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diff --git a/40285-8.txt b/40285-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 7208f61..0000000 --- a/40285-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8883 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Syrian Christ, by Abraham Mitrie Rihbany - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: The Syrian Christ - -Author: Abraham Mitrie Rihbany - -Release Date: July 20, 2012 [EBook #40285] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SYRIAN CHRIST *** - - - - -Produced by Al Haines - - - - - - - - - -[Illustration: Cover] - - - - -THE SYRIAN CHRIST - - -BY - -ABRAHAM MITRIE RIHBANY - - - - -BOSTON AND NEW YORK - -HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY - -The Riverside Press Cambridge - -1916 - - - - -COPYRIGHT, 1916, BY THE ATLANTIC MONTHLY COMPANY - -COPYRIGHT, 1916, BY ABRAHAM MITRIE RIHBANY - - -ALL RIGHTS RESERVED - - -_Published October 1916_ - - - - -{v} - -PREFACE - -This little volume is sent forth in the confident hope that it may -throw fresh light on the life and teachings of Christ, and facilitate -for the general public the understanding of the Bible. As may be -readily seen, from its perusal, the present work is not intended to be -a commentary on the Bible, nor even an exhaustive study of the subject -with which it deals. That it leaves many things to be desired is very -evident to the author, who fears that his book will be remembered by -its readers more by the things it lacks than by the things it contains. - -Yet, from the cordial reception with which the opening chapters of this -publication (which made their first appearance in the _Atlantic -Monthly_) met from readers, of various religious affiliations, the -author has been encouraged to believe that his aim has not only been -clearly {vi} discerned, but thoroughly approved. The books which -undertake the systematic "expounding of the Scriptures" are a host -which no man can number, nor is there any lack of "spiritual lessons -drawn from the Bible." Therefore, as one of the Master's fellow -countrymen, and one who has enjoyed about twenty years of service in -the American pulpit, I have for several years entertained the growing -conviction that such a book as this was really needed. Not, however, -as one more commentary, but as an Oriental guide to afford Occidental -readers of the Bible a more intimate view of the original intellectual -and social environment of this sacred literature. So what I have to -offer here is a series of suggestions, and not of technically wrought -Bible lessons. - -The need of the Western readers of the Bible is, in my judgment, to -enter sympathetically and intelligently into the atmosphere in which -the books of the Scriptures first took form: to have real intellectual, -as well as spiritual, fellowship with those Orientals who sought {vii} -earnestly in their own way to give tangible form to those great -spiritual truths which have been, and ever shall be, humanity's most -precious heritage. - -My task has not been a light one. It is comparatively easy to take -isolated Bible texts and explain them, treating each passage as a -detached unit. But when one undertakes to group a large number of -passages which never were intended to be gathered together and treated -as the kindred thoughts of an essay, the task becomes rather difficult. -How far I have succeeded in my effort to relate the passages I have -treated in this book to one another according to their intellectual and -social affinities, the reader is in a better position to judge than I -am. - -It may not be absolutely necessary for me to say that infallibility -cannot justly be ascribed to any author, nor claimed by him, even when -writing of his own experiences, and the social environment in which he -was born and brought up. - -However, in Yankee, not in Oriental, {viii} fashion, I will say that -_to the best of my knowledge_ the statements contained in this book are -correct. - -Finally, I deem it necessary before I bring this preface to a close to -sound a note of warning. So I will say that the Orientals' extensive -use of figurative speech should by no means be allowed to carry the -idea that _all_ Oriental speech is figurative. This manner of speech, -which is common to all races of men, is only _more extensively_ used by -Orientals than by Occidentals. I could wish, however, that the learned -theologians had suspected more strongly the literal accuracy of -Oriental utterances, and had thus been saved at times from founding a -huge doctrinal structure on a figure of speech. - -Notwithstanding all this, the Gospel and the Christian faith still live -and bless and cheer the hearts and minds of men. As an Oriental by -birth, and as an American from choice, I feel profoundly grateful that -I have been enabled to render this modest service to the Churches of -{ix} America, and to present this book as an offering of love and -homage to my Master, the Syrian Christ. - -ABRAHAM MITRIE RIHBANY - -BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS. - - - - -{xi} - -CONTENTS - - -PART I. THE SYRIAN CHRIST. - - I. Son of the East - II. Birth of a Man Child - III. The Star - IV. Mystic Tones - V. Filial Obedience - VI. Feast and Sacrament - VII. The Last Scene - - -PART II. The Oriental Manner Of Speech. - - I. Daily Language - II. Imprecations - III. Love of Enemies - IV. "The Unveracious Oriental" - V. Impressions _vs._ Literal Accuracy - VI. Speaking in Parables - VII. Swearing - VIII. Four Characteristics - - -{xii} - -PART III. BREAD AND SALT - - I. The Sacred 'Aish - II. "Our Daily Bread" - III. "Compel Them to come in" - IV. Delaying the Departing Guest - V. Family Feasts - - -PART IV. OUT IN THE OPEN - - I. Shelter and Home - II. Resigned Travelers - III. The Market Place - IV. The Housetop - V. The Vineyards and the Fields - VI. The Shepherd - - -PART V. SISTERS OF MARY AND MARTHA - - I. Woman East and West - II. Paul and Woman - III. Jesus and his Mother - IV. "A Gracious Woman" - - -PART VI. - - Here and There in the Bible - Index - - - - -{3} - -PART I - -THE SYRIAN CHRIST - - - - -THE SYRIAN CHRIST - -CHAPTER I - -SON OF THE EAST - -Jesus Christ, the incarnation of the spirit of God, seer, teacher of -the verities of the spiritual life, and preacher of the fatherhood of -God and the brotherhood of man, is, in a higher sense, "a man without a -country." As a prophet and a seer Jesus belongs to all races and all -ages. Wherever the minds of men respond to simple truth, wherever the -hearts of men thrill with pure love, wherever a temple of religion is -dedicated to the worship of God and the service of man, there is Jesus' -country and there are his friends. Therefore, in speaking of Jesus as -the son of a certain country, I do not mean in the least to localize -his Gospel, or to set bounds and limits to the flow of his spirit and -the workings of his love. - -Nor is it my aim in these chapters to imitate {4} the astute -theologians by wrestling with the problem of Jesus' personality. To me -the secret of personality, human and divine, is an impenetrable -mystery. My more modest purpose in this writing is to remind the -reader that, whatever else Jesus was, as regards his modes of thought -and life and his method of teaching, he was a Syrian of the Syrians. -According to authentic history Jesus never saw any other country than -Palestine. There he was born; there he grew up to manhood, taught his -Gospel, and died for it. - -It is most natural, then, that Gospel truths should have come down to -the succeeding generations--and to the nations of the West--cast in -Oriental moulds of thought, and intimately intermingled with the simple -domestic and social habits of Syria. The gold of the Gospel carries -with it the sand and dust of its original home. - -From the foregoing, therefore, it may be seen that my reason for -undertaking to throw fresh light on the life and teachings of Christ, -and {5} other portions of the Bible whose correct understanding depends -on accurate knowledge of their original environment, is not any claim -on my part to great learning or a profound insight into the spiritual -mysteries of the Gospel. The real reason is rather an accident of -birth. From the fact that I was born not far from where the Master was -born, and brought up under almost the identical conditions under which -he lived, I have an "inside view" of the Bible which, by the nature of -things, a Westerner cannot have. And I know that the conditions of -life in Syria of to-day are essentially as they were in the time of -Christ, not from the study of the mutilated tablets of the archæologist -and the antiquarian, precious as such discoveries are, but from the -simple fact that, as a sojourner in this Western world, whenever I open -my Bible it reads like a letter from home. - -Its unrestrained effusiveness of expression; its vivid, almost flashy -and fantastic imagery; its naïve narrations; the rugged unstudied -simplicity of its parables; its unconventional (and {6} to the more -modest West rather unseemly) portrayal of certain human relations; as -well as its all-permeating spiritual mysticism,--so far as these -qualities are concerned, the Bible might all have been written in my -primitive village home, on the western slopes of Mount Lebanon some -thirty years ago. - -Nor do I mean to assert or even to imply that the Western world has -never succeeded in knowing the mind of Christ. Such an assertion would -do violent injustice, not only to the Occidental mind, but to the -Gospel itself as well, by making it an enigma, utterly foreign to the -native spirituality of the majority of mankind. But what I have -learned from intimate associations with the Western mind, during almost -a score of years in the American pulpit, is that, with the exception of -the few specialists, it is extremely difficult, if not impossible, for -a people to understand fully a literature which has not sprung from -that people's own racial life. As a repository of divine revelation -the Bible knows no geographical limits. Its spiritual truths are {7} -from God to man. But as a literature the Bible is an imported article -in the Western world, especially in the home of the Anglo-Saxon race. -The language of the Scriptures, the mentality and the habits of life -which form the setting of their spiritual precepts, and the mystic -atmosphere of those precepts themselves, have come forth from the soul -of a people far removed from the races of the West in almost all the -modes of its earthly life. - -You cannot study the life of a people successfully from the outside. -You may by so doing succeed in discerning the few fundamental traits of -character in their local colors, and in satisfying your curiosity with -surface observations of the general modes of behavior; but the little -things, the common things, those subtle connectives in the social -vocabulary of a people, those agencies which are born and not made, and -which give a race its rich distinctiveness, are bound to elude your -grasp. There is so much in the life of a people which a stranger to -that people must receive {8} by way of unconscious absorption. Like a -little child, he must learn so many things by involuntary imitation. -An outside observer, though wise, is only a photographer. He deals -with externals. He can be converted into an artist and portray the -life of a race by working from the soul outward, only through long, -actual, and sympathetic associations with that race. - -From the foregoing it may be seen that I deem it rather hazardous for a -six-weeks tourist in that country to publish a book on the _life_ of -Syria. A first-class camera and "an eye to business" are hardly -sufficient qualifications for the undertaking of such a task. It is -very easy, indeed, to take a photograph, but not so easy to relate such -a picture to the inner life of a race, and to know what moral and -social forces lie behind such externals. The hasty traveler may easily -state what certain modes of thought and life in a strange land mean to -_him_, but does that necessarily mean that _his_ understanding of such -things is also the understanding of the _people_ of that land -themselves? - -{9} - -With the passing of the years, this thought gains in significance with -me, as a Syrian immigrant. At about the end of my second year of -residence in this country, I felt confident that I could write a book -on America and the Americans whose accuracy no one could challenge. It -was so easy for me to grasp the significance of certain general aspects -of American life that I felt I was fully competent to state how the -American people lived, what their racial, political, and religious -tendencies were, what their idioms of speech meant, and to interpret -their amorous, martial, dolorous, and joyous moods with perfect -accuracy and ease. But now, after a residence of about twenty-four -years in America--years which I have spent in most intimate association -with Americans, largely of the "original stock"--I do not feel half so -confident that I am qualified to write such a book. The more intimate -I become with American thought, the deeper I penetrate the American -spirit, the more enlightened my associations become with American -fathers, mothers, {10} and children in the joys and sorrows of life, -the more fully do I realize how extremely difficult, if not impossible, -it is for one to interpret successfully the life of an alien people -before one has actually _lived it_ himself. - -Many Westerners have written very meritorious books on the thought and -life of the East. But these are not of the "tourist" type. Such -writers have been those who, first, had the initial wisdom to realize -that the beggars for _bakhsheesh_ in the thoroughfares of Syrian -cities, and those who hitch a woman with an ox to the plough in some -dark recesses of Palestine, did not possibly represent the deep soul of -that ancient East, which gave birth to the Bible and to the glorious -company of prophets, apostles, and saints. Second, such writers knew, -also, that the fine roots of a people's life do not lie on the surface. -Such feeders of life are both deep and fine; not only long residence -among a people, but intimate association and genuine sympathy with them -are necessary to reveal to a stranger the hidden {11} meaning of their -life. Social life, like biological life, energizes from within, and -from within it must be studied. - -And it is those common things of Syrian life, so indissolubly -interwoven with the spiritual truths of the Bible, which cause the -Western readers of holy writ to stumble, and which rob those truths for -them of much of their richness. By sheer force of genius, the -aggressive, systematic Anglo-Saxon mind seeks to press into logical -unity and creedal uniformity those undesigned, artless, and most -natural manifestations of Oriental life, in order to "understand the -Scriptures." - -"Yet show I unto you a more excellent way," by personally conducting -you into the inner chambers of Syrian life, and showing you, if I can, -how simple it is for a humble fellow countryman of Christ to understand -those social phases of the Scriptural passages which so greatly puzzle -the august minds of the West. - - - - -{12} - -CHAPTER II - -BIRTH OF A MAN CHILD - -In the Gospel story of Jesus' life there is not a single incident that -is not in perfect harmony with the prevailing modes of thought and the -current speech of the land of its origin. I do not know how many times -I heard it stated in my native land and at our own fireside that -heavenly messengers in the forms of patron saints or angels came to -pious, childless wives, in dreams and visions, and cheered them with -the promise of maternity. It was nothing uncommon for such women to -spend a whole night in a shrine "wrestling in prayer," either with the -blessed Virgin or some other saint, for such a divine assurance; and I -remember a few of my own kindred to have done so. - -Perhaps the most romantic religious practice in this connection is the -_zeara_. Interpreted literally, the word _zeara_ means simply a visit. -In its social use it is the equivalent of {13} a call of long or short -duration. But religiously the _zeara_ means a pilgrimage to a shrine. -However, strictly speaking, the word "pilgrimage" means to the Syrians -a journey of great religious significance whose supreme purpose is the -securing of a blessing for the pilgrim, with no reference to a special -need. The _zeara_ is a pilgrimage with a specific purpose. The -_zayir_ (visitor to a shrine) comes seeking either to be healed of a -certain ailment, to atone for a sin, or to be divinely helped in some -other way. Unlike a pilgrimage also, a _zeara_ may be made by one -person in behalf of another. When, for example, a person is too ill to -travel, or is indifferent to a spiritual need which such a visit is -supposed to fill, his parents or other close friends may make a _zeara_ -in his behalf. But much more often a _zeara_ is undertaken by women -for the purpose of securing the blessing of fecundity, or consecrating -an approaching issue of wedlock (if it should prove to be a male) to -God, and to the patron saint of the visited sanctuary. - -{14} - -Again the word "pilgrimage" is used only to describe a visit by a -Christian to Jerusalem, or by a Mohammedan to Mecca, while the _zeara_ -describes a visit to any one of the lesser shrines. - -The happy journey is often made on foot, the parties most concerned -walking all the way "on the flesh of their feet"; that is, with neither -shoes nor sandals on. This great sacrifice is made as a mark of -sincere humility which is deemed to be pleasing to God and his holy -saints. However, the wearing of shoes and even the use of mounts is -not considered a sinful practice on such occasions, and is indulged in -by many of the well-to-do families. The state of the heart is, of -course, the chief thing to be considered. - -In the fourth chapter of the Second Book of Kings we are told that "the -Shunammite woman" used an ass when she sought Elisha to restore her -dead son to her. In the twenty-second verse (the Revised Version), we -are told, "And she called unto her husband, and said, {15} Send me, I -pray thee, one of the servants, and one of the asses, that I may run to -the man of God, and come again.... Then she saddled an ass, and said -to her servant, Drive, and go forward; slacken me not the riding, -except I bid thee. So she went, and came unto the man of God to mount -Carmel." - -Fasting and prayer on the way are often pronounced phases of a _zeara_. -However, wine-drinking by the men in the company and noisy gayety are -not deemed altogether incompatible with the solemnity of the occasion. -The pious visitors carry with them presents to the abbot and to the -monks who serve the shrine. A silver or even gold candlestick, or a -crown of either metal for the saint, is also carried to the altar. The -young mother in whose behalf the _zeara_ is undertaken is tenderly -cared for by every member of the party. She is "the chosen vessel of -the Lord." - -The _zûwar_ (visitors) remain at the holy shrine for one or two nights, -or until the "presence" is revealed; that is, until the saint {16} -manifests himself. The prayerfully longed-for manifestation comes -almost invariably in a dream, either to the mother or some other worthy -in the party. How like the story of Joseph all this is! In the first -chapter of St. Matthew's Gospel, the twentieth verse, it is said of -Joseph, "But while he thought on these things, behold, the angel of the -Lord appeared unto him in a dream, saying, Joseph, thou son of David, -fear not to take unto thee Mary thy wife: for that which is conceived -in her is of the Holy Ghost. And she shall bring forth a son, and thou -shalt call his name Jesus; for he shall save his people from their -sins." - -In this manner the promise is made to the waiting mother, who "keeps -these things, and ponders them in her heart." - -The promise thus secured, the mother and the father vow that the child -shall be a _nedher_; that is, consecrated to the saint who made the -promise to the mother. The vow may mean one of several things. Either -that a sum of {17} money be "given to the saint" upon the advent of the -child, or that the child be carried to the same sanctuary on another -_zeara_ with gifts, and so forth, or that his hair will not be cut -until he is seven years old, and then cut for the first time before the -image of his patron saint at the shrine, or some other act of pious -fulfillment. - -The last form of a vow, the consecration of the hair of the head for a -certain period, is practiced by men of all ages. The vow is made as a -petition for healing from a serious illness, rescue from danger, or -purely as an act of consecration. In the eighteenth chapter of the -Book of Acts, the eighteenth verse, we have the statement: "And Paul -after this tarried there yet a good while, and then took his leave of -the brethren, and sailed thence into Syria, and with him Priscilla and -Aquila; _having shorn his head in Cenchrea: for he had a vow_." It was -also in connection with this practice that Paul was induced by the -"brethren" at Jerusalem to make a compromise which cost him dearly. -{18} In the twenty-first chapter of Acts, the twenty-third verse, we -are told that those brethren said to Paul, "We have four men who have a -vow on them; them take, and purify thyself with them, and be at charges -for them, that they may _shave their heads_." - -The last service of this kind which I attended in Syria was for a -cousin of mine, a boy of twelve, who was a _nedher_, or as the word is -rendered in the English Bible, a Nazarite. We assembled in the church -of St. George of Sûk. The occasion was very solemn. A mass was -celebrated after the order of the Greek Orthodox Church. Near the -close of the service the tender lad was brought by his parents in front -of the Royal Door at the altar. While repeating a prayer, the priest -cut the hair on the crown of the boy's head with the scissors, in the -shape of a cross. The simple act released the child and his parents of -their solemn vow. - -"Twentieth-century culture" is prone to call all such practices -superstitions. So they are to a large extent. But I deem it the -higher {19} duty of this culture to _interpret_ sympathetically rather -than to condemn superstition in a sweeping fashion. I am a lover of a -rational theology and a reasonable faith, but I feel that in our -enthusiasm for such a theology and such a faith we often fail to -appreciate the deep spiritual longing which is expressed in -superstitious forms of worship. What is there in such religious -practices as those I have mentioned but the expression of the -heart-burning of those parents for the spiritual welfare and security -of their children? What do we find here but evidences of a deep and -sincere yearning for divine blessings to come upon the family and the -home? Thoughts of God at the marriage altar; thoughts of God when the -promise of parenthood becomes evident; thoughts of God when a child -comes into the world; thoughts of God and of his holy prophets and -saints as friends and companions in all the changes and chances of the -world. Here the challenge to modern rationalism is not to content -itself with rebuking superstitions, but to give {20} the world deeper -spiritual visions than those which superstitions reveal, and to compass -childhood and youth by the gracious presence of the living God. - -In a most literal sense we always understood the saying of the -psalmist, "Children are a heritage from the Lord." Above and beyond -all natural agencies, it was He who turned barrenness to fecundity and -worked the miracle of birth. To us every birth was miraculous, and -childlessness an evidence of divine disfavor. From this it may be -inferred how tenderly and reverently agreeable to the Syrian ear is the -angel's salutation to Mary, "Hail, thou that art highly favored, the -Lord is with thee; blessed art thou among women!--Behold thou shalt -conceive in thy womb and bring forth a son."[1] - -A miracle? Yes. But a miracle means one thing to your Western -science, which seeks to know what nature is and does by dealing with -secondary causes, and quite another thing to {21} an Oriental, to whom -God's will is the law and gospel of nature. In times of intellectual -trouble this man takes refuge in his all-embracing faith,--the faith -that to God all things are possible. - -The Oriental does not try to meet an assault upon his belief in -miracles by seeking to establish the historicity of concrete reports of -miracles. His poetical, mystical temperament seeks its ends in another -way. Relying upon his fundamental faith in the omnipotence of God, he -throws the burden of proof upon his assailant by challenging him to -substantiate his _denial_ of the miracles. So did Paul (in the -twenty-sixth chapter of the Book of Acts) put his opponents at a great -disadvantage by asking, "Why should it be thought a thing incredible -with you, that God should raise the dead?" - -But the story of Jesus' birth and kindred Bible records disclose not -only the predisposition of the Syrian mind to accept miracles as divine -acts, without critical examination, but {22} also its attitude toward -conception and birth,--an attitude which differs fundamentally from -that of the Anglo-Saxon mind. With the feeling of one who has been -reminded of having ignorantly committed an improper act, I remember the -time when kind American friends admonished me not to read from the -pulpit such scriptural passages as detailed the accounts of conception -and birth, but only to allude to them in a general way. I learned in a -very short time to obey the kindly advice, but it was a long time -before I could swing my psychology around and understand why in America -such narratives were so greatly modified in transmission. - -The very fact that such stories are found in the Bible shows that in my -native land no such sifting of these narratives is ever undertaken when -they are read to the people. From childhood I had been accustomed to -hear them read at our church, related at the fireside, and discussed -reverently by men and women at all times and places. There is nothing -in the {23} phraseology of such statements which is not in perfect -harmony with the common, everyday speech of my people. - -To the Syrians, as I say, "children are a heritage from the Lord." -From the days of Israel to the present time, barrenness has been looked -upon as a sign of divine disfavor, an intolerable calamity. Rachel's -cry, "Give me children, or else I die,"[2] does not exaggerate the -agony of a childless Syrian wife. When Rebecca was about to depart -from her father's house to become Isaac's wife, her mother's ardent and -effusively expressed wish for her was, "Be thou the mother of thousands -of millions."[3] This mother's last message to her daughter was not -spoken in a corner. I can see her following the bride to the door, -lifting her open palms and turning her face toward heaven, and making -her affectionate petition in the hearing of a multitude of guests, who -must have echoed her words in chorus. - -In the congratulations of guests at a {24} marriage feast the central -wish for the bridegroom and bride is invariably thus expressed: "May -you be happy, live long, and have many children!" And what contrasts -very sharply with the American reticence in such matters is the fact -that shortly after the wedding, the friends of the young couple, both -men and women, begin to ask them about their "prospects" for an heir. -No more does a prospective mother undertake in any way to disguise the -signs of the approaching event, than an American lady to conceal her -engagement ring. Much mirth is enjoyed in such cases, also, when -friends and neighbors, by consulting the stars, or computing the number -of letters in the names of the parents and the month in which the -miracle of conception is supposed to have occurred, undertake to -foretell whether the promised offspring will be a son or a daughter. -In that part of the country where I was brought up, such wise -prognosticators believed, and made us all believe, that if the -calculations resulted in an odd number the birth would be a son, but -{25} if in an even number, a daughter, which, as a rule, is not -considered so desirable. - -Back of all these social traits, and beyond the free realism of the -Syrian in speaking of conception and birth, lies a deeper fact. To -Eastern peoples, especially the Semites, reproduction in all the world -of life is profoundly sacred. It is God's life reproducing itself in -the life of man and in the living world below man; therefore the -evidences of this reproduction should be looked upon and spoken of with -rejoicing. - -Notwithstanding the many and fundamental intellectual changes which I -have undergone in this country of my adoption, I count as among the -most precious memories of my childhood my going with my father to the -vineyard, just as the vines began to "come out," and hearing him say as -he touched the swelling buds, "Blessed be the Creator. He is the -Supreme Giver. May He protect the blessed increase." Of this I almost -always think when I read the words of the psalmist, "The earth is the -Lord's and the fullness thereof!" - -{26} - -Now I do not feel at all inclined to say whether the undisguised -realism of the Orientals in speaking of reproduction is better than the -delicate reserve of the Anglo-Saxons. In fact, I have been so -reconstructed under Anglo-Saxon auspices as to feel that the excessive -reserve of this race with regard to such things is not a serious fault, -but rather the defect of a great virtue. My purpose is to show that -the unreconstructed Oriental, to whom reproduction is the most sublime -manifestation of God's life, cannot see why one should be ashamed to -speak anywhere in the world of the fruits of wedlock, of a "woman with -child." One might as well be ashamed to speak of the creative power as -it reveals itself in the gardens of roses and the fruiting trees. - -Here we have the background of the stories of Sarah, when the -angel-guest prophesied fecundity for her in her old age; of Rebecca, -and the wish of her mother for her, that she might become "the mother -of thousands"; of Elizabeth, when the "babe leaped in her womb," {27} -as she saw her cousin Mary; and of the declaration of the angel to -Joseph's spouse; "Thou shalt conceive in thy womb and bring forth a -son." - -Here it is explained, also, why upon the birth of a "man-child," -well-wishers troop into the house,--even on the very day of -birth,--bring their presents, and congratulate the parents on the -divine gift to them. It was because of this custom that those -strangers, the three "Wise Men" and Magi of the Far East, were -permitted to come in and see the little Galilean family, while the -mother was yet in childbed. So runs the Gospel narrative: "And when -they were come into the house, they saw the young child with Mary his -mother, and fell down and worshipped him: and when they had opened -their treasures, they presented unto him gifts,--gold, frankincense, -and myrrh."[4] - -So also were the humble shepherds privileged to see the wondrous child -shortly after birth. "And it came to pass, as the angels were gone -away from them into heaven, the {28} shepherds said one to another, Let -us now go to Bethlehem, and see this thing which is come to pass, which -the Lord hath made known unto us. And they came with haste, and found -Mary and Joseph and the babe lying in a manger."[5] - -In the twelfth verse of the second chapter of the Gospel of St. Luke, -the English version says, "And this shall be a sign unto you; ye shall -find a babe wrapped in swaddling clothes, lying in a manger." Here the -word "clothes" is somewhat misleading. The Arabic version gives a -perfect rendering of the fact by saying, "Ye shall find a _swaddled_ -babe, _laid_ in a manger." - -According to general Syrian custom, in earliest infancy a child is not -really clothed, it is only swaddled. Upon birth the infant is washed -in tepid water by the midwife, then salted, or rubbed gently with salt -pulverized in a stone mortar especially for the occasion. (The salt -commonly used in Syrian homes is coarse-chipped.) Next the babe is -sprinkled with {29} _rehan_,--a powder made of dried myrtle -leaves,--and then swaddled. - -The swaddle is a piece of stout cloth about a yard square, to one -corner of which is attached a long narrow band. The infant, with its -arms pressed close to its sides, and its feet stretched full length and -laid close together, is wrapped in the swaddle, and the narrow band -wound around the little body, from the shoulders to the ankles, giving -the little one the exact appearance of an Egyptian mummy. Only a few -of the good things of this mortal life were more pleasant to me when I -was a boy than to carry in my arms a swaddled babe. The "salted" and -"peppered" little creature felt so soft and so light, and was so -appealingly helpless, that to cuddle it was to me an unspeakable -benediction. - -Such was the "babe of Bethlehem" that was sought by the Wise Men and -the shepherds in the wondrous story of the Nativity. - -And in describing such Oriental customs it may be significant to point -out that, in certain {30} localities in Syria, to say to a person that -he was not "salted" upon birth is to invite trouble. Only a _bendûq_, -or the child of an unrecognized father, is so neglected. And here may -be realized the full meaning of that terrible arraignment of Jerusalem -in the sixteenth chapter of the Book of Ezekiel. The Holy City had -done iniquity, and therefore ceased to be the legitimate daughter of -Jehovah. So the prophet cries, "The Lord came unto me, saying, Son of -man, cause Jerusalem to know her abominations, and say, Thus saith the -Lord God unto Jerusalem; Thy birth and thy nativity are of the land of -Canaan; thy father was an Amorite, and thy mother a Hittite. And as -for thy nativity, in the day thou wast born--neither wast thou washed -in water to supple[6] thee; _thou wast not salted at all, nor swaddled -at all_. No eye pitied thee, to do any of these things for thee, to -have compassion upon thee; but thou wast cast out in the open field, to -the loathing of thy person, in the day thou wast born." - - - -[1] Luke i: 28, 31. - -[2] Gen. xxx; 1. - -[3] Gen. xxiv: 60. - -[4] Matt. ii: 11. - -[5] Luke ii: 15-16. - -[6] "Cleanse" in the Revised Version. - - - - -{31} - -CHAPTER III - -THE STAR - -How natural to the thought of the East the story of the "star of -Bethlehem" is! To the Orientals "the heavens declare the glory of -God," and the stars reveal many wondrous things to men. They are the -messengers of good and evil, and objects of the loftiest idealization, -as well as of the crudest superstitions. Those who have gazed upon the -stars in the deep, clear Syrian heavens can find no difficulty in -entering into the spirit of the majestic strains of the writer of the -eighth Psalm. "When I consider thy heavens," says this ancient singer, -"the work of thy fingers, the moon and the stars, which thou hast -ordained; what is man, that thou art mindful of him? and the son of -man, that thou visitest him?" Deeps beyond deeps are revealed through -that dry, soft, and clear atmosphere of the "land of promise," yet the -constellations seem as near {32} to the beholder as parlor lamps. "My -soul longeth" for the vision of the heavens from the heights of my -native Lebanon, and the hills of Palestine. It is no wonder to me that -my people have always considered the stars as guides and companions, -and as awe-inspiring manifestations of the Creator's power, wisdom, and -glory. "The heavens declare the glory of God; and the firmament -sheweth his handywork. Day unto day uttereth speech and night unto -night sheweth knowledge."[1] - -So great is the host of the stars seen by the naked eye in that land -that the people of Syria have always likened a great multitude to the -stars of heaven or the sand of the sea. Of a great assemblage of -people we always said, "They are _methel-ennijoom_--like the stars" (in -number). So it is written in the twenty-eighth chapter of Deuteronomy, -the sixty-second verse, "And ye shall be left few in number, whereas ye -were _as the stars of heaven for multitude_; because thou wouldst not -obey the {33} voice of the Lord thy God." According to that great -narrative in Genesis, God promised Abraham that his progeny would be as -the stars in number. In the fifteenth chapter, the fifth verse, it is -said, "And he brought him forth abroad, and said, Look now toward -heaven, and tell the stars, if thou be able to number them: and he said -unto him, So shall thy seed be." In speaking of the omniscience of God -the writer of the one hundred and forty-seventh Psalm says, "He telleth -the number of the stars; he calleth them all by their names. Great is -our Lord, and of great power: his understanding is infinite." - -But the numberless lights of the firmament were brought even closer to -us through the belief that they had vital connection with the lives of -men on the earth. I was brought up to believe that every human being -had a star in heaven which held the secret of his destiny and which -watched over him wherever he went. In speaking of an amiable person it -is said, "His star is attractive" (_nejmo jeddeeb_). Persons {34} love -one another when "their stars are in harmony." A person is in -unfavorable circumstances when his star is in the sphere of -"misfortune" (_nehiss_), and so forth. The stars indicated the time to -us when we were traveling by night, marked the seasons, and thus -fulfilled their Creator's purpose by serving "for signs, and for -seasons, and for days and years." - -In every community we had "star-gazers" who could tell each person's -star. We placed much confidence in such mysterious men, who could -"arrest" an absent person's star in its course and learn from it -whether it was well or ill with the absent one. - -Like a remote dream, it comes to me that as a child of about ten I went -out one night with my mother to seek a "star-gazer" to locate my -father's star and question the shining orb about him. My father had -been away from home for some time, and owing to the meagerness of the -means of communication in that country, especially in those days, we -had no news of him at all. During that afternoon {35} my mother said -that she felt "heavy-hearted" for no reason that she knew; therefore -she feared that some ill must have befallen the head of our household, -and sought to "know" whether her fear was well grounded. The -"star-arrester," leaning against an aged mulberry tree, turned his eyes -toward the stellar world, while his lips moved rapidly and silently as -if he were repeating words of awful import. Presently he said, "I see -him. He is sitting on a cushion, leaning against the wall and smoking -his _narghile_. There are others with him, and he is in his usual -health." The man took pains to point out the "star" to my mother, who, -after much sympathetic effort, felt constrained to say that she did see -what the star-gazer claimed he saw. But at any rate, mother declared -that she was no longer "heavy-hearted." - -In my most keen eagerness to see my father and his _narghile_ in the -star, at least for mere intellectual delight, I clung to the arm of the -reader of the heavens like a frightened kitten, {36} and insisted upon -"seeing." The harder he tried to shake me off, the deeper did my -organs of apprehension sink into his sleeve. At last the combined -efforts of my mother and the heir of the ancient astrologers forced me -to believe that I was "too young to behold such sights." - -It was the excessive leaning of his people upon such practices that led -Isaiah to cry, "Thou art wearied in the multitude of thy counsels. Let -now the astrologers, the star-gazers, the monthly prognosticators, -stand up and save thee from these things that shall come upon thee. -Behold, they shall be as stubble; the fire shall burn them; they shall -not deliver themselves from the power of the flames." - -Beyond all such crudities, however, lies the sublime and sustaining -belief that the stars are alive with God. The lofty strains of such -scriptural passages as the nineteenth Psalm and the beautiful story of -the star of Bethlehem, indicate that to the Oriental mind the "hosts of -heaven" are no mere masses of dust, {37} but the agencies of the -Creator's might and love. So the narrative of the Nativity in our -Gospel sublimates the beliefs of the Orientals about God's purpose in -those lights of the firmament, by making the guide of the Wise Men to -the birthplace of the Prince of Peace a great star, whose pure and -serene light symbolized the peace and holiness which, in the "fullness -of time," his kingdom shall bring upon the earth. - -The presentation of a child at the temple, or the "admittance of an -infant into the Church," is one of the most tender, most beautiful, and -most impressive services of my Mother Church--the Greek Orthodox.[2] -It is held for every child born within that fold, in commemoration of -the presentation of Jesus at the temple in Jerusalem. As Luke tells us -(11:22), "And when the days of her purification according to the law of -Moses were accomplished, they brought him to Jerusalem, to present him -to the Lord." - -{38} - -The purification period "according to the law of Moses" is forty -days.[3] Until this is "accomplished," the mother is not permitted to -enter into the house of worship. As a general rule the baptismal -service, which takes place any time between the eighth day and the -fortieth day after birth, is held at the home. On the first Sabbath -day after the "forty days," the mother carries the infant to the door -of the church during mass, where the robed priest, who has been -previously applied to for the sacred rite, meets the mother and -receives the child in his arms. After making the sign of the cross -with the child at the door, the priest says, "Now enters the servant of -God [naming the child] into the Holy Church, in the name of the Father, -and the Son, and the Holy Ghost. Amen." Then the priest walks into -the church with the child, saying, in its behalf, "I will come into thy -house in the multitude of thy mercy: and in thy fear will I worship -toward thy holy temple."[4] As he {39} approaches the center of the -church, he says again, "Now enters the servant of God," etc. Then -standing in the center of the church, and surrounded by the reverently -silent congregation, the priest says again, in behalf of the child, "In -the midst of the congregation will I praise thee, O Lord."[5] Again, -in front of the Royal Gate (the central door in the _anastasis_, or -partition which screens the altar from the congregation) the priest -says for the third time, "Now enters the servant of God," etc. After -this the priest carries the infant through the north door, which is to -the left of the Royal Gate, into the _mizbeh_, which corresponds to the -"holy place" in the ancient temple. Here he walks around the _maideh_ -(altar of sacrifice), makes the sign of the cross with the child, and -walks out into the midst of the congregation, through the south door. -In this position the priest utters as his final petition the words of -the aged Simeon (Luke 11:29), "Lord, now lettest thou thy servant -depart in peace, {40} according to thy word: for mine eyes have seen -thy salvation, which thou hast prepared before the face of all people; -a light to lighten the gentiles, and the glory of thy people Israel." -Then he delivers the child back to its mother. Female children are -presented in front of the Royal Gate, but are not admitted into the -_mizbeh_. - - - -[1] Ps. xix: 1-2. - -[2] See the author's autobiography, _A Far Journey_, p. 4. - -[3] Lev. xii: 2-4. - -[4] Ps. v: 7. - -[5] Ps. xx: 22. - - - - -{41} - -CHAPTER IV - -MYSTIC TONES - -I love to listen to the mystic tones of the Christmas carol. The story -of the "star of Bethlehem" is the medium of transmission of those -deeper strains which have come into the world through the soul of that -ancient East. I love to mingle with the social joys of the Christmas -season and its spirit of good-will, the mystic accents of the ancient -seers who expressed in the rich narratives of the New Testament the -deepest and dearest hopes of the soul. - -I leave most respectfully to the "Biblical critic" the task of -assigning to the narrative of the Nativity its rightful place in the -history of the New Testament. My deep interest in this story centers -in those spiritual ideals it reveals, which have through the ages -exercised such beneficent influences over the minds of men. And I -believe that both as a Christian {42} and as an Oriental, I have a -perfect right to be a mystic, after the wholesome New Testament fashion. - -In the second chapter of St. Luke's Gospel the story of the Nativity is -presented in a most exquisite poetical form. The vision of humble -shepherds, wise men, and angels, mingling together in the joy of a new -divine revelation, could have been caught only by a deep-visioned -spiritual artist. Had this fragment of religious literature been -discovered in this year of 1916, its appearance would have marked a -significant epoch in the history of religion. It is the expression of -a sublime and passionate desire of the soul for divine companionship -and for infinite peace. - -"And there were in the same country shepherds abiding in the field, -keeping watch over their flocks by night. - -"And, lo, the angel of the Lord came upon them, and the glory of the -Lord shone round about them: and they were sore afraid. - -"And the angel said unto them, Fear not; {43} for, behold, I bring you -good tidings of great joy, which shall be to all people. - -"For unto you is born this day in the city of David a Savior, which is -Christ the Lord. - -"And this shall be a sign unto you; Ye shall find the babe wrapped in -swaddling clothes, lying in a manger. - -"And suddenly there was with the angel a multitude of the heavenly host -praising God, and saying, - -"Glory to God in the highest, and on earth peace, good will toward men." - -When the angel delivered his message to the effect that God had visited -his people in the person of the new-born Christ, then the humble, -unlettered shepherds heard the heavenly song, which gave God the glory, -and prophesied peace and good-will for all mankind. Could there be -anything more profoundly and accurately interpretative of the deepest -hopes of the human soul than this picture? Even the uncouth shepherds, -being living souls, could realize that when the divine and the {44} -human met heaven and earth became one, and peace and good-will -prevailed among men. What encouragement, what hope this vision holds -out even to the humblest among men! What assurance that heaven with -all its treasures of peace and love is so near to our dust! - -"And the angel said unto them, Fear not: for, behold, I bring you glad -tidings." The shepherds looked up to heaven through the eyes of all -mankind. It was the upward look of a world-old hope. No soul ever -looked up to heaven with different results. The divine response always -is, "Fear not, for I bring you good tidings!" No soul ever needs to -dwell in doubt and fear. No soul ever needs to be lonely and forlorn. -Heaven has nothing for us but "good tidings of great joy." The higher -powers are near at hand, and the soul of man may have invisible -companions. - -Again we learn from this New Testament passage that in the visit of the -shepherds and the Wise Men to the holy child both were equally blest. -Both those who were steeped {45} in the wisdom of that ancient East and -the simple-minded sons of the desert stood at the shrine of a holy -personality as naked souls, divested of all artificial human -distinctions. There were no "assigned" pews in that little shrine. -All those who came into it by way of the heart received a blessing, and -went away praising God. Here we have a foregleam of that longed-for -kingdom of God--the home of all aspiring and seeking souls, regardless -of rank and station. - - "There is no great and no small - To the soul that maketh all: - And where it cometh, all things are; - And it cometh everywhere." - - -The Christmas carol is dear to the human heart because it is a song of -spiritual optimism. To pessimism the heavens are closed and silent; -the world has no windows opening toward the Infinite. Pessimism cannot -sing because it has no hope, and cannot pray because it has no faith. - -And I deem it essential at this point to ask, {46} Whither is the -spirit of the present age leading us? Are we drifting away from the -mount of vision? There seems to be but little room in this vast and -complex life of ours for spiritual dreams and visions. The combination -of our commercial activities and the never-ceasing whir of the wheels -of our industries close up our senses to the intimate whisperings of -the divine spirit. We see, but with the outward eye. We hear, but -with the outward ear. Our inward senses are in grave danger of dying -altogether from lack of exercise. The things of this life are too much -with us, and they render us oblivious to the gracious beckonings of the -higher world. Let not the lesser interests of this life close our -hearing to the angel-song which never dies upon the air. The star of -hope never sets, and God's revelations are from everlasting to -everlasting. - - - - -{47} - -CHAPTER V - -FILIAL OBEDIENCE - -Of Jesus' life between the period spoken of in the narrative of the -Nativity and the time when he appeared on the banks of the Jordan, -seeking to be baptized by John, the New Testament says nothing. One -single incident only is mentioned. When twelve years old, the boy -Jesus went with his parents on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. Annual -pilgrimages to the great shrines are still very common in Syria. The -Mohammedans go to Mecca, the Christians and the Jews to Jerusalem. But -there are many other and more accessible sanctuaries which are -frequented by the faithful in all those communions. However, a visit -to any other sanctuary than Jerusalem and Mecca is called _zeara_, -rather than a pilgrimage.[1] The simple record of Jesus' pilgrimage to -Jerusalem with his parents is that of a typical {48} experience. In -writing about it I seem to myself to be giving a personal reminiscence. - -In the second chapter of the Gospel of Luke, the forty-first verse, it -is said: "Now his parents went to Jerusalem every year at the feast of -the passover. And when he was twelve years old, they went up to -Jerusalem after the custom of the feast. And when they had fulfilled -the days, as they returned, the child Jesus tarried behind in -Jerusalem; and Joseph and his mother knew not of it. But they, -supposing him to have been in the company, went a day's journey; and -they sought him among their kinsfolk and acquaintance. And when they -found him not, they turned back again to Jerusalem, seeking him." - -In Syria male children are taken on a pilgrimage or _zeara_, and thus -permitted to receive the blessing, which this pious act is supposed to -bring upon them, as soon as they are able to make the journey. Full -maturity is no essential condition. I went with my parents on two -_zearas_ before I was fifteen. At the {49} present time there is no -definite rule, at least among Christians, as to how many days should be -spent at a sanctuary. Pilgrims usually "vow" to stay a certain number -of days. In ancient Judaism, "the feast of the passover" occupied -eight days, and it was that number of days which Mary and Joseph -"fulfilled." - -According to Luke, on their return journey to Nazareth Jesus' parents -went a day's journey before they discovered that he was not with them. -This phase of the story seems to have greatly puzzled the good old -commentator, Adam Clarke. "Knowing what a treasure they possessed," he -observes, "how could they be so long without looking on it? Where were -the bowels and tender solicitude of the mother? Let them answer this -question who can." - -Clarke did not need to be so perplexed or so mystified. For one who -knows the customs of the Syrians while on religious pilgrimages knows -also that the experience of the "holy family" was not at all a strange -one. The whole mystery is cleared up in the saying, {50} "And they -sought him among their kinsfolk and acquaintance." Kinsfolk and -acquaintances travel in large groups, and the young pilgrims, such as -the twelve-year-old Jesus, are considered safe so long as they keep in -close touch with the company. On such journeys, parents may not see -their sons for hours at a time. The homogeneous character of the -group, and the sense of security which faith gives, especially at such -times, present no occasion for anxiety concerning the dear ones. - -The saying of Luke that Joseph and Mary "went a day's journey" before -they discovered that Jesus was not in the company must, it seems to me, -include also the time consumed in their return journey to Jerusalem to -seek their son. Perhaps they discovered his absence about noontime -when the company halted by a spring of water to partake of the _zad_ -(food for the way). At such a time families gather together to break -bread. And what I feel certain of also is that the boy Jesus must have -been with his parents when they first {51} set out on their homeward -journey early in the morning from Jerusalem, and that he detached -himself from his kinsfolk and returned to the holy city shortly after -the company had left that place. No Syrian family ever would start out -on a journey before every one of its members had been accounted for. -The evangelist's omission of these details is easily understood. His -purpose was not to give a photographic account of all that happened on -the way. It was rather to reveal the lofty spiritual ideals which led -the boy Jesus to return to the temple, where he was found by his -anxious parents "sitting in the midst of the doctors, both hearing -them, and asking them questions." - -In this brief but significant record of all the filial graces which -Jesus must have possessed one only is mentioned in the second chapter -of the Gospel of Luke, where it is stated that he went down to Nazareth -with his parents "and was subject unto them." - -This seemingly casual remark is full of {52} significance. With us in -Syria, _ta'at-el-walideen_ (obedience to parents) has always been -youth's crowning virtue. Individual initiative must not overstep the -boundary line of this grace. Only in this way the patriarchal -organization of the family can be kept intact. In my boyhood days in -that romantic country, whenever my father took me with him on a "visit -of homage" to one of the lords of the land, the most fitting thing such -a dignitary could do to me was to place his hand upon my head and say -with characteristic condescension, "Bright boy, and no doubt obedient -to your parents." - -As regards the grace of filial obedience, I am not aware of a definite -break between the East and the West. But there is a vital difference. -To an Oriental who has just come to this country, the American youth -seem to be indifferent to filial obedience. The strong passion for -freedom, the individualistic sense which is a pronounced characteristic -of the aggressive Anglo-Saxon, and the economic stress {53} which ever -tends to scatter the family group, and which the East has never -experienced so painfully as the West has, all convey the impression -that parental love and filial obedience are fast disappearing from -American society. But to those of us sons of the East who have -intimate knowledge of the American family, its cohesion does not seem -to be so alarmingly weak. The mad rush for "business success" is -indeed a menace to the American home, but love and obedience are still -vital forces in that home. The terms "father," "mother," "brother," -and "sister," have by no means lost their spiritual charms in American -society. The deep affection in which the members of the better -American family hold one another and the exquisite regard they have for -one another command profound respect. - -But the vital difference between the East and the West is that to -Easterners filial obedience is more than a social grace and an evidence -of natural affection. It is a _religious_ duty of far-reaching -significance. God commands {54} it. "Thou shalt honor thy father and -thy mother" is a divine command. The "displeasure" of a parent is as -much to be feared as the wrath of God. This sense permeates Syrian -society from the highest to the lowest of its ranks. - -The explanation of the origin of sin in the third chapter of Genesis -touches the very heart of this matter. The writer ascribes the "fall -of man," not to any act which was in itself really harmful, but to -disobedience. Adam was commanded by his divine parent not to eat of -the "tree of knowledge of good and evil"; but he did eat, and -consequently became a stranger to the blessings of his original home. - -This idea of filial obedience has been at once the strength and -weakness of Orientals. In the absence of the restraining interests of -a larger social life this patriarchal rule has preserved the cohesion -of the domestic and clannish group, and thus safeguarded for the people -their primitive virtues. On the other hand, it has served to -extinguish the spirit of {55} progress, and has thus made Oriental life -a monotonous repetition of antiquated modes of thought. - -And it was indeed a great blessing to the world when Jesus broke away -from mere formal obedience to parents, in the Oriental sense of the -word, and declared, "Whosoever shall do the will of my Father in -heaven, the same is my brother, and sister, and mother." - - - -[1] See above, p. 14. - - - - -{56} - -CHAPTER VI - -FEAST AND SACRAMENT - -Of Jesus' public ministry and his characteristics as an Oriental -teacher, I shall speak in later chapters. Here I will give space only -to a portrayal of the closing scenes in his personal career. The -events of the "upper room" on Mount Zion, and of Gethsemane, are -faithful photographs of striking characteristics of Syrian life. - -The Last Supper was no isolated event in Syrian history. Its fraternal -atmosphere, intimate associations, and sentimental intercourse are such -as characterize every such gathering of Syrian friends, especially in -the shadow of an approaching danger. From the simple "table manners" -up to that touch of sadness and idealism which the Master gave that -meal,--bestowing upon it the sacrificial character that has been its -propelling force through the ages,--I find nothing which is {57} not in -perfect harmony with what takes place on such occasions in my native -land. The sacredness of the Last Supper is one of the emphatic -examples of how Jesus' life and words sanctified the commonest things -of life. He was no inventor of new things, but a discoverer of the -spiritual significance of things known to men to be ordinary. - -The informal formalities of Oriental life are brimful of sentiment. -The Oriental's chief concern in matters of conduct is not the -correctness of the technique, but the cordiality of the deed. To the -Anglo-Saxon the Oriental appears to be perhaps too cordial, decidedly -sentimental, and over-responsive to the social stimulus. To the -Oriental, on the other hand, the Anglo-Saxon seems in danger of -becoming an unemotional intellectualist. - -Be that as it may, the Oriental is never afraid to "let himself go" and -to give free course to his feelings. The Bible in general and such -portions of it as the story of the Last Supper in particular illustrate -this phase of Oriental life. - -{58} - -In Syria, as a general rule, the men eat their fraternal feasts alone, -as in the case of the Master and his disciples at the Last Supper, -when, so far as the record goes, none of the women followers of Christ -were present. They sit on the floor in something like a circle, and -eat out of one or a few large, deep dishes. The food is lifted into -the mouth, not with a fork or spoon,--except in the case of liquid -food,--but with small "shreds" of thin bread. Even liquid food is -sometimes "dipped up" with pieces of bread formed like the bowl of a -spoon. Here may be readily understood Jesus' saying, "He that dippeth -his hand with me in the dish, the same shall betray me."[1] - -In his famous painting, The Last Supper, Leonardo da Vinci presents an -Oriental event in an Occidental form. The high table, the chairs, the -individual plates and drinking-glasses are European rather than Syrian -appointments. From a historical standpoint, the picture is misleading. -But Da Vinci's great {59} production was not intended to be a -historical, but a character, study. Such a task could not have been -accomplished if the artist had presented the Master and his disciples -as they really sat in the "upper room"--in a circle. He seats them on -one side of the table, divides them into four groups of three each--two -groups on each side of the Master. As we view the great painting, we -feel the thrill of horror which agitated the loyal disciples when Jesus -declared, "Verily, I say unto you, that one of you shall betray me."[2] -The gestures, the sudden change of position, and the facial expression -reveal the innermost soul of each disciple. This is the central -purpose of the picture. The artist gave the event a European rather -than an Oriental setting, in order to make it more intelligible to the -people for whom it was intended. - -But the appointments of the Great Supper were genuinely Oriental. The -Master and his disciples sat on the floor and ate out of one or {60} a -few large, deep dishes. In Mark's account of that event[3] we read: -"And when it was evening he cometh with the twelve. And as they sat -and were eating, Jesus said, Verily I say unto you, One of you shall -betray me, even he that _eateth_ with me." The fact that they were -_all_ eating with him is shown in the statement, "They began to be -sorrowful, and to say unto him, Is it I? And he said unto them, It is -one of the twelve, he that dippeth with me in the dish." - -The last sentence, "He that dippeth with me in the dish," has been -construed to mean that it was Judas only (who was sitting near to -Jesus) who was dipping in the dish out of which the Master was eating. -This is altogether possible, but by no means certain. The fact is that -according to Syrian customs on such occasions each of the few large -dishes contains a different kind of food. Each one of the guests is -privileged to reach to any one of the dishes and dip his bread in it. -From this it may be {61} safely inferred that several or all of the -disciples dipped _in turn_ in the dish which was nearest to Jesus. The -fact that the other disciples did not know whom their Master meant by -his saying that one of them should betray him, even after he had said, -"He that dippeth with me in the dish," shows plainly that Judas was -eating in the same fashion as all the other disciples were. - -Therefore the saying, "He that dippeth with me," etc., was that of -disappointed love. It may be thus paraphrased: "I have loved you all -alike. I have chosen you as my dearest friends. We have often broken -bread and sorrowed and rejoiced together, yet one of you, my dear -disciples, one who is now eating with me _as the rest are_, intends to -betray me!" - -And that forlorn but glorious company who met in the upper room on -Mount Zion on that historic night had certainly one cup out of which -they drank. At our feasts we always drank the wine out of one and the -same cup. We did not stay up nights thinking about {62} microbes. To -us the one cup meant fellowship and fraternal communion. The one who -gives drink (_sacky_) fills the cup and passes it to the most honored -member of the company first. He drinks the contents and returns the -cup to the _sacky_, who fills it again and hands it to another member -of the group, and so on, until all have been served once. Then the -guests drink again by way of _nezel_. It is not easy to translate this -word into English. The English word "treating" falls very short of -expressing the affectionate regard which the _nezel_ signifies. The -one guest upon receiving the cup wishes for the whole company "health, -happiness, and length of days." Then he singles out one of the group -and begs him to accept the next cup that is poured as a pledge of his -affectionate regard. The pourer complies with the request by handing -the next cup to the person thus designated, who drinks it with the most -effusive and affectionate reciprocation of his friend's sentiments. It -is also customary for a gracious host to request as a {63} happy ending -to the feast that the contents of one cup be drunk by the whole company -as a seal of their friendship with one another. Each guest takes a sip -and passes the cup to the one next to him until all have partaken of -the "fruit of the vine." - -I have no doubt that it was after this custom that the disciples drank -when Jesus "took the cup, and when he had given thanks, he gave to -them: and they _all_ drank of it."[4] - -No account of fraternal feasting in Syria can be complete without -mention of the _z[i-breve]kreh_ (remembrance). To be remembered by his -friends after his departure from them is one of the Syrian's deepest -and dearest desires. The _z[i-breve]kreh_ plays a very important part -in the literature of the East, and expresses the tenderest spirit of -its poetry. The expressions "I remember," "remember me," "your -remembrance," "the remembrance of those days" and like phrases are -legion among the Syrians. "O friends," cries the Arabian poet, {64} -"let your remembrance of us be as constant as our remembrance of you; -for such a remembrance brings near those that are far away." - -Rarely do friends who have been feasting together part without this -request being made by those of them who do not expect to meet with -their friends again for a time. "Remember me when you meet again," is -said by the departing friend with unspeakable tenderness. He is -affectionately grateful also when he knows that he is held in -remembrance by his friends. So St. Paul pours out his soul in grateful -joy for his friends' remembrance of him. "But now when Timotheus came -from you unto us, and brought us good tidings of your faith and -charity, and that _ye have good remembrance of us always, desiring -greatly to see us, as we also to see you_."[5] - -This affectionate request, "remember me," signifies, "I love you, -therefore I am always with you." If we love one another, we cannot -{65} be separated from one another. The _z[)i]ikreh_ is the bond of -fraternity between us. - -Was not this the very thing which the Master meant when he said, "This -do in remembrance of me"?[6] The disciples were asked never to allow -themselves to forget their Master's love for them and for the world: -never to forget that if his love lived in their hearts he was always -with them, present at their feasts, and in their struggles in the world -to lead the world from darkness into light. "This do in remembrance of -me," is therefore the equivalent of "Lo, I am with you alway, even unto -the end of the world."[7] - -"Now there was leaning on Jesus' bosom one of his disciples, whom Jesus -loved."[8] The posture of the "beloved disciple," John,--so -objectionable to Occidental taste,--is in perfect harmony with Syrian -customs. How often have I seen men friends in such an attitude. There -is not in it the slightest infringement of the rules of propriety; the -act was as natural {66} to us all as shaking hands. The practice is -especially indulged in when intimate friends are about to part from one -another, as on the eve of a journey, or when about to face a dangerous -undertaking. They then sit with their heads leaning against each -other, or the one's head resting upon the other's shoulder or breast. - -They talk to one another in terms of unbounded intimacy and -unrestrained affection. The expressions, "My brother," "My eyes," "My -soul," "My heart," and the like, form the life-centers of the -conversation. "My life, my blood are for you; take the very sight of -my eyes, if you will!" And lookers-on say admiringly, "Behold, how -they love one another! By the name of the Most High, they are closer -than brothers." - -Was it, therefore, strange that the Master, who knew the deepest secret -of the divine life, and whose whole life was a living sacrifice, should -say to his intimate friends, as he handed them the bread and the cup on -that {67} momentous night, "Take, eat; this is my body"; and "Drink ye -all of it; for this is my blood"? Here again the Nazarene charged the -ordinary words of friendly intercourse with rare spiritual richness and -made the common speech of his people express eternal realities. - -But let me here call attention to Da Vinci's master-stroke which -changes for a moment John's posture and relieves the Last Supper of a -feature which is so objectionable to Occidental taste. The artist -seizes the moment when Peter pulled John from Jesus' breast by -beckoning to the beloved disciple "that he should ask who it should be -of whom he spoke" (the one who should betray him). John remains in the -attitude of loving repose; he simply lifts his body for an instant, and -inclines his head to hear Peter. - -The treachery of Judas is no more an Oriental than it is a human -weakness. Traitors can claim neither racial nor national refuge. They -are fugitives in the earth. But in the Judas episode is involved one -of the most tender, {68} most touching acts of Jesus' whole life. To -one familiar with the customs of the East, Jesus' handing the "sop" to -his betrayer was an act of surpassing beauty and significance. In all -my life in America I have not heard a preacher interpret this simple -deed, probably because of lack of knowledge of its meaning in Syrian -social intercourse. - -"And when he had dipped the sop, he gave it to Judas Iscariot, the son -of Simon."[9] At Syrian feasts, especially in the region where Jesus -lived, such sops are handed to those who stand and serve the guests -with wine and water. But in a more significant manner those morsels -are exchanged by friends. Choice bits of food are handed to friends by -one another, as signs of close intimacy. It is never expected that any -person would hand such a sop to one for whom he cherishes no friendship. - -I can never contemplate this act in the Master's story without thinking -of "the love of Christ which passeth knowledge." To the one {69} who -carried in his mind and heart a murderous plot against the loving -Master, Jesus handed the sop of friendship, the morsel which is never -offered to an enemy. The rendering of the act in words is this: -"Judas, my disciple, I have infinite pity for you. You have proved -false, you have forsaken me in your heart; but I will not treat you as -an enemy, for I have come, not to destroy, but to fulfill. Here is my -sop of friendship, and 'that thou doest, do quickly.'" - -Apparently Jesus' demeanor was so cordial and sympathetic that, as the -evangelist tells us, "Now no man at the table knew for what intent he -spake this unto him. For some of them thought, because Judas had the -bag, that Jesus had said unto him, Buy those things that we have need -of against the feast, or that he should give something to the poor."[10] - -Thus in this simple act of the Master, so rarely noticed by preachers, -we have perhaps the finest practical example of "Love your enemies" in -the entire Gospel. - -{70} - -Is it therefore to be wondered at that in speaking of Judas, the writer -of St. John's Gospel says, "And after the sop Satan entered into him"? -For, how can one who is a traitor at heart reach for the gift of true -friendship without being transformed into the very spirit of treason? - -Again, Judas's treasonable kiss in Gethsemane was a perversion of an -ancient, deeply cherished, and universally prevalent Syrian custom. In -saluting one another, especially after having been separated for a -time, men friends of the same social rank kiss one another on both -cheeks, sometimes with very noisy profusion. When they are not of the -same social rank, the inferior kisses the hand of the superior, while -the latter at least pretends to kiss his dutiful friend upon the cheek. -So David and Jonathan "kissed one another, until David exceeded." -Paul's command, "Salute one another with a holy kiss," so scrupulously -disobeyed by Occidental Christians, is characteristically Oriental. As -a child I always felt {71} a profound reverential admiration for that -unreserved outpouring of primitive affections, when strong men "fell -upon one another's neck" and kissed, while the women's eyes swam in -tears of joy. The passionate, quick, and rhythmic exchange of -affectionate words of salutation and kisses sounded, with perhaps a -little less harmony, like an intermingling of vocal and instrumental -music. - -So Judas, when "forthwith he came to Jesus, and said, Hail, Master, and -kissed him,"[11] invented no new sign by which to point Jesus out to -the Roman soldiers, but employed an old custom for the consummation of -an evil design. Just as Jesus glorified the common customs of his -people by using them as instruments of love, so Judas degraded those -very customs by wielding them as weapons of hate. - - - -[1] Matt. xxvi: 23. - -[2] Matt. xxvi: 21. - -[3] Revised Version, xiv: 17-20. - -[4] Mark xiv: 23. - -[5] 1 Thess. iii: 6. - -[6] Luke xxii: 19. - -[7] Matt. xxviii: 10. - -[8] John xiii: 23. - -[9] John xiii: 26. - -[10] John xiii: 28, 29. - -[11] Matt. xxvi: 49. - - - - -{72} - -CHAPTER VII - -THE LAST SCENE - -Perhaps nowhere else in the New Testament do the fundamental traits of -the Oriental nature find so clear an expression as in this closing -scene of the Master's life. The Oriental's _dependence_, to which the -world owes the loftiest and tenderest Scriptural passages, finds here -its most glorious manifestations. - -As I have already intimated, the Oriental is never afraid to "let -himself go," whether in joy or sorrow, and to give vent to his -emotions. It is of the nature of the Anglo-Saxon to suffer in silence, -and to kill when he must, with hardly a word of complaint upon his lips -or a ripple of excitement on his face. He disdains asking for -sympathy. His severely individualistic tendencies and spirit of -endurance convince him that he is "able to take care of himself." -During my early years in this country the reserve of Americans in times -of sorrow {73} and danger, as well as in times of joy, was to me not -only amazing, but appalling. Not being as yet aware of their inward -fire and intensity of feeling, held in check by a strong bulwark of -calm calculation, as an unreconstructed Syrian I felt prone to doubt -whether they had any emotions to speak of. - -It is not my purpose here to undertake a comparative critical study of -these opposing traits, but to state that, for good or evil, the -Oriental is preëminently a man who craves sympathy, yearns openly and -noisily for companionship, and seeks help and support outside himself. -Whatever disadvantages this trait may involve, it has been the one -supreme qualification that has made the Oriental the religious teacher -of the whole world. It was his childlike dependence on God that gave -birth to the twenty-third and fifty-first Psalms, and made the Lord's -Prayer the universal petition of Christendom. It was also this -dependence on companionship, human and divine, which inspired the great -commandments, {74} "Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy -heart, and thy neighbor as thyself." - -Now it is in the light of this fundamental Oriental trait that we must -view Christ's utterances at the Last Supper and in Gethsemane. The -record tells us that while at the Supper he said to his disciples, -"With desire I have desired to eat this passover with you before I -suffer,"[1]--or, as the marginal note has it, "I have heartily -desired," and so forth, which brings it nearer the original text. -Again, "He was troubled in spirit, and testified and said, Verily, -verily, I say unto you, that one of you shall betray me." "This is my -body ... This is my blood ... Do this in remembrance of me." We must -seek the proper setting for these utterances, not merely in the upper -room in Zion, but in the deepest tendencies of the Oriental mind. - -And the climax is reached in the dark hour of Gethsemane, in the hour -of intense suffering, imploring need, and ultimate triumph in {75} -Jesus' surrender to the Father's will. How true to that demonstrative -Oriental nature is the Scriptural record, "And being in an agony he -prayed more earnestly: and his sweat was as it were great drops of -blood falling down to the ground."[2] - -The faithful and touching realism of the record here is an example of -the childlike responsiveness of the Syrian nature to feelings of -sorrow, no less striking than the experience itself. It seems to me -that if an Anglo-Saxon teacher in similar circumstances had ever -allowed himself to agonize and to sweat "as it were great drops of -blood," his chronicler in describing the scene would have safeguarded -the dignity of his race by simply saying that the distressed teacher -was "visibly affected"! - -The darkness deepened and the Master "took with him Peter and the two -sons of Zebedee, and began to be sorrowful and very heavy. Then saith -he unto them, My soul is exceeding sorrowful, even unto death; tarry -{76} ye here, and watch with me."[3] Three times did the Great Teacher -utter that matchless prayer, whose spirit of fear as well as of trust -vindicates the doctrine of the humanity of God and the divinity of man -as exemplified in the person of Christ: "O my Father, if it be -possible, let this cup pass from me: nevertheless not as I will, but as -thou wilt!"[4] - -The sharp contrast between the Semitic and the Anglo-Saxon temperament -has led some unfriendly critics of Christ to state very complacently -and confidently that he "simply broke down when the critical hour -came." In this assertion I find a very pronounced misapprehension of -the facts. If my knowledge of the traits of my own race is to be -relied on, then in trying to meet this assertion I feel that I am -entitled to the consideration of one who speaks with something -resembling authority. - -The simple fact is that while in Gethsemane, as indeed everywhere else -throughout his ministry, Jesus was not in the position of one {77} -trying to "play the hero." His companions were his intimate earthly -friends and his gracious heavenly Father, and to them he spoke as an -Oriental would speak to those dear to him,--_just as he felt_, with not -a shadow of show or sham. His words were not those of weakness and -despair, but of confidence and affection. The love of his friends and -the love of his Father in heaven were his to draw upon in his hour of -trial, with not the slightest artificial reserve. How much better and -happier this world would be if we all dealt with one another and with -God in the warm, simple, and pure love of Christ! - -As the life and words of Christ amply testify, the vision of the -Oriental has been to teach mankind not science, logic, or -jurisprudence, but a simple, loving, childlike faith in God. -Therefore, before we can fully know our Master as the cosmopolitan -Christ, we must first know him as the Syrian Christ. - - - -[1] Luke xxii: 15. - -[2] Luke xxii: 44. - -[3] Matt. xxvi: 37-38. - -[4] _Ibid._ 39. - - - - -{81} - -PART II - -THE ORIENTAL MANNER OF SPEECH - - - - -CHAPTER I - -DAILY LANGUAGE - -The Oriental I have in mind is the Semite, the dweller of the Near -East, who, chiefly through the Bible, has exerted an immense influence -on the life and literature of the West. The son of the Near East is -more emotional, more intense, and more communicative than his -Far-Eastern neighbors. Although very old in point of time, his -temperament remains somewhat juvenile, and his manner of speech -intimate and unreserved. - -From the remote past, even to this day, the Oriental's manner of speech -has been that of a worshipper, and not that of a business man or an -industrial worker in the modern Western sense. To the Syrian of -to-day, as to his ancient ancestors, life, with all its activities and -cares, revolves around a religious center. - -Of course this does not mean that his religion {82} has not always been -beset with clannish limitations and clouded by superstitions, or that -the Oriental has always had a clear, active consciousness of the -sanctity of human life. But it does mean that this man, serene or -wrathful, at work or at play, praying or swearing, has never failed to -believe that he is overshadowed by the All-seeing God. He has never -ceased to cry: "O Lord, Thou hast searched me, and known me. Thou -knowest my downsitting and mine uprising; Thou understandest my thought -afar off. Thou hast beset me behind and before, and laid thine hand -upon me. Such knowledge is too wonderful for me; it is high, I cannot -attain unto it!"[1] - -And it is one of the grandest, most significant facts in human history -that, notwithstanding his intellectual limitations and superstitious -fears, because he has maintained the altar of God as life's center of -gravity, and never let die the consciousness that he was compassed -about by the living God, the Oriental {83} has been the channel of the -sublimest spiritual revelation in the possession of man. - -The histories of races are the records of their desires and rewards, of -their seeking and finding. The law of compensation is all-embracing. -In the long run "whatsoever a man soweth, that shall he also reap."[2] -"He which soweth sparingly shall reap also sparingly; and he which -soweth bountifully shall reap also bountifully."[3] In the material -world the Oriental has sown but sparingly, and his harvests here have -also been very meager. He has not achieved much in the world of -science, industry, and commerce. As an industrial worker he has -remained throughout his long history a user of hand tools. Previous to -his very recent contact with the West, he never knew what structural -iron and machinery were. As a merchant he has always been a simple -trader. He has never been a man of many inventions. His faithful -repetition of the past has left no gulf between him and his remote -ancestors. {84} The implements and tools he uses to-day are like those -his forefathers used in their day. - -The supreme choice of the Oriental has been religion. To say that this -choice has not been altogether a conscious one, that it has been the -outcome of temperament, does by no means lessen its significance. From -the beginning of his history on the earth to this day the Oriental has -been conscious above all things of two supreme realities--God and the -soul. What has always seemed to him to be his first and almost only -duty was and is to form the most direct, most intimate connection -between God and the soul. "The fear of the Lord," meaning most -affectionate reverence, is to the son of the East not "the beginning of -wisdom" as the English Bible has it, but the _height_ or _acme_ of -wisdom. His first concern about his children is that they should know -themselves as living souls, and God as their Creator and Father. An -unbeliever in God has always been to the East a strange phenomenon. I -never heard of atheism or of an atheist before {85} I came in touch -with Western culture in my native land. - -My many years of intimate and sympathetic contact with the more varied, -more intelligent life of the West has not tended in the least to lessen -my reverence for religion nor to lower my regard for culture. Culture -gives strength and symmetry to religious thought, and religion gives -life and beauty to culture. And just as I believe that men should pray -without ceasing, so also do I believe that they should strive to make -their religious faith ever more free and more intelligent. - -Yet the history of the Orient compels me to believe that the soil out -of which scriptures spring is that whose life is the active sympathy of -religion, regardless of the degree of acquired knowledge. When the -depths of human nature are thoroughly saturated with this sympathy, -then it is prepared both to receive and to give those thoughts of which -scriptures are made. Industry and commerce have their good uses. But -an industrial and {86} commercialistic atmosphere is not conducive to -the production of sacred books. Where the chief interests of life -center in external things, religion is bound to become only one and -perhaps a minor concern in life. - -The Oriental has always lived in a world of spiritual mysteries. -Fearful or confident, superstitious or rational, to him God has been -all and in all. "The judgments of the Lord are true and righteous -altogether. In keeping of them there is great reward."[4] The son of -the East has been richly rewarded. He is the religious teacher of all -mankind. Through him all scriptures have come into being. All the -great, living religions of the world originated in Asia; and the three -greatest of them--Judaism, Christianity, and Mohammedanism--have come -into the world through the Semitic race in that little country called -Syria. The perpetual yearning of the Oriental for spiritual dreams and -visions has had its rewards. He sowed bountifully, he reaped -bountifully. - -{87} - -Note the Syrian's daily language: it is essentially Biblical. He has -no _secular_ language. The only real break between his scriptures and -the vocabulary of his daily life is that which exists between the -classical and the vernacular. When you ask a Syrian about his business -he will not answer, "We are doing well at present," but "_Allah mûn -'aim_" (God is giving bounteously). To one starting on a journey the -phrase is not "Take good care of yourself," but "Go, in the keeping and -protection of God." By example and precept we were trained from -infancy in this manner of speech. Coming into a house, the visitor -salutes by saying, "God grant you good morning," or "The peace of God -come upon you." So it is written in the tenth chapter of Matthew, "And -as ye enter into the house, salute it. And if the house be worthy, let -your peace come upon it; but if it be not worthy, let your peace return -unto you." - -In saluting a day laborer at work we said, "_Allah, yaatik-el-afie_" -(God give you health {88} and strength). In saluting reapers in the -field, or "gatherers of the increase" in the vineyards or olive groves, -we said just the words of Boaz, in the second chapter of the Book of -Ruth, when he "came from Bethlehem and said unto the reapers, The Lord -be with you. And they answered him, The Lord bless thee." Or another -Scriptural expression, now more extensively used on such occasions, -"The blessing of the Lord be upon you!" It is to this custom that the -withering imprecation which is recorded in the one hundred and -twenty-ninth Psalm refers: "Let them all be confounded and turned back -that hate Zion: let them be as the grass upon the housetops which -withereth afore it groweth up: wherewith the mower filleth not his -hand, nor he that bindeth sheaves his bosom. Neither do they which go -by say, The blessing of the Lord be upon you: we bless you in the name -of the Lord." - -In asking a shepherd about his flock we said, "How are the blessed -ones?" or a parent about his children, "How are the preserved ones?" -{89} They are preserved of God through their "angels," of whom the -Master spoke when he said, "Take heed that ye despise not one of these -little ones; for I say unto you that in heaven their angels do always -behold the face of my Father."[5] Speaking of a good man we said, "The -grace of God is poured upon his face." So in the Book of Proverbs,[6] -"Blessings are upon the head of the just." - -Akin to the foregoing are such expressions as these. In trying to rise -from a sitting posture (the Syrians sit on the floor with their legs -folded under them), a person, using the right arm for leverage, says, -as he springs up, "Ya _Allah_" (O God [help]). In inquiring about the -nature of an object, he says, "_Sho dinû_?" (what is its religion?) And -one of the queerest expressions, when translated into English, is that -employed to indicate that a kettleful of water, for example, has boiled -beyond the required degree: "This water has turned to be an infidel" -(_kaffer_). It may be noticed here {90} that it is not the old -theology only which associates the infidel with intense heat. - -So this religious language is the Oriental's daily speech. I have -stated in my autobiography that the men my father employed in his -building operations were grouped according to their faith. He had so -many Druses, so many Greek Orthodox, Maronites, and so forth. - -The almost total abstinence from using "pious" language in ordinary -business and social intercourse in America may be considered -commendable in some ways, but I consider it a surrender of the soul to -the body, a subordination of the spirit of the things which are eternal -to the spirit of the things which are temporal. In my judgment, the -superior culture of the West, instead of limiting the vocabulary of -religion to the one hour of formal worship on Sunday, and scrupulously -shunning it during the remainder of the week, should make its use, on a -much higher plane than the Orient has yet discovered, coextensive with -all the activities of life. - - - -[1] Ps. cxxxix: 1-6. - -[2] Gal. vi: 7. - -[3] 2 Cor. ix: 6. - -[4] Ps. xix: 9, 11. - -[5] Matt. xviii: 10. - -[6] x: 6. - - - - -{91} - -CHAPTER II - -IMPRECATIONS - -Again, the Oriental's consideration of life as being essentially -religious makes him as pious in his imprecations and curses as he is in -his aspirational prayer. Beyond all human intrigue, passion, and -force, the great avenger is God. "Vengeance is mine, I will repay, -saith the Lord."[1] "See now that I, even I, am he, and there is no -God with me: I kill and I make alive; I wound and I heal; neither is -there any that can deliver out of my hand."[2] - -By priests and parents these precepts have been transmitted from -generation to generation in the Orient, from time immemorial. We all -were instructed in them by our elders with scrupulous care. Of course -as weak mortals we always tried to avenge ourselves, and the idea of -_thar_ (revenge) lies deep in the Oriental nature. But to us our -vengeance was nothing {92} compared with what God did to our "ungodly" -enemies and oppressors. - -The Oriental's impetuosity and effusiveness make his imprecatory -prayers, especially to the "unaccustomed ears" of Americans, -blood-curdling. And I confess that on my last visit to Syria, my -countrymen's (and especially my countrywomen's) bursts of pious wrath -jarred heavily upon me. In his oral bombardment of his enemy the -Oriental hurls such missiles as, "May God burn the bones of your -fathers"; "May God exterminate your seed from the earth"; "May God cut -off your supply of bread (_yakta rizkak_)"; "May you have nothing but -the ground for a bed and the sky for covering"; "May your children be -orphaned and your wife widowed"; and similar expressions. - -Does not this sound exactly like the one hundred and ninth Psalm? -Speaking of his enemy, the writer of that psalm says, "Let his days be -few, and let another take his office. Let his children be fatherless, -and his wife a widow. Let his children be continually {93} vagabonds, -and beg; let them seek their bread also out of their desolate places. -Let there be none to extend mercy unto him; neither let there be any to -favor his fatherless children. Let his posterity be cut off; and in -the generation following let their name be blotted out." - -The sad fact is that the Oriental has always considered his personal -enemies to be the enemies of God also, and as such their end was -destruction. Such sentiments mar the beauty of many of the Psalms. -The enemies of the Israelites were considered the enemies of the God of -Israel, and the enemies of a Syrian family are also the enemies of the -patron saint of that family. In that most wonderful Scriptural -passage--the one hundred and thirty-ninth Psalm--the singer cries, -"Surely thou wilt slay the wicked, O God: depart from me, ye bloody -men. For they speak against thee wickedly, and thine enemies take thy -name in vain. Do not I hate them, O Lord, that hate thee? and am I not -grieved with those that rise against thee? _I hate them with perfect -hatred: {94} I count them mine enemies._" Yet this ardent hater of his -enemies most innocently turns to God and says in the next verse: -"Search me, O God, and know my heart: try me and know my thoughts: _and -see if there be any wicked way in me_, and lead me in the way -everlasting." - -This mixture of piety and hatred, uttered so naïvely and in good faith, -is characteristically Syrian. Such were the mutual wishes I so often -heard expressed in our neighborhood and clan fights and quarrels in -Syria. When so praying, the persons would beat upon their breasts and -uncover their heads, as signs of the total surrender of their cause to -an avenging Omnipotence. Of course the Syrians are not so cruel and -heartless as such imprecations, especially when cast in cold type, -would lead one to believe. I am certain that if the little children of -his enemy should become fatherless, the imprecator himself would be -among the first to "favor" them. If you will keep in mind the juvenile -temperament of the Oriental, already mentioned, and his habit of -turning to {95} God in all circumstances, as unreservedly as a child -turns to his father, your judgment of the son of Palestine will be -greatly tempered with mercy. - -The one redeeming feature in these imprecatory petitions is that they -have always served the Oriental as a safety-valve. Much of his wrath -is vented in this manner. He is much more cruel in his words than in -his deeds. As a rule the Orientals quarrel much, but fight little. By -the time two antagonists have cursed and reviled each other so -profusely they cool off, and thus graver consequences are averted. The -Anglo-Saxon has outgrown such habits. In the first place the highly -complex social order in which he lives calls for much more effective -methods for the settling of disputes, and, in the second place, he has -no time to waste on mere words. And just as the Anglo-Saxon smiles at -the wordy fights of the Oriental, the Oriental shudders at the -swiftness of the Anglo-Saxon in using his fists and his pistol. Both -are needy of the grace of God. - - - -[1] Rom. xii: 19. - -[2] Deut. xxxii: 39. - - - - -{96} - -CHAPTER III - -LOVE OF ENEMIES - -The preceding chapter makes it very clear why Jesus opened the more -profound depths of the spiritual life to his much-divided and almost -hopelessly clannish countrymen, by commanding them to love their -enemies. He who taught "as one having authority, and not as the -scribes," knew the possibilities and powers of divine love as no man -did. It is in such immortal precepts that we perceive his superiority -to his time and people and the divinity of his character. His -knowledge of the Father was so intimate and his repose in the Father's -love so perfect that he could justly say, "I and my father are one." - -"Ye have heard," he said to his followers, "that it hath been said, -Thou shalt love thy neighbor [in the original, _quarib_--kinsman] and -hate thine enemy: but I say unto you, love your enemies, bless them -that curse you, do {97} good to them that hate you, and pray for them -which despitefully use you and persecute you; that ye may be the -children of your father which is in heaven."[1] - -Here we have the very heart and soul of the Gospel, and the dynamic -power of Jesus' ministry of reconciliation. Yet to many devout -Christians, as well as to unfriendly critics of the New Testament, the -command, "Love your enemies," offers a serious perplexity. An -"independent" preacher in a large Western city, after reading this -portion of the Sermon on the Mount to his congregation, stated that -Jesus' great discourse should be called, "The Sarcasm on the Mount." -Is not love of enemies beyond the power of human nature? - -This question is pertinent. And it is an obvious fact that we cannot -love by command; we cannot love to order. This mysterious flow of soul -which we call love is not of our own making; therefore we cannot _will_ -to love. Such a discussion, however, falls outside the scope {98} of -this publication. What I wish to offer here is a linguistic -explanation which I believe will throw some light on this great -commandment. - -The word "love" has been more highly specialized in the West than in -the East. In its proper English use it means only that ardent, amorous -feeling which cannot be created by will and design. In the West the -word "love" has been relieved of the function of expressing the less -ardent desires such as the terms "to like," "to have good-will toward," -and "to be well-disposed toward" imply. - -Not so in the East. The word "like," meaning "to be favorably inclined -toward," is not found either in the Bible or in the Arabic tongue. In -the English version it is used in two places, but the translation is -incorrect. In the twenty-fifth chapter of Deuteronomy the seventh -verse, "If the man like not to take his brother's wife," should be -rendered, "If the man _consent_ not"; and in the fourth chapter of -Amos, the fifth verse, "For this liketh you, O ye children of Israel," -is in the original, "For this ye {99} _loved_, O ye children of -Israel." In any standard concordance of the Bible, the Hebrew verb -_Aheb_ (to love) precedes these quotations. - -So to us Orientals the only word which can express any cordial -inclination of approval is "love." One loves his wife and children, -and loves grapes and figs and meat, if he likes these things. An -employer says to an employee, "If you _love_ to work for me according -to this agreement, you can." It is nothing uncommon for one to say to -a casual acquaintance whom he likes, "I must say, _Sahib_ [friend], -that I love you!" I know of no equivalent in the Arabic for the -phrase, "I am interested in you." "Love" and "hate" are the usual -terms by which to express approval and disapproval, as well as real -love and hatred. - -The Scriptural passages illustrative of this thought are not a few. In -the ninth chapter of the Epistle to the Romans, the thirteenth verse, -it is said, "As it is written, Jacob have I loved, but Esau have I -hated." God does not "hate." The two terms here, "loved" and {100} -"hated," mean "approved" and "disapproved." It is as a father approves -of the conduct of one of his children and disapproves that of another -of them. Another example of this use of the word "hate" is found in -the twenty-first chapter of Deuteronomy, the fifteenth verse: "If a man -have two wives, one beloved, and another hated, and they have born him -children, both the beloved and the hated; and if the firstborn son be -hers that was hated: then it shall be, when he maketh his sons to -inherit that which he hath, that he may not make the son of the beloved -firstborn before the son of the hated, which is indeed the first-born: -but he shall acknowledge the son of the hated for the firstborn, by -giving him a double portion of all that he hath." Here it is safe to -infer that the writer meant to distinguish between the wife who was a -"favorite" and the one who was not. There could be no valid reason why -a husband should live with a wife whom he really hated when he could -very easily divorce her, according to the Jewish {101} law, and marry -another. In such a case the husband was simply partial in his love. -The hatred which is felt toward an enemy and a destroyer does not apply -here. - -Another Scriptural passage which illustrates the free use of the word -"love" is the story of the rich man in the tenth chapter of St. Mark's -Gospel. Beginning with the seventeenth verse, the passage reads: "And -when he was gone forth into the way, there came one running, and -kneeling to him, and asked him, Good Master, what shall I do that I may -inherit eternal life? And Jesus said unto him, Why callest thou me -good? there is none good but one, that is, God. Thou knowest the -commandments, Do not commit adultery, Do not kill, Do not steal, Do not -bear false witness, Defraud not, Honor thy father and mother. And he -answered and said unto him, Master, all these have I observed from my -youth. _Then Jesus, beholding him, loved him_, and said unto him, One -thing thou lackest"; and so forth. Apparently the brief conversation -with the young man {102} showed Jesus that his questioner was both -polite and intelligent, so the Master liked him. Stating the case in -Western phraseology it may be said that the young Hebrew seeker was an -agreeable, or likable man. - -Quite different is the import of the word "love" in such of the -Master's sayings as are found in the fifteenth chapter of St. John's -Gospel: "As the Father hath loved me, so have I loved you: continue ye -in my love. This is my commandment, That ye love one another, as I -have loved you." Here the term "love" is used in its truest and purest -sense. - -From all this it may be seen that when the Great Oriental Teacher said -to his countrymen, who considered all other clans than their own as -their enemies, "Love your enemies," he did not mean that they should be -enamored of them, but that they should have good will toward them. We -cannot love by will and design, but we certainly can will to be well -disposed even toward those who, we believe, have ill will toward us. -He who really thinks this {103} an impossibility gives evidence not of -superior "critical knowledge," but of being still in the lower stages -of human evolution. - -But I have something more to say on this great subject. Whether used -in a general or a highly specialized sense the word "Love" speaks -indeed of the "greatest thing in the world." - -When the Master of the Art of Living said, "Love your enemies," he -urged upon the minds of men the divinest law of human progress. Yet -compliance with this demand seems, to the majority of men, to be beyond -the reach of humanity. When you are admonished to love your enemies, -you will be likely to think of the meanest, most disagreeable human -being you know and wonder as to how you are going to love _such_ a -person. But the Master's law far transcends this narrow conception of -love. Its deeper meaning, when understood, renders such a conception -shallow and childish. It is to be found, not in the freakish moods of -the sensibility, but in the realm of permanent ideals. - -{104} - -There are in the world two forces at work, love and hatred. Hatred -destroys, love builds; hatred injures, love heals; hatred embitters -life, love sweetens it; hatred is godlessness, love is godliness. The -supreme question, therefore, is, not as to whether there are unlovable -persons in the world or not, but rather, which one of these two forces -would you have to rule your own life and the life of humanity at large, -love or hatred? Which nutrition would you give your own soul and the -souls of those who are near and dear to you, that of hatred, or that of -love? Can it be your aim in life to aid that power which injures, -destroys, embitters life and estranges from God, or the power which -heals, builds up, sweetens life and makes one with God? - -You say you have been injured through the malicious designs of others, -you are pained by the injury, and a sense of hatred impels you to -avenge yourself. But what formed such designs against you, love or -hatred? Hatred! You enjoy, idealize, adore the love of those who -{105} love you. The designs of love give you joyous satisfaction, and -not pain. You know now by actual personal experience that the fruits -of hatred are bitter, and the fruits of love are sweet. Is it your -duty, therefore, to give your life over to the power of hatred, and -thus increase its dominion among men and multiply its bitter, poisonous -fruit in the world, or to consecrate your life to the power of love, -which you idealize and adore, and whose fruits are joy and peace? - -This, therefore, is the Master's law of love: Give your life and -service to that power which merits your holiest regard and engages your -purest affections, regardless of the "evil and the undeserving." -Recognize no enemies, and you shall have none. The only power which -can defeat the designs of hatred is love. The foams of hatred and -fumes of vengeance are destined to pass away with all their possessors; -only love is permanent and sovereign good. - -The man of hatred is destined, sooner or {106} later, to lose his -nobler qualities, his own self-respect and the respect of others, and -to occupy the smallest and most undesirable social sphere. Therefore -love, and do not hate! Exercise good will toward those even who have -injured you. - -You may not be able to reach and redeem by your generous thoughts and -designs such persons as have injured you, but a hundred others may -learn from you the law of redeeming love. Let your children grow to -know you as a man of love. Let your employees and fellow citizens -think of you as a man of peace and good will, a builder and not a -destroyer. Let your fireside be ever cheered by the music of love. -When the shadows of night fall and you come to enter into the unknown -land of sleep, let loving thoughts be your companions; let them course -into the deepest recesses of your nature and leaven your entire being. -Be a man of love! Love even your blind and misguided enemies! - - - -[1] Matt. v: 43-45. - - - - -{107} - -CHAPTER IV - -"THE UNVERACIOUS ORIENTAL" - -The Oriental's juvenile temperament and his partial disregard for -concrete facts have led his Anglo-Saxon cousin to consider him as -essentially unveracious. "You cannot believe what an Oriental says." -"The Orientals are the children of the 'Father of Lies.'" "Whatever an -Oriental says, the opposite is likely to be the truth"; and so forth. - -I do not wish in the least to undertake to excuse or even condone the -Oriental's unveracity, any more than to approve of the ethics of -American politicians during a political campaign. I have no doubt that -the Oriental suffers more from the universal affliction of -untruthfulness than does the Anglo-Saxon, and that he sorely needs to -restrict his fancy, and to train his intellect to have more respect for -facts. Nevertheless, I feel compelled to say that a {108} clear -understanding of some of the Oriental's modes of thought will quash -many of the indictments against his veracity. His ways will remain -different from the ways of the Anglo-Saxon, and perhaps not wholly -agreeable to the latter; but the son of the East--the dreamer and -writer of scriptures--will be credited with more honesty of purpose. - -It is unpleasant to an Anglo-Saxon to note how many things an Oriental -says, but does not mean. And it is distressing to an Oriental to note -how many things the Anglo-Saxon means, but does not say. To an -unreconstructed Syrian the brevity, yea, even curtness, of an -Englishman or an American, seems to sap life of its pleasures and to -place a disproportionate value on time. For the Oriental, the primary -value of time must not be computed in terms of business and money, but -in terms of sociability and good fellowship. Poetry, and not prosaic -accuracy, must be the dominant feature of speech. - -There is much more of intellectual inaccuracy than of moral delinquency -in the Easterner's {109} speech. His misstatements are more often the -result of indifference than the deliberate purpose to deceive. One of -his besetting sins is his _ma besay-il_--it does not matter. He sees -no essential difference between nine o'clock and half after nine, or -whether a conversation took plate on the housetop or in the house. The -main thing is to know the substance of what happened, with as many of -the supporting details as may be conveniently remembered. A case may -be overstated or understated, not necessarily for the purpose of -deceiving, but to impress the hearer with the significance or the -insignificance of it. If a sleeper who had been expected to rise at -sunrise should oversleep and need to be awakened, say half an hour or -an hour later than the appointed time, he is then aroused with the -call, "Arise, it is noon already--_qûm sar edh-hir_." Of a strong and -brave man it is said, "He can split the earth--_yekkid elaridh_." The -Syrians suffer from no misunderstanding in such cases. They _discern_ -one another's meaning. - -{110} - -So also many Scriptural passages need to be _discerned_. The purpose -of the Oriental speaker or writer must be sought often beyond the -letter of his statement, which he uses with great freedom. - -In the first chapter of St. Mark's Gospel, the thirty-second and -thirty-third verses, it is said, "And at even, when the sun did set, -they brought unto him all that were diseased, and them that were -possessed of devils. And _all the city_ was gathered together at the -door." The swiftness with which the poor people in Eastern communities -bring their sick to a healer, be he a prophet or only a physician, is -proverbial. Because of the scarcity of physicians, as well as of money -with which to pay for medical attendance, when a healer is summoned to -a home many afflicted persons come or are brought to him. The peoples -of the East have always believed also in the healing of diseases by -religious means. When a prophet arises the first thing expected of him -is that he should heal the sick. Both the priest and the physician -{111} are appealed to in time of trouble. To those who followed and -believed in him Jesus was the healer of both the soul and the body. -But note the account of the incident before us. The place was the city -of Capernaum, and we are told that "_all the city_ was gathered -together at the door" of the house where Jesus was bestowing the -loving, healing touch upon the sick. Was the _whole city_ at the door? -Were _all_ the sick in that large city brought into that house for -Jesus to heal them? Here we are confronted by a physical -impossibility. An Anglo-Saxon chronicler would have said, "Quite a -number gathered at the door," which in all probability would have been -a _correct_ report. - -But to the Oriental writer the object of the report was not _to -determine the number_ of those who stood outside, nor to insist that -each and every sick person in Capernaum was brought into the humble -home of Simon and Andrew. It was rather to glorify the Great Teacher -and his divine work of mercy, and not to give a photographic report of -the attendant {112} circumstances. The saying, "Quite a number -gathered at the door," may be correct, but to an Oriental it is -absolutely colorless and tasteless, an inexcusably parsimonious use of -the imagination. - -Take another Scriptural passage. In the seventeenth chapter of St. -Matthew's Gospel, the first verse, we read: "And after six days Jesus -taketh Peter, James, and John his brother, and bringeth them up into an -high mountain apart, and was transfigured before them; and his face did -shine as the sun." "After six days" from what time? In the preceding -chapter a general reference to time is made in the thirteenth verse, -where it is said: "When Jesus came into the coasts of Cæsarea Philippi, -he asked his disciples, saying, Whom do men say that I the Son of man -am?" But here no definite date is given. Chapter sixteenth ends with -those great words, "For whosoever will save his life shall lose it: and -whosoever will lose his life for my sake shall find it. For what is a -man profited, if he shall gain the whole world, and {113} lose his own -soul?" The two last verses of this chapter promise the speedy coming -of the Kingdom. - -"After six days" from what time? Well, what does it matter from what -time? Do you not see that the object of the record is to give a -glimpse of what happened on that "high mountain" where the light and -glory of the unseen world were reflected in the face of the Christ? - -The intelligent lay reader of the New Testament cannot fail to notice, -especially in the Gospels, gaps and abrupt beginnings such as "In those -days"; "Then came the disciples to Jesus"; "And it came to pass"; and -many similar expressions which seem to point nowhere. The record seems -to be rather incoherent. Yes, such difficulties, which are due largely -to the Oriental's indifference to little details, exist in the Bible, -but they are very unimportant. The central purpose of these books is -to enable the reader to perceive the secret of a holy personality, -whose mission was, is, and forever shall be, to emancipate the soul of -man from the {114} bondage of a world of fear, weakness, sin, and -doubt, and lead it onward and upward to the realms of faith, hope, and -love. This purpose the Scriptures abundantly subserve. - - - - -{115} - -CHAPTER V - -IMPRESSIONS _vs._ LITERAL ACCURACY - -A Syrian's chief purpose in a conversation is to convey an impression -by whatever suitable means, and not to deliver his message in -scientifically accurate terms. He expects to be judged not by what he -_says_, but by what he _means_. He does not expect his hearer to -listen to him with the quizzical courtesy of a "cool-headed Yankee," -and to interrupt the flow of conversation by saying, with the least -possible show of emotion, "Do I understand you to say," etc. No; he -piles up his metaphors and superlatives, reinforced by a theatrical -display of gestures and facial expressions, in order to make the hearer -_feel_ his meaning. - -The Oriental's speech is always "illustrated." He speaks as it were in -pictures. With him the spoken language goes hand in hand with the more -ancient gesture language. His profuse gesticulation is that phase of -his life which first {116} challenges the attention of Occidental -travelers in the East. He points to almost everything he mentions in -his speech, and would portray every feeling and emotion by means of -some bodily movement. No sooner does he mention his eye than his index -finger points to or even touches that organ. "Do you understand me?" -is said to an auditor with the speaker's finger on his own temple. In -rebuking one who makes unreasonable demands upon him, a Syrian would be -likely to stoop down and say, "Don't you want to ride on my back?" - -One of the most striking examples of this manner of speech in the Bible -is found in the twenty-first chapter of the Book of Acts. Beginning -with the tenth verse, the writer says: "And as we tarried there [at -Cæsarea] many days, there came down from Judea a certain prophet, named -Agabus. And when he was come unto us, he took Paul's girdle, and bound -his own hands and feet, and said, Thus saith the Holy Ghost, So shall -the Jews at Jerusalem bind the man that owneth this girdle, and shall -{117} deliver him into the hands of the Gentiles." Now an Occidental -teacher would not have gone into all that trouble. He would have said -to the great apostle, "Now you understand I don't mean to interfere -with your business, but if I were you I would n't go down to Jerusalem. -Those Jews there are not pleased with what you are doing, and would be -likely to make things unpleasant for you." But in all probability such -a polite hint would not have made Paul's companions weep, nor caused -him to say, "What mean ye to weep and to break mine heart? for I am -ready not to be bound only, but also to die at Jerusalem for the name -of the Lord Jesus." - -It is also because the Syrian loves to speak in pictures, and to -subordinate literal accuracy to the total impression of an utterance, -that he makes such extensive use of figurative language. Instead of -saying to the Pharisees, "Your pretensions to virtue and good birth far -exceed your actual practice of virtue," John the Baptist cried: "O -generation of vipers, who hath warned {118} you to flee from the wrath -to come? Bring forth, therefore, fruits meet for repentance: and think -not to say within yourselves, We have Abraham to our father: for I say -unto you that God is able _of these stones_ to raise up children unto -Abraham." - -Just as the Oriental loves to flavor his food strongly and to dress in -bright colors, so is he fond of metaphor, exaggeration, and -positiveness in speech. To him mild accuracy is weakness. A host of -illustrations of this thought rise in my mind as I recall my early -experiences as a Syrian youth. I remember how those jovial men who -came to our house to "sit"--that is, to make a call of indefinite -duration--would make their wild assertions and back them up by vows -which they never intended to keep. The one would say, "What I say to -you is the truth, and if it is not, I will cut off my right -arm"--grasping it--"at the shoulder." "I promise you this,"--whatever -the promise might be,--"and if I fail in fulfilling my promise I will -pluck out my right eye." - -{119} - -To such speech we always listened admiringly and respectfully. But we -never had the remotest idea that in any circumstances the speaker would -carry out his resolution, or that his hearers had a right to demand it -from him. He simply was in earnest; or as an American would say, "He -meant that he was right." - -Such an Oriental mode of thought furnishes us with the background for -Jesus' saying, "If thy right eye offend thee, pluck it out, and cast it -from thee. If thy right hand offend thee, cut it off, and cast it from -thee."[1] - -To many Western Christians, especially in the light of the Protestant -doctrine of the infallibility of the letter of the Bible, these sayings -of Christ present insurmountable difficulties. To such the question, -"How can I be a true disciple of Christ, if I do not obey what he -commands?" makes these misunderstood sayings of Christ great stumbling -blocks. Some time ago a lady wrote me a letter saying that at a -prayer-meeting which she attended, the minister, after {120} reading -the fifth chapter of Matthew, which contains these commands, said, "If -we are true Christians we must not shrink from obeying these explicit -commands of our Lord." - -My informant stated also that on hearing that, she asked the preacher, -"Suppose the tongue should offend, and we should cut it off; should we -be better Christians than if we did endeavor to atone for the offense -in some other way?" The preacher, after a moment of perplexed silence, -said, "If there is no one here who can answer this question, we will -sing a hymn." - -The best commentary on these sayings of Christ is given by Paul in the -sixth chapter of his Epistle to the Romans. This is precisely what the -Master meant: "Neither yield ye your members as instruments of -unrighteousness unto sin; but yield yourselves unto God, as those that -are alive from the dead, and your members as instruments of -righteousness unto God." Cutting or mutilation of the body has nothing -to do with either passage, nor indeed with the Christian life. The -amputation of an {121} arm that steals is no sure guaranty of the -removal of the desire to steal; nor would the plucking out of a lustful -eye do away with the lust which uses the eye for an instrument. - -With this should be classed also the following commands: "Whosoever -shall smite thee on the right cheek, turn to him the other also." "If -any man will sue thee at the law, and take away thy coat, let him have -thy cloak also; and whosoever shall compel thee to go a mile, go with -him twain."[2] - -The command to give the coat and the cloak to a disputant, rather than -to go to law with him, will seem much more perplexing when it is -understood that these words mean the "under garment" and the "upper -garment." The Orientals are not in the habit of wearing a coat and a -cloak or overcoat. In the Arabic version we have the _thaub_ ("th" as -in "throw") and the _rada'_. The _thaub_ is the main article of -clothing--the ample gown worn over a shirt next to the body. The -_rada'_ is the cloak worn {122} on occasions over the _thaub_. The -Scriptural command literally is, "To one who would quarrel with thee -and would take thy _thaub_, give him the _rada'_ also." It may be -clearly seen here that literal compliance with this admonition would -leave the non-resistant person, so far as clothes are concerned, in a -pitiable condition. - -The concluding portion of this paragraph in the fifth chapter of St. -Matthew's Gospel--the forty-second verse--presents another difficulty. -It says, "Give to him that asketh thee, and from him that would borrow -of thee turn not thou away." Of all those whom I have heard speak -disparagingly of this passage I particularly recall a lawyer, whom I -knew in a Western State, whose dislike for these words of Christ -amounted almost to a mental affliction. It seems to me that on every -single occasion when he and I discussed the Scriptures together, or -spoke of Christianity, I found him armed with this passage as his most -effective weapon against the innocent Nazarene. "What was Jesus -thinking of," he would say, "when he {123} uttered these words? What -would become of our business interests and financial institutions if we -gave to every one that asked of us, and lent money without good -security to every Tom, Dick, and Harry?" - -The thought involved in this text suffers from the unconditional manner -in which it is presented, and which gives it its Oriental flavor. -Seeing that he was addressing those who knew what he meant, the writer -did not deem it necessary to state exactly the reason why this command -was given. It seems, however, that when Jesus spoke those words he had -in mind the following passage: "And if thy brother be waxed poor, and -his hand fail with thee; then thou shalt uphold him: as a stranger and -a sojourner shall he live with thee. Take thou no interest of him or -increase, but fear thy God: that thy brother may live with thee. _Thou -shalt not give him thy money upon interest_, nor give him thy victuals -for increase."[3] According to this legal stipulation, an Israelite -could not {124} lawfully charge a fellow Israelite interest on a loan. -Therefore, "as a matter of business," the money-lenders preferred to -lend their money to the Gentiles, from whom they were permitted to take -interest, and to "turn away" from borrowers of their own race. And as -the teachers of Israel of his day often assailed Jesus for his -non-observance of the law, he in turn never failed to remind them of -the fact that their own practices did greater violence to the law than -his own liberal interpretation of it in the interest of man. - -From all that I know of Oriental modes of thought and life I cannot -conceive that Jesus meant by all these sayings to give brute force the -right of way in human life. He himself drove the traders out of the -temple by physical force. These precepts were not meant to prohibit -the use of force in self-defense and for the protection of property, -but were given as an antidote to that relentless law of revenge which -required "an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth." The Master does -not preach a gospel {125} of helplessness, but enjoins a manly attitude -toward peace and concord, in place of a constantly active desire for -vengeance and strife. - -Again let me say that an Oriental expects to be judged chiefly by what -he means and not by what he says. As a rule, the Oriental is not -altogether unaware of the fact that, as regards the letter, his -statements are often sadly lacking in correctness. But I venture to -say that when a person who is conversing with me knows that I know that -what he is saying is not exactly true I may not like his manner of -speech, yet I cannot justly call him a liar. - -A neighbor of mine in a Mount Lebanon village makes a trip to Damascus -and comes to my house of an evening to tell me all about it. He would -not be a Syrian if he did not give wings to his fancy and present me -with an idealistic painting of his adventure, instead of handing me a -photograph. I listen and laugh and wonder. I know his statements are -not wholly correct, and he knows exactly how I feel about it. We both -are aware, however, that {126} the proceedings of the evening are not -those of a business transaction, but of an entertainment. My friend -does not maliciously misrepresent the facts; he simply loves to speak -in poetic terms and is somewhat inhospitable to cross-examination. -Certainly we would not buy and sell sheep and oxen and fields and -vineyards after that fashion, but we like to be so entertained. Beyond -the wide margin of social hospitality and the latitude of intellectual -tolerance, I am aware of the fact that in all the flourish of metaphor -and simile, what my visitor really meant to say was either that his -trip to Damascus was pleasant or that it was hazardous, and that there -were many interesting things to see in that portion of the world; all -of which was indubitably true. - -While on a visit to Syria, after having spent several years in this -country, where I had lived almost exclusively with Americans, I was -very strongly impressed by the decidedly sharp contrast between the -Syrian and the American modes of thought. The years had worked many -{127} changes in me, and I had become addicted to the more compact -phraseology of the American social code. - -In welcoming me to his house, an old friend of mine spoke with -impressive cheerfulness as follows: "You have extremely honored me by -coming into my abode [_menzel_], I am not worthy of it. This house is -yours; you can burn it if you wish. My children also are at your -disposal; I would sacrifice them all for your pleasure. What a blessed -day this is, now that the light of your countenance has shone upon us"; -and so forth, and so on. - -I understood my friend fully and most agreeably, although it was not -easy for me to translate his words to my American wife without causing -her to be greatly alarmed at the possibility that the house would be -set on fire and the children slain for our pleasure. What my friend -really meant in his effusive welcome was no more or less than what a -gracious American host means when he says, "I am delighted to see you; -please make yourself at home." - -{128} - -Had the creed-makers of Christendom approached the Bible by way of -Oriental psychology, had they viewed the Scriptures against the -background of Syrian life, they would not have dealt with Holy Writ as -a jurist deals with legislative enactments. Again, had the unfriendly -critics of the Bible real acquaintance with the land of its birth, they -would not have been so sure that the Bible was "a mass of -impossibilities." The sad fact is that the Bible has suffered violence -from literalists among its friends, as from its enemies. - -For example, in their failure to heal a sick lad[4] the disciples came -to Jesus and asked him why they could not do the beneficent deed. -According to the Revised and the Arabic versions, the Master answered, -"Because of your unbelief; for verily I say unto you, If ye have faith -as a grain of mustard seed, ye shall say unto this mountain, Remove -hence to yonder place, and it shall remove." Colonel Robert Ingersoll -never tired of challenging the Christians {129} of America to put this -scripture to a successful test, and thus _convince_ him that the Bible -is inspired. In the face of such a challenge the "believer" is likely -to feel compelled to admit that the church does not have the required -amount of faith, else it could remove mountains. - -To one well acquainted with the Oriental manner of speech this saying -was not meant to fix a rule of conduct, but to idealize faith. In -order to do this in real Syrian fashion, Jesus spoke of an -infinitesimal amount of faith as being capable of moving the biggest -object on earth. His disciples must have understood him clearly, -because we have no record that they ever tried to remove mountains by -faith and prayer. It would be most astounding, indeed, if Christ -really thought that those disciples, who forsook all and followed him, -had not as much faith as a grain of mustard seed, and yet said to them, -"Ye are the light of the world. Ye are the salt of the earth." - -Of a similar character is the Master's saying, {130} "It is easier for -a camel to go through the eye of a needle, than for a rich man to enter -into the kingdom of God,"[5] which has quickened the exegetical genius -of commentators to mighty efforts in "expounding the Scriptures." -Judging by the vast number of persons in this country who have asked my -opinion, as a Syrian, concerning its correctness, and the fact that I -have myself seen it in print, the following interpretation of this -passage must have been much in vogue. - -The walled cities and feudal castles of Palestine, the explanation -runs, have large gates. Because of their great size, such gates are -opened only on special occasions to admit chariots and caravans. -Therefore, in order to give pedestrians thoroughfare, a smaller opening -about the size of an ordinary door is made in the center of the great -gate, near to the ground. Now this smaller door through which a camel -cannot pass is the eye of the needle mentioned in the Gospel. - -{131} - -I once heard a Sunday-School superintendent explain this passage to his -scholars by saying that a camel could pass through this eye of a -needle--meaning the door--if he was not loaded. Therefore, and by -analogy, if we cast off our load of sin outside, we can easily enter -into the kingdom of heaven. - -Were the camel and the gate left out, this statement would be an -excellent fatherly admonition. There is perhaps no gate in the -celestial city large enough to admit a man with a load of sin strapped -to his soul. However, the chief trouble with these explanations of the -"eye-of-the-needle" passage is that they are wholly untrue. - -This saying is current in the East, and in all probability it was a -common saying there long before the advent of Christ. But I never knew -that small door in a city or a castle gate to be called the needle's -eye; nor indeed the large gate to be called the needle. The name of -that door, in the common speech of the country, is the "plum," and I am -certain the {132} Scriptural passage makes no reference to it whatever. - -The Koran makes use of this expression in one of its purest classical -Arabic passages. The term employed here--_sûm-el-khiat_--can mean only -the sewing instrument, and nothing else. - -Nothing can show more clearly the genuine Oriental character of this -New Testament passage and that of the Teacher who uttered it, than the -intense positiveness of its thought and the unrestrained flight of its -imagery. I can just hear the Master say it. Jesus' purpose was to -state that it was extremely difficult "for them that trust in riches to -enter into the Kingdom of God."[6] To this end he chose the biggest -animal and the smallest opening known to his people and compared the -impossibility of a camel passing through the eye of a needle with that -of a man weighted down with earthly things becoming one with God. - -The Master's rebuke of the scribes and pharisees, {133} "Ye blind -guides, which strain at a gnat and swallow a camel,"[7] expresses a -similar thought in a different form and connection. There is no need -here to puzzle over the anatomical problem as to whether the throat of -a Pharisee was capacious enough to gulp a camel down. The strong and -agreeable Oriental flavor of this saying comes from the sharp contrast -between the size of the gnat and that of the camel. So the Master -employed it in order to show the glaring contradictions in the precepts -and practices of the priests of his day, who tithed mint and rue, but -"passed over judgment and the love of God." - -One of the most interesting examples of Oriental speech is found in the -eighteenth chapter of St. Matthew's Gospel, the twenty-first verse: -"Then came Peter and said to him, Lord how oft shall my brother sin -against me, and I forgive him? till seven times? Jesus saith unto him, -I say not unto thee, until seven times; but, until seventy times -seven." Did Jesus {134} really mean that an offender should be -forgiven four hundred and ninety times? Would it be to the interest of -the offender himself and to society at large to forgive an embezzler, a -slanderer or a prevaricator four hundred and ninety times? Is not -punishment which is guided by reason and sympathy, and whose end is -corrective, really a great aid in character-building? Let us try to -interpret this passage with reference to certain scenes in Jesus' own -life. In the sixteenth chapter of Matthew, the twenty-first verse, we -read: "From that time forth began Jesus to show unto his disciples, how -that he must go unto Jerusalem, and suffer many things of the elders -and chief priests and scribes, and be killed, and be raised again the -third day. Then Peter took him, and began to rebuke him, saying, Lord: -this shall not be unto thee. But he turned, and said unto Peter, _Get -thee behind me, Satan: thou art an offence to me_: for thou savourest -not the things that be of God, but those that be of men." - -In the second chapter of St. John's Gospel, {135} the thirteenth verse, -we are told: "And the Jews' passover was at hand, and Jesus went up to -Jerusalem, and found in the temple those that sold oxen and sheep and -doves, and the changers of money sitting: _and when he had made a -scourge of small cords, he drove them all out of the temple_, and the -sheep, and the oxen; and poured out the changers' money, and overthrew -the tables; and said unto them that sold doves, Take these things -hence; make not my Father's house an house of merchandise." - -The forgiving "seventy times seven" did not apply, as it seems, in -these cases. In the very chapter from which this saying comes,[8] the -Master gives us two superb examples of certain and somewhat swift -retribution for offenses. In the fifteenth verse, he says: "Moreover, -if thy brother shall trespass against thee, go tell him his fault -between thee and him alone: if he shall hear thee, thou hast gained thy -brother. But if he will not hear thee, then take with thee one or two -more, that in the mouth {136} of two or three witnesses every word may -be established. And if he neglect to hear them, tell it unto the -church; but if he neglect to hear the church, _let him be unto thee as -an heathen man and a publican_." - -The parable of the "certain king" and the "wicked servant" follows -immediately the "seventy times seven" passage. "Therefore is the -kingdom of heaven likened unto a certain king, which would take account -of his servants. And when he had begun to reckon, one was brought unto -him, which owed him ten thousand talents. But forasmuch as he had not -to pay, his lord commanded him to be sold, and his wife, and children, -and all that he had, and payment be made. The servant therefore fell -down and worshipped him, saying, Lord, have patience with me, and I -will pay thee all. Then the Lord of that servant was moved with -compassion, and loosed him, and forgave him the debt. But the same -servant went out, and found one of his fellowservants, which owed him -an hundred pence: and he laid hands on him, {137} and took him by the -throat, saying, Pay me that thou owest. And his fellowservant fell -down at his feet, and besought him, saying, Have patience with me, and -I will pay thee all. And he would not: but went and cast him into -prison, till he should pay the debt. So when his fellowservants saw -what was done, they were very sorry, and came and told unto their lord -all that was done. Then his lord, after that he had called him, said -unto him, O thou wicked servant, I forgave thee all that debt, because -thou desiredst me: shouldest not thou also have had compassion on thy -fellow-servant, even as I had pity on thee? _And his lord was wroth, -and delivered him to the tormentors, till he should pay all that was -due unto him_. So likewise shall my heavenly Father do also unto you, -if ye from your hearts forgive not every one his brother their -trespasses." - -Now as a matter of fact the lord of the wicked servant did not forgive -him seventy times seven, but "delivered him to the tormentors" for his -first offense. Will the heavenly Father do {138} _likewise_? Do we -not have irreconcilable contradictions in these Scriptural passages? - -No doubt there are difficulties here. But once the -"seventy-times-seven" passage is clearly understood, the difficulties -will, I believe, disappear. In harmony with his legalistic -preconception, Peter chose the full and sacred number "seven" as a very -liberal measure of forgiveness. Apparently Jesus' purpose was to make -forgiveness a matter of disposition, sympathy, and discretion, rather -than of arithmetic. To this end he made use of an Oriental saying -which meant _indefiniteness_, rather than a fixed rule. This saying -occurs in one of the most ancient Old Testament narratives, and, most -fittingly, in a bit of poetry:[9] - - "And Lamech said unto his wives: - Adah and Zillah, hear my voice; - Ye wives of Lamech, hearken unto my speech: - For I have slain a man for wounding me, - And a young man for bruising me: - If Cain shall be avenged sevenfold - Truly Lamech seventy and sevenfold." - -{139} - -In both Testaments the meaning of the saying is the -same--indefiniteness. It is one of that host of Bible passages and -current Oriental sayings which must be judged by what they _mean_, and -not by what they _say_. The writer of the eighteenth chapter of -Matthew grouped those seemingly contradictory passages together, -because they all dealt with forgiveness. That they must have been -spoken under various circumstances is very obvious. The object of the -admonition concerning the trespassing brother (verses 15-17) is to -encourage Christians to "reason together" in a fraternal spirit about -the differences which may arise between them, and, _if at all -possible_, to win the offending member back to the fold. And the -object of the parable of the "wicked servant" is to contrast the spirit -of kindness with that of cruelty. - - - -[1] Matt. v: 29-30. - -[2] Matt. v: 39-41. - -[3] Lev. xxv: 35; Revised Version. - -[4] Matt. xvii: 19. - -[5] Matt. xix: 24. - -[6] Mark x: 24. - -[7] Matt. xxiii: 24. - -[8] Matt. xviii. - -[9] Gen. iv: 23; Revised Version. - - - - -{140} - -CHAPTER VI - -SPEAKING IN PARABLES - -Teaching and conversing in parables and proverbs is a distinctly -Oriental characteristic. A parable is a word picture whose purpose is -not to construct a definition or to establish a doctrine, but to convey -an impression. However, the Oriental makes no distinction between a -proverb and a parable. In both the Hebrew and the Arabic, the word -_mathel_ signifies either a short wise saying, such as may be found in -the Book of Proverbs, or a longer utterance, such as a New Testament -parable. In the Arabic Bible, the wise sayings of the Book of Proverbs -are called _amthal_, and the parabolic discourses of Jesus are also -called _amthal_. This term is the plural of _mathel_ (parable or -proverb). This designation includes also any wise poetical saying, or -any human state of fortune or adversity. Thus a very generous man -becomes a _mathel bilkaram_ (a parable of generosity); and a man {141} -of unsavory reputation becomes a _mathel beinennass_ (a saying or a -by-word among the people). In the forty-fourth Psalm, the fourteenth -verse, the poet cries: "Thou makest us a by-word among the nations, a -shaking of the head among the people." A fine illustration of the -_mathel_ as a poetical saying, although not strictly allegorical, is -the opening passage of the twenty-ninth chapter of the Book of Job, -where it is said:-- - - "And Job again took up his parable and said, - Oh that I were as in the months of old, - As in the days when God watched over me; - When his lamp shined upon my head, - And by his light I walked through darkness; - As I was in the ripeness of my days, - When the friendship of God was upon my tent; - When the Almighty was yet with me, - And my children were about me; - When my steps were washed with butter, - And the rock poured me out rivers of oil!"[1] - - -Where in human literature can we find a passage to surpass in beauty -and tenderness this introspective utterance? - -{142} - -Parabolic speech is dear to the Oriental heart. It is poetical, -mystical, sociable. In showing the reason why Jesus taught in -parables, Biblical writers speak of the indirect method, the picture -language, the concealing of the truth from those "who had not the -understanding," and so forth. But those writers fail to mention a most -important reason, namely, the _sociable_ nature of such a method of -teaching, which is so dear to the Syrian heart. In view of the small -value the Orientals place upon time, the story-teller, the speaker in -parables, is to them the most charming conversationalist. Why be so -prosy, brief, and abstract? The spectacular charm and intense -concreteness of the parable of the Prodigal Son is infinitely more -agreeable to the Oriental mind than the general precept that God will -forgive his truly penitent children. How romantic and how enchanting -to me are the memories of those _sehrat_ (evening gatherings) at my -father's house! How simple and how human was the homely wisdom of the -stories and the parables which were spoken on {143} those occasions. -The elderly men of the clan loved to speak of what "was said in the -ancient days" (_qadeem ezzeman_). "_Qal el-wathel_" (said the parable) -prefaced almost every utterance. And as the speaker proceeded to -relate a parable and to reinforce the ancient saying by what his own -poetic fancy could create at the time of kindred material, we listened -admiringly, and looked forward with ecstatic expectation to the _maana_ -(meaning, or moral). Oral traditions, the Scriptures, Mohammedan -literature, and other rich sources are drawn upon, both for instruction -in wisdom and for entertainment. - -In picturing the condition of one who has been demoralized beyond -redemption, the entertaining speaker proceeds in this fashion: "Once -upon a time a certain man fell from the housetop and was badly injured. -The neighbors came and carried him into the house and placed him in -bed. Then one of his friends approached near to the injured man and -said to him, 'Asaad, my beloved friend, how is your condition [_kief -halak_]?' The much-pained man {144} opened his mouth and said, 'My two -arms are broken; my back and one of my legs are broken; one of my eyes -is put out; I am badly wounded in the breast, and feel that my liver is -severed. But I trust that God will restore me.' Whereupon his friend -answered, 'Asaad, I am distressed. But if this is your condition, it -will be much easier for God to make a new man to take your place than -to restore you!'" - -One of the most beautiful parables I know, and which I often heard my -father relate, bears on the subject of partiality, and is as follows:-- - -"Once upon a time there were two men, the one named Ibrahim, the other -Yusuf. Each of the men had a camel. It came to pass that when Yusuf -fell sick he asked of his neighbor Ibrahim, who was about to journey to -Alappo, to take his camel with him also, with a load of merchandise. -Yusuf begged Ibrahim to treat the camel in exactly the same manner as -he did his own, and promised him that if God kept him alive until he -came back he would repay him both the good deed, and the cost of the -{145} camel's keep. Ibrahim accepted the trust, and took his journey -to Alappo, with the two camels. Upon his return Yusuf saw that his own -camel did not look so well as Ibrahim's. So he spoke to his friend: -'Ibrahim, by the life of God, what has happened to my camel? He is not -as good as your camel. O Ibrahim, did you care for my camel as you did -for your camel?' Then Ibrahim answered and said, 'By the life of God, -O Yusuf, I fed, and watered, and groomed your camel as I did my camel. -God witnesseth between us, Yusuf, this is the truth. But I will say to -you, you my eyes, my heart, that when night came and I lay me down on -my cloak to sleep between the two camels, I placed my head nearer to my -camel than to yours.'" - -It was the desirableness to Orientals of this type of speech which -prompted the writer of the Gospel of Matthew to say of Jesus, "And -without a parable spake he not unto them."[2] This utterance itself is -characteristically {146} Oriental. As a matter of fact, Jesus _did_ -often speak to the multitude _without_ parables. But his strong -tendency to make use of the parable, and its agreeableness to his -hearers, seemed to the Scriptural writer to be a sufficient -justification for his sweeping assertion. - -Of the New Testament parables some are quoted in this work in -connection with other subjects than that with which this chapter deals. -I will mention here a few more of these sayings as additional -illustrations of the present subject, and with reference to the -allusions to Oriental life which they contain. - -In the thirteenth chapter of Matthew, we have the parable of the wheat -and the tares: "The kingdom of heaven is likened unto a man which sowed -good seed in his field: but while men slept, his enemy came and sowed -tares among the wheat, and went his way. But when the blade was sprung -up, and brought forth fruit, then appeared the tares also." - -The tare (_zewan_) is a grain which when ground with the wheat and -eaten causes dizziness {147} and nausea, a state much like seasickness. -For this reason this plant is hated by the Syrians, although they use -tares very extensively as chicken feed. Wheat merchants are likely to -sell _kameh mizwen_ (wheat mixed with tares) in hard times, because -they can buy it for less money than pure wheat. I do not believe there -is a family among the common people of Syria which has not suffered at -one time or another from "tare-sickness." Having tasted the gall of -this affliction a few times myself, I do not at all wonder at the -Syrians' belief that tares must have come into the world by the Devil. -And what I still remember with both amusement and sympathy are the -heartfelt, withering imprecations which the afflicted ones always -showered upon the seller of the "tarey wheat." When the food had taken -real effect and the staggering, nauseated members of a family felt -compelled to allow nature to take its course, the gasps and groans -punctuated the ejaculations, "May God destroy his home!" "May the gold -turn into dust in his hands!" {148} "May he spend the price of what he -sold us at the funerals of his children!"--and so forth. - -Do you feel now the force of the allusion to the tares in the parable? -"So the servants of the householder came and said unto him, Sir, didst -not thou sow good seed in thy field? from whence then hath it tares? -He said unto them, An enemy hath done this." - -Enemies are of course always disposed to injure one another, and in an -agricultural country like Syria harm is often done to property for -revenge. So the scattering of tares for this purpose in a newly sown -wheat-field is not utterly unnatural or unthinkable. But the reference -in the parable is to a belief which is prevalent in some districts in -Syria, to the effect that in spite of all that the sower can do to -prevent it, the tares do appear mysteriously in fields where only wheat -had been sown. Some evil power introduces the noxious plant. Once I -listened to a heated controversy on the subject between some Syrian -landowners and an American missionary. The landowners clung to the -belief {149} that tares would appear in a field even if no tare seed -was ever planted in that field, while the son of the West insisted that -no such growth could take place without the seed having first been -introduced into the field in some natural way. The fight was a draw. - -"The servants said unto him, Wilt thou then that we go and gather them -up? But he said, Nay, lest while ye gather up the tares, ye root up -also the wheat with them." - -The attempt is often made to pull up the hated tares from among the -wheat, but in vain. The concluding admonition in the parable may well -be taken to heart by every hasty reformer of the type of a certain -regenerator of society, who, when asked to proceed slowly, said, "The -fact is I am in a hurry, and God is not!" - -In the same chapter (Matt. XIII) occurs the parable of the "leaven." -"The kingdom of heaven is like unto leaven, which a woman took, and hid -in three measures of meal, till the whole was leavened." The setting -of this short {150} parable in Syrian life is given in another -chapter.[3] But I mention it here in order to give my comment on a -rather strange interpretation of the parable which came recently to my -knowledge. In the course of a conversation I had with a prominent -Baptist minister not long since, he stated to me that certain -interpreters assert that the leaven in this parable meant the -corruption which has come into the Christian Church, etc. My friend -was anxious to know whether to my knowledge the Syrians associated -leaven with corruption. - -This interpretation echoes an ancient idea of leaven of which modern -Syrians have no knowledge. They hold the leaven in high and -reverential esteem.[4] To them it is the symbol of growth and -fecundity. In many of the rural districts of Syria, upon approaching -the door of her future home the bride is given the _khamera_ (the lump -of leaven) which she pastes on the upper doorsill and passes under it -into the house. As she performs the solemn act her {151} friends -exclaim, "May you be as blessed and as fruitful as the _khamera_!" - -However, it is a well-known fact to readers of ancient records that in -the earliest times bread was entirely unleavened. When the Israelites -were roaming tribes they ate and offered to Jehovah unleavened bread. -The Arab tribes of to-day on the borders of Syria eat no leavened -bread. They believe that it tends to reduce the vitality and endurance -of the body. Perhaps the real reason for preferring the unleavened -bread is that it is much easier to make, and dispenses with taking care -of the lump of leaven between bakings, which is not so convenient for -roaming tribes to do. The use of unleavened bread for so many -generations among the Israelites constituted its sacredness, and it was -the conservatism of religion which still called for unleavened bread -for the offering, even after leavened bread had become universally the -daily food of the people. - -So to the ancients the fermentation in the process of leavening was -considered corruption. {152} It was something which entered into the -lump and soured it. The New Testament use of the word "leaven" as -meaning corruption is purely figurative, and signifies influence, or -bad doctrine. It was in this sense that Jesus used the word when he -said to his disciples:[5] "Take heed and beware of the leaven of the -Pharisees and of the Sadducees"; and again:[6] "Take heed, beware of -the leaven of the Pharisees, and of the leaven of Herod." The fact -that the disciples did not understand at first what the Master meant -shows that to the general public "leaven" and "corruption" were not -synonymous terms. Had they been, it is certain that Jesus never would -have said, "The kingdom of heaven is like unto leaven." - -The fifteenth chapter of St. Luke's Gospel contains the parables of the -lost sheep, the lost coin, and the prodigal son. The parable of the -lost sheep is discussed in another chapter.[7] The parable of the lost -coin portrays a very familiar scene in the ordinary Syrian home. "What -{153} woman," says the Master, "having ten pieces of silver, if she -lose one piece, doth not light a candle, and sweep the house, and seek -diligently till she find it? And when she hath found it, she calleth -her friends and her neighbors together, saying, Rejoice with me; for I -have found the piece which I had lost." - -The candle spoken of here is a little olive-oil lamp--an earthen -saucer, with a protruding lip curled up at one point in the rim for the -wick. How often have I held that flickering light for my mother while -she searched for a lost coin or some other precious object. The common -Syrian house has one door and one or two small windows, with wooden -shutters, without glass.[8] Consequently the interior of the house is -dimly lighted, especially in the winter season. The scarcity of money -in the hands of the people makes the loss of a coin, of the value of -that which is mentioned in the parable (about sixteen cents), a sad -event. The {154} little house is searched with eager -thoroughness--"diligently." The straw mats, cushions, and sheepskins -which cover the floor are turned over, and the earthen floor swept. -The search continues, with diligence and prayerful expectations, until -the lost coin is found. The Arabic Bible states that the gladdened -woman "calls her _women_ neighbors and friends (_jaratiha -wesedikatiha_), saying, Rejoice with me; for I have found the piece -which I had lost." The singling out of the _women_ neighbors is -significant here. As a rule the loss of a precious coin by a woman -calls her husband's wrath upon her, regardless of whether the coin had -been earned by her or by him. The _women friends_ have a keen -fellow-feeling in such matters. They keep one another's secrets from -the men, and rejoice when one of their number escapes an unpleasant -situation. - -The total meaning of this parable is plain as it is most precious. -Through this common occurrence in a Syrian home, Jesus impresses upon -the minds of his hearers, as well as upon {155} the consciousness of -all mankind, the infinite worth of the human soul, and the Father's -love and care for it. "Likewise, I say unto you, there is joy in the -presence of the angels of God over one sinner that repenteth." - -The parable of the prodigal son follows immediately that of the lost -coin. "A certain man had two sons: and the younger of them said to his -father, Father, give me the portion of goods that falleth to me. And -he divided unto them his living." The first thing in this parable to -challenge the attention is the father's quick compliance with the -request of his son. "And he divided unto them his living." The custom -of a father dividing his property among his grown sons before his death -prevails much more extensively in the East than in the West. As a rule -neither the law nor custom gives legal standing to a will. Sometimes -the father's wishes with regard to how his property should be divided -after his death are carried out by his sons. But as a general rule the -father who does not divide his property legally between his sons before -his {156} death leaves to them a situation fraught with danger. -Litigation in such cases is very slow and uncertain. - -It was such a situation, no doubt, which led the man referred to in the -twelfth chapter of Luke, the thirteenth verse, to say to Jesus, -"Master, speak to my brother, that he divide the inheritance with me. -And he said unto him, Man, who made me a judge or a divider over you?" -And we may easily infer what Jesus thought of that particular case from -his saying which follows immediately his answer to this man. "And he -said unto them, Take heed, and beware of covetousness: for a man's life -consisteth not in the abundance of the things which he possesseth." So -the father of the prodigal son acted normally when he divided his -substance between his two sons. - -"And not many days after the younger son gathered all together, and -took his journey into a far country, and there wasted his substance -with riotous living." The singling out of the younger son for this -adventure comports with {157} a highly cherished Oriental tradition. -The elder son, who was the first-born male child in this household, -could not very well be made to commit such an act. In a Syrian family -the _bikkr_ (the first-born son) stands next to the father in the -esteem, not only of the members of his own household, but of the -community at large. He cannot be supposed to be so rash, so unmindful -of his birthright, as to break the sacred family circle, and to waste -his inheritance in riotous living. - -"And when he had spent all, there arose a mighty famine in that land; -and he began to be in want. And he went and joined himself to a -citizen of that country; and he sent him into his fields to feed swine. -And he would fain have been filled with the husks that the swine did -eat; and no man gave unto him." - -To be a swineherd, or a "swine-shepherd," is the most contemptible -occupation an Oriental can think of. It is no wonder at all to me that -the Gospel writers make the destination of the "legion" of devils which -Jesus cast out of the {158} man "in the country of the Gadarenes," a -herd of swine.[9] You cannot hire a Syrian to make a pet of a "little -piggie." If he did, he would be called "_Abu khenzier_" (pig man) for -the rest of his life, and transmit the unenviable title to his -posterity, "even unto the third and fourth generation." - -The word "husks" in the English version is not a correct rendering of -the original term. The marginal note in the Revised Version reads, -"the pods of the carob tree." The Arabic version says simply _kherrûb_ -(carob). The carob tree is very common in the lowlands of Syria. It -is a large tree of dense foliage, and round, glossy, dark-green leaves. -The pods it bears measure from five to ten inches in length, are flat, -and largely horn-shaped. I do not know why the English translators of -the Bible called those pods "husks." They are sold in almost every -town in western Syria for food. Children are very fond of _kherrûb_. -Some of the pods contain no small amount of sugar. In my boyhood {159} -days, a pocketful of _kherrûb_, which I procured for a penny, was to me -rather a treat. The older people, however, do not esteem _kherrûb_ so -highly as do the children. The bulk of it is so out of proportion to -the sugar it contains that its poverty is proverbial in the land. Of -one whose conversation is luxuriant in words and barren of ideas it is -said, "It is like eating _kherrûb_; you have to consume a cord of wood -in order to get an ounce of sweet." By eating these pods, the poor -people seem to themselves "to have been filled" while in reality they -have received but little nutrition. Therefore _kherrûb_ is generally -eaten by animals. - -It may be observed that the saying in the parable, "and he would fain -have been filled with _kherrûb_ that the swine did eat: and no man gave -unto him," simply describes the prodigal's poverty. For as a -"swine-shepherd" the "_kherrûb_ that the swine did eat" was certainly -very accessible to him. The purpose of the passage is to draw the -contrast between the rich parental home which the prodigal had -willingly {160} left and the extremely humble fare on which in his -wretched state he was compelled to subsist. - -The return of the prodigal son to his father's house, impoverished but -penitent, the affectionate magnanimity of the father toward his son, -and the spreading of the feast in honor of the occasion, are acts of -humility and generosity which cannot be said to be exclusively -Oriental. But the command of the father to his servants, "Bring hither -the fatted calf and kill it; and let us eat and be merry," brings out -the idea of the _zebihat_ (animal sacrifice) with which the West is not -familiar. - -The ancient custom, whose echoes have not yet died out in the East, was -that the host honored his guest most highly by killing a sheep at the -threshold of the house, upon the guest's arrival, and inviting him to -step over the blood into the house. This act formed the "blood -covenant" between the guest and his host. It made them one. To us one -of the most cordial and dignified expressions in {161} inviting a -guest, especially from a distant town, was, "If God ever favors us with -a visit from you, we will kill a _zebihat_!" - -In his great rejoicing in the return of his son, the father of the -prodigal is made to receive him as he would a most highly honored -guest. "The fatted calf"--and not only a sheep--is killed as the -_zebihat_ of a new covenant between a loving father and his son, who -"was dead and is alive again; was lost, and is found."[10] - -The parable of the "treasure hid in a field"[11] alludes to a very -interesting phase of Syrian thought. "Again, the kingdom of heaven is -like unto a treasure hid in a field, the which when a man hath found, -he hideth, and for joy thereof goeth and selleth all that he hath, and -buyeth that field." - -I cannot refrain from quoting again in this connection the famous -commentator, Adam Clarke. Speaking of this parable, he says: "We are -not to imagine that the _treasure_ here {162} mentioned, and to which -the gospel salvation is likened, means a _pot_ or _chest_ of money -hidden in the field, but rather a gold or silver _mine_, which he who -found out could not get at, or work, without turning up the field, and -for this purpose he bought it. Mr. Wakefield's observation is very -just: 'There is no sense in the _purchase_ of a field for a _pot_ of -_money_, which he might have carried away very _readily_ and as -_honestly_, too, as by overreaching the owner by an unjust purchase.' -... From this view of the subject, the translation of this verse, given -above, will appear proper--a _hidden treasure_, when applied to a _rich -mine_, is more proper than a _treasure hid_, which applies better to a -_pot of money_ deposited there, which I suppose was our translator's -opinion; and _kept secret_, or _concealed_, will apply better to the -subject of his discovery till he made the purchase, than _hideth_, for -which there could be no occasion, when the pot was already _hidden_, -and the place known only to himself." - -I have inserted here this double quotation, {163} italics and all, in -order to show how when the real facts are not known to a writer the -temptation to play on words becomes irresistible. In this exposition -the simple parable is treated as a legal document. Every word of it is -subjected to careful scrutiny. "Hid" is converted into "hidden," and -"concealed" is summoned to supplant "hideth," in order to make the -"treasure" mean a vast deposit of gold ore, and get the poor Syrian -peasant into the mining business. - -The facts in the case, however, stand opposed to this explanation. I -am absolutely safe in saying that every man, woman, and child in Syria -understands that this parable refers simply and purely to a treasure of -gold and silver which had been buried in a field by human hands. The -entanglement of the commentator just quoted in the literary fault of -the parable is inexcusable. - -The New Testament writer might have said, not that the man in the -parable _found_ the treasure, but that he was _led_ by certain {164} -signs _to believe_ that a treasure lay hidden in the field. However, -this is not the Oriental way of stating things, nor should the speaker -in parables be denied the freedom of the poet and the artist to -manipulate the particulars in such a way as to make them serve the -central purpose of his production. - -I could fill a book with the stories of hidden treasures which charmed -my boyhood days in Syria. I have already put into print[12] a detailed -account of my personal experience in digging for a hidden treasure, -which will clearly show that the securing of such riches is not always -so easy to diggers as the quotation just cited would make one believe. -In order to show the attitude of Syrians in general toward this -subject, I will quote the following from my own personal account:-- - -"In Syria it is universally believed that hidden treasures may be found -anywhere in the land, and especially among ancient ruins. This {165} -belief rests on the simple truth that the tribes and clans of Syria, -having from time immemorial lived in a state of warfare, have hidden -their treasures in the ground, especially on the eve of battles. - -"Furthermore, the wars of the past being wars of extermination, the -vanquished could not return to reclaim their hidden wealth; therefore -the ground is the keeper of vast riches. The tales of the digging and -finding of such treasures fill the country. There are thrilling tales -of treasures in various localities. Gold and other valuables are said -to have been dug up in sealed earthen jars, often by the merest -accident, in the ground, in the walls of houses, under enchanted trees, -and in sepulchers. From earliest childhood the people's minds are fed -on these tales, and they grow up with all their senses alert to the -remotest suggestions of such possibilities." - -The writer of the parable did not need to explain the situation to his -Oriental readers. The mere mention of a "hidden treasure" was {166} -sufficient to make them know what the words meant. His supreme purpose -was to impress them with the matchless worth of the kingdom of heaven -which Christ came to reveal to the world. - - - -[1] Revised Version. - -[2] Matt. xiii: 34. - -[3] See page 198. - -[4] See page 199. - -[5] Matt. xvi: 6. - -[6] Mark viii: 15. - -[7] See page 308. - -[8] See the author's autobiography, _A Far Journey_, chap. 1, entitled -"My Father's House." - -[9] Matt. viii: 32; Mark v: 13; Luke viii: 33. - -[10] For the reason why the mother of the prodigal is not mentioned in -the parable, see pages 207 and 334. - -[11] Matt. xiii: 44. - -[12] _Atlantic Monthly_, December, 1915. This story, with other -essays, will soon appear in book form. - - - - -{167} - -CHAPTER VII - -SWEARING - -Perhaps the one phase of his speech which lays the Oriental open to the -charge of unveracity is his much swearing. Of course this evil habit -knows no geographical boundaries and no racial limits. However, -probably because of their tendency to be profuse, intense, and positive -in speech, the Orientals no doubt have more than their legitimate share -of swearing. But it should be kept in mind that in that part of the -world swearing is not looked upon with the same disapproval and -contempt as in America; swearing by the name of the Deity has always -been considered the most sacred and solemn affirmation of a statement. -It is simply calling God to witness that what has been said is the -sacred truth. Thus in the twenty-first chapter of the book of Genesis -Abimelech asks Abraham, "Now therefore swear unto me here by God that -thou wilt not deal falsely with me, nor {168} with my son, nor with my -son's son." "And Abraham said, I will swear." - -St. Paul employs this type of speech in a milder form, after the New -Testament fashion, in the opening verse of the twelfth chapter of his -Epistle to the Romans, where he says: "I beseech you, therefore, -brethren, _by the mercies of God_, that ye present your bodies a living -sacrifice, holy, acceptable unto God, which is your reasonable -service." In the opening verse of the ninth chapter of the Epistle to -the Romans, Paul succeeds in an elegant manner in dispensing with -swearing altogether, when he says: "I say the truth in Christ, I lie -not, my conscience also bearing me witness in the Holy Ghost." - -Generally speaking, however, the custom of swearing after the manner of -the Old Testament has undergone no change in Syria since the days of -Abraham. Swearing is an integral element in Oriental speech. -Instinctively the speaker turns his eyes and lifts his hands toward -heaven and says, "By Allah, what I have {169} said is right and true. -_Yeshhedo-Allah_ [God witnesseth] to the truth of my words." In a -similar manner, and as in a score of places in the Old Testament, the -maker of a statement is asked by his hearer to swear by God as a solemn -assurance that his statement is true and sincere. - -The Mohammedan law, which is the law of modern Syria, demands swearing -in judicial contests. The judge awards the accuser--that is, the -plaintiff--the right to lead the defendant to any shrine he may choose, -and cause him to swear the _yemîn_ (solemn oath) as a final witness to -his innocence. By this act the plaintiff places his adversary in the -hands of the Supreme Judge, whose judgments are "true and righteous -altogether." A false oath is supposed to bring awful retribution upon -its maker and upon his posterity. - -Of such importance is this mode of speech to Orientals that the -Israelites thought of Jehovah Himself as making such affirmations. In -the twenty-second chapter of Genesis we have the words, "By myself have -I sworn, saith the {170} Lord." Further light is thrown on this point -by the explanation given to the verse just quoted in the sixth chapter -of the Epistle to the Hebrews, where it is said, "For when God made -promise to Abraham, because he could swear by no greater, he swore by -himself." - -I have no doubt that this thought of God swearing by himself sprang -from the custom of Oriental aristocrats of sealing a vow, or solemnly -affirming a statement, or an intention to do some daring deed, by -saying, "I swear by my head"--an oath which, whenever I heard it in my -youth, filled me with awe. Thus, also, in the sixty-second chapter of -Isaiah we have the words, "The Lord hath sworn by his right hand, and -by the arm of his strength." - -Among the Mohammedans, swearing "by the most high God" and "by the life -of the Prophet" and "by the exalted Koran" in affirmation of almost -every statement, is universal. The Christians swear by God, Christ, -the Virgin, the Cross, the Saints, the repose of their dead, the Holy -City, the Eucharist, {171} Heaven, great holidays, and many other -names. A father swears by the life of a dear child, and sons of -distinguished fathers swear by them. "By the life of my father, I am -telling the truth," is a very common expression. The antiquity of this -custom is made evident by the passage in the thirty-first chapter of -Genesis and the fifty-third verse: "And Jacob sware by the fear of his -father Isaac." However, the word "fear" does violence to the real -meaning of the verse, which the Arabic version rescues by saying, "And -Jacob swore by the _heybet_ [benignity, or beautiful dignity] of his -father." He swore by that which he and others loved, and not feared, -in his father. - -But what must seem to Americans utterly ridiculous is the Oriental -habit of swearing by the mustache and the beard, which is, however, one -phase of swearing by the head. To swear by one's mustache, or beard, -means to pledge the integrity of one's manhood. "I swear by this," is -said solemnly by a man with his hand upon his mustache. Swearing by -the {172} beard is supposed to carry more weight because, as a rule, it -is worn by the older men. To speak disrespectfully of one's mustache -or beard, or to curse the beard of a person's father, is to invite -serious trouble. - -The sacredness of the beard to Orientals goes back to the remote past -when all the hair of the head and the face was considered sacred. -Growing a beard is still esteemed a solemn act in Syria, so much so -that, having let his beard grow, one cannot shave it off without -becoming a by-word in the community. To speak of the scissors or of a -razor in the presence of one wearing a beard, especially if he be a -priest, or of the aristocracy, is considered a deep insult to him. -Such unseemly conduct seldom fails to precipitate a fight. In 2 -Samuel, the tenth chapter, fourth verse, we have the record of Hanun's -disgraceful treatment of David's men, whom he had thought to be spies. -"Wherefore Hanun took David's servants, and shaved off the one half of -their beards, and cut off their garments in the middle, even to their -buttocks, {173} and sent them away. When they told it unto David, he -sent to meet them, because the men _were greatly ashamed_: and the king -said, Tarry at Jericho _until your beards be grown_, and then return." - -It is because of this ancient conception of the hair that the Syrians -still swear by the mustache and the beard, although the majority of -them know not the real reason why they do so. - -I remember distinctly how proud I was in my youth to put my hand upon -my mustache, when it was yet not even large enough to be respectfully -noticed, and swear by it _as a man_. I recall also to what roars of -laughter I would provoke my elders at such times, to my great dismay. - -Here it may easily be seen that swearing in the Orient had so lost its -original sacredness and become so vulgar, even as far back as the time -of Christ, that He deemed it necessary to give the unqualified command, -"Swear not at all: neither by heaven, for it is God's throne, nor by -the earth, for it is his footstool: neither by {174} Jerusalem, for it -is the city of the great King. Neither shalt thou swear by thy head, -because thou canst not make one hair white or black. But let your -communication be yea, yea; nay, nay; for whatsoever is more than these -cometh of evil." This was perhaps the most difficult command to obey -that Jesus ever gave to his countrymen. - - - - -{175} - -CHAPTER VIII - -FOUR CHARACTERISTICS - -Of the other characteristics of Oriental speech, I wish to speak of -four before I bring this part of my book to a close. - -The first, the many and picturesque dialects. The entire absence of -the public school, the scarcity of other educational institutions, as -well as of books and periodicals, and the extreme slowness of -transportation, have always tended to perpetuate the multitude of -dialects in the speech of the Syrian people. The common language of -the land is the Arabic, which is divided into two types--the classical -and the common, or the language of learning and that of daily speech. -The classical language is one, but the common language is a labyrinth -of dialects. Each section of that small country has its _lehjah_ -(accent), and it is no exaggeration to say that each town within those -sections has a _lehjah_ of its own. Certain letters of the {176} -alphabet are also sounded differently in different localities. Thus, -for an example, the word for "stood" is pronounced _qam_ in certain -localities, and _aam_ in others. The word for "male" is pronounced -_zeker_ by some communities, and _deker_ by others. - -That such a state of things prevailed also in ancient Israel and in New -Testament times is very evident. In the twelfth chapter of the Book of -Judges we have the record of a fight between the Gileadites and the -Ephraimites, in which we find the following statement: "And the -Gileadites took the passages of Jordan before the Ephraimites: and it -was so, that when those Ephraimites which were escaped said, Let me go -over; that the men of Gilead said unto him, Art thou an Ephraimite? If -he said, Nay; then said they unto him, Say now Shibboleth: and he said -Sibboleth: _for he could not frame to pronounce it right_. Then they -took him, and slew him." - -This simple means of identification might be used in present-day Syria -with equal success. - -{177} - -In the fourteenth chapter of St. Mark's Gospel we have another striking -illustration of this characteristic of Oriental speech, in Peter's -experience in the palace of the high priest. In the fifty-third verse -it is said: "And they led Jesus away to the high priest: and with him -were assembled all the chief priests and the elders and the scribes. -And Peter followed him afar off, even into the palace of the high -priest." The record continues (verses 66-71): "And as Peter was -beneath in the palace, there cometh one of the maids of the high -priest: and when she saw Peter warming himself, she looked upon him, -and said, And thou also wast with Jesus of Nazareth. But he denied, -saying, I know not, neither understand I what thou sayest. And he went -out into the porch.... And a little after, they that stood by said -again to Peter, Surely thou art one of them: for thou art a Galilaean, -_and thy speech agreeth thereto_.[1] But he began to curse and to -swear, saying, I know not this man of whom ye speak." - -{178} - -Poor Peter! the more he swore and cursed the more clearly he revealed -his identity. His cowardice might have concealed him, but for his -dialect. He spoke the dialect of Galilee in the city of Jerusalem, and -so far as the identification of his person was concerned, even a -certificate from the authorities of the town of his birth, testifying -to his being a native of Galilee, could not have so effectively served -that purpose. - -The second characteristic is the juvenile habit of imploring "in season -and out of season" when asking a favor. To try to exert "undue" -influence, virtually to beg in most persuasive tones, is an Oriental -habit which to an American must seem unendurable. Of the many -illustrations of this custom which fill my memory I will relate the -following incident, which I once heard a man relate to my father. - -This man had bought, for six hundred piasters, a piece of land which -had been given as a _nezer_ (vow) to our Greek Orthodox Church. After -he had given his note for the {179} sum and secured the deed, it -occurred to him that the price was too high, and, being himself a son -of the Church, that he ought to secure the land for four hundred -piasters. So, as he stated, he went to Beyrout, the seat of our -bishop, where he stayed three days. By constant petitioning, he -secured the privilege of interviewing the bishop four times on the -subject. With great glee he stated that at the last interview he -refused to rise from his seat at the feet of that long-suffering -ecclesiastic until his petition was granted. - -One of the most striking examples of this characteristic is the parable -of the unrighteous judge, in the eighteenth chapter of Luke. "There -was in a city a judge, which feared not God, neither regarded man: and -there was a widow in that city, and she came unto him saying, Avenge me -[the original is "do me justice"] of mine adversary. And he would not -for a while: but afterward he said within himself, Though I fear not -God, nor regard man, yet because this widow troubleth me, I will {180} -avenge her, _lest by her continual coming she weary me_." - -Here is a case--by no means a rare exception in that country--where a -judge rendered a verdict against his own best judgment in sheer -self-defense. And I must say that, knowing such Oriental tendencies as -I do, especially as manifested by widows, I am in deep sympathy with -the judge. - -Yet it was this very persistence in petitioning the Father of all men -which gave mankind the lofty psalms and tender prayers of our -Scriptures. It was this persistent filial pleading and imploring which -made Israel turn again and again to the "God of righteousness" and say, -"We have sinned," and ask for a deeper revealing of his ways to them. -Job's cry, "Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him," may not be the -proper language of modern etiquette, but it certainly is the language -of religion. In the very parable just quoted, Jesus recommends to his -disciples the insistence of the widow as a means to draw the -benediction of heaven upon {181} them, and to secure for them -justification at the hands of the righteous judge. Honest seekers -after spiritual gifts should not be averse to imitating this Oriental -trait. They should never be afraid to come to their Father again and -again for his gracious blessing, or refrain from "storming the gates of -heaven with prayer." - -The third characteristic of Oriental speech is its intimacy and -unreserve. Mere implications which are so common to reserved and -guarded speech leave a void in the Oriental heart. It is because of -this that the Orientals have always craved "signs and wonders," and -interpreted natural phenomena in terms of direct miraculous -communications from God to convince them that He cared for them. -Although Gideon was speaking with Jehovah Himself, who promised to help -him to save his kinsmen from the Midianites, he asked for a more -tangible, more definite sign. We are told in the sixth chapter of -Judges, thirty-sixth verse: "And Gideon said unto God, If thou wilt -save Israel by mine hand, as thou hast spoken, behold, I will put a -{182} fleece of wool on the threshing-floor; if there be dew on the -fleece only, and it be dry upon all the ground, then shall I know that -thou wilt save Israel by mine hand, as thou hast spoken. And it was -so." But Gideon, still unsatisfied, speaks again in childlike -simplicity and intimacy; "Let not thine anger be kindled against me, -and I will speak but this once: let me make trial, I pray thee, but -this once with the fleece; let it now be dry only upon the fleece, and -upon all the ground let there be dew. And God did so that night." - -It is not at all uncommon for old and tried friends in Syria to give -and ask for affectionate assurances, that they do love one another. -Such expressions are the wine of life. Especially when new confidences -are exchanged or great favors asked, a man turns with guileless eyes to -his trusted friend and says, "Now you love me; I say you love me, don't -you?" "My soul, my eyes," answers the other, "you know what is in my -heart toward you; you know and the Creator knows!" Then the request is -made. {183} One of the noblest and tenderest passages in the New -Testament, a passage whose spirit has fed the strength of the Christian -missionaries throughout the ages, is that portion of the twenty-first -chapter of St. John's Gospel where Jesus speaks to Peter in this -intimate Syrian fashion. How sweet and natural it sounds to a son of -the East! "So when they had dined, Jesus saith to Simon Peter, Simon, -son of Jonas, lovest thou me?" How characteristic also is Peter's -answer, "Yea, Lord; thou knowest that I love thee." Then came the -precious request, "Feed my lambs." Three times did the affectionate -Master knock at the door of Peter's heart, till the poor impetuous -disciple cried, "Lord, thou knowest all things; thou knowest that I -love thee. Jesus saith unto him, Feed my sheep." - -The fourth characteristic of Oriental speech is its unqualified -positiveness. Outside the small circles of Europeanized Syrians, such -qualifying phrases as "in my opinion," "so it seems to me," "as I see -it," and the like, are {184} almost entirely absent from Oriental -speech. The Oriental is never so cautious in his speech as a certain -American editor of a religious paper, who in speaking of Cain described -him as "the _alleged_ murderer of Abel"! Such expressions, also, are -rarely used in the Bible, and then only in the New Testament, in which -Greek influence plays no small part. Thus in the seventh chapter of -his second Epistle to the Corinthians, Paul, in giving his opinion on -marriage said, "_I suppose_, therefore, that this is good for the -present distress," and so forth. I am not aware that this form of -speech is used anywhere in the entire Old Testament. - -The language of the Oriental is that of sentiment and conviction, and -not of highly differentiated and specialized thought. When you say to -him, "I think this object is beautiful," if he does not think it is so, -he says, "No, it is not beautiful." Although he is expressing his own -individual opinion, he does not take the trouble to make that perfectly -clear: if an object is not beautiful to him, it _is not_ beautiful. - -{185} - -From an intellectual and social standpoint, this mode of speech may be -considered a serious defect. So do children express themselves. But -it should be kept in mind that the Oriental mind is that of the prophet -and the seer, and not of the scientist and the philosopher. It is the -mind which has proven the most suitable transmissive agency of divine -revelation. - -When the seer beholds a vision of the things that are eternal, he -cannot speak of it as a supposition or a guess, or transmit it with -intellectual caution and timidity. "Thus saith the Lord." "The word -of the Lord came unto me saying, Son of man, prophesy." When we speak -of the deepest realities of life, we do not beset our utterances with -qualifying phrases. True love, deep sorrow, a real vision of spiritual -things transcend all speculative speech; they press with irresistible -might for direct and authoritative expression. - -Take for an example Jesus' matchless declaration: "The Spirit of the -Lord is upon me, because he hath anointed me to preach the {186} gospel -[glad tidings] to the poor; he hath sent me to heal the broken-hearted, -to preach deliverance to the captives, and recovering of sight to the -blind, to set at liberty them that are bruised, to preach the -acceptable year of the Lord."[2] How would this great utterance sound -if given in the nice, cautious language of an "up-to-date" thinker? -What force would it carry if put in this form, "It seems to me, -although I may be entirely mistaken, that something like what may be -termed the 'Spirit of the Lord' is upon me, and I feel that, in my own -limited way, I must preach the Gospel"? - -Of course reckless, dogmatic assertions from the pulpit are never wise -nor profitable. Ultimately, whether in the realms of science or -spiritual experience, the facts are the things which will count. -Nevertheless, it must be admitted that the modern pulpit suffers to a -large extent from overcautiousness. By many ministers the facts are -evaluated more in an intellectual than in a spiritual sense. Hence -that {187} cautiousness in utterance which is seriously threatening the -spirit of prophecy and the authority of real spiritual _experience_ in -the religious teachers of the present day. Legitimate intellectual -caution should never be allowed to degenerate into spiritual timidity, -nor the knowledge of outward things to put out the prophetic fire in -the soul. There is, no doubt, much food for thought in the following -legend. It is said of a preacher, who was apparently determined not to -make "rash statements," that in speaking to his people on repentance he -had this for his final word: "If you do not repent, as it were, and be -converted, in a measure, you will be damned, to a certain extent." The -congregation that has such a preacher is damned already! And I -perceive some difference between such a preacher and Him who says, -"Verily, I say unto you, except ye be converted, and become as little -children, ye shall not enter into the kingdom of heaven."[3] - -This seeming weakness in Oriental speech {188} and in the Bible is in -reality tremendous spiritual strength. Through our sacred Scriptures -we hear the voices of those great Oriental prophets who spoke as they -saw and felt; as seers, and not as logicians. And it was indeed most -fortunate for the world that the Bible was written in an age of -instinctive listening to the divine Voice, and in a country whose -juvenile modes of speech protected the "rugged maxims" of the -Scriptures from the weakening influences of an overstrained -intellectualism. - - - -[1] See also Matt. xxvi: 73. - -[2] Luke iv: 18. - -[3] Matt. xviii: 3. - - - - -{191} - -PART III - -BREAD AND SALT - - - - -CHAPTER I - -THE SACRED 'AISH - -To an Oriental the phrase "bread and salt" is of sacred import. The -saying, "There is bread and salt between us," which has been prevalent -in the East from time immemorial, is equal to saying, "We are bound -together by a solemn covenant." To say of one that he "knows not the -significance of bread and salt" is to stigmatize him as a base ingrate. - -A noble foe refuses to "taste the salt" of his adversary--that is, to -eat with him--so long as he feels disinclined to be reconciled to him. -Such a foe dreads the thought of repudiating the covenant which the -breaking of bread together forms. In the rural districts of Syria, -much more than in the cities, is still observed the ancient custom that -a man on an important mission should not eat his host's bread until the -errand is made known. The covenant of "bread and salt" should not be -entered into {192} before the attitude of the host toward his guest's -mission is fully known. If the request is granted, then the meal is -enjoyed as a fraternal affirmation of the agreement just made. So in -the twenty-fourth chapter of the Book of Genesis we are told that -Abraham's servant, who had gone to Mesopotamia, "unto the city of -Nahor," to bring a wife of his master's kindred to his son Isaac, -refused to eat at Laban's table before he had told his errand. With -characteristic Oriental hospitality the brother of Rebekah, after -hearing his sister's story, sought Abraham's faithful servant, "and, -behold, he stood by the camels at the well. And he said, Come in, thou -blessed of the Lord; wherefore standest thou without? for I have -prepared the house, and room for the camels. And the man came into the -house.... And there was set meat before him to eat: but he said, _I -will not eat, until I have told mine errand_."[1] The errand having -been told, "the servant brought forth jewels of silver, and jewels of -gold, and raiment, and {193} gave them to Rebekah.... _And they did -eat and drink_, he and the men that were with him."[2] - -Of all his enemies, the writer of the forty-first Psalm considered the -"familiar friend" who went back on his simple covenant to be the worst. -"Yea," he cries, mournfully, "mine own familiar friend, in whom I -trusted, which did eat my bread, hath lifted up his heel against me." - -As the son of a Syrian family I was brought up to think of bread as -possessing a mystic sacred significance. I never would step on a piece -of bread fallen in the road, but would pick it up, press it to my lips -for reverence, and place it in a wall or some other place where it -would not be trodden upon. - -What always seemed to me to be one of {194} the noblest traditions of -my people was their reverence for the _'aish_ (bread; literally, "the -life-giver"). While breaking bread together we would not rise to -salute an arriving guest, whatever his social rank. Whether spoken or -not, our excuse for not rising and engaging in the cordial Oriental -salutation before the meal was ended, was our reverence for the food -(_hirmetel-'aish_). We could, however, and always did, invite the -newcomer most urgently to partake of the repast. - -At least once each year, for many years, I carried the _korban_ (the -bread offering) to the _mizbeh_ (altar of sacrifice) in our village -church, as an offering for the repose of the souls of our dead as well -as for our own spiritual security. Bread was one of the elements of -the holy Eucharist. The mass always closed with the handing by the -priest to the members of the congregation of small pieces of -consecrated bread. The Gospel taught us also that Christ was the -"bread of life." - -The _'aish_ was something more than mere {195} matter. Inasmuch as it -sustained life, it was God's own life made tangible for his child, man, -to feed upon. The Most High himself fed our hunger. Does not the -Psalmist say, "Thou openest thine hand, and satisfieth the desire of -every living thing"? Where else could our daily bread come from? - - - -[1] Verses 30-33. - -[2] Verses 53-54. The word "drink," which is frequently used in the -Bible in connection with the word "eat," does not necessarily refer to -wine drinking. The expression "food and drink" is current in Syria, -and means simply "board." An employer says to an employee, "I will pay -you so much wages, and your food and drink" (aklek washirbek). The -drink may be nothing but water. - - - - -{196} - -CHAPTER II - -"OUR DAILY BREAD" - -I have often heard it said by "up-to-date" religionists in this country -that the saying in the Lord's Prayer, "Give us this day our daily -bread," was at best a beggar's lazy petition. It has been suggested -that those words should be omitted from the prayer, because they -pertain to "material things." And at any rate we can get our daily -bread only by working for it. - -Yes; and the Oriental understands all that. But he perceives also that -by working for his daily bread he does not _create_ it, but simply -_finds_ it. The prayer, "Give us this day our daily bread" is a note -of pure gratitude to the "Giver of all good and perfect gifts." The -Oriental does not know "material things" as the Occidental knows them. -To him organic chemistry does not take the place of God. He is, in his -totality, God-centered. His center of gravity is the altar and not the -factory, and back {197} of his prayer for daily bread is the momentum -of ages of mystic contemplation. The Oriental finds kinship, not with -those who go for their daily bread no farther than the bakery, but with -the writer of this modern psalm:-- - - "Back of the loaf is the snowy flour, - Back of the flour the mill; - Back of the mill is the wheat and the shower - And the sun and the Father's will." - - -It is not my purpose to exaggerate the piety and moral rectitude of the -Oriental. I am fully aware of the fact that he is lamentably lacking -in his efforts to rise to the height of his noblest traditions. -Nevertheless, those who know the Oriental's inner life know also that -from seed-time until harvest, and until the bread is placed upon the -family board, this man's attitude toward the "staff of life" is -essentially religious. In the name of God he casts the seed into the -soil; in the name of God he thrusts the sickle into the ripe harvest; -in the name of God he scatters his sheaves on the threshing floor and -grinds his grain at the mill; and in the name of {198} God his wife -kneads the dough, bakes the bread, and serves it to her family. - -In my childhood days "kneading-day" at our house was always of peculiar -significance to me. I had no toys or story-books to engage my -attention, and it was with the greatest interest that I watched my -mother go through the process of kneading. Her pious words and actions -made kneading a sort of religious service. - -After making the sign of the cross and invoking the Holy Name, she drew -the required quantity of flour out of a small opening near the bottom -of the earthen barrel in which the precious meal was stored. It was -out of such a barrel that the widow of "Zarephath which belongeth to -Zidon" drew the "handful of meal" she had, and made of it a cake for -Elijah, for which favor the fiery prophet prayed that the widow's -barrel of meal "shall not waste." - -Then my mother packed the flour in the shape of a crescent on one side -of the large earthen _maajan_ (kneading basin) which is about thirty -inches in diameter. She dissolved the {199} salt in warm water, which -she poured in the basin by the embankment of flour. Then with a "God -bless" she took out the leaven--a lump of dough saved from the former -baking--which she had buried in flour to keep it "from corruption," -that is, from overfermentation. This leaven she dissolved carefully in -the salt water, and by slowly mixing the meal with this fluid, she -"hid" the leaven in the meal. It was this process which Jesus -mentioned very briefly in the parable of the leaven in the thirteenth -chapter of St. Matthew's Gospel. "The kingdom of heaven is like unto -leaven, which a woman took and hid in three measures of meal, till the -whole was leavened." - -The kneading done, my mother smoothed the surface of the blessed lump, -dipped her hand in water, and with the edge of her palm marked a deep -cross the whole length of the diameter of the basin, crossed herself -three times, while she muttered an invocation, and then covered the -basin and left the dough to rise. The same pious attitude was resumed -{200} when the raised dough was made into small loaves, during the -baking, and whenever the mother of the family put her hand into the -basin where the loaves were kept, to take out bread for her family's -needs. - -Does it now seem strange, unnatural, or in any way out of harmony with -the trend of her whole life, for such a woman to pray, "Give us this -day our daily bread"? Shall we receive the gifts and forget the Giver? -However circuitous our way to our daily bread may be, the fact remains -that we do feed on God's own life. "The earth is the Lord's and the -fullness thereof." - -The use of iron stoves was unknown to the Syrians in my childhood days; -and this modern convenience is now used only by some of the well-to-do -people in the large cities. The rank and file of the people, as in the -days of ancient Israel, still bake their bread at semi-public ovens, a -few of which are found in every village and town. This baking-place is -mentioned often in the Bible, but the word "oven" in the English -translation is somewhat misleading. It {201} is so because the -_tennûr_ (translated "oven" in the Bible) is unknown to the -English-speaking world, if not to the entire Occident. The _tennûr_ is -a huge earthen tube about three feet in diameter and about five feet -long; it is sunk in the ground within a small, roughly constructed hut. -The women bake their bread at the _tennûr_ in turn, certain days being -assigned to certain families. The one baking comprises from one -hundred to two hundred loaves. The fuel, which consists of small -branches of trees, and of thistles and straw, is thrown into the -_tennûr_ in large quantities. It is to this that Jesus alludes in the -passage, "If then God so clothe the grass which is to-day in the field, -and to-morrow is _cast into the oven_, how much more will he clothe -you, O ye of little faith?" - -When I recall the sight of a burning _tennûr_, I do not find it -difficult to imagine what the old theologians meant by the "burning -pit." The billows of black smoke, pierced at intervals by tongues of -flame issuing from the deep hole, convert the chimneyless hut into an -active {202} crater. No one who has seen such a sight can fail to -understand what the prophet Malachi meant when he exclaimed, "For, -behold, the day cometh, that shall burn as an oven; and all the proud, -yea, and all that do wickedly, shall be stubble."[1] And no one who -has seen that little hut, virtually plastered with the blackest soot, -can fail to understand the full meaning of that passage in the fifth -chapter of the Book of Lamentations, the tenth verse, which says, "Our -skin was black like an oven, because of the terrible famine." - -A large baking is a source of pride as well as a means of security. A -Syrian housewife is proud to have the oven all to herself for a whole -day. It is a disgrace--nay, a curse--to have a small baking, or to buy -bread in small quantity, "one weight" at a time. One of the terrible -threats to Israel, recorded in the twenty-sixth chapter of the Book of -Leviticus, the twenty-sixth verse, is this: "When I have broken the -staff of your bread, ten women shall {203} bake your bread in one oven, -and they shall deliver you your bread again by weight: and ye shall eat -and not be satisfied." My mother often admonished us to be thankful -that we were not like those who had to buy their bread by weight--that -is, in small quantities. - -But this saying, "and they shall deliver you your bread again by -weight," may mean also the weighing of the portions delivered to the -various members of the family, in order that no one may receive more -than any other, and that the scanty supply of food may be more -carefully doled out. However, probably because no real famine ever -occurred in Syria within my memory, I never knew of the actual -resorting, within the family circle, to such severe restrictions in the -distribution of the daily food. A similar practice, however, prevails -among the Arab tribes in sharing their meager supply of water, while -traveling in the desert. In order to insure equality, a pebble is -placed in the bottom of a small wooden cup into which the water is -poured. The draught {204} which each traveler receives at long -intervals is "the covering of the pebble," that is, only the quantity -of water needed just to cover the pebble in the cup. - - - -[1] Mal. iv: 1. - - - - -{205} - -CHAPTER III - -"COMPEL THEM TO COME IN" - -The hospitality of Orientals is proverbial the world over. And while -some Westerners have an exaggerated idea of Oriental generosity, the -son of the East is not unjustly famous for his readiness to offer to -wayfarers the shelter of his roof and his bread and salt. The person -who fails to extend such hospitality brings reproach, not only upon -himself, but upon his whole clan and town. - -But whether hospitality is extended to strangers or to friends, it is -the man who entertains, and not the woman. The invitation is extended -in the name of the husband alone, or, if the husband is not living, in -the name of the eldest son. In the case of a widow who has no male -children, a man relative is asked to act as host. The man of the house -should not allow a wayfarer to pass him without offering him a "morsel -of bread to sustain his heart." So did {206} Abraham of old extend -hospitality to the three mysterious strangers who came upon him "in the -plains of Mamre," as stated in the eighteenth chapter of Genesis, the -second and following verses, "And he lift up his eyes and looked, and, -lo, three men stood by him: and when he saw them, he ran to meet them -from the tent door, and bowed himself toward the ground, and said, My -Lord, if now I have found favor in thy sight, pass not away, I pray -thee, from thy servant; ... and I will fetch a morsel of bread, and -comfort ye your hearts: after that ye shall pass on." - -How natural and how truly Syrian all this sounds! Sarah was not at all -slighted because Abraham did not say, "Sarah and I will be glad to have -you stop for lunch with us, if you can." On the contrary, she was -greatly honored by not being mentioned in the invitation. - -We have another striking illustration of this Syrian custom in the -parable of the prodigal son, in the fifteenth chapter of St. Luke's -Gospel. Here we are told that, when the wayward {207} boy returned to -his father's house, desolate but penitent, it was the father who ran -out to meet the son and "fell on his neck, and kissed him." It was the -father who said to his servants, "Bring forth the best robe, and put it -on him; and put a ring on his hand, and shoes on his feet; and bring -hither the fatted calf, and kill it; and let us eat, and be merry." I -know well that the mother of the prodigal could not have been less -affectionate nor less effusive in her welcome to her poor son than his -father was. But in harmony with the best traditions of the East, and -without the least intention of slighting the good mother, the record -takes no notice of her. - -It should be stated here that the prominent mention in the Gospels of -Mary and Martha as Jesus' friends and entertainers is due to the fact -that to those women the Master was not merely a _guest_, but a _saint_, -nay, the "promised One of Israel." As such Jesus was a privileged -personage. Yet--and it is not at all strange in view of Oriental -customs--Jesus took with him none of his women friends and disciples on -such {208} great occasions as the Transfiguration and the Last Supper. - -To extend hospitality in genuine Syrian fashion is no small -undertaking. Brevity on such occasions is the soul of stinginess. -Oriental effusiveness and intensity of speech are never more -strenuously exercised than at such times. The brief form of the -American invitation, "I should be pleased to have you dine with us, if -you can," however sincere, would seem to an Oriental like an excuse to -escape the obligation of hospitality. Again, the ready acceptance of -an invitation in the West would seem to the son of the East utterly -undignified. Although the would-be guest could accept, he must be as -insistent in saying, "No, I can't," as the would-be host in saying, -"Yes, you must." - -Approaching his hoped-for guest, a Syrian engages him in something like -the following dialogue, characterized by a glow of feeling which the -translation can only faintly reveal:-- - -"Ennoble us [_sherrifna_] by your presence." - -{209} - -"I would be ennobled [_nitsherref_] but I cannot accept." - -"That cannot be." - -"Yea, yea, it must be." - -"No, I swear against you [_aksim 'aleik_] by our friendship and by the -life of God. I love just to acquaint you with my bread and salt." - -"I swear also that I find it impossible [_gheir mimkin_] to accept. -Your bread and salt are known to all." - -"Yea, do it just for our own good. By coming to us you come to your -own home. Let us repay your bounty to us [_fadhlek_]." - -"_Astaghfero Allah_ [by the mercy of God] I have not bestowed any -bounty upon you worth mentioning." - -Here the host seizes his guest by the arm and with an emphatic, "I -_will not_ let you go," pulls at him and would drag him bodily into his -house. Then the guest, happy in being vanquished "with honor," -consents to the invitation. - -Do you now understand fully the meaning {210} of the passage in the -fourteenth chapter of Luke's Gospel? "A certain man made a great -supper, and bade many ... and they all with one consent began to make -excuse.... And the Lord said unto the servant, Go out into the -highways and hedges, and _compel_ them to come in, that my house may be -filled."[1] So also did Lydia, "a seller of purple, of the city of -Thyatira," invite the apostles, who had converted her to the new faith. -In the sixteenth chapter of the Book of Acts, the fifteenth verse, Paul -says, "And when she was baptized, and her household, she besought us, -saying, If ye have judged me to be faithful to the Lord, come into my -house, and abide there. _And she constrained us_." - -In the interior towns and villages of Syria the ancient custom still -prevails that, when a stranger arrives in a town late in the day, he -goes and sits in the "open space" (_saha_). While not designed to be -so, this open space corresponds to the village common. In the English -Bible it is called "the street." Streets, however, {211} are unknown -to Syrian towns. Sitting in the _saha_, the stranger is the guest of -the whole village. The citizen who first sees such a wayfarer must -invite him to his home in real Syrian fashion. Failing in this, he -brings disgrace, not only upon himself, but upon the whole town. It is -needless to say that no people ever rise to the height of their ideals, -and that failure to be "given to hospitality" occurs, even in the East. - -In the nineteenth chapter of the Book of Judges we have the record of a -stranger who sat in the _saha_ of a certain village, but was not -offered the usual hospitality very readily. This man was a Levite, -and, with his wife, servant, and a couple of asses, was on his way from -Bethlehem "toward the side of Mount Ephraim." "And the sun went down -upon them when they were by Gibeah, which belongeth to Benjamin. And -they turned aside thither, to go in and to lodge in Gibeah: and when he -went in, he sat him down in a street of the city; for there was no man -that took them into his house to lodging. And, behold, there came an -old man from {212} his work out of the field at even.... And when he -had lifted up his eyes, he saw a wayfaring man in the street of the -city: and the old man said, Whither goest thou? and whence comest -thou? And he said unto him, We are passing from Bethlehem-Judah toward -the side of Mount Ephraim ... but I am now going to the house of the -Lord; and there is no man that receiveth me to house." - -And in order to add to the shame of the inhospitable village the -stranger adds, "Yet there is both straw and provender for our asses; -and there is bread and wine also for me, and for thy handmaid [the -wife], and for the young man which is with thy servants: there is no -want of any thing." What a rebuke to that community! - -"And the old man said, Peace be with thee; howsoever let all thy wants -lie upon me; _only lodge not in the street_. So he brought him into -his house, and gave provender unto the asses: and they washed their -feet, and did eat and drink." - -The old man saved the name of the town. - -{213} - -One of the noblest and most tender utterances of Job is the -thirty-second verse of the thirty-first chapter. Here the afflicted -patriarch, in pleading his own cause before the Most High, says, "The -stranger did not lodge in the street, but I opened my doors to the -traveller." - -Syrian rules of hospitality make it improper for a householder to ask a -guest who has suddenly come to him such a question as "Have you had -your lunch?" before putting food before him. The guest, even though he -has not had the meal asked about by the host, considers it below his -dignity to make the fact known. Upon the arrival of such a visitor, -the householder greets him with the almost untranslatable words, -"_Ahlan wa sahlan_." Literally translated, these words are "kindred -and smooth ground"; which, elucidated further, mean, "You have come not -to strangers but to those who would be to you as your kindred are, and -among us you tread smooth and easy ground." And even while the guest -is being yet saluted by the man of the house in the {214} protracted -manner of Oriental greeting, the good wife proceeds to prepare "a -morsel" for the wayfarer, whatever hour of the day or night it may -happen to be. The food then is placed before the guest and he is -"compelled" to eat. - -There is in the eleventh chapter of St. Luke's Gospel a parabolic -saying which is uncommonly rich in allusions to Syrian home life. -Beginning with the fifth verse we read: "And he said unto them, Which -of you shall have a friend, and shall go unto him at midnight, and say -unto him, Friend, lend me three loaves; for a friend of mine in his -journey is come to me, and I have nothing to set before him; and he -from within shall answer and say, Trouble me not: the door is now shut, -and my children are with me in bed; I cannot rise and give thee?" - -Here we have a man to whom a guest comes at midnight; he must set -something before him, whether the wayfarer is really hungry or not. -The host happens to be short of bread, and he sets out to borrow a few -loaves. Owing to the homogeneous character of life in the East, {215} -borrowing has been developed there into a fine art. The man at the -door asks for three loaves. Three of those thin Syrian loaves is the -average number for one individual's meal. It was for this reason that -the Master used this number in the parable, and not because that was -all the bread the occasion required. For obvious reasons, the host -needed to put before his guest more than the exact number of loaves -necessary for one adult's meal. Perhaps because he is very sleepy, the -man "within" runs counter to the best Syrian traditions in his answer. -His excuse--that because the door is shut he cannot open it and -accommodate his friend--has been a puzzle to a host of Western readers -of the Bible. Could he not have opened the door? Or, as a certain -preacher asked in my hearing, "Could it be possible that the man, -because of fear of robbers in that country, had a sort of combination -lock on his door which could not be easily opened?" The simple fact is -that in Syria as a rule the door of a house is never shut, summer or -winter, until bedtime. The words of my {216} father and mother to me -whenever they thought that I had "remained wakeful"--that is, "stayed -up"--longer than I should after they had gone to bed,--"Shut the door -and go to sleep,"--still ring in my ears. What the man "within" meant -was, not that he could not open the door, but that at such a late hour, -_after the door had been shut_, it was no time to call for such favors -as the neighbor asked for. - -"And my children are with me in bed." From this it may be inferred -easily that individual beds and individual rooms are well-nigh unknown -to the common people of Syria. The cushion-mattresses are spread side -by side in the living room, in a line as long as the members of the -family, sleeping close together, require. The father sleeps at one end -of the line, and the mother at the other end, "to keep the children -from rolling from under the cover." So the man was absolutely truthful -when he said by way of an excuse, "My children are with me in bed." - -In the remaining portion of this parable, as in that of the unrighteous -judge, Jesus {217} emphasizes, by commending to his disciples, the -Syrian habit of importuning. "I say unto you, though he will not rise -and give him, because he is his friend, yet because of his importunity -he will rise and give him as many as he needeth." Again, the Master -gives dignity and elevation to the common customs of his people by -using them as means of approach to high spiritual ideals, when he says, -"And I say unto you, ask and it shall be given you; seek, and ye shall -find; knock, and it shall be opened unto you." - - - -[1] Verses 16-23. - - - - -{218} - -CHAPTER IV - -DELAYING THE DEPARTING GUEST - -The best rules of Syrian hospitality require that when a guest from a -distant town makes it known what day he expects to take his leave, the -host should do his best to trick his visitor into forgetfulness of the -time set, or devise some other means to delay his departure as much as -possible. On the day he wishes to depart, the wayfarer says to his -host, "Your exceeding bounty has covered me, far above my head; may God -perpetuate your house and prolong the lives of your dear ones. May He -enable me some day to reward you for your boundless generosity. And -now I who have been so immersed in the sea of your hospitality [_baher -karamek_] beg you to permit me to depart." Then the host, confessing -his unworthiness of such praise and manifesting great surprise at the -sudden announcement, begs his guest to "take no thought of departing." -The {219} guest insists that he "must go," even though he could stay. -The host says, "Stay, I pray you [_betrajjak_], until you partake of -our noon meal; then you may depart." After the noon meal the host -says, "I beg you to consider that the day is already far spent, and -your journey is long, and the road is dangerous for night travel. -Tarry until the morrow, and then go." The same performance takes place -on the morrow, and perhaps another morrow, until the guest prevails. - -In the nineteenth chapter of the Book of Judges, in the story of the -Levite mentioned above, we have a fine example of a generous Syrian -host. His words are so much like those I often heard spoken in Syria -on such occasions that it makes me feel homesick to read them. The -ancient Bethlehemite was entertaining his son-in-law, who had stayed -with them three days, the traditional length of such a visit in the -East. So the record says: "And it came to pass on the fourth day, when -they arose early in the morning, that he rose up to depart: and the -{220} damsel's father said unto his son-in-law, Comfort thine heart -with a morsel of bread, and afterward go your way. And they sat down, -and did eat and drink both of them together; for the damsel's father -had said unto the man, Be content, I pray thee, and tarry all night, -and let thine heart be merry. And when the man rose up to depart, his -father-in-law urged him: therefore he lodged there again. And he rose -early in the morning on the fifth day to depart: and the damsel's -father said, Comfort thine heart, I pray thee. And they tarried until -afternoon,[1] and they did eat both of them. And when the man rose up -to depart, ... his father-in-law, the damsel's father, said unto him, -Behold, now the day draweth toward evening, I pray you tarry all night: -... lodge here, that thine heart may be merry; and to morrow get you -early on your way, that thou mayest go {221} home. But the man would -not tarry that night, but he rose up and departed." - -When an honored guest takes his departure, as a mark of high regard his -host walks with him out of town a distance the length of which is -determined by the affectionate esteem in which the host holds his -visitor. At times we walked for a whole hour with our departing guest, -and desisted from going farther only at his most urgent request. So in -the eighteenth chapter of the Book of Genesis we are told that -Abraham's guests "rose up from thence, and looked toward Sodom: and -Abraham went with them _to bring them on the way_." The English -phrase, however, "to bring them on the way," falls far short of -expressing the full meaning of the term _shy-ya'_. - -Pilgrimages to holy places and fraternal feasts--such as are enjoyed on -betrothal occasions, weddings, baptisms of children, and great -holidays--are practically the only occasions the common people of Syria -have to bring them together. On such occasions the guests {222} are -invited in families; therefore the number of those who come to the -feast is never exactly known in advance. The food is served in large -quantities, but not in such great variety as in the West. The table -appointments are very simple. There are no flowers, no lace doilies, -nor the brilliant and sometimes bewildering array of knives, forks, and -spoons which grace an American host's table on such festive occasions. -The guests sit close together on the floor, about low tables, or trays, -and eat in a somewhat communistic fashion from comparatively few large -dishes. If twenty guests are expected, and thirty come, they simply -enlarge the circle, or squeeze closer together. Their sitting so close -to one another makes the "breaking of bread together" for these friends -more truly fraternal. - -In the third chapter of St. Mark's Gospel, the twentieth verse, the -writer speaks of the large concourse of people who followed Jesus and -his disciples into a certain house. He tells us that "the multitude -cometh together again, so that they _could not so much as eat bread_." -{223} The cross-reference in the Bible points to the sixth chapter of -the same Gospel, the thirty-first verse, where it is said, "For there -were many coming and going, and they _had no leisure so much as to -eat_." My opinion is that the two occasions are not the same, -therefore the reference is incorrect. The first passage alludes to the -fact that although, owing to the very simple table appointments among -the common people of Syria, only _little space_ is required for one to -eat his dinner, the crowd was so dense that not even such space was -available. The second passage points to the fact that the Master's -audience was a stream of people "coming and going" so that _his -disciples_ had not leisure enough to eat. The preceding verse and the -first half of the verse just quoted say: "And the apostles gathered -themselves together unto Jesus, and told him all things, both what they -had done, and what they had taught. And he said unto them, Come ye -yourselves apart into a desert place, and rest a while." The remainder -of the verse gives the reason why Jesus {224} felt so concerned about -his fatigued and hungry disciples, by saying, "For there were many -coming and going, and they [the disciples] had no leisure so much as to -eat." The Syrian feels satisfied even on ordinary occasions when he -can secure one or two loaves of the thin bread he habitually eats, and -a few olives, or some other modest delicacy, for what the Americans -would call a "lunch." He needs neither a table nor even a "lunch -counter" to facilitate his eating. He can perform that essential -function sitting down on the floor with his legs folded under him, -standing up, or even walking, as well as seated at a table. In view of -all this there is no little significance in the saying of the Gospel -writer, "And the multitude cometh together again, so that they _could -not so much as eat bread_." - -In several places in the Gospels reference is made to Jesus' "sitting -at meat."[2] The marginal note in the Revised Version gives the word -"recline" as the real equivalent of the {225} original Greek term which -is rendered "sit" in the text. This, no doubt, is correct, so far as -the original text is concerned, but the reference is to a Greek and not -to a Syrian custom. The Greeks were in the habit of reclining on -couches while eating, and it is not at all improbable that certain -wealthy Orientals imitated this custom in the time of Christ, as -certain wealthy Syrian families of the present time imitate European -customs. But I fail to find, either within my own experience, or in -the traditions and literature of Syria, that reclining at the table was -ever countenanced as at all a proper posture; certainly never among the -common people of which the Master was one. To sit erect on the floor -at the low table, with the legs either folded under the body, or thrown -back as in the act of kneeling, is the seemly (_laiyik_) posture, which -is ever sung in Arabic poetry. In this we were instructed from -childhood. On unusual occasions, such as those of sorrow or great joy, -friends might rest their heads on one another's shoulders, or breasts, -as John did at the Last {226} Supper, but these are rare exceptions. -Good breeding and "reverence for the food" require the sitting erect at -meat. - -Certain commentators have found the reference to the habit of reclining -at meat very serviceable in explaining Mary's act of anointing Jesus' -feet with nard, as he sat at supper at her home in Bethany. In the -twelfth chapter of the Gospel of John, the third verse, it is said: -"Then took Mary a pound of ointment of spikenard, very costly, and -anointed the feet of Jesus, and wiped his feet with her hair." A -similar incident is mentioned also in the seventh chapter of Luke, the -thirty-sixth and following verses:[3] "And one of the pharisees desired -him that he would eat with him. And he entered into the pharisee's -house, and sat down to meat. And behold, a woman which was in the -city, a sinner; and when she knew that he was sitting at meat in the -pharisee's house, she brought an alabaster cruse of ointment, and -standing behind at his feet, weeping, she began to wet his {227} feet -with her tears, and wiped them with the hair of her head, and kissed -his feet, and anointed them with the ointment." The explanation is -that it was convenient for the woman to wash and anoint Jesus' feet in -this manner, because he was _reclining_ on a couch. - -What I am certain of is that the couch or any elevated seat is not at -all necessary in such cases. Whenever an Oriental indulges in the -practice of washing his feet he sits on the floor, as is his custom, -and lifts the feet into the basin of water. This is the only way I -ever knew in my old home, and it is no less effective than is the more -"scientific" way of the West. King James's Version renders the passage -a little more difficult by giving greater definiteness to the woman's -position at Jesus' feet. While the Revised Version says, "And standing -behind at his feet," the older Version says, "And stood behind _him_," -etc. Yet even here the couch affords no greater advantage than the -floor, because by folding the legs under the body, the feet are -partially visible under the knee joints {228} and could be touched from -behind, and in the case of a kneeling posture, the feet may be easily -reached from that direction.[4] However, it should be borne in mind -here that the real significance of the entire passage is to be found, -not in the woman's physical but spiritual act. It was her spirit of -love and devotion to the Master, and, in the case of her who was a -"sinner," her profound repentance and deep humility in touching Jesus' -feet in this manner, which immortalized her act in the Scriptures. To -the Orientals the feet are unclean in a ceremonial sense; they are not -"honorable" members of the body; therefore to touch them in an act of -devotion marks the deepest depth of humility. It was in this sense -that Jesus humbled himself as an example to his disciples by washing -their feet. - -But objections may be made to the foregoing explanation on the ground -that reclining at meat is mentioned in one of the most ancient books -{229} in the Old Testament, and which cannot be ascribed to the -influence of Greek thought. In the sixth chapter of the Book of Amos, -the third and fourth verses, it is said, according to the Revised -Version: "Ye that put far away the evil day, and cause the seat of -violence to come near; that lie upon beds of ivory, and _stretch -themselves upon their couches, and eat the lambs out of the flock, and -the calves out of the stall_." To some writers there is here a direct -reference to the habit of reclining on couches while eating. But a -careful study of the passage will show that its construction does not -warrant such a conclusion. The passage cannot be made to read, "Ye ... -that stretch themselves upon their couches _and eat_." The Hebrew word -_weaukhalim_ may mean, in this connection, "while eating," or, "and the -eaters,"--those that eat. The rendering of the Arabic, which is a -close kin of the Hebrew, is, "Ye ... who lie upon beds of ivory, and -who are stretched on cushions [_fûrsh_], _and who eat lambs_," and so -forth. Here it may easily be seen that the {230} passage gives the -theory of reclining at meat no real support, and the table customs of -Syria past and present oppose any effort to force the passage to yield -such a meaning. In his scathing condemnation of those who rolled in -luxury and forgot God and his people, the prophet mentioned -contemptuously the ease and the feasting of those whose life should -have been more productive of good. He might have said, "Ye who lie on -couches, and sing idle songs, and drink wine," as fittingly as, "Ye who -lie on couches, and who eat lambs and calves." - - - -[1] The more accurate rendering of this sentence in the Revised Version -is, "And tarry ye until the day declineth." In the hot season a good -excuse to delay a departing guest is to beg him to wait until the cool -late afternoon, "The decline of the day [_assar_]." - -[2] Matt. xxvi: 7, 20; John xii: 2. - -[3] The Revised Version. - -[4] As has already been mentioned, the common people of Syria wear no -shoes in the house. - - - - -{231} - -CHAPTER V - -FAMILY FEASTS - -Of the feasts which are considered more strictly family affairs, I will -speak of two which live in my memory clothed with romantic charms. The -one is that which we enjoyed at the "killing of the sheep." As a rule -every Syrian family fattens a sheep during the summer season. The -housewife feeds the gentle animal by hand so many times during the day -and so many during the night, until he is so fat that he "cannot rise -from the ground." No person is expected to speak of this sheep or -touch him without saying, "The blessing from God" (be upon the lamb). -Oh, if I could but feel again the thrilling joy which was always mine -when, as a small boy, I sat beside my mother and rolled the small -"morsels" of mulberry and grape-leaves, dipped them in salted bran -water, and handed them to my mother to feed the "blessed sheep"! - -{232} - -Early in the autumn came the time for "killing." Wherever my father -was, he came home, for the father of the household must kill the sheep. -As a rule the blood of the animal was shed upon the threshold--a custom -which echoes the ancient Semitic practice of thus honoring the -household god. Now, however, perhaps for sanitary reasons, the sheep -is killed a short distance from the door. The solemnity of the act -robbed it for us of its cruelty. On the day of "killing" we sharpened -the knives, crushed the salt in the stone mortar, and fed the sheep -only sparingly. As the day began to decline the animal was "led to the -slaughter," and laid gently on the ground, as the ancient sacrifice was -laid before the Lord. My father, holding with his left hand the -animal's head, made the sign of the cross with the knife on the -innocent throat, and, in the name of God, slew the sheep. - -The fact that many householders in a community "kill the sheep" on the -same day makes the occasion a reproduction of the night of the {233} -exodus from Egypt. In the twelfth chapter of the Book of Exodus, the -third and sixth verses, Jehovah speaks to Moses concerning Israel, -saying, "In the tenth day of this month they shall take to them every -man a lamb, according to the house of their fathers, a lamb for an -house.... And ye shall keep it up until the fourteenth day of the same -month: and the whole assembly of the congregation of Israel shall kill -it in the evening." - -With a few intimate friends we feasted at the killing of the sheep, and -then cut the red meat in small pieces "the size of a fledgeling's -head," fried it in the fat, and sealed it in glazed earthen jars for -our winter use. - -The other most joyous feast was that of the _Marafeh_--the carnivals -which precede the Great Lent. For about two weeks before Lent begins, -the Christians of the East give themselves over to feasting. The dish -which is a great favorite on this occasion is called _kibbey_. It is -made of meat and crushed wheat. The meat is "beaten" in a stone -mortar, with a {234} large wooden masher, until it is reduced to a very -fine pulp. Then the crushed wheat, soaked in cold water, is mixed with -the meat, together with a generous supply of spices and salt. The -whole mixture is then "beaten" together so thoroughly that when rightly -done it resembles a lump of dough. - -The writer of the Book of Proverbs, with characteristic Syrian -intensity, alludes to the process of _kibbey_-making in one of his -assaults upon "the fool." In the twenty-second verse of the -twenty-seventh chapter he says, "Though thou shouldest bray a fool in a -mortar among wheat with a pestle, yet will not his foolishness depart -from him." - -Be that as it may, the craving of a Syrian for _kibbey_ (and I fully -know whereof I speak) makes the craving of a Bostonian for baked beans -and fish-balls for a Sunday breakfast pale into insignificance. - -During _Marafeh_ friends and neighbors feast together until the last -night that precedes the beginning of Lent. The feast of that night is -one {235} of family solemnity, upon which no outsiders may intrude. -The members of the family come together to eat the last feast and drink -their cup of wine before entering upon the solemn period of -self-denial, fasting, and prayer. As at the ancient sacrificial -feasts, all the members of the family must be present. It was this -very custom which afforded Jonathan the excuse to send his beloved -friend David away from King Saul's court, and thus save him from the -murderous design which that monarch had against the son of Jesse. So -it was when the suspicious Saul asked his son, "Wherefore cometh not -the son of Jesse to meat, neither yesterday nor to-day?" Jonathan -answered Saul, "David earnestly asked leave of me to go to Bethlehem: -and he said, Let me go, I pray thee; for our family hath a sacrifice in -the city; and my brother, he hath commanded me to be there."[1] - -On that solemnly joyous evening my mother spreads the feast, and with -most tender and pious affections my parents call their sons and {236} -daughters to surround the low table. My father pours the wine. To us -all the cup is symbolic of sacred joy. Holding the cup in his hand, my -father leans forward and says to my mother, "May God prolong your life -and grant you the joy of many returns of this feast!" And to us, "May -your lives be long; may we be granted to drink the cup at your -weddings; may God grant you health and happiness and many future -feasts!" We all answer, "May your drinking be health and happiness and -length of days!" My mother, after wishing my father the blessings he -wished for her, and imploring the Most High to bless and keep him "over -our heads," drinks next. Then the wine is passed to every one of us. -"Drink ye all of it" is my father's command; for who can tell whether -the family circle shall remain unbroken until the Easter festival? Not -a trace of the feast is kept in the house until the morrow. What is -not eaten is burned or thrown away, for on the next day no meat, eggs, -or milk is permitted to the faithful. Wine also is not supposed to be -indulged in {237} during Lent, until the Easter bell heralds the -tidings of the Resurrection. - -So did the Master speak to his disciples on the eve of his suffering. -In the twenty-sixth chapter of St. Matthew's Gospel we read, "And he -took the cup, and gave thanks, and gave it to them, saying, Drink ye -all of it.... But I say unto you, I will not drink henceforth of this -fruit of the vine, until that day when I drink it new with you in my -Father's kingdom." - -Thus from the simplest conception of bread as a means to satisfy -physical hunger to the loftiest mystic contemplation of it as a -sacramental element, the Orientals have always eaten bread with a sense -of sacredness. "Bread and salt," "bread and wine," "Christ the bread -of life," "For we, being many, are one bread," "Give us this day our -daily bread," these and other sayings current in the Bible and in -Oriental speech all spring from the deepest life of the ancient East. - -And the sacredness of this common article of food has been of most -inestimable value to {238} Oriental peoples. In the absence of other -means of social cohesion, and the higher civil interests which bind men -together, it has been a great blessing indeed to those much-divided -Orientals to find peace and security in the simple saying, "There is -bread and salt between us." - - - -[1] 1 Sam. xx: 27-29. - - - - -{241} - -PART IV - -OUT IN THE OPEN - - - - -CHAPTER I - -SHELTER AND HOME - -Some one has said that the ancient Israelites called God a "shelter" -and a "refuge," and not a "home," because for the most part the Syrians -lived out of doors. All the habitation an Israelite needed was a -shelter from the storm and a refuge from the enemy. Hence the prayer -of the Psalmist: "For thou hast been a shelter for me, and a strong -tower from the enemy,"[1] and the prophecy of Isaiah, the fourth -chapter and the sixth verse, according to the Revised Version: "And -there shall be a pavilion for a shadow in the day-time from the heat, -and for a refuge and for a covert from storm and from rain." - -The assertion that the Syrian, both ancient and modern, lives for the -most part out of doors is substantially correct. The long and rainless -summers, the almost exclusively agricultural {242} and pastoral life of -the people, outside the few large cities, and the primitive modes of -travel, enable the Syrian to live his life out in the open. His -one-story house, consisting of one or two rooms very simply furnished, -conveys the impression that it is only an emergency shelter. Yet that -artless structure and the living "close to nature" have proved so -agreeable and so satisfactory to the people of the East as to defy the -forces of evolution. Certainly the continuance of that simple -environment, "from age to age the same," indicates that in the -universal scheme of things evolution is not altogether compulsory. Man -can, if he chooses, stand still, and live somewhat comfortably by -simply repeating the past. - -To the Oriental life is neither an evolution nor an achievement, but an -inheritance. To his passive yet poetical mind the ancient landmarks -possess enchanting sentimental value. The thought of the same modes of -life linking fifty centuries together appeals powerfully to his -imagination. It spells security, and establishes {243} confidence in -the laws of being, at least to old age. - -However, it should not be inferred from the foregoing that the Syrian -thinks lightly of his humble home. No; he is a passionate lover of it, -and associates with it the deepest joys and sorrows of life. But he -does not have for his abode the two designations "house" and "home," -which prevail in the West. The Hebrew word _bayith_ and the Arabic -_bait_ mean primarily a "shelter." The English equivalent is the word -"house." The richer term, "home," has never been invented by the son -of Palestine because he has always considered himself "a sojourner in -the earth." His tent and his little house, therefore, were sufficient -for a shelter for him and his dear ones during the earthly pilgrimage. -The word which is translated "home" in about forty places in the -English version of the Bible does not differ in the original from the -word "house," which is found in about three thousand five hundred -passages in the Bible. The terms "tent," "house," "place of -residence," {244} and the phrases, "to go to his kindred," "to return -to his place," etc., are all translated "home," and "go home." - -To the Oriental the word "house" is very precious. It means the place -of safe retreat (malja). And it is this word which he uses in speaking -of God as his protector. It means more than "shelter." It is a place -of protection and comfort. The word "refuge" is a more suitable -equivalent. In that contentious East we always thought of a safe -refuge in time of trouble. Every family of the common people -"belonged" to some powerful lord who was its refuge in time of danger. -He was strong, rich, compassionate. He protected his own. How much -stronger, richer, and more compassionate, therefore, is the Lord of -Hosts! The needy and much terrified Oriental discovered long ago the -frailty of all earthly shelters. The King of Kings and the Lord of -Hosts was his never-failing refuge. The trustful contemplation of God -as an ever-present helper has steadied the faltering steps of countless -generations. "The {245} Lord is my rock, and my fortress, and my -deliverer; my God, my strength, in whom I will trust; my buckler, and -the horn[2] of my salvation, and my high tower."[3] "God is our refuge -and strength, a very present help in trouble. Therefore will not we -fear, though the earth be removed, and though the mountains be carried -into the midst of the sea."[4] - -Is it not really worth while to fear and to suffer, if by so doing one -is brought so close to God? The writer of the one hundred and -nineteenth Psalm had the world in his debt when he turned his inward -vision toward the Most High and prayed:[5] "It is good for me that I -have been afflicted; that I might learn thy statutes. The law of thy -mouth is better unto me than thousands of gold and silver." And who -can estimate the debt which humanity owes to the Sufferer of Calvary? - - - -[1] Ps. lxi: 3. - -[2] The "horn" symbolizes strength. - -[3] Ps. xviii: 2, 3. - -[4] Ps. xlvi: 1, 2. - -[5] Ps. cxix: 71, 72. - - - - -{246} - -CHAPTER II - -RESIGNED TRAVELERS - -Traveling by the "Twentieth Century, Limited," is fast transit; but, -excepting in case of a wreck, the trip is devoid of incident. The -mechanical perfection of the conveyance, and the infallibility of the -time-table reduce journeying to transportation. There is no girding of -the loins, no pilgrim's staff, no salutations by the way and no -wayfarer's song. The journey is not humanized by the tender care for -the camel, the mule, and the ass, nor are the hunger and thirst -satisfied by the breaking of bread beside the lonely springs of water. - -The terrors and triumphs of St. Paul in his "journeyings often, in -perils of waters, in perils of robbers, in perils by mine own -countrymen, in perils by the heathen, ... in weariness and painfulness, -in watchings often, in hunger and thirst, ... in cold and -nakedness,"[1] are all to the {247} modern Western traveler echoes of a -remote past. - -But such are still the common experiences of the sons of the East. One -of the heroic wedding songs which was much in vogue in my boyhood days -was this (addressed to the bride): "Thy father, O beauteous one, -journeyed to Damascus alone!" Previous to the introduction of the -railway train, which now runs between Beyrout and Damascus, the journey -from my home town to the latter city consumed two days. In those days, -as is still the case in many parts of Syria, men traveled in large -groups for mutual protection from the "hidden dangers of the way," and -he who journeyed to the ancient city alone was proclaimed hero. My -memories of the tales of adventure which I heard the men relate are -very thrilling. Tales of encounters with robbers, battles with snakes -and wild beasts, suffering from the insufficiency of "the food for the -way" (_zad_) and the thirst occasioned by the early "failure," that is, -the {248} drying up, of springs of water which had been thought to be -still flowing. - -Only those who have traveled under such circumstances can fully -appreciate the promise given in the fifty-eighth chapter of Isaiah, the -eleventh verse, "And the Lord shall guide thee continually, and satisfy -thy soul in drought, and make fat[2] thy bones: and thou shalt be like -a watered garden, and like a spring of water, _whose waters fail not_." - -This recalls forcibly to my mind the occasions when in our travels in -the late summer we would stand at the parting of two roads and wonder -which one to take. The opinion of the more experienced men in the -party, that the spring of water on one of those roads was likely to be -dry in that season of the year, always turned our steps in the other -direction. In that thirsty land such a possibility could not be safely -ignored. In those long summer days, when the mouth of the traveler on -the dusty roads of Syria "turns bitter from the thirst," the arrival -{249} at a spring which had "failed" is almost a tragic experience. -Hence it is that the "springs of water" are one of the precious -promises of the Bible, and their failure was one of the fearful threats. - -It was indeed a call to his disciples to make the great renunciation -when Jesus sent them out to preach the glad tidings of the kingdom -which was "at hand," with the command, "Provide neither gold, nor -silver, nor brass in your purses, nor scrip for your journey, neither -two coats, neither shoes, nor yet staves."[3] So far as the comforts -and protection that earthly things can give, those disciples were sent -out perfectly helpless. The Master's programme for those disciples is -just the antithesis of that which an ordinary Oriental traveler follows. - -No traveler in the interior of Syria ever starts out on a journey, be -it short or long, without _zad_. True, Syrian generosity to a wayfarer -is to be depended upon, but the traditions of the country are that -self-respect requires that a {250} traveler shall provide himself with -_zad_, and shall accept hospitality only as a last resort. The best -etiquette requires that when a traveler is invited to another's table, -he should take out his _zad_ and place it before him. The host, on the -other hand, positively refuses to allow his chance guest to eat of his -own _zad_. The host removes the _zad_ from the table, and either adds -to it and gives it to the guest upon his departure or gives him a new -_zad_. Without scrip, the traveler seems to himself to be utterly a -dependent, a beggar, and not a guest. - -"Put up a few loaves for _zad_," is the first thing said when a person -is about to start out on a journey. The thin loaves are folded into -small bundles, which may contain such delicacies as ripe black olives, -cheese, boiled eggs, and figs conserved in grape molasses, and wrapped -up in a large napkin, which the traveler ties around his waist, with -the bread on the back. The bread is often carried in a leather bag -(_jerab_). This is the "scrip" and "wallet" of the Gospel command. On -a long {251} journey, say of a day or more, the thin bread dries up and -breaks into small pieces. A dry and crumby _zad_ indicates a long -journey. The Gibeonites certainly "did work wilily" when they used -their dry and broken bread as a means to deceive Joshua. Although they -were Israel's near neighbors, by carrying dry crumbs in their bags and -saying to Joshua upon their arrival at his camp, "This our bread we -took hot for our provision out of our houses on the day we came forth -to go unto you; but now, behold, it is dry, and it is mouldy,"[4] made -him and "the princes of the congregation" believe that the wily -travelers had come from a distant country. The English translation, -however, by using the word "mouldy" introduces a foreign element into -the text. In the dry climate of Palestine the bread does not get -_mouldy_ on a journey, but it dries up and crumbles into small -fragments, as every Syrian knows. The Arabic version has it, "This our -bread ... is now dry and in crumbs [_fetat_]." - -{252} - -"Provide neither gold, nor silver, nor brass in your purses." The -original text has "girdles" instead of "purses." While traveling in -the East we always carried our money in the girdle and only a few coins -in the purse. The girdle of the present day is a stout woolen or -cotton belt, which is called, in the vernacular Arabic, _kummer_. It -is worn under the sash, and the longest specimen of it measures about -five feet. It is double to the length of about thirty inches. The two -folds are very securely sewed together at the edge, and only a small -opening provided near the buckle, through which the money is inserted. -The double part, containing the money, is first fastened around the -waist by means of a short leather buckle, then the single part is wound -over it. It may be seen here that in case of an encounter with -robbers, the money cannot be snatched from its owner until he is -completely subdued by his antagonist. - -The common people of Syria speak of the _kummer_ as of a man's -financial strength. There are practically no "bank accounts." "How is -{253} the _kummer_?" means, "How do you stand financially?" To tap the -_kummer_ cheerfully indicates good circumstances. It is joy and glory -for a youth when he reaches the age when he may have a _kummer_. The -thrill of satisfaction which that possession gives still lingers with -me. It was as much of a sign of maturity and independence for me to -tap that Scriptural girdle which I wore, when I had money in it, as to -swear by my newly sprouting mustache. It was my treasure! - -From all this it may be noted that the Master's command, "Provide -neither gold, nor silver, nor brass in your girdles," meant, not only -to carry no money on their missionary journey, but to seek and _horde_ -no money. An Oriental's girdle is his bank. - -The part of the command which says, "Neither two coats," means two -changes of clothing. The thing sought here, however, as well as in the -saying, "Neither shoes," is not the abandonment of the necessary -wearing apparel, but willing self-denial. - -{254} - -"Nor yet staves." The staff, or the "stick of travel," is the symbol -of journeying in Syria. There, _Elkeina el'asa_ (rested the staff) -means we reached the end of our journey. _El'asa_ (staff) occupies a -significant place in Syrian lore. It is difficult for me to imagine a -Syrian starting on a journey without an _asa_. The Israelites were -given explicit directions concerning their preparations for the journey -on the eve of their exodus from Egypt. They were told[5] to eat the -lamb of the passover "with your loins girded, your shoes on your feet, -_and your staff in your hand_." - -In our travels in Syria the staff was to us a most valuable support in -climbing the steep hills, crossing the streams of water, battling with -snakes and ferocious dogs, and with highway robbers. "The staff is a -companion" is a current saying in the land. The disciples were -commanded in this manner to detach themselves from the material -interests of this world, and to give themselves wholly to the preaching -{255} of the kingdom. In their need and in their weakness they were to -be rich and strong through their vision of the eternal realities. - -In the tenth chapter of St. Luke's Gospel, Jesus' commission to the -disciples contains the command, "And salute no man by the way." It -would seem strange, indeed, that those messengers of peace and -good-will, who were being sent out to spread the leaven of friendliness -and good cheer in the world, should be enjoined by their Master to -salute no man by the way. But when it is known in what manner the -Orientals salute one another on those weary journeys, the Gospel -restriction will not seem so very strange. Wayfarers in the East do -not content themselves with the severely brief Western salutation, "How -d' you do; nice day," and then pass on. The Oriental salutation is a -copious flow of soul, whose intimacy and inquisitiveness are quite -strange to the mentality of the West. - -When the ways of two travelers converge, or the one overtakes the -other, and they decide to _yatrafeko_ (be companion the one to the -other) {256} and "wear away the road in friendly speech," the -salutation runs as follows:-- - -"_Allah y'atek el'afieh_ [May God give you health and strength]." - -"_Allah y'afie imrak_ [May God refresh and strengthen your life]." - -"Whence has your excellent presence [_heth-retek_] come, and whither -are you facing?" - -"From Nazareth have I come, and am facing towards Damascus." - -"What is the precious name?" - -"Your humble servant Mas'ud, son of Yusuf of the clan of Ayyub [Job]." - -"_Wann'am, wann'am_ [All honor, all honor]!" - -"_Wann'am_ to your excellent presence, and your respected clan!" - -"What are your years?" - -"My years, friend, are four and thirty." - -"May your life be long and happy!" - -"May Allah lengthen your days!" - -"What children have you?" (It is taken for granted that a man of that -age has been long since married.) - -{257} - -"Three sons in the keeping of God." - -"Long life to them and health and happiness!" - -"What men does your clan count?" - -"We turn out _seb'een baroody_ [seventy shotguns]." - -"_Seb'een baroody_! Valiant men. What enemies have you in your native -town?" - -"Our chief enemy is the clan of Haddad. They turn out one hundred -_baroody_, but whenever the iron gets hot [that is, whenever a fight -occurs] we shatter their forces." - -Thus the mutually complimentary conversation and the searching of -hearts continue until each of the travelers is thoroughly informed -concerning the personal, domestic, and social affairs of the other. -The trade, the income, the profession, the cares and anxieties, and -even the likes and dislikes of each are made known to the other before -their ways part. - -Hence the Master's command, "Salute no man by the way." Surely the -intention was not to be rude and unfriendly to fellow travelers, {258} -but to be completely absorbed by the glorious message of the Gospel. -The command was given because "the king's business required haste." -Even an Oriental must quicken his pace when his mission is "to seek and -to save that which was lost." - - - -[1] 2 Cor. xi: 26, 27. - -[2] The Arabic and the Revised Versions: "make strong." - -[3] Matt. x: 9, 10. - -[4] Joshua ix: 12. - -[5] Exod. xii: 11. - - - - -{259} - -CHAPTER III - -THE MARKET PLACE - -I cannot think of the market place in the East without at the same time -thinking of the camel caravan. In many parts of Syria, the arrival of -the caravan makes the market. _El-habbet_ (the grain) is the chief -commodity, and the camel is the chief carrier. In very recent years -the railway train has to a certain extent taken from the camel his -ancient occupation, but it has by no means completely supplanted the -"ship of the desert." - -The coming of camel caravans from the "land of the east" to our Lebanon -town, laden with the "blessed grain," is one of my most enchanted -memories of outdoor life in Syria. The sight of a train of camels, -with their curved necks bridging the spaces between them, suggests to -the beholder an endless line. It is not at all surprising to me to -read the assertion of the writer of the seventh chapter of the Book of -{260} Judges, where he speaks of the Midianites and Amalekites, that -"their camels were without number, as the sand of the sea-side for -multitude." It seems to me that it does not require more than a train -of one hundred camels to convey the idea of endlessness. - -At the first glimpse of the approaching caravan we boys would swarm to -the _saha_ (the open space) of the town. There the caravan unloads, -and awaits the buyers of wheat. It makes me long for my early years -when I read in the twenty-fourth chapter of the Book of Genesis the -story of Abraham's servant when he journeyed to Mesopotamia. "And the -servant took ten camels of the camels of his master and departed.... -And he made his camels to kneel down without the city by a well of -water at the time of the evening, even the time that women go out to -draw water." It is decidedly thrilling to hear the cameleer say, _ich, -ich, i--ch--ch!_ and pull at the halter of his camel to make him -"kneel." And, with a friendly roar, the great beast drops, first -forward on his huge, thick, {261} hardened knees, then comes down on -his haunches, and then, swaying in all directions, like an island -shaken by an earthquake, rests his enormous body on the ground. - -"At the time of the evening [in the late afternoon], even the time that -women go out to draw water," the camels are led to the fountains to be -watered. The ancient writer's reference to "the time that women go out -to draw water" is to a Syrian as definite as the reference to a Swiss -clock. _Wakket elmeliah_ (the time to fill the jars) is in the early -morning and the late afternoon. For obvious reasons the women choose -the "cool of the day" for carrying their heavy jars of water from the -fountain to the house. The Syrian women have faithfully kept this -custom from before the days of Abraham. And it is in the cool of the -day that the cameleers also deem it best to water their precious -animals. The women always view this event with disfavor. The thirsty -camels completely drain the pond into which the surplus water of the -slender fountain flows, and which the {262} housewives put to other -household uses than drinking. No doubt the ancient Israelitish women -in certain sections of Palestine grumbled when the cameleers drew -heavily out of the wells on which the home-makers depended entirely for -their water supply. - -But to us boys the occasion was festive. By bribing the cameleers with -gifts of grapes, figs, raisins, or any other sweets, for which the -craving of the Bedouins is proverbial, we were allowed to mount the -camels and lead them to the water. It may be true, as some scholars -assert, that the swaying walk of the camel first quickened the measured -song of the Arab, but my first camel ride was anything but poetical. I -had, upon the arrival of the caravan, smuggled from our store of -raisins two large pocketfuls, the one with which to bribe the Bedouin -to give me a ride, the other to eat while on the camel's back, like a -gay rider. As I climbed confidently on the wooden saddle of the -kneeling beast, the Arab, who was already devouring the raisins, stems -and all, by the handful, gave {263} the familiar signal, _tshew, -tshew_, and instantly the thirsty camel rose and flew toward the -fountain. I felt as if my brain was being torn off its base. I lost -the sense of direction, and seemed to myself to be suspended between -earth and heaven, tossed by violent winds. I screamed; but the Bedouin -would not let me down until I promised him the other pocketful of -raisins. - -In Syria the _sûk_ (market place) is more than a place of exchange of -commodities. It is rather an occasion of varied business and social -interests. The Oriental knows no business without sociability. His -_dekkan_ (store) is a gathering-place for friends, and a business -transaction with him, especially in the interior of the country, is -almost always preceded by a friendly visit with the customer. So the -market is a place where the dignitaries of the town meet and exchange -salutations and discuss various interests. The social nature of such -occasions is indicated in Jesus' warning to his disciples, "Beware of -the scribes, which love to go in long clothing, and _love salutations -in the {264} marketplaces_."[1] Apparently those teachers of Israel -were very frequent visitors at the markets, where men of all classes -paid them the homage which their calling, if not their person, merited. -In the past the Arab markets were also significant conventions of -literary men, especially poets. Discussions of all sorts of subjects -are carried on at the market. So it was in Athens in Paul's time, -where he "disputed ... in the market daily with them that met with -him."[2] And, of course, the children love to gather in the market -place, play their pranks, and watch the interesting activities of their -elders. It was to such a crowd of youngsters that Jesus likened the -fickle and peevish men of his time. In the eleventh chapter of St. -Matthew's Gospel, the sixteenth verse, he says, "But whereunto shall I -liken this generation? It is like unto children sitting in the -markets, and calling unto their fellows, and saying, We have piped unto -you, and ye have not danced; we have mourned unto you, and ye have not -lamented." - -{265} - -To my youthful mind the chief charm of the market place was the -_keyyal_ (measurer). The strong man who measured the wheat will live -in my memory as long as life endures. He it is who gives the "good -measure, pressed down, shaken together, running over." In Syria the -custom is that every measure must run over. Friendship must forever be -mixed with business. Liquid measures, also, of such things as milk and -oil, must run over a little into the vessel of the buyer, for "with -what measure ye mete, it shall be measured to you again."[3] - -After the price has been agreed upon, the sturdy cameleer spreads his -ample cloak on the ground and pours the golden grain in a heap upon it. -The _keyyal_ kneels by the little hillock of wheat, and, naming the -Holy Name, thrusts the _midd_ (a wooden measure) into the precious -wheat. The grain is sacred; therefore, the language of the _keyyal_ -must be pious. As he tosses the first measure into the buyer's bag, or -the skirt of his cloak, he says, "Blessing!" that {266} means "One"; -"From God" means "Two." Then the counting is continued in the ordinary -language--three, four, and so on. - -After it is first thrust into the heap of wheat, the _midd_, about half -full, is whirled around on its bottom, lifted slightly from the ground -and dropped several times. The _keyyal_, constantly repeating the -number of the _midds_ he has already measured, "lest he forget," pours -the wheat into the measure with his hands, packs it down with his -palms, and all his strength. He whirls the _midd_ round again, shakes -it, presses it, and again heaps the wheat, pyramid-like, above the rim. -The circular shower of the golden grain falls gently over the edges. -The artful _keyyal_ pours small handfuls of wheat with his right hand -into his left, which is formed into a funnel over the apex of the -heaped _midd_, until the point is "as sharp as a needle's." Then with -swift deftness, which elicits the admiration of the spectators, he -lifts the heaped measure and tosses it into the bag, without allowing a -single grain to fall outside. - -{267} - -With what telling effect and rich simplicity does the Master allude to -this custom of measuring grain in the Eastern markets. In the sixth -chapter of St. Luke's Gospel, the command and the promise are, "Give, -and it shall be given unto you; good measure, pressed down, and shaken -together, and running over, shall men give into your bosom." But the -word "bosom" here somewhat weakens the sense of the text. I do not -know why the English translators used it in place of the original word -"lap." The Oriental does not carry grain in his _bosom_, but in the -skirt of his ample garments, much as a woman carries things in the fold -of her apron. Again the word "lap" is used here in another and a more -significant sense. It is the symbol of plentifulness; just as the -"bosom" is the symbol of affection. The generous measure, even though -it be poured into one's bag, as a _blessing_, may be said to be given -into his _lap_. - -Here again, as in many other Scriptural passages, Jesus gives the ideal -spiritual touch to the common things of life. Here an ordinary {268} -act is made the symbol of the fullness of the spiritual life. He whose -life is like the divine Parent's life--a perpetual outgoing and an -everlasting gift--shall never lack anything. Men will be taught by his -generosity how to be generous themselves, and the divine Giver will -give him of the fullness of his own life. There is no void which the -divine life cannot fill, no need which it cannot meet, and no hunger -which it cannot satisfy. - - - -[1] Mark xii: 38. - -[2] Acts xvii: 17. - -[3] Matt. vii: 2. - - - - -{269} - -CHAPTER IV - -THE HOUSETOP - -While a caravan of camels needs no other means than its own majestic -appearance to herald its arrival into a town, muleteer merchants shout -their wares from the housetop. Upon the arrival of a muleteer into the -_saha_ of the town with a load of lentils, potatoes, apricots, or any -other commodity, he "drops the load" from the animal's back onto the -ground, and goes upon the roof of the nearest house and proclaims his -wares at the top of his voice, in prolonged strains. To reach the flat -earthen roof of the one-story Syrian house needs no extension ladder. -It is so easily and quickly reached by the few rough stone steps in the -rear of the house that Jesus, in speaking of the incredibly swift -coming of the "end" in the twenty-fourth chapter in St. Matthew's -Gospel, says, "Let him which is on the housetop not come down to take -any thing out of his {270} house." So sudden was to be the -consummation of the Eternal's design, "because iniquity shall abound, -and the love of many shall wax cold," that even the short distance -between the housetop and the ground could not be safely traversed by -those who cared for earthly possessions. - -The ease with which the roof of an ordinary Syrian house is reached -accounts also for the carrying of the man who was "sick of the palsy" -upon the housetop. The account in the second chapter of St. Mark's -Gospel, the third and fourth verses, runs, "And they came unto him, -bringing one sick of the palsy, which was borne of four. And when they -could not come nigh unto him for the press, they uncovered the roof -where he was; and when they had broken it up [the Arabic, "broken -through"], they let down the bed wherein the sick of the palsy lay." - -This account describes perfectly the process of making an opening in a -Syrian roof. - -In St. Luke's Gospel, however, the statement {271} is:[1] "And when -they could not find by what way they might bring him in because of the -multitude, they went upon the housetop, and let him down through the -_tiling_ with his _couch_ into the midst before Jesus." The coloring -here is decidedly Roman and not Syrian. The writer of Luke was a Latin -Christian. He related the incident in terms which were easily -understood by his own people. The Syrians never covered their roof -with tiles nor slept on couches. Mark's account speaks of uncovering -the _roof_ and letting down the _bed_. The Syrian roof is constructed -as follows: The main timbers which carry the roof covering are laid -across, horizontally, at intervals of about two to three feet. -Crosswise over the timbers are laid the _khasheb_ (sticks long enough -to bridge the spaces between) quite close together. Over the _khasheb_ -reeds and branches of trees and thistles are laid, and the whole is -covered with about twelve inches of earth. The dirt is rolled down by -a stone roller and made hard enough to {272} "shed water." In many -houses during the summer season an opening, called _qafa'a_, is made in -the roof for the purpose of letting down the grain and other provisions -which are dried in the sun on the housetop. The space between the -timbers admits easily the large basket called _sell_, which is as big -around as a bushel basket. - -Now, those who let down the palsied man either made an entirely new -opening in the roof, or simply extended the _qafa'a_ enough to admit -the unfortunate man in his folded quilt or thick cushion, tied by the -four corners. And it was this which Jesus commanded him to carry, when -he said to him, "Arise, and take up thy bed, and walk." From the -foregoing it may be seen that a couch could not have been so easily let -down through the roof, nor _carried_ by the newly healed man. - -Sleeping on the housetop in the summer season is an Oriental custom the -advantage of which the Occident has just "discovered." To use the -roofs of high buildings in American cities as sleeping quarters is a -"new" suggestion of {273} that genius known as the "social reformer." -To the ancient East, "there is nothing new under the sun." However, to -dwell on the housetop is an expression which symbolizes desolation. -Nevertheless the writer of Proverbs says:[2] "It is better to _dwell_ -in a corner of the housetop, than with a brawling woman in a wide -house." - -From the housetop the muleteer merchant shouts his wares; from the -housetop men call one another for various purposes; from the housetop -the _nowateer_ (men appointed by the municipality to watch the -vineyards) proclaim the names of trespassers; and from that elevation -the special orders of the governor of the district are proclaimed to -the populace. By night or by day, whenever we heard a voice calling -from a housetop, we instinctively listened most intently in order to -catch the message. The voice of the crier is so much like a distant, -prolonged railway whistle that in my first few years in America, -whenever I heard {274} such a sound, especially in the night, I -listened involuntarily, expecting to hear a message. - -How often must Jesus have heard the free and full voice of the crier -from the housetop! How it must have appealed to him as the very -antithesis of the whisperings of fear, cowardice, and doubt, may be -realized from his command to his disciples. In the tenth chapter of -St. Matthew's Gospel we read Christianity's declaration of -independence. Here the antagonism of the world is portrayed with -complete fullness. "Behold, I send you forth as sheep in the midst of -wolves." "Ye shall be hated of all men for my name's sake." "Fear -them not ... for there is nothing covered, that shall not be revealed; -and hid, that shall not be known." In the face of all hatred and -danger and death the Master's command to those who carried the -world-transcending message, the supreme treasure of time and eternity, -was, "What I tell you in darkness, that speak ye in light: and what ye -hear in the ear, that preach ye upon the housetop." - -{275} - -In the rainless Syrian summer the housetop is used for various -household purposes. The grass which grows on the earthen roof, -especially on its thick edges, withers early in the season. To this -the Scripture alludes in several places where it speaks of the enemies -of Israel as being "like the grass upon the housetops, which withereth -afore it groweth up." In some cases the whole roof is plastered with -clay mortar and used for drying grain, fruits, and vegetables. Also in -the summer season the housetop is used for holding wedding festivities -and funeral gatherings, which almost all the adult inhabitants of the -town are supposed to attend. With solemn brevity does the prophet -Jeremiah refer to this custom in the forty-eighth chapter, and the -thirty-eighth verse. The more accurate rendering of the Revised -Version is: "_On all the housetops_ of Moab and in the streets thereof -there is lamentation every where." - -The custom of praying on the housetop, which has come down from the -time when the Syrians worshiped the "hosts of heaven," still {276} -survives in the East. In the first chapter of the Book which bears his -name, the prophet Zephaniah threatens with the awful retribution of -Jehovah those who indulged in this practice. "I will also stretch out -mine hand upon Judah, and upon all the inhabitants of Jerusalem; and I -will cut off the remnant of Baal from this place ... and _them that -worship the host of heaven upon the housetops_." This custom survives -in Syria, although much less extensively than in the past, and it is -"the God of the whole earth" that is worshiped, and not the host of -heaven. With much reverential regard I still remember an old neighbor -of ours, a devout Maronite, a man who really feared God and worked -righteousness, whose habit was to say his evening prayer upon the -housetop. - -Of all the rich treasures of our Scriptures, few perhaps are more -precious and dearer to Christian hearts than the record of Peter's -vision while in the city of Joppa, and which is so intimately -associated with that low, flat, earthen Syrian roof. The tenth chapter -of the Book of {277} Acts hints at the broader and more profound spirit -which had begun to agitate the inner life of the "very small remnant" -of expectant souls in Israel. The wider horizon which the Christ of -God had revealed to his Jewish disciples had engendered serious doubts -in their minds with regard to the exclusive claims of Judaism to the -blessings of the Messianic kingdom. The spirit of the Beatitudes and -the Parables was resistlessly pressing the claims of all the eager -Gentiles to a share in those blessings. No doubt the soul of Peter, -the ultra-conservative disciple, was rent in twain and wavered in its -allegiance between the old claims of a "chosen people" and the new -vision of a universal kingdom founded on purity of heart and hunger and -thirst after righteousness. - -It would seem that while in such a state of mind, and after the -Oriental custom, "Peter went up upon the housetop to pray about the -sixth hour;[3] and he became very hungry, and {278} would have eaten: -but while they made ready, he fell into a trance, and saw heaven -opened, and a certain vessel descending unto him, as it had been a -great sheet knit at the four corners, and let down to the earth; -wherein were all manner of four-footed beasts of the earth, and wild -beasts, and creeping things, and fowls of the air. And there came a -voice to him, Rise, Peter; kill, and eat. But Peter said, Not so, -Lord; for I have never eaten any thing that is common or unclean. And -the voice spake unto him the second time, What God hath cleansed, that -call not thou common." - -Peter obeyed. That Oriental, who was not afraid of the mystic -revelations of God's designs took the lesson to heart. Presently we -see this conservative Jew again at the home of Cornelius, the Roman, -and hear him interpret his own vision. "Of a truth," he said to the -Roman soldier, "I perceive that God is no {279} respecter of persons: -but in every nation he that feareth him, and worketh righteousness, is -accepted with him." Here we have the sure basis of Christian unity and -the unshaken foundation of a human commonwealth. "Other foundation can -no man lay." When all the sects and nations who profess to be the -followers of Jesus Christ respond to this Scriptural summons, and give -decent burial to their divisive creeds, however "authoritative" they -might think them to be, then will the world have valid reason to expect -swords to be beaten into ploughshares, and to hope for the coming of -God's kingdom upon the earth. - - - -[1] Luke v: 19., - -[2] Prov. xxi: 9. - -[3] The noon hour, according to Oriental calculation: Timepieces are -set at twelve, at sunset. Six o'clock is the hour of midnight and -midday. The time kept by Western peoples is known in Syria as -_affrenje_. So the laborers who came to work at "the eleventh hour," -as it is mentioned in Matthew, the twentieth chapter, and the ninth -verse, came one hour before sunset. - - - - -{280} - -CHAPTER V - -THE VINEYARDS AND THE FIELDS - -From time immemorial the vine and the fig tree have been the Oriental's -chief joy. Together with their actual value they possessed for him a -sacred symbolic value, especially the vine. The fullness and sweetness -of their fruits symbolized the joys of the kingdom of heaven. The -mystery of the wine cup, which the world has so sadly vulgarized, -remains very sacred to the Oriental. Christ used "the fruit of the -vine," or, as the Arabic version has it, the _yield_ of the -vine,--meaning the wine, and not grapes,--as the visible means of -spiritual communion. In the fifteenth chapter of St. John's Gospel the -Master says, "I am the vine, ye are the branches." This usage was no -doubt extant in the East before Christ. The vine, as a symbol of -spiritual as well as physical family unity, is spoken of in the Old -Testament. Israel's was Jehovah's vine. "Thou hast brought a vine out -of Egypt" is the {281} plaintive cry of the writer of the eightieth -Psalm: "thou hast cast out the heathen, and planted it. Thou preparest -room before it, and didst cause it to take deep root, and it filled the -land.... Return, we beseech thee, O God of hosts: look down from -heaven, and behold, and visit this vine; and the vineyard which thy -right hand hath planted." - -We always thought and spoke of the Church as "the vine which God has -planted." The chanting of the foregoing words of the Psalmist by our -priest of the Greek Orthodox Church, with his hand uplifted over the -solemnly silent congregation, remains one of the most beautiful -memories of my youth. We spoke also of the family as a vine. One of -the tenderest passages in the whole Bible is the third verse of the one -hundred and twenty-eighth Psalm: "Thy wife shall be as a fruitful vine -by the sides of thine house: thy children like olive plants round about -thy table." - -"They shall sit every man under his vine and under his fig tree; and -none shall make them {282} afraid,"[1] is Micah's vision of peace and -security. To a Syrian in America the reading of this passage is -strongly conducive to homesickness. To sit in the luxuriant shade of -the fig tree was a daily blessing to us in the summer season. It must -have been in that season of the year that Jesus first met Nathanael. -In the first chapter of St. John's Gospel we read: "Jesus saw Nathanael -coming to him, and saith of him, Behold an Israelite indeed, in whom is -no guile! Nathanael saith unto him, Whence knowest thou me? Jesus -answered and said unto him, Before that Philip called thee, _when thou -wast under the fig tree, I saw thee_." - -I have no doubt that Nathanael's habit of sitting under the fig tree -was one of the characteristics which made him "an Israelite indeed." - -The wine press is an ancient landmark in Syrian life, and one of the -most picturesque features of the Scriptures. The word "press" is -likely to be misleading in this mechanical age. The grapes are not -_pressed_ by any mechanical {283} contrivance, but are trodden with the -feet. Therefore, to the Orientals the wine press is _ma'sara_ -(squeezing place). The grapes are thrown in a heap in a stone-flagged -enclosure about the size of an ordinary room, and trodden by the men in -their bare feet. Much gayety characterizes the _ma'sara_ season. The -work is carried on day and night until all the grapes which had been -gathered by the various families for the _ma'sara_ are converted into -wine and molasses. The quaint songs and stories which I always loved -to hear the "treaders" exchange, as they walked back and forth over the -grapes, come to me now like the echoes of a remote past. And as I -recall how at the end of a long "treading" those men came out with -their garments spattered with the rich juice of the grapes of Lebanon, -the words of Isaiah--"Wherefore art thou red in thine apparel, and thy -garments _like him that treadeth the wine fat_?"[2]--breathe real life -for me. - -But in this age of rampant microbiology I {284} introduce this subject -with at least an implied apology. The picture of men treading grapes -in this manner and under such circumstances will not, I fear, appeal -strongly to the æsthetic sense of my readers. Nevertheless, all the -Scriptural wine, including the cup of the Last Supper, was produced in -this way. To the Orientals the mystic fermentation and the fire purify -the juice of the vine. The precious juice runs from the wide, -stone-flagged enclosure into deep wells, where it is allowed to become -_rawook_ (clear juice). The fresh _rawook_ is considered a delicious -drink. One of Job's bitter complaints against those who oppressed the -poor was that those unfortunates were made to "tread the wine presses, -and _suffer thirst_."[3] Having been allowed thoroughly to settle, the -juice is then heated according as to whether the wine is to be "sweet" -or "bitter." The longer the juice is boiled the sweeter the wine. -Sweet wine is called _khemer niswani_ (woman wine); the men, as a rule, -preferring the "bitter" wine. In {285} making molasses of the grape -juice, fine white clay is scattered over the grapes before they are -trodden, in order to hasten and insure a perfect settling of all the -coarse organic matter while the juice is in the "clearing wells." - - -I often wonder whether it is because the memories of youth grow more -romantic with the passing of the years, that the agricultural life of -the Orient seems to me more poetical than that of the Occident, or -whether it really is more enchanting. It seems to me that tools -possess more charms than machinery does, and handwork of the more -instinctive type is much more interesting than the carefully studied -and designed task. The life of the American farmer is too intelligent -to be romantic. There is so much in him of the agricultural college -and the farm journal. No awful mysteries haunt his scientifically -treated fields. Insect powders and the daily weather report and the -market "quotations" arm him with forethought, and make of him a -speculating merchant. The constant {286} improvements of agricultural -implements place a wide and ever-widening gulf between the American -farmer and his forefathers. - -Not so with the Syrian farmer. To this man life is not an evolution, -but an inheritance. If the men who tilled Abraham's fields in Hebron -should rise from the dead to-day, they would find that the four -thousand years of their absence from the earth had effected no -essential changes in the methods and means of farming in the "land of -promise." They would lay their hand to the plough and proceed to -perform their daily tasks, as though nothing had happened. A very few -European ploughs are being tried in certain sections of Syria, but that -is all. - -The Syrian sower goes forth to sow with his long, primitive plough on -his right shoulder, the yoke hanging from the left shoulder and the -leather bag of seed strapped to his back. In his left hand he carries -his long, hard, strong goad--the same as the one with which "Shamgar, -son of Anath, slew of the Philistines six hundred men." Through this -simple instrument he keeps {287} in touch with his pair of oxen, or -cows, which pace leisurely before him. The plough, which consists of -two wooden beams joined together, measures about twelve feet in length. -The quantity of wood in the Syrian plough makes plain the meaning of -the passage in the story of the prophet Elisha, son of Shaphat. In the -nineteenth chapter of the First Book of Kings, the nineteenth verse, we -have the account of Elijah's first meeting with his successor Elisha, -when he was ploughing in the field, "with twelve yoke of oxen before -him, and he with the twelfth." So, when Elijah cast his mantle upon -him, the son of Shaphat "took a yoke of oxen, and slew them, _and -boiled their flesh with the instruments of the oxen_, and gave unto the -people, and they did eat. Then he arose, and went after Elijah, and -ministered unto him." - -At the forward end the long plough is hooked to the yoke, and at the -rear end joined to a cross-piece, whose upper extremity forms the -_cabousa_ (handle); and the lower holds the iron ploughshare. When he -puts "his hand to the {288} plough," he simply grasps the _cabousa_ -with his right hand while he wields the goad with his left. The -uneven, stony ground and the lightness of the plough compel him to -maintain a firm hold on it, and to look ever _forward_. In the ninth -chapter of St. Luke's Gospel, the sixty-second verse, Jesus makes -excellent use of this point when he says, "No man, having put his hand -to the plough, and _looking back_, is fit for the kingdom of God." - -The parable of the sower, in the thirteenth chapter of St. Matthew's -Gospel, is a faithful picture of the environment of the farmer in the -region of Galilee and Mount Lebanon. That primitive farmer does not -sow his seed by means of "drills" in symmetrical rows. Out of his -leathern seed bag he takes generous handfuls of grain and, "in the name -of the bounteous God," he casts the blessed seed into the soil, and -then "covers it" by ploughing. The bridle paths which wind through the -fields, and the still narrower footpaths which the wayfarers make -through those fields every season in {289} taking "short cuts" on their -weary journeys, provide ample chance for "some seeds" to fall "by the -wayside," and be devoured by the fowls of the air. In certain sections -of the country where I was brought up the "stony places" are the rule -and the "good ground" the exception. So the seeds which "fell upon -stony places" came up quickly "because they had no deepness of earth; -and when the sun was up, they were scorched." There is another reason -for this than the shallowness of the soil. The almost utter lack of -rain in that country from April to October leaves no chance for seed -cast into shallow soil to live long. - -"And some fell among the thorns; and the thorns sprang up, and choked -them." For this the Syrian farmer himself is largely to blame. He -preserves the thorns for cattle feed and for fuel. Certain kinds of -thorns, especially _bellan_, are used as fuel for summer cooking, which -is done out of doors, and for baking at the _tennûr_.[4] Other thorns -are harvested, after the barley and {290} wheat harvests, threshed, and -stored for winter feed. In the sixth verse of the seventh chapter of -the Book of Ecclesiastes the writer says, "For as the crackling of -thorns under a pot, so is the laughter of the fool." The threshing of -thorns is referred to in the Book of Judges,[5] where it says, "When -the Lord hath delivered Zabah and Zalmunna into mine hand, then I will -tear your flesh with the thorns of the wilderness and with briers." -But here again the English translation fails to give an exact rendering -of the text, although the marginal note replaces the word "tears" by -the word "thresh." The Arabic version says, "I will _thresh_ your -flesh with the thorns and briers of the wilderness _with the threshing -boards_," which is an exact picture of the treading of the oxen as they -drag the threshing board over the thorns upon the threshing floor. - -When a boy it was a great delight to me to wander in the wheatfields -when the grain had just passed the "milk stage" and had begun to {291} -mature and harden. It is then called _fereek_, and is delicious to -eat, either raw or roasted. I could subsist a whole day by plucking -the heads of wheat, rubbing them in my hand and eating the fat, soft, -fragrant grain. From time immemorial wayfarers in the East have been -allowed to trespass in this manner, provided they carried no more grain -away than that which they ate. In the twenty-fifth verse of the -twenty-third chapter of the Book of Deuteronomy the reading of the -Revised Version is, "When thou comest into thy neighbor's standing -corn, then thou mayest pluck the ears with thine hand; but thou shalt -not move a sickle unto thy neighbor's standing corn." It was the -indulgence in this practice by the disciples, on the Sabbath, which -formed the basis of the Pharisees' protest to Jesus to the effect that -his followers dishonored the sacred day. In the sixth chapter of St. -Luke's Gospel, the first verse, the Revised Version rendering of the -text is, "Now it came to pass on a sabbath, that he was going through -the grainfields and his disciples plucked the {292} ears, and did eat, -rubbing them in their hands." The protest of the guardians of Israel's -law, and Jesus' answer in the verses which follow, give us another -revelation of the Master's central thought and motive as a religious -teacher; namely, that man's legitimate needs take precedence of all -ecclesiastical formalities. - -I do not believe any account of agricultural life in Syria should omit -mentioning the plague which above all others strikes terror into the -heart of the Eastern tiller of the soil. In his prayer at the -dedication of the temple, Solomon mentions "blasting, mildew, locust, -and caterpillar."[6] Of all those unwelcome visitors, the locusts are -the most abhorred. I will give my impression of this pest in a -quotation from my autobiography:[7] - - -One of the never-to-be-forgotten phenomena of my early years, a -spectacle which the most extravagantly imaginative American mind cannot -picture, was the coming of the locusts into our part of the country. -If my memory serves me well, I was about twelve years old when my -father {293} and all his men, together with all the male population -over fifteen, were impressed by the governor of our district to fight -the devastating hosts of Oriental locusts. No one who has not seen -such a spectacle and the desolation those winged creatures leave behind -them can appreciate in the least degree the force of the saying of "The -Lord God of the Hebrews" to Pharaoh, "If thou refuse to let my people -go, behold, to-morrow I will bring the locusts into thy coasts."[8] -For a few weeks before they deluged our district the news came with the -caravans that the locusts were sweeping toward our region from the -"land of the south." We youngsters did not know why our elders were so -terror-stricken when they heard of it, until the scourge had come and -gone. - -It was a few weeks before the time of the harvest when the clouds of -locusts enveloped our community. They hid the sun with their -greenish-yellow wings, covered the trees and the ground, the walls and -roofs of the houses, and dashed in our faces like flakes of snow driven -by the wind. The utter hopelessness of the task which confronted our -people and seemed to unite all classes in despair, assumed in my sight -a very comic aspect, and converted the calamity into a holiday. It was -so amusing to me to see our sedate aristocrats and old men and women -join the youth {294} and the common laborers in shouting, beating on -tin cans, firing muskets, setting brush on fire, striking at the cursed -insects with their hands, stamping them with their feet, and praying -God to send "a strong wind" to drive the enemy of man away. Every -_mutekellif_ (payer of the toll-tax) had to fight the locusts for so -many days or hire a substitute, - -I do not clearly remember whether it was the beating on tin cans and -howling of the people or the prayed-for "strong wind" that drove the -merry locusts away. What I do remember is that when they did go away -they left the land almost stripped clean of every green thing. - -It was no vain threatening when the writer of Deuteronomy warned -Israel, saying, "If thou wilt not hearken unto the voice of the Lord -thy God,, to observe to do all his commandments.... All thy trees and -fruit of thy land shall the locust consume."[9] - - - -[1] Mic. iv: 4. - -[2] Is. lxiii: 2. - -[3] Job xxiv: 11. - -[4] See page 201. - -[5] Judges viii: 7. - -[6] 1 Kings viii: 37. - -[7] _A Far Journey_, page 109, etc. - -[8] Exod. x: 40. - -[9] Deut. xxvii: 15, 42. - - - - -{295} - -CHAPTER VI - -THE SHEPHERD - -"I am the good shepherd" is one of Jesus' most tender, most -compassionate sayings. The first sixteen verses of the tenth chapter -of St. John's Gospel, from which this saying comes, should be joined to -the twenty-third Psalm. Notwithstanding the fact that John's words are -tinged with Greek thought, as descriptive of shepherd life in the East, -those two portions of Scripture belong together. - -The various phases of shepherd life in Syria are indelibly printed in -my memory. Our mountain village home was situated on the upper slope -of a rather steep hill, at the base of which a thin stream flowed over -its rocky bed. Across the narrow ravine, on the lower slope of another -hill, just opposite our home, there were three sheep and goat folds. -There for years I watched the shepherds and their flocks go out and -come in, morning and evening, from early {296} spring until late -autumn, when the shepherds dismantled the folds by removing their -thorny fences, pulled down their rude bowers, and led their flocks to -the "lowlands," where they spent the short winter season. The wailing -of Isaiah, in the twelfth verse of the thirty-eighth chapter (Revised -Version), "My dwelling is removed and is carried away from me as a -shepherd's tent," reminds me very strongly of the easy removal and -complete disappearance of that temporary shelter, which I so often saw -torn down and carried away. - -While at work in the fields cutting stone for my father's building -operations in various parts of Mount Lebanon, the shepherds were all -around us. In those days I watched the shepherd lead his flock "into -the waters of rest," or the restful, refreshing waters, which the -English version renders "still waters." I watched him as, by -inarticulate, deep, guttural sounds, whistling, certain characteristic -words which the flock seemed to understand, and the flinging of pebbles -or "smooth stones," such as those {297} with which David smote Goliath, -he guided, I might say invited, the "blessed creatures," into every -nook and corner among the rocks where there was pasture. It was this -solicitous watchfulness of the shepherd which the writer of the -twenty-third Psalm had in mind when he said, "The Lord is my shepherd, -_I shall not want_." In the heat of the day the shepherd made his -flock "to lie down" in the pasture ground, and the "blessed ones," as -the shepherd always calls his sheep and goats, would fold their nimble -legs and lie down, singly and in small groups, a surpassing picture of -contentment, trustfulness, and peace. They seemed to realize that -although they were in the wilderness they had nothing to fear. For the -loving shepherd, with his strong and heavy staff, was in their midst to -ward off all danger from them. - -The opening verses of the tenth chapter of the Gospel of John contain -most significant allusions to the sheepfold. "Verily, verily, I say -unto you, He that entereth not by the door into the sheepfold, but -climbeth up some other {298} way, the same is a thief and a robber." -Here the reference is to the fold of the dry season, such as those I -have already mentioned. The winter sheepfold is a roofed stone hovel -called _merah_. It has one low door and no windows; therefore, by -climbing up the fold, "some other way" the robber could secure no -booty. The roofless fold is called _hedherah_ and is built of rough -stones (such as are used in New England stone fences) to the height of -five feet. Above the stone construction rises a high _seyaj_ (hedge) -of thorny branches, securely fastened between the stones. It is this -hedge which is especially designed to prevent the "thief and robber" -from climbing into the sheepfold. - -"But he that entereth in by the door is the shepherd of the sheep. To -him the porter openeth; and the sheep hear his voice: and he calleth -his own sheep by name, and leadeth them out." The shepherd's rude tent -is located near the door. There also his faithful dog lies. The word -"porter" in the text refers more, perhaps, to a Greek than Syrian -custom. However, in case of {299} large flocks, the under-shepherd, or -the "helper," who guards the door, answers to the "porter." - -The calling of the sheep or goats by name should not be taken -literally. The animals are not named as persons are. The shepherd -_knows_ all the members of his flock by certain individual -characteristics, and realizes the fact quickly when one of them is -lost. The more prominent ones are given adjectival names, such as the -"pure white," the "striped," the "black," the "brown," the -"gray-eared," etc. But it should be borne in mind that the saying, -"And he calleth his own sheep by name, and leadeth them out," indicates -the tender love of the shepherd for his flock, but not that the animals -answer to their names. They are never trained to do that. He "leadeth -them out," not by calling their names, but by giving certain sounds -which they recognize. - -"And when he putteth forth his own sheep, he goeth before them, and the -sheep follow him: for they know his voice." I find that the strong -emphasis which commentators in general place {300} upon the shepherd's -going _before_ the flock carries the impression that he does so -_invariably_. So far as I know, this is not absolutely correct. _As a -rule_, the shepherd goes before the flock, but not infrequently he is -seen behind it. The shepherd walks behind, especially in the evening -when the flock is on its way to the fold, in order that he may gather -the stragglers and protect them from the stealthy wolf. The shepherd -often walks by the side of the flock, at about the middle of the line. -In case of large flocks the shepherd goes before, and the helper behind. - -One of the great delights of my boyhood days was the sight of the -"returning flock" every evening on the pebbly road on the side of the -hill close by our house. I go up on the housetop at dusk. As soon as -I hear the swishing roar of the multitude of little sharp hoofs on the -stony road, which is like the sound of an approaching hailstorm among -the trees, then I know that the "blessed ones" are near. The long line -of horny and hornless heads sweeps down the slope {301} of the hill -like an army on a "double-quick." With his strong, protecting staff in -hand, the stalwart, tender, ever-watchful shepherd appears at the end -of the line, and like an overshadowing Providence _guides_ his beloved -flock safely over the little stream and into the fold. - -The effective, and, I might say, unerring, guidance of the shepherd is -especially shown when he leads his flock in the "narrow paths." In -Syria as a rule the fields are not fenced. The pastures and the -planted fields are separated by narrow footpaths, and here and there by -low stone walls, which are intended, however, more for landmarks than -for fences. The fields are the forbidden ground. In transferring his -flock from one pasture to another, the shepherd must not allow any of -his animals to stray from the beaten path into the fields. For if he -does, he will not only have to pay damages to the owners of the fields, -but will ruin his own reputation as a shepherd. In my home town we had -a shepherd who was widely famed for his skill in leading his flock in -the narrow paths. Sa'ied, who {302} supplied our community with goat's -milk during the summer, was often known to guide a flock of about one -hundred and fifty head of goats (which are much more unruly than sheep) -without a helper, in a narrow path or over a stone wall, for a -considerable distance, without allowing a single one of them to set -foot on the forbidden ground. The flock obeyed him because they _knew -his voice_ as that of their good shepherd. - -It was no doubt such shepherds as Sa'ied that lent the writer of the -twenty-third Psalm his telling figure. It was the faithful guidance of -such earthly shepherds that led the ancient singer to meditate upon the -Lord's faithfulness to his own, and to utter his faith in the line, "He -leadeth me in the paths of righteousness for his name's sake." The -fields of temptation lie on either side of the narrow path of rectitude -and life. The Lord will protect and lead in the right path all those -who know Him and hear His voice. - -Another enchanting picture of Syrian pastoral {303} life is the -gathering of the flock. The shepherd seeks and gathers his sheep for -the purpose of transferring them to a richer pasture, or, at the end of -the day, to lead them back to the fold. He stands in the midst of the -far-scattered flock and gives certain sounds, which are to the sheep -what the notes of a bugle are to an army. His trained right arm, whose -long range and precision are proverbial, sends the pebbles whirring in -all directions, and thus "turns back" the more heedless of the flock. -It was this which the Psalmist had in mind when he said, "He restoreth -my soul." The Arabic phrase _yeriddo nefsee_, means, "he turns back my -soul," and refers to the action of the shepherd in turning the course -of his sheep toward himself. The faithful shepherd never proceeds to -lead his flock away until he is assured that all his dumb companions -are gathered together. - -With what pathos does the prophet Ezekiel portray this pastoral scene -when he speaks of the infinite compassion of the divine shepherd of -Israel, who never slumbers nor sleeps! In the {304} thirty-fourth -chapter, the eleventh verse, the promise to scattered Israel is, "For -thus saith the Lord God: Behold, I, even I, will both search for my -sheep, and seek them out. As a shepherd seeketh out his flock in the -day that he is among his sheep that are scattered; so will I seek out -my sheep, and will deliver them out of all the places where they have -been scattered in the cloudy and dark day. And I will bring them out -from the people, and gather them from the countries, and will bring -them to their own land, and feed them upon the mountains of Israel by -the rivers, and in all the inhabited places of the country. I will -feed them in a good pasture, and upon the high mountains of Israel -shall their fold be; there shall they lie in a good fold, and in a fat -pasture shall they feed upon the mountains of Israel.... I will seek -that which was lost, and bring again that which was driven away." - -The climax of the shepherd figure, as it is used in the tenth chapter -of the Gospel of John, is reached in Christ's saying, "I am the good -{305} shepherd: the good shepherd giveth his life for the sheep," and -in the twenty-third Psalm, in the passage, "Though I walk through the -valley of the shadow of death, I will fear no evil; for thou art with -me: thy rod and thy staff, they comfort me." Only those who have heard -the howling of a faithful shepherd at the approach of a wild beast to -the flock can clearly realize how literally true is this saying of -Christ's: "The good shepherd giveth his life for the sheep." - -Of all the shepherds I have known or have known about in my native -land, the commanding figure of one--Yusuf Balua'--rises most -prominently before me. I never want to forget old Yusuf. He was over -sixty when I first knew him. He was every inch a shepherd, having -known no other vocation in all his life. I knew that elemental man in -the "lowlands," where I spent two winters with my father, who was -called thither to erect several farmhouses for the lord of the land. -Yusuf, as he himself expressed it, "revered" my father; therefore, I -{306} was always welcome to visit Yusuf at his cave in the rocky gorge, -and to roam with him and his flock whenever my duties as my father's -helper permitted. - -The flocks are kept in the "lowlands" until after the "time of birth," -which comes in March; then they are led up into the mountains. It was -during that blessed time of birth, and while with Yusuf, that I first -beheld the original of that infinitely tender picture which is drawn in -the fortieth chapter of Isaiah, the eleventh verse, and which is also -Christ's most appealing picture. "He shall feed his flock like a -shepherd," says the prophet; "he shall gather the lambs with his arm, -and carry them in his bosom, and shall gently lead those that are with -young." The text is very effectively improved by the marginal note -which says, "and shall gently lead those that _give suck_." It was -that which Yusuf Balua' was doing once when I happened to be with him. -His roughly hewn figure stands now before me, with three newly born -lambs held close to his bosom, and their {307} wilted heads resting on -his massive arm. He walked gently before the anxious, slowly moving -mothers, which came close behind him, emitting low, humming sounds, -through which Nature poured out her compassionate heart. - -"Let me carry one of them," I begged Yusuf. "No, my boy, not the -helpless ones," answered the tender friend. "They need the shepherd's -care now. Besides, the mothers don't know you and they would fear." -But they knew _his_ voice and followed him! - -Oh, if we will but know and trust and follow our heavenly Shepherd, as -the sheep trust and follow theirs! - -But I must not lose sight of what I have called the climax of the -shepherd figure in the Gospel and the Psalms; namely, the shepherd's -interposing with his own life between the flock and the wolf. The -wolf, the hyena, and the leopard are the flock's most formidable foes. -During his long life Yusuf fought many battles with those ferocious -beasts, but never lost a hoof to them in all those encounters. On more -{308} than one occasion he followed the hyena to his lair, and, by his -characteristic howling, flinging his deadly stones with his sling, and -striking with his heavy staff on the rocks, compelled the beast to -abandon his prey. Whether the unfortunate sheep was yet alive or -whether it had died, Yusuf, as a good and faithful shepherd, always -carried it back to the fold. Does not the prophet Amos assure Israel -of their Shepherd's infinite care for them in an allusion to the -faithful seeking by the earthly shepherd for even a fragment of his -lost sheep? "Thus saith Jehovah," cries Amos; "As the shepherd -_rescueth out of the mouth of the lion two legs, or a piece of an ear_; -so shall the children of Israel be rescued."[1] To this care and -devotion of the shepherd, Jesus also alludes in his parabolic saying in -which he speaks of his having "come to save that which was lost." "How -think ye? if a man have an hundred sheep, and one of them be gone -astray, doth he not leave the ninety and nine, and goeth into the -mountains, {309} and seeketh that which is gone astray? And if so be -that he find it, verily I say unto you, he rejoiceth more of that -sheep, than of the ninety and nine which went not astray. Even so it -is not the will of your Father which is in heaven, that one of these -little ones should perish!"[2] - -When I think of that deep, rocky gorge where Yusuf wintered with his -flock, and the many similar valleys which the Syrian shepherds have to -traverse daily; when I think of the wild beasts they have to fight, of -the scars they bear on their bodies as marks of their unreserved and -boundless devotion to their flocks, I realize very clearly the depth of -the Psalmist's faith when he said, "Though I walk through the valley of -the shadow of death, I will fear no evil; for thou art with me: thy rod -and thy staff, they comfort me." - - - -[1] Amos iii: 12. Revised Version. - -[2] Matt. xviii: 12-14. - - - - -{313} - -PART V - -SISTERS OF MARY AND MARTHA - - - - -CHAPTER I - -WOMAN EAST AND WEST - -Perhaps on no other subject do the Orient and the Occident diverge more -widely than on that of the status of woman. So far as they really -differ, and as they imagine that they differ in their regard for woman, -the Orientals and the Occidentals form two distinct human types. - -From the beginning of their history, the Teutonic races, especially the -Anglo-Saxons, have been characterized by their high regard for woman. -This trait of the dwellers of north-western Europe so impressed the -Latin Christian missionaries, when they first visited those peoples, -that they described them as having "such high regard for woman to the -extent that adultery was unknown among them." And while the concluding -phrase of this historical testimony does not describe the present state -of Anglo-Saxon society with absolute correctness, {314} the statement -as a whole seems to me to be a substantially correct description of -present Anglo-Saxon life. Among the peoples of north-western Europe, -and especially among their descendants in America, woman enjoys man's -highest regard. - -On the other hand, "the Oriental view of woman" has always been -considered by those Western peoples to be very contemptuous. We always -hate most deeply that vice which is the opposite of our strongest -virtue. We are most likely to exaggerate and to condemn mercilessly -any deviation from that which we ourselves consider to be the sacred -path of duty. Respect for woman being one of his strongest virtues, -the Anglo-Saxon is lashed to fury by what seems to him to be the -Oriental's utter disrespect for the mother of the race. - -As I have already stated in other connections in this work, my object -is neither to accuse the Oriental nor to excuse his moral failures. My -aim is rather to interpret him to my Western readers and to determine, -if possible, to what {315} extent he really is a transgressor of the -normal rules of behavior toward woman. My intimate knowledge of life -in both hemispheres and my affectionate regard for the good qualities -of both the Orientals and the Occidentals lead me to venture to be a -reconciler of their differences. They certainly misunderstand one -another, especially with reference to the domestic and social relations -of the sexes. Time was when the various races hugged their prejudices -close to their own hearts and really enjoyed ridiculing one another. - -But "the hour cometh and now is" when the peoples of the earth are -beginning to realize that righteousness and truth, kindness and good -manners, are the exclusive possessions of no one race. The peoples of -the earth are beginning to realize that a mutual sympathetic -understanding between the various races is an asset of civilization, -and a promoter of the cause of that human commonwealth for which all -good men pray and hope. Therefore, as one who owes much to both the -East and the West, {316} I deem it my duty to do what I can to promote -such a sympathetic understanding, without doing violence to the truth. - -What is an obvious fact, and which can by no means be ignored, even by -the most zealous special pleader, is that the Eastern woman is far from -being the equal of her Western sister, either in culture or in domestic -and social privileges. Perhaps in no other country does woman enjoy -these blessings to the extent to which the American woman enjoys them. -Woman as man's intellectual companion, as a promoter of ideals, as a -factor in domestic and social evolution, the Orient has never known. -The Western type of woman is now partially represented in my native -land by a minority of cultivated women, but their number is -comparatively very small. - -The Oriental social code (if the simple social usages in that part of -the world may be termed such) gives man the precedence. To give woman -the social and domestic prominence, the little attentions and -courtesies which she {317} enjoys in America, is to the Orientals not -only unnecessary, but uncomplimentary to both sexes. - -It is perhaps for lack of such attentions and courtesies, more than for -anything else, that the Occidentals consider the Oriental woman to be -the slave of her husband. And, conversely, because of his giving the -precedence to woman in all the courtesies and comforts of life, the -Orientals, _both men and women_, consider the Occidental to be the -slave of his wife. How often have I heard Syrians say, "An _affrenjee_ -[that is, a European] is quite a man until his wife whispers something -to him. Then he becomes her slave; he does just what she tells him." - -The Oriental's indifference to those fine points of behavior toward -woman does not spring from the fact that he considers her to be -intrinsically his inferior, and consequently his slave. I never had -the slightest reason, nor the faintest suggestion, either by example or -precept, to believe that my mother was in any way {318} my father's -inferior. "Thou shalt honour thy father _and_ thy mother" is a -commandment which was born of the deepest life of the East. I can -think of no circumstances in Eastern life which compel a Syrian to -think of his mother, sister, and wife in other than terms of equality -in all essentials with the male members of the family.[1] - -In my judgment it is the Oriental's deportment, rather than his real -intentions, which condemns him in the sight of Occidentals for his -attitude toward woman. It is perhaps hazardous to undertake to -differentiate between character and conduct, between the motive and the -method by which that motive is put into action. It is customary, -however, to say of a person that "his heart is in the right place, but -he does not know how to act." I venture to say that {319} this -characterization fits the case of the average Oriental. His heart is -in the right place. His natural endowments are good. He is -quick-witted, kind, generous, pious, obedient to parents, and a lover -of his home. So far as all these fundamentals are concerned, I find no -great difference between the Easterners and the Westerners. - -However, compared with his Western cousin, the son of the Near East has -only a slight acquaintance with the _art_ of living. The working-out -of details with the view of creating harmony has always seemed to him -vanity and vexation of spirit. His intense desire for simple, -spontaneous, easy living has always refused to be encumbered by -exacting standards. In this respect he is a boy in man's clothing. -For an example, the home to him is little more than a shelter. The -riches of the home are not the artistic appointments, but human -associations. Architectural schemes, interior decorations, books, -musical instruments, living by the clock, and other Western glories are -to the Oriental {320} dispensable luxuries. The one-room or two-room -house, very simply furnished, is the essential part of the home. Why -then should one be burdened with more? The "color scheme," the harmony -or contrast of wall-paper with picture frames and carpets, and the -thousand and one articles of useful and ornamental furniture which -crowd the American home and make the "servant-girl problem" well-nigh -insoluble, are to the average Oriental a delusion and a snare. His -table appointments are also very simple. To him the "one thing -needful" is enough food to sustain life. He has no "cook-book." The -varieties of cake and pie, and the multitude of side dishes which load -the American table, do not appear on the Syrian's bill of fare. One -dish of cooked cereals, or meat and rice or some other wholesome -combination, and a few loaves of bread, satisfy his hunger. His modest -stores of grape molasses, figs, and raisins, which he visits at -irregular intervals, satisfy his craving for sweets, and his home-made -wine gives color and gayety to his feasts. - -{321} - -The same simple rules govern the Oriental's social activities. Whether -as an individual or as a domestic and social being, he hates to be -standardized. To him formalities have no claim upon those who are true -friends and social equals. Spontaneous living must not be too closely -yoked with etiquette, nor native wisdom with technical culture. "_Meta -weck'at elmahabbet artafa' ettekleef_" (when love occurs formalities -cease) is one of the Oriental's ancient and cherished maxims. From -early childhood the Americans are taught to observe, even within the -family circle, the niceties of "Please," "Thank you," "Pardon me," "I -beg your pardon," "May I trouble you," and so forth. To a son of the -East such behavior is altogether proper among strangers, but not among -those who really _love one another_. Between husband and wife, parent -and child, brothers and sisters, and true friends such formalities -appear to Easterners not only superficial, but utterly ridiculous. For -such persons the most essential thing is that they should love one -another. As {322} lovers they have a right to _demand_ favors from one -another. The commands of love are sweet; they must not be alloyed with -tiresome formalities. - -Of course this "friendliness" of the Oriental is not altogether an -unmixed blessing. He relies too much upon his good intentions, which -his conduct does not always show. Judged, not only by Western -standards, but by the standards of the cultivated minority of his own -people, he is found wanting. It is not always easy for him to be -familiar without being vulgar, and to distinguish between the -legitimate claims of friendship and intrusion upon the exclusive rights -of others. His plea always is that he means well, which is generally -true. "His heart is in the right place." - -Now I believe it can be easily seen that the Easterner's attitude -toward woman, which now rises to the height of religious reverence, now -verges on contempt, is to be traced to his uneven, juvenile temperament -and lack of culture, and not to the fact that he despises her. {323} -So long as he respects her "in his heart" and is ready to defend her at -whatever cost, he considers the fine points of conduct toward her after -the American fashion to be simply dispensable little details. Nor does -his attitude toward woman differ essentially from his attitude toward -the male portion of mankind. He has one vocabulary for both sexes, -with the inclination to be more respectful toward the gentler sex. - -So woman in the East is not considered a slave by the man, and there is -a multitude of wife-ruled husbands. The family system, however, is -patriarchal. The man is recognized as the "lord of the household." -The venerable father of a family is supposed to rule, not only over the -women of the household, but over his grown sons, his younger brothers, -and even the men of his clan who are younger than himself. But such an -authority is often purely formal. The higher the level of culture in -the home, the more freedom and equality exists among the members of the -family. In cultivated Syrian {324} homes the women are free and highly -and uniformly respected by the men. Such women have no reason to envy -even the happiest American women. - - - -[1] My statements apply particularly to the Christian women of Syria, -who enjoy greater domestic and social privileges than the Mohammedan -women. However, notwithstanding the serious limitations which orthodox -Mohammedanism imposes upon women, it would be sheer injustice to the -better class of Mohammedans to be stigmatized as enslavers and debasers -of woman. - - - - -{325} - -CHAPTER II - -PAUL AND WOMAN - -Perhaps nowhere else is the Syrian attitude toward woman so clearly -stated as in the teachings of St. Paul. The great Apostle deals with -the fundamentals of this subject, and speaks freely of both the -privileges and the limitations of woman in the Christian East. - -In the third chapter of the Epistle to the Galatians, the twenty-eighth -verse, Paul says, "There is neither male nor female: for ye are all one -in Christ Jesus." And this equality is not to be understood to be -limited to the bestowal of church rites upon men and women alike. It -embraces the essential points of conduct of the male and female members -of the household toward one another. Fidelity to the marriage vow is -to be equally observed by both husband and wife. This the Apostle -urges upon his fellow believers, not as a superior authority, {326} but -as a friend. In the seventh chapter of the First Epistle to the -Corinthians, the fourth verse, he says, "The wife hath not power over -her own body, but the husband; and _likewise_ also the husband hath not -power over his own body, but the wife." In the fourteenth verse of -this same chapter, the equal potency of the spiritual influence of both -the husband and the wife is also recognized. "The unbelieving -husband," says the Apostle, "is sanctified by the wife, and the -unbelieving wife is sanctified by the husband." In the fifth chapter -of the Epistle to the Ephesians, the "Apostle to the Gentiles" rises to -the noblest height of Eastern thought concerning woman and reveals -Christianity's conserving and sanctifying power. Beginning at the -twenty-fifth verse, he says: "Husbands, love your wives, even as Christ -also loved the church, and gave himself for it; that he might sanctify -and cleanse it, ... that he might present it to himself a glorious -church, not having spot, or wrinkle, or any such thing; but that it -should be holy and without blemish. {327} So ought men to love their -wives as their own bodies. He that loveth his wife loveth himself. -For no man ever yet hated his own flesh; but nourisheth and cherisheth -it, even as the Lord the church." - -This is precisely what the marriage union in the East always meant to -us. By this sacred bond the husband and the wife are made "one flesh." -That the Oriental has not definitely succeeded in making his daily -conduct always conform to his highest ideals and to the noble precepts -of the Gospel is evident, and not at all strange. Here he has -succeeded no better than his Anglo-Saxon superior has in conforming his -conduct to the command, "Love your enemies." My point is that down -deep in the Syrian heart the spirit of Paul's words abides. It serves -the son of the East in time of trouble as his quick and tender -conscience. The real trouble with him has been his aversion to -strictly systematic living. He does love his wife as he loves himself, -but in reality he does not fully know how to love himself. - -{328} - -Paul, on the other hand, does not ignore the conventional limitations -which Eastern traditions impose upon woman. He recognizes the -patriarchal government of the family. In the chapter just quoted, the -Apostle says: "Wives, submit yourselves unto your own husbands, as unto -the Lord. For the husband is the head of the wife, even as Christ is -the head of the Church." Much trouble may be avoided by the unfriendly -critics of Paul and Christianity in general, if such critics would keep -in mind the conditional nature of this command. Whether as a Syrian or -as an American I do not believe in subjecting the wife to the husband, -nor the husband to the wife. Domestic life should be based on perfect -coöperation of husband and wife, in spiritual as well as in -administrative matters. Toward this goal the Americans have made the -greatest advance. However, Paul's command can by no means be justly -construed as giving the husband unlimited tyrannical authority over the -wife. "The husband is the head of the wife, _even as Christ is the -head of the {329} Church_." The church is not the slave of Christ, but -his beloved bride. So the supremacy here is that of loving care and -consideration. Therefore, the fact that the traditions of the East -give the man conventional supremacy over the woman has never meant to -us sons of that land that our mothers and sisters were abject slaves. -And it should be borne in mind that the women of Syria are not always -so submissive as those traditions would lead a Westerner to believe. I -might say that in the majority of cases the man finds it no easy task -to make his formal authority over the woman of real effect. The -heartfelt complaints of discouraged husbands, that "not even all the -angels of heaven can subdue a woman," are not unfrequently heard in the -land of the Bible. - -Perhaps the part of Paul's teaching which seems to Westerners to seal -the fate of woman is that found in the eleventh chapter of the First -Epistle to the Corinthians. Here the Apostle declares: "For a man -indeed ought not to cover his head, forasmuch as he is the image and -glory {330} of God: but the woman is the glory of the man. Neither was -the man created for the woman; but the woman for the man." - -I think any serious Bible student will easily realize that as a good -shepherd Paul must have felt that he should not travel much faster than -the weakest of his flock. In the passage just quoted he stoops low for -the purpose of accommodating the prejudices of _certain_ Orientals. -And in so doing he contradicts his own saying, "There is neither male -nor female: for ye are all one in Christ Jesus," and the great passage -in the first chapter of Genesis, the twenty-seventh verse, "So God -created man in his own image, in the image of God created he him; _male -and female_ created he them." - -The Eastern man has from time immemorial decreed that woman's social -privileges should be limited, because of his fear for her. In such an -unstable social order as that which has existed in the East for ages -woman is constantly exposed to danger. Woman-stealing was very -prevalent in ancient times, and is still practiced {331} among the -Arabian tribes which hover on the eastern borders of Syria. In modern -Syria such practices no longer exist, but their faint echoes are still -heard in times of tribal fights. On such occasions the cry is heard -(and I often heard it myself), "You dogs, to-day we shall take your -women booty [_nesbee hereemekûm_]." - -It is because of these ancient fears, and not from a desire on the part -of the man to enslave her, that the social privileges of the woman in -the East are so limited. The duty to protect always carries with it -the right to discipline. And the greater the danger, the more strict -the discipline. The weaker men of the clan, because they need to be -protected, are also in subjection to the "men of counsel" (_ahil erry_) -and to the stronger fighters. - -And it may be easily inferred that in such circumstances woman's charms -are a danger to her. She must be secluded, as among the Mohammedans, -or simply limited in her social intercourse, as among the Christians, -in order to hide those charms from the curious stranger. {332} For -this reason also she must be heavily veiled when she goes out, as among -the Moslems, or at least have her head covered always, as among the -Christians. So when Paul said, "Every woman that prayeth or -prophesieth with her head uncovered dishonoreth her head,"[1] he simply -gave wise recognition to an ancient social custom. A more liberal -course on his part would have marked Paul as a violent disturber of -venerable traditions. - -The chief charm of an Oriental woman is her _hishmat_ (modesty). But -modesty in a stricter sense than that accepted in the Occident. -Feminine timidity (_jubn_) is very extensively sung by the Arabian -poets. A charming woman, especially a maiden, is she who is timid, -shy, retiring, of a few words. "She has a mouth to eat, but not to -speak," is a high tribute paid to a maiden. For a woman to take a -leading part in conversation in the presence of men is boldness. I do -not know how they manage to do it, but, _as a rule_, in the presence of -men the women of {333} Syria exercise marvelous control over their -organs of speech. - -Do you understand now why Paul says, in the fourteenth chapter of his -First Epistle to the Corinthians, the thirty-fourth verse, "Let your -women keep silence in the Churches: for it is not permitted unto them -to speak; but they are commanded to be under obedience"? To Oriental -ears, as perhaps to Puritan ears of the good old type, such words are -poetry set to music. They do not degrade, but honor woman by not -making her common. - -It would, perhaps, throw further light on the Easterners' regard of -woman as a sacred being when it is known why they call the wife -_hûrmat_. This term is derived from _heram_--a consecrated and wholly -sacred object. _Heram_ is the name of the Mohammedans' most sacred -shrine of Mecca. The wife is the husband's most sacred possession, -therefore she is called _hûrmat_. The plural of this is _harem_, a -term which to Westerners has a most obnoxious connotation. But not so -to Orientals. In the West {334} _harem_ simply means sensuality and -polygamy in their worst form. In the East it means simply and purely -the women of a household, or of a clan, whether it be Christian or -Mohammedan. It does not necessarily mean plurality of wives. A man's -mother, wife, sisters, and daughters constitute his _harem_; for they -are all sacred to him. - -Now it will not be difficult to understand, I believe, why it is that -the man in the East takes precedence of the woman in all social -affairs, and why the sexes are segregated at public feasts and on other -similar occasions. It is for the same reason that we find no women -disciples at the Last Supper. In the parable of the prodigal son, the -father meets the returning penitent, the father bestows "the best robe" -on the son, the father orders the feast, and doubtless presides over -it. So it was also when Abraham entertained the angels, and Zacchæus -entertained Jesus--the man was the entertainer. However, in these two -cases the women might have acted as hostesses,--because the {335} -guests were holy persons. We have a striking example of the freedom -which is permitted to women in such cases in the story of Mary and -Martha. They entertained Jesus, first because apparently they had no -parents living, and their brother was young, and second because Jesus -was no mere guest, but a holy person.[2] - -Notwithstanding all these social conventions, however, the mother has a -right to demand from her children the same loving obedience which they -accord to their father. They must honor their father and their mother -alike. Upon coming home from a journey I always saluted my parents by -kissing their hands, as a mark of loving submission. According to -custom, I saluted my father first, and my mother second, but in the -same identical manner, and invoked their _radha_ (good pleasure) toward -me, with religious reverence. I always knew that to disrespect and -disobey my mother was not only bad manners, but a sin. So obnoxious -has disobedience to parents been to the respectable {336} families of -the East that the ancient Israelites made it a capital crime. In the -twenty-first chapter of the Book of Deuteronomy the stipulation of the -law is: "If a man have a stubborn and rebellious son, which will not -obey the voice of his father, or the voice of _his mother_, and that, -when they have chastened him, will not hearken unto them: then shall -his father _and_ his mother lay hold on him, and bring him out unto the -elders of his city, and unto the gate of his place; and they shall say -unto the elders of his city, This our son is stubborn and rebellious, -he will not obey our voice.... And all the men of his city shall stone -him with stones, that he die."[3] Needless to say that this cruel -punishment is no longer inflicted upon rebellious sons in the East. -The record, however, indicates the joint authority of the husband and -wife over their own children, and the public approval of it. - -But there is more to be said about _radha-elwalideen_ (the parents' -good pleasure). I do {337} not know whether the words "good pleasure" -convey the real significance of the word _radha_, which as it pertains -to parents is one of the most sacred terms in Oriental speech. The -_radha_ of a parent is a benediction which includes complete -forgiveness to the child of all offenses and indicates the parent's -spiritual satisfaction with his offspring. To secure the parent's -expressed _radha_ at the hour of death is equal to a sacrament. I can -think of no human experience that can be more impressive, more tender, -and more deeply religious than that of an Oriental imploring a dying -parent to assure him of his or her _radha_ before the end came. The -weeping son grasps the hand of his dying parent, and, leaning over -tenderly to catch the faint utterances, says: "Father,[4] bestow your -_radha_ upon me; forgive me and bless me, so that Allah also may -forgive and bless me; your _radha_, father!" If the departing parent -is still able to speak, he looks up toward heaven and says: "You have -my _radha_, my dearly beloved {338} son; and may Allah bestow his holy -_radha_ upon you and bless you and the work of your hands. May the -earth produce riches for you, and heaven shower benedictions upon you; -pray for me, my dearly beloved." But if the departing father or mother -is no longer able to utter words, the repeated pressing of the hand and -the turning of the eyes upward indicate the parent's response to the -petition of the son or daughter. The refusal of a parent to grant his -_radha_, which is most rare, is to an Oriental a haunting horror. - -In ancient Israel the deathbed blessing was bestowed with special -emphasis upon the first-born son because with it came the heritage of -the patriarchal office. Thus, when Isaac bestowed his last blessing -upon his tricky son Jacob, he said:[5] "God give thee of the dew of -heaven, and the fatness of the earth, and plenty of corn and wine: Let -people serve thee, and nations bow down to thee: be lord over thy -brethren, and let thy mother's sons bow down {339} to thee." And what -is also most touching in this story is poor Esau's agony when he -discovered that the blessing to which he was the rightful heir had gone -to his brother. "And Esau said unto his father, Hast thou but one -blessing, my father? bless me, even me also, O my father. And Esau -lifted up his voice and wept."[6] - - - -[1] 1 Cor. xi: 5. - -[2] See page 207. - -[3] Verses 18-21. - -[4] The same also is asked of the mother. - -[5] Gen. xxvii: 28, 29. - -[6] Gen. xxvii: 38. - - - - -{340} - -CHAPTER III - -JESUS AND HIS MOTHER - -One of the perplexing passages in the New Testament is that found in -the fourth verse of the second chapter of St. John's Gospel, where -Jesus says to his mother, "Woman, what have I to do with thee?" That -it has been very difficult for many devout readers of the Bible to -reconcile this passage to the Master's gentleness and goodness is very -well known to me. On numerous occasions I have been asked to give my -interpretation of this saying in the light of the status of woman in -the East, and to state whether, in my opinion as a Syrian, Jesus could -have meant to be harsh and disrespectful to his mother. Before -undertaking to give my own view of this passage, I wish to present two -interpretations of it which I have heard certain American preachers -give. One of those preachers who was proud to call himself "a free -lance" stated in my hearing that on the {341} occasion when Jesus spoke -these words "he simply lost his temper." The redeeming feature of this -comment, in my opinion, is its brevity. It is short, but neither sweet -nor to the point. The other interpreter (or interpreters, for I do not -recall where and when I heard this), assuming that the station of woman -in the East was very low, stated that by addressing his mother in a -seemingly harsh manner, Jesus infringed no rule of propriety. Having -already stated at considerable length the "Oriental view of woman," I -deem it necessary here simply to say that the foregoing interpretation -rests on a misconception of the facts. - -In trying to throw some light on this passage I will say that, -notwithstanding its seeming harshness in the English translation, I -find no real reason to believe that in uttering it Jesus indicated that -he was angry, or that he meant to be disrespectful to his mother. This -somewhat impersonal form of address to a woman is very common in the -East. It _might_ be so spoken as to mean disrespect, but as a rule, -and {342} according to the Oriental manner of speech, it is dignified -and in good taste. At present the term _hûrmat_ is more extensively -used in such cases in Syria. Among the nobility and the educated -minority of the people the word _sitt_ (lady) is employed in addressing -a woman. However, this impersonal form of address is employed by a man -when speaking to a woman who is a stranger to him. The correct form -is, "O woman," the same which Jesus used in saying to the "woman of -Canaan," in the fifteenth chapter of Matthew, the twenty-eighth verse, -"O woman, great is thy faith: be it unto thee even as thou wilt." In -the same manner the Master assured the woman who had "a spirit of -infirmity,"[1] "Woman,[2] thou art loosed from thine infirmity." A -superb example of this Oriental usage is found in the fourth chapter of -St. John's Gospel, the twenty-first verse, in Jesus' conversation with -the Samaritan woman. With solemn dignity he says to her: "Woman, {343} -believe me, the hour cometh, when ye shall neither in this mountain, -nor yet at Jerusalem, worship the Father.... But the hour cometh, and -now is, when the true worshippers shall worship the Father in spirit -and in truth." - -From the foregoing examples it may be easily seen that the form of -Jesus' address to his mother could not be considered disrespectful. -Therefore the difficulty which the text offers springs from the fact -that it represents Jesus as speaking to his own mother as he would -speak to a woman _who was a stranger to him_. Why did he do that? The -answer to this question depends partially on thorough knowledge of -Oriental thought and largely on acquaintance with the theology of St. -John's Gospel. - -As every Bible scholar knows, the purpose of this Gospel is to present -Jesus to the world as the incarnation of the Logos--the Word. Here the -Master is spoken of, not as the prophet of Galilee, but as the One who -came down from heaven. Therefore the Son of God was by virtue of this -supernatural character above all {344} earthly connections. His mother -was only human, only finite. On the occasion of his addressing her as -a stranger she is represented as interfering with him as he was about -to work a miracle. Such a thing, according to St. John's Gospel, was -beyond her understanding. Consequently as a _divine_ being speaking to -a _human_ being, Jesus said to his earthly mother, "Woman, what is mine -and what is thine?" This is the original form. The English -translation, "Woman, what have I to do with thee," is good, although -the more refined attitude of the West toward woman makes the expression -seem rather harsh. Stated in simplest terms the Oriental understanding -of these words is, "Leave me alone." In Jesus' case the further -implication of the passage is that, as Mary's vision of spiritual -things was not Jesus' vision, even though he was her son in the flesh, -she was not competent to exercise authority over him, seeing that he -was a divine being. In a higher sense she was a stranger to him. - -With real consistency the writer of the Fourth {345} Gospel clings to -this view of Jesus' divinity to the end. In the nineteenth chapter we -find the Master speaking from the cross. He speaks, not as a human -sufferer, but as a triumphant heavenly being. He addresses his mother -in the same manner as he did at the marriage feast in Cana of -Galilee--"Woman." In the twenty-fifth verse it is said: "Now there -stood by the Cross of Jesus his mother, and his mother's sister, Mary -the wife of Cleophas, and Mary Magdalene. When Jesus therefore saw his -mother, and the disciple standing by, whom he loved, he saith unto his -mother, Woman, behold thy son!" In this lofty yet tender manner the -Master committed his loving mother to the care of his beloved disciple. - -The excellent qualities of a man are credited by Orientals largely to -_haleeb el-omm_ (the mother's milk) and the mysterious influences of -the prenatal period. Aside from its nutritive qualities, _el-redha'_ -(suck) is supposed to possess certain mystic influences which tend to -fashion the possibilities of character. Whenever a man, {346} -especially a youth, speaks "words of wisdom," his admiring hearer is -likely to exclaim, "Precious was the milk that nourished thee!" Among -the choice blessings which Jacob asked for Joseph the patriarch did not -forget to include the "blessings of the breasts, and of the womb."[3] -Nothing can be loftier to an Oriental than the passage in the eleventh -chapter of St. Luke's gospel, the twenty-seventh verse. Jesus is -represented in the preceding verses as disputing triumphantly with his -theological adversaries. His trenchant periods, "Every kingdom divided -against itself is brought to desolation.... He that is not with me is -against me," and his simple yet profound reasoning that a human heart -which is not filled with the spirit of God is bound to become the abode -of evil spirits, deeply stir his hearers. So the text tells us, "A -certain woman of the company lifted up her voice and said unto him, -Blessed is the womb that bare thee, and the breasts which thou hast -sucked!" - -{347} - -The most solemn occasion on which I heard this expression used in my -native land was that when the great Patriarch of Antioch visited our -town in Mount Lebanon. Upon his arrival at the priest's house, where -he was entertained, the waiting multitude, including the governor of -the district, stood with bowed heads to receive the prelate's -benediction. I shall never forget that scene. Standing in the door, -our revered and beloved patriarch seemed to us to be a visitor from the -celestial sphere, full of truth and grace. As he lifted his right arm -and imparted his blessing to the silent assemblage, a woman of our -church, a mother, who was almost overcome with emotion, advanced toward -the spiritual ruler, and with her face and open palms turned toward -heaven, exclaimed, in the vernacular Arabic, "Blessed be the inwards -that bore you, and the breasts you sucked!" Whereupon the -distinguished visitor bestowed a special blessing upon the humble -suppliant, to the great satisfaction of the profoundly affected -multitude. - - - -[1] Luke xiii: 12. - -[2] The English translation changes the form, "O woman" to "Woman" -arbitrarily. - -[3] Gen. xlix: 25. - - - - -{348} - -CHAPTER IV - -"A GRACIOUS WOMAN" - -To the East woman is known only as wife and mother, and, of course, as -the home-maker. The statement, "Woman's place is in the home," is -never a matter of dispute in that part of the world. In the home are -to be found both "woman's rights" and woman's duties. Education, -literary pursuits, "club life," and civic endeavors are no vital -interests to the Eastern woman, nor to her husband to any appreciable -extent. Marriage is a religious union. The highest and most sacred -duty of the husband and wife is to beget many children, bring them up -"in the fear of the Lord," and be such good example to them, as to -enable them to live a pious life, and to transmit their good heritage -to the unborn generations. Marriage of inclination, preceded by a -period of courtship as in the West, is very rare in the East. The -reason of this has {349} been hinted in the preceding chapters. Lack -of education and social and political stability necessitates the -curtailing of woman's social privileges, for her own safety. These -limitations are especially narrow in the case of "maidens," or -"virgins"; that is, unmarried young women. They are not supposed to -participate in social functions as their mothers do, nor to form -friendships with young men, even among their near relatives. The -contracting of a marriage is not so much an individual as it is a -clannish affair. The young people may, or may not be acquainted with -one another. Among Christians, the young man may frequent the home of -his future wife's parents, and even converse with her now and then, but -only in the presence of other members of the family. "Going with a -young lady" is unknown to the East, and is a feature of Western life -which Orientals generally condemn. The marriage is agreed upon by the -families or clans of the contracting parties, because the family or -clan is involved in the conduct and affected by the {350} reputation of -each one of its members. The shame of a woman is a burden to all her -kindred. Interclannish marriages form alliances and impose defensive -and offensive obligations. Whenever a woman of one clan, who is -married into another, is cruelly treated by her husband, her own -clansmen are supposed to rise and defend her, else they become a byword -in the community. - -This difference of procedure between the East and the West in -contracting a marriage does not seem to result in a decidedly marked -difference in domestic happiness. In both the East and the West, the -perfectly happy and the perfectly unhappy marriages are rare. In both -hemispheres the large majority of married people soon learn that -domestic happiness depends in no small measure on adherence to the -well-known rule: "In essentials unity; in non-essentials liberty; in -all things charity." As I have already stated, the Oriental does not -know the art of living as the Occidental does, yet the Easterner enjoys -as much home happiness {351} as those Occidentals who are on the same -level of culture with him. - -Women in the East are classified, not with reference to education and -social interests or the lack of them, but with reference to virtue and -its opposite. A happy husband says, "I lift my head high [_arfa' -rasy_] because of my wife. Her _siett_ [reputation] is like musk in -fragrance. She is _taj rasy_ [a crown to my head]." So also speaks -the writer of the Book of Proverbs, in the twelfth chapter, and the -fourth verse: "A virtuous woman is a crown to her husband: but she that -maketh ashamed is as rottenness in his bones." In both the East and -the West the opinion is accepted that "as a jewel of gold in a swine's -snout, so is a fair woman which is without discretion."[1] - -The Orient and the Occident diverge considerably in their description -of feminine charms in poetry and literature. Here I find the Orientals -to be very inconsistent. Their strong aversion to the free mention of -women in {352} conversation and to her sharing of social privileges -equally with the man, contrasts very sharply with their license in -describing her charms in their poetry. A most perfect specimen of this -poetry in the Bible is Solomon's Song. Its Oriental freedom in -describing the "beloved spouse," renders it practically unfit for -public use. Its poetical charms are exquisite, and its passion is -pure, but judged by Western standards, the faithfulness of its realism -appears licentious. It is exhilarating to read the poet's lines in -which he calls his "fair one" to go with him into the fields and -vineyards. - - "Rise up, my love, my fair one, and come away. - For, lo, the winter is past, - The rain is over and gone; - The flowers appear on the earth; - The time of the singing of birds is come, - And the voice of the turtle dove is heard in our land; - The fig tree ripeneth her green figs, - And the vines are in blossom, - They give forth their fragrance. - Arise, my love, my fair one, and come away. - O my dove, that art in the clefts of the rock, - In the covert of the steep place, - Let me see thy countenance, - -{353} - - Let me hear thy voice; - For sweet is thy voice, and thy countenance is comely."[2] - - -In the opening verses of the fourth chapter the poet's vision of his -"love" is also beautiful. - - "Behold, thou art fair, my love; behold, thou art fair; - Thine eyes are as doves behind thy veil: - Thy hair is as a flock of goats, - That lie along the side of mount Gilead. - Thy teeth are like a flock of ewes that are newly shorn - Which are come up from the washing; ... - Thy lips are like a thread of scarlet, - And thy mouth is comely." - - -All this is beautiful and perfectly acceptable to both the East and the -West. Not so the opening lines of the seventh chapter. The Revised -Version modifies the original text. King James's Version gives the -lines just as Oriental poetry past and present would render them. The -rendering of the second verse by the Revised Version, "Thy body is like -a round goblet," and, "Thy waist is like an heap of wheat," renders the -words meaningless. However, the modesty of the revisers is to be -commended. - -{354} - -Arabic poetry is full of such passages, which abound also in Syrian -vernacular songs, which are sung with perfect propriety among all -classes. In discussing such a subject as this one can hardly resist -the temptation to judge. To me the more chaste way of the West in -poetizing feminine charms is far superior to the altogether too free -realism of the East, which I do not feel at all inclined to defend. -Yet I would not be loyal to good conscience if I did not offer an -explanation in behalf of the land of my birth. Ever since I began to -read Arabic poetry, for which I developed great fondness, to the -present day, I do not remember that its descriptions of feminine -loveliness ever really suggested to me licentious thoughts. The -general effect of such delineations upon me was of the same sort as -that which the sketching of love scenes by a great novelist produces. -Its charms were those of the poetic art, and not those of the seductive -feelings of sordid passion. - -To us _'aroos esshi'ar_ (the bride, or spouse of the poet) is purely an -imaginary creature. It is {355} the poet's spirit of inspiration -objectified in a female form. He does not describe a woman, but an -angelic creature whose body and soul are both pure. Only the very -commonplace versifier gets demoralized and infects his reader with the -same feeling. The true poet soars far above "the things that perish," -and is perfectly safe to follow. His infatuation is known as _el howa -el'adhry_ (pure, or aspirational love). Here, then, without the -slightest attempt to excuse his phraseology, I find at least a partial -justification for the Eastern poet, and for the writer of Solomon's -Song. - -The simple, eloquent, and fully inclusive description of the "virtuous -woman," in the thirty-first chapter of the Book of Proverbs, is rather -a composite than an individual picture. It expresses the Syrian's -noblest idea of the true wife and the real home-maker:-- - - -Who can find a virtuous woman? for her price is far above rubies. - -The heart of her husband doth safely trust in her, so that he shall -have no need for spoil. - -{356} - -She will do him good and not evil all the days of her life. - -She seeketh wool, and flax, and worketh willingly with her hands. - -She is like the merchant's ships; she bringeth her food from afar. - -She riseth also while it is yet night, and giveth meat to her -household, and a portion to her maidens. - -She considereth a field, and buyeth it: with the fruits of her hands -she planteth a vineyard. - -She girdeth her loins with strength, and strengtheneth her arms. - -She perceiveth that her merchandise is good: her candle goeth not out -by night. - -She layeth her hands to the spindle, and her hands hold the distaff. - -She stretcheth out her hands to the poor; yea, she reacheth forth her -hands to the needy. - -She is not afraid of the snow for her household: for all her household -are clothed with scarlet. - -She maketh herself coverings of tapestry; her clothing is silk and -purple. - -Her husband is known in the gates, when he sitteth among the elders of -the land. - -She maketh fine linen, and selleth it; and delivereth girdles unto the -merchant. - -Strength and honor are her clothing; and she shall rejoice in time to -come. - -{357} - -She openeth her mouth with wisdom; and in her tongue is the law of -kindness. - -She looketh well to the ways of her household, and eateth not the bread -of idleness. - -Her children arise up, and call her blessed; her husband also, and he -praiseth her. - -Many daughters have done virtuously, but thou excellest them all. - -Favour is deceitful, and beauty is vain: but a woman that feareth the -Lord, she shall be praised. - -Give her of the fruit of her hands; and let her own works praise her in -the gates. - - -Here we have the real "Oriental view of woman," and a glorification of -virtue, loyalty, industry, wisdom, kindness, and charity, unsurpassed -in its beauty and simplicity. I have said that this remarkable picture -is rather composite than individual. Yet the true, diligent, and -virtuous Syrian wife and mother comes near being the ideal woman of the -ancient Scriptural writer. His question, "Who can find a virtuous -woman?" does not mean that such a woman cannot be found; nor his -saying, "For her price is far above rubies" mean that women are bought -and sold in the market. The {358} sense of the writer can be -adequately expressed by saying, "Happy is he who hath a virtuous woman, -for her worth is far above all earthly riches." But for the existence -of women approaching his ideal, this writer could not have given the -world his picture of the "virtuous woman." - -I feel that no detailed commentary on these verses is needed. The -virtues here enumerated are universally cherished. I will, however, -call attention to the Oriental features of this great passage. In -saying that "the heart of her husband doth safely trust in her," the -writer shows that the good wife is by no means a despised creature in -the Syrian home. She is loved and trusted as her husband's -life-partner, and exerts no inconsiderable influence upon him. The -value of such a wife's counsel in the estimation of her husband and -friends is also indicated in the saying, "She openeth her mouth with -wisdom; and in her tongue is the law of kindness." "She seeketh wool, -and flax, and worketh willingly with her hands," or, as the Arabic -version {359} has it, "with willing hands." The flax is now rarely -found in Syria. Wool and silk cocoons are spun into thread by means of -the spindle, woven on hand looms, and made into garments by the women, -especially in the rural districts. This verse should be joined to -verse nineteen, which says, "She layeth her hands to the spindle, and -her hands hold the distaff." The Revised Version says, "She layeth her -hands to the distaff, and her hands hold the spindle." In explaining -this passage some commentators speak of the spinning wheel, and of the -distaff, as the dictionary defines it: "A rotating vertical staff that -holds the bunch of flax or wool in hand-spinning." But this is not the -"spindle" which is intended in the passage before us. The Syrian -spindle (_meghzel_) which a woman may carry wherever she goes, is a -small instrument. It consists of a smooth wooden pin, or stem, about -the size and shape of a long wooden pen holder. This is inserted at -its thick end into a hole of a hemispherical "top" or whorl, which is -the exact shape of the crown of a small {360} mushroom. It is this top -which the English translation calls "distaff." A small brass hook -fastened to the end of the stem, which protrudes slightly above the -whorl, completes the spindle. In spinning a quantity of wool is wound -on a small wooden or wire frame into which the woman inserts her left -hand, the frame passing over the fingers and held inside the palm next -to the thumb, thus leaving the thumb and all the fingers free. The -spinner fastens the hook of the spindle to the bunch of wool and twirls -the spindle swiftly at its lower end, between the thumb and the middle -finger of the right hand, and then draws the thread deftly with the -fingers of both hands. When the twisted thread is about the "length of -an arm," the spinner unhooks it without breaking it off, winds it on -the stem of the spindle, just below the whorl, then fastens it again to -the hook close to the raw material. The operation is thus continued -until the bunch of wool is converted into a "spindleful" of thread. - -The spindle as it is mentioned in the passage {361} under -consideration, and in this peculiarly constructed language, symbolizes -diligence and industry. "She layeth her hands to the spindle, and her -hands hold the distaff" is equivalent to saying "She is never idle," or -as the Syrians say, "Her spindle is never out of her hands." - -As a general rule spinning in Syria is done by the older women. It is -often used as an occasion for diligent spinners "to get together." I -recall very clearly the palmy days of my grandmother as a spinner, and -some of the delightful spinning sociables she enjoyed with her peers. -It was a delight to me to watch those good women lay their hands to the -spindle. It is always delightful to watch an expert at his work. They -worked with the ease and inerrancy of instinct. They spun while -walking, talking, eating (informally) or even disputing. The only -thing about the useful industry which I hated heartily as a boy was -that when I came close to the feminine spinners the flying hairs from -their whirling spindles fell on me, and "made my flesh creep." - -{362} - -Again the virtuous woman "Considereth a field, and buyeth it: with the -fruit of her hands she planteth a vineyard." Here the language of the -Scriptural writer is figurative. It refers to a good wife's thrift. -She saves the coins she earns and treasures them in the well-known -_kees_ (money bag) in a corner of the clothes chest, where heirlooms -and other precious objects are stored. In time of need she surprises -her husband by the substantial sum of money she places in his hands, -which enables him to buy a field or plant a vineyard. - -"She is not afraid of the snow for her household; for all her household -are clothed in scarlet." The marginal note greatly improves the -translation by saying "double garments" instead of "scarlet." The -Arabic version says _hillel_--that is, full, or substantial, garments. -The snow is always dreaded by the common people of Syria. With it come -no sleighbells and no skating. It is a time of stress (_dhieq_). The -snow "blocks the roads and cuts a man off from his neighbor." At such -a time, because {363} of lack of fuel and adequate clothing, many of -the people suffer. So the writer of Proverbs praises the "virtuous -woman" very highly when he says, "She is not afraid of the snow for her -household," because by her foresight and unremitting care she has amply -provided for their comfort. - -"Her husband is known in the gates, when he sitteth among the elders of -the land." The Syrian husband of the good old type does not buy his -wearing apparel "ready-made" at the clothier's. His garments are made -by his wife. When he sits with the elders of the community in the -market place or at the gate of the town where those dignitaries -converse on matters of public interest, and speak parables and tell -stories, his neat appearance bespeaks the diligence and loving care of -his wife. "Verily his wife is a costly jewel," is the likely remark of -such a fortunate man's admirers. How true also to the nobler instincts -of the East are these words in this poetical description of the -virtuous woman. "Her children arise up, and call {364} her blessed; -her husband also, and he praiseth her." - -The closing words of this Oriental writer who lived long before the -advent of "modern culture," reveal him as one of woman's truest friends -and wisest counselors. "Favour is deceitful, and beauty is vain: but a -woman that feareth the Lord, she shall be praised. Give her of the -fruits of her hands; and let her own works praise her in the gates." -This is the true "Order of Merit." - - - -[1] Prov. xi: 22. - -[2] Revised Version; ii: 10-14. - - - - -{367} - -PART VI - -HERE AND THERE IN THE BIBLE - - - - -HERE AND THERE IN THE BIBLE - -During the time when the earlier chapters of this book were being -published in the "Atlantic Monthly," requests came to the author from -readers of those chapters for his comments on certain Scriptural -passages which did not appear in them. Some of the passages suggested -by those interested readers, I have considered in other parts of this -publication. The other passages thus suggested, and others which -presented themselves to the author during the progress of this work, -but which for some reason or other he could not include in the -preceding chapters, will now be considered, without the attempt to make -of this portion of the book a coherent whole. - - -"And Abraham said unto his eldest servant of his house, that ruled over -all that he had, Put, I pray thee, thy hand under my thigh: and I will -make thee swear by the Lord, the God of {368} heaven, and the God of -the earth, that thou shalt not take a wife unto my son of the daughters -of the Canaanites, among whom I dwell: but thou shalt go unto my -country, and to my kindred, and take a wife unto my son Isaac."[1] - -In the East the general custom is that the "speaking concerning a -damsel" in behalf of a young man is entrusted to the most distinguished -of his male relatives. Sometimes women are included in the mission. -They approach the young woman's father and clansmen in a very dignified -and formal manner, and, if possible, secure the "promise" for their -son. It is only in rare instances that this significant undertaking is -entrusted to one who is an alien to the groom's family (_ghareeb_) and -who acts as an ambassador. Abraham was compelled to assign this duty -to his trusted servant, because the patriarch had no relatives in -Canaan. His demand from his servant to put his hand under his master's -thigh and {369} swear by the God of heaven and earth that he would do -as he was asked is characteristically Oriental. The custom of calling -upon God to "witness" a promise or a covenant between two individuals -or clans is still extant in Syria. The placing of the hand under the -thigh, however, is no longer done, but the habit of placing the hand -under the girdle (_zinnar_) for the same purpose is generally -practiced. However, it is the one who makes the request who puts his -hand under the girdle of the one from whom the favor is asked. _Eedy -tahit zinnarek_ (my hand is under your girdle) means I come to you with -the fullest confidence to do such and such a thing for me. In the -eastern parts of Syria this practice is highly valued. Putting one's -hand under another person's girdle is almost the equivalent of entering -"under his roof" for protection from a pursuing enemy. If at all -possible, the favor must be granted. I have no doubt that this custom -is a survival in a different form of that of placing the hand under the -thigh in making a solemn promise. - -{370} - -Abraham's experience upon the death of his wife with "the children of -Heth" and with "Ephron son of Zohar," presents an interesting picture -of Oriental courtesy. In the twenty-third chapter of Genesis, -beginning with the third verse, the record reads, "And Abraham stood up -from before his dead, and spake unto the sons of Heth, saying, I am a -stranger and a sojourner with you: give me a possession of a -burying-place with you, that I may bury my dead out of my sight." The -burying-places in the East are clannish or church possessions. The -Orientals, now as in ancient times, dread "a lonely grave." It is -always expected that a worthy stranger be offered a burying-place for -his dead in a sepulcher of the community where he happens to be, as -that he should be offered the hospitality of a home. So we read, "And -the children of Heth answered Abraham, saying unto him, Hear us, my -lord: thou art a mighty prince among us: in the choice of our -sepulchres bury thy dead; none of us shall withhold from thee his -sepulchre." - -{371} - -That was noble of the children of Heth; they upheld the noblest -Oriental tradition by their generous act. So also did Joseph of -Arimathea when he took Jesus' body, "wrapped it in a clean linen cloth, -and laid it in his own new tomb, which he had hewn out in the rock."[2] - -Abraham, however, who expected to be a permanent dweller in Canaan, -wished to have a burying-place of his own. So the aged patriarch said -again to the Hittites (verse 8), "If it be your mind that I should bury -my dead out of my sight, hear me, and entreat for me to Ephron the son -of Zohar, that he may give me the cave of Machpelah, which he hath, -which is in the end of his field." But Ephron would not be outdone in -courtesy by his kinsman; at least he would not be accused of having -omitted the nice formalities of such an occasion. "Nay, my lord," he -said to Abraham (verse 11), "hear me: the field give I thee, and the -cave that is therein, I give it thee; in the presence of the sons of my -people give I it thee: bury thy dead." - -{372} - -To me this sounds "very natural." Ephron meant simply to be courteous. -It is an Oriental custom to avoid a business transaction whenever a -question of hospitality is involved, although it is not expected that -the gift would be received as offered. The language on such occasions -is purely complimentary. An Oriental offers to give you anything you -may admire of his personal possessions, but as a rule you are not -expected to accept the offer. Ephron did not really mean that he would -give his field to Abraham without money and without price, but he would -have Abraham know that he was ready to befriend him in his sorrow, and -not to deal with him simply as a customer. The patriarch acknowledged -the kindness by bowing himself down before the Hittites, but would not -accept the field as a gift. Thereupon Ephron quoted the price of the -field to the father of Israel in a truly characteristic Syrian fashion, -by saying (verse 15), "My lord, hearken unto me: a piece of land worth -four hundred shekels of silver, what is that betwixt me and thee? -{373} bury therefore thy dead." The gentle hint accomplished its -purpose, "and Abraham weighed to Ephron the silver which he had named -in the audience of the children of Heth, four hundred shekels of -silver, current money with the merchant." - - -In speaking of the haste in which the Israelites were compelled to -leave Egypt, the writer of the Book of Exodus says,[3] "And the people -took their dough before it was leavened, their kneading-troughs being -bound up in their clothes upon their shoulders." In the thirty-first -verse it is said that Pharaoh "called for Moses and Aaron by night, and -said, Rise up, and get you forth from among my people." As a rule the -Syrian housewife kneads the dough in the evening in order that it may -"leaven" during the night and be ready for baking early the next -morning. The saying, "And the people took their dough before it was -leavened," is meant to show that they departed before the early {374} -morning hours. Apparently the Israelites had wooden kneading-troughs -such as at present the Arabs in the interior of Syria still use. The -Syrians use earthen basins.[4] What is called kneading-trough in the -Bible resembles a large chopping-bowl, but is heavier and not so -perfectly round as the chopping-bowl which is commonly used in the -American home. In this basin the bread is also kept after it is baked. -In the thirty-ninth verse it is said, "And they baked unleavened cakes -of the dough which they brought forth out of Egypt, for it was not -leavened; because they were thrust out of Egypt, and could not tarry, -neither had they prepared for themselves any victual." The "cakes" are -known to the East as _melleh_; this is the word the Arabic Bible uses. -The _melleh_ is a round cake or loaf about fifteen inches in diameter -and about three inches thick. It is baked, unleavened, on the -_redhef_; that is, hot pebbles. The fire is built over an especially -prepared bed of small stones; when these are {375} thoroughly heated, -the _melleh_ is placed upon them and covered with the live coals until -it is baked. The shepherds in the mountains of Syria bake the _melleh_ -very often and think there is no bread like it in delicious flavor and -sustaining quality. - -It was such a "cake" which Elijah fed upon on his way to "Horeb the -mount of God." In the nineteenth chapter of the First Book of Kings, -the fourth verse, we are told that Elijah "sat down under a juniper -tree: and he requested for himself that he might die; and said, It is -enough; now, O Lord, take away my life; for I am not better than my -fathers." It is of no small significance that the legend states that -the Lord answered Elijah's prayer in terms of food. The prophet was -both tired and hungry, so when he "lay and slept under a juniper tree, -behold, then an angel touched him, and said unto him, Arise and eat. -And he looked, and, behold, there was a cake baken on the coals, and a -cruse of water at his head." We have no record that Elijah after he -had eaten {376} of the _redhef_ cake, which was provided, no doubt, by -the shepherds in that region for the _nasik_ (hermit), ever longed for -death. - - -In the sixth chapter of the Book of Judges, the eleventh verse, begins -the story of Gideon, the "mighty man of valour," who delivered Israel -out of the hands of the Midianites. "And there came an angel of the -Lord, and sat under an oak which was in Ophrah, that pertained unto -Joash the Abiezrite: and his son Gideon threshed wheat by the -wine-press, to hide it from the Midianites." - -It is a prevailing belief in the East that spirits and angelic visitors -appear especially under trees and by streams of water. Huge oaks are -often found in burying-grounds and in front of houses of worship. "Rag -trees" also may be seen in many localities in Syria. A rag tree -(_shajeret-omm-shrateet_) is a supposedly sacred or "possessed" tree, -generally an oak, on whose branches the people hang shreds of the -garments of afflicted dear ones for the {377} purpose of securing -healing power for them. When the angel visited him, Gideon, we are -told, was threshing wheat by the wine-press. The more correct -rendering of the Revised Version and of the Arabic is, "Gideon was -beating out wheat in the wine-press." As I have already stated,[5] the -grapes are squeezed by being trodden in a large stone-flagged -enclosure, which is about the size of an ordinary room. As the harvest -time comes early in the summer, long before the wine-making season, -Gideon could use the clean floor of this enclosure to beat out wheat, -with a fair chance of escaping being discovered by his oppressors, the -Midianites. He was not "threshing." He was beating with a club the -sheaves he had smuggled, before threshing time came when the Midianites -exacted their heavy toll from oppressed Israel. Threshing is done with -the threshing-board (_nourej_), which is called in the Bible the -"threshing instrument." The _nourej_ resembles a stone-drag. It -consists of two heavy pine planks joined {378} together, and is about -three feet wide, and six feet long. On its under side are cut rows of -square holes into which sharp stones are driven. It is these sharp -stones which Isaiah, refers to when he says, "Behold, I will make thee -a new sharp threshing instrument _having teeth_; thou shalt thresh the -mountains, and beat them small, and shalt make the hills as chaff."[6] -The sheaves are scattered on the threshing-floor about a foot deep; the -thresher attaches the threshing-board to the yoke and sits on it, with -his goad in his hand. As the oxen which "tread the corn" drag the -heavy board round and round, the sharp stones cut the sheaves. In -three days the "threshing" is ready to be sifted. The finely cut -sheaves are thrown up into a heap and tossed up in the air with large -wooden pitchforks. The breeze blows the chaff and straw away, leaving -the heap of the golden grain in the center of the threshing-floor to -gladden the eyes of the grateful tiller of the soil. To this "purging" -of the threshing-floor--that {379} is, the freeing of the wheat from -the chaff and straw--Luke alludes in the third chapter, the seventeenth -verse, where he says, referring to the Christ, "Whose fan is in his -hand, and he will thoroughly purge his floor, and will gather the wheat -into his garner; but the chaff he will burn with fire unquenchable." -The reference to the burning of the chaff is meant to show its -comparative worthlessness. I am not aware that the Syrian farmer -always takes the trouble to burn the chaff, which is not easy to gather -after the wind has carried it away from the threshing-floor and -scattered it over acres of ground. The coarser part of it, which falls -near the floor, is gathered and saved to be used in making the clay -mortar with which the houses are plastered, and also sun-dried brick. -We always went to the threshing-floor and secured a few bagfuls of -chaff which we used in the annual plastering of the floor of our house. - -Among the chief joys of my boyhood days were those hours when I was -permitted to sit {380} on the threshing-board and goad the oxen which -carried me round and round over the glistening, fragrant sheaves. I -often bribed the owner to grant me the precious privilege; and even now -I should in all probability prefer threshing after this manner to an -automobile ride. - - -In the seventh chapter of the Book of Judges we have a description of -the simple process by which Gideon's army, with which he attacked the -Midianites, was selected. The very honest record states that out of -thirty-two thousand men whom Gideon had first mobilized only three -hundred stood the final test. That test was very simple. In the fifth -verse it is said, "So he brought down the people unto the water: and -the Lord said unto Gideon, Every one that lappeth of the water with his -tongue, as a dog lappeth, him shalt thou set by himself; likewise every -one that boweth down upon his knees to drink. And the number of them -that lapped, putting their hand to their mouth, were three {381} -hundred men: but all the rest of the people bowed down upon their knees -to drink water." The three hundred constituted Gideon's army. - -Bowing down upon the knees while drinking from a stream or a bubbling -spring (_fowwar_) is the prevailing custom in Syria. This kind of -drinking is called _ghebb_; that is, the sucking in of the water with -the lips. But to strong and wary men this is disdainful. Such a -prostration betokens lassitude; besides it is not always safe for one -to be so recklessly off his guard while traveling, and to render -himself an easy prey to lurking robbers. Therefore the men of strength -and valor (_shijaan_) upon approaching the water assume a squatting -position, lift the water with the hand to the mouth and lap it quickly -with the tongue. This manner of drinking indicates strength, -nimbleness, and alertness. - - -One of the most reprehensible Syrian habits is the mocking of those -afflicted with diseases, or any sort of physical defects. I have no -{382} doubt that the afflicted of Palestine flocked to Jesus to be -healed by him as much for the purpose of escaping the shame of the -affliction as of securing bodily comfort. "There comes the one-eyed -man [_'awar_]"; "there goes the limping man [_afkah_]"; "the half dumb -[maybe one who stutters] is trying to discourse"; "the hunch-back is -trying to class himself with real men"; "the diseased head [_akkra'_] -is approaching, give way." These and other stigmatizations are very -extensively current in the East. In the story of Elisha[7] it is said, -"And he went up from thence unto Bethel: and as he was going up by the -way, there came forth little children ["young lads," Revised Version] -out of the city, and mocked him, and said unto him, Go up, thou bald -head; go up, thou bald head. And he turned back, and looked on them, -and cursed them in the name of the Lord. And there came forth two she -bears out of the wood, and tare forty and two children of them." - -What those children really said to Elisha {383} was, "Go up thou -_akkra'_." The _akkra'_ is one who is afflicted with a disease of the -scalp, a malady not uncommon among the poor people of Syria. Complete -baldness of the head is spoken of also as _qara'_. It was this perhaps -which the ill-mannered children noticed in the itinerant prophet. His -cursing of the lads "in the name of the Lord" was no less an Eastern -characteristic than their mocking of him. - -As to the coming of the hungry bears out of the wood and devouring or -tearing forty-two of those children, all I can say is that such -narratives, which filled my childhood days, are deemed by Syrian -parents to be the best means to teach the children not to be naughty. - - -In the opening verses of the fourth chapter of the Second Book of Kings -we have the record of Elisha's kindness to a poor widow. "Now there -cried a certain woman of the wives of the sons of the prophets unto -Elisha, saying, Thy servant my husband is dead; and thou knowest that -thy servant did fear the Lord: and the {384} creditor is come to take -unto him my two sons to be bondmen. And Elisha said unto her, What -shall I do for thee? tell me, what hast thou in the house? And she -said, Thine handmaid hath not anything in the house, save a pot of oil. -Then he said, Go, borrow thee vessels abroad of all thy neighbors, even -empty vessels; borrow not a few. And when thou art come in, thou shalt -shut the door upon thee and upon thy sons, and shalt pour out into all -those vessels, and thou shalt set aside that which is full. So she -went from him, and shut the door upon her and upon her sons, who -brought the vessels to her; and she poured out. And it came to pass, -when the vessels were full, that she said unto her son, Bring me yet a -vessel. And he said unto her, There is not a vessel more. And the oil -stayed." - -The belief in the miraculous increase of certain products, especially -oil and wheat, is prevalent in Syria. In almost every community -stories of such occurrences are told. Godly men and women, largely of -the past, are said to have {385} seen such wonders, and to have spoken -of them to many before their death. Such blessings are supposed to -come especially on the blessed night of Epiphany.[8] In the locality -where I was brought up, the miracle of "increase" was said to happen in -this wise: In some holy hour the cover of the jar of oil is thrown off -by some unseen power and the oil begins to flow out of the mouth of the -jar. The person who is fortunate enough to see such a sight must show -neither fear nor surprise, but in the spirit of deepest prayer he must -bring empty vessels and receive into them the increase. If he should -fear or manifest surprise, the blessed flow would immediately cease, -but if he receives the blessing in a spirit of gratitude and prayer the -flow continues until all the vessels that can be brought are filled. -But only godly men and women can see such a sight. Among the noble -traditions of our clan is the story of one godly man of the Rihbany -stock who witnessed the "miracle of increase" in his own storehouse. -The flow of {386} the blessing stopped, however, when his wife, who -went into the storehouse to see why he was there so long, came in and -threw up her hands in surprise at the strange occurrence. From -childhood I heard this enchanting story, but I never felt deeply -curious to investigate it until after I had gone to the American -mission school in my native land. Then I sought the son of the "godly -man" and begged him to tell me all that he knew about it. He assured -me of his firm conviction that the miracle did happen in their -storehouse when he was too young to see such wonders, and that his -father and mother both saw it and spoke of it on occasions. At the -time I became interested in the study of the origins of such -narratives, both those good parents were dead. - -But why allow shallow curiosity to weaken one's faith in the great -spiritual principle which underlies all such beliefs? Attach all such -pious tales to the Oriental's foundation belief that all good comes -from God, and they become intelligible and acceptable. His -intellectual {387} explanations are faint attempts to grasp the great -mystery of divine providence, to explain the ways of the Great Giver. -If you do not attempt to make an infallible creed of these spiritual -imaginings, they will serve as well as any intellectual devices to urge -upon the mind the truth that ultimately "every good and every perfect -gift cometh from above." Whether the resources were a few loaves and -fishes, or thousands of loaves and fishes, it was God who fed the "five -thousand," and it is he who feeds all the millions of his children -through the annual miracle of increase in all the fields and vineyards -of the world. - - -In his heart-stirring prayer, which begins with, "Out of the depths -have I cried unto thee, O Lord," the writer of the one hundred and -thirtieth Psalm says, "My soul waiteth for the Lord more than they that -watch for the morning: I say more than they that watch for the -morning." The Revised Version's rendering, "More than watchmen wait -for the {388} morning," limits the sense of the text, and, -consequently, fails to express fully the phase of Eastern thought to -which the Psalmist alludes. I have no doubt that the ancient poet -meant that his longing for the manifestation of God was as keen as the -longing of _el-mûtesehhid_ for the dawn. This term comes from _sûhad_ -(sleeplessness). Eastern poetry is full of references to the _sûhad_, -either from fear or other intense feelings like sorrow or love. In a -land of tribal feuds and where wild beasts abound, the night is full of -terror. _El-mûtesehhid_ "wrestles" with the night, keenly observes the -stars which mark the night watches, and restlessly watches for the -advent of the day to dispell his haunting fears. The Arabian poet -exclaims, "Oh, the night's curtains which are like the waves of the sea -are fallen upon me, to afflict me with every type of anxiety. It seems -that the Pleiades [which marked the march of the night] have been -arrested in their course by being tied with hemp ropes to an adamant!" - -It is not the watchman only that is meant {389} here. He might watch -keenly for the morning in times of fear, but the reference is to all -those who watch for the morning in times of _sûhad_--a state which -Orientals readily understand. The Psalmist would have that confidence -and cheer in the presence of the Lord which come to the restless -watcher of the night with the dawning of the day; that inward calm and -peace which only the presence of God in the soul can give. - - -"Thus saith the Lord God, Behold, I will lift up mine hand to the -Gentiles, and set up my standard to the people: and they shall bring -thy sons in their arms, and thy daughters shall be carried upon their -shoulders."[9] - -The reference in these lines is to the custom of carrying the children -in the East. The habit of carrying the children on the shoulders is, I -believe, unknown to the West, but is universal in the East. In early -infancy the little ones are carried in the arms. (The Revised Version -{390} prefers the word "bosom.") As soon, however, as the child is old -enough to sit up alone, it is carried on the shoulder. The mother -lifts the child and places it astride her right shoulder, and -instinctively the little one clings to her head, where there is no -dainty hat to hinder. The custom is so familiar to the mothers that -often one sees a mother spinning or knitting with the child astride her -shoulder. - -As is well known, the message in the lofty strains of the later Isaiah -is the glad tidings of the restoration of scattered and oppressed -Israel. It is a prophecy born of Israel's ever-lasting hope that God -will not cast off his own forever. So the prophet assures Israel in -the name of the Lord that he will lead the alien peoples, not only to -let Israel return to its own home, but to carry the children of the -"chosen people" in their arms and on their shoulders, as do the -servants of aristocratic parents. The prophet's hope of the -restoration of his own people appears in the succeeding verse clothed -{391} in language which Oriental aristocrats love to use. It is the -phraseology of earthly glory and a narrow vision of national destiny, -which the New Testament liberates and enlarges. Says Isaiah: "And -kings shall be thy nursing fathers, and their queens thy nursing -mothers: they shall bow down to thee with their faces toward the earth, -and lick up the dust of thy feet." Our world still has many grave -faults, but it has certainly progressed since the days of Isaiah. - - -In the third chapter of St. Matthew's Gospel, the eleventh verse, John -the Baptist, in paying his tribute to the coming Messiah, says: "I -indeed baptize you with water unto repentance: but he that cometh after -me is mightier than I, whose shoes I am not worthy to bear: he shall -baptize you with the Holy Ghost, and with fire." The same thought is -expressed in the somewhat different presentation in the third chapter -and sixteenth verse of Luke's Gospel, where it is said, "the latchet of -whose shoes I am {392} not worthy to unloose." I have already stated -elsewhere that to the Syrians the feet are ceremonially unclean; -therefore it is very improper for one to mention the feet or the shoes -in conversation, without first making ample apology by saying to his -hearer, _Ajell Allah shanak_ (may God elevate your dignity); that is, -above what is about to be mentioned. In the presence of an aristocrat, -however, no apology is sufficient to atone for the mention of such an -unclean object as the shoes. Therefore, when one says to another, in -pleading for a favor, "I would carry your shoes, or bow at your feet," -he sinks to the lowest depth of humility. So when some of those who -came to him to be baptized thought that John the Baptist was the -Promised One of Israel, he humbled himself in Oriental fashion by -saying that he was not worthy to carry the shoes of the coming -Deliverer, or even to touch the latchet with which those shoes were -tied to the ankles. In this last expression, the sandals, rather than -the shoes, are meant. - -{393} - -The three evangelists, Matthew, Mark, and Luke, speak of the woman who -was healed from a long illness by touching the hem or border of Jesus' -garment. Luke's version is found in the eighth chapter, and the -forty-third verse, and is as follows: "And a woman, having an issue of -blood twelve years, which had spent all her living upon physicians, -neither could be healed of any, came behind him, and touched the border -of his garment: and immediately her issue of blood stanched. And Jesus -said, Who touched me? ... Somebody hath touched me: for I perceive that -virtue is gone out of me. And when the woman saw that she was not hid, -she came trembling, and falling down before him, she declared unto him -before all the people for what cause she had touched him, and how she -was healed immediately. And he said unto her, Daughter, be of good -comfort: thy faith hath made thee whole; go in peace." - -The belief that holy persons and holy things impart divine power to -those who trustfully and reverently touch them is not exclusively an -{394} Oriental possession. The Orientals, however, have always -believed this doctrine. The woman mentioned in the Gospel followed a -custom which no doubt antedated her own time by many centuries. The -practice is followed by Orientals of all shades of religious opinion. -As a son and adherent of the Greek Orthodox Church in my youth, I -always considered it a great privilege to touch the hem of the priest's -garment as he passed through the congregation, elevating the Host. To -me the act was a means of spiritual reinforcement. I never would pass -the church building without pressing my lips to the door or to the -cornerstone of the sanctuary. Virtue, as I believed, came out of those -sacred objects into me. The interpretation of the details of such -records as the passage which is before us can be easily pressed too -far. Such Gospel pictures should be sought for the general impression -they make upon the mind, and not subjected to minute critical analysis -as the reports of a scientific expedition. Jesus' reported saying, -"for I perceive that virtue is {395} gone out of me," refers perhaps to -the belief that holy persons impart virtue or spiritual power to those -who come in touch with them. Whatever really happened in Palestine -nineteen hundred years ago, this belief is well founded. Whomsoever -and whatsoever we love and reverence becomes to us a source of power. -Many indifferent and merely curious persons touched Jesus, but nothing -happened; for the _garment_ possesses no healing virtues. But when an -afflicted woman came to him with dearest hope and deepest prayer, the -mere touch of his person reinforced her strength and revived her -spirits. The Master indicated plainly that the healing power was not -in the garment when he said to the woman, "Daughter, be of good -comfort: _thy faith_ hath made thee whole; go in peace." - - -In the story of the crucifixion[10] we read: "And as they led him away, -they laid hold upon one Simon, a Cyrenian, coming out of the country, -and on him they laid the cross, that {396} he might bear it after -Jesus. And there followed him a great company of people, and of women, -which also bewailed and lamented him. But Jesus, turning unto them, -said, Daughters of Jerusalem, weep not for me, but weep for yourselves, -and for your children.... For if they do these things in a green tree, -what shall be done in the dry?" - -The saying with which the passage ends is current in Oriental speech in -various forms. Of one who is greedy and voracious it is said (when the -thing he eats is not very tempting), "If his tooth works so effectively -in the bitter, what would it do in the sweet?" And, reversing the -Scriptural saying, "If the dry is so palatable to him, how much more -must the green be!" Again, "If one is not good to those that are his -kin, what must he be to strangers?"--and so forth. - -Jesus' saying to the women who followed him, "Daughters of Jerusalem, -weep not for me, but weep for yourselves, and your children," -facilitates the understanding of the closing sentence {397} of the -passage. He admonishes them not to lament the state of one who, though -condemned, is utterly innocent, but the state of those who are so hard -of heart, so devoid of human sympathy as to condemn one so innocent. -With amazement he exclaims, "For if they do these things in a green -tree, what shall be done in the dry?" If they deal so cruelly with a -good and innocent person, what must be their attitude toward a real -culprit. - - -The mention in the Gospel of the crowing of the cock recalls to my mind -a very familiar Oriental expression. The shrill sound of the wakeful -fowl always served us in the night as a "striking clock." We always -believed that the cock crew three times in the night, and thus marked -the night watches. The first crowing is at about nine o'clock, the -second at midnight, and the third about three in the morning. The -common people of Syria house the chickens in a small enclosure which is -built, generally, immediately under the floor of the house. It has one -{398} small opening on the outside, which is closed at night with a -stone, and another opening on the inside, through which the housewife -reaches for the eggs. So "the evening crow," "the midnight crow," and -the "dawn crow" can be very conveniently heard by members of the -household. And how often, while enjoying a sociable evening with our -friends at one of those humble but joyous homes, we were startled by -the crowing of the cock, and said, "Whew! it is _nissleil_ [midnight]." -The hospitable host would try to trick us into staying longer by -assuring us that it was the evening and not the midnight crow. - -Now some "enlightened" critics assert that "in fact the cock crows at -any hour of the night." Well, the critics are welcome to their -"enlightenment." For us Syrians of the unsophisticated type the cock -crowed only three times, just as I have stated, and thus marked for us -the four divisions of the night. - -The New Testament makes definite reference to the "evening crow" and -the "dawn {399} crow." As a rule the cock crows three times (separated -by short intervals) at the end of each watch of the night. We are told -that after the Last Supper, the Master and his disciples "went out into -the mount of Olives," where Jesus said to them, "All ye shall be -offended because of me this night.... But Peter said unto him, -Although all shall be offended, yet will not I. And Jesus saith unto -him, Verily I say unto thee, That this day, even in this night, before -the cock crow twice, thou shalt deny me thrice."[11] This refers to -the "evening crow," for the entire scene falls in the early evening. -And so it was that when Peter did deny his Master in most earnest -terms, "he went out into the porch; and the cock crew."[12] Again, -while Peter was still being questioned as to whether he was not one of -Jesus' followers, "he began to curse and to swear, saying, I know not -this man of whom ye speak. And the second time the cock crew."[13] - -{400} - -The other passage[14] refers to the "dawn crow." "Watch ye, therefore: -for ye know not when the master of the house cometh, at even, or at -midnight, or at the cock-crowing, or in the morning." - - -In speaking of the speedy and mysterious "coming of the Son of man," in -the twenty-fourth chapter of Matthew, Jesus alludes to the grinding at -the handmill--a very common Syrian custom. The portentous saying in -the forty-first verse is: "Two women shall be grinding at the mill; the -one shall be taken, and the other left." - -The _jaroosh_ (handmill, literally, "grinder") has always been -considered a necessary household article in Syria.[15] Our family -possessed one, which, however, was shared by the families of my two -uncles. The _jaroosh_ consists of two round stones--an upper and a -nether--from eighteen to twenty inches in diameter, and about four -inches in thickness. It is a portable {401} article. The two stones -are held together by a wooden pin which is securely fastened in the -center of the nether stone, and passes through a funnel-shaped hole in -the center of the upper stone. A wooden handle is inserted near the -outer edge of the upper stone. As a rule a strong woman can grind a -small quantity of wheat at this mill alone. But as coöperation tends -to convert drudgery into pleasant work, the women grind in pairs. The -mill is placed on a cloth--something like a bed-sheet--or on a -sheepskin. The two women sit on the floor, exactly opposite, and of -necessity close to each other, with the mill between them. They both -grasp the wooden handle and turn the upper stone with the right hand, -while they feed the mill through the funnel-shaped hole with the left -hand. The circular shower of coarse flour falls from between the -stones onto the cloth or skin below. - -At present the handmill is rarely used in Syria for grinding wheat into -flour, which is now ground by the regular old-fashioned, {402} -waterwheel flouring mills. The _jaroosh_ is used in the Lebanon -districts and in the interior of Syria for crushing wheat into -_bûrghûl_. The wheat is first boiled and then thoroughly dried in the -sun on the housetop. Just before it is poured into the mill the wheat -is dampened with cold water, so that while it is being crushed it is -also hulled. The _bûrghûl_ is one of the main articles of food among -the common people; it is especially used for making the famous dish, -_kibbey_.[16] The whole season's supply of a family is ground in one -or two evenings. The occasion is usually a very gay one. The -neighbors gather around the mill, the men help in the grinding, and the -telling of stories and singing of songs make of what is ordinarily a -hard task a joyous festival. - -The foregoing makes evident the meaning of the passage as used by the -evangelist. "The coming of the Son of man," that great consummation of -all things in the advent of the Kingdom, which the faithful disciples -of Christ {403} hoped and prayed for, was to be so swift and so -mysterious that only the fully awake and watchful could have a share, -in it. No one could tell who would be included in the Family Kingdom. -For even those, who in this world sat as close together as "two women -grinding at the mill," were not certain of being taken together. -"Watch, therefore: for ye know not what hour your Lord doth come."[17] -It is vain to deny that this watchfulness, this expectation of the -sudden and mysterious coming of the Kingdom, has been a mighty factor -in the development of the Christian Church. - - -Among my correspondents who have been readers of my articles in the -"Atlantic Monthly," are those who are interested to know the attitude -of the Syrian Christians in general toward the creeds and dogmas of the -Church as they are known and accepted in the West, and also whether I -would not enlarge the scope of this publication so as to include {404} -in it a discussion of certain doctrines which claim to have firm -Scriptural basis. - -As may be very readily seen, these questions involve the study of a -complexity of subjects which the original plan of this book was never -intended to compass. Again the author feels that it would be -inexcusable boldness on his part to enter a field of thought which -noted scholars and historians have thoroughly explored, and to pretend -to discuss issues which only such scholars have a right to discuss. -However, in compliance with the requests of those interested readers I -will contribute my mite to the vast literature of a very old subject. - -As is well known to church historians, the Syrian Christians of the -Semitic stock have had very little to do with the development of the -"creeds of Christendom." Theological organization has been as foreign -to the minds of the Eastern Christians as political organization. They -have always been worshippers rather than theologians, believers rather -than systematic {405} thinkers. Their religious thinking has never -been brought by them into logical unity, nor their mysticism into full -metaphysical development. - -The Oriental has been a lender in religion and a borrower in theology. -The course of religion ran from the East to the West, the course of -theology ran from the West to the East. Had it been left to itself, it -is certain that the Christianity of Palestine never would have built up -such a massive structure of doctrine as the Athanasian Creed. Wherever -the great doctrinal statements of our religion may have -originated,--whether in Rome, Constantinople, Antioch, or -Alexandria,--their essential parts were Greek and Roman, and not -Oriental. - -The Christian Church had its simple origin with a group of Jewish -followers of Jesus Christ in Palestine, but it had its marvelous -expansion and organization among the "Gentiles." In Palestine the -faith of the Church may be said to have been instinctive, but {406} -among the Gentiles and under Greek and Roman influences that faith -became highly reflective. Faith in God the Father, and in his Son (by -anointing) Jesus Christ, and love of the brethren, constituted the -simple creed of the Palestinian Christians. - -It is not within my power, nor do I deem it necessary here, to trace -the steps by which this simple faith was transformed into a ponderous, -learned, and authoritative creed, whose essentials were finally fixed -in the early years of the fourth century. It is sufficient for the -purpose of this sketch to state that when the great doctrines which -were wrought by the Ecumenical Councils were thus fixed, sealed with an -"anathema," and backed up by imperial and ecclesiastical power, the -churches which refused to accept them had but a very slender chance to -live. The intention of those beneficent ecclesiastics and politicians -who controlled the actions of the Councils was to do away with the -schismatic spirit in the Church and to have "one flock and one -shepherd." - -{407} - -Thus it may be readily realized that it was not very long after the -crucifixion when the subtle mentality of the Greek and the organizing -genius of the Roman began to assume control of the thought and practice -of the Syrian churches. Excommunication, exile, and martyrdom swept -away in course of time all obstacles out of the way of the -"authoritative creed"; simple faith in Christ was forced to be -hospitable to intricate scholastic statements of doctrine, and "love of -the brethren" gave way, as a bond of union, to ecclesiastical -authority. When the ambitious ecclesiastics of Rome and Constantinople -finally brought about the great schism which divided Christendom into -two bodies, known as the Eastern and the Western, or the Greek and the -Latin churches, the churches of Syria aligned themselves with either -the one or the other. The creeds became to those churches party -slogans and means of division and hatred, and thus Christ was -"divided," and those who claimed to be his followers, in both the -Orient and the Occident, {408} took up the cry, "I am of Paul; and I of -Apollos; and I of Cephas." So the doctrines of the Syrian churches of -every name are essentially those of the two great Roman Catholic and -Greek Orthodox communions. - - -In answer to the second question I will say that I have refrained from -doctrinal discussion in the present work; first, because so many of the -speculative doctrines of Christendom have very little to do with the -New Testament; second, because the central purpose of this publication -is simply and purely to give the Oriental background of certain -Scriptural passages, whose correct understanding depends upon knowledge -of their original environment. I have deemed it unnecessary even to -follow in the footsteps of the "higher critics" and inquire into the -"genuineness" and "non-genuineness" of some of those passages. For the -purpose of this work every Scriptural passage which reflects a phase of -Eastern thought and life is "genuine." The aim of the author is {409} -that this book shall be as free from labored arguments as the simple -statements of the Gospel themselves. - -There is perhaps no phase of human thought which the Christian churches -have not used in the advancement of their divisive creeds and pet -speculative doctrines. There is an untold number of doctrinal -documents which are now lying in the libraries of the world as -repositories of moth and dust. They are of the earth earthy. The idea -of universal brotherhood and human solidarity which is agitating the -minds of men of all races and countries at the present time, is leading -the Christian bodies back to the simple faith of Jesus of Nazareth, and -causing them to heap contempt upon their technical subtleties and -forced uniformities of intellectual belief. At least Protestantism is -beginning to be sympathetically aware of its own precious heritage, and -to feel the urging of its own genius. Free and coöperative -individualism is winning signal victories over the unnatural authority -of creed in the Protestant {410} bodies, and the bondage of the letter -is giving way to the freedom of the spirit. The Gospel of Christ is -triumphing over the theories _about_ Christ, and spiritual -self-fulfillment by becoming Christ-like is crowding out of existence -all theories of magical salvation. The creed of the theologians -consists of many "articles"; the creed of Christ only of two,--"Love -the Lord thy God with all thy heart, and thy neighbor as thyself." - -I prefer Christ's creed. - - - - -THE END - - - -[1] Gen. xxiv: 2-4. - -[2] Matt. xxvii: 59, 60. - -[3] Exod. xii: 34. - -[4] See page 198. - -[5] See page 283. - -[6] Is. xli: 15. Revised Version. - -[7] 2 Kings 11: 23-24. - -[8] See my autobiography, _A Far Journey_, page 94. - -[9] Is. xlix: 22. - -[10] Luke xxiii: 26-31. - -[11] Mark xiv: 27-30. - -[12] Mark xiv: 68. - -[13] Mark xiv: 71, 72. - -[14] Mark xiii: 35. - -[15] See Deut. xxiv: 6. - -[16] See page 233. - -[17] Matt. xxiv: 42. - - - - -{413} - -INDEX - - -Admittance of an infant into the Church, 37-40. - -Agricultural life, in America, 285; in Syria, 286-94. - -_'Aish_, the sacred, 194. - -American and Syrian modes of thought, contrast between, 126, 127. - -American farmer, lack of romance in his life, 285. - -American life, interpretation of, 9, 10. - -American mind, attitude toward conception and birth, 22. - -American women, highly regarded by men, 314; cultivation and privileges -of, 316. - -American youth, seem to be indifferent to filial obedience, 52, 53. - -Angels as heavenly messengers, 12. - -Anglo-Saxon, the, and the Oriental, as they appear to each other, 57; -the reserve of, 72, 73; uses deeds rather than words in his quarrels, -95; curtness of, 108; has high regard for woman, 313. - -Anointing the feet, 226-28. - -Arabic, the language of the Syrians, 175; poetry, 354. - -Athanasian Creed, 405. - -Atheism unknown among the Orientals, 84, 85. - -Athens, 264. - - - -Baking of bread in Syria, 200-02. - -Baldness, 383. - -Baptism, 38, 221. - -Barrenness, 20. - -Basins for kneading, 198, 374. - -Beard, swearing by the, 172, 173; the sacredness of the, among -Orientals, 172. - -Bears, 382, 383. - -Bed, letting down the, 270-72; taking up the, 272. - -Bethlehem, star of, 31, 36, 37, 41. - -Betrothals, 221. - -Bible, the, cast in Oriental moulds of thought, 4; reads like a letter -from Syria, 5, 6; characteristics of, 5, 6; as a repository of divine -revelation, knows no geographical limits, 6; as literature, an imported -article in the Western world, 7; misunderstood through misunderstanding -of Syrian life, 11; critics of, 41, 119, 128; inaccuracy of statement -in, 110-14; metaphors and exaggerations of, 119-25; many passages of, -to be judged by what they mean rather than by what they say, 139; the -positiveness of speech of, 184, 188; prominent mention of Mary and -Martha as Jesus' entertainers in, 207, 335; the words _home_ and -_house_ in the translation of, 243; purpose of St. John's Gospel, -343-45. - -_Passages cited or expounded_: - -Acts x, p. 277-79; xvi: 15, p. 210; xvii: 17, p. 264; xviii: 18, p. 17; -xxi: 10-13, p. 116; xxi: 23, p. 18; xxvi: 8, p. 21. - -Amos iii: 12, p. 308; iv: 5, p. 98; vi: 3-4, p. 229. - -1 Cor. vii: 4, 14, p. 326; vii: 26, p. 184; xi: 5, p. 332; xi: 7-8, p. -329; xiv: 34, p. 333. - -2 Cor. ix: 6, p. 83; xi: 26-27, p. 246. - -Deut. xxi: 15-17, p. 100; xxi: 18-21, p. 336; xxiii: 25, p. 291; xxiv: -6, p. 400; xxv: 7, p. 98; xxv: 15, p. 100; xxviii, 15, 42, p. 294; -xxviii: 62, p. 32; xxxii: 39, p. 91. - -Eccles. vii: 6, p. 290. - -Ephes. v: 22-23, p. 328; v: 25-29, p. 326. - -Exod. x: 40, p. 293; xii: 3, 6, p. 233; xii: 11, p. 254; xii: 34, p. -373; xii: 39, p. 374. - -Ezek. xvi: 1-4, p. 30; xxxiv: 11-13, 16, p. 304. - -Gal. iii: 28, p. 325; vi: 7, p. 83. - -Gen. i: 27, p. 330; iii, p. 54; iv: 23, p. 138; xv: 5, p. 33; xviii: -2-3, 5, p. 206; xviii: 16, p. 221; xxi: 23, p. 167; xxii: 16, p. 169; -xxiii: 3-6, p. 370; xxiii: 8-9, p. 371; xxiii: 11, p. 371; xxiii: -15-16, p. 372; xxiv: 2-4, pp. 367, 368; xxiv: 10-11, p. 260; xxiv: -30-33, p. 192; xxiv: 53-54, pp. 192, 193; xxiv: 60, p. 23; xxvii: -28-29, p. 338; xxvii: 38, p. 339; xxx: 1, p. 23; xxxi: 53, p. 171; -xlix: 25, p. 346. - -Hebr. vi: 13, p. 170. - -Is. iv: 6, p. 241; xxxviii: 12, p. 296; xl: 11, p. 306; xli: 15, p. -378; xlvii: 13-14, p. 36; xlix: 22-23, pp. 389-91; lviii: 11, p. 248; -lxii: 8, p. 170; lxiii: 2, p. 283. - -Jerem. lxviii: 38, p. 275. - -Job xiii: 15, p. 180; xxi: 32, p. 213; xxiv: 11, p. 284, xxix: 1-6, p. -141; xxxi: 32; p. 213. - -John i: 47-48, p. 282; ii: 4, p. 340; ii: 13-16, pp. 134, 135; iv: 21, -23, p. 342; x: 1-4, pp. 297-99; x: 1-16, p. 295; x: 11, p. 304; xii: 2, -p. 224; xii: 3, p. 226; xiii: 23, p. 65; xiii: 26, p. 68; xiii: 28-29, -p. 69; xv: 5, p. 280; xv: 9, 12, p. 102; xix: 25-26, p. 345; xxi: -15-16, p. 183. - -Joshua ix: 12, p. 251. - -Judges vi: 11, p. 376; vi: 36-40, pp. 181, 182; vii: 5-6, p. 380; vii: -12, p. 260; viii: 7, p. 290; xii: 5-6, p. 176; xix: 5-10, pp. 219-21; -xix: 14-21, pp. 211, 212. - -1 Kings viii: 37, p. 292; xix: 4, p. 375; xix: 19, p. 287. - -2 Kings 11: 23-24, p. 382; iv: 1-6, pp. 383, 384; iv: 22, 24-25, p. 14. - -Lament. v: 10, p. 202. - -Lev. xii: 2-4, p. 385; xxv: 35, p. 123; xxvi: 26, p. 202. - -Luke i: 28, 31, p. 20; ii: 8-14, pp. 42, 43; ii: 12, 15-16, p. 28; ii: -22, p. 37: ii: 29, p. 39; ii: 41, p. 48; ii: 44, p. 50; ii: 51, p. 51; -iii: 16, p. 391; iii: 17, p. 379; iv: 18, p. 186; v: 19, pp. 270-71; -vi: 1-11, p. 291; vi: 38, p. 267; vii: 36-38, p. 226; viii: 33, p. 158; -vii: 43-48, p. 393; ix: 62, p. 288; x: 4; p. 255; xi: 5-7, p. 214; xi: -8-9, p. 217; xi: 11, 23, 27, p. 346; xii: 13-15, p. 156; xiii: 12, p. -342; xiv: 16-23, p. 210; xv: 8-16, pp. 152-57; xv: 20-23, pp. 206, 207; -xviii: 2-5, p. 179; xxii: 15, p. 74; xxii: 19, p. 65; xxii: 44, p. 75; -xxiii: 26-31, p. 395. - -Mal. iv: 1, p. 202. - -Mark 1: 32-33, p. 110; ii: 3-4, p. 270; iii: 20, p. 222; v: 13, p. 158; -vi: 31, p. 223; viii: 15, p. 152; x: 17-21, p. 101; x: 24, p. 132; xii: -38, pp. 263, 264; xiii: 35, p. 400; xiv: 17-20, p. 60; xiv: 23, p. 63; -xiv: 27-30, 68, 71-72, p. 399; xiv: 53, 66-71, p. 177. - -Matt. i: 20-21, p. 16; ii: 11, p. 27; iii: 7-9, pp. 117, 118; iii: 11, -p. 391; v, p. 120; v: 29-30, p. 119; v: 34-37, pp. 173, 174; v: 39-41, -p. 121; v: 42, p. 122; v: 43-45, p. 97; vii: 2, p. 265; viii: 32, p. -158; x: 9-10, p. 249; x: 12-13, p. 87; x: 16, 22, 26-27, p. 274; xi: -16-17, p. 264; xiii: 24-30, pp. 146-48, 288; xiii: 33-35, pp. 149, 199; -xiii: 34, p. 145; xiii: 44, p. 161; xv: 28, p. 342; xvi: 6, p. 152; -xvi: 13, p. 112; xvi: 21-23, p. 134; xvi: 25-26, p. 112; xvii: 1, p. -112; xvii: 19, p. 128; xviii: 3, p. 187; xviii: 10, p. 89; xviii: -12-14, pp. 308, 309; xviii: 15-17, pp. 135, 136, 139; xviii: 21-22, p. -133; xviii: 23-35, pp. 136, 137; xix: 24, p. 130; xx: 9, p. 277 n.; -xxiii: 24, p. 133; xxiv: 17, p. 269; xxiv: 41, p. 400; xxiv: 42, p. -403; xxvi: 7, 20, p. 224; xxvi: 21, p. 59; xxvi: 23, p. 58; xxvi: 27, -29, p. 237; xxvi: 37-39, p. 76; xxvi: 49, p. 71; xxvi: 73, p. 177; -xxvii: 59-60, p. 371; xxviii: 20, p. 65. - -Mic. iv: 4, p. 282. - -Prov. x: 7, p. 89; xi: 22, p. 351; xii: 4, p. 351; xxi: 9, p. 273; -xxvii: 22, p. 234; xxxi: 10-31, pp. 355-57; xxxvii: 22, p. 234. - -Psalms v: 7, p. 38; viii: 3-4, p. 31; xviii: 2-3, p. 245; xix, p. 36; -xix: 1-2, p. 32; xix: 9, 11, p. 86; xx: 22, p. 39; xxiii, pp. 73, 295; -xxiii: 1, p. 297; xxiii: 3, pp. 302, 303; xxiii: 4, pp. 305, 309; xli: -9, p. 193; xliv: 14, p. 141; xlvi: 1-2, p. 245; li, p. 73; lxi: 3, p. -241; lxxx: 8-9, 14-15, p. 281; cix: 8-13, pp. 92, 93; cxix: 71-72, p. -245; cxxviii: 3, p. 281; cxxix: 5-8, p. 88; cxxx: 1, 6, p. 387; cxxxix: -1-6, p. 82; cxlv: 16, p. 195; cxlvii: 4-5, p. 33. - -Rom. vi: 13, p. 120; ix: 1, p. 168; ix: 13, p. 99; xii: 1, p. 168; xii: -19, p. 91. - -Ruth ii: 4, p. 88. - -1 Sam. xx: 27-29, p. 235. - -2 Sam. x: 4-5, p. 172. - -Sol. ii: 10-14, pp. 352, 353; iv: 1-3, p. 353; vii: 1-9, p. 353. - -1 Thess. iii: 6, p. 64. - -Zeph. i: 4-5, p. 276. - -Birth, of Jesus, 12; a miracle, 20; attitude of Syrian mind toward, -20-25; attitude of American mind toward, 22, 24; of man-child, 27-29; -customs at, 28. _See_ Nativity. - -Blood Covenant, the, 160. - -Books on the East, 10. - -Borrowing and lending, 122-24, 215. - -_Bosom_, in the translation of the Bible, 267. - -Bread, unleavened, 150; not to be eaten until errand is known, 191, -192; considered to possess mystic sacred significance, 193; the -"life-giver, " 194; offering of, 194; of life, Christ, 194; "our daily -bread, " 196, 197; the Oriental's attitude toward, is religious, 197; -the process of mixing, 198-200; the process of baking, 200-02; bought -by weight, 203; always eaten with a sense of sacredness, 237, 238; -carried on a journey, 250, 251; does not mould in Syria, 251. - -Bread and salt, 191-95, 238. - -_Bûrghûl_, an article of food, 402. - -Burning pit, the, 201. - -Burying-places in the East, 370, 371. - -"Business success, " 53. - - - -Cakes of the Bible, 374-76. - -Cameleers, 260-63, 265. - -Camels, caravans of, 259, 260; the watering of, 261, 262; riding on, -262, 263. - -Caravans, 259, 260. - -Carnivals, 233. - -Carob tree, the, 158, 159. - -Carrying children on the shoulder, 389-91. - -Chaff, 379. - -Childlessness, evidence of divine disfavor, 20, 23. - -Children, a heritage from the Lord, 23, 24; presentation of, at the -temple, 37; owe obedience to both mother and father, 335, 336; carrying -on the shoulder, 389-91. - -Christ. _See_ Jesus. - -Christian Church. _See_ Church. - -Christians, oaths of, 170, 171; Syrian, of the Semitic stock, have had -little to do with the development of creeds, 404; creed of the -Palestinian, 406. - -Christmas, 41. - -Christmas carol, 41, 45. - -Church, spoken of as the vine which God has planted, 281; the origin -and the expansion and organization of, 405; division of, 407, 408. - -Churches, of Syria, 407, 408; the Greek and the Latin, 407; the Roman -Catholic and the Greek Orthodox, 408. - -Clarke, Adam, and Jesus pilgrimage to Jerusalem, 49; on the parable of -the treasure hid in the field, 161, 162. - -Clocks in Syria, 277 n. - -Clothing made at home in Syria, 363. - -_Coat_ and _cloak_, the words, 121, 253. - -Cock crow, 397-99. - -Coin, lost, parable of the, 152-55. - -Coming of the Son of man, the, 400-03. - -Conception, attitude of the Syrian mind toward, 20-25; attitude of the -American mind toward, 23, 24. - -Constantinople, 405, 407. - -Corruption, fermentation considered to be, 151, 152. - -Couches, reclining on, 227-30; sleeping on, 271, 272. - -Courtesy, example of Oriental, 370-73. - -Creed-makers of Christendom, 128. - -Creeds, 403, 404, 407, 409, 410. - -Crier from the housetop, 273, 274. - -Critics, of the Bible, 41, 119, 128; of Paul and Christianity, 328; -higher, 408. - -Crowds, 222-24. - -Crowing of the cock, 397-99. - -Crucifixion, the story of the, 395-97. - -Culture gives strength and symmetry to religious thought, 85. - -Curses. _See_ Imprecations. - -Curtness of the Anglo-Saxon, 108. - - - -Da Vinci, Leonardo, his painting of The Last Supper, 58, 59, 67. - -Dependence of the Oriental, 72, 73. - -Dialects of the Oriental's speech, 175-78. - -"Dipping in the dish, " 58, 60, 61. - -Disobedience, 54, 335, 336. - -Distaff, the, 359, 360. - -Dough, 373. - -Drawing water, 261. - -_Drink_, the word as used in the Bible, 193 n. - -Drinking, at feasts, 61-63, 236, 237; manner of, 380, 381. - - - -Eating, 58-61, 222-24. - -Ecumenical Councils, 406. - -Eleventh hour, the, 277 n. - -Elijah, 375. - -Elisha, the story of, 382, 383; his kindness to a poor widow, 383, 384. - -Enemies, love of. _See_ Love. - -Evolution, not altogether compulsory, 242. - -Exaggeration, Oriental fondness for, 118. - -"Eye-of-the-needle" passage, the, 130-32. - - - -Faith, of the Oriental, 21; Syrian idealization of, 129; early -Palestinian, 406. - -Familiar friend, the, 193. - -Family, spoken of as a vine, 281. - -Farmer, the American, 285; the Syrian, 286-94. - -Fasting, 15. - -Feasts, fraternal, in Syria, 56-69, 221; family, 231-38. - -Fecundity, a gift of the Lord, 20; leaven a symbol of, 150. - -Feet, washing and anointing, 226-28; unclean in a ceremonial sense, -228, 292. - -Fermentation, considered to be corruption, 151, 152. - -Fig tree, and the vine, the Oriental's chief joys, 280; sitting under, -281, 282. - -Filial obedience, 51-55, 335, 336. - -Flocks of sheep and goats, and their folds, 295, 296; returning, 300; -the shepherd's guidance of, 301, 302; the gathering of the, 303. - -Folds, sheep and goat, 295-98. - -Forgiveness, 133-39. - -Forty days, the purification period, 38. - - - -Garment, cure effected by touch of, 393-95. - -Gathering of the flock, the, 303. - -Gentiles, the, 405, 406. - -Gesticulation of the Oriental, 115-17. - -Gethsemane, the kiss in, 70, 74, 76. - -_Ghebb_ (sucking of the water with the lips), 381. - -Gideon, the story of, 376, 377; his army, 380, 381. - -Girdle, the Syrian, 252, 253; placing the hand under, 369. - -Goad, the Syrian, 286, 288, 378. - -Goatfolds, 295-98. - -Goats, the calling of, by name, 299. - -God, called shelter and refuge, 241, 244, 245; the Oriental's belief -that all good comes from, 386, 387. - -Good pleasure, 335-39. - -Gospel. _See_ Bible. - -Gracious woman, a, 348-64. - -Grain, measuring, 265-67; threshing, 377-80. - -Greeks, their custom of reclining at meals, 225. - -Green tree, 396, 397. - -Grinding wheat, 400-03. - -Guest, at the feast, 62; sudden arrival of, 213-16; delaying the -departing, 218-21; departure of, 221; invited in families, 221, 222; -sit on the floor, 222; and _zad_, 250. - - - -Hair, cutting the, release from vow, 17, 18. - -Handmill, 400-03. - -_Harem_, the, 333, 334. - -_Hate_, the word, in the Arabic tongue, 99; in the Bible, 99, 100. - -Hatred and love, 104-06. - -Hidden treasures, 161-66. - -Holidays, 221. - -Home, no word for, among the Syrians, 241, 243; the word in the -translation of the Bible, 243. - -Honoring father and mother, 335. - -Horn, symbol of strength, 245 n. - -Hospitality, of Orientals, 205; extended by the man, not the woman, -205-07, 334, 335; Syrian fashion of extending, 208-13; compulsion to -accept, 210, 214; Syrian rules of, 213-21; to the traveler, 249, 250. - -Host, the man, not the woman, acts as, 205-07, 334, 335; the urging of -hospitality by, 208-21; bringing the guest on the way, 221; and _zad_, -250. - -_House_, Syrian use of the word, 241-44; the word in the translation of -the Bible, 243; the word precious to the Oriental, 244. - -House, the Syrian, 242, 269. - -Housetop, the shouting of wares from, 269, 273; easily reached, 269, -270; making an opening in, 270-72; the construction of, 271; sleeping -on, 272; to dwell on, 273; calling from, 273, 274; used for household -purposes, 275, 402; praying on, 275-79. - -_Hûrmat_, term for _wife_, 333; term for _woman_, 342. - -Husband and wife, according to St. Paul, 326-29, 358. - -Husks, 158. - -Hyenas, 307, 308. - - - -Imploring, Oriental habit of, 178-81, 217. - -Importunity, Oriental habit of, 178-81, 217. - -Imprecations, 88, 91-95, 146. _See_ Swearing. - -Impressions _vs._ literal accuracy, 115-39. - -Inaccuracy, intellectual, of the Oriental, 108-14. - -Increase, the miracle of, 384-87. - -Indefiniteness, effect produced by, 138, 139. - -Individualism, 409. - -Infant, the, in Syria, 28, 29; admittance of, into the church, 37-40. - -Ingersoll, Robert, 128. - -Inheritances, division of, 155, 156. - -Interpretation, sympathetic, a duty of present-day culture, 19. - -Isaiah, 36. - - - -_Jaroosh_ (handmill), 400-02. - -Jerusalem, arraignment of, 30; Jesus goes on pilgrimage to, 47-51. - -Jesus Christ, a man without a country, 3; belongs to all races and all -ages, 3; as regards his modes of thought and life and his method of -teaching, was a Syrian of the Syrians, 4; never out of Palestine, 4; -story of his birth, 12; goes on pilgrimage to Jerusalem, 47-51; filial -obedience of, 51-55; closing scenes in his personal career, 56, 72; his -command to his countrymen to love their enemies, 96; and the -money-lenders, 123-25; tendency of, to use parables, 146; his command -in regard to swearing, 173, 174; his words to Peter, 183; entertained -by Mary and Martha, 207, 335; the anointing of his feet, 226-28; -sending his disciples forth, 249; his injunction, "Salute no man by the -way, " 255, 257; his first meeting with Nathaniel, 282; on dishonoring -the sacred day, 291, 292; and his mother, 340-45; his conversation with -the Samaritan woman, 342; as the incarnation of the Logos, 343-45; cure -effected by the hem of his garment, 393-95; the crucifixion of, 395-97; -conversation of, with Peter after the Last Supper, 399; the Gospel of -Christ is triumphing over the theories about, 410; his creed, 410. - -John, "leaning on Jesus' bosom, " 65-67. - -John the Baptist, 391, 392. - -Joseph, story of, 16. - -Journeys. _See_ Traveling. - -Judas, the treachery of, 67-71. - -Judicial contests, swearing in, 169. - - - -_Keyyal_ (measurer), 265, 266. - -_Kherrûb_ (carob), 158, 159. - -_Kibbey_, a dish of meat and crushed wheat, 233, 234, 402. - -Killing of the sheep, the, 231-33. - -Kiss, Judas's, 70, 71. - -Kissing, among men, a Syrian custom, 70, 71; of the hands of parents, -335. - -Kneading done in the evening, 373. - -Kneading-day, 198-200. - -Kneading-troughs, 374. - -_Kummer_ (girdle), 252, 253. - - - -Lambs, newly born, carried by shepherd, 306, 307. - -Language, daily, of the Syrian, is Biblical, 87-90; abstinence from -"pious, " in America, 90. _See_ Speech. - -_Lap_, in the Bible, 267. - -Last Supper, the, 56-69, 74; in harmony with Syrian life, 56, 57; -painted by da Vinci in Occidental form, 58, 59; appointments of, were -Oriental, 59-69; no women at, 207, 334; conversation of Jesus and Peter -after, 399. - -Leaven, parable of the, 149, 199; held in esteem by the Syrians, 150; -the meaning _corruption_ figurative, 152; use of, in making bread, 199. - -Lent, 233-38. - -Leopards, 307. - -Levite, the story of the, 211, 212, 219-21. - -Life, of a people, cannot be studied from the outside, 7-11; to the -Oriental an inheritance, 242. - -_Like_ ("to be favorably inclined toward"), not in the Bible or the -Arabic tongue, 98; in English version of the Bible, 98. - -Literature, difficult to understand if it has not sprung from the -people's racial life, 6; the Bible as, 7. - -Loaves, parable of the three, 214-17. - -Locusts, 292-94. - -Lord's Prayer, the, 196. - -Love, of enemies, 96-106; not of our own making, 97; meaning of, in the -West, 98; meaning of, in the East, 98-102; speaks of the greatest thing -in the world, 103; and hatred, 104-06; assurances of, 182. - - - -Man-child, birth of, 27-29. - -_Marafeh_, feast of the, 233-37. - -Market-place, Syrian, and the caravan, 259; a place of sociability as -well as business, 263, 264; measuring grain in, 265-68. - -Marriage in the East, 348-50. - -Marriage wishes, 23, 24. - -Martha, not at the Last Supper, 207, 208, 335. - -Mary, not at the Last Supper, 207, 208, 335; Jesus and, 340-45. - -Maternity, pilgrimage for, 12-16. - -_Mathel_, meaning of, 140. - -Mattresses, 216. - -Measure, the generous, 265-68. - -Measurer, the, 265-68. - -Mecca, 47. - -_Melleh_ (cakes), 374, 375. - -Merchants, muleteer, 269, 273. - -Metaphor, Oriental fondness for, 118. - -_Midd_ (a wooden measure), 265, 266. - -Miracles, 20, 21, 384-87. - -Mocking of the afflicted, 381-83. - -Modesty the chief charm of the Oriental woman, 332. - -Mohammedans, pilgrimages of, 47; oaths of, 169, 170; position of women -among, 318 n., 331. - -Molasses, the method of making, in the East, 285. - -Money-lenders, 123-25. - -Mortar, 379. - -Mother, claiming same obedience as father, 335, 336; Jesus and his, -340-45; the mother's milk, 345-47. - -_Mouldy_, in translation of the Bible, 251. - -Mount Zion, meeting in the upper room on, 56-69. - -Muleteer, merchants, 269, 273. - -Mustache, swearing by, 171-73. - -Mysticism, 41, 42. - - - -Nativity, narrative of the, 37, 41-44. - -Nazarite (_nedher_), 16, 18. - -_Nezel_, 62. - - - -Oaks, 376. - -Oaths. _See_ Imprecations, Swearing. - -Obedience, filial, 51-55, 335, 336. - -Oil, miraculous increase of, 384-86. - -Open space, the, in Syrian villages, 210. - -Optimism, 45. - -Oriental, the, and the Anglo-Saxon, in each other's eyes, 57; not -afraid to "let himself go, " 57, 72; dependence of, 72, 73; craves -sympathy, 73; the vision of, 77; his manner of speech, 81; has not -achieved much in the material world, 83; his supreme choice has been -religion, 84; always conscious of God and the soul, 84; does not know -of atheism, 84, 85; has always lived in a world of spiritual mysteries, -86; his imprecations, 91-95; considers his personal enemies to be the -enemies of God, 93; more cruel in words than in deeds, 95; the -unveracious, 107-14; intellectual inaccuracy of, 108; expects to be -judged by what he means, not by what he says, 115, 125; his speech is -always illustrated, 115; fond of metaphor and exaggeration, 118; does -not maliciously misrepresent, 126; use of parables and proverbs, a -characteristic of, 140; makes no distinction between a parable and a -proverb, 140; his contempt for swineherds, 157, 158; his tendency to -swear, 167-74; the dialects of his speech, 175-88; his habit of -imploring, 178-81; the intimacy and unreserve of his speech, 181-83; -the unqualified positiveness of his speech, 183-88; bread and salt to, -191-95; his understanding of the prayer "Give us our daily bread, " -196, 197; religious attitude of, toward bread, 197; bread-making of, -198-204; hospitality of, 205-17; his table appointments, 222, 320; life -is an inheritance to, 242; the word _house_ precious to, 244; his -method of salutation, 255-58; knows no business without sociability, -263; his reputed lack of regard for women, 314, 315; gives man the -precedence, 316, 317; his manner rather than intentions toward woman at -fault, 318, 319, 322, 323; has only comparatively slight acquaintance -with the art of living, 319; his life simple and without exacting -standards, 319, 320; his social activities simple, 321; hates to be -standardized, 321; abhors formalities in the family circle, 321, 322; -the family system of, patriarchal, 323, 328; his attitude toward woman -according to St. Paul, 325-33; limits woman's social privileges because -of fear for her, 330, 331; his descriptions of feminine loveliness, -351-55; his description of the virtuous woman, 355-64; example of -courtesy of, 370-73; his belief that all good comes from God, 386, 387; -his belief in the efficacy of touch to impart divine power, 394; has -been a leader in religion and a borrower in theology, 405. _See_ -Syria, Syrians. - -Oven, of the Bible, 200-02. - -Overcautiousness in the pulpit, 186, 187. - - - -Palestine, 405. - -Parable, of the prodigal son, 142; 152, 155-61, 206, 207; to picture -demoralization beyond redemption, 143, 144; on partiality, 144, 145; of -the wheat and the tares, 146-49; of the leaven, 149, 199; of the lost -sheep, 152, 308; of the lost coin, 152-55; of the treasure hid in the -field, 161-66; of the unrighteous judge, 179, 180; of the three loaves, -214-17. - -Parables, speaking in, 140-66; and proverbs, Oriental makes no -distinction between, 140; fondness of Oriental for, 140, 141; -sociableness of, 142. - -Parents, honoring and obeying, 51-55, 335, 336. - -Passover, feast of the, 49. - -Path, the beaten, 301, 302. - -Patron saints as heavenly messengers, 12. - -Paul, his statements concerning the Syrian attitude toward women, -325-33. - -Pebble, the covering of the, 203, 204. - -Personality, secret of, an impenetrable mystery, 4. - -Pessimism, 45. - -Peter, his experience in the palace of the high priest, 177, 178; Jesus -and, 183; his vision, 276-79. - -Pilgrimage, meaning, to a Syrian, 13, 14; the _zeara_, 13-17, 47, 48; -of Jesus to Jerusalem, 47-51; still common in Syria, 47; occasion of -union among the common people, 221. - -Place of residence, the term, 243. - -Plough, the Syrian, 286-88. - -Poetry, dominant feature of Oriental speech, 108; description of -feminine loveliness in, 354, 355. - -_Porter_, in translation of the Bible, 298. - -Positiveness of speech, Oriental fondness for, 118, 132, 183-88. - -Prayer, 15; the Lord's, 196. - -Prayers of the Scriptures, due to persistence in petitioning, 180. - -Praying on the housetop, 275-79. - -Presentation of child at temple, 37. - -Prodigal son, parable of the, 142, 152, 155-61, 206, 207. - -Pronunciation of the Syrians, 176-78. - -Protestantism, 409. - -Proverbs, use of, an Oriental characteristic, 140; and parables, -Oriental makes no distinction between, 140. - -Psalms due to persistence in petitioning, 180. - -Purification period, 38. - -Purse, the, 252. - - - -_Rada'_ (cloak), 121, 122. - -_Radha_ (good pleasure), 335-39. - -Rag trees, 376. - -Rationalism, modern, 19. - -Rebecca, 23, 26. - -Reclining at meals, 224-30. - -_Refuge_, use of the term, 241, 244. - -Religion, gives life and beauty to culture, 85; the course of, has been -from the East to the West, 405. - -Religions, the three greatest, have originated in Syria, 86. - -Remembrance, 63-65. - -Reproduction, attitude of Eastern peoples toward, 25, 26; attitude of -Anglo-Saxons toward, 26. - -Retribution, 133-39. - -Revenge, idea of, lies deep in Oriental nature, 91. - -Rome, 405, 407. - -Roof. _See_ Housetop. - - - -St. John's Gospel, the purpose of, 343-45. - -Sacrament, feasts and, 56-71. - -Salt, used at births, in Syria, 28; bread and, 191-95, 238. - -"Salted, " 28-30. - -Salutation, the Oriental method of, 255-58. - -Sarah, 26. - -Scribes and pharisees, rebuke of, 132, 133. - -Scrip, the, 250. - -Scriptures, spring from soil whose life is active sympathy of religion, -85. - -Scriptures, the. _See_ Bible. - -Sermon on the Mount, the, 97. - -"Seventy times seven, " 133-39. - -Sheep, lost, parable of the, 152, 206-08; the killing of the, 231-33; -the calling of, by name, 299; the return of, at evening, 300; guided by -the shepherd, 301, 302; the gathering of, 303; their trust in their -shepherd, 307. - -Sheepfolds, 295-98. - -_Shelter_, use of the term, 241, 244. - -Shepherd, solicitous watchfulness of, 296, 297, 299; his tent and dog, -298; going before the flock, 299, 300; the guidance of, 301, 302; the -good, 304, 305; carrying newly born lambs, 306, 307; rescuing from wild -beasts, 307-09. - -Shepherd life in Syria, 295-309. - -Shoes, 228 n., 292. - -Signs and wonders, 181. - -Sin, origin of, 54. - -Sitting at meals, 58, 224-30. - -Sleeping, on couches, 271; on the housetop, 272. - -Sleeplessness, 388, 389. - -Snow in Syria, 362, 363. - -Sociability, no business without, 263. - -Sociableness of parabolic speech, 142. - -Solomon's Song, the realism of, 352-55. - -"Sop, " the, handed to Judas, 68-70. - -Sower, the Syrian, 286-94. - -Sowing in Syria, 288, 289. - -Speech, Oriental's, his manner that of a worshipper, 81, 185; his -daily, 81-90; imprecations, 90-95; intellectual inaccuracy of, 108; -always illustrated, 115; full of metaphor and exaggeration, 118-39, -372; its positiveness, 118, 132, 183-88; parabolic, 140-66; swearing, -167-74; the many and picturesque dialects of, 175-78; habit of -imploring, 178-81; its intimacy and unreserve, 181-83. - -Spindle, the Syrian, 359-61. - -Spinning in Syria, 358-61. - -Spiritual visions, little room for, in modern life, 46. - -Springs of water, 248, 249. - -Staff, the Syrian, 254. - -Star of Bethlehem, 31, 36, 37, 41. - -Star-gazers, 34, 35. - -Stars, Oriental attitude toward, 31, 32; multitude likened to, 32, 33; -of persons, 33, 34; belief that they are alive with God, 36. - -Stoves, 200. - -"Strain at a gnat and swallow a camel, " 133 - -Streets, 210-13. - -Superstitions, 18-20. - -Swaddle, the, 28, 29. - -Swearing, 167-74. _See_ Imprecations. - -Swineherds, 157. - -Syria, life in, to-day, the same as in the time of Christ, 5, 6; life -of, must be studied from the inside, 8, 10, 11; pilgrimages still -common in, 47; events on Mount Zion and in Gethsemane illustrative of -life in, 56-71; belief in regard to tares in wheat-field, common in, -148; hidden treasures in, 164, 165; sitting and reclining at meals in, -224-26; traveling in, 247-58; the market-place in, 259-68; caravans in, -259, 260; drawing water in, 261; measuring grain in, 265-68; the -housetop in, 269-77; the vineyard and the fig tree in, 280-82; making -wine in, 282-84; agricultural life in, 286-94; shepherd life in, -295-309; status of woman in, _see_ Oriental, Woman; marriage in, -348-50; the process of spinning in, 359-61; snow in, 362, 363; grinding -wheat in, 400-03. _See_ Oriental, Syrians. - -Syrian and American modes of thought, contrast between, 126, 127. - -Syrian churches, 407, 408. - -Syrians, attitude toward miracles, 21; attitude toward conception and -birth, 22; customs of, at birth, 28; attitude of, toward the stars, -31-36; their custom of kissing, 70; life revolves around a religious -center to, 81, 82; their daily language is Biblical, 87-90; have no -secular language, 87; mixture of piety and hatred characteristic of, -94; expect to be judged by what they mean, not by what they say, 115; -love to speak in pictures, 115-17; their use of figurative language, -117; their regard for leaven, 150; the dialects of, 175-78; hospitality -of, 205-30; family feasts of, 231-38; their use of the words _shelter_, -_house_, _refuge_, 241-45; live for the most part out of doors, 241, -242; have no word for _home_, 243; lovers of their homes, 243. _See_ -Oriental, Syria. - -_Sûhad_ (sleeplessness), 388, 389. - - - -Table appointments, 222, 320. - -Tares, 146-49. - -Tare-sickness, 147. - -_Tennûr_, for use in baking, 201. - -_Tent_, the term, 243. - -_Thaub_ (gown), 121. - -Theology, the course of, has been from the West to the East, 405. - -Theories about Christ, 410. - -Thigh, placing the hand under, 367-69. - -Thorns, 289, 290. - -Threshing, 290, 377-80. - -Threshing-board, 290, 377-80. - -Tiles, 271. - -Timepieces in Syria, 277 n. - -Touch, divine power imparted by, 393-95. - -Tourists, books by, 8, 10. - -Traitors, 67. - -Traveling, in America, 246; in the East, 247-58. - -Treading, the grapes, 283, 377; the grain, 290, 378. - -Treasure hid in a field, parable of, 161-66. - -"Treating, " 62. - - - -Unleavened bread, 150. - -Unrighteous judge, parable of the, 179, 180. - -Unveracity of the Oriental, 107-14. - - - -Vengeance, Oriental idea of, 91. - -Vine, and the fig tree, the Oriental's chief joys, 280; symbol of -spiritual as well as physical family unity, 280; the church as a, 281; -the family as a, 281. - -Vineyard, blessings for the increase of, 25. - -Vows, 16-18, 49. - - - -Wakefield, Mr., quoted, 162. - -Wallet, the, 250. - -Washing the feet, 226-28. - -Watching for the dawn, 387-89. - -Wedding songs, 247. - -Weddings, 221. - -Wheat, measuring, 265-67; plucking and eating, 291; threshing, 377-80; -miraculous increase of, 384; the grinding of, 400-03. - -Wild beasts, 307-09. - -Wills, 155. - -Wine, the method of making, in the East, 282-84, 377; sweet and bitter, -284. - -Wine cup, the mystery of, 280. - -Wine-drinking, 15, 237. - -Wine press, 282, 283, 377. - -Wise Men, the, 27, 37, 44. - -Wolves, 307. - -Woman, with child, 26; East and West differ greatly in status of, 313, -314; Anglo-Saxon regard for, 313; reputed Occidental contempt for, 314, -315; culture and privileges of the American, 316; the Oriental -indifferent to fine points of behavior toward, 316, 317; the Oriental -does not consider man superior to, 317-19; Christian and Mohammedan, in -Syria, 318 n., 331; explanation of the Oriental's attitude toward, 318, -319, 322; in home of cultivated Syrian, 323, 324; Syrian attitude -toward, according to St. Paul, 325-33; of Syria, not always submissive, -329; her social privileges in the East limited because of fear for her, -330, 331, 349; a reason for veiling, in the East, 332; modesty the -chief charm of Oriental, 332; why called _hûrmat_, 333; the _harem_, -333, 334; reason for man's precedence of, in social affairs, 334, 335; -her place is in the home, 348; classified with reference to virtue and -its opposite, 351; the Oriental's descriptions of, 351-55; the -virtuous, description of, 355-64. - -_Woman_, as a term of address, 340-45. - -Woman-stealing, 330, 331. - -Wrestling in prayer, 12. - - - -Yusuf Balua', 305-09. - - - -_Zad_, 249-51. - -_Zeara_, the (pilgrimage to a shrine), 12-17, 47-48. - -_Zûkreh_ (remembrance), 63, 65. - - - - -The Riverside Press - -CAMBRIDGE . MASSACHUSETTS - -U. S. A. - - - - - - - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's The Syrian Christ, by Abraham Mitrie Rihbany - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SYRIAN CHRIST *** - -***** This file should be named 40285-8.txt or 40285-8.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/0/2/8/40285/ - -Produced by Al Haines - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, -set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to -copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to -protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. 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