselves unknowingly admit this in -one part of their clumsy strictures, since they can find events so -very recent as his naming of the Queen Empress of India, and his -appropriation of Cyprus, sketched in his early novels. But let me take -the very latest arraignment to which he has been summoned to plead -guilty--that of having invented "Imperialism" just to bolster himself -in office. As far back as 1849, which now is exactly thirty years ago, -in one of his greatest speeches after having fairly settled down as -the leader of his party, he used these words:--"I would sooner my -tongue should palsy than counsel the people of England to lower their -tone. I would sooner leave this House for ever than I would say to the -nation that it has overrated its position.... I believe in the people -of England and in their destiny." In his last Premiership he has -simply put those thirty-year-old utterances into practice. If he -had not done all he has done, he would have been false to the heroic -spirit of that far-back hour. On the hustings at Maidstone Mr. -Disraeli said, "If there is one thing on which I pique myself, it is -my consistency." Lord Beaconsfield in advancing age may repeat the -statement without varying it a syllable, though more than forty years -have elapsed between the times. - -The Peel-Disraeli episode has been for a long time now the chief -standard illustration of the political casuistry of our modern -Parliamentary history. Mr. Disraeli, those opposed to him will have -it, acted most cruelly in that matter. It is rather a curious thing -for a young member of Parliament to succeed in being cruel to the -most powerful Minister the House of Commons had seen for more than a -generation. If a giant is overthrown it must be rather the fault -of the colossus somehow, unless, that is, it be a bigger giant who -attacks him; and at that time of day, though Mr. Disraeli was growing -fast, he really was not yet of the same towering height as Peel. How -was it, then, that he succeeded in toppling over the great Minister? -Let me first of all say that the truth seems to be that Sir Robert -Peel's unlooked-for tragic death has given to his memory a pathetic -interest which has caused an unfair heightening of emotion in the -case. Neither all England, nor even the bulk of Parliament, was in -tears, busy with pocket-handkerchiefs, during the delivery of those -famous philippics. If pocket-handkerchiefs were used it was to wipe -away drops caused by laughter, for everybody was roaring from moment -to moment as each stroke told. Peel had taken up a position in -reference to his old supporters which was certain to entail attack; -the only thing special that Mr. Disraeli contributed to the assault -was the splendour of the wit which barbed it. Everything that he said -of Peel, allowing fairly for controversial exigencies, was strictly -true. Nobody wishes to revive those necessarily hard sayings now, -but it must be insisted upon for a second, in passing, that Peel had -treated his party as no Minister before him had ever done. It was the -exactest verity, as well as the keenest sarcasm, when Mr. Disraeli -charged him with having tried to steer his party right into the -harbour of the enemy. Mr. Disraeli was the man to feel this most of -any, for it is one of his leading principles that as this nation now -exists party in our constitution is an apparatus absolutely necessary -to be preserved. He has for a third of a century since then himself -unfailingly worked by that rule. But I scarcely need urge this part -of the matter further here, as another word bearing upon it will come -later. If Peel had lived on, he and his attacker would before the end -have come to terms amicably enough, as Mr. Disraeli has since done -with everybody else whom he has, from obligations of political duty, -had publicly to oppose. That is, unless they were stupid enough not -to remember his known determination that Parliamentary life should be -raised above the level of vestry proceedings, by being dignified by -a play of wit; or else were ill-conditioned enough, as some who have -held high place have been, not to meet his offered open palm when the -weapon was put back into the sheath. Peel himself would have had more -sense; so, too, the present bearer of his name has shown himself -to have. The rather idle statement that the Disraelian assault was -prompted out of spite at not being made an Under-Secretary may at -this time of day be, perhaps, passed over. Mr. Disraeli spoke with and -voted for Peel long after that supposed neglect, and though it may be -said that a spiteful man could nurse his revenge, it is just as true -that the most generous could have done nothing more than go on showing -respect and giving support just as Mr. Disraeli did. Further, no one -was prompter than he was with words of praise so soon as there -was opportunity for them. Indeed, the finest eulogy of Peel stands -recorded in the printed pages of the person who is charged with -pursuing him with unheard-of bitterness. The man who waited for office -till the day when he vaulted at once into the Chancellorship of the -Exchequer, was scarcely the one to be mightily offended, because, when -a first batch of appointments was distributed, an Under-Secretaryship -went by him. It was the leadership of his party for wise ends that Mr. -Disraeli was looking out for. - -Here again, however, it is unnecessarily restricting the consideration -of the point to speak of Mr. Disraeli's invective only in reference to -Peel. Acting on his maxim that it is the very ornament of debate, he -at one time or other has let the lightning of his tongue play around -everybody in Parliament who offered fit mark for it. Lord Russell was -scorched by it; so was Lord Palmerston. Mr. Roebuck, who in those -days was thought to have a bitter lip, got singed from it; and Mr. -Gladstone has felt its blaze wrapping around him often. He is, at this -moment, in fact, supposed to be showing some not very ancient scars -from it. But, occasionally even Mr. Disraeli's friends felt a more -lambent play of this glorious irony. It was he who told the late Earl -Derby that he was only "a Prince Rupert of debate," always finding -his camp in the hands of the enemy on returning from his irresistible -charges. He never objected to receive as good as he gave, if only any -one could be found to give it him. Only once in all his career did he -lose his temper--in the challenge arising out of the O'Connell affair; -and that was before he was in Parliament. While in the House, who was -there with steel of any temper that he did not try its edge? Sharp -blows were aimed back, and he always admitted when it was a palpable -hit; but who came up so often as he did--who was there that did not go -down before him at the last? Take Mr. Disraeli and Lord Beaconsfield -out of the record of the Parliamentary debating of the last forty -years, and what a darkening it would give--what a gap it would make! - -Something must now be said as to Lord Beaconsfield's systematic -political and social views. It is very certain that he has a system, -and it is also sure that he has never hidden what it is. Nobody has -been at such pains to make his views clear. He has written books in -explanation, as well as made speeches; he has illustrated the system -by fiction, besides backing it up by historical disquisition. Anybody -who chooses may learn what it is, and--as a great modification of -political feeling in this country shows--a vast number have done so, -by reading "Coningsby," "Sybil," and the preface to "Lothair." Indeed, -from this latter exposition itself, all that is vital may be inferred. -But the doctrine has of necessity some elaborateness, and asks -a trifle of thought. It cannot be hit off in as easy a way as -"Radicalism" can, where, when you have uttered the half-platitude, -half-sophism, "equality of man," you are supposed to have said -nearly everything. Lord Beaconsfield has always kept before him the -conception of a _community_, which he distinguishes from a mob, and -if he could get his own way in the matter he would have the society -highly organized; the keeping it real in every part, and strictly and -broadly popular in its entirety, being the only working limit that he -would prescribe to its institutional intricacy. - -This system, though on its being gradually promulgated it was held to -be Mr. Disraeli's very own, expressly denies for itself that it is in -any sense Disraelian at all. Lord Beaconsfield avows that he has found -it in history--in our own history. He is content to be regarded as -its discoverer, not its inventor. In a word, Lord Beaconsfield's great -claim upon his countrymen, as he himself puts it, is that he has again -brought to light and forced under the eyes of Englishmen their own -national chronicle. - -To begin with, it is his Lordship's firmly avowed belief that there -has been what may be called a break or rift in our great social -traditions. It is not difficult to see that he traces the causes of it -back to the violent subversal of the Church, which, he will have -it, was never in this country at any time in real danger of becoming -Papal. But I may take up the narrative somewhat later. With his own -inimitable terseness, he has thus described the three great evils -which afterwards made a social wreck of modern England: they were, he -says, Venetian politics, Dutch finance, and French wars. All these he -attributes to the Whig nobles. What is called the great Revolution, -which they so hugely turned to their glory and their profit, he, in -"Sybil," ascribes to the fear of those whom he calls "the great lay -impropriators" that King James intended to insist on the Church lands -being restored to their original purposes,--to wit, the education of -the people and the maintenance of the poor. They brought over William -of Orange, along with whom, he ironically says, England had the -happiness of receiving a Corn Law and the National Debt. But the Crown -itself was enslaved in the hands of the Whig families, who converted -themselves into a Venetian oligarchy; and, throwing off the natural -obligations of property, they borrowed money to defray the foreign -wars in which William was entangled before he left his own country. - -These are the historical premises from which Lord Beaconsfield's -views are all fundamentally derived. It is open to anybody to try to -disprove them; what they have got to do is simply to show that the -above alleged facts were not the true ones. But no one has done this -as yet. Coming down still later in his history, Mr. Disraeli, in -"Sybil," gave the following condensed description of the social -condition which had resulted,--"a mortgaged aristocracy, a gambling -foreign commerce, a home trade founded on a morbid competition, and a -degraded people." Here, again, the whole case is open to debate, but I -venture to think that he will be a bold man who denies that this was -a vivid picture of England at the moment Mr. Disraeli penned it. The -bold man, at any rate, did not present himself at the time. It was the -last item in that shocking list which fastened most on Mr. Disraeli's -imagination--"a degraded people." When writing "Sybil" he converted -himself into a Commissioner of Inquiry, and visiting the homes of -his humbler countrymen, painted them from sight on the spot. The -descriptions in those pages can never be forgotten of dwellings where -lived fever and consumption and ague as well as human beings; the -three first-named inhabitants being in fact the only tenants who -remained under the roofs long. With agitation unusual for him, but -most consistent in an upholder of the doctrine of race, he affirmed -that "the physical quality" of our people was endangered. But he -further found that in the manufacturing districts there was, to use -his own words, "no society, but only aggregation:" or, again to quote -him, "the moral condition of the people was entirely lost sight of." -Much of this, he believed, was due to the Church having failed in its -obligations. "The Church," he makes one of the characters in his story -say to another in it, "has deserted the people, and from that moment -the Church has been in danger, and the people degraded." - -At this point I may very rightly interpolate a remark which has not a -little explanatory value. Just in proportion to the importance -given in Lord Beaconsfield's system to the Church was his natural -disappointment at the failure, regarded from one side, of the -awakening going on within its borders at the time of the "Young -England" movement. A great part of his hopes rested on that stir. He -was expecting from those most prominent in it a grand resuscitation of -the Anglican Church, but in place of that he says Dr. (now -Cardinal) Newman and the other seceders "sought refuge in mediæval -superstitions, which are generally only the embodiment of pagan -ceremonies and creeds." Bearing this in mind, there ought not to be -much difficulty in understanding either Lord Beaconsfield's position -towards the Ritualists, or the course he took as to the Public Worship -Regulation Act. - -What was the remedy for this state of society into which England had -fallen? The cure which seemed natural to Mr. Disraeli was to revert to -the principles of our history. Practically, the first thing to be done -was to break up the political monopoly of the Whigs, and it was -this very task that he set himself to do. I have already extracted a -passage denouncing that party in the first election address he issued. -But here, too, he had no new course to strike out. He affirmed that -both Lord Shelburne and Mr. Pitt had attempted the same work long -before. Shelburne, he said, saw in the growing middle-class a bulwark -for the throne against the Revolution families; and Pitt, still -more determined to curb the power of the patrician party, created a -plebeian aristocracy, when they baffled his first endeavours, blending -it with the old oligarchy. It has not unlikely begun to dawn upon the -reader that Mr. Disraeli, holding these views, was himself a Reformer, -of a much more comprehensive kind even than the Radicals. True, Reform -as it actually had come about in 1832, most craftily manipulated as -it then was by the Whigs to their own advantage, skilfully snatching -profit out of what ought to have been a danger to them, was not his -notion. For part of what happened then he, indeed, with his usual -courage, blamed the Duke of Wellington and his colleagues. His own -party have had from no quarter criticism so severe as that he has -given them. If Lord Beaconsfield is in favour of an aristocracy, it -is because he is for making it actually "lead." He affirms that the -Tories, by their conduct in office, precipitated a revolution which -might have been delayed for half a century, and which need never have -occurred at all in so aggravated a form. All that he could do, all -that he has ever claimed to do, by his own partial Reform measure, was -to do away with part of the ill effects of that partisan move of the -other side, and to prevent fresh ill ones from being worked in just -the same way. But there ought to be given a still broader statement -of Lord Beaconsfield's political and social doctrines, and, perhaps, I -cannot do better than make with that view the following quotation from -the preface to "Lothair." He there explains that his general aims were -these:-- - - "To change back the oligarchy into a generous aristocracy - round a real throne; to infuse life and vigour into the Church - as the trainer of the nation, by the revival of Convocation, - then dumb, on a wide basis, and not, as has since been done, - in the shape of a priestly faction; to establish a commercial - code on the principles successfully negotiated by Lord - Bolingbroke at Utrecht, and which, though baffled at the - time by a Whig Parliament, were subsequently and triumphantly - vindicated by his political pupil and heir, Mr. Pitt; to - govern Ireland according to the policy of Charles I., and not - of Oliver Cromwell; to emancipate the political constituencies - of 1832 from sectarian bondage and contracted sympathies; to - elevate the physical as well the moral condition of the people - by establishing that labour required regulation as much as - property; and all this rather by the use of ancient forms - and the restoration of the past than by political revolution - founded on abstract ideas." - -This, he goes on to say, appeared to him at the beginning of his -career to be the course which the country required, and, he adds, that -it was one "which, practically speaking, could only with all -their faults and backslidings be undertaken and accomplished by a -reconstructed Tory party." - -If I were able to find room for bringing together from Lord -Beaconsfield's books and speeches detailed passages to illustrate this -summary, it would be seen what a coherent social scheme he has always -had present to his mind. The above hints, however, must serve. Any -one who, after reading them, thinks that there is any ground for the -electioneering cry the Liberals are trying to raise, that this is a -Minister who has no domestic policy, will show more stolidity than we -hope the bulk of the electors possess. Further on I will return for a -moment to this point. - -Let me go at once to the fourth topic I have allotted to myself--Lord -Beaconsfield's foreign policy. This policy, I need not say, is that, -of the Cabinet as well, but I am not in this paper writing of the -other members of the Government. It is not my purpose to trace the -history of the Eastern Question, that of the Afghan War, and the Zulu -embroglio. But there is one general aspect of these matters as to -which I must offer two or three comments in addition to what has been -before said about "Imperialism." A set attempt has been made, and is -pretty certain to go on being made all the time between now and the -elections--whether they come earlier or later--and to be then finally -repeated on the hustings, to give to Lord Beaconsfield the air of a -most belligerent, not to say a bloodthirsty, Minister, who, the moment -he got into office, began to peep about the world to see where he -could pick a quarrel, and who has especially acted defiantly towards -Russia. By way of preliminary, I may ask whether his past antecedents -show him to be a statesman of this hobgoblin type? Lord Palmerston -found no more unyielding opponent of his turbulent foreign policy than -Mr. Disraeli, who always contended that the effect of it was to draw -the national attention away from home reforms. When the question of -coast fortifications was before Parliament, Mr. Disraeli was among -the first to protest against panic; he it was who spoke of "bloated -armaments;" and on countless occasions he has raised his voice for -peace and retrenchment. In 1865 he publicly declared that since he -had had to do with politics he had known only one war which was -justifiable--that waged in the Crimea. But it may be said that it is -a common artifice for men in Opposition to preach peace. Let us, then, -turn specially to the Eastern Question, and see what grounds there are -for insinuating that Lord Beaconsfield has in that case concocted a -war policy for the purpose of exciting and dazzling the country, and -keeping himself in power. In 1843--which is now some time ago--in a -debate as to the production of papers on Servia, in which Sir Robert -Peel and Lord Palmerston were the chief orators, he made a speech -which contained this passage:--"What, then, ought to be the -Ministerial policy? To maintain Turkey by diplomatic action in such a -state that she might be able to hold independently the Dardanelles." -Why, this is the literal description of what he has done now. And we -have already seen that in 1865, twenty-two years after, the one only -war he approved was that which had been fought against Russia for this -very purpose. In the early stage of the negotiations which led to that -war, his complaint was that the Government was not vigorous enough -in defending Turkey. But, in 1857, there arose another occasion for -testing whether Mr. Disraeli's feelings naturally were for peace -or war. He opposed the war with China, and in the Persian affair he -denounced the Russophobia of Lord Palmerston--the very complaint from -which, we infer, the Liberals wish him to be understood to be himself -suffering now. Or take India as a test. According to the Duke of -Argyll and others, Lord Beaconsfield has an insatiable thirst for more -territory in that part of the world. Very strangely, it was he who -most condemned the annexation of Oude, going so far as to make a -motion for a Royal Commission to be sent out to India to inquire into -the condition of the people. When the contest between the Northern and -Southern States of America broke out, no public man regretted it more -than he did, and he was unfalteringly on the side of the North. - -In fact, only in one single case has Lord Beaconsfield ever shown the -slightest disposition for sacrificing peace, if need be--namely, for -the checking of Russia's portentous advance; and this has necessarily -implied the maintenance of Turkey in some degree of power. Twice in -his lifetime has the need arisen, and he has acted the second time -in just the same way that he did the first, the only difference -being that he happens now, fortunately, to be in office instead of in -Opposition. - -In his first speech in the Upper House, Lord Beaconsfield said--"The -Eastern Question involves some of the elements of the distribution of -power in the world, and involves the existence of empires. I plead -for a calm statesmanlike consideration of the question." In his second -great speech in that House, he made this remark,--"The independence -and integrity of Turkey is the traditional policy not only of England -but of Europe." This is the absolute truth. It is not he who has -invented any brand-new tactics in this matter; he has simply -stood upon the old paths, and carried on the settled habits of our -statesmanship. The innovators are Mr. Gladstone and the self-styled -humanitarians, who were for substituting hysterics for national -diplomacy, and thought to solve the Eastern Question by presenting the -Turk with a carpet-bag and begging him to retire with it into Asia. -But it is stated that Lord Beaconsfield has defied Russia. Well, turn -to the famous Guildhall speech, which is the great article in the -indictment. It suits his critics to pick words out of it to please -them; but it also contains sentences like the following, which they -somehow overlook,--"We have nothing to gain by war. We are essentially -a non-aggressive Power." In that same speech, too, he alluded to the -Emperor of Russia's "lofty character," addressing to him words of the -highest compliment. If he added a solemn warning to that monarch as to -the extent of England's resources if she was forced into war for -the cause of public right, he still was speaking in the interests of -peace, not war. It was his bounden duty to prevent the present Czar -from falling into the mistake his father was so fatally guided into by -the Manchester school--that of thinking England would in no case draw -the sword. Construe his words how you will, they amount to no more -than this. Mr. Gladstone and his friends, by their factitious public -demonstrations, partly did away with the natural effects of that grave -intimation, and made it necessary for the Government to prove its -seriousness by bringing troops from India, and actually risking the -very war which Lord Beaconsfield had wished to avoid. But the Premier -had the courage not only of his opinions but of a true policy, and he -has had his reward. He successfully checked the sinister progress of -Russia, restored the reign of public law in Europe, and while exalting -the renown of his own country, he has pointed another empire--that -of Austria--to a new career which will benefit the world as well as -strengthen and ennoble herself. After the alliance between Germany -and Austria-Hungary was proclaimed, only one thing was left for his -Lordship's opponents to go on repeating,--namely, that he had, in -upholding Turkey, spared no thought or feeling to the victims of her -rule. In the very face of this there was the fact that he had made -England the formal protector of the inhabitants of Asia Minor, and had -demanded Cyprus as a nearer point of observation of the Turk; but -the plain obvious meaning of those arrangements has been tried to be -muddled away by misrepresenting the protectorate of Asia Minor as a -new insult to Russia. These brave humanitarians got sorely entangled -in their logic on all sides. They pleaded in one breath that England -had rashly undertaken too much responsibility for these oppressed -peoples, and in the next breath said that nothing would ever come of -it. Lord Beaconsfield has made it all clear, and in the simplest way. -It is not fully explained at the moment of our writing what is the -actual extent of the pressure put upon the Porte, nor what precise -orders were sent to our admiral, but when the recent news was first -published here the opponents of the Ministry must have felt that Lord -Beaconsfield had ordered the British Fleet to sail against them when -they heard it was instructed to steam back for the Turkish waters. -Kindly meant as it might be for those in Asia Minor, it was a very -cruel step on the part of Lord Beaconsfield towards some of his -own countrymen, for it will necessitate the altering of a good many -already prepared electioneering speeches. In the end, as we venture to -predict, it will be seen that his Lordship and his colleagues are the -true humanitarians. - -But let me not lose sight of the fact that this, though a very real -plea on the part of the Government, is not the one on which they -mainly rely. They have never pretended to be knights-errant for the -righting of wrongs throughout the world. What contents them is the -humbler _rôle_ of old-fashioned English statesmanship, which seeks -first to make sure of the safety of our own empire and the promotion -of our proper interests, doing what further good it can to other -peoples incidentally in discharging the fair reasonable obligations -which may in that way arise, nor disdaining any glory that so falls -to it. But an enormous obligation of this sort was already on our -shoulders--the preservation of India. We have a strict duty to two -hundred millions of human beings in the East, and Lord Beaconsfield -and his colleagues, who appeared to be the only public men in England -who remembered this, were determined to discharge it. Anything and -everything in their policy which may at first sight seem risky -or belligerent is explained fully to every one who will keep that -pressing need before his mind. It was this which made them purchase -the Suez Canal shares, and strengthen their interference in Egypt; -it was this that made them wish for a clearer understanding with the -Ameer of Afghanistan. But so little did they go about matters with a -high hand, that they most carefully humoured France with respect to -Egypt, and at the very earliest moment that they could, they made a -treaty with a new Afghan ruler. To try to make them appear responsible -for what afterwards occurred at Cabul is the most shameless abuse of -license on the part of an Opposition which parliamentary records can -show. A Russian embassy had been installed in Cabul with no other -guarantee for its safety than the word of a friendly Ameer, and our -Envoy and his suite were sent thither under the very same guarantee. -If we were not to be most dangerously overshadowed by the Russian -example, an English embassy had to show its face in Cabul; and to say -that our rulers either in Calcutta or in London should have foreseen -the pusillanimous break-down of the Ameer and the consequent massacre -of our brave countrymen is--well, it may be better not further to try -to say what it is. - -Our own interests, I repeat, were jeopardized in every quarter where -the present Government has stirred hand or foot. That is its broad -justification. But I must certainly go a step farther than this. The -present Ministry assuredly would not be satisfied with an acquittal on -the Liberal arraignment; nor is that the verdict which the public has -given. The British people find this Government guilty of having won -for it and for themselves much honour. When Lord Beaconsfield saw that -in any event he was committed to a contest with Russia for the defence -of English interests, he had the courage and the wit to determine that -the issue of it should be the better for the world. It is for this -noble superfluity of skilful statesmanship, this Imperial scope given -to England's ruling, that Europe has thanked him, and the bulk of this -nation applauded him. By-and-by, he will reap still further credit, -for besides checking Russia he will eventually coerce the Turk. That -further obligation naturally arose out of the course he took, and he -added it to his proper task of safeguarding our own interests, just -as impartially as he did the other aim of arresting the Muscovite. -I shall not push this reasoning further: it seems to me sufficiently -triumphant as it stands. If Lord Beaconsfield has upheld the Turk, it -was because it was necessary, not because he admired him. But there -is another remark, coming much nearer home, that I wish to make before -concluding this section. - -The foreign policy of Lord Beaconsfield has brought to him and to his -party much renown; but it has brought them nothing else. That -there has been the need for it is for the Conservatives a positive -misfortune. It has nearly entirely put aside the domestic legislation -on which they reckoned for at once redressing some grievances of their -own, and for satisfying the town populations who their true friends -were. Let it not be forgotten that it was on this very claim of having -a domestic policy that the Conservatives appealed to the people at the -last election. Their opponents, who now make a pretence of measures of -this kind being lacking, then denounced it loudly enough as a "policy -of sewage." But Lord Beaconsfield's rivals have tried hard to make -it seem that he sought out, or even invented, these hazardous events -abroad which put aside his home policy. The very attempt impugns the -common sense of the general public. A sort of pretext might have been -found for insinuating such a notion if Lord Beaconsfield had been -nearing the end of expending his Parliamentary majority by carrying -party measures. But to suppose that a Minister attaining power in -the triumphant way he did would wish to be plunged straightway into -foreign entanglements, is to imagine him stricken with idiocy. -Lord Beaconsfield had had far too much experience to make such a -preposterous mistake. He knew at the beginning, as he knows now, that -neither Minister nor party has much to gain in any way of permanent -power or confirmed home advantage from foreign policies, however -successful they may turn out to be. Foreign dangers are half-forgotten -as soon as they are past. Directly, these occurrences abroad will be -but memories; splendid ones they must ever remain: but they will have -against them, in the eyes of the unthinking, the drawback of -having necessarily, to some extent, disordered the finances. Lord -Beaconsfield's rivals are sure to make the most of that fact on the -hustings, as he well knew beforehand they would do; and, to balance -its effect, he will have nothing on which to rely but the patriotic -recollection of his country. Should everything go for the best, no -_prestige_ which these foreign successes can give him and his party -will place him more solidly in power than he found himself at the -beginning of this Parliament; yet it will only be at the opening of -the next that he will be able to push forward the home policy intended -for the present Parliament. Apart from a heightening of fortunate -reputation, won through much risk, his own party will scarcely have -gained a shred of fair legislative or administrative advantage from -six years' splendid possession of overwhelming power. - -It does not seem needful to waste space in speaking of the Zulu war. -Even the Liberals are beginning to be silent on the subject. The -affair was forced upon the Government, not sought for by them, and it -has ended successfully. - -If I now ask what have been the causes of Lord Beaconsfield's -unexampled individual success, the remarks must at first seem to -narrow to mere personal ones. There has, in truth, been more than one -reason for the present Premier's triumphs. First of all, I might -state the matter so generally as to say that for half a century he has -managed to keep himself the most thoroughly interesting personage -in England. Neither Mr. Disraeli nor Lord Beaconsfield has ever been -dull, which is the one only sufficient explanation of failure -wherever it happens. But such a statement of the matter as this is too -comprehensive and wants particularizing. I may add, then, that no one -has shown so much pluck as he has, and that is a quality which in the -end tells with the British public beyond all others. For one starting -with his disadvantage of race to dream in those days of a political -career was most courageous, but so soon as it began to be seen that he -would triumph over all obstacles, his very difficulties turned to his -advantage. He soon commanded everybody's sympathies except those -of injured partisans on the other side. Not that it was sympathy he -begged for; it was admiration he extorted. Especially has he by means -of his writings had the generous feeling of youth in his favour, -generation after generation. They can never remain untouched by -the spectacle of a successful fight against circumstances. But Lord -Beaconsfield has not owed all to dash and daring. His industry has -been equal to his pluck. If he had only been a politician that would -have had to be said; and so it again would if he had only been known -as the writer of his works. Put both the careers together and nobody -else has shown such fertility of brain. His marvellous intellect has -never tired. The versatility, too, has been marvellous: a novelist and -a diplomatist, a poet and a Chancellor of the Exchequer, a satirist -and a successful leader of Opposition. For fifty years, in one or -other of these characters, and often in several of them at once, his -wit has never ceased blazing, save when he himself, the only one who -ever tired of its play--except, indeed, those hit by it--has chosen -to smother it in silence; but it was always ready to flash forth upon -occasion, and is as bright to-day as ever. - -But, to come yet closer to the heart of the secret of Lord -Beaconsfield's success, his faithful devotion to the great historic -party he allied himself with has been equal to his courage, to his -industry, and to his abilities. No politician can make an individual -career; he has to find his success in the prosperity of his followers. -The loyalty which Lord Beaconsfield has shown to his party and the -ungrudging recognition they have paid to him has half-redeemed the -hardness of our coarse partisan politics. Some Liberals have had the -want of wit, without our going so far as to say the lack of capability -of feeling, to express surprise at the faithful respect shown to Lord -Beaconsfield by his present colleagues. That Lord Beaconsfield has a -personal charm must be admitted, for he has turned every one who was -ever brought into any degree of nearness with him into a friend, as -well as a colleague. Those who like may believe that he has done it -by the use of magic philtres; less credulous people will, perhaps, -content themselves with thinking that his spell has been simply that -of strength of character, superior experience, and a non-despotic -manner. One thing is very patent. This chief of a Cabinet who is said -to have imprinted everywhere his own individuality on the Ministerial -policy, has never practised the slightest interference with his -subordinates. It is not he who has been charged with an uncontrollable -wish to be the representative of all the Ministry in his own person. -Just as he could show patience when a leader of Opposition, he has -been able to be silent when a Minister. However, it has been rather -insinuated that he became preternaturally active in the Cabinet -Councils--there standing forth a wizard, and cast all his colleagues -into a clairvoyant slumber. Strange to say, they remained in the same -comatose condition afterwards in both Houses, never waking up though -speaking and passing measures. Two members of his Government, however, -have broken away--Lords Derby and Carnarvon have escaped from the -magician's cell; but they have divulged nothing as to any necromantic -violence worked on them. No, Lord Beaconsfield's fair and reasonable -ascendency has been more honestly won. But his marvellous friendships -have not been the only softening touches in his career. All England -felt a strange thrilling about the heart on the morning when it -heard that Mr. Disraeli's wife was henceforth to be the Viscountess -Beaconsfield. It was a domestic idyll suddenly disclosed in the centre -of British politics. A man who can make his own hearth the scene of -romance, convert all who know him well into true friends, and win -all the young people of a nation, must be something more than a -self-seeker. - -Still, though these things might explain Lord Beaconsfield being so -interesting, something else has yet to be added to account for the -overwhelming importance which he has attained in the last period of -his career. Not even the success of his party could have given him -that unless the policy which secured this prosperity had obtained, -also, the exalting of the nation. - -It is this which is his final boast; he has uplifted higher the fame -of England, and by doing that has made his own renown the greater. -Once more, it was achieved in the simplest way. He invented nothing, -strained at nothing, but only boldly carried on the traditionary -English policy, at a moment when his opponents were willing to forget -it; and in merely proving equal to the opportunity, and daring to make -Britain act worthily of her history, he has changed by her means the -destiny of the Western World. Not only his own countrymen, but Europe -and nations more distant still, to-day hail him as the greatest of -modern English statesmen. That is a title and dignity somewhat higher -than an Earldom, and it is under that larger style that those who -wish to do Lord Beaconsfield full honour will have to allude to him -hereafter in the national annals. - -These are some of the reasons why we honour and follow him. - - A TORY. - - -II.--WHY WE DISBELIEVE IN HIM. - -If a Whig had been asked ten or a dozen years ago, or indeed six years -back, to write his impressions of Mr. Disraeli, he would have set -about it in a strikingly different spirit from that which the task -awakens now. Lord Beaconsfield has recently become much too serious -a joke in the national history, but for a very long time the jocosity -was light enough. In the eyes of all Liberals who had not fully -acquired the gravity of their own fundamental principles, there was, -down to a very late period, always something diverting about Mr. -Disraeli. He might and did vex them, but shortly they were again -smiling at him. The explanation was this, that for a long time his -presence in Parliament hardly at all hindered the progress of Liberal -measures. Whenever a legislative reform was proposed, he invariably -spoke against it, and at some stage afterwards the Conservatives -voted in a body the same way. From the voting being subsequent to -the speaking, there was an illusive appearance of Mr. Disraeli's -speechifying being the cause of the Tory division list. But, in -reality, there was no such connection, and the Liberals were aware -of it. They all knew that the Conservatives would have voted just -the same without a word being spoken. If, during all the years Lord -Palmerston was in power, almost the whole of Lord Russell's -earlier and later official terms, and down to nearly the end of Mr. -Gladstone's Ministry, Mr. Disraeli, instead of making speeches, had -amused his audience by pirouetting on one leg night after night, the -practical result would have been exactly the same. It could not have -been so entertaining to the Liberals, because, looking at some members -of the Conservative party, it would have exceeded the bounds of -belief to suppose that Mr. Disraeli was really twirling for the whole, -whereas it did somehow come to be accepted that he was speaking for -all of them. The unlooked-for thoughts he pretended to put into their -minds, and the preposterous words he did put upon their lips, kept -all Englishmen who were not Conservatives shaking their sides with -laughter. It was as if a foreign Will-o'-the-Wisp had strayed into the -British Parliament, always, however, keeping himself and his antics on -the Conservative side, as being, we suppose, the worst-drained part of -the House, where the morasses lay. Even when, to the amazement of -the country generally, Mr. Disraeli found his way into office, the -merriment did not stop. Nobody who has reached mature years can forget -what an astounding drollery it was thought to be when Mr. Disraeli was -made Chancellor of the Exchequer by Lord Derby. For the time it seemed -to convert English politics into pantomime. Will-o'-the-Wisp had been -asked by the country party to undertake the post of chief financier. -Everybody on the other side was prepared beforehand to laugh at his -Budgets; and, when they were propounded, the Liberals did laugh a -little more even than they had expected to do. When he brought in -his India Bill, the merriment grew perfectly uproarious,--Manchester, -Liverpool, Glasgow, Belfast, and the other large commercial towns -exploding one after the other. It was the same when he proposed to -give sixteen millions for Irish railways; it was the same with the -first sketches of his Reform Bill. Surely nobody can have forgotten -the "fancy franchises?" In a word, every domestic measure that -Mr. Disraeli ever proposed was, in the first shape in which it was -presented, received with mirth from nearly every quarter excepting -his immediate rear. There sat his supporters, usually in those years -wearing rather long faces during the earlier period of the statements, -and apparently wondering if their ears could possibly be telling them -rightly. - -But all this, as there is not a single Liberal in the country but will -admit, is a good deal altered. Lord Beaconsfield has recently signed -foreign treaties on England's behalf, insisting most successfully, he -tells us, on what kind of treaties they should be; he has undoubtedly -put our armies and fleets into motion; and, while risking war in -Europe, has actually waged it in Asia and Africa. The bustle of these -events, and a certain dazzle and glitter attending them, cause people -in general, at this moment, to forget all that prior long period of -non-success on his part in everything else but making successive -steps of personal advancement. What has happened lately in Lord -Beaconsfield's career has certainly worn a look of importance, and -it has undoubtedly embodied political power. If, as the Liberals will -have it, he is still really Will-o'-the-Wisp as much as ever, he has -managed to get hold of the sword of England, and has for some time -been playing with it to the great wonder of foreign nations. But how -has this change in his position been worked? This is the question I -want now to consider. - -A Hebrew by descent, a Christian by profession, and in politics a -Tory--such is Lord Beaconsfield. This description, on the very face -of it, is a rather mixed one, and implies a singular career. It -is, however, the last item which specially fixes my attention. Mr. -Disraeli, sparse though the instances are, was not the first of his -race who changed his faith. Also, there have been, and indeed still -are, other Hebrews who have entered public life in England, and -attained conspicuousness in it. But those, while remaining nearly -invariably Jews in religion, became Liberals in politics. In fact, -Lord Beaconsfield is the only Hebrew of importance known who turned -Tory. It was--and at first sight it gives a highly religious air to -the Conservative party--indispensable to his doing this that he should -first be a Christian. Not being that he would indeed have had to -wait till the Liberals carried their Bill for the Removal of Jewish -Disabilities before he could have joined the Conservatives inside -Parliament. That circumstance, again, seems to give to his career a -curious aspect. In fact, the reflection is forced upon one so early as -this,--what an utter failure Mr. Disraeli must have been if he had -not so amazingly succeeded! To be a Hebrew-Tory left just two issues, -either to become the leader of the party or the very humblest member -of it. All the circumstances would seem to point to the latter -alternative as being the natural one, but it is the other which -has somehow come about. Mr. Disraeli has flowered into the Earl of -Beaconsfield, and has now twice been, and will remain for a little -time longer, the Prime Minister of Great Britain. - -Mr. Disraeli did not wait for his celebrity until he entered the House -of Commons; he gathered the renown of authorship, and I might add, -remembering the number of constituencies he tried before he was -elected, the notoriety of out-door political life, before he plucked -the fame of statesmanship. At the early age of twenty-two he was a -literary lion in London society; his only claim to this premature -publicity, though it was held to be quite sufficient, being that he -was the writer of "Vivian Grey." It is quite impossible to begin to -speak of Lord Beaconsfield in any other way than in connection with -"Vivian Grey," although he is understood not altogether to approve of -one's doing so. - -All the world knows, or is supposed to know, this work. Mr. Disraeli's -own description of its object was that it was meant to paint the -career of a youth of talent in modern society, ambitious of political -celebrity. Nearly everybody has persisted in regarding it as a kind -of prospective autobiography, which the writer has ever since been -occupied in realizing. Certainly Mr. Disraeli was at that time a -youth, and a youth of talent; he must have been in society or he could -not have known a great many people who are sketched in the pages; and -it is impossible for him to deny that he was ambitious of political -celebrity. The means Vivian Grey adopted for attaining that aim -were, also, wonderfully like some of those which Mr. Disraeli himself -afterwards, by some mistake, appeared to use. On the title-page of the -book was the well-known quotation from "Ancient Pistol," to whom, in -the eyes of some people, Lord Beaconsfield at certain moments of his -career has ever had an indistinct resemblance. "The world is mine -oyster," the motto stated, either on behalf of the writer or the hero; -going on to add the rest, to the effect that either the one or the -other meant to open it. Lord Beaconsfield has assuredly done so. The -profound reflection which prompts the youthful hero of the book to his -course of action was this:--"How many a powerful noble wants only wit -to be a Minister; and what wants Vivian Grey to attain the same end? -That noble's influence." Not many years after this Mr. Disraeli was -seen in public very close to Lord Chandos. But it was not that Lord -but Lord Carabas that Vivian Grey chose for his patron, which is, no -doubt, a difference. The story most frankly relates how Vivian wins -the marquis by teaching him how to make tomahawk punch, how he wins -the marchioness by complimenting her poodle, and how during the task -he consoles himself by such thoughts as this:--"Oh, politics, thou -splendid juggle!" His settled purpose he thus sums up: "Mankind, then, -is my great game." He expressly states that he is to win this game -by the use of his "tongue," on which he states he is "able to perform -right skilfully;" but it will, he recognises, be requisite "to mix -with the herd" and to "humour their weaknesses." The chief guiding -rule which he lays down for himself in the midst of it all is, "that -he must be reckless of all consequences save his own prosperity." - -There are people who still believe that in all this they see sketched -the very determinations, maxims, and rules which are to be found -deliberately carried out in Mr. Disraeli's actual career. It -is perplexing. The parallel, they assert, runs into the closest -correspondence of detail. Vivian Grey's model author is Bolingbroke; -and everybody knows that he, also, was Mr. Disraeli's. The young -man in the book shows his reverential admiration for Bolingbroke by -inventing a few passages and putting them into that personage's mouth -for the better bamboozling of Lord Carabas; and it is known that Mr. -Disraeli, at different periods of his life, has taken passages from -other people and put them into his own mouth. But I cannot pursue this -comparison or contrast, or whatever it is, farther: it will be better -seen as I go on, what grounds people have had for beholding Mr. -Disraeli in Vivian Grey. For the present it is enough to say, that it -was Mr. Disraeli, and not Vivian Grey, who wrote this book. So much as -that is quite certain. A fiction of the kind above briefly hinted at -was the first fruit of Mr. Disraeli's intellect; it was in penning -those pages of caricature of everybody who was notable in London -society that he expended the first fresh enthusiasm of his mind, and -displayed the earlier untainted innocence of his disposition. Lord -Beaconsfield has spoken of it as a book written by a boy. It was that -which made it so marvellous. This boy began with satire, and it -might have been predicted that the juvenile would develop into an -exceptional man. - -It was not until 1837, when Mr. Disraeli was about thirty-three years -old, that he entered Parliament. Maidstone had the honour of finding -him his first seat, though he had been willing to represent three -other boroughs previously, if there had not been reluctance on the -part of the constituencies. High Wycombe saw his earliest appearance -on the hustings, and, indeed, it beheld him as a candidate more than -once, but never as a member. He also offered himself to Marylebone. By -some mistake it was supposed that in these instances he came forward -as a Radical. Certainly his addresses spoke of short Parliaments, the -ballot, and other measures commonly held to be Liberal. Mr. Joseph -Hume, Mr. O'Connell, and Sir F. Burdett fell under the delusion, and -wrote letters recommending him, though they afterwards withdrew them. -But when, a little later, Mr. Disraeli contested Taunton as a Tory he -explained it all. It seems that it arose out of a mystification. -From the first he really stood as an "Anti-Whig," which the Liberals -thought meant a Radical; and Mr. Disraeli, not wishing unnecessarily -to disturb their minds, had let them go on thinking so. However, there -was no doubt whatever as to his politics long before he was finally -successful at Maidstone. He had become intimate with Lord Chandos, -and had had his name toasted at banquets by the Aylesbury farmers as -a friend of the agricultural interest. The whole question is one -scarcely worth debating. I myself believe that the proper description -of Mr. Disraeli at this time was not strictly either that of Radical -or Tory; his accurate designation would have run,--"An intending -politician determined somehow to get into Parliament, and looking -eagerly for the first opening." Let me also add that, from a review -of all his tastes, I further believe that he would have preferred the -opening to offer on the Tory side, if only it had come soon enough. - -The early part of Lord Beaconsfield's Parliamentary life will have -to be compressed into a very brief space. Where would be the good of -re-opening in any detail the closed story of those stale politics, -all as dead as Queen Anne herself; or where the use of treating Mr. -Disraeli's doings as very seriously forming part of those politics? -He simply availed himself of his opportunities. For all practical -purposes I might nearly skip--strange as that at first sight seems--to -his second term of office in the post of Premier. It is only during a -comparatively very few of these later years that Lord Beaconsfield has -been of real importance in our politics. Of course, he had always -much significance for his party, but it is of the nation I am speaking -here. These individual tactics have only any general interest now -through their making him successively Conservative leader, Chancellor -of the Exchequer, and Prime Minister. Nothing in this world, I should -say, would be more tedious than tracing, for example, how Mr. Disraeli -trimmed and tacked between Protection, Reciprocity, Revision of -Taxation in the interests of the farmers, and a recognition of Free -Trade. It all resulted in nothing; at least, the one single result -it has brought forth has been--Lord Beaconsfield. But if a detailed -retrospect of his lordship's earlier career would now have this dreary -aspect, it was at the time lively enough, from moment to moment, not -only on account of his debating smartness, but owing to a certain -drollery which it for a long time wore. - -A Minister, plainly, must get both his glory and his power from either -domestic measures or from foreign policy. Very curiously, considering -all the facts of Lord Beaconsfield's history down to the beginning of -this last term of office, it was only to home matters that he should -have looked for any distinction. An impression seems oddly to have -popularized itself that he has a special genius for foreign affairs, -and an enormous acquaintance with diplomacy. I can only say, that five -years ago nobody knew it. The real truth is, that he had never any -opportunities before of meddling with events abroad, and that we have -been represented in these recent foreign complications by a Minister -who, to that very moment, had had less to do with diplomacy than any -English Premier for fully three-quarters of a century. - -Lord Beaconsfield's mind has always been occupied with home affairs, -and his characteristic views on these come from the quarter whence it -is supposed all truth has been derived--the East. He somehow picked -them up during two years of travel in those parts, from 1829 to 1831. -About the former date, Mr. Disraeli's first brilliant but very brief -literary success was over. He had published a second part of "Vivian -Grey," which the public somehow was too busy to read; and had issued -a further work of satire, "Popanilla," which it also neglected to -buy. Mr. Disraeli immediately vanished into the Orient. When, after -visiting Jerusalem, and lingering, as he tells us, on the plains of -Troy, he returned to these shores, he brought back with him the Asian -Mystery and a whole apparatus of political and social principles. He -had also some manuscripts, which did not turn out to be of so much -importance--"Contarini Fleming" and "The Young Duke." It was the most -surprisingly fruitful voyage of discovery that any traveller ever -made. Years elapsed before all the principles were given to the world, -but Mr. Disraeli had them by him. Some of them are, indeed, hinted -at as early as 1835, when he issued his "Vindication of the English -Constitution," before he was in Parliament. Still, the system was not -divulged in its entirety until he was in the House, and had founded -what became known as the "Young England School." It is to the series -of political novels which he then wrote that we must turn for the -complete exposition of his fundamental ideas. Somehow, it has always -seemed to everybody the most natural and fitting thing in the world -that Mr. Disraeli should have corrected the inaccuracies of our -national history, and shown our social fallacies, by writing works of -fiction. The instruction with which he began the new training of the -public was this--that our history is, in all the latter part of it, -entirely wrong. In "Sybil," he thus gives his general opinion of the -way in which it has been written:--"All the great events have been -distorted, most of the important causes concealed, some of the -principal characters never appear, and all who figure are so -misunderstood and misrepresented that the result is a complete -mystification." - -Assuredly if this, or anything like it, was the state of things, Mr. -Disraeli had not discovered it one moment too soon, and he was more -than justified in making it known. On all the points named in the -above summary he supplies most important rectifications. It seems that -the people of this country, in so far, that is, as they were not the -merest tools of their rulers, were under an entire mistake as to Rome -wanting any domination in England in Henry the Eighth and Elizabeth's -time; and that, strange to say, they also again fell into exactly -the same delusion at the expulsion of James I. Mr. Disraeli puts the -people who lived at those times right on these matters. But it was -a section of nobles who at the latter juncture were to blame; those, -namely, who had been enriched by the spoliation of the Church. -Mr. Disraeli, indeed, gives the very simplest explanation of the -Revolution of 1688. He states that the great Whig families were afraid -that King James meant to reapply the Church lands to the education -of the people and the support of the poor, and, in their alarm, they -brought over Prince William, who gladly came, since it was only in -England that he could reckon on being able to borrow money enough -to carry on his failing war against France. In and from that hour -happened the catastrophe which overwhelmed the English people--the -Crown became enslaved by a Whig oligarchy. What Mr. Disraeli styles -Venetian politics rushed in upon us, and these, by the aid of what -he further calls Dutch finance--that is, the incurring of a National -Debt--made foreign commerce necessary, and increased the obligation of -home industry; nearly, as might be expected, ruining everything. - -All the more modern period of our history had been, he in the most -wonderful way explains, a fight to the death between these fearful -Whig nobles on the one hand, and, on the other, a struggling heroic -Crown and some enlightened patriotic Tory peers. The true incidents of -this dark and stupendous conflict had never been clearly observed -by the people in general at the time, nor had the real events been -recorded in any of the common chronicles. But, as any one will be -ready to allow, Mr. Disraeli could not be blamed for this. What was -especially to his credit was that he had himself found out that the -real ruler of England, in the era immediately preceding his own, was a -certain Major Wildman, whom nobody before Mr. Disraeli had ever in the -least suspected of wielding supreme power. I cannot stay to give the -details of this portentous disclosure, but anybody may find them -in Lord Beaconsfield's surprising pages. But in spite of superhuman -exertions in the cause of the people by Lord Shelburne, and after -him Mr. Pitt, the wicked Whigs always triumphed; the crowning act of -duplicity on their part being, in fact, the passing of the Reform Bill -of 1832. - -The above is a highly condensed, but strictly accurate summary of -Lord Beaconsfield's version of our national history. Any reader by -the slightest rummaging in his own mind will know how far his own -impressions agree with it. But this is only his Lordship's instruction -of us as to facts: I must proceed to state the principles of action he -founds upon them. Here, however, I find myself brought up a little. -If the whole truth is to be spoken, this further task is more easily -announced than performed. Mr. Disraeli, in those early days, assuredly -made a great appearance of stating his political opinions; but it -almost seems as if a novel, after all, is not the best means of -expounding political doctrine. The more you attempt to lay hold of -these principles the more they somehow show a lack of exactness. But -let me try. - -He again and again affirms that he is for our having a "real throne," -which he asserts should be surrounded by "a generous aristocracy;" -and he wishes, moreover, for a people who shall be "loyal and -reverentially religious." All this certainly sounds as if it meant -something very satisfactory. It is only when you try to penetrate into -it that your over-curiosity leads to perplexity. Neither Mr. Disraeli -nor Lord Beaconsfield has ever definitely explained, for example, how -far a throne being "real" means that he or she sitting upon it shall -have a personal veto. All that you can quite clearly make out as to -securing "generousness" in the aristocracy is that they shall not be -Whigs; you may suppose that they ought to be, and, in fact, no doubt -would be, Tories. Pushed strictly home, it would seem to be implied -that every peer who holds property which once belonged to the Church -should be stripped of it, and it might be construed to mean that they -should become commoners. Then, as to the people at large, how are they -to be made loyal and religious, since it seems that they are -neither of these now? From not the least important parts of Lord -Beaconsfield's teaching, the first step logically to be taken with -this view would be to ask the vote back from all of them who now have -it. His own Household Franchise Bill will have given more work to -do in this way. But the passing of that mysterious measure has been -explained,--it was, at the moment, a necessary piece of party tactics. -Strictly regarded, the explanation points to the conclusion that, if -it could be done safely, the Act ought to be revoked to-morrow. But, -certainly, it was no such measure as that he relied upon for elevating -the condition of the people. What he did depend upon for doing it he -has specified, and it is this,--the revival of Church Convocation on -a particular basis, of which he knows the exact measurement. Possibly -the reader, if he is not a political partisan, is growing puzzled. -"Was nothing else," he may ask, "proposed in the Disraelian system for -the cure of popular evils?" This, certainly, was not the whole of what -it included some mention of. For example, the preface to "Lothair" -states that one of Lord Beaconsfield's aims always was the -establishment of what he terms "a commercial code on the principles -successfully negotiated by----" No, it was not by Cobden and Bright, -for it will be remembered Lord Beaconsfield did not adhere to -that: but the full sentence runs,--"successfully negotiated by Lord -Bolingbroke at Utrecht." He farther states that it is a principle with -him that labour requires regulating no less than property. I myself -cannot assert that I ever met with any one who professed to understand -what this means; but "labour," and "regulating," and "property" are -very good words, and if there has not been a great waste of language, -the remark must signify a good deal. His system, also, does really -make allusion to the electorate, for it specifies as another of his -cherished purposes, "the emancipation of the constituencies of 1832." -Other people used, in an old-fashioned way, to talk of enfranchising -non-electors; but it is the voters that Lord Beaconsfield is for -emancipating. The two most definite statements of his political -theory are to be found in "Sybil," where he makes Gerard say that -"the natural leaders of the people, and their only ones, are the -aristocracy;" and adds, through the mouth of somebody else, that "the -Church has deserted the people," to which he attributes their having -become "degraded." - -One of Lord Beaconsfield's very strongest points has always been this -physical and moral degradation of the people. He has talked about it -so much that it has nearly seemed that he had got some plan for doing -something for it. In the sketches he gives in "Sybil" of the homes in -Marner, the dens in which the working classes dwell, and the squalor -of their condition, he nearly touches the heart. It somehow has -an effect almost identical with the sentiment of the most advanced -Liberal politics until you come to the remedies proposed. The use -which Lord Beaconsfield makes of the towns in his teaching is worth -noting. Any one who scrutinizes it closely will see that his ideal -social system is the rustic one of the country parish, taking always -for granted that it is perfect; and he kindly goes for examples of -social failure to the towns,--the origin and condition of which, -according to all strict reasoning, he must be supposed to attribute to -the Whig nobility. How accurately this fits in with what is known of -the development of modern manufactures every reader will know. - -If anybody should say that he cannot see any accuracy in the -above version of the national history, and that there is no real -applicability to our affairs in such a system, or, as such an one -would perhaps style it, pretended system of politics, I can only -reply that if he is under the impression that he is an admirer of -Lord Beaconsfield, then this is very sad. For these are certainly Lord -Beaconsfield's views of our history and the scheme of his politics. -Neither of them, I will venture to add, surprises me. It seems to me -that if a political Will-o'-the-Wisp, such as the Liberals for so long -a time would make out Lord Beaconsfield to be, got into the top-boots -and heavy coat of an English squire, these are just the historical -conclusions and political generalizations which he would make, when -he began trying to think like a country gentleman; and, for anything -I can say, he would make them with a certain sincerity, that kind of -ratiocinative working being natural to the Will-o'-the-Wisp intellect, -when smitten with a passion for Parliamentary life and an aspiration -for counterfeiting philosophy. Moreover, both the home politics and -the foreign policy seem to me exactly to fit; they really each display -like qualities of mind, and I can see no reason for any one who can -accept the latter stickling at the former. If what is really at the -bottom of the objection is, as I suspect it is, a feeling that there -is something flimsy, artificial, flashy about either, or both, the -politics and the policy, is not that asking too much from the light -glittering source I have described? The Liberals have always done Lord -Beaconsfield the justice of never expecting more than this from him, -and he, on his side, has never disappointed their expectations. If -they had not previously thought much of him in connection with foreign -policy, never in fact believing that he would actually preside at a -critical juncture long enough for that question much to signify, there -is not a person in our party who would not have known beforehand that -any foreign policy of Lord Beaconsfield, if the occasion for one -ever came, would be one of dazzle--Jack-o'-Lantern diplomacy and -Will-o'-the-Wisp home politics rightly belonging to one another. -The bright and bewildering flashes have now for a long time been -ceaselessly playing here and there all over Europe from the direction -of London; now hitting St. Petersburg; now gilding Berlin; then -flickering over Constantinople; flaming terribly at Cabul; quivering -at the Cape; striking Egypt at short intervals; and shimmering their -mildest at Paris. The activity, as was likely in such a case, has been -unprecedented. My own conviction is that Lord Beaconsfield has amazed, -perplexed, it may be astounded, foreign diplomatists throughout Europe -quite as much as he has done any of his opponents at home. - -What fitness, I should like to ask, has Lord Beaconsfield ever shown -for appreciating the great events which, during his time, have -gone forward in the world. During this generation, two stupendous -rearrangements of States, completely recasting all the international -relationships of Western Europe, have taken place--the unification -of Italy and the transformation of Prussia into a German Empire. -Political earthquakes like those do not come about all in a moment; -these two were, in fact, long in preparation; there were throes, there -were signs, there were symptoms. Some English statesmen--we could name -several on the Liberal side--read the intimations rightly. But -what subtle diplomatic sensitiveness did they challenge in Lord -Beaconsfield--what preternaturally quick prognostications had he -of the foreign marvels that were about to happen? Look first to the -Prussian transformation. He severely blamed Chevalier Bunsen for -indulging what he styled "the dreamy and dangerous nonsense called -German nationality." Turn to Italy. Lord Beaconsfield characterized -the earliest attempts of those patriots determined to win back -national life or die as "mere brigandage." He spoke of the "phantom -of a United Italy." All the world knows that so late even as the -publication of his novel, "Lothair," he was under the impression that -everything that had happened in the Italian peninsula and in Sicily -was the work of a few secret societies, of whom Garibaldi was the -figure-head. Take another example. He glossed over the former policy -of the Austrian rulers towards Hungary, as innocent as the youngest -baby in any cradle in any of our embassies, of discerning that in a -few years it would be Hungary that would dominate the empire. In fact, -Lord Beaconsfield has never shown the slightest true prevision of -anything that was to happen abroad. But I must not be so unfair as -to forget that Lord Beaconsfield took the side of the North in the -American Civil War. Accidents will happen at times in the play of any -kind of intellect; and this, at the very moment, had something of the -appearance of being an abnormality of the Disraelian mind. When you -look into the instance more closely, it proves not fully to contradict -the other cases. Mr. Disraeli uttered a prophecy as to the future -of America, and it was this: "It will be a mart of arms, a scene of -diplomacies, of rival States, and probably of frequent wars." -The result has vindicated his Lordship--nothing of the sort has -happened.[1] Come, however, still nearer home. The French Commercial -Treaty, which was the first practical attempt to bring the peoples -on each side of the Channel into real intercourse, sure to make -them permanent friends in the end, was urgently opposed by Lord -Beaconsfield. It was towards him that Mr. Cobden had to turn at -every stage of his nearly superhuman labours to see what was the next -obstacle he would have to set himself to try and overcome. - -I venture to say that the foreign policy of such a Minister is certain -to end in being one of isolation. Jack-o'-Lantern is always so busy -in converting all he does into some private business of his own, that, -by-and-by, he is sure to be alone in the transaction. Let us test the -diplomatic situation as it now stands, by this rule, and, if it turns -out that the English diplomacy has really established concert on our -part with anybody, it will have of necessity to be admitted by me that -I have been quite wrong in all that is said above. The position I take -up is that a Will-o'-the-Wisp could not in his movements bring himself -to coincide long enough with anybody else's activity to give any such -result. - -France is nearer to us than any other Continental Power, not only -geographically but politically. How has the recent foreign policy -turned out with respect to her? Our very first diplomatic move, -that of hastily snatching at the Suez Canal shares, risked our -understanding with France entirely. We do not hear much about Egypt -now from the supporters of the Government. There are good reasons for -it. Nothing could possibly have resulted worse than everything we did -in that quarter. France did not allow a march to be stolen upon her; -and the next moment we had Italy on our hands as well as France. -But come to the Berlin Conference. France there, in pursuance of a -traditional policy, backed up Greece. Lord Beaconsfield stood quite -aloof from France. Come down to the very latest moment. The alliance -between Germany and Austria is the one recent occurrence which is -of all others most distasteful to Frenchmen, and Lord Salisbury, on -behalf of his chief, not merely goes into slightly profane raptures -over it, but works hard to create the impression that they two, -indirectly though not directly, brought it about. This is how matters -have been made to stand between us and France. With respect to Germany -and Austria-Hungary, our Government is, of course, not within their -arrangements, but, practically there seems to be an outside relation -implied. Those two Powers are understood to reckon upon England as in -some way restraining France if Russia made any move. At any rate, if -France joined Russia, it is whispered, we should have to do something -which would somehow aid Austria and Germany. Why, Chancellor -Bismarck's chuckling at this position of things can distinctly be -heard all the way from Varzin. Prince Gortschakoff is by no means the -one at whom he is laughing hardest. Nothing need be said, I suppose, -as to our relations with Russia: it is the special boast of our -Government that in the case of the greatest Asiatic Power next to -ourselves they have prevented any understanding at all. Just so, too, -we have alienated Greece and the newly-formed Principalities. But -there is Turkey. All that we have done has told in her favour,--surely -we are at one with her? Lord Beaconsfield has just countermanded the -orders to our fleet to get up steam and direct the muzzles of its -guns towards Turkey. But a wonderful success, we are told, has already -resulted from this. What does the recent flourish of telegrams really -amount to? That the Porte has added one more sheet to the plentiful -waste-paper heap of its proclamations. What our people were known to -desire was a change of Minister: and Turkey, in place of that, offers -to name Baker Pasha to look after the moral and social improvement of -Asia Minor. The test of whether it is Will-o'-the-Wisp, or an ordinary -statesman, who is at the head of our affairs gives the result I -anticipated. England stands absolutely alone, and the last touch of -preposterousness is added to the situation by the statement that it -was at the advice of Russia that the Porte pretended to yield to our -demands, and that though the Northern Powers are getting into motion -again for some ends of their own, they do not in the least intend to -meddle with us in Asia Minor. Indeed, I should think not. A splendid -morass lies in that part of the world, with Turkey on one side and -Russia on the other, and Jack-o'-Lantern has led us right into the -middle of it. That is the present issue of the Beaconsfield foreign -policy which was to have produced European concert,--we have Asia -Minor on our hands, solitarily; and are going to set about immediately -reforming it, before the next elections, against the willingness of -Turkey, but with the sanction of Russia, and by the means of Baker -Pasha. In the meantime, or at any time, Russia may use the situation -against us just as best suits her. - -I think it will now be admitted that Lord Beaconsfield's foreign -policy is every whit as wonderful as the measures of home politics he -ought to be urging, if he was only at liberty for that; and further, -that they both bespeak exactly the same order of mind. - - * * * * * - -I must now try to bring together the personal impressions his Lordship -makes on the mind of a Liberal. The noble Earl is very brilliant. -That, of course, is accepted on all sides: there never was a member -of the Wisp family who was not. Not to be brilliant would be against -their nature; in fact, shine is their peculiarity. Moreover, standing -now behind the event, we seem to see Lord Beaconsfield in Mr. Disraeli -from the very beginning. Those who had the privilege of beholding him -on his very first appearances in London high society, in, say, the -Countess of Blessington's _salon_, where he would be grouped with -Count D'Orsay, Prince Napoleon, and Count Morny, give a gorgeous -description of him. It seems that he did not depend for celebrity -solely upon his witticisms, either printed or spoken, but relied, -also, in some measure, on the splendour of his walking canes. The -jewels on his hands are said to have rivalled, and at times excelled, -the pearls upon his lips; the display in both respects bearing witness -that his native tastes were Oriental. His ringlets, in particular, are -said to have been the admiration, if not the envy, of the ladies. It -seemed almost necessary to give up a line or two to these personal -particulars, for the younger people of this generation never saw Mr. -Disraeli in his full splendour. As he developed his later powers, -he moderated his earlier waistcoats. But he never was an ordinary -commoner; he always moved in our public life like a superior being -in disguise. He was with us but not of us. Since he is an Earl, the -impression he makes has become more natural. The promotion to -our peerage gives to some personages an artificial aspect; in Mr. -Disraeli's case, the effect was simplifying; and though, after all, -it is not quite gorgeous enough, it is befitting. There is a -little something not quite in the English style,--a slight foreign -incongruity; still, that was always there, and it is, in fact, less -noticeable now under the coronet and beneath the ermine. - -But--and this is the point sought to be brought out in the above -remarks--it was evident from the earliest moment that this splendid -person meant to achieve social success. And he has certainly done -it. There would be injustice in pretending that he has not had other -motives; but celebrity was his leading passion. He has himself made -a frank confession on this point. In the days when it was not yet -certain that there was a political career before him, the likelihood -rather being that he might have wholly to depend upon literature as -his means of distinction, he rushed into poetry, having just failed in -prose. But he warned the public in the preface of his "Revolutionary -Epick," that if they did not purchase and admire it, he had done with -song. "I am not," so ran the naïvely self-disclosing sentence, "one of -those who find consolation for the neglect of my contemporaries in the -imaginary plaudits of posterity." No, nothing in this world, we are -quite certain, would ever have consoled Mr. Disraeli for the neglect -of his contemporaries. But he took sure measures not to undergo it. He -positively raged to get into Parliament; trying one constituency -after another, and only succeeding with the fourth. To judge from the -fierceness of Mr. Disraeli's struggles, there was in his eyes nothing -worth living for, if he were not inside the House of Commons. But he -had got into the newspapers before he got into Parliament. The town -was kept ringing with Mr. Disraeli's name. In London he was just as -much talked of forty-seven years ago as he is to-day. - -If the rudeness of a little terseness is passed over, I may fairly say -that publicity was Mr. Disraeli's passion; in the circumstances of -his position, audacity was his only means; and, with his style of -character and intellect, inaccuracy was his necessity. A very few -words will establish each point. Was he not studiously audacious? The -first book he wrote was a skit on the whole of the higher circle of -London society; the candidate he sought to set aside at his first -Parliamentary contest was the son of the then Premier; before he was -in Parliament he threatened O'Connell; he had not been in the House -long before he attacked Sir Robert Peel. It was a glorious audacity on -his part, considering the disadvantage of his race, to throw into the -face of the British public the supremacy of "Semitic" blood, and to -confound us all with the Asian Mystery. But, in turning next to his -inaccuracies, we are positively awed by the number and the enormity -of the blunders Mr. Disraeli and Lord Beaconsfield between them have -committed, in, as it would seem, the most natural way. It was a mere -trifle that, when propounding his second Budget, Mr. Disraeli should -have thought that he had a surplus to the _bagatelle_ amount of -£400,000, until Mr. Gladstone kindly explained to him and to the -country that it was a deficiency of that small sum. Some people would -be touched deeper to find that in his "Life of Lord George Bentinck" -he is of opinion that the crucifixion of the Saviour took place in the -reign of Augustus Cæsar. In the course of the debates on one of the -early Reform measures, he thought, when Lord Dunkellin made a -proposal relating to the "rental valuation" in connection with voting -qualification, that it was payment of rates that was in question. In -his oration on the death of the Duke of Wellington, he, as all Europe -soon knew, mistook long passages from an article written by M. Thiers -as being his own composition. He fell into just the same error as to -some splendid sentences of Lord Macaulay and also, as to a fine burst -of eloquence belonging really to the late Mr. David Urquhart. Very -early in his career, when acknowledging his health proposed by -mistake in the guise of an old scholar of the famous public school -of Winchester, he became momentarily under the impression that he was -really educated on that noble foundation, though he had never stood -under its roof. Very late in his career, so late as the affair known -as the Pigott appointment, he believed that the Rev. Mr. Pigott, the -rector of his own parish, had voted against him at the poll in his own -county some time after that reverend gentleman's death. But there -is really no end to these instances of Lord Beaconsfield having -innocently said the thing that is not. With respect to a number of -examples of another kind, it would be puzzling to know whether to put -them in the category of audacities or inaccuracies; the only way of -quite getting over the difficulty would, perhaps, be to consider them -as belonging to both. For instance, in 1847, he quoted Mr. J. S. Mill -as a friend of Protection, and said Mr. Pitt was the author of Free -Trade. On a not very far back occasion, he remarked: "I never attacked -any one in my life." Perhaps, with that quotation, it is right to -stop. - -One of the peculiarities of Lord Beaconsfield's mind has seemed to -some people an affectation, that, namely, by which, in reference -to any case of much importance, he is sure to miss what seems to -everybody else the significant feature of the business, and to fasten -on some detail which arrests nobody else. Hardly any one will have yet -forgotten the instance of the "Straits of Malacca," and only just the -other day a new example was furnished. The revival of trade being the -topic, while everybody else's thoughts went to cotton and iron and -pottery, Lord Beaconsfield's lighted upon--chemicals. It is all -explained on the footing I earlier hinted, that in Lord Beaconsfield's -mind the imagination is in just the place the reason occupies in the -minds of ordinary people. This makes it obligatory that he shall avoid -the common facts, and make some opportunity for exaggerating the value -of some detail overlooked by everybody else. It is only in this way -that Lord Beaconsfield conclusively certifies to himself that his -intellect has really acted. - -I am myself quite sincere in saying that I believe there is in all -this a certain kind of sincerity in Lord Beaconsfield. Where most -people remember, his Lordship fancies; and in his case what is most -convenient, naturally offers itself. This has very much increased his -brilliancy, for the process leaves its practiser utterly unhampered. -But nobody should ask for both strict accuracy and Lord Beaconsfield's -quick, free wit. It is demanding an unreasonable combination. If other -people had only _not_ remembered, his career would have been even -still finer than it is. That is what has partially spoiled things for -him. It is even possible that this amazing foreign policy of his may -be in a measure explainable on certain suggestions of what we may call -pictorial working rules, if we were only inside his mind. Certainly -his home politics give some hints that they were framed on a principle -of picturesqueness,--a very sophisticated canon of rustic taste can -be detected dimly lying at the bottom of them. By only leaving out the -towns, and repressing the growth of modern manufactures, and subduing -foreign commerce, something might possibly--I cannot say--be made of -them. In this foreign diplomacy, there is a certain imaginativeness in -bringing dark-skinned soldiers from Asia into Europe, in turning our -homely English Queen into an Oriental Empress, in becoming possessor -of a fresh island in the Mediterranean, in shifting a frontier line -in India, in adding a new province in Africa. All this has meant -massacre, and fire, and bloodshed, with the imminent risk of very much -more of all of them; and Sir Stafford Northcote, as Chancellor of the -Exchequer, has been kept working as hard as a sprite in a pantomime -pouring out millions of our taxation. But if it be Will-o'-the-Wisp we -have at the head of affairs, nothing of this is likely very greatly to -affect him. Assuredly, nothing of it has affected Lord Beaconsfield, -and we may be sure he is ready to go over it all again to-morrow. - -If it was worth while, very large deductions would have to be made -from Lord Beaconsfield's seeming success if we look rationally at his -whole career. No man who is supposed to have been anything like so -successful as he is popularly held to be, ever had so many and such -striking failures to look back upon. Looking at him as connected with -letters, he is the author of works which have failed more completely -than any written by any one who himself became known. Judged by their -ambitious aims, these literary non-successes of Lord Beaconsfield are -gigantic. The epic poem ("The Revolutionary Epick") which Mr. Disraeli -supposed was to place him--he himself tells us so--by the side of, -or else between, Homer and Milton, nobody would read; the play -("Alarcos") which he states he wrote to "revive the British stage," -is never acted. Not one of his novels, when his political position has -ceased to advertize them, will remain in the hands of the public. If -you look back on his Parliamentary career, the dazzle came late, and -after a dreary distance had been travelled. The political party he -founded, "The Young England School," has for twenty-five years been -as dead as the door-nail which typified the death of Marley. Nothing -whatever came of it. The one only notable legislative measure that -stands in his name,--the Reform Bill,--really belongs to the other -side. Scrutinize his career how you will, and some abatements of this -kind have to be made. He is supposed to have had a charm over men,--it -has failed with the strong ones. Peel he tried very hard to win, but -had to take up with Lord George Bentinck instead. At this moment he is -supposed to be in favour with the Court: the impression he made upon -the Prince Consort was far from satisfactory. He has quite recently -lost Lord Derby and Lord Carnarvon; and there was a time when the -Marquis of Salisbury and he stood in a very different relationship. - -Lord Beaconsfield's social system is that of a novelist; his -finance was ever that of a Will-o'-the-Wisp; and he has now added a -Jack-o'-Lantern diplomacy. Surely nothing more is needed to justify -disbelief in him. - - A WHIG. - - [Footnote 1: Since writing the above I have met with an - article in the October No. of _The North American Review_, on - "Louis Napoleon and the Southern Confederacy," which puts this - alleged friendship for the North in a very doubtful light. - Among some State Papers found in Richmond, a despatch from - Mr. Slidell says,--"Lindsay saw Disraeli, who expressed great - interest in our affairs, and fully concurred in the views of - the Emperor." Louis Napoleon was then intriguing hard to get - the South recognised.] - - - - -CONTEMPORARY LIFE AND THOUGHT IN FRANCE. - - SUMMARY.--_Politics_: Agitations during the Parliamentary - Recess--Unjust Accusations levelled at the - Ministry--Reforms carried out or projected in the Public - Instruction--Justice--Public Works--Activity and Liberalism of - the Ministry--Its want of Cohesion and Unity--Renewal of the - Socialist Agitation--Return of the Amnestied--Election of M. - Humbert in Paris--M. Blanqui's and M. Louis Blanc's Addresses - in the Provinces--Socialist Congress at Marseilles--Reaction - against these exaggerations--Dangers caused by the attitude - of the Conservative Party inspired by the Clerical - spirit--Efforts to create a Republican Conservative Party--"Le - Parlement"--Unfortunate effect of the Ministry's Anti-clerical - Campaign--Legitimist Banquets--The Bonapartist Party and - its hopes--M. Naquet's Campaign in favour of Divorce. - _Literature_: Novels--Mme. Greville, Mme. Bentzon, M. - Lemonnier, M. Gualdi, M. Daudet, M. Zola, Flaubert, M. - Theuriet--"L'Eglise Chrétienne," by M. Renan--"Rodrigue - de Villandrando," by M. Quicherat--"Mémoires de Mme. - de Rémusat"--"Nouvelle Revues". _Science_: Geographical - Studies--"Géographie Universelle"--"La Terre et les Hommes," - by Elisée Reclus--Map of France on scale of 1/100000--Lectures - on Historical Geography, by M. A. Longnon. _Fine Arts_: - Subjects opened to Competition--Death of MM. Viollet Le Duc, - Cham, Taylor. _Theatres_: Le Grand Opera, l'Opéra Populaire, - Pasdeloup and Colonne Concerts--Professor Hermann--The - Hanlon-Lees--"Jonathan," by M. Gondinet--"Les Mirabeau," by M. - Claretie--Le Théâtre des Nations. - - -The Parliamentary recess is generally a time of political tranquillity -for the country, and leisure or peaceful occupation for the Ministers; -not so, however, in France this year. M. Blanqui's candidature at -Bordeaux; M. Humbert's election in Paris; the return of the amnestied -from New Caledonia; the Workmen's Congress in Marseilles; the -Legitimist banquets of September 29; MM. J. Ferry's, Louis -Blanc's, and Blanqui's tours in the provinces; the inauguration of -Denfert-Rochereau's, Arago's, and Lamoricière's monuments, have kept -France in a state of perpetual agitation, if not disturbance. And -even the business world, which generally slumbers quietly through the -summer months, has been stung with a craze for speculation. A number -of financial companies have sprung up, based chiefly on most unsound -and absurd combinations, some of which threaten to collapse before -they have even begun to work. The great jobber, M. Philippart, who -so upset the Bourse some years ago, reappeared in greater force than -ever, only to get another ducking at the end of a couple of months. -Even the Republican party, which hitherto seemed to have kept out of -the way of dangerous speculations, has been drawn into the current, -and names of Republican deputies, senators, and municipal councillors -have appeared on the lists of the administrative councils by way of an -advertisement to subscribers. Nor, with so many causes of disturbance -at home, was the country free from anxieties abroad: the settlement of -the financial supervision to be exercised conjointly with England in -Egypt; the difficulties raised with regard to the same by Italy, who -would have wished to form a third in this new order of syndicate; and -Turkey's opposition to the decisions of the Berlin Congress concerning -Greece, must have caused M. Waddington more than one sleepless night. - -Has the Ministry been weakened or strengthened by the toils of the -Parliamentary recess? The attitude of the Chambers when they meet -(Nov. 27) for the first time in their new, or rather old, quarters -will show. According to the enemies it has, both in the Republican -and Monarchical camp, it is in a state of complete dislocation; and -M. Waddington, in particular, is unable to exercise any authority over -his colleagues. This is the favourite theme, nightly recurred to, -of M. E. de Girardin, who, under colour of Radicalism, seems to be -entering on a campaign against the Republic of 1879, in favour of -Prince Jerome Napoleon, similar to his former one against the Republic -of 1848, in favour of Prince Louis Napoleon. The injustice of most -of his attacks, it must be acknowledged, borders on dishonesty. -Complaints are made of the Ministry's weakness and inaction. But on -what grounds? By the one side, because it leaves the Socialists -free to put forward their views; by the other, because it lets the -Royalists banquet in peace, and expels neither the Orleans princes -nor the Bonapartes. People in France always regard Government as a -gendarme whose business it is to imprison or escort to the frontier -those whose opinions are displeasing to them; if not, they declare -there is no Government. Or else it is still looked upon as a -Providence, whose duty it is to make the people happy from morning -till night. If trade be dull and the crops bad, as they are this year, -the Government is pronounced incapable, and the change to have been -not worth the cost. People cannot understand that a Government's sole -mission is to give a general direction to politics, to attend to the -wise administration of the country, to protect the liberty and the -rights of all, even of those who do not like it, and see to the -carrying out of existing laws and the making of new ones. The present -Ministry has not seriously failed in any one of these duties, and to -charge it with inaction would be most unjust. The new appointments -have almost all been excellent; particularly in the administration -of public instruction, where considerable changes have been made, the -most competent men have in every instance been chosen without regard -to political party. The remodelling of the Council of State was an -absolute necessity, as the Ministry could not work with men radically -hostile to its views. This remodelling was carried out with extreme -moderation; if the voluntary retirement of MM. Aucoc, Groualle, -Goussard, &c., gave it a more radical character, the retiring members, -not the Ministry, are to blame. Of the activity of the Minister of -Public Instruction there can be no doubt; he has even been laughed at -for his zeal in propagating his views, as shown in his southern tour, -during which he found time to make a series of speeches in favour of -the famous Clause 7, that deprives unauthorized religious bodies of -the right of teaching, and to plan important material improvements in -the constitution of the Faculties of Letters, Science, Medicine, and -Law. The inspection of the infant-schools, of the drawing-instruction, -have at length been properly organized, and a project for the reform -of secondary instruction has been elaborated. With regard to the -administration of justice, M. Le Royer has drawn up a very important -scheme, whereby the courts of justice will be reduced to one-half the -present number, important economies effected, the administration -of justice accelerated, and the number of unemployed magistrates, -barristers, and lawyers, which constitutes one of the evils of the -country and of the Parliamentary assemblies, diminished. - -Can M. de Freycinet be accused of inaction, seeing that every day he -is told he will sink under the load of vast undertakings he has on -hand for the improvement of the harbours and the completion of the -railway and canal system? What accusations can be brought against -General Gresley, seeing that our military organization is making daily -progress, and that the autumn man[oe]uvres have been more satisfactory -this year than ever? The very criticisms addressed to the Ministry -with regard to its weakness towards its enemies prove how it has -respected the common liberty. It is, however, the habit in France, -when a Government allows the attacks of party free play to laugh at -its timidity, and when it puts them down to accuse it of persecution. -The thing to do, therefore, is to apply the principle said to have -been formulated by the President of the Republic himself--"To let -everything be said, and nothing done." - -The only point whereon the criticisms of the Cabinet's adversaries -seem in some sense well-founded, is the charging it with having no -definite political line, and being consequently incapable of any -homogeneous influence either upon the Chambers or public opinion. -It is quite certain that the Cabinet is wanting in unity; that -MM. Waddington, Léon Say, and Gresley represent a less strongly -accentuated political shade than MM. Le Royer, Jauréguiberry, Tirard, -and Cochery, and these again a less strongly marked shade than MM. -J. Ferry, De Freycinet, and Lepère. Each Minister has his particular -plans, and occasionally the question suggests itself how far his -colleagues approve and support him. In any case, the Cabinet's most -important projects, M. Le Royer's judicial reform, M. de Freycinet's -plans, the Ferry laws, were accepted rather than desired by M. -Waddington, who cannot in consequence be considered to exercise -any paramount sway over his colleagues. This subdivision of the -Ministerial responsibility is unquestionably to be deplored, and -impairs the strength of the Government; but is it not the fault of -the Ministers, or rather the result and the faithful image of the -Republican majority, whose unity proceeds solely from the necessity -of fighting against Monarchical parties, and which represents very -different tendencies? A homogeneous Ministry representing one of these -tendencies only would command no majority. The Republic is still in -the period of struggle and formation. It cannot observe the rules -of the Parliamentary system quite regularly yet. Every Ministry is -fatally a coalition Ministry, and consequently without unity. When it -is, like the present one, agreed as to its general lines of policy, -at once liberal and moderate, and sufficiently sympathetic to both -Chambers, it would be hard, we must acknowledge, to find a better, and -to wish for a change would be madness. - -Not the constitution of the Ministry, but rather the political -condition of the country, may, indeed, be productive of difficulties -and dangers to the Republic. Were we to believe the reactionary papers -and the anxious spirits, the greatest danger France is exposed to -arises from the revival of Socialistic ideas occasioned by the -return of the insurgents of the Commune. That disquieting signs and -tendencies show themselves in that direction is true. The amnestied, -who should have been received as penitent and pardoned culprits, -have, by many--by M. Talandier, M. L. Blanc, and others of the Extreme -Left--been welcomed as reinstated martyrs. People even went so far on -their arrival as to dare to raise a cry of "Vive la Commune." One of -the most criminal, M. Alphonse Humbert, who edited in 1871 a filthy -and bloodthirsty paper, _Le Père Duchesne_, and in it directly -provoked the murder of Gustave Chaudey, has been elected municipal -councillor of Paris by the Javel Ward. Though the Comité Socialiste -d'aide aux Amnistiés had rudely repudiated all community of -action with the Republican committee presided over by V. Hugo, and -contemptuously alluded to it as _le comité bourgeois_, the _Rappel_ -did not hesitate to support this candidature, stained as it was -with blood. Hardly is old Blanqui released from his imprisonment at -Clairvaux when he starts for a tour in the south to propagate his -revolutionary doctrines, and finds people credulous enough to applaud -the senile declamations in which he accuses M. Grévy and M. Gambetta -of having sold themselves to the Jesuits and the Orleanists. M. Louis -Blanc, whilst issuing in book form, under the title of "Dix ans de -l'Histoire d'Angleterre" (Lévy), the wise and impartial letters -he addressed to _Le Temps_ from London between 1860 and 1870, has -reverted to his dreams of 1848, and, more intent on winning a vain -popularity than on consolidating the Republican _régime_, has aroused -the passions and desires of an ignorant multitude by unfolding to them -the chimerical and deceptive picture of a complete remodelling of the -French Constitution, and the prosperity which, according to him, might -be secured to all if they would lay down their liberties and their -rights for the benefit of a Socialist State. Finally, the Workmen's -Congress in Marseilles revealed with the utmost naïveté the false -notions, the gross ignorance, and the bad instincts that M. Blanqui -draws out from a fanatic monomania, and M. Louis Blanc encourages -from desire for noisy popularity. The majority of the Congress -plainly declared that they preferred the revolutionary course of an -insurrection to the peaceful course of voting and legal action, that -gradual progress was a chimera, that individual property must be -converted into collective property, and that such conversion could -only be effected by force. What was, perhaps, even more disquieting at -the Marseilles Congress than these brutal declarations, was the almost -fabulous ignorance, stupidity, and credulity displayed by most of the -delegates, who must, nevertheless, be among the most intelligent and -educated members of the Syndical Chambers. Neither in England nor in -Germany would an assembly of workmen put up with such silly and empty -discussions in which not a single practical question was treated -seriously, and the general reform of society was accomplished in three -or four high-sounding and pretentious phrases. The ignorance of the -multitude is an immense danger, leaving it a prey to every illusion -and dream and to the brutal impulse of its instincts. - -Without being blind to the gravity of these symptoms, or denying that -much of the leaven that produced the Commune is still to be found -amongst the inhabitants of the great towns, I do not think the fact -presents any immediate danger, or that there is any chance of a rising -in Paris, or a revival of the Commune. The late manifestations have -done exactly the reverse of furthering the end in view. At Bordeaux, -Blanqui, who was elected in the first instance, failed in the second. -His journey, triumphant at the outset, ended amidst murmurs on the -one hand and indifference on the other. Humbert's election excited -the disgust of the most advanced Republicans, and has insured the -rejection of every new proposal of pardon for the members of the -Commune. The folly talked at the Marseilles Congress provoked the -protests of a strong minority in the very heart of the Congress, which -energetically defended the principles of good sense and public order. -If the revival of Socialism threaten the existence of the Republic, it -is not so much on account of the possibility of its bringing back the -Commune as that it may serve to provoke an anti-Republican reaction. - -This is much more to be dreaded at present than any demagogical -excesses. The attitude of the Conservative party presents much -greater dangers to the Republic than that of the Socialist party. The -Republic's only chance is its free acceptance by the _bourgeoisie_ -and the formation of a large Conservative but not reactionary party -to counteract the impatience of the progressive element. Until now no -such party exists. Many Conservatives have undoubtedly stuck to the -Republic, but they are absorbed by the progressive Republican mass; -the others have preserved a hostile attitude, and cherish visions of a -Monarchical or Imperialist restoration. Clerical ideas confirm them -in this attitude, and render them the irreconcilable enemies of the -present order of things; they follow the inspirations of the clergy, -who are convinced that no Republic can give them the liberty of -action they desire, and who, moreover, consider themselves persecuted -wherever they are not masters. The thing is to convince this -Conservative mass, now enrolled under the banner of clericalism, that -it is possible to give the clergy the honours and the liberty they -deserve, whilst confining them strictly within the religious domain, -and that the public _régime_ can be a secular one without recourse to -persecution. This is what the few members of the old Left Centre who -refused to join the ranks of the Ministerial Left, and are headed by -MM. Dufaure, De Montalivet, Ribot, Lamy, &c., are trying to convince -the Conservatives of. They have started a new paper, _Le Parlement_, -to vent their ideas, conducted with talent and earnestness, which if -it succeed in its object will have done the Republic good service by -calling a Republican Right into existence, whereas at present only a -Republican Left exists, without any counterweight, and bounded by two -abysses, the Commune on the one hand and Bonapartism on the other. - -Certain members of the Republican party and even of the present -Ministry thought that the deplorable influence Catholicism exercises -on public affairs might be counteracted by open contest, and this -was the origin of Clause 7, and the war at present waged everywhere -against the Catholic bodies and the action of the clergy. -Unfortunately there is a fatal solidarity between the Catholic -religion itself and its most compromising representatives; the regular -and secular clergy are united by the closest ties; it is impossible to -deal a blow at the clergy on one point without in appearance attacking -religion itself. Moreover it loves strife, and above all persecution; -it feeds upon it; it wins the sympathy of the simple-minded by -resisting, in the name of conscience, all even the most legitimate -attacks against the authority it has usurped. The duty of a wise -Government, therefore, is as far as possible to let all religious -questions lie dormant, to cultivate towards them a salutary -indifference, to avoid the possibility of being accused either of -favouring or persecuting the clergy, so as to secure the countenance -of all those who, without being hostile to the Church, have no wish -to be its blind servants. One must be content to resist the Church's -encroachments without attacking it in its own precincts. The present -Ministry has stirred up, we think with unfortunate precipitancy, -questions which might still have remained awhile untouched, and thus -needlessly lessened the number of its partisans. But to be fair, it is -certainly very difficult to be impartial and indifferent in face of -a body in open revolt against the Government, whose bishops, -like Monseigneur Freppel at the inauguration of the monument to -Lamoricière, preach contempt for the Constitution and the law. The -behaviour of the Belgian episcopate, on the occasion of the new school -law, has proved that neither justice nor moderation is to be expected -from the Catholic Church. Whence violent minds are too disposed to -conclude that reconciliation being impossible, intolerance must be met -by violence, and fanaticism by persecution. - -Were it not for this unfortunate clerical question, the opposition to -the Republican form of Government would be reduced to a minimum. The -Legitimist banquets organized throughout the country in commemoration -of the Comte de Chambord's birthday, September 29th, testified to the -ridiculous weakness of a number of aged children who indulge in the -phrases and fables of a bygone time. This flourish of forks was met -by all parties with ironical compassion. The Bonapartist party has -but imperfectly recovered from the blow dealt it in the death of the -Prince Imperial. Prince Jerome Napoleon may alter his outward line, -become as reserved as formerly he was unguarded in his language, -organize his house on a princely footing, have his organs amongst the -press, rally round him a great number of those who but now overwhelmed -him with the most ribald insults; he will never either wipe out a too -well-known past, or with all his intelligence make up for the total -absence of military prestige or personal regard. Nevertheless, -Bonapartism is so decidedly the fatal incline towards which France -will always be impelled if she become disgusted with the Republic, -that he appears to some the only issue in case of a new revolution, -and more than one of those who had of late reattached themselves to -the Republic were seen to turn their eyes to Prince Napoleon when -Humbert's election or the Socialist speeches at Marseilles renewed -their old terrors. Universal suffrage is always threatening France -with sudden surprises. If, as some politicians wish, the _scrutin de -liste_ be substituted for the _scrutin d'arrondissement_, it might -yet be that the name of Napoleon would find a formidable echo in the -popular mass, and eclipse all the new names which want its legendary -and historical prestige. This might happen, especially if the -depression of trade and the clerical contest were by degrees to weary -and disgust the mass of the electors with political questions, as -would appear to have been the case at the legislative elections of -Bordeaux and the Paris municipal elections, when more than two-fifths -of the electors abstained from voting. It might, above all, happen if -the Chambers continue to postpone all the reform laws, those relating -to the army, to education, and to the magistracy, which await -discussion and passing from session to session. - -Many look forward to a time when these everlasting political questions -will cease to burn so fiercely, when the suppression of State or -Church will no longer be a daily question, and more modest and -practical measures of reform can be taken in hand. A committee of -lawyers has elaborated an important scheme for the reform of our -criminal procedure, long known to be seriously defective. Will there -be an opportunity of bringing it before the Chambers? Even more -interesting is the divorce question, which has found an able, -persevering, and eloquent advocate in M. Naquet. Of all others, this -reform is the most urgent. Those acquainted with family life in France -know the fatal moral consequences arising from judicial separation, -the only resource of ill-assorted couples. Not to speak of the -flagrant injustice which allows the man to separate from his wife on -account of offences she is obliged to tolerate in him, the two, though -separated, remain jointly and severally liable. The woman is obliged, -in a number of instances, such as the marriage of a child confided to -her care, to obtain the husband's authorization, whilst she, on her -part, can drag in the mire the name of her husband which she continues -to bear, or pass off children upon him which are not his. Separation -has all the drawbacks of divorce, besides others peculiar to it, which -divorce remedies. M. Naquet has treated the question from the tribune, -as also in a series of articles published in the _Voltaire_, wherein -he cites a number of heartrending cases in which divorce would be -the only possible remedy, and, finally, in the lectures he has been -holding in all the large towns. His campaign has been crowned with -success, and the law will, it is believed, be passed by the Chambers. -No small credit is due to M. Naquet, for he had to contend with -prejudices of several kinds--the religious prejudices of Catholicism, -which does not admit the power of the civil law to cancel a sacrament -of the Church; the political prejudices of Republican theorists, who -affect to attach a more sacred and indelible character to the civil -consecration of the magistrate than to the religious one of the -priest; the prejudices of immoral and unprincipled men, who form a -numerous class everywhere, who never having felt the restraints of -moral law are not troubled by the misfortunes springing from unhappy -marriages, but, on the contrary, are glad to take advantage of them; -finally, with the prejudices of some serious-minded persons, who are -afraid that in sanctioning divorce the Republic may appear to violate -the respect due to marriage. The last aspect of the question has -been ably supported by a deputy, M. Louis Legrand, in his interesting -study, "Le Mariage;" but M. Naquet finds no difficulty in proving -that marriage is more respected where divorce is possible than where -judicial separation only can be obtained, nor in showing religious men -that the Church has always recognised fourteen cases in which marriage -becomes void, whilst the French law only recognises one, mistaken -identity, which practically never occurs. - -We have but to open a French novel, or visit the theatre, to convince -ourselves of the necessity of divorce. Mme. Gréville, in "Lucie Rodey" -(Plon), depicts a young woman reduced by her husband to the most -wretched condition, with no resource but resignation and a pardon -all but dishonourable to her; Mme. Bentzon, in "Georgette" (Lévy), -describes with exquisite delicacy the painful position of a woman who, -separated from her husband, and living on terms the world condemns -with a man of elevated character, is driven in the presence of her -innocent daughter to blush for a position the disgrace of which her -own elevation of sentiment had hitherto veiled from her. Half -the novels in France turn on the domestic misery arising from the -indissolubility of the marriage tie. Hackneyed as the subject is, it -presents so many aspects that new effects can always be derived -from it. Such dramas will ever remain the most touching source the -imagination of the novelist has to draw upon. From the princess to the -peasant, humanity is the same in its affections and sufferings. If you -want to know how the peasant suffers read "Un Coin de Village," by M. -Camille Lemonnier (Lemerre), a picturesque and piquant young writer, -who combines the touching grace of Erckmann-Chatrian with a power of -realistic observation quite his own. If you wish for something more -_recherché_, dealing with the richer and higher classes of society, -M. Gualdi, a young naturalized Italian, French in talent, provides -you with a drama of the most brilliant originality in his "Mariage -Extraordinaire" (Lemerre). A charming but poor girl, Elise, is on the -point of marrying a man she does not love to save her parents from -ruin. She is attached to a young man, Giulio, worthy of her, but poor -also; he has been obliged to expatriate himself, and Elise's mother -makes her believe that her _fiancé_ has forgotten and betrayed her. -The Comte d'Astorre, an elegant and magnificent _viveur_, with a -generous soul under his frivolous exterior, is touched by Elise's -fate; to enable her to escape a hateful marriage he offers her the -shelter of his name and house, promising that he will consider himself -as a friend, not a husband. For a time the compact is kept, but the -Comte d'Astorre ends by falling in love with his wife; the quondam -_viveur_ becomes the timid, trembling, and naïf suitor. Elise ends -by allowing herself to be moved, and when poor Giulio comes back from -India, true to the faith he had sworn, she repulses him, first in -the name of duty, and soon, one is made to feel, in the name of a new -nascent love. This singular and delicate theme is treated by M. Gualdi -with a refinement of touch that indicates the acute psychologist, and -the passionate scene between Giulio and Elise on their meeting again -is really beautiful. - -To ascend a step higher in the social hierarchy and learn what a -queen, wounded in her feelings as a woman and a mother, can suffer, -read M. A. Daudet's last novel, "Les Rois en Exil" (Dentu), in which -he continues to work the vein he opened so successfully in "Le Nabab," -the portraiture of Parisian life, viewed from its most brilliant side -as from that most flecked with impurity, disorder, and adventure. In -the "Nabab," M. Daudet had the advantage of describing the world he -had been most familiar with, since his two chief personages were M. de -Morny, whose secretary he had been for several years, and M. Bravay, -his former friend. But this advantage was also a defect, for no true -novel is possible with very well-known contemporary personages for -the characters; and the "Nabab," marvellous as regards truth and vivid -detail, was poor as regards composition. In "Les Rois en Exil" -we again meet with a number of well-known personages: the King of -Hanover, the Queen of Spain, the Prince of Orange, the Queen of -Naples, Don Carlos. Elysée Méraut, the little prince's tutor, is -said to be the portrait of an excellent youth, by name Thérion, also -entrusted with a prince's education, and who was horrified to find -that he believed more firmly in the principles of legitimacy and -divine right than his pupil's parents. The father of Elysée Méraut, -the old Legitimist peasant who sees his son's future insured because -the Comte de Chambord promises to bear him in mind, is no other than -A. Daudet's own father. But all the real portraits are secondary -characters that form the background of the picture. The leading -personages of the drama, Christian II., the dethroned king of Illyria, -who takes his exile very lightly, and forgets it by wallowing in the -mire of Parisian dissipations; his wife, the noble Fréderique, who -lives but for one thing, the recovery of the throne of her husband and -son, and in that hope endures every affront; their trusty attendants, -the two Rosens; and finally John Lévis, the unscrupulous man of -business, who knows the tariff of all the vices, and with his wife -Séphora, takes advantage of the dissolute weakness of Christian -II.,--all these leading figures, though compounded of traits, if not -real at least profoundly true, are the author's own creation. They -are artistically superior, moreover, to those of the "Nabab," more -complete, more lifelike even, for they are stripped of such traits as -are too personal, secondary, fleeting, contrary to actual reality, and -wear rather the character of types. Types they truly are, this king -and queen, representative of all the grandeur and vileness, the -heroism and cowardice, the noble pride and foolish prejudice, dwelling -in the exiled sovereigns who came to Paris, some to weep for monarchy, -others to hold its carnival, some as to the centre of pleasure, -others to that of political intrigue; and is there not a philosophy, -historical and political, in M. Daudet's novel, in his picture -of Christian II. forced to abdicate his royal pretensions after -sacrificing them to the love of an unworthy woman who has fooled him, -and Fréderique bidding farewell to all the hopes that centred in -her little Zara, forgetting everything besides being a mother, and -devoting all her powers towards rescuing her child from the sickness -that is killing him? It is unfair to M. Daudet to say that he only -possesses the art of painting the _chatoyant_ lights, the picturesque -outside of Parisian life, the dresses, the furniture, and the scenery; -to represent him as merely a skilful manufacturer of _bimbeloterie_. -We may tax him with abuse of description, and that habit of -_reportage_ peculiar to the daily press; and it would be vain to look -in him for the sobriety that enhances the beauty of some immortal -works of art; but such sobriety is incompatible with an art which aims -at painting human life in all its aspects, all its details, all its -colours. Neither Shakspeare, Dickens, nor Balzac is sober. To be -sure M. Daudet is neither a Dickens nor a Balzac, but his delicate -sensibility makes him penetrate far below the outer crust, to the -human ground of the characters, and the life they live is a real one. -On account of this, the first quality of a novelist, one forgives the -brutality and the pretentious passages, an imitation, the one of M. -Zola, the other of M. de Goncourt, and the inequalities of a style -which is, nevertheless, in wonderful harmony with the world he paints. - -That which constitutes M. Daudet's great superiority over other -novelists of the realistic school, is that he has no contempt for -humanity, that he always loves it, often pities, and sometimes admires -it. Nothing can be more false, more unpleasant, or, we may venture -to say, more tiresome, than the view taken by a certain would-be -scientific pessimism of humanity, as being nothing but a compound of -vileness, vapidness, and folly. M. Zola is learning it to his cost. -After the immense success of "L'Assommoir," due to the great power of -the painter, as also to the horror inspired by scenes of unparalleled -crudeness, he wished to outdo himself and depict in "Nana" the -lowest depths of Parisian corruption. To make the impression the more -complete, he has not let in a single breath of pure air; or introduced -a single character which was not insipidly stupid and sensual, -enslaved by the lowest appetites, incapable of a single noble thought -or generous sentiment. The effect on the public was weariness rather -than disgust. _Le Voltaire_, which had expected to make its fortune by -bringing out the book in _feuilletons_, was greatly surprised to see -its circulation rapidly fail, actually on account of M. Zola's novel. -We are afraid the same thing will happen with regard to the work -announced by M. Flaubert. This great writer and conscientious -artist is unfortunately persuaded, in spite of his admiration for I. -Tourguéneff (that true painter of humanity, of its virtues as of its -vices), that the novel should confine itself to the portrayal of the -mediocre and uniform mass which makes up the majority of men. Already -in "L'Education Sentimentale" he sought to show the vulgarity and -coarseness that generally conceal themselves under what is called -love; in the novel he is now engaged on he shows us two men brutalized -by the mechanical routine of a bureaucratic career, studying every -human science, and finding in the study merely an occasion for the -better display of their incurable folly. Such mistakes committed -by men of genius cause us the better to appreciate less powerful -certainly, but more human, works, by writers who seek to render life -attractive to us, such as A. Theuriet, for instance, who has just -produced a new novel, "Le Fils Mangars" (Charpentier). M. Theuriet is -one of the few French writers of fiction who, instead of dealing -with the tragedies of guilty passion succeed in shedding a dramatic -interest over the affections and sufferings of pure young hearts. -In this he resembles the English novelists. Innocent love forms the -groundwork of his books, and constitutes their poetry and their charm. -"Le Fils Mangars" is the first of a series of studies entitled "Nos -Enfants," dealing with the various complications arising out of the -disagreement of parents and children. In "Le Fils Mangars" we are -introduced to a father, who has devoted all his efforts towards -amassing a fortune for his son, has to that end made use of dishonest -means, and finds his punishment in the loyalty of the one for whom -he committed the wrong. His son refuses to benefit by the wealth -dishonestly acquired, and falls in love with the daughter of one of -the men his father has ruined. This poignant theme is handled with the -airy and attractive delicacy that characterizes Theuriet's touch. - -Were the surly critics to be trusted, we should not be leaving the -domain of fiction in turning to the new volume M. Renan has devoted -to the history of the sources of Christianity, entitled "L'Eglise -Chrétienne" (Lévy). It deals with the definitive constitution of the -Church, at the moment when dogma forms itself by contact with, and -in opposition to, the various heresies, and the organization of -the hierarchy takes place. It is true that M. Renan could, if he so -wished, be a wonderful writer of fiction. With what art he brings on -his personages, how admirably he infuses life into the thousand dry -and scattered fragments collected by erudition, and forms them into a -co-ordinate and complete whole! With what psychological penetration -he enters into the minds of his personages, and makes us familiarly -acquainted with the Roman Cæsars or the Church Fathers! What wealth -of imagination! what witchery of style! At times he is, no doubt, led -away by his imagination; too often the desire to invest old facts with -life and reality leads him to compare, or even assimilate, the present -with the past, and, in his exposition of ancient ideas, to mix them up -with his own, ideas so peculiar to our time and to M. Renan himself, -that the intermixture produces a false impression. It is daring to -ascribe the Fourth Gospel to Cerinthus, and still more so to regard -the letter of the Lyons Church on the martyrdom of Pothin and his -companions as a proof of the Lyonnese being false-minded, and to -connect the fact with the Socialist tendencies of modern Lyons. From -his comparing Hadrian in some respects to Nero, we gather that M. -Renan has yielded to the indulgence he had already testified towards -Nero in his volume on "L'Antechrist," an indulgence grounded on the -artistic tastes, or rather pretensions, of the royal stage-player. But -these blemishes, and occasional breaches of historical truth or good -taste, ought not to blind us to the historical value of a work which, -if it be the work of a great artist, is likewise that of a scholar of -the first order. Numbers of men can pore over texts and critics, but -to revive the past, and introduce into the domain of history, and -make the general public familiar with subjects reserved hitherto to -theologians and critics by profession, is the work of a genius only. -Scholars find much to censure in Michelet's "Histoire de Franceau -moyen Age;" but whatever its inexactitudes, he is the only man who has -succeeded in restoring to life the France of bygone days. And is not -life one of the most important elements of reality? Even an imperfect -acquaintance with a living man enables one to form a truer notion -of the man than the most minute autopsy of a dead body. Moreover, -as regards the past we have not the whole body, but only -scattered fragments; the breath of genius must pass over these dry -bones--restore to them flesh, blood, colour, movement, and voice. - -But genius can only do her magic work when the materials that are -to serve for this wonderful transformation have been collected -by erudition. M. Renan would not have been able to construct his -historical monument had not German criticism prepared the way for -him. Erudition occasionally arrives at astonishing results by digging, -either in the earth which has swallowed up the ancient buildings or -in the dust of the archives. Here is an individual who played a very -important part in the fifteenth century in the struggle between France -and England, who, though a stranger and fighting more especially as an -adventurer greedy of spoil, helped to restore France to independence, -who was almost unknown, whose name was not mentioned in any of our -histories. M. I. Quicherat has brought him to life, and "Rodrigue de -Villandrando" (Hachette) will see his name cited in all the histories -of the reign of Charles VII. The book is a model of historical -reconstruction. It is wonderful to see how, with a series of scattered -indications, most of them the very driest of documents, not only the -incidents of a life, but the features of a character, can be pieced -together again. - -Such a character as Rodrigue's is not very complicated, it is true. -There are historical personages to penetrate the depths of whose -nature an accumulation of documents and testimony would be necessary. -Such is Napoleon, whom each day throws some new light upon, and on -whom, after his having been magnified beyond all measure, posterity -will, no doubt, be called to pass severe judgment. Never was such -overwhelming testimony pronounced against him as in the "Mémoires de -Madame de Rémusat," the first volume of which is just out. Mme. de -Rémusat was so placed as to be more thoroughly acquainted than any one -with the character of Napoleon. Lady-in-waiting to Josephine, and wife -of one of Napoleon's "Maîtres du palais," she bowed for a long while -to the ascendancy of Napoleon's genius, and the liking he testified -for her was sufficiently strong to awaken, though unjustly, the -momentary jealousy of Josephine. The speaker is not an enemy, -therefore, but an old friend who tries to explain at once her -adherence to the imperial régime and the motives that caused her to -alter her political creed. She is thus in the best state of mind, -according to M. Renan, for judging a great man or a doctrine, that of -having believed and believing no longer. Add to this the sweetness of -mind natural to a woman, and the kind of indulgence peculiar to times -when sudden political changes lead to frequent changes of opinion. All -these considerations only render Mme. de Rémusat's testimony the more -overwhelming for Napoleon, and its value is singularly increased on -its being seen to agree with that which all the sincere witnesses of -the time, Ph. de Ségur, Miot de Mélito, as well as Sismondi, lead us -to infer. The genius of Napoleon is not diminished, and nothing is -more remarkable than the conversations related by Mme. de Rémusat, -wherein he judges everything, literature, politics, and history, with -a haughty originality from the point of view of his own interests and -passions. Some of his sayings relative to the government of men -are worthy of Machiavelli. The reasonings whereby he explains and -justifies the assassination of the Duc d'Enghien would form a splendid -chapter to the "Prince." But from the moral point of view Napoleon -strikes us as the most perfect type of a tyrant. No moral law exists -for him; he does not admit the obligation of any duty; he does not -even recognise those duties of a sovereign, that subordination of -the individual to the interests of the State, which constitute the -greatness of a Cromwell or a Frederick II.; he recognises but one law, -that of his nature, which insists on dominating and being superior to -everything that surrounds him. _Quia nominor Leo_, is his only -rule. Morals always have their revenge on those whose encroaching -personality refuses to recognise laws. Writers or sovereigns, whatever -their genius, relapse into falsehood and extravagance. This was -Napoleon's fate. You are always conscious in him of the _parvenu_ -acting a part--the _commediante tragediante_, as Pius VII. put it. -He had fits of goodness, of weakness even, but his human and generous -sides had been crushed by his frightful egoism. He liked to make those -he loved best suffer. He treated his wife and his mistresses with -brutal contempt; he could no longer lament the death of those who -seemed dearest to him. "Je n'ai pas le temps de m'occuper des morts," -he said to Talleyrand. By the side of this great figure Mme. de -Rémusat has, in her Memoirs, sketched many others--the frivolous, -good, touching, and unfortunate Josephine; the amiable Hortense -Beauharnais, the dry, cold Louis, Napoleon's sisters, jealous, proud, -and immoral; and others--but all pale before the imperial colossus. - -Besides M. Daudet's novel, M. Renan's new volume, and the Memoirs of -Mme. de Rémusat, the last three months have witnessed another literary -event of some consequence--the birth of an important Review, which -aims at the position occupied for thirty years past by the _Revue -des Deux Mondes_. The _Nouvelle Revue_ was started and is edited by a -woman, Mme. Edmond Adam, known as a writer under the name of Juliette -Lamber. A new phenomenon this in the literary world, the strangest -feature of it being that Mme. Adam has taken exclusively upon herself -the bulletin of foreign politics. If the task of editing a Review be -arduous for a man, who in the interest of his undertaking must brave -every enmity and quench his individual sympathies, how much more -so for a woman whose staff of contributors is recruited from the -_habitués_ of her _salon_, and who must be constantly tempted to carry -into her official transactions the habits of gracious hospitality -which have made her house one of the most courted political and -literary centres of Paris? - -The aim of the _Nouvelle Revue_ also is to be up with the times; it is -inclined to judge an article rather by the fame of the name at the end -of it than by its own intrinsic merit; it will insert the superficial -lucubrations of General Turr or M. Castelar, which but for the -signature are worthless. It gives political questions an importance -hardly appreciated by those who find all their political needs -supplied by the daily press, and look to a Review for literary or -scientific interests. Finally, the chief obstacle in the way of the -_Nouvelle Revue_ is that our best essayists are bound not only by -chains of gratitude and habit, but also by chains of gold, to the -_Revue des Deux Mondes_. Nevertheless there is plenty of room in -our literary world for a new review, so far at least as writers -are concerned. If she makes talent her aim, and not merely opinions -agreeing with her own, Mme. Adam will not want for contributors. To -get readers will be more difficult in a country of routine, where -the _Revue des Deux Mondes_ has become an indispensable item of every -respectable family's household furniture. Until now the _Nouvelle -Revue_ has been successful; the sale has reached from 6000 to 8000 -copies per number, and, without having yet published anything very -first-rate, it has been fairly well supplied with pleasant articles. -The recollections of the singer Duprez have hitherto been its greatest -attraction. A novel by Mme. Gréville, and articles by MM. de Bornier, -Bigot, and de Gubernatis also deserve mention. - -Perhaps, after all, our judgment is partial, and the success of the -_Nouvelle Revue_ is due to its attention to the immediate interests of -the present, and the space allotted to politics. The number of those -who take an interest in literature daily grows smaller in France. -Of those not absorbed by politics some forsake pure literature for -erudition, and the greater number give themselves up to science. It is -owing to the scholars that the _Revue Philosophique_ is succeeding -so brilliantly; all the scientific societies are flourishing, and -L'Association pour l'Encouragement des Sciences again verified -its growing advancement at its late meeting at Montpellier. The -geographical section, recently founded, promises to become one of the -most active, for geographical studies, so long neglected in France, -have suddenly made an extraordinary start. The Geographical Society -now has 1700 members, and has built itself a magnificent _hôtel_; -the Alpine Club, a geographical rather than a climbing society, is -increasing so rapidly in numbers that it is impossible to give -the exact figure. It amounts to several thousand. If unscrupulous -speculators have taken advantage of this reawakening zeal for -geographical study to publish a swarm of superficial and hastily -compiled handbooks, and carelessly engraved maps, some works of real -merit have appeared that do credit to our French editors. And here -the firm of Hachette holds the first rank. "La Tour du Monde" is an -illustrated journal of travels, admirably arranged and printed; the -great Historical Atlas and Universal Dictionary of Geography of M. -Vivien de Saint Martin have but one fault, the excessive tardiness of -their publication. M. Elisée Reclus's handsome work, "La Terre et les -Hommes," on the contrary, is issued with unexceptionable regularity. -The fifth volume, now approaching completion, comprises the countries -of Northern Europe, principally Russia, which is now attracting the -attention of historians and politicians generally. M. Reclus's point -of view is especially calculated to answer to the nature of the -present interest, for he enters more particularly into the relations -of the people to the soil; to the administrative geography, details -concerning which are to be found everywhere, he pays only secondary -attention, devoting himself more especially to the physical geography, -customs, and institutions. His book is more particularly a work on -geology, ethnography, and sociology; and therein lies its originality -and usefulness. Hachette is also engaged in publishing a map of France -that exceeds in beauty and precision everything that has ever been -produced of the kind until now. It is drawn by the Service des Chemins -Vicinaux at the expense of the Ministry of Interior, and will consist -of 467 sheets. The scale is 1/100000. The admirable engraver, M. -Erhard, has been entrusted with the execution, which is beyond -criticism alike as regards fulness of detail, clearness, and -colouring. Each sheet costs only 75c., a moderate sum, considering the -exceptional merit of the work, the most considerable of its kind since -the Staff map. A proof of the importance attached in these days to the -study of geography is the foundation of Chairs of Geography in several -of our Faculties of Letters--Bordeaux, Lyons, Nancy--and a course of -lectures on historical geography at the École des Hautes Études. This -course will be given by M. A. Longnon, whose works on "Les Pagi de la -Gaule" and "La Géographie de la Gaule au sixième siècle," have made -him a European authority. By the combined use of the philological -laws of the transmutation of sounds, historical documents, and -archæological data, he has reached a precision it seemed impossible to -attain in these matters. He may be said to have founded a new science, -and the happiest results are to be expected from his teaching. - -There is always a lull in the artistic as in the literary and -scientific world during the summer and autumn, so that there is little -of importance to be noted. The designs sent in for the monument to -Rabelais, for the statue of the Republic, for a decorative curtain to -be executed by the Gobelins, all public works opened to competition, -have been exhibited. The question of such competitions was much -discussed on the occasion. It seems at first sight the best way of -securing the highest work, but practically it is not so. Artists of -acknowledged merit do not generally care to enter into competition -with brother artists; they shrink from the expense, often -considerable, which, in case of failure, is thrown away. That -incurred, for instance, by the competitors for the statue of the -Republic, amounted to about 4000 francs, and the premium awarded to -the three best designs to just that sum. It would evidently always be -better, when a really fine work is required, to choose the artist most -capable of executing it well, and leave him free to follow his own -inspiration. This method seems too little democratic for the days in -which we live, so under colour of democracy a number of poor devils -are made to involve themselves in enormous expenses for nothing. - -The most notable events of the last three months in the artistic world -have been the deaths of men variously famous. M. Viollet Le Duc leaves -behind him the twofold reputation of a learned archæologist of the -first order and an archæological architect still more remarkable. He -had fame, indeed, of a third kind--as a stirring and noisy politician, -who, from having been one of Napoleon III.'s familiar associates, and -a constant guest at Compiègne, became one of the most advanced members -of the Municipal Council of Paris, a _courtisan_ of the multitude. -But one is glad to forget him under these unfavourable aspects and -to think of him only as the author of the two great historical -dictionaries of "L'Architecture" and "Le Mobilier," and the clever and -learned restorer of our mediæval monuments. Thanks to him, Notre Dame -has been completed and finished, and reconstituted in the very spirit -of the thirteenth century; thanks to him, we have at Pierrefonds -the perfect model of a feudal castle. An indefatigable worker, -this Radical has allied his name in a manner as glorious as it is -indissoluble to the visible memorials of Catholic and Monarchical -France. - -Of a slighter, but perhaps more universal kind still was the -reputation of the caricaturist Cham, or, to speak more correctly, -the Viscomte de Noé. Son of a French peer known for his retrograde -opinions, Cham worked all his life for the Republican papers, though -people say he adhered to his Legitimist opinions. But he enjoyed -an independence in the Republican papers which would not have been -allowed him by the reactionary press; and a caricaturist's first -condition is to have plenty of elbow-room to be able to give free -play to his humour. The spring of Cham's humour was inexhaustible. -An indifferent and monotonous draughtsman, his mind was wholly and -entirely in the story of his drawings. The war of ridicule he waged -in 1848 against the Socialistic theories of Proudhon, Pierre Leroux, -Cabet, and Considérant exercised an undoubted influence on the public -mind. His comic reviews of the annual Salon contained, amongst many -amusing follies, some just and stinging criticisms. Cham leaves no -successor, Bertall, who is a cleverer draughtsman, has none of his -wit; Grévin can only sketch with exquisite grace the ladies of the -demi-monde and the young fops of the boulevard; Gill's political -caricatures are either bitter or violent. The lively and good-natured -raillery of Cham has no doubt vanished for ever. - -In conjunction with these two artists the name of a man should be -mentioned, who, himself an indifferent artist, was the unfailing -patron, the providence of artists, Baron Taylor, who died almost at -the same time as Cham. He it was who taught artists to form themselves -into associations against want. He was in particular the soul of the -Société des Artistes Dramatiques, and amongst the immense crowd that -attended his funeral were, no doubt, hundreds indebted to him for an -easy career and a sure means of existence. - -We are a long way removed from the time when the life of an artist was -one long struggle with misery, when men of the first class continued -obscure or barely maintained themselves by their works. Many -difficulties still remain no doubt, but how much smoother the road -has become! Musicians, more especially, found themselves in those -days condemned to obscurity and oblivion. Now, thanks to concerts and -theatres, they can almost always have the public for their judges. The -Opera is at present in the hands of an enterprising and intelligent -director, M. Vaucorbeil, who is anxious to rescue it from the groove -it has been dragging on in for so long, with its current repertory of -two or three antiquated works, barely bringing out a new one in four -or five years. True, we have not got beyond good intentions until -now, M. Gounod still intending to retouch the "Tribu de Zamora," M. A. -Thomas to finish his "Françoise de Rimini," and M. Saint-Saens still -unsuccessful in getting his "Etienne Marcel" accepted. Besides the -Grand Opéra there is L'Opéra Populaire located in the Gaîté's old -quarters, which intends, it is said, to revive the lost traditions of -the lyric theatre, and to be the theatre of the young generation and -of reform. But at present it is to the Pasdeloup and Colonne Concerts -that the rising musical school owes the opportunity of making itself -heard, and the Parisian public its familiar acquaintance with foreign -works. The great reputation M. Saint-Saens now enjoys was made at -Colonne's Concerts at the Châtelet. Lately Schumann's "Manfred" was -given there. At the Cirque the "Symphonie Fantastique," by Berlioz, -was played with immense success, also for the first time a pianoforte -concerto by the Russian composer, Tschaikovsky, and M. Pasdeloup -shortly intends to give a performance of the whole of the music of -"Lohengrin." - -Considered apart from music, the theatre is far from improving, and -has, moreover, become the scene of performances that bear no relation -to dramatic art. At the Nouveautés, Professor Hermann, of Vienna, is -performing sleight-of-hand feats bordering on the miraculous; at the -Variétés the Hanlon-Lees have transformed the stage into a gymnasium, -where they defy every law of equilibrium and gravity. Holden's -Marionettes, also one of the great attractions of the day, are not -more dislocated or agile than these wonderful mountebanks. In the way -of new plays the great rage at present is "Jonathan," M. Gondinet's -latest work, which is being played at the Gymnase. Neither its wit -nor its cleverness, any more than the talent of the actors, are to -be denied; but what are we to think of a dramatic art whose sole end -would seem to be to get accepted on the stage a story so scandalous -that a brief account of it would be intolerable? By dint of shifts, -doubtful insinuations, fun, and spirit, the sight of it is just -rendered endurable. No heed is paid to truth, nor to either character -or manners. It is the last utterance of the literary decadence. We -thought that with "Bébé" we had reached the utmost limits of this kind -of piece. To "Jonathan" is due the honour of having extended those -limits. - -One feels grateful to those who, like M. Claretie, dare to shed a -purer atmosphere over the stage. "Les Mirabeau" is far from being -a masterpiece. It exhibits, like all M. Claretie's works, rather a -careless facility, but at the same time a true understanding of the -Revolutionary period; the tone is strong and healthy, and some -scenes, in which Mdlle. Rousseil shows herself a great actress, are -exceedingly dramatic. It is given at an enterprising theatre, the -Théâtre des Nations, which is devoting itself to historical -drama, and, in a double series of dramatic matinées held on Sunday -afternoons, is giving, on the one hand, a set of plays relating to -every epoch of French history, on the other, a set of foreign plays -translated into French, and intended to promote the knowledge of -the dramatic works of other countries, ancient as well as modern; an -ingenious and happy undertaking, to which we cannot but wish every -success. - - G. MONOD. - - - * * * * * - -Transcriber's Note: - -Some of the words from the Article, "Hinduisn and Jainism" contain -vowels with macron accents (line above the letter). These are -depicted as [=A], [=a], [=i], [=u]. Some words in the article -contain stand-alone acute accents, which have been retained. - -e.g., As´oka; Pars´van[=a]tha; Pajj[=u]san; S[=a]dhvin[=i]; -S´iva-r[=a]tri; Up[=a]s´raya; - - -Errata: - -Page 555: 'Governmeut' corrected to 'Government' - -"... was forced upon the Government by the attitude of Russia...." - -Page 580: 'botantist' corrected to 'botanist'. - -"... by the German botantist, Hildebrand,..." - -Page 642: 'is' corrected to 'Is' - -"... in bonds and debentures? Is not part of the profit realized...." - -Page 714: Extraneous 'the' removed. -"Besides the Grand Opéra there is L'Opéra Populaire [the] located...." - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Contemporary Review, Volume 36, -December 1879, by Various - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CONTEMPORARY REVIEW *** - -***** This file should be named 40315-8.txt or 40315-8.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/0/3/1/40315/ - -Produced by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier, Lesley Halamek -and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -http://www.pgdp.net - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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