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diff --git a/old/40286.txt b/old/40286.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 4f89e8a..0000000 --- a/old/40286.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,4036 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Decoration of Leather, by Georges de Recy - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: The Decoration of Leather - From the French of Georges de Recy - -Author: Georges de Recy - -Translator: Maude Nathan - -Release Date: July 20, 2012 [EBook #40286] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DECORATION OF LEATHER *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Henry Gardiner and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - * * * * * - -[Illustration] - - * * * * * - -Transcriber's Note: The original publication has been replicated -faithfully except as shown in the TRANSCRIBER'S AMENDMENTS near the end of -the text. To preserve the alignment of tables and headers, this etext -presumes a mono-spaced font on the user's device, such as Courier New. -Words in italics are indicated like _this_. - - * * * * * - -[Illustration: 1. BLIND-STAMPED LEATHER BINDING OF THE _WINCHESTER -DOMESDAY BOOK_. ENGLISH, 12TH CENTURY.] - - - - - THE DECORATION - OF LEATHER - - FROM THE FRENCH OF - GEORGES DE RECY - - BY - MAUDE NATHAN - - WITH ILLUSTRATIONS AND EXAMPLES OF - LEATHER DECORATION FROM VARIOUS - SOURCES - - - LONDON - ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE & CO LTD - 1905 - - - BUTLER & TANNER, - THE SELWOOD PRINTING WORKS, - FROME, AND LONDON. - - - - - TRANSLATOR'S NOTE - - -In a preface which is omitted from this translation, the author claims for -his work a place between the books dealing solely with the history and -development of the art of working in leather and those of which the object -is to impart a knowledge of the technique of its various processes to -amateurs who may be unable or unwilling to undertake a regular course of -instruction. He points out that leather, in its adaptability to many -different kinds of treatment, is a material eminently suited to the -interpretation of the style of decoration known as "modern art." - -In the French edition there are numerous reproductions of examples of -leather decoration and of ornament intended for adaptation to -leather-work. In the following translation these illustrations and also a -short chapter referring to them are omitted, and some examples of -leather-work derived from various English sources are substituted. The -text of the work has been generally somewhat abridged. The fact that there -are many technical and other terms in French that have no exact equivalent -in our own language, has rendered a free translation desirable, but the -meaning of the original text has been carefully preserved. - - - - - CONTENTS - - - PAGE - - TRANSLATOR'S NOTE 5 - - INTRODUCTION - THE DECORATION OF LEATHER IN THE PAST 13 - - CHAPTER I - TOOLS AND LEATHER 15 - - CHAPTER II - METHODS OF WORKING IN LEATHER 19 - - CHAPTER III - LEATHER MOSAIC 42 - - CHAPTER IV - DYES, _PATINES_ AND GILDING 64 - - CHAPTER V - THE CHOICE OF DESIGN AND COLOUR 76 - - APPENDIX - LEATHER HANGINGS AND FURNITURE 80 - - NOTE - SOME EXTRACTS FROM THE REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON - LEATHER FOR BOOKBINDING, APPOINTED BY THE COUNCIL - OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, FEBRUARY, 1900 90 - - INDEX 96 - - - - - LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - - - ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT - - FIG. PAGE - - 1. Tracing-point 20 - - 2, 3. Incising knife used downwards like a pencil 21 - - 4, 5. Incising knife used upwards 22 - - 6, 7. Incising knife held like a graver and pushed forward 23 - - 8. Executing a slanting cut when the edge of the leather - is to be subsequently turned up 24 - - 9. Opener 25 - - 10. Enlarging the outline with the opener 25 - - 11. Slanting cut 26 - - 11a. Showing the difficulty of raising the inner edge _A_ 26 - - 12. Lowering the outer edge with a modeller 29 - - 13. Ball-shaped steel tool with handle 32 - - 14. Position of hands in embossing leather 32 - - 15. Tool for working reed decoration 34 - - 16. Using a hand punch 36 - - 17. Cutting-out knife 40 - - 18. Paring knife 43 - - 19. Paring knife 43 - - 20. Paring leather 44 - - 21. Cutting-out knife 46 - - 22. Cutting-out knife 46 - - 23. Cutting-out knife 46 - - 24. Cutting out inlay 48 - - 25. Using roller to secure adhesion of inlay 51 - - 26. First position of outlining tool 53 - - 27. Second position of outlining tool 53 - - 28. Gouge outliner 56 - - 29. Outlining wheel 56 - - 30. Gouge outliner 56 - - 31. Straight outliner 56 - - 32. Polishing mosaic 57 - - 33, 34. Sticking inlay on morocco ground with tool (Fig. 33) - instead of roller, to avoid crushing the grain 60 - - - FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS - - PLATE _Page_ - - 1. Blind-stamped leather binding of the _Winchester - Domesday Book_. English, 12th century. (_Frontispiece_) - - SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES, LONDON. - - 2. Casket covered with stamped leather, _cuir bouilli_. German, - 14th century. 22 - - SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM. - - 3. Coffret covered with leather, incised, coloured and gilt. French, - 14th century. 24 - - SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM. - - 4. Casket covered with embossed leather, _cuir bouilli_. French, - early 15th century. 28 - - SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM. - - 5. Case of cut and embossed leather, _cuir bouilli_. Italian, 15th - century. 32 - - SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM. - - 6. Blind-stamped morocco binding with gilt roundels and coloured - cameo design. _Celsus._ _De Medicina._ _Venice_, 1477. - Italian, 15th century. 37 - - BRITISH MUSEUM. - - 7. Case of cut and punched leather. German, 15th century. 40 - - SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM. - - 8. Brown leather binding, cut and engraved, with punched background. - _German MS. Chronicle of Events._ German, - 15th century. 44 - - BODLEIAN LIBRARY, OXFORD. - - 9. Cover of case for a cup in wood covered with leather, _cuir - bouilli_, cut, embossed, painted and gilt. Italian, about - 1500. 49 - - SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM. - - 10. Cover of work-box of wood covered with embossed leather, - _cuir bouilli_. German, 16th century. 56 - - SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM. - - 11. Powder-flask of wood covered with leather, _cuir bouilli_, cut - and embossed. Italian, 16th century. 56 - - SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM. - - 12. Shield of cut and embossed leather, _cuir bouilli_. Italian, - 16th century. 60 - - SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM. - - 13. Top of casket covered with brown calf, cut and slightly - embossed. By Florence Hornblower. Modern English. 65 - - SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM. - - 14. Embossed and punched brown calf binding. _Rubaiyat of - Omar Khayyam._ Designed by Mary G. Houston. Modern - English. 66 - - SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM. - - 15. Mirror case of punched black leather, _cuir bouilli_. - Executed by Miss Casella. Modern English. 71 - - SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM. - - 16. Black morocco binding with applied panels of tooled, cut, - painted and gilt calf. _Le Roman de Tristan et Iseut._ - Designed by Robert Engels. Modern French. 74 - - SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM. - - 17. Binding of stained calf, cut, embossed, tooled and - _patinated_. By Henri Godin. Modern French. 78 - - SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM. - - 18. Gold-tooled and inlaid morocco binding. _The Letters of - Princess Lieven._ By S. T. Prideaux. Modern English. 82 - - 19. Back and seat of chair in cut, embossed and gilt cowhide - with punched background. Executed by Rosalie Vigers from - a design by Frederick Vigers. Modern English. 84 - - 20. Embossed calf binding. _Book of Common Prayer._ Executed - by Rosalie Vigers from a design by Frederick Vigers. - Modern English. 86 - - - - - INTRODUCTION - - THE DECORATION OF LEATHER IN THE PAST - - -The following remarks, without attempting a description in detail of the -different phases through which the art of decorating leather has passed -since its origin in primitive times, deal with the treatment of leather -solely from the decorative point of view, the present volume being limited -to the consideration of this aspect of the subject. - -In all ages man has sought to develop to their fullest extent the -possibilities of splendour in the materials of his dress, and an important -place in the wardrobes of our early ancestors was filled by skins shorn of -hair, thus lending themselves easily to decoration in many different ways. - -The nomadic races, described to us as at first riding their horses -barebacked to the conquest of the West, soon adopted ornamental trappings -more suited to their position as conquerors, as shown by the marvellous -mosaics of pique leather which from an early date constituted the -foundation of the war-like equipment of the Tartars and Moguls. - -In addition to magnificently woven materials and damascened arms, the -Crusaders brought back with them to Europe, leather ornamented with wool, -silk and precious metals. Europe set itself to imitate this art of working -in leather, and found a source of faultless taste and purest models in -Spain, then occupied by the Moors. - -For several centuries the art of decorating leather remained the -speciality of Spain. The word "cordwainer," derived from Cordova, is a -witness of this monopoly by the Peninsula of everything connected with -leather-work, apart from the modelled and stamped leathers, introduced -into Venice from the East. - -Other countries, however, were doing better work than that of imitating -the celebrated manufactures of Cordova. In Germany especially, leather was -discovered to be an ideal material for rendering the mantles and plumed -helmets of heraldry, while the marvels of carved and embossed leather -preserved in the Dijon Museum are a proof of the interest taken in -leather-work by the great decorative school of the court of Burgundy. - -In the Middle Ages precious stuffs adorned with enamels, ivory and gold -were discarded as covering for the beautiful manuscripts executed by the -monks, and in their place heraldic subjects in carved and modelled leather -were introduced and lent a new character to books which were no longer the -exclusive property of crowned heads. The invention of printing afforded -the Renaissance movement the means of attaining its full development, and -soon called for a less archaic binding for its incunabula. Leather either -decorated in mosaic or tooled in gold formed a perfect covering for these -marvels of typography, and from the end of the fifteenth century to the -present revival of decorated leather both styles have been much in use. - -There are various standard works on this subject, which may be consulted -by those desirous of studying its development further. - - - - - CHAPTER I - - TOOLS AND LEATHER - - - TOOLS - -The few tools essential in leather-work are illustrated in the text, where -their use is described. They comprise: - -1. A Lithographic Stone or a Slab of Marble (preferably the former). - -2. A Tracing-point and some 6H Graphite Pencils. - -3. An Incising Knife. - -4. Modellers of different sizes. - -5. An Opener. - -Special tools, Punches, Wheels etc., are treated of at greater length in -dealing with the different processes in which they are used. - - - CHOICE OF SKINS - -The art of working in leather is now so general that it is not difficult -to obtain skins specially prepared for the purpose. It is an essential -qualification that nothing of a fatty nature be used in their preparation. -The tanning process of the best skins, whether with a glossy surface -artificially obtained by rolling or with a dull surface, should be a very -simple one. Oak and sumach tannins (used especially for morocco leather) -are those which best preserve the suppleness and capillarity of leather. -The susceptibility of its colour to alteration from exposure to light is -greatly influenced by the materials used in tanning. Oak wood and chestnut -are the tannins least influenced by light. Skins tanned with _cassaigre_ -and mimosa, light at first, become darkened in a marked degree by -exposure.[1] - -[1] See the observations on the importance of the tanning process in the -preservation of leather, in the Note at the end of this volume. - -So many varieties of leather are on the market that some guide will be -found useful in selecting the most suitable for the different methods of -decoration. These methods may be classified as follows: - - Cut, or engraved leather. - Carved leather. - Punched or hammered leather. - Modelled leather. - Modelled leather with punched background. - Leather decorated by pyrogravure and pointogravure. - Stamped leather. - Open-work leather. - Leather mosaic. - -The leathers which may be used in these various styles of decoration are - - Sheep-skin. - Cow-hide. - Calf. - Ox-hide. - Morocco. - Russia. - Pig-skin. - Chamois. - Vellum. - -Sheepskin does not lend itself either to incising or to carving and is -only useful for cheap work; it is very malleable and models easily, but -for that reason lacks the firmness of calf when modelled. It is also not -possible to get such good colour results with sheep-skin as with calf, -cow-hide, or ox-hide. It can be used for large work, such as -wall-hangings, screens, etc., but is not recommended. Beginners, however, -will find it useful on account of its low price. - -Cow and calf are the most suitable leathers for really artistic work. -Cow-hide may be obtained with either a glossy or a dull surface; the dull -skins are sold specially prepared for decorating and give good results, -the smoothness of their surface making them particularly suitable for -modelling and pyrogravure. - -Calf varies greatly in thickness and colour. It should be noted that in -carved and modelled work the advantages of great malleability in the -material are more than counterbalanced by the disadvantages; durable -results cannot be obtained with very malleable leather which yields easily -to the tool, and since high relief can be worked without difficulty in -comparatively thick leather by damping it, its use is much to be -preferred. - -Ox-hide is frequently as thick as strong cardboard and is the ideal -leather for carving, hammering and pyrogravure. In cut decoration a better -effect can be obtained with this leather than with thinner skins, and -being very firm, it is equally suitable for modelling. - -Morocco leather, which is mostly of the kind called "Cape morocco," is -goat-skin with a grained surface produced by pressing hard seeds upon the -skin while it is still damp from the tanning. For bookbinding and similar -purposes this grain is crushed by pressing hot plates heavily on the -surface. The only way of decorating leather so treated is by an inlay (or -literally _onlay_) of skins of other colours, and is known as Leather -Mosaic.[2] - -[2] See the chapter on Leather Mosaic, p. 42. - -The so-called Russia leather is generally very light and soft and well -adapted to modelling on wax. It should not be cut. - -Pig-skin is very firm and was formerly much used for the fine stamped -bindings of the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries. It does -not lend itself well to carving, but is very suitable for pyrogravure -because of the contrast between its light tint and the dark brown mark -produced by the hot tool. - -Chamois leather, which is not always prepared from the skins of deer or -chamois, is only suitable for flat ornament. It may be decorated by -pyrogravure or with stencilled ornament, or used in its natural colour as -background to an open-work pattern of leather of another colour. - -Vellum, a very thin and stiff white skin, can be decorated with brush or -pen-work. It is principally used for bookbinding. Those who wish to paint -on vellum can draw their inspiration from the marvellous miniatures of the -Middle Ages: a description of this style of decoration, however, does not -come within the scope of the present work. - - - - - CHAPTER II - - METHODS OF WORKING IN LEATHER - - - TRACING THE DESIGN ON THE LEATHER - -In this chapter the different processes which may be used in the -decoration of leather will each be described in turn. - -The preliminary operation of tracing the design on the leather is however -common to them all. - -The design should in the first instance be drawn on fairly thick -tracing-paper or architect's linen. This should then be fixed on the -leather in such a way that it does not move during the transfer of the -design, but so that it is possible to lift it to ascertain the progress of -the work. It will be found convenient to fold the edge of the -tracing-paper over the top edge of the leather and fix it with seccotine. - -The leather must be wet in order to take the impression of the tracing. A -soft, slightly damp sponge is passed several times evenly over the whole -surface; if only a part of the leather were wetted an aureole would form -round that part and would leave a permanent mark. When the leather has -once been wetted all over there is no further fear of this, and it may -then be damped again in parts when necessary. Practice alone will make it -possible to judge accurately the degree of saturation that each skin -requires to bring it into a fit condition for working on; speaking -generally, the water should have penetrated the leather so that the -pressure of the tool will not bring it back to the surface. Neglect of -this rule might result in staining the leather. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.--TRACING-POINT] - -The design is transferred to the leather by means of a metal tracing-point -(Fig. 1). An agate or ebony point, or an exceedingly hard 6H graphite -pencil, may also be used for the purpose. The pencil possesses the -additional advantage that it can be given a very fine point where an extra -thin and sharp outline is required. Doubling the outline by going over it -twice should be avoided. From time to time the tracing-paper or linen -should be raised to see that the design is being well marked on the -leather. The outline should be dark; when it comes light it is a proof -that the leather is too dry and requires damping again. - - - INCISING THE LEATHER - -This being the first operation in working thick leather by carving, -engraving and modelling, it will be dealt with before passing to the -different processes peculiar to these methods of decoration. The incising -is done after the design has been traced. There are numerous incising -knives for the purpose which vary in shape and are manipulated in -different ways; no one of them can be specially recommended as notably -superior to the rest, and the artist should choose the one with which he -feels most likely to succeed. The knife illustrated in Fig. 2 is used with -a downward movement and is held--as shown in Fig. 3--very short, so as to -obtain a sufficient purchase over the blade which is guided by the middle -finger. The knife illustrated in Fig. 4 is used upwards. Fig. 5 shows the -manner in which it should be held to produce a vertical cut. It will be -found of great assistance in making a good firm cut to guide the right -hand with the left hand as in Fig. 5. When curved lines are to be cut, -the left hand must be used to turn the leather so as to present it in the -most favourable position for the operation of the blade. The third knife -(Fig. 6) is held like a graver with the handle supported against the palm -of the hand and is pushed forward (Fig. 7). It is useful in cutting curved -lines over a large surface. The depth of the incision should vary -according to the effect to be produced by the subsequent operation, but -it should never exceed a third of the thickness of the skin. - -[Illustration: 2. CASKET COVERED WITH STAMPED LEATHER, _CUIR BOUILLI_. -GERMAN, 14TH CENTURY.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 2, FIG. 3.--INCISING KNIFE USED DOWNWARDS LIKE A -PENCIL] - -Thin skins should rarely be cut, and, if they are cut, the incision should -barely penetrate the surface. On ox-hide the depth of the cut may be -considerable without danger of impairing the strength of the leather. - -[Illustration: FIG. 4, FIG. 5.--INCISING KNIFE USED UPWARDS] - -When the leather is to be modelled in high relief, the design should be -well separated from the background in the cutting process. The incision -should also be deep when the outline is to be accentuated afterwards with -a tool called an "opener" (Fig. 9) to produce an effect like the leading -in stained glass. - -Should it be desired to raise and turn up the edge of the leather to -simulate a leaf, petal, or piece of ribbon detached from the background, -the knife must be held slanting, as in Fig. 8, so as to make an almost -horizontal cut. - -[Illustration: FIG. 6, FIG. 7.--INCISING KNIFE HELD LIKE A GRAVER AND -PUSHED FORWARD] - -However thick the leather may be, it is important that two lines should -never be cut quite up to the point of intersection. For example, in -cutting the outline of a leaf, the points of the indentations should be -left uncut to avoid the tendency of the part within the angle to project -and turn back. Sufficient impression can be obtained with the modelling -tool to give a finished effect to these points. - -[Illustration: FIG. 8.--EXECUTING A SLANTING CUT WHEN THE EDGE OF THE -LEATHER IS TO BE SUBSEQUENTLY TURNED UP] - -The incision must be clean and sharp, and absolutely vertical, except -where it is made slanting for the purpose described above. - -[Illustration: 3. COFFRET COVERED WITH LEATHER, INCISED, COLOURED AND -GILT. FRENCH, 14TH CENTURY.] - - - CUT OR ENGRAVED LEATHER - -[Illustration: FIG. 9.--OPENER FIG. 10.--ENLARGING THE OUTLINE WITH THE -OPENER] - -Leather with flat decoration in outline of even thickness is called cut, -or engraved leather. The tool used to enlarge and accentuate the outline -is called an opener. It is like a straight modeller broadened in the -centre and with a blunt point (Fig. 9), or a small blade with the point -cut off square and the angles rounded. When the leather has been well -wetted and the water has thoroughly soaked in, the end of the opener is -inserted in the incision and pushed along it with a very slight and gentle -gliding movement. The broader part of the opener will act as a wedge and -widen the cut evenly. Openers can be had in various sizes to produce lines -of different width. When the design is to be modelled afterwards, an -opener should be used which broadens on the right side only; held slightly -slanting, it will press down the outside edge of the incision which is to -be sunk into the ground. Fig. 10 shows the manner of holding the tool; it -should be worked backwards and forwards to make sure that the edges are -evenly parted. The left hand may help to guide the point to prevent it -from slipping off the line. - -[Illustration: FIG. 11.--SLANTING CUT] - -[Illustration: FIG. 11a.--SHOWING THE DIFFICULTY OF RAISING THE INNER EDGE -(A)] - -To be able to accomplish satisfactorily this operation of opening the -outline, it will be found that the incision must be absolutely vertical. -Supposing it to have been made slanting as in Fig. 11, it will be easy to -sink the outer edge (B) into the ground, but when it comes to raising the -inner edge (A) an excess of material will be encountered which will offer -stubborn resistance to being raised in a direction contrary to that of the -incision (Fig. 11a). The opener should not be moved at too great an angle -in the incision as the point, though blunt, may yet be sharp enough to cut -and spoil the modelling by raising the surface of the leather. - -After it has been outlined, the leather may be further decorated by -variously tinting the parts within the lines, if the style of the design -will admit of such treatment; an effect similar to leather mosaic is thus -produced. (See Chapter III.) - -Pyrogravure, or engraving with a hot tool (see p. 36), gives a very -similar effect to that of cut or engraved leather, the only difference in -the appearance of the work thus decorated being due to the slight burr of -the edges and the darkening of the line caused by the hot tool. This -effect of dark colour can, however, be added to cut leather by colouring -the lines with a dye applied with a fine brush. In order to prevent the -colour penetrating and spreading beyond the lines, the latter should be -lightly coated with paste before the dye is applied. - - - CARVED LEATHER - -Great expertness is required in carving leather, that is to say, in -producing lines so deep that the design stands out sufficiently from the -background to allow of its being ornamented by independent lines less -deeply worked. - -Some leather cases from the Dijon Museum, which were exhibited at the -Petit Palais in Paris in the year 1900, are good examples of carving, and -the manner in which they are finished with touches of gold is very -characteristic. The style and method of production of these examples may -well be imitated. Decoration on ogee-shaped lines is to be avoided, as, -however artistically treated, it is apt to bring to mind the stamped -leather of the so-called "Cathedral Style," specimens of which filled the -libraries of the romantic period of about 1830. - -Besides the tools enumerated above, some artists use the gravers and -gouges employed in chasing metal and wood-carving, but a great deal of -practice is necessary for their proper handling, and they cannot be -recommended to the inexperienced worker. - -Pyrogravure is an alternative method of producing strongly accentuated -lines, and by the judicious use of punches an infinite variety of -interesting background effects can be obtained. - -Before leaving the subject of carved leather, mention must be made of -_cuir bouilli_, which was used in conjunction with it during the Middle -Ages, chiefly for sheaths and cases, and is now unfortunately a lost -art.[3] Mons. de Saint Andre de Lignereux, in _Le Cuir d'Art francais_, -tells us that the leather was boiled with gums and resins obtained from -the East, and moulded and cut while still soft from this treatment.[4] - -[3] An example of modern English work in leather treated in a somewhat -similar manner is given in Plate 15. - -[4] _Le Cuir d'Art francais_, par Saint Andre de Lignereux, Etampes, 1900. - - - PUNCHES - -Punches are steel or brass tools, having at the point a design cut in -relief or in intaglio, which are impressed on the leather either by the -hand alone or with a hammer The design is thus reproduced on the leather -with the impression contrary to that on the tool. For hand pressure only, -they should be fixed in wooden handles to afford greater grip and power. -They may be used hot; the design will then appear darkened on the leather. - -Punches are also employed in tooling with gold leaf, or in burnishing the -impression of their surface on groundwork gilded with shell gold. - - - HAMMERED LEATHER - -Leather decorated entirely by means of punches is called hammered leather. -It is used in the style of decoration described later under the name of -modelled leather with punched background, and can also be employed with -great advantage in conjunction with carved leather. - -[Illustration: 4. CASKET COVERED WITH EMBOSSED LEATHER, _CUIR BOUILLI_. -FRENCH, EARLY 15TH CENTURY.] - - - MODELLED LEATHER - -Leather may be modelled in two ways; with a cut outline or with the -traced outline merely accentuated with the tracing-point or opener. In the -former case the leather must be fairly thick, in the latter it may be thin -calf or Russia, which is very soft and delicate. - -[Illustration: FIG. 12.--LOWERING THE OUTER EDGE WITH A MODELLER] - -Leather modelled after being cut should, when finished, have the -appearance, with regard to the relief, of a metal or modelled wax plaque. -The leather takes the desired shape easily, and should therefore be -delicately handled. - -The great charm of modelled leather lies in the softness of its forms, and -care must be taken to avoid irregularly cut outlines which disagreeably -arrest the eye by failing to merge into the ground. - -Faulty incisions, or those too deeply cut, are liable to leave a light -line between the modelled subject and the background, due to the cut -having exposed not only the surface, but the inner substance of the -leather. This light line will also have a tendency to appear if the -modelling is not done directly after the opening of the lines, or if they -are too widely opened, or if the opener is too sharp and unduly deepens -the cut. The fault can be remedied by staining the line to match the -surface of the leather. - - - MODELLING TOOLS - -The tools used for modelling are not numerous; two or three modellers, -more or less fine and of different curves, (Fig. 12) are sufficient. A -special tool, called _Pied de Biche_ (hind's foot) in allusion to its -shape, is also useful in depressing the ground at right angles to the -modelling. Modellers may be either of nickelled steel or of brass, -provided that the convex side with which the leather is modelled be -perfectly smooth. It is better not to use ordinary steel which, when the -leather is wet, might cause it to become stained through the rusting of -the tool occasioned by the materials used in tanning. It may also be -mentioned here that when using acids for _patine_,[5] steel tools should -be kept away from the work. Hydrochloric acid in particular will rust them -so badly in a single night as to make them unusable unless they are -repolished. - -[5] See note to page 64. - - - EMBOSSING LEATHER - -When the leather is thick it must be thoroughly wetted on both sides; it -is then taken in the left hand, the portion to be embossed being between -the forefinger and thumb, which are laid flat on the surface of the -leather, while the other three fingers form the under part of this species -of clamp, and ensure the leather remaining steady (Fig. 14). Steel clamps -are made for fixing the end of the leather to the table, but the system of -holding it in the hand is preferable, except for very large work, as it -can be more readily moved about. - -[Illustration: FIG. 13.--BALL-SHAPED STEEL TOOL WITH HANDLE FIG. -14.--POSITION OF HANDS IN EMBOSSING LEATHER] - -A modeller or a tool consisting of a small steel ball with a handle (Fig. -13) is then worked backwards and forwards with more or less pressure on -the back of the leather until the desired degree of relief is obtained. It -is possible to work very high relief by this method. - -Another way of embossing in high relief, which we believe to be here -described for the first time, is as follows: The outline of the design -must first be traced on the flesh side of the leather. This is done by -placing blue transfer paper under the leather, with the blue side -uppermost, while the design is being transferred to the surface of the -leather with the tracing-point in the manner described on p. 20. A chamois -leather bag, about 16 x 12 inches in size, is filled with very fine, -carefully sifted sand, and then sewn up as tightly as possible, so that -the surface is quite taut. The bag is placed on the table, and the leather -face downwards upon it. The steel ball is then rubbed to and fro, on the -flesh side of the leather, at the point to be embossed, and the relief is -produced as the sand yields under the pressure of the tool. The sand gives -enough support to the leather, however, to prevent it stretching too much, -as it would be liable to do if merely extended over a frame. - -The next process is to open the incisions. This is not done till after the -leather has been embossed in order not to further impair the strength of -the leather at the outline, already diminished to some extent by cutting. -The object of opening the incision is to facilitate the flattening of the -outer edge so that it merges into the ground and the graduated modelling -of the inner edge to form the softened outline of the ornament in relief. - -[Illustration: 5. CASE OF CUT AND EMBOSSED LEATHER, _CUIR BOUILLI_. -ITALIAN, 15TH CENTURY.] - -To obtain this soft effect, the modeller is gently passed from left to -right over the angle formed by the inner edge of the incision and the -surface of the modelling. The tool may be lifted and the leather turned -about to place it in the right position for this movement. The leather is -frequently wetted (but not to such a degree, however, that the water oozes -out of the surface when the modeller is used), and assumes the substance -of wax. Should it show a tendency to rise after it has been depressed, it -must be gone over again with the tool; if the leather is of good quality, -it will keep the modelling permanently when it is once dry. - -Care must be taken to avoid making a false impression; the least contact -of the tool with the leather will leave a mark on the damp surface, which -it is not always possible to efface from beneath. - -Having dealt with cut and modelled leather, we now turn to modelling -without cutting, the outline of the design being first simply marked out -with the tracing-point, or with the opener held very slanting to avoid -wrinkling the surface of the skin. This process should be adopted in -preference to the preceding one, for comparatively thin skins which would -not bear cutting. The relief may be obtained in the manner described above -by working it up from the back of the leather, or the leather may be laid -surface upwards on a cake of wax and the design brought out in low relief -by depressing the background with the tool. Better results are obtained -with the latter method. The wax is applied under the parts to be modelled, -which must be accurately marked out for this purpose on the under side of -the leather, and thin paper is pasted underneath it to keep it in place -and prevent it sticking to the table; or a very smooth, thin tablet of wax -is placed on stout cardboard under the entire piece of leather; when in -position, the edges of the leather should be turned over and firmly fixed -underneath the cardboard in such a manner as to prevent the wax forcing -itself out under the pressure of the tool. The wax must be prepared with -spirit to expel the grease or contact with it would stain the leather. - -After thoroughly wetting the leather, the outline should be well -accentuated with the opener and the design brought out by lowering the -ground all round it with a fine modeller. The modelling is then done by -working the tool with varying pressure and is held in place by the wax. - -[Illustration: FIG. 15.--TOOL FOR WORKING REED DECORATION] - -Beginners are advised to start by copying a plaster cast, in order to get -a full understanding of the values of relief. - -The subject of wax supports brings us to that of padding the relief to -preserve its form, which may be done in many different materials. The -padding may be made of a special wax treated like cement, or of absorbent -cotton-wool soaked in a paste made of flour and water, or of cuttings of -glove skins shredded very fine[6] and mixed dry with talc, flour, -dextrine, etc., forming a liquid paste when water is added which can -easily be run into the hollows of the relief. This paste solidifies -rapidly, and is not affected by damp. Cardboard or cork scraped very fine -and mixed with paste or flour and water will also form a durable padding. -A special padding made with a round cotton cord dipped in flour mixed with -cold water is employed for flower stems and the so-called reed -decoration--a decoration consisting of a round line in relief of uniform -width, which lends itself to many combinations, and is worked with the -tool illustrated in Fig. 15. It may also be used in modelling the relief -by pasting it first on the back of the leather and, when dry, moulding the -leather with a modeller over the projection on the surface caused by its -thickness. - -[6] _Dollage de gants._ - - - MODELLED LEATHER WITH PUNCHED BACKGROUND - -When the leather has been cut before being modelled, the punch completes -the work of the modeller in sinking the outer edge of the incision into -the background. To do this perfectly, the edge of the punch must be placed -very exactly against the outline of the raised design; the handle should -be held slanting slightly to the left in working; extra pressure will thus -fall towards the right on that part which, in spite of having been sunk by -the modeller, will always show a tendency to rise if the punch be used too -flat upon the surface. - -A hammer, though useful in working certain punches which depend upon being -deeply impressed to produce a good effect, requires great sureness of hand -when used as described above, to prevent overstepping the limits of the -outline, and punches in wooden handles are much to be preferred for this -work. Too deep an impression is avoided by their use, and, by guiding the -end of the punch with the left hand, it can be placed more surely in the -right position and worked by the steady pressure of the wrist. (Fig. 16.) - -The most useful punches are those producing a powdered or a very small -check pattern. With these there is no need for the impressions to be -arranged in any regular order; it is indeed better that they should -slightly overlap so that no part of the ground is left out. The effect of -some punches is dependent on their arrangement in combination; others can -be arranged independently to form a _semis_--a pattern made up by the -repetition of some given figure at intervals. - -Wheels, either plain or having a more or less broad surface engraved with -any kind of pattern (such as a check diaper, pearling or arabesques), are -used for outlining or for continuous patterns, or for producing imitations -of shagreened leather. - -An excellent effect can be obtained by varnishing the parts depressed by -the punch to make the colour adhere, and then painting them with _gouache_ -or bronzes. By rubbing the leather afterwards with a woollen cloth, the -colour or bronze is easily removed from the unvarnished modelling. - - - PYROGRAVURE - -[Illustration: FIG. 16.--USING A HAND PUNCH] - -The tools employed in pyrogravure are based on the same principle as the -instrument for thermo-cautery in surgery. The apparatus in most general -use consists of a platinum point mounted in a hollow metal handle -connected by a rubber tube with a pear-shaped rubber blower. This blower -serves to inject through a tube the carburetted air from a small benzine -reservoir attached to it. The incandescence of the point is maintained by -this constant injection, and the lines are burnt more or less deeply -according to the degree of incandescence, and the pressure applied. The -great difficulty is to keep the line of even thickness throughout. The -points are to be had of different shapes according to the effect desired. -Some are pierced at the end, so that the carburetted air escaping leaves a -mark on the leather similar to that which would be produced by a hot iron -grazing its surface. In this way a brown tint is obtained varying in -darkness in proportion to the proximity of the point to the leather. - -[Illustration: 6. BLIND-STAMPED MOROCCO BINDING WITH GILT ROUNDELS AND -COLOURED CAMEO DESIGN. _CELSUS._ _DE MEDICINA._ _VENICE_, 1477. ITALIAN, -15TH CENTURY.] - -There are also rather large blowers which are worked automatically by -compressed air, while others have a pedal action like a sewing machine. - -It would be difficult to explain the many ways of handling the point so as -to obtain different effects; it should, however, always be held slightly -inclined to the right. It is shaped like an eagle's beak, so that by using -the point alone, fine lines of more or less depth are obtained, and by -inclining it more to the right the rounded part will burn a larger surface -of the leather. Very deep hollows can be made with the point highly -heated. Pyrogravure is also an efficient way of depressing the ground work -of thick leather when the point is worked with repeated touches over the -surface. With a light hand and an accurate knowledge of the degree of heat -required to produce fine lines, a skilful artist is able to draw with the -point as if it were a pen. - -The left hand plays a very important part in the process by controlling -the injection of carburetted air through the blower, and thereby -regulating the heat of the point. When the incandescence is automatically -produced, equal facility in varying the degree of heat according to the -requirements of the work is not possible. - - - POINTOGRAVURE - -The following description is borrowed from Mons. E. Aumaitre, the inventor -of another process for the decoration of leather to which he has given the -name of pointogravure. - -The implements required are two graving-points, one large and one small, a -modeller and a spirit-lamp. - -The design having been traced on the leather, the whole of it is wetted -with a sponge as described on page 19. The point is then heated in the -spirit-lamp and passed lightly over the line. It should be held like a -pencil and heated sufficiently to produce a light brown mark on the -leather, and it should run smoothly without sticking. The fine lines are -drawn lightly and the point pressed more heavily for the deeper ones. Deep -hollows can be made by sloping the tool, and using its widest side. The -point being very small, it requires frequent heating to keep it in a -condition to produce satisfactory results. It is not hot enough unless it -runs smoothly on the leather and darkens the impression. On the other -hand, overheating is to be avoided to prevent burning the surface of the -leather. This process skilfully carried out will produce shading, -hatching, and lines of great delicacy, also much softer effects than -pyrogravure. It lends itself equally well to the broad treatment of a -design. - - - STAMPED LEATHER - -It is beyond the scope of this work to describe the process of stamping -leather with a steel die and a balance-press;[7] we will therefore explain -a method in which the steel die is replaced by thick cardboard or leather -cut out in open-work, and the balance-press by a small one worked by hand. -The cardboard or leather stencil, laid on damp leather and placed in the -press, will sink in, causing those parts of the leather which are against -the open parts of the stencil to stand out in relief. - -[7] _Balancier._ - -There is another method which has been found particularly satisfactory in -working a deep design on the board of a book-binding. The design is drawn -sharply in outline with a pen upon very white paper. By a photographic -process a metal block is produced from the drawing, on which the outline -appears in relief. This block, mounted on pasteboard or wood, will form a -die with which the design can be hollowed out of the leather by pressure -in a copying-press, and the result subsequently perfected by cutting or -modelling. - -Another interesting process consists in etching a design deeply upon a -copper-plate; the lines are then filled in with printing ink, the surplus -removed with the palm of the hand, and the plate wiped over with a soft -rag, preferably of flannel. A piece of leather is then wetted and placed -under the plate and the whole heavily pressed. Since a copying-press is -not sufficiently heavy to produce the relief, a bookbinder's press should -be used and tightly screwed up. When the leather has taken the impression -sufficiently, the whole is removed from the press, and the copper-plate -carefully raised, avoiding tearing the leather if it should have stuck to -the plate. The design will then stand out in relief, coloured black or red -according to the ink used. The ink must be thick enough not to spread over -the leather under pressure. - -There is also a method of stamping leather by means of two plaster casts -prepared with stearine, both bearing the same design, one in relief and -the other hollowed. A thoroughly wetted piece of thin leather is placed -between these two casts and well pressed, the amalgam enabling the plaster -to bear the pressure. The leather should be allowed to dry between the -casts, or, if preferred, the hollow one may be removed. - -The same principle can be applied without the hollow cast, by modelling -the leather with the modelling tool, so that it takes the form of the cast -in relief beneath it. In some cases the plaster is left permanently under -the leather to form the padding. - -[Illustration: FIG. 17.--CUTTING-OUT KNIFE] - - - OPEN-WORK LEATHER - -The leather should be neatly and sharply cut out for open-work decoration, -and placed over a groundwork of leather, stuff or metal: the last material -is well adapted by its contrast of colour to show up the ornament laid -over it. Open-work leather is a good material for hangings, and when -destined for this purpose the design is sewn on the groundwork of leather -or stuff with a sewing-machine, or stuck with gutta-percha. In the latter -case the back of the leather is made quite smooth, and a layer of -gutta-percha is placed on it and made to stick by means of steam produced -by heating a wet pad. Well pressed down with this pad the gutta-percha -will stick to the leather, and also cause it to keep in place on the -groundwork, to which it is made to adhere permanently by passing a hot -iron over the surface. A sheet of white blotting-paper is laid over the -leather to protect it. When the leather is worked in relief, this -proceeding must be reversed, that is to say, the leather is placed face -downwards on a sheet of wadding with the material forming the groundwork -uppermost, and the hot iron is passed over the back of the material. The -relief can easily be worked on the leather before it is cut out. - -The cutting out is done on a piece of strong cardboard with the knife -illustrated in Fig. 17. - -[Illustration: 7. CASE OF CUT AND PUNCHED LEATHER. GERMAN, 15TH CENTURY.] - -The borders of open-work leather can be ornamented by a sort of plaiting -formed by lacing thin strips of soft leather through holes made with a -punch. - -A very effective decoration for furniture can be made with open-work -leather over a panel of wood, or a metal background. - - - - - CHAPTER III - - LEATHER MOSAIC - - -Until recently it seemed as if this pleasing art would have to remain the -monopoly of a limited number of professional craftsmen working with -numerous tools, and reckoning a ten years' apprenticeship necessary to the -attainment of proficiency in their craft. But although there is small -likelihood of amateurs entering the domain of the followers and emulators -of artists such as John Reynes, Florimond Badier, Monnier, Padeloup and -Jubert, Mons. Eugene Aumaitre has invented a simpler process of leather -mosaic, for which fewer tools are required and which is within the reach -of artist and amateur alike. The following pages contain the result of the -study of his method, with the addition of some observations based on the -practical experience of the author. - - - LEATHER FOR GROUNDWORK - -Any skin may be used for the groundwork of leather mosaic, but morocco, -and especially the kind called Cape morocco, is generally preferred, -because of the grained surface which shows up the inlaid decoration to the -best advantage. - -Other skins, however, with either dull or glossy surfaces make good -backgrounds for mosaic decoration, and as they are generally fawn -coloured, they may first be stained to produce shaded groundwork very -attractive in effect. - -The old masters of leather mosaic made great use of fawn-coloured calf, -occasionally adding a touch of coloured lacquer to bring out the light -parts of the design. - - - PREPARATION OF THE LEATHER FOR THE GROUNDWORK - -The first necessity in working leather mosaic is to have a flat and rigid -surface to work upon; it is indispensable therefore, when the leather is -not in itself sufficiently thick and firm, to stretch it on cardboard. -This rather troublesome preparatory process is best confided to an expert; -we will, however, describe it for the benefit of those preferring to -execute it themselves. A strong, smooth piece of cardboard called -millboard is taken, and the edges rubbed down with glass paper. A thin -coat of paste is applied on one side of the board and allowed to dry. - -[Illustration: FIG. 18.--PARING KNIFE] - -[Illustration: FIG. 19.--PARING KNIFE] - -The edges of the leather must now be thinned so that they will more -readily stick when turned over and pasted under the board, and also to -avoid the unevenness which the normal thickness of the leather would -produce underneath. A paring-knife with a broad, flat, very sharp blade -(Figs. 18 and 19) is used for this purpose; its manipulation is difficult -and requires long practice. The handle is held against the palm of the -hand, and the fingers extending over the blade cause it to penetrate the -leather superficially by a more or less strong pressure, the object being -to take off shavings from the back of the skin, increasing towards the -edge until the edge itself is reduced to the thickness of a cigarette -paper. - -[Illustration: FIG. 20.--PARING LEATHER] - -The leather is placed surface downwards on a lithographic stone or a slab -of marble. It is held stretched with the left hand, the fingers being -extended over it on the face of the stone, and the thumb pressed against -the side leaving the part just in front of the fingers free to be pared -(Fig. 20). It is of the first importance for the success of this operation -that the leather should be kept well stretched. The knife is held almost -horizontally to avoid cutting into the leather at too sharp an angle, and -is worked from left to right towards the edge. - -The leather is then fastened to the cardboard by pasting either the whole -of it or only the edges, which are turned underneath. In any case ordinary -paste should be used; seccotine or glue would sink into and harden the -leather, making the subsequent outlining process difficult. - -When the piece of leather is so large that it would cause the board to -warp when it dries, some paper should be pasted on the other side of the -board, which will keep it flat by drawing it in the opposite direction. - -[Illustration: 8. BROWN LEATHER BINDING, CUT AND ENGRAVED, WITH PUNCHED -BACKGROUND. _GERMAN MS. CHRONICLE OF EVENTS._ GERMAN, 15TH CENTURY.] - -The work is then put into the press or under heavy boards. It is important -that this should always be done after paste has been used. When it is too -large to put into a copying-press, it should be laid upon a flat table and -a sheet of nickelled or very smooth zinc placed against the part to be -decorated. The cardboard known as _Carton Jacquart_ may be substituted for -the zinc, but there is a risk that the moisture of the paste penetrating -the leather may cause it to swell, notwithstanding its glaze. The zinc -plate or the board should not be smaller than the leather, for in that -case the pressure would produce a ridge round its edge. - -The groundwork is ready to receive the ornament as soon as it is dry. The -different methods of working mosaic will now be explained in turn. - - - MONOCHROME MOSAIC ON CALF - -In this style of decoration the leather used for the inlaid design is -white or very light in tone, and may be dyed subsequently to present the -appearance of a mosaic made of variously coloured leathers. - - - LEATHER FOR INLAYING - -The skins sold for this purpose are split sheepskins. Their extreme -thinness renders them liable to stretch a great deal, and therefore they -are most difficult to cut out in any desired shape. To obviate this -difficulty, the back of the leather is pasted over, and it is then -stretched on a board and fastened with drawing-pins to prevent it from -shrinking as it dries. But there is another and a better method--that of -mounting the leather on paper. - - - MOUNTING THE LEATHER ON PAPER - -Some paste is made of very light and smooth flour, diluted with half the -quantity of water and beaten to a cream. The water is added in small -quantities while the mixture is being stirred. Canson paper, or some other -strong drawing paper, is pasted over the whole surface of the leather, so -that it adheres lightly, and can be removed afterwards without difficulty; -it is then placed under boards and allowed to dry thoroughly. - - - TRACING THE DESIGN ON THE PAPER - -The design is traced by means of carbon paper on the paper lining of the -inlay leather. A hard pencil should be used in order to produce very sharp -lines. - - - CUTTING OUT THE DESIGN - -Cutting-out knives should possess a keen edge and a small blade, and -should be so shaped that they can be turned freely in any direction. The -knife illustrated in Fig. 21 combines all these qualities. It consists of -a very fine double-edged blade, set loosely into a slit in a hard wood -handle and secured with a few turns of thread; a piece of leather over the -whole (A) keeps the blade in its place. The handle being loose, it is -possible to give any minute movement to the blade, which can also be taken -out for sharpening when necessary. It must be kept as sharp as a razor. -The extreme fineness of this blade facilitates cutting out the delicate -parts of a design, but if handled too vigorously it is apt to get out of -shape. The second tool (Fig. 22) is a stencil-cutter's knife, and is very -similar to the one described above except in size. It is usually sold -mounted in an ebony slide bound round with copper wire, but can with -advantage be mounted as in Fig. 21, in a split hard-wood handle. - -One little known tool deserves mention for its flexibility and lightness. -This is a small scraper shaped like an unslit pen, the blade widening from -the point in two very fine edges like the head of a pike. It is used by -photographers and miniature painters, and is sold by the dozen in small -boxes. When in use it is firmly fixed in a small pen-holder so that it -does not turn when pressed upon (Fig. 23). - -[Illustration: CUTTING-OUT KNIVES: (A), FIG. 21, FIG. 22, FIG. 23] - -The special knife illustrated in Fig. 17 is sometimes recommended, but it -is better adapted to cutting out thick skins for open-work decoration, as -the point of the blade is not sufficiently fine for use on thin leather. - -[Illustration: FIG. 24.--CUTTING OUT INLAY] - -The leather to be cut out is placed on a sheet of the cardboard used in -mounting drawings, which is firm, but at the same time easily penetrated -by the point of the tool. The nature of the board on which the leather is -laid is important, for to ensure a clean cut, the tool, as it pierces the -leather, must not encounter a veined surface such as that of wood, which -might deflect the point. The three middle fingers of the left hand hold -the leather mounted on the paper upon the board, the thumb and little -finger supporting the whole underneath (Fig. 24). The part which is to be -cut is turned towards the knife by the left hand, the right hand being -held in a fixed position with the knife, slightly inclined to the right, -cutting the leather as it is presented by the other hand. The lines must -be cleanly cut in order that the subsequent operation of outlining may be -successfully accomplished. With every care in cutting out, it may -sometimes be found in detaching the cut portion that a small thread of the -leather remains unsevered. In this case it should be neatly cut through, -and on no account may it be pulled to make it give way, which would result -in spoiling the design by either tearing or stretching the leather. When -cutting out a design on a large scale it is not possible to hold the work -in the manner just described; a part of the design to be cut out is -therefore placed flat on a large sheet of cardboard on a smooth table and -can then be turned about as required under the point of the knife. - -[Illustration: 9. COVER OF CASE FOR A CUP IN WOOD COVERED WITH LEATHER, -_CUIR BOUILLI_, EMBOSSED, PAINTED AND GILT. ITALIAN, ABOUT 1500.] - -When the inlay is of white or very light leather, it is extremely -difficult to conceal any joins occurring in the middle of lines; care must -therefore be taken that there are as few joins as possible, and that they -are arranged at points where they will easily disappear in lines of the -design going in an opposite direction. - -The centre of the design should be cut out first, and then the outer -lines, reserving the more delicate parts, such as flower stems, for the -last. - - - PASTING THE INLAY ON THE GROUNDWORK - -When the inlay is of a nature that does not require placing in any very -exact position, as for instance a spray of flowers, it will be sufficient -to lay it on the groundwork and mark the principal points. When it is to -occupy a definite position, forming the framework of a design, for -instance, it is laid upon the groundwork exactly in the right place and -then given a sharp turn in a copying-press, great care being taken that -it does not get displaced during the operation. Owing to the thickness of -the supporting paper, this will be sufficient to mark the outline of the -design on the groundwork. Some very smooth starch paste is then applied -with a flat brush on the exposed side of the cut out leather, care being -taken that every part, however small, is thoroughly pasted. To facilitate -this and to prevent the leather curling up when pasted, it should first be -fixed to a board with drawing-pins. - -The portion of the ground which is to receive the inlay is damped with a -soft sponge; the inlay is then placed in position and pressed down with -the palm of the hand, a modeller being used for the finer parts. If it -should become displaced, the greatest care must be used in correcting it. -With the small pincers used by artificial flower-makers, the minutest -pieces of leather can be taken up and replaced after being repasted, if -necessary. - - - SETTING IN THE INLAY - -The next process is that of setting the inlay into the groundwork, so that -no relief remains. This is done with the help of a roller with a long -wooden handle held in both hands and pressed against the shoulder, as -illustrated in Fig. 25. The paper on which the inlay is pasted plays an -important part in this operation; the greater its thickness, the greater -will be the pressure attainable, and the deeper the penetration of the -inlay into the damp background. - -At first the roller is worked lightly with one hand only to ensure the -uniform adherence of the inlay, the movements being short, and repeated -several times over the same spot. When afterwards pressing heavily over -the whole surface, a piece of thin, tough paper between the roller and the -work will prevent the inlay from curling up, and the paper may be lifted -from time to time to see that nothing is out of place. - -[Illustration: FIG. 25.--USING ROLLER TO SECURE ADHESION OF INLAY] - -When the work is not too large, it is easier and more effectual to use a -copying-press instead of a roller for this operation, which is then -carried out in the following manner: A piece of felt is laid in the press, -and over it a sheet of very smooth or nickelled zinc, or, failing this, of -_Carton Jacquart_. The work is then laid on it and covered with a second -sheet of nickelled zinc and some pasteboards. The press is screwed up as -tightly as possible. - -The work must not remain in the press, as if allowed to dry completely, -the subsequent removal of the paper pasted to the inlay would become -extremely difficult. To effect this removal, the paper is dabbed with a -damp sponge until it is ready to come off. A point of the pincers is -inserted underneath the paper which, if sufficiently soaked, should easily -come away when the tool is slid gently along. The paper, as it becomes -freed, should frequently be cut off with scissors to facilitate the -handling of the tool. The leather, being damp, may possibly become unstuck -and stretched during this process. It must then immediately be repasted -and replaced, and the stretched part reduced to its original size by -gently pushing it together with the modeller. Should it be found -impossible to reduce it thus, the part that is out of shape must be cut -off and joined on again. When the paper has been removed, the whole -surface is carefully washed over, wetting it as little as possible, so as -not to cause the mosaic to become unstuck. The work is then placed in the -press, or under boards, until it is perfectly dry. - - - OUTLINING THE MOSAIC - -Outlining is the most delicate process in leather mosaic. When well -carried out it should be impossible to distinguish the line where the -inlay joins the groundwork. The extreme edge of the inlaid leather is -pressed into the groundwork by means of a tool invented by Mons. Aumaitre, -producing a fine line the breadth of the edge of the tool selected. This -tool, called an outliner (Fig. 27), has two blunt ends, one rounded and -the other square, and is flat on one side and rounded on the other. The -rounded side of the tool affords extra pressure, and should therefore be -placed on the inner side of the line so that it serves to increase the -depression of the edge of the inlay. It is best to work the outline with -the cold tool first, and then to go over it again with the tool heated. -The inlay is lightly damped round the edges, and the round end of the -tool is placed half on the inlay and half on the groundwork. The tool is -held first inclined backwards (as in Fig. 26) and then brought with -pressure to a perpendicular position (Fig. 27). This will make a groove -into which the edge of the inlay will disappear. The square end of the -tool is used for straight lines. Great care must be taken in placing the -tool correctly; no portion of the inlay may protrude beyond the flat side -of the tool, as any particle of the edge, however minute, which is not -sunk in the groove would have to be cut off. If the edge of the inlay does -not extend up to the tool, the error is still more troublesome to correct, -more particularly when the leather is of a delicate colour, on account of -the difficulty of matching the exact shade for joining it. - -[Illustration: FIG. 26.--FIRST POSITION OF OUTLINING TOOL] - -[Illustration: FIG. 27.--SECOND POSITION OF OUTLINING TOOL] - -After this operation the edge of the outlining tool (Fig. 28) is inserted -in the groove thus formed, and worked with a short up and down movement. A -ruler will serve as a guide in working straight lines. The round side of -the tool is held slightly inclined towards the edge of the inlay. The -wheel illustrated in Fig. 29 may also be used, but requires great sureness -of hand for its successful manipulation. Gouge-shaped outlining tools with -curves of different degrees (Fig. 30) are useful for little curved lines -which are otherwise difficult to work; also the tool represented in Fig. -31, for the lettering on bookbindings, etc., where the lines require to -be sharply finished. It must, however, rest with the artist to select the -tools he considers most suitable for his work. - -[Illustration: FIG. 28.--GOUGE OUTLINER. - -FIG. 29.--OUTLINING WHEEL. - -FIG. 30.--GOUGE OUTLINER. - -FIG. 31.--STRAIGHT OUTLINER.] - -When the outline has been worked with the cold tool, a hot one is used to -go over it again to ensure perfect adhesion, and to give an attractive -brown tint to the lines. The end of the outliner is heated over a -spirit-lamp to a degree at which it can still be comfortably held in the -hand, and used as before. If the tool does not run smoothly, owing to the -elasticity of the edge of the inlaid leather, the latter may be lightly -damped with a brush. It will at first be found difficult to keep the tool -at the right heat. As a groundwork, calf with a smooth surface is more -sensitive to damage from an over-heated tool than split sheepskin. It is -useful to paste some of the inlay leather upon a spare piece of the -leather of the groundwork, with which to test the heat of the tool. If the -tool be too hot, it will burn and penetrate the leather without pressure. -It can be cooled to the desired temperature on a wet sponge. - -The next process in leather mosaic is that of colouring, which is dealt -with in Chapter IV. It then only remains to give the finishing touch to -the work by passing a polishing iron (Fig. 32) over the surface, to polish -it and make it perfectly even. The tool is heated by holding the part -which does not come in contact with the leather over the flame of a -spirit-lamp. The polished side should frequently be well rubbed on -flannel, and should any portion of its surface become dull, the polish can -be restored with fine emery paper. The polishing iron, when heated, is -held in the right hand and worked with little stroking movements, bringing -first the end and then, by lowering the handle, the back of its polished -surface in contact with the leather. The various positions of the tool -during this operation closely resemble those of a vessel when it is -pitching. - -[Illustration: 10. COVER OF WORK-BOX OF WOOD COVERED WITH EMBOSSED -LEATHER, _CUIR BOUILLI_. GERMAN, 16TH CENTURY.] - -[Illustration: 11. POWDER-FLASK OF WOOD COVERED WITH LEATHER, _CUIR -BOUILLI_, CUT AND EMBOSSED. ITALIAN, 16TH CENTURY.] - - - POLYCHROME MOSAIC - -[Illustration: FIG. 32.--POLISHING MOSAIC] - -This style of decoration consists of different coloured leathers arranged -upon a ground, and is the only one that can properly be called leather -mosaic. The work of marking it out is a lengthy one and demands scrupulous -exactitude. A finished design is first painted in water-colours and marked -with letters which are repeated on the pieces of coloured leather, so -that the exact place is indicated which they are to occupy in the design. -It is important in this style of mosaic to obtain a very correct tracing -of the design on the groundwork. On a smooth and light ground the -tracing-point lightly worked will be sufficient; when the ground is dark -or has a grained surface, red or white transfer paper should be used. The -most satisfactory method of marking the design is by impressing a stencil -of thick paper, but it cannot be employed with morocco leather for fear of -crushing the grain too much. A thick stencil, however, carefully used -without exerting great pressure, may give a sufficient result without -spoiling the grain. - -For polychrome mosaic on a smooth ground with an inlay of split sheepskin -pasted on Canson paper, the method already described for working mosaic of -one colour is the best, but at the same time the directions which are -given below for placing the differently coloured skins side by side in -position should be followed. - - - POLYCHROME MOSAIC ON A MOROCCO GROUNDWORK - -Morocco leather for inlaying is thinned with the paring-knife, but it -cannot be reduced to the excessive thinness of split sheepskin. It -possesses, however, the advantage that the extreme edges may be made -thinner in proportion for laying one over the other at the point where -they meet. - -After it is pared, the back of the leather is pasted over and it is pinned -out on a board to dry. The different parts of the design to be inlaid are -then traced on the various coloured leathers, and cut out in the manner -already explained. The difficulty of placing the pieces exactly edge to -edge is so great that it is better to allow them to overlap very slightly, -but in order that this should not produce undue thickness at the point -where they join, the substance of the extreme edges must be further -reduced with the paring-knife. A small margin is left for this purpose in -cutting out. Paring the edges to their thinnest possible substance will -give a slightly jagged outline, and the extra piece will thus more easily -merge into the join than if sharply cut. Outlining with the hot tool will -perfect the join. - - - PASTING THE INLAY ON A MOROCCO GROUNDWORK - -To avoid crushing the grain of rough morocco, the tool illustrated in Fig. -33 is used instead of the roller to secure the adhesion of the inlay to -the groundwork, in order that the pressure may be applied only upon the -inlay. Damping the groundwork, except where the ornament is placed, should -be avoided. The tool is held pressed down with both hands as in Fig. 34, -and rubbed backwards and forwards. The work is then placed under boards. - - - MOSAIC ON MODELLED LEATHER - -The remarks on paring leather for polychrome mosaic apply also to paring -the leather for covering a design in relief. An extra margin is left round -the edges, which are "slashed" with the tool, so that they may better -embrace the form of the modelling, the finer details of which are not -worked until afterwards. The leather is first placed dry in position over -the modelling, and smoothed over with a modeller, so that it takes the -form of the relief. It will then be seen how much should be cut from the -edges, so that it may exactly fit into the outline when it is pasted on. - - - INSERTED MOSAIC - -This method of mosaic invented by Mons. Aumaitre possesses the advantage -of being very durable, owing to the edges of the inlay being secured -between the two edges of the incision made in the groundwork. The outline -is deeply cut in the groundwork, the incision well opened with the opener -and then filled with paste. The inlay is also pasted and the edges -inserted in the incision. A wheel or a large modeller is used to press -down the edges, and the outline is then gone over with a hot tool. - -[Illustration: FIG. 33, FIG. 34.--STICKING INLAY ON MOROCCO GROUND WITH -TOOL (FIG. 33) INSTEAD OF ROLLER, TO AVOID CRUSHING THE GRAIN] - -[Illustration: 12. SHIELD OF CUT AND EMBOSSED LEATHER, _CUIR BOUILLI_. -ITALIAN, 16TH CENTURY.] - - - MOSAIC IN RELIEF - -The term mosaic is perhaps not very correctly applied to this style of -decoration, in which the shape of the design is indented, by pressure, on -the damp surface of the groundwork, and filled in with an inlay of -leathers thick enough to stand out in relief, and be subsequently carved. -A thin kind of cowhide[8] specially prepared for embossed work is used. -The design is traced upon it in the manner described for carved leather, -and a preliminary modelling is executed indicating the outlines and -veinings as strongly as possible. The high reliefs may be embossed and -lightly stuffed. This done, it is placed upon Bristol board, not less than -half the thickness of the leather itself, with a piece of red transfer -paper face downwards in between. The whole is firmly fixed upon a drawing -board so that nothing can get displaced, and the design is cut out with a -stencil-cutter's knife (Fig. 22). If possible, both leather and Bristol -board should be cut through at the same time, but should the knife not -penetrate the latter sufficiently to cut it through, the outline will have -been marked on it by the transfer paper and it may be cut out separately. -The leather and the board must, however, be absolutely identical in shape -and very sharply cut. With the die thus formed by the Bristol board, the -morocco groundwork is depressed to receive the inlay. It is thoroughly -wetted and the water allowed to sink in. The board is then placed in the -exact position which the leather inlay is to occupy, and covered with a -very thick sheet of blotting-paper to protect the grain of the groundwork -from being crushed too much. The whole is well pressed in the -copying-press until the die has sufficiently entered into the leather. The -leather inlay should then be tried in the hollow thus produced, and -trimmed where necessary if it be too large. After pasting it thoroughly, -taking care not to omit any small points, it is placed in position on the -groundwork and worked into the hollow with a modeller. The work is then -placed under boards to dry; a press would flatten the relief too much. - -[8] Kip-skins. - -When the paste is quite dry and the leather well stuck, the carving may be -proceeded with as described in Chapter II. - -Very characteristic effects are obtained by colouring leather worked in -this manner. - - - INCRUSTED MOSAIC - -The following description of a style of decoration, called by Mons. -Belleville "incrusted mosaic,"[9] is derived from the valuable work of -that author, entitled _Le Cuir dans la Decoration Moderne_. - -[9] _Mosaique par Incrustation._ - -In incrusted mosaic the design is not cut out and applied on the -background, but the different pieces of coloured leather forming the -design and the leather of the background are placed side by side on the -same plane. When the ornament is simple and the background plain, the -design is traced on the groundwork, carefully cut out, and used as a -pattern for cutting out the piece destined to replace it; when the -ornament is to embrace the whole surface, the following method is -recommended: The design, drawn on paper and coloured, is fixed on a -drawing-board and over it is placed a sheet of transparent paper, or some -thin muslin carefully sized and stretched. An exact tracing of the design -is made on rather stiff paper, which is coloured or numbered to correspond -with the pieces of the different leathers which are to compose the mosaic. -The tracing is then cut out, separated, and the pieces pasted on the -corresponding leather, either with the face on the flesh side of the -leather, or the back on its surface. In the latter case it is very lightly -done, but if pasted on the flesh side it should be done securely, as it -will remain permanently. When all these pieces are cut out of the leather -they are pasted in their respective places on the design, and the whole -put in the press for about ten hours. If the work has been well executed, -the lines where the pieces of leather come together will be hardly -visible; the next step is to accentuate them and make them regular. This -may be done either with a heated wheel giving a smooth even line, which -may, if desired, be subsequently gilded, or by pyrogravure. Vigour and -character can be imparted to the outline by the use of the latter process, -and the darkened colour of the burnt line is made more brilliant by -polishing it with an agate burnisher. In either case the tool must be -worked accurately with its edge half on each side of the line. The main -advantage of the process of incrusted mosaic is that the grain of the -leather employed is better displayed than in inlaid mosaic. It is only -suitable for work on a large scale. - - - - - CHAPTER IV - - DYES, PATINES[10] AND GILDING - - -[10] _Patine_ represents a veneer, or wash of colour, applied on the -surface, or in the hollows of leather, to intensify its tone, or to give -artificial effects, such as those of verdigris, rust, or antiquity. - -Partly owing to its nature, and partly owing to the tanning process, -leather is susceptible to the action of the dyes used to colour it in -degrees varying according to their composition and penetration. We will -not attempt to enumerate all the dyes that may be employed or to describe -their composition. Excellent results can be obtained with ready made -preparations, and some brief remarks on the subject are all that is -necessary for the purpose of this work. - -Practical experience alone is a reliable guide in the selection of dyes, -as, whatever their base may be, they all vary greatly in use. It may be -remarked that there are many aniline dyes which are more durable than -vegetable ones, although there are others which merit their reputation for -instability. The colour of dyed leather cannot be expected to remain -unaffected by constant exposure to direct sunlight, but it should not -alter with ordinary use.[11] - -[11] See the remarks on Leather for Bookbinding in the Note at the end of -this volume. - -It is obvious that, in proportion as the colours sink into the leather, -they will lose in brilliancy, but on the other hand, this very absorption, -which allows colours to be superposed and appear translucent, gives a -depth rarely obtainable in materials of less capillarity. - -[Illustration: 13. TOP OF CASKET COVERED WITH BROWN CALF, CUT AND SLIGHTLY -EMBOSSED. BY FLORENCE HORNBLOWER. MODERN ENGLISH.] - -The following notes are intended merely as a general indication of the -manner of treating the various substances used in colouring leather. - -The substance sold by druggists under the name of potassium is very -violent in its action and would burn the leather as well as the brushes -used to apply it. It should only be employed, and that very sparingly, for -such purposes as black lettering. Pearl-ash should be used in preference, -but also with great caution, or it will not only destroy the surface, but -rot the substance of the leather. - -Potash is soluble in water to saturation point, that is to say, a given -quantity of water will not dissolve more than a given quantity of potash. - -It is very difficult to measure the exact strength to use; that which is -barely sufficient to penetrate and colour a surface artificially made -smooth by rolling, will sink in where the leather has been cut or punched -and immediately darken it considerably. It is a good plan therefore to -experiment on a spare piece of the leather. Potash lye is more easily used -in the right proportion, and may be employed for staining very light -coloured leather. - -Soda has the same effect as potash, except that it is a little less -strong; both substances have always been much employed in dyeing skins. -Permanganate of potash is supposed to dye a mouse-grey colour, but it is -most uncertain in its action, as it depends entirely on the porosity of -the leather. Xanthin and catechol browns are pleasing in appearance, but -their effect is less rich than that obtained with potash. They become -improved by hard rubbing with encaustic. - -Sulphate of iron has a strong and persistent odour and is also somewhat -injurious. It is useful, however, and produces a colour varying from a -light shade to an intense violet black. When used over potash, a dead -black is obtained. - - - REDS - -Alizarin, the colouring principle of madder, which can also be obtained -from coal-tar, is employed in many colour combinations and gives a fine -durable red. Hydrochloric acid changes it to violet. Carthamine and -cochineal also produce good reds; the latter is turned orange by the -action of hydrochloric acid. - -Hydrochloric acid turns ammoniacal cochineal pink, but merely discolours -the red made from archil. Direct extracts of red wood are unaffected by -it. - -The colouring matter of logwood, extracted by treating the powder obtained -from an aqueous decoction of the wood with spirit, is sold as hematoxylin. -Metallic salts convert it to a violet black, salts of tin change it to -pink, alkalis to blue, and acids to yellow. Durable pinks are obtained -directly from carthamine, the colouring matter of _Carthamus Tinctorius_. - - - YELLOWS - -The base of most fine yellows is picric acid. The chromates of zinc and -baryta give very permanent yellows, which are particularly useful in -mixing greens. - -The vegetable yellows are less durable. They include turmeric, which is -especially fugitive, and quercitron; the former is turned red, and the -latter brown, by the action of hydrochloric acid. - -Orange tints are easily obtained by using red over yellow, first allowing -the yellow to dry completely; or they can be bought ready prepared with -alizarin. Mandarine and nasturtium tints can also be bought ready -prepared, or may be made by a mixture of vegetable colour, such as saffron -and arnotto. - -[Illustration: 14. EMBOSSED AND PUNCHED BROWN CALF BINDING. _RUBAIYAT OF -OMAR KHAYYAM._ DESIGNED BY MARY G. HOUSTON. MODERN ENGLISH.] - - - BLUES - -Good and durable blues are obtained from indigo and alizarin. - - - GREENS - -Greens of every composition are fugitive, especially those sold ready -mixed. Better results are obtained by applying yellow and blue one over -the other than by the direct application of the colour, but when the range -of tints thus afforded is too restricted, recourse must be had to some of -the numerous dyes varying in tint from greenish yellow to deep olive. -Successive applications of sulphate of iron and picric yellow will produce -the latter colour, and a vegetable green, which, however, is not very -durable, is made from buckthorn berries. - - * * * * * - -All the dyes which have been just enumerated, which form, however, but a -very small proportion of those in existence, are employed in dyeing -textiles. These materials have first to be treated with mordants such as -tannin, chrome or sumach, in order that they may take the dye, whereas -leather is already prepared to receive it by the tanning process. - -Ordinary water-colours based on glycerine or albumen can be used in the -decoration of leather, but are recommended only for colouring small parts -of a design, partly because liquid colour is more easily applied over -large surfaces, and partly because, being less transparent, they do not -lend themselves to the process of rubbing which plays so important a part -in _patine_. Oil or spirit colours, on the other hand, possess a -transparency which allows of their being used over a ground coloured with -a different medium. When the leather on which they are painted is undyed -it should first receive a coat of paste. - -Colours sold under the name of _patines grasses_ will produce a groundwork -of great brilliancy, if well rubbed before they are quite dry. - -The use of _gouache_ should be limited to the hollow parts of incised or -punched leather. - -Gold and bronzes are also used with good effect. - - - DIFFERENT METHODS OF COLOURING LEATHER - -Colours obtained from potash and sulphate of iron--dark green, dull red, -etc.--are much used for groundwork. Potash produces a warm brownish-red, -and tints, varying in colour from a pale to a dark slate grey, are -obtained with sulphate of iron. As already stated, a coating of picric -yellow over the latter will give a dull green. - -In colouring large surfaces, it is best to use soft sponges, or small pads -of cotton-wool covered with soft linen. The pads can be held by the edges -of the linen and the sponges may be mounted on handles, but the best -protection for the hands against staining is a pair of very soft rubber -gloves like those used by surgeons. - -The leather is first damped all over and the colour then applied in a -succession of even washes. Care must be taken not to unduly darken any -part of the leather by using too much colour, bearing in mind that -different parts of the skin will vary greatly in porosity. In colouring -groundwork with various superposed tints, the actual results are often -entirely different from those one has had reason to expect. So far as is -possible, in order to prevent this from happening, it is advisable not to -mix the colours of different makers on the same piece of work without -knowing their composition, or first experimenting with them on a spare -piece of the leather. - -A second colour should never be added until the underneath one is dry, or -a muddy effect will result. If the colour becomes too dark, or if the -second stain predominates unduly instead of merging into the underneath -one, the whole work, fixed firmly on a board, should be dipped in water -and scrubbed with a very soft brush and some soft soap. It should then be -allowed to dry in the sun. This method of making the colour lighter can -only be used when the ornament is not in relief; it has been found -particularly successful in treating potash and sulphate dyes. - -Ox-hide, light or fawn-coloured calf, pigskin and white morocco are -leathers suitable for colouring. They are, however, very absorbent, and -will require an application of paste before staining. This will also be -found indispensable in colouring the white split sheepskins used in -mosaic. - -In staining leather for mosaic, several successive applications of colour -will be required, especially in the case of greens which sink in quickly. - -In addition to plain dyeing, there are various methods of producing shaded -groundwork, marbling, sprinkling, etc. - - - SHADED GROUNDWORK - -For shaded groundwork diluted colour is applied with a sponge or pad -worked over the leather with a circular movement, and the uniform tint -thus obtained is darkened as required by further applications with -stronger colour. In shading a ground from one colour to another, as for -example from dark olive to malachite green, orange red and pale yellow, -the edge of each colour, as it is put on, is covered with a piece of thick -paper, which must be firmly held in place, in order to prevent the colours -mixing where they come together. - - - MARBLING - -A sponge with large holes is dipped in potash, sulphate of iron, or some -other deep coloured dye, and lightly applied over the surface of the -leather so that parts of it corresponding to the holes in the sponge are -left untouched; or the first application of colour may be made evenly over -the leather and the marbling worked, as described, in a second -application. Many varieties of pattern can be obtained by moving the -sponge in different ways. Leather may be bought ready marbled by a -gelatine process. - - - TREE MARBLING - -The leather is first lightly pasted over, and drops of water, more or less -large, are scattered upon it by jerking the handle of a small couch-grass -whisk full of water against the left wrist held a few inches from the -surface of the leather. A very little colour is then taken in the brush -and jerked in the same manner over the drops of water, with which it will -partially mix and give the effect of roots branching out in all -directions. Variety can be obtained by applying the water with a sponge -instead of the brush, and the colour in large drops over the whole or -certain parts only of the field, or by using dyes of different colours -which give curious effects in combining. After applying the dye, the -surplus moisture is absorbed with blotting-paper. - -The leather may be bleached to a light tint by means of an oil-paint brush -dipped in decolorant[12]; the bristles of the brush are pushed back with -the finger and when released jerk the acid in fine drops over the surface. -The leather must be freshly and thoroughly damped so that the outline of -the bleaching shades off into the ground. - -[12] See page 71. - - - SPRINKLING - -Sprinkling is done with a rather close iron grating and a long narrow -brush like a plate-brush. The dye is prepared on a flat plate and the -brush dipped in it, the superfluous liquid being removed against the edge -of the plate. The brush is rubbed backwards and forwards on the grating -held horizontally a few inches above the leather over which it scatters a -fine shower of the dye. Should the colour froth on the grating, the brush -must at once be rubbed upon oiled paper. Sprinkling may also be done with -a vaporiser for fixing drawings, but it is difficult to get a sufficiently -fine shower so that the drops do not merge into each other. - -[Illustration: 15. MIRROR CASE OF PUNCHED BLACK LEATHER, _CUIR BOUILLI_; -EXECUTED BY MISS CASELLA. MODERN ENGLISH.] - -The above process is a useful one when parts of the leather are to be -"reserved," i.e., to remain untouched by the dye. For this purpose a piece -of strong paper is cut to the shape of the part to be reserved and pasted -lightly to the leather during the process of sprinkling, after which it is -damped and removed. Another method is to paint the reserved parts with one -of the two preparations given by Mons. Belleville in _Le Cuir dans la -Decoration Moderne_, afterwards removing it with benzine or petroleum -spirit:--"Eighty parts of colophony, 4 of yellow wax, 6 of spermaceti, 4 -of tallow, 60 of spirit of turpentine and 10 of alcohol." - -Or, "One hundred parts of virgin wax, and the same of castor oil, with 25 -of borax and 25 of copal varnish." - - * * * * * - -Instead of reserving the parts of the leather, the dye may be removed -subsequently by means of reagents called decolorants. Sulphuric, -hydrochloric, oxalic, nitric, or muriatic acid diluted with water in the -proportion of one in five, can be used for this purpose, but their effect -should first be tried on a spare piece of the leather, as it will vary -according to the nature of the dye on which they are used. It should be -noticed that, in mixing the acid, the right quantity of water must be -measured out and the acid carefully added drop by drop. If water is poured -into acid it causes an explosion. - -The outline is traced rather deeply on the leather, so that it is still -visible after the groundwork has been dyed. When the dye has sunk in, the -decolorant can be easily applied with a paint-brush. On modelled leather -dyed bronze green, a rag or piece of cotton-wool dipped in decolorant and -quickly passed over the relief, will lighten the colour and produce the -effect of bronze with the exposed parts rubbed lighter by use. Should the -effect of the acid be too strong, the colour may be again deepened by -washing the leather over with a yellowish gold stain, which will only take -effect on the relief, since it will merge into the darker colour of the -rest of the work. The same process may be employed on white calf with a -light olive dye to obtain the effect of old ivory. Even when much diluted, -however, the action of these acids must in the end be injurious to the -leather. They should be used with great care and never undiluted. Where -possible, washing the leather over afterwards with water will, to some -extent, diminish their harmful effect. - -Stencilling is another process by which portions of the leather forming -the ornament are reserved from the dye used in colouring the ground. The -design is cut out of a very thin sheet of copper or tin. A large -short-haired brush[13] is used to take the dye from a plate, or pad, and -is then rubbed very lightly over the stencil firmly fixed on the leather. -Only the parts unprotected by the stencil will take the colour. The brush -must not be too full or the dye would have a tendency to run under the -stencil. The most suitable dyes are glycerine inks and marking inks -containing nitrate of silver. A variety of colours may be mixed with -glycerine for this purpose. The ink thus obtained is transferred to a -cloth pad, such as is used by printers, from which the brush will only -take the required quantity. - -[13] _Pompon._ - -When the leather is dry a lighter tint, transparent enough to allow the -stencilled design to be visible through it, may be washed over the whole. -Excellent effects of considerable richness can thus be produced. The depth -of colour is further increased by the process of rubbing, which is -necessary to the proper _patine_ of leather. If done with wax, encaustic -or varnish, it is an effective protection for the surface of the leather -against deterioration from outside causes. With certain soft leathers, if -the colour has not sunk in deeply, rubbing with the finger alone will give -it great brilliancy; with other leathers the rubbing will produce an -effect in proportion to the degree of porosity of the skin. It should -always be done before the colour is dry, but not until it has penetrated -sufficiently into the leather not to return to the surface with the -pressure. The middle finger is used. A certain amount of polish can be -given to the leather by rubbing it only with the finger (moistened with a -little oil to allow it to slide easily), or, for a large surface, with the -side of the hand instead of the finger. When a medium is used, it is -applied with a circular movement by means of flannel or rag; a flannel -brush consisting of a series of little flannel rolls, which can be bought -at a surgical instrument-maker's, is very useful for a large surface -requiring much rubbing. Pure wax, which must be softened in the hand to -make it spread evenly, encaustic and spirit varnish are all efficacious in -preserving the colour and increasing its transparency. - -Another method giving excellent results consists in applying opaque -colour, _gouache_ or bronzes in the hollows of a design and removing the -surplus of the colour by rubbing. In this way an incised design can be -boldly outlined in light on a dark ground, and may afterwards be bleached -within the outlines if desired. After cutting the design on the leather, -the whole surface is washed over with potash or any other dark stain, a -coat of paste is then applied and immediately wiped off, so that some of -it only remains in the hollows. When the paste is dry, some rather liquid -_gouache_ is washed over and run into the lines, any remaining on the -surface being removed by vigorous rubbing with a damp rag. The same -process may be applied to the hollows of punched leather. In using bronzes -or gold in powder, some spirit varnish or specially prepared varnish is -necessary to make them adhere. After applying the varnish, the surface is -wiped over to remove all except that which is deposited in the -interstices, and when this is sufficiently dry to hold the powder, the -latter is put on with a very soft, short-haired brush and adheres to the -varnish. The surface is then rubbed in the manner already described. All -powder colours do not mix equally well with varnish; green and blue -bronzes often change colour when brought in contact with it. Gold and -silver powder give good results, used either dry or mixed with gum on -shells. Chinese vermilion may also be employed with varnish, but other -colours are more suitable for this purpose when prepared in the form of -_gouache_. - - - GILDING - -Special manipulation is required for gold leaf applied to the decoration -of leather. For gilding over a whole surface, as for instance an aureole -round the head of a saint, the following is the best method. Several -layers of starch paste are painted with a brush over the part of the -leather to be gilded, and followed when dry by a little gelatine paste. A -coating of some special preparation is then applied and allowed to dry to -the right condition to retain the gold leaf, which varies according to the -nature of the preparation; the degree of moisture can be tested with the -finger. Gold leaf is sold in small books and is exceedingly thin. A -flexible knife, like a palette knife, is used to manipulate it, and a -single leaf is laid on a cushion of deerskin stuffed with wadding, and cut -to the required size. It is then placed over the preparation on the -leather and lightly pressed down with a very soft, round, short-haired -brush. - -[Illustration: 16. BLACK MOROCCO BINDING WITH APPLIED PANELS OF TOOLED, -CUT, PAINTED AND GILT CALF. _LE ROMAN DE TRISTAN ET ISEUT._ DESIGNED BY -ROBERT ENGELS. MODERN FRENCH.] - -For gilding with hot tools a specially prepared powder made of resin or -gum is used. This powder melts with the heat of the tool and causes the -gold leaf to adhere to the leather only where it comes in contact with the -parts of the tool cut in relief. The process is as follows: Some powder is -lightly spread over the part of the leather to be gilded and a piece of -gold leaf laid over it, the tool is heated sufficiently to melt the powder -without burning the leather and is carefully applied on the right spot, -the surplus gold being afterwards removed with the short brush. The tools -used by bookbinders are slightly convex, so that firm and even pressure of -the whole tool can be exerted by first inclining the handle towards the -gilder, and then raising it while still maintaining the pressure and -inclining it at the opposite angle. - -Gold can also be applied with a brush in the form of powder suspended in -liquid gum or spirit varnish. If it does not spread evenly, owing to there -being too much liquid in proportion to the powder, dry powder may be added -where necessary with a short brush when the liquid is almost dry. - -Shell gold is applied with a slightly damped brush and, when dry, may be -burnished with an agate or punch; the design of the punch will stand out -in bright gold on a ground of dull gold. The pressure of the wrist is -sufficient to work the punch and a hammer should not be used. - - * * * * * - -There is an interesting field for the artist's enterprise in the discovery -of new processes for the decoration of leather by means of colours and -bronzes. It is not possible within the limits of a single chapter to give -a complete list of the many methods that may be employed.[14] - -[14] As a conclusion to this chapter, the French edition quotes from the -_Bulletin de la Societe de l'Encouragement pour l'Industrie Nationale_ -some extracts from the _Report of the Committee on Leather for -Bookbinding_, published by the Society of Arts in London (1901), which -will be found in the Note at the end of this volume. - - - - - CHAPTER V - - THE CHOICE OF DESIGN AND COLOUR - - -The present chapter is devoted to some remarks on colour combination and -the composition of ornament, based on the personal experience of the -author. - -Three colours, for the groundwork, ornament and high lights respectively, -will, in many cases, be found sufficient for a scheme of decoration. A -multitude of colours, worked in great detail on a relatively small -surface, confuse the eye and hinder it from grasping the effect of the -decoration as a whole. Only special styles of decoration, such as Moorish -geometrical patterns, allow of the use of a great variety of colours. The -circumstance already explained, that in leather decoration dyes may be -used one over the other, enables interesting effects to be produced. - -A design of sea, with seaweed and fish, can be effectively rendered -entirely with sulphate of iron of varying strength. A weak solution is -washed evenly over the whole; the waves are then drawn in with a flat -brush dipped in a stronger solution, and the dark outlines afterwards -bleached with acid where they border the first tint. The fish and seaweed -in relief are similarly treated with decolorant, and a light wash of -yellow over the whole completes an effective decoration. - -The foliage of the chestnut tree in autumn lends itself exceptionally well -to decorative treatment, both as regards form and colour. The large -variety of greens and yellows are most effective on a ground of brickdust -red. - -A groundwork of soft grey, brightened by an underwash of very pale yellow, -is suitable for reserved or bleached designs. Deep carmine constitutes a -rich colour for groundwork, and is produced by using bright red over -potash and deepening the effect by rubbing. - -In planning a decoration, the artist has generally some special effect in -his mind which he wishes to reproduce. It is not unusual, however, for the -result to be totally different from what is anticipated, since uncertainty -constitutes one of the charms of the art of colouring leather. These -failures, as they may be considered from one point of view, often produce -interesting effects and sometimes lead to valuable discoveries. - -Marbled leather should be decorated with flat ornament only. - -Figures in high relief belong properly to the domain of the sculptor and -should be avoided in leather work, much of its individuality lying in the -value of the outline in producing an effect of relief. - -Some skilful artists produce in leather not only the relief, but the -turned over edges of petals, etc., and treat twisted ribbons in open-work; -the result, though pleasing, is essentially evanescent, owing to the -extreme fragility of the detached portions of the leather. - -Of all the uses to which leather work may be applied, none offer greater -scope to the inspiration of the artist than bookbinding. It has become the -fashion not only to provide a more or less rich covering for a beautiful -edition, but to suggest in its design the nature of the contents of the -volume, should these lend themselves to such treatment. The artist, -however, will do well to practise this principle with due restraint, -avoiding, on the one hand, what may be called anecdotal design, and, on -the other, an over subtle symbolism. - -Leather coffers, when well executed, constitute veritable works of art. -They present considerable difficulties in the mounting of the leather -over the wooden coffer so that the lines of the ornament come exactly in -the right place. It is necessary that the lines forming the framework of -the design should accurately correspond with the dimensions of the coffer -to be covered. A coffer usually consists of a box with a hinged lid; the -measure is taken by laying the leather round the whole; the leather is -then cut, leaving a small surplus at the edges to be pared and folded over -at the sides. The join should be arranged for at the lower border and not -at the intersection of the lid and the box. The leather at this point is -better left to be cut after it has been stuck on the wood in mounting. - -When the leather is decorated in mosaic and consists of panels each -enclosed within a patterned border, the probability of its stretching when -it is fixed on the wood, must be taken into consideration; Cape morocco, -however, if fairly thick will hardly stretch perceptibly. - -During the process of outlining the design, which is done before mounting -the leather on the wood, it should be stretched to its full extent on a -flat board. - -When the decoration is in relief, the padding should be very firm, so as -to counteract the tendency to stretch during the process of mounting. - -Generally speaking, designs based on naturalistic flowers do not give the -most satisfactory effects in the decoration of coffers, since the style is -not suited to the restricted size of the panels, even when the design -ignores them and extends beyond. Designs in the modern style, or Gothic -designs in the style of the fifteenth century, or those based on the -Arabic decoration of the best period, are much to be preferred; in the -last two styles punches used with a hammer will greatly assist in lowering -the groundwork, so that the design stands out in relief without the -necessity of stuffing it, as in embossed work. By introducing _gouache_ or -bronzes into the impressions made with the punches, rich effects of colour -can be produced. - -[Illustration: 17. BINDING OF STAINED CALF, CUT, EMBOSSED, TOOLED AND -_PATINATED_ BY HENRI GODIN. MODERN FRENCH.] - -There are numerous other styles appropriate to the decoration of leather -coffers. - -In the decoration of large surfaces, such as the panels of wall-hangings, -the artist is cautioned against the abuse of detail, frequently the -stumbling-block of the beginner. He is recommended to exercise a wise -restraint in his composition, and to avail himself of the numerous -resources of the conventional art of the modern school more particularly -in their application to the ornamentation of large surfaces. Technical -efficiency in the use of the tools is essential and must be gained by -practice, but may be said to be second in importance to a thorough -knowledge of decorative design, which can be attained only by the -intelligent study of the best models. The education of the eye is a -considerable factor in the conventional interpretation of natural forms. -The artist cannot do better than to study the ancient Japanese school, -which has found such favour with the initiators of the so-called "Modern -Art," and which affords the best examples of balance in design in its -rejection of unnecessary detail in the interpretation of natural forms. He -may also find inspiration in the fields of Egyptian and Assyrian art, in -the interlaced patterns of the disciples of St. Dunstan, and in the quaint -renderings of leaves and flowers in the hangings and brocades of the -Middle Ages. - - - - - APPENDIX - - LEATHER HANGINGS AND FURNITURE - - -The origin of the use of decorated leather for hangings and furniture has -been the subject of much controversy. After consulting various books on -the subject, we believe, as already stated, that its introduction into -Spain may be attributed to the Moorish conquerors about the eighth -century. In an Arabian manuscript of the sixth century of the Mohammedan -era, mention is made of the industry as flourishing in the town of -Ghadames in the Sahara. Jehan de Garlande, author of a Latin dictionary -composed in 1080, mentions _Cordouans_ first manufactured at Cordova in -the eleventh century. About the same time, the Monk Theophilus, in his -curious encyclopaedia of the arts which unfortunately has not come down to -us in its complete form, gives the following description of the processes -of gilding leather:-- - - "For laying on gold or silver, take the clear liquid of white of - egg beaten up without water, paint some with a brush over the - part which is to receive the gold or silver. Damping the end of - the same brush in your mouth, bring it in contact with a corner - of the cut leaf (of gold or silver). Then lifting it with - extreme rapidity, you lay it on the prepared place and spread it - with a dry brush. At this point you must take precautions - against a draught, you must hold your breath, for if you breathe - you will lose the leaf and find difficulty in recovering it. - When in position and dry you may, if you wish, put a second over - it in the same way, and then a third, if it is wanted, so as - to be able to give a more brilliant polish with a burnisher. - - "You can, if you wish, apply the leaf on a ceiling or a wall; in - the same manner, over a lining of tinfoil. If you have neither - gold nor silver, you will use tinfoil, which you will apply - thus...."[15] - -[15] _Theophili Presbyteri et Monachi_, Libri 3 _seu Diversarum artium -schedula_. Chapter 24. - -Until the middle of the seventeenth century, hangings, and even carpets, -of decorated leather formed an important item in those inventories of -princely possessions which are such a reliable and inexhaustible source of -information for the historian of the sumptuary arts.[16] Princes and other -great personages depended largely on decorated leather and tapestries, -when moving from place to place, to supplement the often hastily -improvised decoration of their temporary apartments. - -[16] _Dictionnaire de l'Ameublement et de la Decoration depuis le 13me -Siecle jusqu'a nos Jours_, by Henry Havard. - -The enumeration of all the different processes by which the leather was -ornamented would carry us beyond the limits of this appendix, and we will -confine ourselves to tracing in outline the development of the art of -working in leather as applied to hangings and furniture during the last -few centuries. - -First in order of time we find skins covered with hair, sewn together for -carpets or hangings; different kinds being placed side by side, either -irregularly, or alternately to form a pattern. We are not, however, here -concerned with anything but leather proper, that is to say, skins with the -hair removed, and this was first decorated by means of a hot tool. The -addition of colour speedily followed. Dark coloured leathers were also -sewn as borders on lighter ones, and polished metal ornaments were added -to brighten the leather groundwork, a fashion borrowed from the method of -joining and strengthening the accoutrements of war. - -Little by little, as the custom spread of reproducing the human figure and -animals, attempts were made to carry out whole pictures on panels made of -leather sewn together with the seams hammered flat. But painted leather -was still generally of comparatively small dimensions, and it would seem -that these pictures were designed chiefly for the ornamentation of chests. -The leather was first stretched over wooden panels, several panels being -sometimes placed side by side. A special paste was used, the object of -which was to cause the leather to shrink when dry, so as to make the -panels adhere more closely together. The following description by the Monk -Theophilus of the paste used in his time for this sort of work may -interest the reader:-- - - "Panels for altars or doors are made thus:--First join some - boards carefully one by one with the help of the joining tool - used by coopers or joiners. They must be fastened together with - cheese paste made in the following manner:--Some soft cow's-milk - cheese is cut very thin and washed with hot water in a mortar - with a pestle, changing the water until it comes out clear. The - cheese after being pressed in the hand is put into cold water - until it hardens. It is then well crushed with a piece of wood - on a smooth wooden table. In this condition it is put back into - the mortar to be carefully pounded with the pestle, after having - added water mixed with quicklime till it becomes thick like a - sediment. Panels put together with this paste when dry, stick so - fast that neither damp nor heat can separate them. They must - then be made even with a special tool for this purpose. This - tool, curved and sharp on the inside, has two handles, so that - it may be used with both hands. It is used to level panels, - doors and shields until they are perfectly smooth. They are then - covered with untanned mule-skin or ox-hide, after it has been - wetted and the hairs scraped off. The water is partly squeezed - out, and while still damp it is stuck on with the cheese - paste."[17] - -[17] _Theophili Presbyteri et Monachi_, Libri 3 _seu Diversarum artium -schedula_. Chapter 17. - -[Illustration: 18. GOLD-TOOLED AND INLAID MOROCCO BINDING. _THE LETTERS OF -PRINCESS LIEVEN._ BY S. T. PRIDEAUX. MODERN ENGLISH.] - -In the eleventh century we come to the first employment of gold leaf on -decorated leather, whence is derived the name, "or basane," which it -afterwards received. The passage describing the process of gilding has -been quoted already (page 80), but each master of the art no doubt -introduced his own modifications. - -With the introduction of gold, leather decoration assumed a magnificence -and importance hitherto unknown. The heads of the saints were surrounded -with golden haloes, and the gold and silver embroideries of the sacerdotal -ornaments were carried out in those metals on the leather. A little later -the knights are represented clad in brilliant armour with plumed helmets. -The correct rendering of the heraldic colouring of the coats of arms -figuring on shield and target then necessitated the use of a more extended -range of oil colours, until, little by little, decorated leather grew to -resemble the paintings of Van Orley. - -Meanwhile, punches, cut in relief or in intaglio and used with a hammer, -were adopted to break the monotony of the groundwork and throw up the -relief of the ornament, and the fashion also arose of embossing leather -with a modelling tool or by means of stamps, the latter method necessarily -resulting in the substitution of repeating ornament for figures and -landscapes. - -Leather manufactured in Spain, Portugal, Flanders, and later in England is -almost always decorated in high relief with touches of gold, the design -being principally flowers, foliage, cupids, pomegranates, etc. Venice -alone remained faithful to flat decoration with hollowed or merely -darkened outline in the cameo-like medallions of classical scenes painted -on groundwork whose design was borrowed from the gorgeous stuffs of the -East. - -The fashion imported from Italy in the reign of Francis I of breaking up -surfaces with pilasters, cornices, medallions and ornaments in relief, was -instrumental in adding importance to small painted designs on leather -rather than to hangings properly so called. Some of these leather -paintings were like pictures and were used not only for wall decoration, -but as hangings for beds and even as bedspreads of state. The custom of -thus decorating beds lasted a long time. Pierre Benard, an upholsterer by -trade, established in Paris, and author of a collection of songs dedicated -to the "Vertueuse Royne Marguerite," first wife of Henri IV, refers to the -use of "or basane" in this manner as an evidence of wealth. - -Already under Catherine de Medicis, decorated leather had become extremely -popular, and was preferred to all other hangings for the embellishment of -apartments; its popularity lost nothing under the second wife of Henry IV, -in whose native country this style of decoration was also held in great -favour. In the reign of Louis XIII the influence of Anne of Austria -brought Spanish leather again into fashion. From that time also, leather -gilt or stamped in its natural colour and ornamented with copper nails -(probably inspired by the marriage chests with their curious studded -ornament) was found in the mansions of the great and became the principal -material for covering chairs. - -The grandiose style of architecture of the time of Louis XIV called for -the decoration of spaces framed in gorgeous pilasters and was favourable -to the application of decorated leather in the style of Berain. But this -did not long remain popular, and leather was replaced by Gobelin and other -tapestries made in France, whose introduction gave the deathblow to the -manufacture of leather hangings. - -From this period till the present day the art of gilding leather has been -on the decline. Of this no further proof is needed than the following -preface written in 1762 by Fougeroux de Boudaroy, who had been -commissioned by the Academy to take over the work of research, previously -conducted by Reaumur, on the subject of leather hangings:-- - -[Illustration: 19. BACK AND SEAT OF CHAIR IN CUT, EMBOSSED AND GILT -COWHIDE WITH PUNCHED BACKGROUND. EXECUTED BY ROSALIE VIGERS FROM A DESIGN -BY FREDERICK VIGERS. MODERN ENGLISH.] - - "Flanders, Holland and England are reputed to have furnished the - first gilt or silvered leather hangings seen in Paris. Some - attribute their invention to Spain, but without apparent reason, - since to-day there are in France no such hangings of Spanish - manufacture, nor are they much known in that country. The gilt - leather hangings which come to us from Flanders are nearly all - made at Lille, Brussels, Antwerp and Mechlin; those derived from - the last-named place are the most prized of all. Some very fine - ones which we have attempted to imitate are made in Venice; - manufactures were also started at Lyons and met with success. - - "It was only about two centuries ago that this trade was - established in Paris. We owe it to some Flemish workmen who - settled in the capital and left successors there. But on account - of the nation's prejudice in favour of all that comes from - abroad, the hangings from Holland and Flanders were always - preferred to those of our own manufacture, although they did not - surpass the latter in quality or in beauty. - - "Though equalling those of Holland and Flanders, it was not - possible to find a sale for our hangings unless they were passed - off as having been made in one or other of those provinces, and - this was frequently done by our manufacturers. It must, however, - be admitted that certain gilt leather hangings from England and - Venice have never been equalled here. We are forced to allow - their superiority in brilliancy, beauty of design and - durability. Perhaps all that our workmen needed to be able to - imitate them perfectly was to feel the assurance of greater - constancy in our tastes, and to witness the cessation of that - affection and preference for everything foreign, which might - lead to the more favourable treatment of the native industry. - - "Gilt leather hangings were at one time much sought after. Their - qualities of being, unlike woollen and other materials, - unaffected by damp and insects, of retaining their brilliancy - unimpaired by time, of not attracting dust, and of allowing it - to be easily removed by washing with a sponge, and finally, of - not lending themselves to the multiplication of the insects - which in summer infest the capital and which find in other - tapestries convenient nests for depositing their eggs, were all - advantages, forming so many reasons for their being in demand - and gaining for them a place in the apartments of the great, of - which they frequently constituted the ornament. But to-day, a - change of taste and the dictates of fashion which outweighs even - the advantages and conveniences of life, have caused them to be - almost forgotten and relegated them to the ante-rooms of a few - county houses where some of the earliest are to be found, nearly - as beautiful as when they were first made in Paris. - - "Now that the art is less in vogue, we think it a suitable time - to describe it to the public, thus following the intention of - the Academy of allowing nothing to be lost that may now or - hereafter be useful to the cause of art. We may at any time be - desirous of returning to these older fashions, no longer being - able to vary them, and this may be among those destined to - return to favour. At any rate, it will be agreed that some of - its processes merit description, and might find their - application in other arts and help in bringing them to - perfection." - -[Illustration: 20. EMBOSSED CALF BINDING. _BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER._ -EXECUTED BY ROSALIE VIGERS FROM A DESIGN BY FREDERICK VIGERS. MODERN -ENGLISH.] - -The same author describes minutely and very clearly the various processes -in use at the time for gilding or silvering leather. Instead of -silver-gilt, which is necessarily very costly, he recommends silver leaf -burnished and covered with a varnish, for which he gives the following -recipe, found by him, as he modestly acknowledges, among the papers of -Mons. de Reaumur:-- - - "Take four and a half pounds of colophony, the same quantity of - ordinary resin, two and a half pounds of sandarach and two of - aloes; mix these four drugs together, after having broken up - those which are in large pieces, and put them in an earthen pot - on a good charcoal fire. It is better for the fire to be of - charcoal, because it makes but little flame, which would be - dangerous if it should enter the vessel, as the ingredients are - very inflammable. To guard against this accident and others of - which we will speak later on, the vessel must be chosen large - enough not to be more than half-filled by the drugs already - mentioned and the others yet to be added, as will presently be - explained. It is well also for it to widen out at the top, or to - have a rim that will project the flame outwards. These are small - precautions which it is always better to take; some, however, - neglect them, and make their varnish on a wood fire, and then - double attention must be given to prevent the drugs igniting. - - "Melt all these drugs in the pot and stir them with a spatula so - that they mix together and do not stick to the bottom. When they - are well melted, pour in seven pints of linseed oil and mix it - with the drugs, using the spatula. Cook the whole, stirring it - from time to time to prevent as much as possible a kind of - sediment which forms and does not mix with the oil from sticking - to the bottom of the vessel. When the varnish is cooked, pass it - through a cloth or strainer. - - "This quantity of varnish should, according to workmen, remain - seven to eight hours on the fire to cook, but this cannot be - regarded as an invariable rule. It will not take so long to cook - on a large fire. A better test used by workmen in manufacturing - varnish is to take a few drops of the liquid with the spatula - and lay it over silver leaf on some leather; or else they take - some of the varnish in a silver spoon and, by trying it with the - finger tip as if it were syrup, find out if it is cooked enough. - If it ropes in cooling, or if the finger has a tendency to stick - when it is gently withdrawn, it is a sign that it is - sufficiently cooked, that is to say that it has arrived at the - consistency of a thickish syrup. The varnish is then brown in - colour, and curiously enough when laid over silver it becomes - transparent and gives the effect of brilliant gold." - -While on the subject of gold groundwork made with gold or silver leaf or -tin-foil covered with varnish to imitate the colour of gold, it is curious -to note how far back in the history of art its origin can be traced; after -the Greeks, the Byzantines made use of and, it may also be said, abused -it. This want of moderation in the use of gold is to be met with long -afterwards, for it is mentioned in his book on painting by L. Benedetto -Alberti who died in Rome in 1472.[18] - -[18] _Sunt qui auro immodice utantur, quam aurum putent historiae affere -majestatem._ L. B. Alberti, _De Pictura_, Book 2, page 25, _ad finem -Vitruv. Elzevir. f._ - -Van Orley, Raphael's pupil, when painting his "Last Judgment" at Antwerp, -had his panel gilt in order to obtain "a beautiful transparency."[19] - -[19] Decamps. _Vie des peintres flamands._ Paris, 1753, 4 vols. Vol. 1, -page 39. - -We have quoted above the formula for golden varnish given by Fougeroux de -Boudaroy which he ascribes to Reaumur. It may be found interesting to -compare with it that given by the Monk Theophilus in his _Diversarum -Artium Schedula_:-- - - "Put some linseed oil in a small new pot; add some gum arabic - called _fornis_ pounded very fine; this gum is like very light - incense, but is more brilliant when broken up. Place it on a - charcoal fire and cook it carefully without allowing it to boil, - until it is reduced by one third. Be very careful of flames, for - they are very dangerous, and the preparation is difficult to - extinguish if it once catches fire. Any painting coated with - this varnish becomes brilliant, beautiful and perfectly - lasting.... - - "Another method. Arrange three or four stones which will stand - the fire without breaking, or bricks may be used instead. On - these place a new pot, pour into it some _fornis_ mentioned - above, called by the Romans "glossa," otherwise gum arabic. Over - the opening of the pot, put a smaller one having a little hole - at the bottom; fill in with clay so that no space remains - between them. Carefully light a fire underneath the apparatus - until the gum liquefies. You will also have a thin tool with a - handle which will serve to stir the gum and to find out the - exact moment when it becomes perfectly liquid. Have a third pot - on charcoal by you in which there is hot linseed oil; when the - gum is quite liquid, so that a thread of it hangs from the tool - when it is withdrawn, pour in the hot oil, stir with the tool, - and, when in this condition, cook all together without letting - it boil, take out the tool from time to time and spread a little - of the mixture on wood or stone to try its density. With regard - to the proportion, be careful that there are two thirds of oil - to one of gum. When it is cooked according to your judgment, - take it off the fire and, covering it with care, let it cool. - - "_Of the Method of Colouring Tinfoil to give it the Appearance - of being Gilt, so that it may be used when Gold cannot be had._ - - "Place the pieces (of tinfoil) side by side on the board, fasten - them one by one to the wood with wax, so that they cannot get - displaced, spread over them with the hand a coating of the - varnish described above, and let them dry in the sun. After that - take some sticks of rotten wood cut in April, slit in half and - smoke dried. Peel off the outer bark and the second, which is - the colour of saffron; scrape it into a clean vessel, adding to - it a fifth part of saffron, macerate it well in old wine or ale; - after letting it stand during the night, make it lukewarm the - next morning. When in this condition, dip in the sheets of - tinfoil one by one, frequently taking them out until you find - them assume a golden shade, when you will again fix them on the - wooden board and apply a coat of varnish as before; when dry you - will have sheets of tinfoil that you can use as you wish in your - work...."[20] - -[20] _Diversarum artium schedula_, Book 1. Chapters 21 and 36. - -Although it may not be possible for an amateur, incompletely equipped with -the necessary implements, to reproduce the marvellous work of a byegone -age, there are still many methods of decoration for him to attempt which -will be equally attractive in modern surroundings. - - - - - NOTE - - SOME EXTRACTS FROM THE REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON - LEATHER FOR BOOKBINDING, APPOINTED BY THE COUNCIL - OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, FEBRUARY, 1900. - - -"This Committee met for the first time on May 3, 1900.... Its first step -was to appoint two Sub-Committees from amongst its members. The first of -these was to visit a selected number of libraries, and to ascertain the -comparative durability of the various bookbinding leathers used at -different periods and preserved under different conditions.... The second -... was appointed to deal with the scientific side of the matter, to -ascertain the cause of any deterioration noticed, and, if possible, to -suggest methods for its prevention in the future.... - -"The first step taken by the (first) Sub-Committee was to visit a number -of libraries, including that of the British Museum, the Bodleian Library, -Oxford, the University Library, Cambridge, the libraries of the Athenaeum -Club, of the Patent Office and of the Chemical Society, also the valuable -private library of Mr. Huth.... - -"As regards the common belief that modern binding leather does decay -prematurely, the Sub-Committee satisfied themselves that books bound -during the last eighty or hundred years showed far greater evidence of -deterioration than those of an earlier date. Many recent bindings showed -evidence of decay after so short a period as ten, or even five years. The -Sub-Committee came to the conclusion that there is ample justification for -the general complaint that modern leather is not so durable as that -formerly used. To fix the date of the commencement of this deterioration -was a difficult matter; but they came to the conclusion that while -leather of all periods showed some signs of decay, the deterioration -becomes more general on books bound after 1830, while some leathers seem -to be generally good until about 1860, after which date nearly all -leathers seem to get worse. The deterioration of calf bindings at the -latter end of the nineteenth century may be attributed as much to the -excessive thinness as to the poor quality of the material. - -"With regard to the conditions under which books are kept, ventilation, -lighting, heating, etc., the Committee were satisfied that in libraries -where there was no artificial light used, and where the ventilation was -good, the bindings were generally in a better state than elsewhere. Where -gas is used the bindings are in the worst state noticed, especially on the -higher shelves.... Daylight and still more direct sunlight, has a -disintegrating effect on leather.... - -"As to the suitability of various leathers, the Sub-Committee came to the -conclusion that of the old leathers (fifteenth and sixteenth century), -white pigskin, probably alum tanned, is the most durable, but its -excessive hardness and want of flexibility renders this leather unsuitable -for most modern work. Old brown calf has lasted fairly well, but loses its -flexibility, and becomes stiff and brittle when exposed to light and air. -Some of the white tawed skins of the fifteenth and sixteenth century, -other than white pigskin, and probably deerskin, have lasted very well. -Some fifteenth and sixteenth century sheepskin bindings have remained soft -and flexible, but the surface is soft and usually much damaged by -friction. Vellum seems to have lasted fairly well, but is easily -influenced by atmospheric changes, and is much affected by light. Early -specimens of red morocco from the sixteenth to the end of the eighteenth -century were found in good condition, and of all the leathers noticed, -this seems to be the least affected by the various conditions to which it -had been subjected. In the opinion of the Committee, most of this leather -has been tanned with sumach or some closely allied tanning material. -Morocco bindings earlier than 1860 were generally found to be in fairly -good condition, but morocco after that date seems to be much less -reliable, and in many cases has become utterly rotten. During the latter -part of the eighteenth century it became customary to pare down calf until -it was as thin as paper. Since about 1830 hardly any really sound calf -seems to have been used, as, whether thick or thin, it appears generally -to have perished. Sheepskin bindings of the early part of the century are -many of them still in good condition. Since about 1860 sheepskin as -sheepskin is hardly to be found. Sheepskins are grained in imitation of -other leathers and these imitation-grained leathers are generally found to -be in a worse condition than any of the other bindings, except, perhaps, -some of the very thin calf skin. Undyed modern pigskin seems to last well, -but some coloured pigskin bindings had entirely perished. Modern leathers -dyed with the aid of sulphuric acid are all to be condemned. In nearly -every case Russia leather was found to have become rotten, at least in -bindings of the last fifty years.... - -"The work of the second Sub-Committee, which was composed of chemists -specially conversant with the treatment of leather, was directed specially -to the elucidation of the following points; an investigation of the nature -of the decay of leather used for bookbinding; an examination of the causes -which produced this decay; a research into the best methods of preparing -leather for bookbinding; and a consideration of the points required to be -dealt with in the preservation of books.... - -"The Sub-Committee made a number of tests and analyses of samples of -decayed leather bookbindings, as well as of leathers used for binding. The -Committee found that the most prevalent decay was what they termed a red -decay, and this they think may be differentiated into old and new, the old -red decay being noticeable up to about 1830, and the new decay since that -date. In the old decay the leather becomes hard and brittle, the surface -not being easily abraded by friction. The older form is specially noticed -in calf-bound books, tanned presumably with oak bark. The new form affects -nearly all leathers, and, in extreme cases, seems absolutely to destroy -the fibres. Another form of deterioration, more noticeable in the newer -books, renders the grain of the leather liable to peel off when exposed to -the slightest friction. This is the most common form of decay noted in the -most recent leathers. In nearly all samples of Russia leather, a very -violent form of red decay was noticed. In many cases the leather was found -to be absolutely rotten in all parts exposed to light and air.... - -"An extensive series of experiments was carried out with a view of -determining the causes of the decay of bindings. The Sub-Committee find -that this is caused by both mechanical and by chemical influences. Of the -latter some are due to the mistakes of the leather manufacturer and the -bookbinder, others to the want of ventilation, and to improper heating and -lighting of libraries. In some cases inferior leathers are finished (by -methods in themselves injurious) so as to imitate the better class -leathers, and of course, where these are used, durability cannot be -expected. But in the main, the injury for which the manufacturer and the -bookbinder are responsible must be attributed rather to ignorance of the -effect of the means employed to give the leather the outward qualities -required for binding, than to the intentional production of an inferior -article.... - - * * * * * - -"We are of opinion that no special skin can be condemned in its original -condition, although goat, seal, pig, and calf are probably superior in -strength of texture to sheep. Sheepskins are, however, equally resistant -to chemical agencies, and being naturally soft and flexible, are extremely -suitable for use for purposes where they are not much exposed to -mechanical wear. - -"Fresh market skins, dry skins, or wet salted skins are much to be -preferred to those known as 'drysalted,' since the crystallization of the -salt which takes place in the drysalting process, tends to weaken the -structural fibre of the pelt. No tainted or putrefied skins, even if only -slightly affected, are suitable for the manufacture of bookbinding -leather, both for the same reason, and because the weakness of grain so -produced leads to uneven dyeing. - -"In the soaking of skins we would strongly condemn the use of old putrid -soaks, or the addition of salt to the soaks to assist in the softening, as -both methods weaken the skin. ... Violent mechanical treatment such as -'stocking' is injurious.... - -"The liming should be done in mellow, weak limes. Old limes smelling -strongly of ammonia, and containing large quantities of bacteriological -products, must be avoided.... - -"Special care should be taken with regard to the beamhouse work after -unhairing and fleshing, as, by excessive or unsound puering and drenching -of the skins, their whole natural strength is frequently destroyed.... -Great damage is frequently caused by the use of foul puers or foul bates, -in which putrefaction has taken place. - -"Pure sumach is the tannage we would most strongly recommend for high -class bookbinding.... - -"The tannage of bookbinding leathers must be a mellow one, and must not be -carried too far, as we have found in many cases the cause of decay in -tanned leather has been the fact that the leather was overloaded with -tannin. Tanning has throughout a hardening effect on the leather fibre, -which, if pushed too far, ends in brittleness and loss of tenacity.... - -"We must absolutely condemn the use of any but mild vegetable acids in -souring or scouring the leather, or in the dye bath, and as far as -possible would avoid the use of acids and alkalis on tanned leather, both -being equally injurious. - -"It has been shown by careful experiment, that even a minute quantity of -sulphuric acid used in the dye bath to liberate the colour, is at once -absorbed by the leather, and that no amount of subsequent washing will -remove it. In a very large proportion of cases, the decay of modern -sumach-tanned leather has been due to the sulphuric acid used in the dye -bath, and retained in the skin.... - -"We ... advise that the glazing of skins by friction in a damp 'seasoned' -condition should be avoided. - -"The use of nitric acid as a preparation for glazing is absolutely -destructive.... - -"The use of oxalic acid for washing backs of books, or of leather for -bookbinding, is fatal to their durability.... - -"The sprinkling of leather with ferrous sulphate (green vitriol), either -for the production of 'sprinkled' calf or 'tree' calf, must be most -strongly condemned, as the iron combines with and destroys the tan in the -leather, and free sulphuric acid is liberated which is still more -destructive.... - -"The stretching of leather tightly over books in a wet condition ... -should be strongly condemned.... - -"It is shown conclusively that the catechol tannins, which include turwar, -quebracho, hemlock and larch barks, and gambier, are unsuitable for -bookbinding leathers where durability is expected, and that sumach yields -a much more permanent leather, while myrobalans occupy an intermediate -place, but nearly approaching sumach. It is unfortunate that cassia bark, -which is the tanning material employed for East Indian sheep and goat -skins, should have proved so unreliable, since these leathers have been -largely used in bookbinding without suspicion, and are in other respects a -cheap and good article. With regard to sumach leathers themselves, it is -possible that some of the darkening noticed may be due to the presence of -adulterants, such as pistacia leaves, in the sumach used, as it is almost -impracticable to obtain absolutely pure sumach, and the pistacia tannin is -allied to that of the cassia. - -"Of all the influences to which books are exposed in libraries, gas -fumes--no doubt because of the sulphuric and sulphurous acid which they -contain--are shown to be the most injurious, but light and especially -direct sunlight and hot air, are shown to possess deleterious influences -which had scarcely been suspected previously, and the importance of -moderate temperature and thorough ventilation of libraries cannot be too -much insisted on." - - - - - INDEX - - - Absorbent leather: colouring, 69 - - Acid - : hydrochloric, 30, 66, 71 - : muriatic, 71 - : nitric, 71 - : oxalic, 71 - : picric, 66, 67, 68 - : sulphuric, 71 - - Acids, 66 - as decolorants, 71 - : diluting, 71 - : effect of, on steel tools, 30 - : injurious effect of, on leather, 72 - - Alberti: L. B., author of _De Pictura_, 87 - - Albumen: colours based on, 67 - - Alizarin, 66, 67 - - Alkalis, 66 - - Aniline dyes: stability of, 64 - - Apparatus for pyrogravure, 36-37 - - Archil, 66 - - Arnotto, 66 - - Aumaitre: Mons. E., 38, 42, 52, 59 - - - Baryta: chromate of, 66 - - Bed-furniture: leather, 84 - - Belleville: Mons., author of _Le cuir dans la Decoration Moderne_, 62, - 71 - - Benard: Pierre, author, 84 - - Berain: leather decorated in style of, 84 - - Blacks, 66 - - Blues, 67, 74 - - Bookbinding - : carved leather, 14 - : choice of design for, 77 - : crushed morocco for, 17 - : first use of leather for, 14 - : gold-tooled leather, 14 - : mosaic leather, 14 - : pigskin in, 17-18 - : report of Committee on leather for, 90-95 - : vellum in, 18 - - Boudaroy: Fougeroux de - : remarks on leather hangings, 84-86 - : recipe for golden varnish, 86-87 - - Bronzes, 35, 68, 73, 74, 78 - - Browns, 65 - - Brush - : couch-grass, 70 - : flannel, for rubbing leather, 73 - for gold leaf, 74 - for powder colours, 74 - for sprinkling, 70 - for stencilling, 72 - for tree marbling, 70 - - Buckthorn berries, 67 - - Burgundy: leather decoration in, 14 - - Burnishers, 63, 75 - - - Calf leather, 16 - : characteristics and methods of decorating, 17 - : colouring, 69, 72 - for modelling, 29 - for mosaic, 43, 56 - : monochrome mosaic on, 45 - - Canson paper, 45, 58 - - Cape morocco, 17, 42, 78 - - Cardboard - for use in cutting out inlay, 48 - padding, 34 - - Carpets: leather, 81 - - Carthamine, 66 - - Carthamus Tinctorius, 66 - - Carton Jacquart, 45, 51 - - Carved leather, 16, 27-28 - bookbinding, 14 - : choice of design for, 27 - : gold on, 27 - in Dijon Museum, 14, 27 - - Carving - : leather for, 17 - mosaic in relief, 61, 62 - : tools for, 27 - - Cassaigre tannin, 16 - - Catechol, 65 - - Cathedral style, 27 - - Chairs: leather, 84 - - Chamois leather, 16 - : use and methods of decorating, 18 - - Chestnut tannin, 16 - - Chinese vermilion, 74 - - Choice of design and colour, 76-79 - - Choice of skins, 15-18 - - Chromate of baryta, 66 - - Chromate of zinc, 66 - - Coal-tar, 66 - - Cochineal, 66 - - Coffers: leather, 77-79, 82 - : choice of design for, 78 - : mosaic for, 78 - : mounting leather for, 78 - : outlining design for, 78 - : padding relief for, 78 - : punched groundwork for, 78 - - Colour - : applying, to leather, 68-69 - : choice of design and, 76-79 - : combination of, 76-77 - : for groundwork, 68, 77 - : influence of light on, of leather, 16, 64 - : influence of tanning process on, of leather, 15-16, 64 - : introduction of, into decoration of leather hangings, 81 - - Colouring - absorbent leather, 69 - calf leather, 69, 72 - cut leather, 26-27 - hollows of cut and punched leather, 27, 35, 65, 68, 73-74, 78 - : leather for, 69 - leather for mosaic, 42, 69 - leather: methods of, 68-75 - modelled leather, 71-72 - monochrome mosaic on calf, 45 - morocco leather, 69 - mosaic in relief, 62 - oxhide, 69 - pigskin, 69 - sheepskin, 16 - split sheepskins, 69 - tinfoil to give it the appearance of being gilt, 89 - - Colours - based on albumen, 67 - based on glycerine, 67 - for leather work, 64-68 - for stencilling, 72 - : oil, 67, 83 - : powder, used with varnish, 73-74 - : spirit, 67 - : water, 67 - - Composition of ornament, 77-79 - - Copper nails: leather ornamented with, 84 - - Copper-plate etching on leather, 39 - - Cordouans, 80 - - Cordwainer, 14 - - Cork padding, 34 - - Cotton cord padding, 34 - - Couch-grass whisk, 70 - - Cowhide, 16 - : characteristics and methods of decorating, 17 - for mosaic in relief, 61 - - Cuir bouilli, 28 - - Cushion for gold leaf, 74 - - Cut leather, 16, 25-27 - : colouring, 26-27 - : colouring hollows of, 27 68, 73-74 - : opening the outline of, 23, 25-26 - - Cutting - : leather for, 17 - stamped leather, 39 - - Cutting out - incrusted mosaic, 62-63 - inlay: cardboard for use in, 48 - inlay for mosaic, 46-49 - inlay for mosaic in relief, 61 - inlay for polychrome mosaic, 58-59 - open-work leather, 40 - - Cutting-out knives, 40, 46-48 - - - Damping leather, 19-20 - - Decolorants, 70-71, 76 - on modelled leather, 71-72 - : tracing design for, 71 - - Design - based on chestnut tree, 76 - based on sea subjects, 76 - : detached portions of leather in, 77 - : choice of, for bookbinding, 77 - : choice of, for carved leather, 27 - : choice of, for coffers, 77 - : choice of, for large surfaces, 79 - : choice of, for marbled leather, 77 - : choice of, for modelled leather, 77 - in leather hangings and furniture, 82-84 - : Japanese school of, 79 - : study of, 79 - - Design and colour: choice of, 76-79 - - Dijon Museum: examples of carved leather in, 14, 27 - - Dollage de gants padding, 34 - - Dyes, 64-74 - : aniline, stability of, 64 - : superposed, 65, 68, 76 - : uncertain effect of, on leather, 77 - : vegetable, stability of, 64 - - - Embossed leather, _see_ Modelled leather - - Encaustic: rubbing leather with, 65, 72-73 - - England: manufacture of leather hangings and furniture in, 83, 85 - - Engraved leather, _see_ Cut leather - - Europe: introduction of decorated leather into, 13, 14, 80 - - - Flanders: manufacture of leather hangings and furniture in, 83, 85 - - France - : introduction of gilt or silvered leather hangings into, 85 - : manufacture of leather hangings and furniture in, 85 - : popularity of leather hangings and furniture in, 84 - - - Garlande: Jehan de, author, 80 - - Germany: leather decoration in, 14 - - Ghadames: leather industry at, 80 - - Gilding, 74-75, 80-81, 83, 86 - : bookbinders' tools for, 75 - : decline of art, 84-86 - outline of incrusted mosaic, 63 - : process described by Theophilus, 80-81 - - Gilt leather chairs, 84 - - Gilt or silvered leather hangings and furniture, 84, 85-86 - - Gilt panel for painting on, 87-88 - - Gloves for protecting hands from dyes, 68 - - Glycerine - : colours based on, 67 - inks, 72 - - Gobelin tapestries: leather hangings and furniture replaced by, 84 - - Gold, 68, 83 - groundwork: origin of, 87 - leaf, 28, 74-75, 83 - leaf: brush for, 74 - leaf: cushion for, 74 - leaf first employed on leather hangings and furniture, 83 - leaf: knife for, 74 - : liquid, 75 - on carved and embossed leather, 27 - powder, 73, 74, 75 - : punches used on, 28, 75 - : shell, 28, 74, 75 - : want of moderation in the use of, 87 - - Golden varnish - : recipe for (Boudaroy), 86-87 - : recipe for (Theophilus), 88 - - Gold-tooled leather bookbinding, 14 - - Gold-tooling, 28, 74-75 - : powder for, 74 - - Gouache, 35, 68, 73, 74, 78 - - Grating: sprinkling, 70 - - Greens, 66, 67, 74 - - Greys, 65 - - - Hammered leather, 16, 28 - - Hammering: leather for, 17 - - Hematoxylin, 66 - - Heraldic decoration on leather, 14, 83 - - Holland: manufacture of leather hangings in, 85 - - Hydrochloric acid, 30, 66, 71 - - - Incising, 20-24, 26 - for inserted mosaic, 60 - for modelled leather, 22, 30 - knives, 15, 20-24 - oxhide, 22 - slanting cut, 23, 24 - - Indigo, 67 - - Inks - containing nitrate of silver, 72 - for stamping leather, 39 - for stencilling, 72 - : glycerine, 72 - - Inlaid leather, _see_ Mosaic leather - - - Japanese school of design, 79 - - - Kip-skins, 61 - - Knives - : cutting-out, 40, 46-48 - : gold, 74 - : incising, 15, 20-24 - : paring, 43 - : stencil-cutter's, 46, 61 - - - Leather - : absorbent quality of, 64-65 - bed-furniture, 84 - carpets, 81 - chairs, 84 - coffers, 77-79, 82 - decoration in Burgundy, 14 - decoration in dress, 13 - decoration in Germany, 14 - decoration in Spain, 13, 14, 80 - decoration in style of Berain, 84 - decoration in the past, 13-14 - decoration in war-like equipment, 13 - decoration: introduction into Europe, 13, 14, 80 - : first use of, for bookbinding, 14 - hangings and furniture, 80-89 - : heraldic decoration on, 14, 83 - industry at Ghadames, 80 - : methods of working in, 16, 19-41 - : report of Committee on, for bookbinding, 90-95 - : Spanish, 84 - : varieties of, 16 - - Light: influence of, on colour of leather, 16, 64 - - Lignereux: Mons. de Saint Andre de, author of _Le Cuir d'Art francais_, - 28 - - Lithographic stone, 15, 44 - - Logwood, 66 - - Lyons: manufacture of gilt or silvered leather hangings at, 85 - - - Madder, 66 - - Marble: slab of, 15, 44 - - Marbled leather: choice of design for, 77 - - Marbling, 69-70 - : tree, 70 - - Metal block for stamping leather, 39 - - Metal ornaments on leather hangings, 81 - - Metallic salts, 66 - - Mimosa tannin, 16 - - Modelled leather, 16, 28-36 - : choice of design for, 77 - : colouring, 71-72 - : decolorants on, 71-72 - : incising for, 22, 30 - in hangings and furniture, 83 - : introduction into Venice, 14 - : opening the outline of, 26, 29, 32, 33-34 - : softening the outline of, 32-33 - with punched background, 16, 28, 34-36 - - Modellers, 15, 29, 30, 38 - - Modelling, 30-34 - : ball-shaped steel tool for, 31, 32 - : leather for, 17, 29, 61 - leather on plaster cast, 39-40 - mosaic in relief, 61 - reed decoration, 34 - : sandbag for, 32 - stamped leather, 39 - : tools for, 29-32 - : tracing design for, 32, 33 - : wax for, 33-34 - - Mordants, 67 - - Morocco leather, 16 - : Cape, 17, 42, 78 - : characteristics and methods of decorating, 17 - : colouring, 69 - : crushed, 17 - for mosaic, 42, 58, 59 - : grain of, 17 - groundwork: pasting inlay on, 59 - groundwork: polychrome mosaic on, 58-59 - groundwork: tool for sticking inlay on, 59, 60 - : paring, for inlay of polychrome mosaic, 58-59 - : tanning materials used for, 15 - - Mosaic, 16, 42-63 - bookbinding, 14 - : calf leather for, 43, 56 - : colouring leather for, 42, 69 - : cutting out inlay for, 46-49 - for coffers, 78 - : incrusted, 62-63 - : incrusted, cutting out, 62-63 - : incrusted, gilding outline of, 63 - : incrusted, outlining, 63 - : incrusted, tracing design for, 62 - in relief, 61-62 - in relief: carving, 61, 62 - in relief: colouring, 62 - in relief: cowhide for, 61 - in relief: cutting out inlay for, 61 - in relief: depressing groundwork for inlay of, 61 - in relief: leather for, 61 - in relief: modelling, 61 - in relief: tracing design for, 61 - : inserted, 59-60 - : inserted, incising leather for, 60 - : inserted, outlining, 60 - : leather for groundwork of, 17, 42-43 - : leather for inlay of, 45 - : monochrome, on calf, 45 - : morocco leather as groundwork of, 42, 58, 59 - : mounting inlay on paper lining for, 45-46 - on modelled leather, 59 - on modelled leather: paring leather for, 59 - : outlining, 52-56 - : pasting inlay on groundwork for, 49-50, 59 - : paring leather for, 43-44 - : pincers for, 50 - : polishing, 56, 57 - : polychrome, 57-59 - : polychrome, cutting out inlay for, 58-59 - : polychrome, morocco leather as inlay for, 58 - : polychrome, on morocco groundwork, 58-59 - : polychrome, outlining, 59 - : polychrome, paring morocco leather for inlay of, 58-59 - : polychrome, split sheepskins for, 58 - : polychrome, stencil for marking out, 58 - : polychrome, tracing design for, 57-58 - : preparation of leather for groundwork of, 43-45 - : removing paper lining from inlay of, 52 - : roller for, 50, 51 - : setting in the inlay of, 50-52 - : tracing design for, 46 - - Mosaics of pique leather, 13 - - Mosaique par incrustation, _see_ Incrusted mosaic - - Muriatic acid, 71 - - - Nitrate of silver: inks containing, 72 - - Nitric acid, 71 - - - Oak tannin, 15, 16 - - Oil colours, 67, 83 - - Openers, 15, 23, 25-26 - - Opening the outline - of cut leather, 23, 25-26 - of modelled leather, 26, 29, 32, 33-34 - - Open-work leather, 16, 18, 40, 41 - : cutting out, 40 - : groundwork for, 18, 40, 41 - hangings, 40 - in relief, 40 - : plaited ornament on borders of, 40-41 - - Or basane, 83, 84 - - Outliners, 52-56 - - Outlining - design for coffers, 78 - incrusted mosaic, 63 - inserted mosaic, 60 - mosaic, 52-56 - polychrome mosaic, 59 - - Outlining-wheels, 15, 35, 54, 56, 63 - - Oxalic acid, 71 - - Oxhide, 16 - : characteristics and methods of decorating, 17 - : colouring, 69 - : incising, 22 - - - Padding relief, 34, 40 - for coffers, 78 - - Panel: gilt, for painting on, 87-88 - - Paring knives, 43 - - Paring leather, 43-44 - for inlay of polychrome mosaic, 58-59 - for mosaic on modelled leather, 59 - - Paste: recipe for, for mounting leather on wooden panels (Theophilus), - 82 - - Patine, 30, 64, 67, 72 - - Patines grasses, 67 - - Pearl-ash, 65 - - Pencils: 6H graphite, 15, 20 - - Permanganate of potash, 65 - - Pictures on leather, 82, 84 - - Picric acid, 66, 67, 68 - - Pied de biche, 30 - - Pigskin, 16 - : characteristics and methods of decorating, 17-18 - : colouring, 69 - : in bookbinding, 17-18 - - Pincers for mosaic, 50 - - Pinks, 66 - - Pique leather: mosaics of, 13 - - Plaited ornament on borders of open-work leather, 40-41 - - Plaster cast: modelling leather on, 39-40 - - Plaster casts for stamping leather, 39 - - Plaster padding, 40 - - Pointogravure, 16, 38 - : tools for, 38 - - Polishing iron, 56, 57 - - Polishing mosaic, 56, 57 - - Pompon, 72 - - Portugal: manufacture of leather hangings and furniture in, 83 - - Potash, 65, 66, 68, 69, 73, 77 - - Potash-lye, 65 - - Potassium, 65 - - Powder colours, - : brush for, 74 - used with varnish, 73-74 - - Presses for stamping leather, 38, 39 - - Pressing leather after pasting, 45 - - Punched backgrounds, _see_ Punched groundwork - - Punched groundwork, 16, 28, 34-36 - for coffers, 78 - in leather hangings and furniture, 83 - : modelled leather with, 16, 28, 34-36 - - Punched leather, 16, 28 - : colouring hollows of, 35, 65, 68, 73-74, 78 - - Punches, 15, 28, 35, 78, 83 - : patterns produced with, 35 - used on gold, 28, 75 - - Pyrogravure, 16, 27, 28, 36-37 - : apparatus for, 36-37 - : leather for, 17, 18 - : outlining incrusted mosaic by, 63 - - - Quercitron, 66 - - - Reaumur: Mons. de, 84, 86, 88 - - Red wood: extracts of, 66 - - Reds, 66 - - Reed decoration, 34 - : padding for, 34 - : tool for working, 34 - - Reserved ornament, 71-72 - : colour for groundwork of, 77 - - Roller for mosaic, 50, 51 - - Rubbing leather, 36, 65, 67, 72-74, 77 - : flannel brush for, 73 - with encaustic, 65, 72-73 - with varnish, 72-73 - with wax, 72-73 - - Russia leather, 16 - : characteristics and methods of decorating, 17 - for modelling, 29 - - - Saffron, 66 - - Salts - : metallic, 66 - of tin, 66 - - Sandbag for modelling, 32 - - Scraper, 46 - - Semis, 35 - - Setting in the inlay of mosaic, 50-52 - - Shaded groundwork, 42, 69 - - Sheepskin, 16 - : characteristics and methods of decorating, 16, 17 - : colouring, 16 - - Shell gold, 28, 74, 75 - - Shell silver, 74 - - Silver - leaf, 86 - powder, 74 - : shell, 74 - : use of, on leather, 83 - - Skins: choice of, 15-18 - - Soda, 65 - - Spain - : leather decoration in, 13, 14, 80 - : manufacture of leather hangings and furniture in, 83, 85 - : introduction of leather hangings and furniture into, 80 - - Spanish leather, 84 - - Spirit colours, 67 - - Split sheepskins - : colouring, 69 - for inlaying, 45, 56 - for polychrome mosaic, 58 - - Sprinkling, 70-71 - : brush for, 70 - : grating for, 70 - : preparation for reserving ornament during (Belleville), 71 - : tracing design for, 71 - : vaporiser for, 71 - - Stamped leather, 16, 38-40 - chairs, 84 - : cutting, 39 - in hangings and furniture, 83, 84 - : introduction into Venice, 14 - : modelling, 39 - - Stamping leather, 38-40 - : inks for, 39 - : presses for, 38, 39 - with copper-plate, 39 - with metal block, 39 - with plaster casts, 39 - with stencil, 38 - - Stearine: plaster casts prepared with, 39 - - Steel clamps for holding leather, 31 - - Stencil-cutter's knife, 46, 61 - - Stencilling, 72 - : brush for, 72 - : inks for, 72 - : leather for, 18 - - Stone: lithographic, 15, 44 - - Study of design, 79 - - Sulphate of iron, 65, 67, 68, 69, 76 - - Sulphuric acid, 71 - - Sumach tannin, 15 - - Superposed dyes, 65, 68, 76 - - - Tanning materials, 15, 16 - - Tanning process, 15 - : influence of, on colour of leather, 15-16, 64 - : leather prepared to receive dyes by the, 67 - - Theophilus, author of _Diversarum Artium Schedula_ - : process of gilding described by, 80-81 - : recipe for colouring tinfoil to give it the appearance of being - gilt, 89 - : recipe for golden varnish, 88 - : recipe for paste for mounting leather on wooden panels, 82 - - Tools, 16 - : bookbinders', for gilding, 75 - : effect of acids on steel, 30 - for carving, 27 - for modelling, 29-32 - for pointogravure, 38 - for pyrogravure, 36-37 - for sticking inlay on morocco groundwork, 59, 60 - for working reed decoration, 34 - - Tracing design, 19-20 - for decolorants, 71 - for incrusted mosaic, 62 - for modelling, 32, 33 - for mosaic, 46 - for mosaic in relief, 61 - for polychrome mosaic, 57-58 - for sprinkling, 71 - on flesh side of leather, 32, 33 - - Tracing-point, 15, 20 - - Tree marbling, 70 - : brush for, 70 - - Turmeric, 66 - - - Van Orley, painter, 83, 87-88 - - Vaporiser for sprinkling, 71 - - Varnish - : recipe for golden (Boudaroy), 86-87 - : recipe for golden (Theophilus), 88 - : rubbing leather with, 72-73 - : use of, with powder colours, 73-74 - - Vegetable dyes: stability of, 64 - - Vellum, 16 - : characteristics and methods of decorating, 18 - in bookbinding, 18 - - Venice - : introduction of modelled and stamped leather into, 14 - : manufacture of leather hangings and furniture in, 83, 85 - - Vermilion: Chinese, 74 - - - Water-colours, 67 - - Wax - for modelling, 33-34 - padding, 34 - : rubbing leather with, 72-73 - - Wheels - : outlining, 15, 35, 54, 56, 63 - : patterns produced with, 35 - - - Xanthin, 65 - - - Yellows, 66 - - - Zinc: chromate of, 66 - - - Butler & Tanner, The Selwood Printing Works, Frome, and London. - - * * * * * - - - - - TRANSCRIBER'S AMENDMENTS - - -Transcriber's Note: Blank pages have been deleted. Some illustrations have -been moved and the corresponding entries in the lists of illustrations -updated. Footnotes have been moved to follow the referencing paragraph. -The publisher's inadvertent omissions of important punctuation have been -corrected. Duplicative front matter has been removed. - -The following list indicates any additional changes made. The page number -represents that of the original publication and applies in this etext -except for footnotes and illustrations since they may have been moved. - - Key: {<from>}[<to>]: - - Page Change - - - {_To face Page_}[_Page_] - 12 painted and gilt calf. _Le Roman de Tristan et {Iseul}[Iseut]._ - 56 of wood covered with embossed leather, _cuir {bouill}[bouilli]_. - 83 of repeating ornament for figures and {landscopes}[landscapes]. - - * * * * * - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's The Decoration of Leather, by Georges de Recy - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DECORATION OF LEATHER *** - -***** This file should be named 40286.txt or 40286.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/0/2/8/40286/ - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Henry Gardiner and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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