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diff --git a/40276-8.txt b/40276-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 45240ef..0000000 --- a/40276-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9608 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Stories of Invention, by Edward E. Hale - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: Stories of Invention - Told by Inventors and their Friends - -Author: Edward E. Hale - -Release Date: July 19, 2012 [EBook #40276] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK STORIES OF INVENTION *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - STORIES OF INVENTION - - _TOLD BY INVENTORS AND THEIR FRIENDS._ - - - BY EDWARD E. HALE. - - - [Illustration] - - - BOSTON: - ROBERTS BROTHERS. - 1889. - - - - _Copyright, 1885_, - BY ROBERTS BROTHERS. - - University Press: - JOHN WILSON AND SON, CAMBRIDGE. - - - - -PREFACE. - - -This little book closes a series of five volumes which I undertook some -years since, in the wish to teach boys and girls how to use for -themselves the treasures which they have close at hand in the Public -Libraries now so generally opened in the Northern States of America. The -librarians of these institutions are, without an exception, so far as I -know, eager to introduce to the young the books at their command. From -these gentlemen and ladies I have received many suggestions as the -series went forward, and I could name many of them who could have edited -or prepared such a series far more completely than I have done. But it -is not fair to expect them, in the rush of daily duty, to stop and tell -boys or girls what will be "nice books" for them to read. If they issue -frequent bulletins of information in this direction, as is done so -admirably by the librarians at Providence and at Hartford, they do more -than any one has a right to ask them for. Such bulletins must be -confined principally to helping young people read about the current -events of the day. In that case it will only be indirectly that they -send the young readers back into older literature, and make them -acquainted with the best work of earlier times. - -I remember well a legend of the old Public Library at Dorchester, which -describes the messages sent to the hard-pressed librarian from the -outlying parts of the town on the afternoon of Saturday, which was the -only time when the Library was open. - -"Mother wants a sermon book and another book." This was the call almost -regularly made by the messengers. - -I think that many of the most accomplished librarians of to-day have -demands not very dissimilar, and that they will be glad of any -assistance that will give to either mother or messenger any hint as to -what this "other book" shall be. - -It is indeed, of course, almost the first thing to be asked that boys -and girls shall learn to find out for themselves what they want, and to -rummage in catalogues, indexes, and encyclopædias for the books which -will best answer their necessities. Mr. Emerson's rule is, "Read in the -line of your genius." And the young man or maiden who can find out, in -early life, what the line of his or her genius is, has every reason to -be grateful to the teacher, or the event, or the book that has -discovered it. I have certainly hoped, in reading and writing for this -series, that there might be others of my young friends as sensible and -as bright as Fergus and Fanchon, who will be found to work out their own -salvation in these matters, and order their own books without troubling -too much that nice Miss Panizzi or that omniscient Mrs. Bodley who -manages the Library so well, and knows so well what every one in the -town has read, and what he has not read. - -I had at first proposed to publish with each book a little bibliography -on the subjects referred to, telling particularly where were the -available editions and the prices at which they could be bought by young -collectors. But a little experiment showed that no such supplement could -be made, which should be of real use for most readers for whom these -books are made. The same list might be too full for those who have only -small libraries at command, and too brief for those who are fortunate -enough to use large ones. Indeed, I should like to say to such young -readers of mine as have the pluck and the sense to read a preface, that -the sooner they find out how to use the received guides in such -matters,--the very indexes and bibliographies which I should use in -making such a list for them,--why, the better will it be for them. - -Such books as Poole's Index, Watt's and Brunet's Bibliographies, and the -New American Indexes, prepared with such care by the Librarians' -Association, are at hand in almost all the Public Libraries; and the -librarians will always be glad to encourage intelligent readers in the -use of them. - -I should be sorry, in closing the series, not to bear my testimony to -the value of the Public Library system, still so new to us, in raising -the standard of thought and education. For thirty years I have had more -or less to do with classes of intelligent young people who have met for -study. I can say, therefore, that the habit of thought and the habit of -work of such young people now is different from what it was thirty years -ago. Of course it ought to be. You can say to a young learner now, "This -book says thus and so, but you must learn for yourself whether this -author is prejudiced or ill-informed, or not." - -You can send him to the proper authorities. On almost any detail in -general history, if he live near one of the metropolitan libraries, you -can say to him, "If you choose to study a fortnight on this thing, you -will very likely know more about it than does any person in the world." -It is encouraging to young people to know that they can thus take -literature and history at first hand. It pleases them to know that "the -book" is not absolute. With such resources that has resulted which such -far-seeing men as Edward Everett and George Ticknor and Charles Coffin -Jewett hoped for,--the growth, namely, of a race of students who do not -take anything on trust. As Professor Agassiz was forever driving up his -pupils to habits of original observation in natural history, the Public -Library provokes and allures young students to like courage in original -research in matters of history and literature. - - EDWARD E. HALE. - -ROXBURY, April 1, 1885. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - PAGE - I. INTRODUCTION 9 - - II. ARCHIMEDES 20 - - III. FRIAR BACON 36 - - Of the Parents and Birth of Fryer Bacon, and - how he addicted himself to Learning, 39. How - Fryer Bacon made a Brazen Head to speak, by - the which he would have walled England about - with Brass, 41. How Fryer Bacon by his Art - took a Town, when the King had lain before it - three Months, without doing it any Hurt, 45. - How Fryer Bacon burnt his Books of Magic - and gave himself to the Study of Divinity - only; and how he turned Anchorite, 49. How - Virgilius was set to School, 53. Howe the - Emperor asked Counsel of Virgilius, how the - Night Runners and Ill Doers might be rid-out - of the Streets, 55. How Virgilius made a - Lamp that at all Times burned, 56. - - IV. BENVENUTO CELLINI 58 - - Life of Benvenuto Cellini, 59. Benvenuto's - Autobiography, 60. - - V. BERNARD PALISSY 82 - - Bernard Palissy the Potter, 83. - - VI. BENJAMIN FRANKLIN 97 - - Franklin's Method of Growing Better, 100. - Musical Glasses, 112. - - VII. THEORISTS OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 119 - - Richard Lovell Edgeworth, 119. Edgeworth's - Telegraph, 124. Mr. Edgeworth's Telegraph - in Ireland, 127. Mr. Edgeworth's Machine, - 136. More of Mr. Edgeworth's Fancies, 140. - Jack the Darter, 142. A One-wheeled Chaise, - 144. - - VIII. JAMES WATT 146 - - The Newcomen Engine, 150. James Watt and - the Steam-engine, 153. The Separate Condenser, - 161. Completing the Invention, 164. - Watt makes his Model, 167. - - IX. ROBERT FULTON 172 - - X. GEORGE STEPHENSON AND THE LOCOMOTIVE 193 - - George Stephenson, 194. - - XI. ELI WHITNEY 219 - - Eli Whitney, 222. - - XII. JAMES NASMYTH 237 - - The Steam-hammer, 237. James Nasmyth, 239. - - - XIII. SIR HENRY BESSEMER 259 - - The Age of Steel, 259. Bessemer's Family, 261. - Henry Bessemer, 264. Stamped Paper, 265. - Gold Paint, 270. Bessemer Steel, 273. - - XIV. THE LAST MEETING 284 - - Goodyear, 284. - - - - -STORIES OF INVENTION - - -TOLD BY INVENTORS. - - - - -I. - -INTRODUCTION. - - -There is, or is supposed to be, somewhere in Norfolk County in -Massachusetts, in the neighborhood of the city of Boston, a rambling old -house which in its day belonged to the Oliver family. I am afraid they -were most of them sad Tories in their time; and I am not sure but these -very windows could tell the story of one or another brick-bat thrown -through them, as one or another committee of the people requested one or -another Oliver, of the old times, to resign one or another royal -commission. But a very peaceful Rowland has taken the place of those -rebellious old Olivers. - -This comfortable old house is now known to many young people as the home -of a somewhat garrulous old gentleman whom they call Uncle Fritz. His -real name is Frederick Ingham. He has had a checkered life, but it has -evidently been a happy one. Once he was in the regular United States -Navy. For a long time he was a preacher in the Sandemanian connection, -where they have no ordained ministers. In Garibaldi's time he was a -colonel in the patriot service in Italy. In our civil war he held a -command in the national volunteer navy; and his scientific skill and -passion for adventure called him at one time across "the Great American -Desert," and at another time across Siberia, in the business of -constructing telegraphs. In point of fact, he is not the relation of any -one of the five-and-twenty young people who call him Uncle Fritz. But he -pets them, and they pet him. They like to make him a regular visit once -a week, as the winter goes by. And the habit has grown up, of their -reading with him, quite regularly, on some subject selected at their -first meeting after they return from the country. Either at Lady -Oliver's house, as his winter home is called, or at Little Crastis, -where he spends his summers, those selections for reading have been -made, which have been published in a form similar to that of the book -which the reader holds in his hand. - -The reader may or may not have seen these books,--so much the worse for -him if he have not,--but that omission of his may be easily repaired. -There are four of them: STORIES OF WAR told by Soldiers; STORIES OF THE -SEA told by Sailors; STORIES OF ADVENTURE told by Adventurers; STORIES -OF DISCOVERY told by Discoverers. - -Since the regular meetings began, of which these books are the history, -the circle of visitors has changed more or less, as most circles will, -in five years. Some of those who met are now in another world. Some of -the boys have grown to be so much like men, that they are "subduing the -world," as Uncle Fritz would say, in their several places, and that they -write home, from other latitudes and longitudes, of the Discoveries and -Adventures in which they have themselves been leaders. But younger -sisters and brothers take the places of older brothers and sisters. The -club--for it really is one--is popular, Lady Oliver's house is large, -and Uncle Fritz is hospitable. He says himself that there is always room -for more; and Ellen Flaherty, or whoever else is the reigning queen in -the kitchen, never complains that the demand is too great for her -"waffles." - -Last fall, when the young people made their first appearance, the week -before Thanksgiving day, after the new-comers had been presented to -Uncle Fritz, and a chair or two had been brought in from the dining-room -to make provision for the extra number of guests, it proved that, on the -way out, John Coram, who is Tom Coram's nephew, had been talking with -Helen, who is one of the old Boston Champernoons, about the change of -Boston since his uncle's early days. - -"I told her," said he to Uncle Fritz, "that Mr. Allerton was called 'the -last of the merchants,' and he is dead now." - -"That was a pet phrase of his," said Uncle Fritz. "He meant that his -house, with its immense resources, simply bought and sold. He was away -for many years once. When he returned, he found that the chief of his -affairs had made an investment, from motives of public spirit, in a -Western railroad. 'I thought we were merchants,' said the fine old man, -disapproving. As he turned over page after page of the account, he found -at last that the whole investment had been lost. 'I am glad of that,' -said he; 'you will remember now that we are merchants.'" - -"But surely my father is a merchant," said Julius. "He calls himself a -merchant, he is put down as a merchant in the Directory, and he buys and -sells, if that makes a man a merchant." - -"All that is true," said Uncle Fritz. "But your father also invests -money in railroads; so far he is engaged in transportation. He is a -stockholder and a director in the Hecla Woollen Mills at Bromwich; so -far he is a manufacturer. He told me, the other day, that he had been -encouraging my little friend Griffiths, who is experimenting in the -conservation of electric power; so far he is an inventor, or a patron of -inventions. - -"In substance, what Mr. Allerton meant when he said 'I thought we were -merchants,' was this: he meant that that firm simply bought from people -who wished to sell, and sold to people who wished to buy. - -"The fact, that almost every man of enterprise in Massachusetts is now -to a certain extent a manufacturer, shows that a great change has come -over people here since the beginning of this century." - -"Those were the days of Mr. Cleveland's adventures, and Mr. Forbes's," -said Hugh. - -He alluded to the trade in the Pacific, in which these gentlemen shared, -as may be read in STORIES OF ADVENTURE. - -Uncle Fritz said, "Yes." He said that the patient love of Great Britain -for her colonies forbade us here from making so much as a hat or a -hob-nail while we were colonies, as it would gladly do again now. He -said that the New Englanders had a great deal of adventurous old Norse -blood in their veins, that they had plenty of ship-timber and tar. If -they could not make hob-nails they could make ships; and they made very -good ships before they had been in New England ten years. - -Luckily for us, soon after the country became a country, near a hundred -years ago, the quarrels of Europe were such, that if an English ship -carried produce of the West Indies or China to Europe, France seized, -if she could, ship and cargo; if a French ship carried them, English -cruisers seized ship and cargo, if they could. So it happened that the -American ships and the American sailors, who were not at war with -England and were not at war with France, were able to carry the stores -which were wanted by all the world. The wars of Napoleon were thus a -steady bounty for the benefit of the commerce of America. When they were -well over, we had become so well trained to commerce here, that we could -build the best ships in the world; and we thought we had the best seamen -in the world,--certainly there were no better. Under such a stimulus, -and what followed it, our commerce, as measured by the tonnage of our -ships, was as large as that of any nation, and, if measured by the miles -sailed, was probably larger. - -All this prosperity to merchants was broken up by the War of 1812, -between the United States and Great Britain. For two years and a half, -then, our intercourse with Europe was almost cut off; for the English -cruisers now captured our vessels whenever they could find them. At last -we had to make our own hob-nails, our guns, our cannon, our cotton -cloth, and our woollen cloth, if we meant to have any at all. The -farmers' wives and daughters had always had the traditions of spinning -and weaving. - -When Colonel Ingham said this, Blanche nodded to Mary and Mary to -Blanche. - -"That means," said the Colonel, "that you have brought dear old mother -Tucker's spinning-wheel downstairs, and have it in the corner behind -your piano, does it not?" - -Blanche laughed, and said that was just what she meant. - -"It does very well in 'Martha,'" said the Colonel. "And can you spin, -Blanche?" - -Blanche rather surprised him by saying that she could, and the Colonel -went on with his lecture. Fergus, who is very proud of Blanche, slipped -out of the room, but was back after a minute, and no one missed him. - -Here in Massachusetts some of the most skilful merchants--Appletons, -Perkinses, and Lawrences--joined hand with brave inventors like Slater -and Treadwell, and sent out to England for skilful manufacturers like -Crompton and Boott; thus there sprung up the gigantic system of -manufacture, which seems to you children a thing of course. Oddly -enough, the Southern States, which had always hated New England and New -England commerce, and had done their best to destroy it when they had a -chance, were very eager to secure a home-market for Southern cotton; and -thus, for many years after the war, they kept up such high protective -duties that foreign goods were very dear in America, and the New England -manufacturers had all the better prices. - -While Uncle Fritz was saying this in substance, Ransom, the old servant, -appeared with a spinning-wheel from Colonel Ingham's music-room. The -children had had it for some charades. Kate Fogarty, the seamstress of -the Colonel's household, followed, laughing, with a great hank of flax; -and when the Colonel stopped at the interruption, Fergus said,-- - -"I thought, Uncle Fritz, they would all like to see how well Blanche -spins; so I asked Ransom to bring in the wheel." - -And Blanche sat down without any coaxing, and made her wheel fly very -prettily, and spun her linen thread as well as her great-grandmamma -would have done. Colonel Ingham was delighted; and so were all the -children, half of whom had never seen any hand-spinning before. All of -them had seen cotton and wool spun in factories; in fact, half of them -had eaten their daily bread that day, from the profit of the factories -that for ten hours of every day do such spinning. - -"Now, you see," said the well-pleased Colonel, "Blanche spins that flax -exactly as her grandmother nine generations back spun it. She spins it -exactly as Mrs. Dudley spun it in the old house where Dr. Paterson's -church stands. It is strange enough, but for one hundred and fifty years -there seems to have been no passion for invention among the New -Englanders. Now they are called a most _inventive_ people, and that bad -word has been coined for them and such as they. - -"But all this is of the last century. It was as soon as they were thrown -on their own resources that they began to invent. Eli Whitney, a -Worcester County boy, graduated at Yale College in 1791. He went to -Georgia at once, to be a tutor in a planter's family; but before he -arrived, the planter had another tutor. This was a fortunate chance for -the world; for poor Whitney, disappointed, went to spend the winter at -the house of Mrs. General Greene. One day, at dinner, some guests of -hers said that cotton could never be exported with profit unless a -machine could be made to separate the seeds from the 'wool.' 'If you -want anything invented,' said Mrs. Greene, 'ask my young friend Mr. -Whitney; he will invent anything for you.' Whitney had then never seen -cotton unmanufactured. But he went to work; and before he was one year -out of college, he had invented the cotton-gin, which created an -enormous product of cotton, and, in fact, changed the direction of the -commerce of the world. - -"Well, you know about other inventions. Robert Fulton, who built the -first effective steamboat, was born in Pennsylvania the same year -Whitney was born in Massachusetts. - -"Hector, you are fond of imaginary conversations: write one in which -Whitney and Fulton meet, when each is twenty-one; let Daniel Boone look -in on them, and prophesy to them the future of the country, and how much -it is to owe to them and to theirs." - -"I think Blanche had better write it--in a ballad," said Hector, -laughing. "It shall be an old crone spinning; and as she turns her wheel -she shall describe the Ætna Factory at Watertown." - -"There shall be a _refrain_," said Wallace,-- - - "'Turn my wheel gayly; - Spin, flax, spin.'" - -"No," said Hatty; "the refrain shall be - - 'Four per cent in six months, - Eight per cent in twelve.' - -We are to go to Europe if the Vesuvius Mills pay a dividend. But if they -_pass_, I believe I am to scrub floors in my vacation." - -"Very well," said Uncle Fritz, recalling them to the subject they had -started on. "All this is enough to show you how it is that you, who are -all New Englanders, are no longer seafaring boys or girls, exclusively -or even principally. Your great-grandmother, Alice, saved the lives of -all the crew of a Bristol trader, by going out in her father's boat and -taking her through the crooked passage between the Brewsters. You would -be glad to do it, but I am afraid you cannot." - -"I should rather encourage those who go to do it," said Alice, demurely, -repeating one of their familiar jokes. - -"And your great-grandfather, Seth, is the Hunt who discovered Hunt's -Reef in the Philippines. I am afraid you cannot place it on the map." - -"I know I cannot," said Seth, bravely. - -"No," said the old gentleman. "But all the same the reef is there. I -came to an anchor in the 'Calypso,' waiting for a southwest wind, in -sight of the breakers over it. And I wish we had the pineapples the -black people sold us there. - -"All the same the New Englanders are good for something. Ten years -hence, you boys will be doing what your fathers are doing,--subduing the -world, and making it to be more what God wants it to be. And you will -not work at arms' length, as they did, nor with your own muscles." - -"We have Aladdin's lamp," said Mary, laughing. - -"And his ring," said Susie. "I always liked the ring one better than the -lamp one, though he was not so strong." - -"He is prettier in the pictures," said George. - -"Yes," said the Colonel; "we have stronger Genii than Aladdin had, and -better machinery than Prince Camaralzaman." - -"I heard some one say that Mr. Corliss had added twenty-seven per cent -to the working power of the world by his _cut-off_," said Fergus. - -The Colonel said he believed that was true. And this was a good -illustration of what one persevering and intelligent man can do in -bringing in the larger life and nobler purpose of the Kingdom of Heaven. -Such a man makes men cease from _labor_, which is always irksome, and -_work_ with God. This is always ennobling. - -"I am ashamed to say that I do not know what a _cut-off_ is," said -Alice, who, like Seth, had been trained to "confess ignorance." - -"I was going to say so," said John Rodman. - -"And I,--and I,--and I," said quite a little chorus. - -"We must make up a party, the first pleasant day, and go and see the -stationary engine which pumps this water for us." So the Colonel met -their confessions. - -"But does not all this indicate that we might spend a few days in -looking up inventions?" - -"I think we ought to," said Hatty. "Certainly we ought, if the Vesuvius -pays. Imagine me at Manchester. Imagine John Bright taking me through -his own mill, and saying to me, 'This is the rover we like best, on the -whole. Do you use this in America?' Imagine me forced to reply that I do -not know a rover when I see one, and could not tell a 'slubber' from a -'picker.'" - -The others laughed, and confessed equal ignorance. "Only, John Bright -has no mills in Manchester, Hatty." - -"Well, they are somewhere; and I must not eat the bread of the Vesuvius -slubbers, and not know something of the way in which slubbers came to -be." - -"Very well," said Uncle Fritz, as usual recalling the conversation to -sanity. "Whom shall we read about first?" - -"Tubal Cain first," said Fergus. "He seems to have been the first of the -crew." - -"It was not he who found out witty inventions," said Fanchon, in a mock -_aside_. - -"I should begin with Archimedes," said Uncle Fritz. - -"Excellent!" said Fergus; "and then may we not burn up old Fogarty's -barn with burning-glasses?" - -The children dislike Fogarty, and his barn is an eyesore to them. It -stands just beyond the hedge of the Lady Oliver garden. - -"I thank Archimedes every time I take a warm bath. Did he not invent hot -baths?" - -"What nonsense! He was killed by Caligula in one." - -"You shall not talk such stuff.--Uncle Fritz, what books shall I bring -you?" - -It would seem as if, perhaps, Uncle Fritz had led the conversation in -the direction it had taken. At least it proved that, all together on the -rolling book-rack which Mr. Perkins gave him, were the account of -Archimedes in the Cyclopædia Britannica, the account in the French -Universal Biography, the life in La Rousse's Cyclopædia, Plutarch's -Lives, and a volume of Livy in the Latin. From these together, Uncle -Fritz, and the boys and girls whom he selected, made out this little -history of Archimedes. - - - - -II. - -ARCHIMEDES. - - -Archimedes was born in Syracuse in the year 287 B. C., and was killed -there in the year 212 B. C. He is said to have been a relation of Hiero, -King of Syracuse; but he seems to have held no formal office known to -the politicians. Like many other such men, however, from his time down -to Ericsson, he came to the front when he was needed, and served -Syracuse better than her speech-makers. While he was yet a young man, he -went to Alexandria to study; and he was there the pupil of Euclid, the -same Euclid whose Geometry is the basis of all the geometry of to-day. - -While Archimedes is distinctly called, on very high authority, "the -first mathematician of antiquity," and while we have nine books which -are attributed to him, we do not have--and this is a great -misfortune--any ancient biography of him. He lived seventy-five years, -for most of that time probably in Syracuse itself; and it would be hard -to say how much Syracuse owed to his science. At the end of his life he -saved Syracuse from the Romans for three years, during a siege in which, -by his ingenuity, he kept back Marcellus and his army. At the end of -this siege he was killed by a Roman soldier when the Romans entered the -city. - -The books of his which we have are on the "Sphere and Cylinder," "The -Measure of the Circle," "Conoids and Spheroids," "On Spirals," -"Equiponderants and Centres of Gravity," "The Quadrature of the -Parabola," "On Bodies floating in Liquids," "The Psammites," and "A -Collection of Lemmas." The books which are lost are "On the Crown of -Hiero;" "Cochleon, or Water-Screw;" "Helicon, or Endless Screw;" -"Trispaston, or Combination of Wheels and Axles;" "Machines employed at -the Siege of Syracuse;" "Burning Mirror;" "Machines moved by Air and -Water;" and "Material Sphere." - -As to the story of the bath-tub, Uncle Fritz gave to Hector to read the -account as abridged in the "Cyclopædia Britannica." - -"Hiero had set him to discover whether or not the gold which he had -given to an artist to work into a crown for him had been mixed with a -baser metal. Archimedes was puzzled by the problem, till one day, as he -was stepping into a bath, and observed the water running over, it -occurred to him that the excess of bulk occasioned by the introduction -of alloy could be measured by putting the crown and an equal weight of -gold separately into a vessel filled with water, and observing the -difference of overflow. He was so overjoyed when this happy thought -struck him that he ran home without his clothes, shouting, 'I have found -it, I have found it,'--[Greek: Eurêka, Eurêka.] - -"This word has been chosen by the State of California for its motto." - -To make the story out, it must be supposed that the crown was irregular -in shape, and that the precise object was to find how much metal, in -measurement, was used in its manufacture. Suppose three cubic inches of -gold were used, Archimedes knew how much this would cost. But if three -cubic inches of alloy were used, the king had been cheated. What the -overflow of the water taught was the precise cubic size of the various -ornaments of the crown. A silver crown or a lead crown would displace as -much water as a gold crown of the same shape and ornament. But neither -silver nor lead would weigh so much as if pure gold were used, and at -that time pure gold was by far the heaviest metal known. - -Fergus, who is perhaps our best mathematician, pricked up his ears when -he heard there was a treatise on the relation of the Circle to the -Square. Like most of the intelligent boys who will read this book, -Fergus had tried his hand on the fascinating problem which deals with -that proportion. Younger readers will remember that it is treated in -"Swiss Family." Jack--or is it perhaps Ernest?--remembers there, that -for the ribbon which was to go round a hat the hat-maker allowed three -times the diameter of the hat, and a little more. This "little more" is -the delicate fraction over which Archimedes studied; and Fergus, after -him. Fergus knew the proportion as far as thirty-three figures in -decimals. These are 3.141,592,653,589,793,238,462,643,383,279,502. When -Uncle Fritz asked Fergus to repeat these, the boy did it promptly, -somewhat to the astonishment of the others. He had committed it to -memory by one of Mr. Gouraud's "analogies," which are always convenient -for persons who have mathematical formulas to remember. - -When those of the young people who were interested in mathematics looked -at Archimedes's solution of the problem, they found it was the same as -that they had themselves tried at school. But he carried it so far as to -inscribe a circle between two polygons, each of ninety-six sides; and -his calculation is based on the relation between the two. - -Taking the "Swiss Family Robinson" statement again, Archimedes shows -that the circumference of a circle exceeds three times its diameter by a -small fraction, which is less than 10/70 and greater than 10/71 and that -a circle is to its circumscribing square nearly as 11 to 14. Those who -wish to carry his calculations farther may be pleased to know that he -found the figures 7 to 22 expressed the relation more correctly than 1 -to 3 does. Metius, another ancient mathematician, used the proportion -113 to 355. If you reduce that to decimals, you will find it correct to -the sixth decimal. Remember that Archimedes and Metius had not the -convenience of the Arabic or decimal notation. Imagine yourselves doing -Metius's sum in division when you have to divide CCCLV by CXIII. -Archimedes, in fact, used the Greek notation,--which was a little better -than the Roman, but had none of the facility of ours. For every _ten_, -from 20 to 90, they had a separate character, and for every _hundred_, -and for every _thousand_. The _thousands_ were the units with a mark -underneath. Thus [Greek: a] meant 1, and [Greek: ,a] meant 1,000. To -express 113, Archimedes would have written [Greek: rig]. To express 355, -he would have written [Greek: tne]; and the place which these signs had -in the order would not have affected their value, as they do with us. - -We cannot tell how the greater part of Archimedes's life was spent. But -whether he were nominally in public office or not, it is clear enough -that he must have given great help to Syracuse and her rulers, as an -engineer, long before the war in which the Romans captured that great -city. At that time Syracuse was, according to Cicero, "the largest and -noblest of the Greek cities." It was in Sicily; but, having been built -by colonists from Greece, who still spoke the Greek language, Cicero -speaks of it among Greek cities, as he would have spoken of Thurii, or -Sybaris, or the cities of "Magna Græcia,"--"great Greece," as they -called the Greek settlements in southern Italy. In the Second Punic War -Syracuse took sides against Rome with the Carthaginians, though her old -king, Hiero, had been a firm ally of the Romans. The most interesting -accounts that we have of Archimedes are in Livy's account of this war, -and in Plutarch's Life of Marcellus, who carried it on on the Roman -side. Livy says of Archimedes that he was-- - -"A man of unrivalled skill in observing the heavens and the stars, but -more deserving of admiration as the inventor and constructor of warlike -engines and works, by means of which, with a very slight effort, he -turned to ridicule what the enemy effected with great difficulty. - -"The wall, which ran along unequal eminences, most of which were high -and difficult of access, some low and open to approach along level -vales, was furnished by him with every kind of warlike engine, as seemed -suitable to each particular place. Marcellus attacked from the -quinqueremes [his large ships] the wall of the Achradina, which was -washed by the sea. From the other ships the archers and slingers and -light infantry, whose weapon is difficult to be thrown back by the -unskilful, allowed scarce any person to remain upon the wall unwounded. -These soldiers, as they required some range in aiming their missiles -upward, kept their ships at a distance from the wall. Eight more -quinqueremes joined together in pairs, the oars on their inner sides -being removed, so that side might be placed to side, and which thus -formed ships [of double width], and were worked by the outer oars, -carried turrets built up in stories, and other battering-engines. - -"Against this naval armament Archimedes placed, on different parts of -the walls, engines of various dimensions. Against the ships which were -at a distance he discharged stones of immense weight; those which were -nearer he assailed with lighter and more numerous missiles. Lastly, in -order that his own men might heap their weapons upon the enemy without -receiving any wounds themselves, he perforated the wall from the top to -the bottom with a great number of loop-holes, about a cubit in diameter, -through which some with arrows, others with scorpions of moderate size, -assailed the enemies without being seen. He threw upon their sterns some -of the ships which came nearer to the walls, in order to get inside the -range of the engines, raising up their prows by means of an iron grapple -attached to a strong chain, by means of a _tolleno_ [or derrick], which -projected from the wall and overhung them, having a heavy counterpoise -of lead which forced the line to the ground. Then, the grapple being -suddenly disengaged, the ship, falling from the wall, was by these -means, to the utter consternation of the seamen, so dashed against the -water that even if it came back to its true position it took in a great -quantity of water." - -"Fancy," cried Bedford, "one of their double quinqueremes, when she had -run bravely in under the shelter of the wall. Just as the men think they -can begin to work, up goes the prow, and they all are tumbled down into -the steerage. Up she goes, and fifty rowers are on each other in a pile; -when the old pile-driver claw lets go again, and down she comes, splash -into the sea. And then Archimedes pokes his head out through one of the -holes, and says in Greek, 'How do you like that, my friends?' I do not -wonder they were discouraged." - -The bold cliff of the water front of Syracuse gave Archimedes a -particular advantage for defensive operations of this sort. They are -described in more detail in Plutarch's Life of Marcellus, who was the -Roman general employed against Syracuse, and who was held at bay by -Archimedes for three years. - -Here is Plutarch's account:-- - - -Marcellus, with sixty galleys, each with five rows of oars, furnished -with all sorts of arms and missiles, and a huge bridge of planks laid -upon eight ships chained together,[1] upon which was carried the engine -to cast stones and darts, assaulted the walls. He relied on the -abundance and magnificence of his preparations, and on his own previous -glory; all which, however, were, it would seem, but trifles for -Archimedes and his machines. - -These machines he had designed and contrived, not as matters of any -importance, but as mere amusements in geometry,--in compliance with King -Hiero's desire and request, some little time before, that he should -reduce to practice some part of his admirable speculations in science, -and by accommodating the theoretic truth to sensation and ordinary use, -bring it more within the appreciation of people in general. Eudoxus and -Archytas had been the first originators of this far-famed and highly -prized art of mechanics, which they employed as an elegant illustration -of geometrical truths, and as a means of sustaining experimentally, to -the satisfaction of the senses, conclusions too intricate for proof by -words and diagrams. As, for example, to solve the problem so often -required in constructing geometrical figures, "Given the two extremes to -find the two mean lines of a proportion," both these mathematicians had -recourse to the aid of instruments, adapting to their purpose certain -curves and sections of lines. But what with Plato's indignation at it, -and his invectives against it as the mere corruption and annihilation of -the one good of geometry, which was thus shamefully turning its back -upon the unembodied objects of pure intelligence, to recur to sensation, -and to ask help (not to be obtained without base subservience and -depravation) from matter; so it was that mechanics came to be separated -from geometry, and when repudiated and neglected by philosophers, took -its place as a military art. - -Archimedes, however, in writing to King Hiero, whose friend and near -relative he was, had stated that, given the force, any given weight -might be moved; and even boasted, we are told, relying on the strength -of demonstration, that if there were another earth, by going into it he -could move this. - -Hiero being struck with amazement at this, and entreating him to make -good this assertion by actual experiment, and show some great weight -moved by a small engine, he fixed upon a ship of burden out of the -king's arsenal, which could not be drawn out of the dock without great -labor by many men. Loading her with many passengers and a full freight, -sitting himself the while far off, with no great endeavor, but only -holding the head of the pulley in his hand and drawing the cord by -degrees, he drew the ship in a straight line, as smoothly and evenly as -if she had been in the sea. - -The king, astonished at this, and convinced of the power of the art, -prevailed upon Archimedes to make him engines accommodated to all the -purposes, offensive and defensive, of a siege. These the king himself -never made use of, because he spent almost all his life in a profound -quiet and the highest affluence. But the apparatus was, in a most -opportune time, ready at hand for the Syracusans, and with it also the -engineer himself. - -When, therefore, the Romans assaulted the walls in two places at once, -fear and consternation stupefied the Syracusans, believing that nothing -was able to resist that violence and those forces. But when Archimedes -began to ply his engines, he at once shot against the land forces all -sorts of missile weapons, with immense masses of stone that came down -with incredible noise and violence, against which no man could stand; -for they knocked down those upon whom they fell in heaps, breaking all -their ranks and files. In the mean time huge poles thrust out from the -walls over the ships [these were the derricks, or _tollenos_, of Livy] -sunk some by the great weights which they let down from on high upon -them; others they lifted up into the air by an iron hand or beak like a -crane's beak, and when they had drawn them up by the prow, and set them -on end upon the poop, they plunged them to the bottom of the sea. Or -else the ships, drawn by engines within, and whirled about, were dashed -against the steep rocks that stood jutting out under the walls, with -great destruction of the soldiers that were aboard them. A ship was -frequently lifted up to a great height in the air (a dreadful thing to -behold), and was rolled to and fro and kept swinging, until the mariners -were all thrown out, when at length it was dashed against the rocks, or -let fall. - -At the engine that Marcellus brought upon the bridge of ships,--which -was called _Sambuca_ from some resemblance it had to an instrument of -music of that name,--while it was as yet approaching the wall, there was -discharged a piece of a rock of ten talents' weight,[2] then a second -and a third, which, striking upon it with immense force and with a noise -like thunder, broke all its foundation to pieces, shook out all its -fastenings, and completely dislodged it from the bridge. So Marcellus, -doubtful what counsel to pursue, drew off his ships to a safer distance, -and sounded a retreat to his forces on land. They then took a resolution -of coming up under the walls, if it were possible, in the night; -thinking that as Archimedes used ropes stretched at length in playing -his engines, the soldiers would now be under the shot, and the darts -would, for want of sufficient distance to throw them, fly over their -heads without effect. But he, it appeared, had long before framed for -such occasion engines accommodated to any distance, and shorter weapons; -and had made numerous small openings in the walls, through which, with -engines of a shorter range, unexpected blows were inflicted on the -assailants. Thus, when they, who thought to deceive the defenders, came -close up to the walls, instantly a shower of darts and other missile -weapons was again cast upon them. And when stones came tumbling down -perpendicularly upon their heads, and, as it were, the whole wall shot -out arrows against them, they retired. - -And now, again, as they were going off, arrows and darts of a longer -range inflicted a great slaughter among them, and their ships were -driven one against another, while they themselves were not able to -retaliate in any way. For Archimedes had provided and fixed most of his -engines immediately under the wall; whence the Romans, seeing that -infinite mischiefs overwhelmed them from no visible means, began to -think they were fighting with the gods. - -Yet Marcellus escaped unhurt, and, deriding his own artificers and -engineers, "What," said he, "must we give up fighting with this -geometrical Briareus, who plays pitch and toss with our ships, and with -the multitude of darts which he showers at a single moment upon us, -really outdoes the hundred-handed giants of mythology?" And doubtless -the rest of the Syracusans were but the body of Archimedes's designs, -one soul moving and governing all; for, laying aside all other arms, -with his alone they infested the Romans and protected themselves. In -fine, when such terror had seized upon the Romans that if they did but -see a little rope or a piece of wood from the wall, instantly crying out -that there it was again, that Archimedes was about to let fly some -engine at them, they turned their backs and fled, Marcellus desisted -from conflicts and assaults, putting all his hope in a long siege. Yet -Archimedes possessed so high a spirit, so profound a soul, and such -treasures of scientific knowledge, that though these inventions had now -obtained him the renown of more than human sagacity, he yet would not -deign to leave behind him any commentary or writing on such subjects; -but, repudiating as sordid and ignoble the whole trade of engineering, -and every sort of art that lends itself to mere use and profit, he -placed his whole affection and ambition in those purer speculations -where there can be no reference to the vulgar needs of life,--studies -the superiority of which to all others is unquestioned, and in which the -only doubt can be whether the beauty and grandeur of the subjects -examined or the precision and cogency of the methods and means of proof -most deserve our admiration. - -It is not possible to find in all geometry more difficult and intricate -questions, or more simple and lucid explanations. Some ascribe this to -his natural genius; while others think that incredible toil produced -these, to all appearance, easy and unlabored results. No amount of -investigation of yours would succeed in attaining the proof; and yet, -once seen, you immediately believe you would have discovered it,--by so -smooth and so rapid a path he leads you to the conclusion required. And -thus it ceases to be incredible that (as is commonly told of him) the -charm of his familiar and domestic science made him forget his food and -neglect his person to that degree that when he was occasionally carried -by absolute violence to bathe, or have his body anointed, he used to -trace geometrical figures in the ashes of the fire, and diagrams in the -oil on his body, being in a state of entire preoccupation, and, in the -truest sense, divine possession, with his love and delight in science. -His discoveries were numerous and admirable; but he is said to have -requested his friends and relations that when he was dead they would -place over his tomb a sphere containing a cylinder, inscribing it with -the ratio which the containing solid bears to the contained. - - -The boys were highly edified by this statement of the difficulty which -Archimedes's friends found in making him take a bath, and chaffed Jack, -who had asked if he were not the inventor of bath-tubs. - -When the reading from Plutarch was over, Fergus asked if that were all, -and was disappointed that there was nothing about the setting of ships -on fire by mirrors. It is one of the old stories of the siege of -Syracuse, that he set fire to the Roman ships by concentrating on them -the heat of the sun from a number of mirrors. But this story is not in -Livy, nor is it in Plutarch, though, as has been seen, they were well -disposed to tell what they knew which was marvellous in his -achievements. It is told at length and in detail by Zonaras and -Tzetzes, two Greek writers of the twelfth century, who must have found -it in some ancient writers whose works we do not now have. - -"Archimedes," says Zonaras,[3] "having received the rays of the sun on a -mirror, by the thickness and polish of which they were reflected and -united, kindled a flame in the air, and darted it with full violence -upon the ships, which were anchored within a certain distance, in such a -manner that they were burned to ashes." - -The same writer says that Proclus, a celebrated "mathematician" of -Constantinople, in the sixth century, at the siege of Constantinople set -fire to the Thracian fleet by means of brass mirrors. Tzetzes is yet -more particular. He says that when the Roman galleys were within a -bow-shot of the city walls, Archimedes brought together hexagonal -specula (mirrors) with other smaller ones of twenty-four facets, and -caused them to be placed each at a proper distance; that he moved these -by means of hinges and plates of metal; that the hexagon was bisected by -the meridian of summer and winter; that it was placed opposite the sun; -and that a great fire was thus kindled, which consumed the ships. - -Now, it is to be remembered that these are the accounts of writers who -were not so good mechanics as Archimedes. It should be remembered, also, -that in the conditions of war then, the distance at which ships would be -anchored in a little harbor like that of Syracuse was not great. By -"bow-shot" would be meant the distance at which a bow would do serious -damage. Doubtful as the story of Zonaras and Tzetzes seems, it received -unexpected confirmation in the year 1747 from a celebrated experiment -tried by the naturalist Buffon. - -After encountering many difficulties, which he had foreseen with great -acuteness, and obviated with equal ingenuity, Buffon at length succeeded -in repeating Archimedes's performance. In the spring of 1747 he laid -before the French Academy a memoir which, in his collected works, -extends over upwards of eighty pages. In this paper he described himself -as in possession of an apparatus by means of which he could set fire to -planks at the distance of 200 and even 210 feet, and melt metals and -metallic minerals at distances varying from 25 to 40 feet. This -apparatus he describes as composed of 168 plain glasses, silvered on the -back, each six inches broad by eight inches long. These, he says, were -ranged in a large wooden frame, at intervals not exceeding the third of -an inch, so that, by means of an adjustment behind, each should be -movable in all directions independent of the rest; the spaces between -the glasses being further of use in allowing the operator to see from -behind the point on which it behooved the various disks to be converged. - -In this last statement there is a parallel with that of Tzetzes, who -speaks of the division of Archimedes's mirrors. - -At the present moment naturalists are paying great attention to plans -for the using of the heat of the sun. It is said that on any county in -the United States, twenty by thirty miles square, there is wasted as -much heat of the sun as would drive, if we knew how to use it, all the -steam-engines in the world. - -Fergus asked Uncle Fritz if he believed that Archimedes threw seven -hundred pounds of stone from one of his machines. The largest modern -guns throw shot of one thousand pounds, and it is only quite recently -that any such shot have been used. - -Uncle Fritz told him that in the museum at St. Germain-en-Laye he would -one day see a modern catapult, made by Colonel de Reffye from the design -of a Roman catapult on Trajan's Column. This is supposed to be of the -same pattern which is called an "Onager" in the Latin books. This -catapult throws, when it is tested, a shot of twenty-four pounds, or it -throws a sheaf of short arrows. In one catapult the power is gained by -twisting ox-hide very tightly, and suddenly releasing it. Another is a -very stout bow, worked with a small windlass. Of course this will give a -great power. - -Seven hundred pounds, however, seems beyond the ability of any such -machines as this; but from his higher walls Archimedes could, of course, -have rolled such stones down on the decks of the ships below. And if he -were throwing other stones or leaden balls to a greater distance with -his _Onagers_, it may well be that Plutarch or Livy did not take very -accurate account of the particular engine which threw one stone or -another. - -Archimedes was killed by a Roman soldier, to the great grief of -Marcellus, when the Romans finally took Syracuse. The city fell through -drunkenness, which was, and is, the cause of more failure in the world -than anything else which can be named. Marcellus, in some conversations -about the exchange or redemption of a prisoner, observed a tower -somewhat detached from the wall, which was, as he thought, carelessly -guarded. Choosing the night of a feast of Diana, when the Syracusans -were wholly given up to wine and sport, he took the tower by surprise, -and from the tower seized the wall and made his way into the city. In -the sack of the city by the soldiers, which followed, Archimedes was -killed. The story is told in different ways. Plutarch says that he was -working out some problem by a diagram, and never noticed the incursion -of the Romans, nor that the city was taken. A soldier, unexpectedly -coming up to him in this transport of study and meditation, commanded -him to follow him to Marcellus; which he declining to do before he had -worked out his problem to a demonstration, the soldier, enraged, drew -his sword, and ran him through. "Others write that a Roman soldier, -running upon him with a drawn sword, offered to kill him, and that -Archimedes, looking back, earnestly besought him to hold his hand a -little while, that he might not leave what he was then at work upon -inconsequent and imperfect; but the soldier, not moved by his entreaty, -instantly killed him. Others, again, relate that as Archimedes was -carrying to Marcellus mathematical instruments, dials, spheres, and -angles by which the magnitude of the sun might be measured to the sight, -some soldiers, seeing him, and thinking that he carried gold in a -vessel, slew him. - -"Certain it is, that his death was very afflicting to Marcellus, and -that Marcellus ever after regarded him that killed him as a murderer, -and that he sought for the kindred of Archimedes and honored them with -signal honors." - -Archimedes, as has been said, had asked that his monument might be a -cylinder bearing a sphere, in commemoration of his discovery of the -proportion between a cylinder and a sphere of the same diameter. A -century and a half after, when Cicero was quæstor of Sicily, he found -this monument, neglected, forgotten, and covered with a rank growth of -thistles and other weeds. - -"It was left," he says, "for one who came from Arpinas, to show to the -men of Syracuse where their greatest countryman lay buried." - - - - -III. - -FRIAR BACON. - - -"All the world seems to have known of Columbus's discoveries as soon as -he came home, but all the world did not know at once of Archimedes's -inventions; indeed, I should think the world did not know now what all -of them are." - -Hester Van Brunt was saying this in the hall, as the girls laid off -their waterproofs, when they next met the Colonel. - -"I think that may often be said of what we call Inventions and what we -call Discoveries," he said, "till quite recent times. When a man -invented a new process, it was supposed that if he could keep the -secret, it might be to him a very valuable secret. But when one -discovered an island or a continent, it was almost impossible to keep -the secret. They tried it sometimes, as you know. But there must be a -whole ship's crew who know something of the new-found land, and from -some of them the secret would leak out. - -"But there has been many a process in the arts lost, because the man who -discovered the new quality in nature or invented the new method in -manufacture kept it secret, so that he might do better work than his -competitors. This went so far that boys were apprenticed to masters to -learn 'the secrets of their trades.'" - -Fergus said that in old times inventors were not always treated very -kindly. If people thought they were sorcerers, or in league with the -Devil, they did not care much for the invention. - -Uncle Fritz said they would find plenty of instances of the persecution -of inventors, even to quite a late date. It is impossible, of course, to -say how many good things were lost to the world by the pig-headedness -which discouraged new inventions. It is marvellous to think what -progress single men made, who had to begin almost at the beginning, and -learn for themselves what every intelligent boy or girl now finds ready -for him in the Cyclopædia. It is very clear that the same beginnings -were made again and again by some of the early inventors. Then, what -they learned had been almost forgotten. There was no careful record of -their experiments, or, if any, it was in one manuscript, and that was -not accessible to people trying to follow in their steps. - -"I have laid out for you," said Uncle Fritz, "some of the early accounts -of Friar Bacon,--Roger Bacon. He is one of the most distinguished of the -early students of what we now call natural philosophy in England. It was -in one of the darkest centuries of the Dark Ages. - -"But see what he did. - -"There are to be found in his writings new and ingenious views of -Optics,--as, on the refraction of light, on the apparent magnitude of -objects, on the magnified appearance of the sun and moon when on the -horizon. He describes very exactly the nature and effects of concave and -convex lenses, and speaks of their application to the purposes of -reading and of viewing distant objects, both terrestrial and celestial; -and it is easy to prove from his writings that he was either the -inventor or the improver of the telescope. He also gives descriptions -of the camera obscura and of the burning-glass. He made, too, several -chemical discoveries. In one place he speaks of an inextinguishable -fire, which was probably a kind of phosphorus. In another he says that -an artificial fire could be prepared with saltpetre and other -ingredients which would burn at the greatest distance, and by means of -which thunder and lightning could be imitated. He says that a portion of -this mixture of the size of an inch, properly prepared, would destroy a -whole army, and even a city, with a tremendous explosion accompanied by -a brilliant light. In another place he says distinctly that thunder and -lightning could be imitated by means of saltpetre, sulphur, and -charcoal. As these are the ingredients of gunpowder, it is clear that he -had an adequate idea of its composition and its power. He was intimately -acquainted with geography and astronomy. He had discovered the errors of -the calendar and their causes, and in his proposals for correcting them -he approached very nearly to the truth. He made a corrected calendar, of -which there is a copy in the Bodleian Library in Oxford. In moral -philosophy, also, Roger Bacon has laid down some excellent precepts for -the conduct of life.[4] - -"Now, if you had such a biography of such a man now, you would know that -without much difficulty you could find all his more important -observations in print. So soon as he thought them important, he would -communicate them to some society which would gladly publish them. In the -first place, he would be glad to have the credit of an improvement, an -invention, or a discovery. If the invention were likely to be -profitable, the nation would secure the profit to him if he fully -revealed the process. They would give him, by a 'patent,' the right to -the exclusive profit for a series of years. The nation thus puts an end -to the old temptation to secrecy, or tries to do so. - -"But if you will read some of the queer passages from the old lives of -Bacon, you will see how very vague were the notions which the people of -his own time had of what he was doing." - -Then Hester read some passages which Colonel Ingham had marked for her. - -OF THE PARENTS AND BIRTH OF FRYER BACON, AND HOW HE ADDICTED HIMSELF TO -LEARNING. - -In most men's opinions he was born in the West part of _England_ and was -son to a wealthy Farmer, who put him to School to the Parson of the Town -where he was born: not with intent that he should turn Fryer (as he -did), but to get so much understanding, that he might manage the better -that wealth he was to leave him. But young _Bacon_ took his learning so -fast, that the Priest could not teach him any more, which made him -desire his Master that he would speak to his father to put him to -_Oxford_, that he might not lose that little learning that he had -gained: his Master was very willing so to do: and one day, meeting his -father, told him, that he had received a great blessing of God, in that -he had given him so wise and hopeful a Child as his son _Roger Bacon_ -was (for so was he named) and wished him withal to doe his duty, and to -bring up so his Child, that he might shew his thankfulness to God, which -could not better be done than in making him a Scholar; for he found by -his sudden taking of his learning, that he was a child likely to prove a -very great Clerk: hereat old _Bacon_ was not well pleased (for he -desired to bring him up to Plough and to the Cart, as he himself was -brought) yet he for reverence sake to the Priest, shewed not his anger, -but kindly thanked him for his paines and counsel, yet desired him not -to speak any more concerning that matter, for he knew best what best -pleased himself, and that he would do: so broke they off their talk and -parted. - -So soon as the old man came home, he called to his son for his books, -which when he had, he locked them up, and gave the Boy a Cart Whip in -place of them, saying to him: "Boy, I will have you no Priest, you shall -not be better learned than I, you can tell by the Almanack when it is -best sowing Wheat, when Barley, Peas and Beans: and when the best -libbing is, when to sell Grain and Cattle I will teach thee; for I have -all Fairs and Markets as perfect in my memory, as Sir _John_, our -Priest, has Mass without Book: take me this Whip, I will teach the use -of it. It will be more profitable to thee than this harsh Latin: make no -reply, but follow my counsel, or else by the Mass thou shalt feel the -smart hand of my anger." Young _Bacon_ thought this but hard dealing, -yet he would not reply, but within six or eight days he gave his Father -the slip, and went to a Cloister some twenty miles off, where he was -entertained, and so continued his Learning, and in small time came to be -so famous, that he was sent for to the University of Oxford, where he -long time studied, and grew so excellent in the secrets of Art and -Nature, that not England only, but all Christendom, admired him. - - -HOW FRYER BACON MADE A BRAZEN HEAD TO SPEAK, BY THE WHICH HE WOULD HAVE -WALLED ENGLAND ABOUT WITH BRASS. - -Fryer _Bacon_, reading one day of the many conquests of England, -bethought himself how he might keep it hereafter from the like -conquests, and so make himself famous hereafter to all posterity. This -(after great study) he found could be no way so well done as one; which -was to make a head of Brass, and if he could make this head to speak -(and hear it when it speaks) then might he be able to wall all England -about with Brass. To this purpose he got one Fryer _Bungy_ to assist -him, who was a great Scholar and a Magician, (but not to be compared to -Fryer _Bacon_), these two with great study and pains so framed a head of -Brass, that in the inward parts thereof there was all things like as in -a natural man's head: this being done, they were as far from perfection -of the work as they were before, for they knew not how to give those -parts that they had made motion, without which it was impossible that it -should speak: many books they read, but yet could not find out any hope -of what they sought, that at the last they concluded to raise a spirit, -and to know of him that which they could not attain to by their own -studies. To do this they prepared all things ready and went one Evening -to a wood thereby, and after many ceremonies used, they spake the words -of conjuration, which the Devil straight obeyed and appeared unto them, -asking what they would? "Know," said Fryer _Bacon_, "that we have made -an artificial head of Brass, which we would have to speak, to the -furtherance of which we have raised thee, and being raised, we will keep -thee here, unless thou tell to us the way and manner how to make this -Head to speak." The Devil told him that he had not that power of -himself: "Beginner of lies," said Fryer _Bacon_, "I know that thou -wouldst dissemble, and therefore tell it us quickly, or else we will -here bind thee to remain during our pleasures." At these threatenings -the Devil consented to do it, and told them, that with a continual fume -of the six hottest simples it should have motion, and in one month space -speak, the Time of the month or day he knew not: also he told them, that -if they heard it not before it had done speaking, all their labour -should be lost: they being satisfied, licensed the Spirit for to depart. - -Then went these two learned Fryers home again, and prepared the Simples -ready, and made the fume, and with continual watching attended when this -Brazen-head would speak: thus watched they for three weeks without any -rest, so that they were so weary and sleepy, that they could not any -longer refrain from rest: then called Fryer _Bacon_ his man _Miles_, and -told him, that it was not unknown to him what pains Fryer _Bungy_ and -himself had taken for three weeks space, only to make, and to hear the -Brazen-head speak, which if they did not, then had they lost all their -labour, and all England had a great loss thereby: therefore he entreated -Miles that he would watch whilst that they slept, and call them if the -Head speake. "Fear not, good Master," said Miles, "I will not sleep, but -hearken and attend upon the head, and if it do chance to speak, I will -call you: therefore I pray take you both your rests and let me alone for -watching this head." After Fryer _Bacon_ had given him a great charge -the second time, Fryer _Bungy_ and he went to sleep, and _Miles_, alone -to watch the Brazen-head. _Miles_ to keep himself from sleeping, got a -Tabor and Pipe, and being merry disposed sang him many a merry Song; -and thus with his own Music and his Songs spent he his time, and kept -from sleeping at last. After some noise the Head spake these two words: -"_Time is_." Miles hearing it to speak no more, thought his Master would -be angry if he waked him for that, and therefore he let them both sleep, -and began to mock the Head in this manner: "Thou Brazen-faced Head, hath -my Master took all this pains about thee, and now dost thou requite him -with two words, _Time is_? had he watched with a Lawyer so long as he -hath watched with thee, he would have given him more, and better words -than thou hast yet. If thou canst speak no wiser, they shall sleep till -doom's day for me. _Time is_: I know _Time is_, and that thou shall -hear, good man Brazen face." And with this he sang him a song to his own -music as to times and seasons, and went on, "Do you tell us, -Copper-nose, when Time is? I hope we Scholars know our Times, when to -drink drunk, when to kiss our hostess, when to go on her score, and when -to pay it, that time comes seldom." After half an hour had passed, the -Head did speak again, two words, which were these: "_Time was_." _Miles_ -respected these words as little as he did the former, and would not wake -them, but still scoffed at the Brazen head, that it had learned no -better words, and have such a Tutor as his Master: and in scorn of it -sung a Song to the tune of "A Rich Merchant man," beginning as follows: - - Time was when thou a kettle - Wert filled with better matter: - But Fryer _Bacon_ did thee spoil, - When he thy sides did batter, - -with more to the same purpose. "_Time was_," said he, "I know that, -Brazen face, without your telling, I know Time was, and I know what -things there was when Time was, and if you speak no wiser, no Master -shall be waked for me." Thus _Miles_ talked and sung till another half -hour was gone, then the Brazen head spake again these words, "_Time is -past_:" and therewith fell down, and presently followed a terrible -noise, with strange flashes of fire, so that _Miles_ was half dead with -fear. At this noise the two Fryers awaked, and wondered to see the whole -room so full of smoke, but that being vanished they might perceive the -Brazen head broken and lying on the ground: at this sight they grieved, -and called _Miles_ to know how this came. Miles half dead with fear, -said that it fell down of itself, and that with the noise and fire that -followed he was almost frighted out of his wits: Fryer _Bacon_ asked him -if he did not speak? "Yes," quoth _Miles_, "it spake, but to no purpose. -I'll have a Parrot speak better in that time than you have been teaching -this Brazen head." "Out on thee, villain," said Fryer _Bacon_, "thou -hast undone us both, hadst thou but called us when it did speak, all -England had been walled round about with Brass, to its glory, and our -eternal fames: what were the words it spake?" "Very few," said _Miles_, -"and those none of the wisest that I have heard neither: first he said, -'_Time is_.'" "Hadst thou called us then," said Fryer _Bacon_, "we had -been made for ever." "Then," said _Miles_, "half an hour after it spake -again and said '_Time was_.'" "And wouldst thou not call us then?" said -_Bungy_. "Alas!" said _Miles_, "I thought he would have told me some -long Tale, and then I purposed to have called you: then half an hour -after, he cried '_Time is past_,' and made such a noise, that he hath -waked you himself, methinks." At this Fryer _Bacon_ was in such a rage, -that he would have beaten his man, but he was restrained by _Bungy_: -but nevertheless for his punishment, he with his Art struck him dumb for -one whole month's space. Thus that great work of these learned Fryers -was overthrown (to their great griefs) by this simple fellow. - - -HOW FRYER BACON BY HIS ART TOOK A TOWN, WHEN THE KING HAD LAIN BEFORE IT -THREE MONTHS, WITHOUT DOING IT ANY HURT. - -In those times when Fryer _Bacon_ did all his strange tricks, the Kings -of _England_ had a great part of _France_ which they held a long time, -till civil wars at home in this Land made them to lose it. It did chance -that the King of England (for some cause best known to himself) went -into _France_ with a great Army, where after many victories, he did -besiege a strong Town, and lay before it full three months, without -doing to the Town any great damage, but rather received the hurt -himself. This did so vex the King, that he sought to take it in any way, -either by policy or strength: to this intent he made Proclamation, that -whosoever could deliver this Town into his hand, he should have for his -pains ten thousand Crowns truly paid. This was proclaimed, but there was -none found that would undertake it: at length the news did come into -_England_ of this great reward that was promised. Fryer _Bacon_ hearing -of it, went into _France_, and being admitted to the King's presence, he -thus spake unto him: "Your Majesty I am sure hath not forgot your poor -servant _Bacon_, the love that you showed to me being last in your -presence, hath drawn me for to leave my Country and my Studies, to do -your Majesty service: I beseech your Grace, to command me so far as my -poor Art or life may do you pleasure." The King thanked him for his -love, but told him that he had now more need of Arms than Art, and -wanted brave Soldiers rather than learned Scholars. Fryer _Bacon_ -answered, "Your Grace saith well; but let me (under correction) tell -you, that Art oftentimes doth these things that are impossible to Arms, -which I will make good in few examples. I will speak only of things -performed by Art and Nature, wherein there shall be nothing Magical: and -first by the figuration of Art, there may be made Instruments of -Navigation without men to row in them, as great ships, to brook the Sea, -only with one man to steer them, and they shall sail far more swiftly -than if they were full of men: Also Chariots that shall move with an -unspeakable force, without any living creature to stir them. Likewise, -an Instrument may be made to fly withal, if one sit in the midst of the -Instrument, and do turn an engine, by which the wings being Artificially -composed, may beat air after the manner of a flying Bird. By an -Instrument of three fingers high, and three fingers broad, a man may rid -himself and others from all Imprisonment: yea, such an Instrument may -easily be made, whereby a man may violently draw unto him a thousand -men, will they, nill they, or any other thing. By Art also an Instrument -may be made, wherewith men may walk in the bottom of the Sea or Rivers -without bodily danger: this _Alexander_ the Great used (as the Ethnic -philosopher reporteth) to the end he might behold the Secrets of the -Seas. But Physical Figurations are far more strange: for by that may be -framed Perspects and Looking-glasses, that one thing shall appear to be -many, as one man shall appear to be a whole Army, and one Sun or Moon -shall seem divers. Also perspects may be so framed, that things far off -shall seem most nigh unto us: with one of these did _Julius Cæsar_ from -the Sea coasts in _France_ marke and observe the situation of the -Castles in _England_. Bodies may also be so framed, that the greatest -things shall appear to be the least, the highest lowest, the most secret -to be the most manifest, and in such like sort the contrary. Thus did -_Socrates_ perceive, that the Dragon which did destroy the City and -Country adjoining with his noisome breath, and contagious influence, did -lurk in the dens between the Mountains: and thus may all things that are -done in Cities or Armies be discovered by the enemies. Again, in such -wise may bodies be framed, that venemous and infectious influences may -be brought whither a man will: In this did _Aristotle_ instruct -_Alexander_; through which instruction the poyson of a Basiliske, being -lifted up upon the wall of a City, the poyson was conveyed into the -City, to the destruction thereof: Also perspects may be made to deceive -the sight, as to make a man believe that he seeth great store of riches -when there is not any. But it appertaineth to a higher power of -Figuration, that beams should be brought and assembled by divers -flections and reflections in any distance that we will, to burne -anything that is opposite unto it, as is witnessed by those Perspects or -Glasses that burn before and behind. But the greatest and chiefest of -all figurations and things figured, is to describe the heavenly bodies, -according to their length and breadth in a corporal figure, wherein they -may corporally move with a daily motion. These things are worth a -kingdom to a wise man. These may suffise, my royal Lord, to shew what -Art can do: and these, with many things more, as strange, I am able by -Art to perform. Then take no thought for winning this Town, for by my -Art you shall (ere many days be past) have your desire." - -The King all this while heard him with admiration: but hearing him now, -that he would undertake to win the Town, he burst out in these speeches: -"Most learned _Bacon_, do but what thou hast said, and I will give thee -what thou most desirest, either wealth or honour, choose what thou wilt, -and I will be as ready to perform, as I have been to promise." - -"Your Majesty's love is all that I seek," said the Fryer, "let me have -that, and I have honour enough, for wealth, I have content, the wise -should seek no more: but to the purpose. Let your Pioneers raise up a -mount so high, (or rather higher), than the wall, and then you shall see -some probability of that which I have promised." - -This Mount in two days was raised: then Fryer _Bacon_ went with the King -to the Top of it, and did with a perspect shew to him the Town, as -plainly as if he had been in it: at this the King did wonder, but Fryer -_Bacon_ told him, that he should wonder more, ere next day noon: against -which Time, he desired him to have his whole Army in readiness, for to -scale the wall upon a signal given by him, from the Mount. This the King -promised to do, and so returned to his Tent full of Joy, that he should -gain this strong Town. In the morning Fryer _Bacon_ went up to the Mount -and set his Glasses, and other Instruments up: in the meantime the King -ordered his Army, and stood in a readiness for to give the assaults: -when the signal was given which was the waving of a flag. Ere nine of -the clock Fryer _Bacon_ had burnt the State-house of the Town, with -other houses only by his Mathematical Glasses, which made the whole Town -in an uproar, for none did know how it came: whilst that they were -quenching of the same, Fryer _Bacon_ did wave his flag: upon which -signal given, the King set upon the Town, and took it with little or no -resistance. Thus through the Art of this learned man the King got this -strong Town, which he could not do with all his men without Fryer -_Bacon's_ help. - - -HOW FRYER BACON BURNT HIS BOOKS OF MAGIC AND GAVE HIMSELF TO THE STUDY -OF DIVINITY ONLY; AND HOW HE TURNED ANCHORITE. - -Now in a time when Fryer _Bacon_ kept his Chamber (having some great -grief) he fell into divers meditations: sometimes into the vanity of -Arts and Sciences: then would he condemn himself for studying of those -things that were so contrary to his Order and Soul's health; and would -say that Magic made a Man a Devil; sometimes would he meditate on -Divinity; then would he cry out upon himself for neglecting the study of -it, and for studying Magic: sometime would he meditate on the shortness -of man's life, then would he condemn himself for spending a time so -short, so ill as he had done his: so would he go from one thing to -another and in all condemn his former studies. - -And that the world should know how truly he did repent his wicked life, -he caused to be made a great fire; and sending for many of his Friends, -Scholars, and others, he spake to them after this manner: "My good -Friends and fellow Students, it is not unknown unto you, how that -through my Art I have attained to that credit, that few men living ever -had. Of the wonders that I have done, all England can speak, both King -and Commons: I have unlocked the secret of Art and Nature, and let the -world see those things, that have layen hid since the death of Hermes, -that rare and profound Philosopher: My Studies have found the secrets of -the Stars; the Books that I have made of them, do serve for Precedents -to our greatest Doctors, so excellent hath my Judgement been therein. I -likewise have found out the secrets of Trees, Plants and Stones, with -their several uses; yet all this knowledge of mine I esteem so lightly, -that I wish that I were ignorant, and knew nothing: for the knowledge of -these things, (as I have truly found) serveth not to better a man in -goodness, but only to make him proud and think too well of himself. What -hath all my knowledge of nature's secrets gained me? Only this, the loss -of a better knowledge, the loss of divine Studies, which makes the -immortal part of man (his Soul) blessed. I have found, that my knowledge -has been a heavy burden, and has kept down my good thoughts: but I will -remove the cause which are these Books: which I do purpose here before -you all to burn." They all intreated him to spare the Books, because in -them there were those things that after-ages might receive great benefit -by. He would not hearken unto them but threw them all into the fire, and -in that flame burnt the greatest learning in the world. Then did he -dispose of all his goods; some part he gave to poor Scholars, and some -he gave to other poor folks: nothing he left for himself: then caused he -to be made in the Church-wall a Cell, where he locked himself in, and -there remained till his death. His time he spent in Prayer, Meditation -and such Divine Exercises, and did seek by all means to persuade men -from the study of Magic. Thus lived he some two years space in that -Cell, never coming forth: his meat and drink he received in at a window, -and at that window he did discourse with those that came to him; His -grave he digged with his own nails, and was laid there when he dyed. -Thus was the Life and Death of this famous Fryer, who lived the most -part of his life a Magician, and died a true penitent sinner and an -Anchorite. - -When Hester had finished reading, one of the boys said that if people -believed such things as that, he thought the wonder was that they made -any progress at all. Uncle Fritz said that in matters which make up what -we call science, they did not make much progress. The arts of the world -do not seem to have advanced much between the days of Solomon and those -of William the Conqueror. - -"As you see," said Uncle Fritz, "an inventor was set down as a magician. -I think you can remember more instances." - -Yes. Almost all the young people remember that in Marco Polo's day there -was a distinguished Venetian engineer with the armies of Genghis Khan, -whose wonderful successes gave rise, perhaps, to the story of -Aladdin.[5] The scene of his successes was Pekin; and it is to be -remembered that the story of Aladdin is not properly one of the Arabian -Nights, and that the scene is laid in China. - -This led them to trying to match the wonders of Aladdin and of the -Arabian Nights by the wonders of modern invention; and they pleased -themselves by thinking of marvels they could show to unlearned nations -if they had the resources of Mr. Edison's laboratory. - -"Aladdin rubbed his lamp," said Blanche. "You see, the lamp was his -electrical machine; and when he rubbed it, the lightnings went flying -hither and thither, and said, 'Here we are.'" - -"That is all very fine," said Jack Withers; "but I stand by the Arabian -Nights, after all, and I think I shall, till Mr. Edison or the Taunton -locomotive shop will make for me some high-stepper on whose back I may -rise above the clouds, pass over the length and breadth of -Massachusetts, descend in the garden where Blanche is confined by the -hated mistress of a boarding-school in Walpole, and then, winning her -ready consent, can mount again with her, and before morning descend in -the garden of a beautiful cottage at Newport. We will spend six weeks in -playing tennis in the daytime, dancing in the Casino in the evenings, -and in sailing in Frank Shattuck's yacht between whiles. Then, and not -till then, would I admit that the Arabian Nights have been outdone by -modern science." - -They all laughed at Jack's extravaganza, which is of a kind to which -they are beginning to be accustomed. But Mabel stuck to her text, and -said seriously, that Uncle Fred had said that what people now called -science sprung from the workshops of these very magicians. "The -magicians then had all the science there was. And if magic had not got a -bad name, should we not call the men of science magicians now?" - -Uncle Fritz said yes to all her questions, but he said that they did not -cover the whole matter. The difference between a magician and a man of -science involves these habits: the magician keeps secret what he knows, -while the man of science discloses all he learns. Then the magician -affected to have spiritual power at command, while the man of science -only affects to use what he calls physical powers. Till either of them -tell us how to distinguish spiritual forces from physical forces, the -second distinction is of the less importance. But the other has made all -the difference in the world between the poor magic-men and the -science-men. For, as they had seen with Friar Bacon, the magic-men have -had their stories told by most ignorant people, seeing they did not -generally leave any records behind them; but the men of modern science, -having chosen to tell their own stories, have had them told, on the -whole, reasonably well, though generally stupidly. - -"What a pity we have not Solomon's books of science!" said John Tolman. - -"It is one of the greatest of pities that such books as those were not -kept. It seems as if people would have built on such foundations, and -that Science would have marched from step to step, instead of beginning -over and over again. But we do have Pliny's Natural History, as he chose -to call it. Far from building on that as a foundation, the Dark Ages -simply accepted it. And there are blunders or sheer lies in that book, -and in Aristotle's books, and Theophrastus's, and other such, which have -survived even to our day." - -The children were peeping into the collection from which the Friar Bacon -stories had been read, and they lighted on these scraps about the -supposed life of Virgil. To the people of the Dark Ages Virgil was much -more a man of magic than a poet. - - -HOW VIRGILIUS WAS SET TO SCHOOL. - -As Virgilius was born, then the town of Rome quaked and trembled: and in -his youth he was wise and subtle, and was put to school at Tolentin, -where he studied diligently, for he was of great understanding. Upon a -time the scholars had licence to go to play and sport them in the fields -after the usance of the old time; and there was also Virgilius thereby -also walking among the hills all about: it fortuned he spied a great -hole in the side of a great hill wherein he went so deep that he could -not see no more light, and then he went a little further therein, and -then he saw some light again, and then went he forth straight: and -within a little while after, he heard a voice that called, "Virgilius, -Virgilius;" and he looked about, and he could not see no body; then -Virgilius spake and asked, "Who calleth me?" Then heard he the voice -again, but he saw nobody: then said he, "Virgilius, see ye not that -little board lying beside you there, marked with that word?" Then -answered Virgilius, "I see that board well enough." The voice said, "Do -away that board, and let me out thereat." Then answered Virgilius to the -voice that was under the little board, and said, "Who art thou that -talkest me so!" Then answered the devil: "I am a devil, conjured out of -the body of a certain man, and banished till the day of judgement, -without I be delivered by the hands of men. Thus, Virgilius, I pray you -to deliver me out of this pain, and I shall shew unto thee many books of -necromancy, and how thou shalt come by it lightly and know the practise -therein, that no man in the science of necromancy shall pass thee; and -moreover I shall shew and inform you so that thou shalt have all thy -desire, whereby methinks it is a great gift for so little a doing, for -ye may also thus all your friends helpen, and make your enemies -unmighty." Through that great promise was Virgil tempted; he had the -fiend shew the books to him that he might have and occupy them at his -will. And so the fiend shewed him, and then Virgilius pulled open a -board, and there was a little hole, and thereat crawled the devil out -like an eel, and came and stood before Virgilius like a big man; thereat -Virgilius was astonished and marvelled greatly thereof that so great a -man might come out at so little a hole; then said Virgilius, "should ye -well pass into the hole that ye came out of?" "Yea, I shall well," said -the devil.--"I hold the best pledge that I have, ye shall not do it." -"Well," said the devil, "thereto I consent." And then the devil crawled -into the little hole again, and as he was therein, Virgilius covered the -hole again, and so was the devil beguiled, and might not there come out -again, but there abideth still therein. Then called the devil dreadfully -to Virgilius and said, "What have ye done?" Virgilius answered, "Abide -there still to your day appointed." And from thenceforth abideth he -there. And so Virgilius became very cunning in the practise of the black -science. - - -HOWE THE EMPEROR ASKED COUNSEL OF VIRGILIUS, HOW THE NIGHT RUNNERS AND -ILL DOERS MIGHT BE RID-OUT OF THE STREETS. - -The emperor had many complaints of the night runners and thieves, and -also of the great murdering of people in the night, in so much that the -emperor asked counsel of Virgilius, and said: "That he hath great -complaints of the thieves that runneth by night for they kill many men; -what counsel, Virgilius, is best to be done?" Then answered Virgilius to -the emperor, "Ye shall make a horse of copper and a copper man upon his -back, having in his hands a flail of iron, and that horse, ye shall so -bring afore the towne house, and ye shall let cry that a man from -henceforth at ten of the clock should ring a bell, and he that after the -bell was rung in the streets should be slain, no work thereof should be -done." And when this cry was made the ruffians set not a point, but kept -the streets as they did afore and would not let therefor; and as soon as -the bell was rung at ten of the clock, then leaped the horse of copper -with the copper man through the streets of Rome, insomuch that he left -not one street in Rome unsought; and as soon as he found any man or -woman in the street he slew them stalk dead, insomuch that he slew above -two hundred persons or more. And this seeing, the thieves and -night-runners how they might find a remedy therefor, thought in their -minds to make a drag with a ladder thereon; and as they would go out by -night they took their ladders with them, and when they heard the horse -come, then cast they the drag upon the houses, and so went up upon their -ladders to the top of the houses, so that the copper man might not touch -them; and so abide they still in their wicked doing. Then came they -again to the emperor and complained, and then the emperor asked counsel -of Virgilius; and Virgilius answered and said, "that then he must get -two copper hounds and set them of either side of the copper horse, and -let cry again that no body after the bell is rung should depart out of -their house that would live." But the night walkers cared not a point -for that cry; but when they heard the horse coming, with their ladders -climbed upon the houses, but the dogs leaped after and tore them all in -pieces; and thus the noise went through Rome, in so much that nobody -durst in the night go in the street, and thus all the night-walkers were -destroyed. - - -HOW VIRGILIUS MADE A LAMP THAT AT ALL TIMES BURNED. - -For profit of the common people, Virgilius on a great mighty marble -pillar, did make a bridge that came up to the palace, and so went -Virgilius well up the pillar out of the palace; that palace and pillar -stood in the midst of Rome; and upon this pillar made he a lamp of -glass that always burned without going out, and nobody might put it out; -and this lamp lightened over all the city of Rome from the one corner to -the other, and there was not so little a street but it gave such light -that it seemed two torches there had stand; and upon the walls of the -palace made he a metal man that held in his hand a metal bow that -pointed ever upon the lamp for to shoot it out; but always burned the -lamp and gave light over all Rome. And upon a time went the burgesses' -daughters to play in the palace and beheld the metal man; and one of -them asked in sport, why he shot not? And then she came to the man and -with her hand touched the bow, and then the bolt flew out, and brake the -lamp that Virgilius made; and it was wonder that the maiden went not out -of her mind for the great fear she had, and also the other burgesses' -daughters that were in her company, of the great stroke that it gave -when it hit the lamp, and when they saw the metal man so swiftly run his -way; and never after was he no more seen; and this foresaid lamp was -abiding burning after the death of Virgilius by the space of three -hundred years or more. - - -It is on the wrecks and ruins recorded in such fables as these that -modern science is builded. - - - - -IV. - -BENVENUTO CELLINI. - - -"Now we will leave the fairy tales," said Uncle Fritz, "and begin on -modern times." - -"Modern times means since 1492," said Alice,--"the only date in history -I am quite sure of, excepting 1866." - -"Eighteen-hundred and sixty-six," said John Goodrich,--"the _Annus -Mirabilis_, celebrated for the birth of Miss Alice Francis and Mr. J. -G." - -"Hush, hush! Uncle Fritz wants to say something." - -"We will leave the fairy tales," said poor chicken-pecked Uncle Fritz, -"and begin with Benvenuto Cellini. Who has seen any of his work?" - -Several of the girls who had been in Europe remembered seeing gold and -silver work of Benvenuto Cellini's in the museums. Uncle Fritz told them -that the little hand-bell used on his own tea-table was modelled at -Chicopee, in Massachusetts, from a bell which was the design of -Benvenuto Cellini; and he sent for the bell that the children might see -how ingenious was the ornamentation, and how simply the different -designs were connected together. - -He told Alice she might read first from Vasari's account of him. -Vasari's book, which the children now saw for the first time, is a very -entertaining one. Vasari was himself an artist, of the generation just -following Michael Angelo. He was, indeed, the contemporary of Raphael. -But he is remembered now, not for his pictures, nor for his work in -architecture, both of which were noted in his time, but for his lives of -the most excellent painters, sculptors, and architects, which was first -published in 1550. Benvenuto Cellini was born ten years before Vasari, -and here is a part of Vasari's life of him. - - -LIFE OF BENVENUTO CELLINI. - -Benvenuto Cellini, citizen of Florence, born in 1500, at present a -sculptor, in his youth cultivated the goldsmith's business, and had no -equal in that branch. He set jewels, and adorned them with diminutive -figures, exquisitely formed, and some of them so curious and fanciful -that nothing finer or more beautiful can be conceived. At Rome he made -for Pope Clement VII. a button to be worn upon his pontifical habit, -fixing a diamond to it with the most exquisite art. He was employed to -make the stamps for the Roman mint, and there never have been seen finer -coins than those that were struck in Rome at that period. - -After the death of Pope Clement, Benvenuto returned to Florence, where -he made stamps with the head of Duke Alessandro, for the mint, -wonderfully beautiful. Benvenuto, having at last devoted himself to -sculpture and casting statues, made in France many works, while he was -employed at the Court of King Francis I. He afterwards came back to his -native country, where he executed in metal the statue of Perseus, who -cut off Medusa's head. This work was brought to perfection with the -greatest art and diligence imaginable. - -Though I might here enlarge on the productions of Benvenuto, who always -shewed himself a man of great spirit and vivacity, bold, active, -enterprising, and formidable to his enemies,--a man, in short, who knew -as well how to speak to princes as to exert himself in his art,--I shall -add nothing further, since he has written an account of his life and -works, and a treatise on goldsmith's work as well as on casting statues -and many other subjects, with more art and eloquence than it is possible -for me to imitate. I shall therefore content myself with this account of -his chief performances. - - -Benvenuto was quite proud of his own abilities as a writer. Very -fortunately for us he has left his own memoirs. Here is the -introduction. - - -BENVENUTO'S AUTOBIOGRAPHY. - -"It is a duty incumbent on upright and credible men of all ranks, who -have performed anything noble or praiseworthy, to record, in their own -writing, the events of their lives; yet they should not commence this -honorable task before they have passed their fortieth year. Such at -least is my opinion, now that I have completed my fifty-eighth year, and -am settled in Florence. - -"Looking back on some delightful and happy events of my life, and on -many misfortunes so truly overwhelming that the appalling retrospect -makes me wonder how I reached this age, in vigor and prosperity, through -God's goodness, I have resolved to publish an account of my life. - -"My grandfather, Andrea Cellini, was still living when I was about -three years of age, and he was then above a hundred. As they were one -day removing a water-pipe, a large scorpion, which they had not -perceived, came out of it. The scorpion descended upon the ground and -had got under a great bench, when I, seeing it, ran and caught it in my -hand. This scorpion was of such a size that whilst I held it in my -little hand, it put out its tail on one side, and on the other darted -its two mouths. I ran overjoyed to my grandfather, crying out, -'Grandfather, look at my pretty little crab!' The good old man, who knew -it to be a scorpion, was so frightened, and so apprehensive for my -safety, that he seemed ready to drop down dead, and begged me with great -eagerness to give the creature to him; but I grasped it the harder and -cried, for I did not choose to part with it. My father, who was in the -house, ran to us upon hearing the noise, and, happening just at that -instant to espy a pair of scissors, he laid hold of them, and, by -caressing and playing with me, he contrived to cut off the head and tail -of the scorpion. Then, finding I had received no harm from the venomous -reptile, he pronounced it a happy omen." - - * * * * * - -His father taught him to play upon the flute, and wished him to devote -himself to music; but his own inclinations were different. - -"Having attained the age of fifteen, I engaged myself, against my -father's inclinations, with a goldsmith named Antonio di Sandro, an -excellent artist and a very worthy man. My father would not have him -allow me any wages; for this reason, that since I voluntarily applied -myself to this art, I might have an opportunity to withdraw whenever I -thought proper. So great was my inclination to improve, that in a few -months I rivalled the most skilful journeyman in the business, and began -to reap some fruits from my labor. I continued, however, to play -sometimes, through complaisance to my father, either upon the flute or -the horn; and I constantly drew tears and deep sighs from him every time -he heard me. From a feeling of filial piety, I often gave him that -satisfaction, endeavoring to persuade him that it gave me also -particular pleasure. - -"Once when I was staying at Pisa, my father wrote to me in every letter -exhorting me not to neglect my flute, in which he had taken so much -pains to instruct me. Upon this, I entirely lost all inclination to -return to him; and to such a degree did I hate that abominable flute, -that I thought myself in a sort of paradise in Pisa, where I never once -played upon that instrument." - - * * * * * - -At the age of twenty-three (in 1523), Cellini went to Rome, where he did -much work for the Pope, Clement VII. - -"About this time so dreadful an epidemic disease prevailed in Rome, that -several thousands died every day. Somewhat terrified at this calamity, I -began to indulge myself in certain recreations, as the fancy took me. On -holidays I amused myself with visiting the antiquities of that city, and -sometimes took their figures in wax; at other times, I made drawings of -them. As these antiquities are all ruinous edifices, where a number of -pigeons build their nests, I had a mind to divert myself among them with -my fowling-piece, and often returned home laden with pigeons of the -largest size. But I never chose to put more than a single ball into my -piece, and in this manner, being a good marksman, I procured a -considerable quantity of game. The fowling-piece was, both on the inside -and the outside, as bright as a looking-glass. I likewise made the -powder as fine as the minutest dust, and in the use of it I discovered -some of the most admirable secrets that ever were known till this time. -When I had charged my piece with a quantity of powder equal in weight to -the fifth part of the ball, it carried two hundred paces, point blank. - -"While I was enjoying these pleasures, my spirits suddenly revived. I no -longer had my usual gloom, and I worked to more purpose than when my -attention was wholly engrossed by business; on the whole, my gun turned -rather to my advantage than the contrary. - -"All Italy was now up in arms, and the Constable Bourbon, finding there -were no troops in Rome, eagerly advanced with his army towards that -capital. Upon the news of his approach, all the inhabitants took up -arms. I engaged fifty brave young men to serve under me, and we were -well paid and kindly treated. - -"The army of the Duke of Bourbon having already appeared before the -walls of Rome, Alessandro del Bene requested that I would go with him to -oppose the enemy. I complied, and, taking one of the stoutest youths -with us,--we were afterwards joined by another,--we came up to the walls -of Campo Santo, and there descried that great army which was employing -every effort to enter the town at that part of the wall to which we had -approached. Many young men were slain without the walls, where they -fought with the utmost fury; there was a remarkably thick mist. - -"Levelling my arquebuse where I saw the thickest crowd of the enemy, I -discharged it with a deliberate aim at a person who seemed to be lifted -above the rest; but the mist prevented me from distinguishing whether he -were on horseback or on foot. I then cautiously approached the walls, -and perceived that there was an extraordinary confusion among the -assailants, occasioned by our having shot the Duke of Bourbon; he was, -as I understood afterwards, that chief personage whom I saw raised above -the rest." - - * * * * * - -The Pope was induced by an enemy of Benvenuto, the Cardinal Salviati, to -send for a rival goldsmith, Tobbia, to come to Rome. On his arrival both -were summoned into the Pope's presence. - -"He then commanded each of us to draw a design for setting a unicorn's -horn, the most beautiful that ever was seen, which had cost 17,000 -ducats. As the Pope proposed making a present of it to King Francis, he -chose to have it first richly adorned with gold; so he employed us to -draw the designs. When we had finished them we carried them to the Pope. -Tobbia's design was in the form of a candlestick; the horn was to enter -it like a candle, and at the bottom of the candlestick he had -represented four little unicorns' heads,--a most simple invention. As -soon as I saw it, I could not contain myself so as to avoid smiling at -the oddity of the conceit. The Pope, perceiving this, said, 'Let me see -that design of yours.' It was the single head of a unicorn, fitted to -receive the horn. I had made the most beautiful sort of head -conceivable, for I drew it partly in the form of a horse's head, and -partly in that of a hart's, adorned with the finest sort of wreaths and -other devices; so that no sooner was my design seen but the whole Court -gave it the preference." - - * * * * * - -Benvenuto continued to make many beautiful things for Pope Clement VII. -up to the time of his death. That Pope was succeeded in the papal chair -by Cardinal Farnese (Paul III.), on the 13th of October, 1534. - -"I had formed a resolution to set out for France, as well because I -perceived that the Pope's favor was withdrawn from me by means of -slanderers who misrepresented my services, as for fear that those of my -enemies who had most influence might still do me some greater injury. -For these reasons I was desirous to remove to some other country, and -see whether fortune would there prove more favorable to me. Leaving -Rome, I bent my course to Florence, whence I travelled on to Bologna, -Venice, and Padua." - -He reached Paris, with two workmen whom he took with him from Rome, -"without meeting any ill accident, and travelling on in uninterrupted -mirth." But being dissatisfied with his reception there, he returned -instantly to Rome, where his fears were realized; for he was arrested by -order of the Pope, and made a prisoner in the Castle of St. Angelo. - -"This was the first time I ever knew the inside of a prison, and I was -then in my thirty-seventh year. The constable of the Castle of St. -Angelo was a countryman of mine, a Florentine, named Signor Giorgio -Ugolini. This worthy gentleman behaved to me with the greatest -politeness, permitting me to walk freely about the castle on my parole -of honor, and for no other reason but because he saw the severity and -injustice of my treatment. - -"Finding I had been treated with so much rigor in the affair, I began to -think seriously about my escape. I got my servants to bring me new thick -sheets, and did not send back the dirty ones. Upon their asking me for -them, I answered that I had given them away to some of the poor -soldiers. I pulled all the straw out of the tick of my bed, and burned -it; for I had a chimney in the room where I lay. I then cut those sheets -into a number of slips each about one third of a cubit in width; and -when I thought I had made a sufficient quantity to reach from the top to -the bottom of the lofty tower of the Castle of St. Angelo, I told my -servants that I had given away as much of my linen as I thought proper, -and desired they would take care to bring me clean sheets, adding that I -would constantly return the dirty ones. - -"The constable of the castle had annually a certain disorder which -totally deprived him of his senses; and when the fit came upon him, he -was talkative to excess. Every year he had some different whim: one time -he fancied himself metamorphosed into a pitcher of oil; another time he -thought himself a frog, and began to leap as such; another time he -imagined he was dead, and it was found necessary to humor his conceit by -making a show of burying him; thus he had every year some new frenzy. -This year he fancied himself a bat, and when he went to take a walk, he -sometimes made just such a noise as bats do; he likewise used gestures -with his hands and body, as if he were going to fly. His physicians and -his old servants, who knew his disorder, procured him all the pleasures -and amusements they could think of, and as they found he delighted -greatly in my conversation, they frequently came to me to conduct me to -his apartment, where the poor man often detained me three or four hours -chatting with him. - -"He asked me whether I had ever had a fancy to fly. I answered that I -had always been very ready to attempt such things as men found most -difficult; and that with regard to flying, as God had given me a body -admirably well calculated for running, I had even resolution enough to -attempt to fly. He then proposed to me to explain how I could contrive -it. I replied that when I attentively considered the several creatures -that fly, and thought of effecting by art what they do by the force of -nature, I did not find one so fit to imitate as the bat. As soon as the -poor man heard mention made of a bat, he cried out aloud, 'It is very -true! a bat is the thing.' He then addressed himself to me, and said, -'Benvenuto, if you had the opportunity, would you have the heart to make -an attempt to fly?' I answered that if he would give me leave, I had -courage enough to attempt to fly by means of a pair of wings waxed over. -He said thereupon, 'I should like to see you fly; but as the Pope has -enjoined me to watch over you with the utmost care, I am resolved to -keep you locked up with a hundred keys, that you may not slip out of my -hands.' I said, before all present, 'Confine me as close as you please, -I will contrive to make my escape, notwithstanding.'" - -At night, with a pair of pincers which he had secured, he removed the -nails which fastened the plates of iron fixed upon the door, imitating -with wax the heads of the nails he took out, so that their absence need -not be seen. - -"One holiday evening, the constable being very much disordered, he -scarce said anything else but that he was become a bat, and desired his -people that if Benvenuto should happen to escape, they should take no -notice of it, for he must soon catch me, as he should doubtless be -better able to fly by night than I; adding, 'Benvenuto is only a -counterfeit bat, but I am a bat in real earnest.' - -"As I had formed a resolution to attempt my escape that night, I began -by praying fervently to Almighty God that it would please him to assist -me in the enterprise. Two hours before daybreak, I took the iron plates -from the door with great trouble. I at last forced the door, and having -taken with me my slips of linen, which I had rolled up in bundles with -the utmost care, I went out and got upon the right side of the tower, -and leaped upon two tiles of the roof with the greatest ease. I was in a -white doublet, and had on a pair of white half-hose, over which I wore a -pair of little light boots, that reached half-way up my legs, and in one -of these I put my dagger. I then took the end of one of my bundles of -long slips, which I had made out of the sheets of my bed, and fastened -it to one of the tiles of the roof that happened to jut out. Then -letting myself down gently, the whole weight of my body being sustained -by my arm, I reached the ground. It was not a moonlight night, but the -stars shone with resplendent lustre. When I had touched the ground, I -first contemplated the great height which I had descended with so much -courage, and then walked away in high joy, thinking I had recovered my -liberty. But I soon found myself mistaken, for the constable had caused -two pretty high walls to be erected on that side. I managed to fix a -long pole against the first wall, and by the strength of my arms to -climb to the top of it. I then fastened my other string of slips, and -descended down the steep wall. - -"There was still another one; and in letting myself down, being unable -to hold out any longer, I fell, and, striking my head, became quite -insensible. I continued in that state about an hour and a half, as -nearly as I can guess. The day beginning to break, the cool breeze that -precedes the rising of the sun brought me to my senses; but I conceived -a strange notion that I had been beheaded, and was then in purgatory. I -recovered by degrees my strength and powers, and, perceiving that I had -got out of the castle, I soon recollected all that had befallen me. Upon -attempting to rise from the ground, I found that my right leg was -broken, three inches above the heel, which threw me into a terrible -consternation. Cutting with my dagger the part of my string of slips I -had left, I bandaged my leg as well as I could. I then crept on my hands -and knees towards the gate with my dagger in my hand, and effected my -egress. It was about five hundred paces from the place where I had had -my fall to the gate by which I entered the city. It was then broad -daylight. As I happened to meet with a water-carrier, who had loaded his -ass, and filled his vessels with water, I called to him, and begged he -would put me upon the beast's back, and carry me to the landing-place of -the steps of St. Peter's Church. I offered to give him a gold crown, -and, so saying, I clapped my hand upon my purse, which was very well -lined. The honest waterman instantly took me upon his back, and carried -me to the steps before St. Peter's Church, where I desired him to leave -me and run back to his ass. - -"Whilst I was crawling along upon all four, one of the servants of -Cardinal Cornaro knew me, and, running immediately to his master's -apartment, awakened him out of his sleep, saying to him, 'My most -reverend Lord, here is your jeweller, Benvenuto, who has made his escape -out of the castle, and is crawling along upon all four, quite besmeared -with blood.' The cardinal, the moment he heard this, said to his -servants, 'Run, and bring him hither to my apartment upon your backs.' -When I came into his presence the good cardinal bade me fear nothing, -and immediately sent for an excellent surgeon, who set the bone, -bandaged my leg, and bled me. The cardinal then caused me to be put into -a private apartment, and went directly to the Vatican, in order to -intercede in my behalf with the Pope. - -"Meanwhile the report of my escape made a great noise all over Rome; for -the long string of sheeting fastened to the top of the lofty tower of -the castle had excited attention, and the inhabitants ran in crowds to -behold the sight. By this time the frenzy of the constable had reached -its highest pitch; he wanted, in spite of all his servants, to fly from -the same tower himself, declaring there was but one way to retake me, -and that was to fly after me. He caused himself to be carried into the -presence of his Holiness, and began a terrible outcry, saying that I had -promised him, upon my honor, that I would not fly away, and had flown -away notwithstanding." - -The Cardinal Cornaro, however, and others interceded for Benvenuto with -the Pope, on account of his courage, and the extraordinary efforts of -his ingenuity, which seemed to surpass human capacity. The Pope said he -had intended to keep him near his person, and to prevent him from -returning to France, adding, "I am concerned to hear of his sufferings, -however. Bid him take care of his health; and when he is thoroughly -recovered, it shall be my study to make him some amends for his past -troubles." He was visited by young and old, persons of all ranks. - -After this, Benvenuto went once more to France, where he was received -with high consideration by Francis I., who gave him, for his home and -workshop in Paris, a large old castle called the Nesle, of a triangular -form, close to the walls of the city. Here, with workmen brought with -him from Italy, he began many great works. - -"Being thus become a favorite of the king, I was universally admired. As -soon as I had received silver to make it of, I began to work on the -statue of Jupiter, and took into my service several journeymen. We -worked day and night with the utmost assiduity, insomuch that, having -finished Jupiter, Vulcan, and Mars in earth, and Jupiter being pretty -forward in silver, my shop began to make a grand show. Just about this -time the king made his appearance at Paris, and I went to pay my -respects to him. When his Majesty saw me, he called to me in high -spirits, and asked me whether I had anything curious to show him at my -shop, for he intended to call there. I told him of all I had done, and -he expressed an earnest desire to see my performances; and after dinner -that day, all the nobility belonging to the Court of France repaired to -my shop. - -"I had just come home, and was beginning to work, when the king made his -appearance at my castle gate. Upon hearing the sound of so many hammers, -he commanded his retinue to be silent. All my people were at work, so -that the king came upon us quite unexpectedly. As he entered the saloon, -the first object he perceived was myself with a large piece of plate in -my hand, which was to make the body of Jupiter; another was employed on -the head, another again on the legs, so that the shop resounded with the -beating of hammers. His Majesty was highly pleased, and returned to his -palace, after having conferred so many favors on me that it would be -tedious to enumerate them. - -"Having with the utmost diligence finished the beautiful statue of -Jupiter, with its gilt pedestal, I placed it upon a wooden socle, which -scarce made any appearance, and within that socle I fixed four little -globes of wood, which were more than half hidden in their sockets, and -so contrived that a little child could with the utmost ease move this -statue of Jupiter backwards and forwards, and turn it about. I took it -with me to Fontainebleau, where the King then resided. I was told to put -it in the gallery,--a place which might be called a corridor, about two -hundred paces long, adorned and enriched with pictures and pieces of -sculpture, amongst them some of the finest imitations of the antique -statues of Rome. Here also I introduced my Jupiter; and when I saw this -great display of the wonders of art, I said to myself, 'This is like -passing between the pikes of the enemy; Heaven protect me from all -danger!' - -"This figure of Jupiter had a thunderbolt in his right hand, and by his -attitude seemed to be just going to throw it; in his left I had placed a -globe, and amongst the flames I had with great dexterity put a piece of -white torch. On the approach of night I lighted the torch in the hand of -Jupiter; and as it was raised somewhat above his head, the light fell -upon the statue, and caused it to appear to much greater advantage than -it would otherwise have done. When I saw his Majesty enter with several -great lords and noblemen, I ordered my boy to push the statue before -him, and this motion, being made with admirable contrivance, caused it -to appear alive; thus the other figures in the gallery were left -somewhat behind, and the eyes of all the beholders were first struck -with my performance. - -"The king immediately cried out: 'This is one of the finest productions -of art that ever was beheld. I, who take pleasure in such things and -understand them, could never have conceived a piece of work the -hundredth part so beautiful!'" - - * * * * * - -Cellini, however, who was exacting and sensitive, became dissatisfied -with the treatment of the King of France; and, leaving his workmen at -his tower of the Nesle, he returned to Italy, and engaged in the service -of Cosmo de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, who assigned him a house to -work in. - -His chief performance here was a bronze statue of Perseus for the fine -square before the Palazzo Vecchio. After many drawbacks, doubts, and -difficulties,-- - -"I now took courage, resolving to depend on myself, and banished all -those thoughts which from time to time occasioned me great inquietude, -and made me sorely repent my ever having quitted France. I still -flattered myself that if I could but finish my statue of Perseus, all my -labors would be converted to delight, and meet with a glorious and happy -reward. - -"This statue was intended to be of bronze, five ells in height, of one -piece, and hollow. I first formed my model of clay, more slender than -the statue was intended to be. I then baked it, and covered it with wax -of the thickness of a finger, which I modelled into the perfect form of -the statue. In order to effect in concave what the wax represented in -convex, I covered the wax with clay, and baked this second covering. -Thus, the wax dissolving, and escaping by fissures left open for the -purpose, I obtained, between the first model and the second covering, a -space for the introduction of the metal. In order to introduce the -bronze without moving the first model, I placed the model in a pit dug -under the furnace, and by means of pipes and apertures in the model -itself, I meant to introduce the liquid metal. - -"After I had made its coat of earth, covered it well, and bound it -properly with irons, I began by means of a slow fire to draw off the -wax, which melted away by many vent-holes,--for the more of these are -made, the better the moulds are filled; and when I had entirely stripped -off the wax, I made a sort of fence round my Perseus, that is, round the -mould, of bricks, piling them one upon another, and leaving several -vacuities for the fire to exhale at. I next began gradually to put on -the wood, and kept a constant fire for two days and two nights, till, -the wax being quite off and the mould well baked, I began to dig a hole -to bury my mould in, and observed all those fine methods of proceeding -that are proscribed by our art. When I had completely dug my hole, I -took my mould, and by means of levers and strong cables directed it with -care, and suspended it a cubit above the level of the furnace, so that -it hung exactly in the middle of the hole. I then let it gently down to -the very bottom of the furnace, and placed it with all the care and -exactness I possibly could. After I had finished this part of my task I -began to make a covering of the very earth I had taken off; and in -proportion as I raised the earth, I made vents for it, of a sort of -tubes of baked earth, generally used for conduits, and other things of a -similar nature. - -"I had caused my furnace to be filled with several pieces of brass and -bronze, and heaped them upon one another in the manner taught us by our -art, taking particular care to leave a passage for the flames, that the -metal might the sooner assume its color, and dissolve into a fluid. -Thus, with great alacrity, I excited my men to lay on the pine-wood, -which, because of the oiliness of the resinous matter that oozes from -the pine-tree and that my furnace was admirably well made, burned at -such a rate that I was continually obliged to run to and fro, which -greatly fatigued me. I, however, bore the hardship; but, to add to my -misfortune, the shop took fire, and we were all very much afraid that -the roof would fall in and crush us. From another quarter, that is, from -the garden, the sky poured in so much rain and wind that it cooled my -furnace. - -"Thus did I continue to struggle with these cross accidents for several -hours, and exerted myself to such a degree that my constitution, though -robust, could no longer bear such severe hardship, and I was suddenly -attacked by a most violent intermitting fever; in short, I was so ill -that I found myself under a necessity of lying down upon my bed. This -gave me great concern, but it was unavoidable. I thereupon addressed -myself to my assistants, who were about ten in number, saying to them: -'Be careful to observe the method which I have shown you, and use all -possible expedition; for the metal will soon be ready. You cannot -mistake; these two worthy men here will quickly make the orifices. With -two such directors you can certainly contrive to pour out the hot metal, -and I have no doubt but my mould will be filled completely. I find -myself extremely ill, and really believe that in a few hours this severe -disorder will put an end to my life.' Thus I left them in great sorrow, -and went to bed. I then ordered the maids to carry victuals and drink -into the shop for all the men, and told them I did not expect to live -till the next morning. In this manner did I continue for two hours in a -violent fever, which I every moment perceived to increase, and I was -incessantly crying out, 'I am dying, I am dying.' - -"My housekeeper was one of the most sensible and affectionate women in -the world. She rebuked me for giving way to vain fears, and at the same -time attended me with the greatest kindness and care imaginable; -however, seeing me so very ill, and terrified to such a degree, she -could not contain herself, but shed a flood of tears, which she -endeavored to conceal from me. Whilst we were both in this deep -affliction, I perceived a man enter the room, who in his person appeared -to be as crooked and distorted as a great S, and began to express -himself in these terms, in a dismal and melancholy voice: 'Alas, poor -Benvenuto, your work is spoiled, and the misfortune admits of no -remedy.' - -"No sooner had I heard the words uttered by this messenger of evil, but -I cried out so loud that my voice might be heard to the skies, and got -out of bed. I began immediately to dress, and, giving plenty of kicks -and cuffs to the maidservants and the boy as they offered to help me on -with my clothes, I complained bitterly in these terms: 'Oh, you envious -and treacherous wretches, this is a piece of villany contrived on -purpose; but I will sift it to the bottom, and before I die give such -proofs who I am as shall not fail to astonish the whole world.' Having -huddled on my clothes, I went, with a mind boding evil, to the shop, -where I found all those whom I had left so alert and in such high -spirits, standing in the utmost confusion and astonishment. I thereupon -addressed them thus: 'Listen, all of you, to what I am going to say; and -since you either would not or could not follow the method I pointed out, -obey me now that I am present. My work is before us; and let none of -you offer to oppose or contradict me, for such cases as this require -activity and not counsel.' Hereupon one of them had the assurance to say -to me, 'Look you, Benvenuto, you have undertaken a work which our art -cannot compass, and which is not to be effected by human power.' - -"Hearing these words, I turned round in such a passion, and seemed so -bent upon mischief, that both he and all the rest unanimously cried out -to me, 'Give your orders, and we will all second you in whatever you -command; we will assist you as long as we have breath in our bodies.' -These kind and affectionate words they uttered, as I firmly believe, in -a persuasion that I was upon the point of expiring. I went directly to -examine the furnace, and saw all the metal in it concreted. I thereupon -ordered two of the helpers to step over the way to a butcher for a load -of young oak which had been above a year drying, which had been already -offered to me. - -"Upon his bringing me the first bundles of it, I began to fill the -grate. This sort of oak makes a brisker fire than any other wood -whatever; but the wood of elder-trees and pine-trees is used in casting -artillery, because it makes a mild and gentle fire. As soon as the -concreted metal felt the power of this violent fire, it began to -brighten and glitter. In another quarter I made them hurry the tubes -with all possible expedition, and sent some of them to the roof of the -house to take care of the fire, which through the great violence of the -wind had acquired new force; and towards the garden I had caused some -tables with pieces of tapestry and old clothes to be placed in order to -shelter me from the rain. As soon as I had applied the proper remedy to -each evil, I with a loud voice cried out to my men to bestir themselves -and lend a helping hand; so that when they saw that the concreted metal -began to melt again, the whole body obeyed me with such zeal and -alacrity that every man did the work of three. Then I caused a mass of -pewter weighing about sixty pounds to be thrown upon the metal in the -furnace, which, with the other helps, as the brisk wood-fire, and -stirring it sometimes with iron and sometimes with long poles, soon -became completely dissolved. Finding that, contrary to the opinion of my -ignorant assistants, I had effected what seemed as difficult to raise as -the dead, I recovered my vigor to such a degree that I no longer -perceived whether I had any fever, nor had I the least apprehension of -death. - -"Suddenly a loud noise was heard, and a glittering of fire flashed -before our eyes, as if it had been the darting of a thunderbolt. Upon -the appearance of this extraordinary phenomenon terror seized upon all -present, and none more than myself. This tremendous noise being over, we -began to stare at each other, and perceived that the cover of the -furnace had burst and flown off, so that the bronze began to run. - -"I immediately caused the mouths of my mould to be opened; but, finding -that the metal did not run with its usual velocity, and apprehending -that the cause of it was that the fusibility of the metal was injured by -the violence of the fire, I ordered all my dishes and porringers, which -were in number about two hundred, to be placed one by one before my -tubes, and part of them to be thrown into the furnace; upon which all -present perceived that my mould was filling: they now with joy and -alacrity assisted and obeyed me. I, for my part, was sometimes in one -place, sometimes in another, giving my directions and assisting my men, -before whom I offered up this prayer: 'O God, I address myself to thee. -I acknowledge in gratitude this mercy, that my mould has been filled. I -fall prostrate before thee, and with my whole heart return thanks to thy -divine majesty.' - -"My prayer being over, I took a plate of meat which stood upon a little -bench, and ate with a great appetite. I then drank with all my -journeymen and assistants, and went joyful and in good health to bed; -for there were still two hours of night, and I rested as well as if I -had been troubled with no disorder. - -"My good housekeeper, without my having given any orders, had provided a -good capon for my dinner. When I arose, which was not till about noon, -she accosted me in high spirits, and said merrily, 'Is this the man that -thought himself dying? It is my firm belief that the cuffs and kicks you -gave us last night when you were quite frantic and possessed, frightened -away your fever, which, apprehending you should fall upon it in the same -manner, took to flight.' So my whole poor family, having got over such -panics and hardships, without delay procured earthen vessels to supply -the place of the pewter dishes and porringers, and we all dined together -very cheerfully; indeed, I do not remember having ever in my life eaten -a meal with greater satisfaction or a better appetite. After dinner, all -those who had assisted me in my work came and congratulated me upon what -had happened, returned thanks to the Divine Being for having interposed -so mercifully in our behalf, and declared that they had in theory and -practice learnt such things as were judged impossible by other masters. -I thereupon thought it allowable to boast a little of my knowledge and -skill in this fine art, and, pulling out my purse, satisfied all my -workmen for their labor. - -"Having left my work to cool during two days after it was cast, I began -gradually to uncover it. I first of all found the Medusa's head, which -had come out admirably by the assistance of the vents. I proceeded to -uncover the rest, and found that the other head--I mean that of -Perseus--was likewise come out perfectly well. I went on uncovering it -with great success, and found every part turn out to admiration, till I -reached the foot of the right leg, which supports the figure. I found -that not only the toes were wanting, but part of the foot itself, so -that there was almost one half deficient. This occasioned me some new -trouble; but I was not displeased at it, as I had expected this very -thing. - -"It pleased God that as soon as ever my work, although still unfinished, -was seen by the populace, they set up so loud a shout of applause, that -I began to be somewhat comforted for the mortifications I had undergone; -and there were sonnets in my praise every day upon the gate, the -language of which was extremely elegant and poetical. The very day on -which I exhibited my work, there were above twenty sonnets set up, -containing the most hyperbolical praises of it. Even after I had covered -it again, every day a number of verses, with Latin odes and Greek poems, -were published on the occasion,--for it was then vacation at the -University of Pisa, and all the learned men and scholars belonging to -that place vied with each other in writing encomiums on my performance. -But what gave me the highest satisfaction was that even those of the -profession--I mean statuaries and painters--emulated each other in -commending me. In fact, I was so highly praised, and in so elegant a -style, that it afforded me some alleviation for my past mortification -and troubles, and I made all the haste I could to put the last hand to -my statue. - -"At last, as it pleased the Almighty, I completely finished my work, and -on a Thursday morning exhibited it fully. Just before the break of day -so great a crowd gathered about it, that it is almost impossible for me -to give the reader an idea of their number; and they all seemed to vie -with each other who should praise it most. The duke stood at a lower -window of the palace, just over the gate, and, being half concealed -within side, heard all that was said concerning the work. After he had -listened several hours, he left the window highly pleased, and sent me -this message: 'Go to Benvenuto, and tell him from me that he has given -me higher satisfaction than I ever expected. Let him know at the same -time that I shall reward him in such a manner as will excite his -surprise.'" - - * * * * * - -The manuscript of Benvenuto's Life is not carried much farther. The -narrative breaks off abruptly in 1562, when Cellini was in the -sixty-second year of his age. He does not appear from this time to have -been engaged in any work of much importance. After the execution of his -grand achievement of the Perseus, the narrative of his life seems to -have been the most successful of all the labors of his declining years. - -On the 15th day of February, 1570, this extraordinary man died. He was -buried, by his own direction, with great funeral pomp. A monk who had -been charged to compose the funeral sermon, in praise both of his life -and works and of his excellent moral qualities, mounted the pulpit and -delivered a discourse which was highly approved by the whole academy and -by the people. They struggled to enter the chapter, as well to see the -body of Benvenuto as to hear the commendation of his good qualities. - - - - -V. - -BERNARD PALISSY. - - -Two or three of the girls had dabbled a little in painting on porcelain, -and several of them had become interested in various sorts of pottery. -Mabel had been at Newburyport, on a visit with some friends who had a -potter's wheel of their own; and she had turned for herself, and had had -baked, some vases and dishes which she had brought home with her. - -This tempted them all to make a party, in which several of the boys -joined, to go to the Art Museum and see the exquisite pottery there, of -different sorts, ancient and modern. There they met one of the gentlemen -of a large firm of dealers in keramics; and he asked them to go through -their magnificent establishment, and see the collection, which is one of -great beauty. It shows several of the finest styles of manufacture in -very choice specimens. - -This prepared them to see Japanese work. And when Uncle Fritz heard of -this, he asked Professor Morse, of Salem, if he would show them his -marvellous collection of Japanese pottery. Professor Morse lived in -Japan under very favorable auspices, and he made there a wonderful -collection of the work of the very best artists. So five or six of the -young people went down to Salem, at his very kind invitation, and saw -there what is one of the finest collections in the world. - -All this interested them in what now receives a great deal of attention, -the manufacture and ornament of pottery. The word _keramics_ is a word -recently added to the English language to express the art of making -pottery and of ornamenting it. - -When Uncle Fritz found that they really wanted to know about such -things, he arranged that for one afternoon they should read about - - -BERNARD PALISSY THE POTTER. - -Bernard Palissy was born, about 1510, in the little town of Biron, in -Périgord, France. He became not only a great artist, but a learned -physician, and a writer of merit. - -Born of poor parents of the working-class, he had to learn some trade, -and early applied himself to working glass, not as a glazier, but -staining it and cutting it up in little bits, to be joined together with -lead for the colored windows so much used in churches. This was purely -mechanical work; but Bernard's ambition led him to study drawing and -color, that he might himself design and execute, in glass, scenes from -the Bible and lives of the saints, such as he saw done by his superiors. - -When he was old enough, curious to see the world and learn new things, -he took a journey on foot through several provinces of France, by -observation thus supplying the defects of his early education, and -reaping a rich harvest of facts and ideas, which developed the qualities -of his intelligence. - -It was at this time that the Renaissance in Art was making itself felt -throughout Europe. Francis I. of France encouraged all forms of good -work by his patronage; and wherever he went the young Palissy was -animated and inspired by the sight of beautiful things. - -_Faience_, an elegant kind of pottery, attracted his attention. This -appeared first in the fourteenth century. The Arabs had long known the -art of making tiles of clay, enamelled and richly ornamented. They -brought it into Spain, as is shown in the decorations of the Alhambra at -Seville and elsewhere. Lucca della Robbia in Italy first brought the art -to perfection, by making figures and groups of figures in high relief, -of baked clay covered with shining enamel, white, tinted with various -colors. The kind of work called _majolica_ differed from the earlier -faience by some changes in the material used for the enamel. In the -middle of the sixteenth century remarkable historical paintings were -executed in faience, upon huge _plaques_. All the cities of Italy vied -with each other in producing wonders in this sort of work; it is from -one of them, Faenza, that it takes its name. The method of making the -enamel was a deep secret; but Bernard Palissy, with long patience and -after many failures, succeeded in discovering it,--or, rather, in -inventing for himself a new method, which in some respects excelled the -old. - -Palissy was the author of several essays, or "Discourses;" and from one -of these, written in quaint old French, we have his own account of his -invention. - -He married and settled down in the year 1539 with a good income from his -intelligent industry. He had a pleasant little house in the country, -where, as he says, "I could rejoice in the sight of green hills, where -were feeding and gambolling lambs, sheep, and goats." - -An incident, apparently slight, disturbed this placid domestic -happiness. He came across a cup of enamelled pottery, doubtless from -Italy. "This cup," he says, "was of such beauty, that, from the moment I -saw it, I entered into a dispute with myself as to how it could have -been made." - -Enamel is nothing more than a kind of glaze colored with metallic acids, -and rendered opaque by the mixture of a certain quantity of tin. It is -usually spread upon metal, when only it is properly called enamel; but -this glaze can also be put upon earthenware. It makes vessels -water-tight, and gives them brilliancy of surface. To find out how to do -this was to make a revolution in the keramic art. - -In France, in the sixteenth century, the only vessels, such as jugs or -vases, were made either of metal, wood, or coarse porous pottery, -through which water could penetrate; like the goulehs of the Arabs, or -the cantaras of the Moors, which are still used for fresh water to -advantage, since the evaporation of the drops keeps the water cold. - -Many attempts had been made to imitate the beautiful and costly vases of -China; but no one succeeded until the potters of Italy found out how to -make faience. The discovery was hailed as a most valuable one. The -princes who owned the works guarded their secret with jealous care,--to -betray it would have been punished by death; so that Bernard Palissy had -no hope of being taught how it was done, even if he should go to the -places in Italy where the work was carried on. - -"But," he says, "what others had found out, I might also discover; and -if I could once make myself master of the art of glazing, I felt sure I -could elevate pottery to a degree of perfection as yet unknown. What a -glory for my name, what a benefit to France, if I could establish this -industry here in my own land!" - -He turned and turned the cup in his fingers, admiring the brilliant -surface. "Yes," he said at last; "it shall be so, for I choose! I have -already studied the subject. I will work still harder, and reach my aim -at last." - -Exceptional determination of character was needed for such an object. -Palissy knew nothing about the component parts of enamels; he had never -even seen the process of baking clay, and he had to begin with the very -simplest investigations. To study the different kinds of earth and clay, -to acquire the arts of moulding and turning, and to gain some knowledge -of chemistry, all these were necessary. But he did not flinch, and -pursued his idea with indomitable perseverance. - -"Moving only by chance," he says, "like a man groping in the dark, I -made a collection of all the different substances which seemed at all -likely to make enamel, and I pounded them up fine; then I bought earthen -pots, broke them into small bits, numbered these pieces, and spread over -each of them a different combination of materials. Now I had to have a -furnace in which to bake my experiments. I had no idea how furnaces were -usually made; so I invented one of my own, and set it up. But I had no -idea how much heat was required to melt enamels,--perhaps I heated my -furnace too much, perhaps not enough; sometimes my ingredients were all -burned up, sometimes they melted not at all; or else some were turned to -coal, while others remained undisturbed by the action of the fire." - -Meanwhile the resources of the unlucky workman were fast diminishing; -for he had abandoned his usual work, by which he earned his living, and -kept making new furnaces, "with great expense and trouble, and a great -consumption of time and firewood." - -This state of affairs much displeased his wife, who complained bitterly, -and tried to divert her husband from an occupation which earned for him -nothing but disappointment. The cheerful little household changed its -aspect; the children were no longer well-dressed, and the shabby -furniture and empty cupboards betrayed the decay which was falling upon -the family. The father saw with profound grief the wants of his -household; but success seemed ever so near to him, that he could not -bear to give it up. His hope at that time was but a mirage; and for long -afterwards, in this struggle between intelligence and the antagonism of -material things, ill fortune kept the upper hand. - -One day, tired out by his failures, it occurred to him that a man -brought up to baking pottery would know how to bake his specimens better -than he could. - -"I covered three or four hundred bits of broken vase with different -compounds, and sent them to a _fabrique_ about a mile and a half from my -house. The potters consented to put my patterns with their batch for the -oven. Full of impatience, I awaited the result of this experiment. I was -on hand when my specimens came out. I looked them anxiously all over; -not one was successful! - -"The heat had not been strong enough, but I did not know this; I saw -only one more useless expense of money. One of the workmen came to me -and said, 'You will never make anything out of this; you had better go -back to your own business.'" - -Palissy shook his head; he had still in his possession some few valuable -articles, souvenirs of happier days, which he could sell to renew his -experiments. In spite of the reproaches of his wife, he bought more -ingredients and more earthenware, and made new combinations. - -Failure again! However, he would not be beaten. Some friends lent him a -little money; he sat up at night to make new mixtures of different -substances, all prepared with such care that he felt sure some of them -must be good. Then he carried them again to the potters, whom he urged -to the greatest care. They only shrugged their shoulders, and called him -"crack brain;" and when the batch was done, they brought the results to -Palissy with jeers. Some of the pieces were dirty white; others green, -red, or smoked by the fire; but all alike in being dull and worthless. - -It was over. Discouragement took possession of Palissy. "I returned -home," he says, "full of confusion and sadness. Others might seek the -secret of enamels. I must set to work and earn money to pay my debts and -get bread for the family." - -Most luckily for him at this time, a task was given him by government, -for which he was well suited, and which brought him good pay. The king, -Francis I., having had, like many another sovereign, some difficulty -with his faithful subjects in the matter of imposts, now found it -necessary to make a new regulation of taxes; and for this, among other -things, an inspection of the salt marshes on the coasts of France was -needed, in order to name the right sums for taxation, and a knowledge of -arithmetic was required as well. Palissy was appointed; and to the great -delight of his family, who thought that his mind would now be forever -diverted from the search for enamel, he set forth to explore the islands -and the shores of France. He drew admirable outlines of the forms of the -salt marshes, and wrote with eloquence upon the sublimity of the sea. - -Ease and comfort came back. His task was ended; but debts were paid, and -plenty of money remained. - -The first thing he saw on returning home, alas! was the cup,--his joy -and despair. "How beautiful it is! how brilliant!" he exclaimed; and -once more he threw himself into the pursuit of the elusive enamel. - -It was easy to see that the so much admired faience of Italy was simply -common baked clay, covered with some substance glazed by heat, but so -composed as to adhere to the surface after it had cooled. But what -substance? He had tried all sorts of materials; why had none of them -melted? Palissy at length decided that the fault had been in using the -common potter's furnace. Since the materials were to be vitrified by the -process, they should be baked like glass. He broke up three dozen pots, -pounded up a great quantity of different ingredients, and spread them -with a brush on the fragments; then he carried them to the nearest -glass-works. He was allowed to superintend the baking himself; he put -the specimens in the oven, and passed the night attending the fire. In -the morning he took them out. "Oh, joy! Some of the compounds had begun -to melt; there was no perfect glaze, only a sign that I was on the right -road." - -It was, however, still a long and weary one. After two more years, -Palissy was still far from the discovery of enamelling, but during this -time he was acquiring much knowledge. From a simple workman he had -become a learned chemist. He says himself, "The mistakes I made in -combining my enamels taught me more than the things which came right of -themselves." - -There came a time, which he had once more resolved should be the last, -when he repaired to the glass-works, accompanied by a man loaded with -more than three hundred different patterns on bits of pottery. For four -hours Bernard gloomily watched the progress of baking. Suddenly he -started in surprise. Did his eyes deceive him? No! it was no illusion. -One of the pieces in the furnace was covered with a brilliant glazing, -white, polished, excellent. Palissy's joy was immense. "I thought I had -become a new creature," he says. "The enamel was found; France enriched -by a new discovery." - -Palissy now hastened to undertake a whole vase. For many and large -pieces there was not room enough at his disposition in the ovens of the -glass-works. He did not worry about that, for he was quite sure he could -construct one of his own. He decided, too, at once to model and fashion -his own vases; for those which he bought of the potters, made of coarse -and heavy forms, no longer suited his ambition. He now designed forms, -turned and modelled them himself. Thus passed seven or eight months. At -last his vases were done, and he admired with pride the pure forms given -to the clay by his hands. But his money was giving out again, and his -furnace was not yet built. As he had nothing to pay for the work, he did -all the work himself,--went after bricks and brought them himself on his -back, and then built and plastered with his own hands. The neighbors -looked on in pity and ridicule. "Look," they said, "at Master Bernard! -He might live at his ease, and yet he makes a beast of burden of -himself!" - -Palissy minded their sarcasms not at all. His furnace was finished in -good time, and the first baking of the clay succeeded perfectly. Now the -pottery was to be covered with his new enamel. Time pressed, for in a -few days there would be no more bread in the house for his children. For -a long time he had been living on credit, but now the butcher and baker -refused to furnish anything more. All about him he saw only unfriendly -faces; every one treated him as a fool. "Let him die of hunger," they -said, "since he will not listen to reason." - -His wife was the worst of all. She failed to see any heroism in the -obstinacy or perseverance of her husband,--no wonder, perhaps, with the -sight of her suffering children before her eyes. She went about reciting -her misfortunes to all the neighborhood, very unwisely, as she thus -ruined the credit of her husband, his last and only resource. - -Palissy was already worn out by so much manual labor, to which he was -little accustomed; nevertheless, he worked by night, and all night long, -to pound up and prepare the materials for his white enamel, and to -spread it upon his vases. A report went abroad, caused by the sight of -his lamp constantly burning, that he was trying to coin counterfeit -money. He was suspected, despised, and avoided, and went about the -streets hanging his head because he had no answer to make to his -accusers. - -The moment which was to decide his life arrived. The vases were placed -in the furnace, and for six continuous days and nights he plied the -glowing fire with fuel. The heat was intolerable; but the enamel -resisted, nothing would melt, and he was forced to recognize that there -was too little of the glazing substance in the combination to vitrify -the others. He set to work to mix another compound, but his vases were -spoiled; he borrowed a few common ones from the pottery. During all this -delay he did not dare to let the fire go out, it would take so much wood -to start it again. Once more the newly covered pots were placed in the -intense furnace; in three or four hours the test would be completed. -Palissy perceived with terror that his fuel was giving out. He ran to -his garden, tore up fences, and cut down trees which he had planted -himself, and threw all these into the two yawning mouths of the furnace. -Not enough! He went into the house, and seized tables, chairs, and -bureaus; but the house was but poorly furnished, and contained but -little to feed the flames. Palissy returned. The rooms were empty, there -was absolutely nothing more to take; then he fell to pulling up the -planks of the floor. His wife, frightened to death, stood still and let -him go on. The neighbors ran in, at the sound of the axe, and said, "He -must be a fool!" - -But soon pity changed to admiration. When Palissy took the vases from -the furnace, the common pots which all had seen before dull and coarse, -were of a clear pearly white, covered with brilliant polish. - -So much emotion and fatigue had told upon the robust constitution of -Palissy. "I was," he says, "all used up and dried up on account of such -toil, and the heat of the furnace. It was more than a month since I had -had a dry shirt on my body, and I felt as if I had reached the door of -the sepulchre." - -In spite of the success which he had now attained, our potter had by no -means reached the end of his misfortunes. He sold his vases, but could -not get much for them, as there were but a few, of poor shapes; for -those which he had modelled himself had all failed to take the enamel, -and the successful ones were only common things, bought on credit. The -small sum which he got by selling them was not enough by any means to -cover his expenses, pay his debts, and restore order to the house from -which pretty much everything was burned up for firewood in his furnace. - -However, he was supported and happy in the thought of his success. He -said to himself: "Why be sad, when you have found what you were seeking -for? Go on working, and you will put your enemies to shame." - -Once more he succeeded in borrowing a little money. He hired a man to -help him; and for want of funds, he paid this man by giving him all his -own good clothes, while he went himself in rags. The furnace he had made -was coming to pieces on account of the intense heat he had maintained in -it for six days and nights during his last experiment. He pulled it to -pieces with his own hands, working with fingers bleeding and bound up in -bandages. Then he fetched water, sand, lime, and stone, and built by -himself a new furnace, "without any help or any repose. A feverish -resolution doubled my strength, and made me capable of doing things -which I should have imagined impossible." - -This time the oven heats admirably, the enamels appear to be melting. -Palissy goes to rest, and dreams of his new vases, which must bring -enough to pay all his debts; his impatient creditors come in the morning -to see the things taken from the furnace. Palissy receives them -joyfully; he would like to invite the whole town. - -When the pieces came out of the oven, they were shining and beautiful; -but--always but!--an accident had deprived them of all value. Little -stones, which formed a part of the mortar with which the furnace was -built, had burst with the heat, and spattered the enamel all over with -sharp fragments cutting like a razor, entirely spoiling it of course. -Still, the vases were so lovely in form, and the glaze was so beautiful, -that several people offered to buy them if they could have them cheap. -This the proud potter would not bear. Seizing the vases, he dashed them -to the ground; then utterly worn out, he went into the house and threw -himself on the bed. His wife followed him, and covered him with -reproaches for thus wasting the chance of making a few francs for the -family. Soon he recovered his elasticity, reflecting "that a man who has -tumbled into a ditch has but one duty, and that is to try to get out of -it." - -He now set to work at his old business of painting upon glass, and after -several months had earned enough to start another batch of vases. Of -these, two or three were successful and sold to advantage; the rest were -spoiled by ashes which fell upon the enamel in the furnace while it was -soft. He therefore invented what he called a "lantern" of baked clay, to -put over the vases to protect them in baking. This expedient proved so -good that it is still used. - -The enamel once discovered, it would be supposed that all trouble was -over; but it is not enough to invent a process,--to carry it out, all -sorts of little things have to be considered, the least of which, if not -attended to, may spoil all the rest. These multiplied accidents, with -all the privations and sufferings he had undergone, were attacking the -health of Palissy. He says in his simple style,-- - -"I was so used up in my person, that there was no shape or appearance of -curve on my arms or legs; my so-called legs, indeed, were but a straight -line, so that when I had gartered my stockings, as soon as I began to -walk, they were down on my heels." - -His enamelled pottery now began to make a living for its inventor, but -so poor a living that many things were wanting,--for instance, a -suitable workshop. For five or six years he carried on the work in the -open air; either heat, rain, or cold spoiled many of his vases, while he -himself, exposed to the weather, "passed whole nights at the mercy of -rain and cold, without any aid, comfort, or companionship except that -of owls screeching on one side and dogs howling on the other. -Sometimes," he continues, "winds and tempests blew with such violence -inside and outside of my ovens, that I was obliged to leave, with a -total loss of all they contained. Several times when I had thus left -everything, without a dry rag upon me, on account of the rain, I came in -at midnight or daybreak without any light, staggering like a drunken -man, all broken down at the thought of my wasted toil; and then, all wet -and dirty as I was, I found in my bedroom the worst affliction of all, -which makes me wonder now why I was not consumed by grief." He means the -scolding and reproaches of his wife. - -But the time came when his perseverance was rewarded, and his pottery -brought him the fame and money he deserved. He was able to make new -experiments, and add to the value of his discovery. Having obtained the -white enamel, he had the idea of tinting it with all sorts of colors, -which he did successfully. He then began to decorate his faience with -objects modelled from nature, such as animals, shells, leaves, and -branches. Lizards of a bright emerald color, with pointed heads and -slender tails, and snakes gliding between stones or curled upon a bank -of moss, crabs, frogs, and spiders, all of their natural colors, and -disposed in the midst of plants equally well imitated, are the -characteristic details of the work of Palissy. - -These perfect imitations of Nature were taken actually from Nature -herself. Palissy prepared a group of real leaves and stones, putting the -little insects or animals he wished to represent in natural attitudes -amongst them. He fastened these reptiles, fishes, or insects in their -places by fine threads, and then made a mould of the whole in plaster of -Paris. When it was done, he removed the little animals from the mould -so carefully that he could use them over and over again. - -Thus, after sixteen years passed in untiring energy, sixteen years of -anxiety and privation, the artist triumphed over all the obstacles -opposed to his genius. The humble potter, despised of all, became the -most important man in his town. His productions were sought for eagerly, -and his reputation established forever. - -His life henceforth was not free from events, but these were not -connected with his invention. His fame came to the knowledge of the -queen mother Catherine de Médicis; for Francis I. was no longer living, -and Charles IX. had succeeded Francis II. upon the throne. He was -summoned to Court, and employed to build grottos, decorated with his -designs, by personages of distinction,--one especially for the queen -herself, which he describes in his Discourse of the "Jardin Delectable." - -He was in Paris at the time of the terrible massacre of St. Bartholomew, -where, as he was a Huguenot, he would doubtless have perished but for -the protection of the queen, who helped him to escape with his family. - -Later, however, in the midst of the troubles and terrors of the time, he -was thrown into the Bastille; and there he died, an old man of eighty -years. - - - - -VI. - -BENJAMIN FRANKLIN. - - -"We call the Americans a nation of inventors," said Fergus. "How long -has this been true?" - -"That is a very curious question," said Uncle Fritz. "You remember we -were talking of it before. When I go back to think of the hundred and -fifty years before Bunker Hill, I think there must have been a great -many inglorious Miltons hidden away in the New England towns. Really, -the arts advanced very little between 1630 and 1775. Flint-locks had -come in, instead of match-locks. But, actually, the men at Bunker Hill -rested over the rail-fence old muskets which had been used in Queen -Anne's time; and to this day a 'Queen's arm' is a provincial phrase, in -New England, for one of these old weapons, not yet forgotten. That -inability to improve its own condition comes to a people which lets -another nation do its manufacturing for it. You see much the same thing -in Turkey and French Canada. Just as soon as they were thrown on their -own resources here, they began to invent." - -"But," said Fergus, "there was certainly one great American inventor -before that time." - -"You mean Franklin,--the greatest American yet, I suppose, if you mean -to measure greatness by intellectual power and intellectual achievement. -Yes; Franklin's great discovery, and the inventions which followed on -it, were made twenty-five years and more before Bunker Hill." - -"What is the association between Franklin and Robinson Crusoe?" asked -Alice. "I never read of one but I think of the other." - -Uncle Fritz's whole face beamed with approbation. - -"You have started me upon one of my hobbies," said he; "but I must not -ride it too far. Franklin says himself that De Foe's 'Essay on Projects' -and Cotton Mather's 'Essay to do Good' were two books which perhaps gave -him a turn of thinking which had an influence on some of the events in -his after life. And you may notice how an 'Essay on Projects' might -start his passion for having things done better than in the ways he saw. -The books that he was brought up on and with were books of De Foe's own -time,--none of them more popular among reading people of Boston than De -Foe's own books, for De Foe was a great light among their friends in -England. - -"If Robinson Crusoe, on his second voyage, which was in the year 1718, -had run into Boston for supplies, as he thought of doing; and if old -Judge Sewall had asked him to dinner,--as he would have been likely to -do, for Robinson was a godly old gentleman then, of intelligence and -fortune,--if there had been by accident a vacant place at the table at -the last moment, Judge Sewall might have sent round to Franklin's father -to ask him to come in. For the elder Franklin, though only a -tallow-chandler,--and only Goodman Franklin, not _Mr._ Franklin,--was a -member of the church, well esteemed. He led the singing at the Old South -after Judge Sewall's voice broke down. - -"Nay, when one remembers how much Sewall had to do with printing, one -might imagine that the boy Ben Franklin should wait at the door with a -proof-sheet, and even take off his boy's hat as Robinson Crusoe came -in." - -Here Bedford Long put in a remark:-- - -"There are things in Robinson Crusoe's accounts of his experiments in -making his pipkins, which ought to bring him into any book of American -inventors." - -"I never thought before," said Fergus, "that De Foe's experiences in -making tiles and tobacco-pipes and drain-pipes fitted him for all that -learned discussion of glazing, when Robinson Crusoe makes his pots and -pans." - -"Good!" said Uncle Fritz; "that must be so.--Well, as you say, Alice, -there are whole sentences in that narrative which you could suppose -Franklin wrote, and in his works whole sentences which would fit in -closely with De Foe's writing. The style of the younger man very closely -resembles that of the older." - -"And Franklin would have been very much pleased to hear you say so." - -"He was forever inventing," said Uncle Fritz. "As I said, he was worried -unless things could be better done. If he was in a storm, he wanted to -still the waves. If the chimney smoked, he wanted to make a better -fireplace. If he heard a girl play the musical-glasses, he must have and -make a better set." - -"And if the house was struck by lightning, he went out and put up a -lightning-rod." - -"He had a little book by which people should make themselves better; for -he rightly considered that unless a man could do this, he could make no -other improvement of much account." - -And when Uncle Fritz had said this, he found the passage, which he bade -John read to them. - - -FRANKLIN'S METHOD OF GROWING BETTER. - -"I made a little book in which I allotted a page for each of the -virtues. [He had classified the virtues and made a list of thirteen, -which will be named below.] I ruled each page with red ink, so as to -have seven columns, one for each day of the week, marking each column -with a letter for the day. I crossed these columns with thirteen red -lines, marking the beginning of each line with the first letter of one -of the virtues, on which line and in its proper column I might mark, by -a little black spot, every fault I found upon examination to have been -committed respecting that virtue upon that day. The thirteen virtues -were: 1. TEMPERANCE; 2. SILENCE; 3. ORDER; 4. RESOLUTION; 5. FRUGALITY; -6. INDUSTRY; 7. SINCERITY; 8. JUSTICE; 9. MODERATION; 10. CLEANLINESS; -11. TRANQUILLITY; 12. CHASTITY; 13. HUMILITY. Each of these appears, by -its full name or its initial, on every page of the book. But the full -name of one only appears on each page. - -"My intention being to acquire the habitude of these virtues, I judged -it would be well not to distract my attention by attempting the whole at -once, but to fix it on one of them at a time, and when I should be -master of that, then to proceed to another,--and so on, till I should -have gone through the thirteen; and as the previous acquisition might -facilitate the acquisition of certain others, I arranged them with that -view. Temperance first, as it tends to procure that coolness and -clearness of head which is so necessary where constant vigilance has to -be kept up, and a guard maintained against the unremitting attraction of -ancient habits, and the force of perpetual temptations."[6] And so he -goes on to show how Temperance would prepare for Silence, Silence for -Order, Order for Resolution, and thus to the end. - -Here is the first page of the book, with the marks for the first six of -the virtues. - - +--------------------------------+ - | TEMPERANCE. | - +--------------------------------+ - | EAT NOT TO DULNESS. | - | | - | DRINK NOT TO ELEVATION. | - +----+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | | S.| M.| T.| W.|Th.| F.| S.| - | T. | | | | | | | | - | S. | * | * | | * | | * | | - | O. | * | * | * | | * | * | * | - | R. | | | * | | | * | | - | F. | | * | | | * | | | - | I. | | | * | | | | | - | S. | | | | | | | | - | J. | | | | | | | | - | M. | | | | | | | | - | C. | | | | | | | | - | T. | | | | | | | | - | C. | | | | | | | | - | H. | | | | | | | | - +----+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - -"I determined to give a week's strict attention to each of the virtues -successively. Thus, in the first week my great guard was to avoid every -the least offence against _Temperance_, leaving the other virtues to -their ordinary chance, only marking every evening the faults of the -day. Thus, if in the first week I could keep my first line, marked T, -clear of spots, I supposed the habit of that virtue so much -strengthened, and its opposite weakened, that I might venture extending -my attention to include the next, and for the following week keep both -lines clear of spots. Proceeding thus to the last, I could go through a -course complete in thirteen weeks, and four courses in a year. And like -him who having a garden to weed does not attempt to eradicate all the -bad herbs at once, which would exceed his reach and his strength, but -works on one of the beds at a time, and, having accomplished the first, -proceeds to the second, so I should have, I hoped, the encouraging -pleasure of seeing on my pages the progress I made in virtue, by -clearing successively my lines of their spots, till in the end, by a -number of courses, I should be happy in viewing a clean book, after a -thirteen weeks' daily examination." - - -Uncle Fritz said that this plan of Franklin's had been quite a favorite -plan of different people at the end of the last century. Richard Lovell -Edgeworth, and Mr. Day, and a good many of the other reformers in -England, and many in France, really thought that if people only knew -what was right they would all begin and do it. They had to learn, by -their own experience or somebody's, that the difficulty was generally -deeper down. - -There was a man, named Droz, who published a little book called "The Art -of being Happy," with tables on which every night you were to mark -yourself, as a school-mistress marks scholars at school, 10 for truth, 3 -for temper, 5 for industry, 9 for frugality, and so on.[7] - -"But in the long run," said Uncle Fritz, "there may be too much -self-examination. If you really look up and not down, and look forward -and not back, and loyally lend a hand, why, you can afford to look out -and not in, in general." - -Fergus brought the talk back to the lightning-rod, and asked where was -the earliest hint of it. - -The history seems to be this. In the year 1747 a gentleman named -Collinson sent to Franklin, from England or Scotland, one of the glass -tubes with which people were then trying electrical experiments. -Franklin was very much interested. He went on repeating the experiments -which had been made in England and on the Continent of Europe. With his -general love of society in such things, he had other glass tubes made, -and gave them to his friends. - -He had one immense advantage over the wise men of England and France, in -the superior dryness of our air, which greatly favors such experiments. -Almost any one of the young Americans who will read this book has tried -the experiment of exciting electricity by shuffling across a Brussels -carpet on a dry floor, and then lighting the gas from a gas-jet by the -spark. But when you tell an Englishman in London that you have done -this, he thinks at first that you are making fun of him. For it is very -seldom that the air and the carpet and the floor are all dry enough for -the experiment to succeed in England. This difference of climate -accounts for the difficulty which the philosophers in England sometimes -found in repeating Dr. Franklin's experiments. - -When it came to lightning and experiments about that, he had another -very great advantage; for we have many more thunder-storms than they -have. In the year 1752, when Mr. Watson was very eager to try the -lightning experiments in England, he seems to have had, in all the -summer, but two storms of thunder and lightning. - -Franklin made his apparatus on a scale which now seems almost gigantic. -The "conductor" of an electrical machine such as you will generally see -in a college laboratory is seldom more than two feet long. Franklin's -conductor, which was hung by silk from the top of his room, was a -cylinder ten feet long and one foot in diameter, covered with gilt -paper. In his "Leyden battery" he used five glass jars, as big as large -water-pails,--they held nine gallons each. One night he had arranged to -kill a turkey by a shock from two of these. He received the shock -himself, by accident, and it almost killed him. He had a theory that if -turkeys were killed by electricity, the meat would perhaps be more -tender. - -He acknowledges Mr. Collinson's present of the glass tube as early as -March 28, 1747. On the 11th of July he writes to Collinson that they -("we") had discovered the power of points to withdraw electricity -silently and continuously. On this discovery the lightning-rod is based. -He describes this quality, first observed by Mr. Hopkinson, in the -following letter:-- - -"The first is the wonderful effect of pointed bodies, both in _drawing -off_ and _throwing off_ the electrical fire. - -"For example, place an iron shot, of three or four inches diameter, on -the mouth of a clean, dry glass bottle. By a fine silken thread from the -ceiling, right over the mouth of the bottle, suspend a small cork ball -about the bigness of a marble; the thread of such a length, as that the -cork ball may rest against the side of the shot. Electrify the shot, and -the ball will be repelled to the distance of four or five inches, more -or less, according to the quantity of electricity. When in this state, -if you present to the shot the point of a long, slender, sharp bodkin, -at six or eight inches distance, the repellency is instantly destroyed, -and the cork flies to the shot. A blunt body must be brought within an -inch and draw a spark, to produce the same effect. To prove that the -electrical fire is _drawn off_ by the point, if you take the blade of -the bodkin out of the wooden handle, and fix it in a stick of -sealing-wax, and then present it at the distance aforesaid, or if you -bring it very near, no such effect follows; but sliding one finger along -the wax till you touch the blade, the ball flies to the shot -immediately. If you present the point in the dark, you will see, -sometimes at a foot distance and more, a light gather upon it, like that -of a firefly or glow-worm; the less sharp the point, the nearer you must -bring it to observe the light; and at whatever distance you see the -light, you may draw off the electrical fire, and destroy the repellency. -If a cork ball so suspended be repelled by the tube, and a point be -presented quick to it, though at a considerable distance, it is -surprising to see how suddenly it flies back to the tube. Points of wood -will do near as well as those of iron, provided the wood is not dry; for -perfectly dry wood will no more conduct electricity than sealing-wax. - -"To show that points will _throw off_ as well as _draw off_ the -electrical fire, lay a long, sharp needle upon the shot, and you cannot -electrize the shot so as to make it repel the cork ball. Or fix a needle -to the end of a suspended gun-barrel or iron rod, so as to point beyond -it like a little bayonet; and while it remains there, the gun-barrel or -rod cannot, by applying the tube to the other end, be electrized so as -to give a spark, the fire continually running out silently at the point. -In the dark you may see it make the same appearance as it does in the -case before mentioned." - -The next summer, that of 1748, the experiments went so far, that in a -letter of Franklin's to Collinson he proposed the electrical -dinner-party, which was such a delight to Harry and Lucy:-- - -"Chagrined a little that we have been hitherto able to produce nothing -in this way of use to mankind, and the hot weather coming on when -electrical experiments are not so agreeable, it is proposed to put an -end to them for this season, somewhat humorously, in a party of pleasure -on the banks of the _Skuylkill_. Spirits, at the same time, are to be -fired by a spark sent from side to side through the river, without any -other conductor than the water; an experiment which we some time since -performed, to the amazement of many. A turkey is to be killed for our -dinner by the _electrical shock_, and roasted by the _electrical jack_, -before a fire kindled by the _electrified bottle_; when the healths of -all the famous electricians in England, Holland, France, and Germany are -to be drank in _electrified bumpers_, under the discharge of guns from -the _electrical battery_." - -It was in a letter to Collinson of the next year, 1749,--as I suppose, -though it is not dated,--that the project of the lightning-rod first -appears. It is too long to copy. The paragraphs most important in this -view are the following:-- - -"42. An electrical spark, drawn from an irregular body at some distance, -is scarcely ever straight, but shows crooked and waving in the air. So -do the flashes of lightning, the clouds being very irregular bodies. - -"43. As electrified clouds pass over a country, high hills and high -trees, lofty towers, spires, masts of ships, chimneys, &c., as so many -prominences and points, draw the electrical fire, and the whole cloud -discharges there. - -"44. Dangerous, therefore, is it to take shelter under a tree during a -thunder-gust. It has been fatal to many, both men and beasts. - -"45. It is safer to be in the open field for another reason. When the -clothes are wet, if a flash in its way to the ground should strike your -head, it may run in the water over the surface of your body; whereas, if -your clothes were dry, it would go through the body, because the blood -and other humors, containing so much water, are more ready conductors. - -"Hence a wet rat cannot be killed by the exploding electrical bottle, -when a dry rat may." - -In a letter of 1750, based upon observations made in 1749, Franklin said -distinctly, after describing some artificial lightning which he had -made:-- - -"If these things are so, may not the knowledge of this power of points -be of use to mankind, in preserving houses, churches, ships, &c., from -the stroke of lightning, by directing us to fix, on the highest parts of -these edifices, upright rods of iron made sharp as a needle, and gilded -to prevent rusting, and from the foot of those rods a wire down the -outside of the building into the ground, or down round one of the -shrouds of a ship, and down her side till it reaches the water? Would -not these pointed rods probably draw the electrical fire silently out of -a cloud before it came nigh enough to strike, and thereby secure us from -that most sudden and terrible mischief? - -"To determine the question whether the clouds that contain lightning are -electrified or not, I would propose an experiment to be tried where it -may be done conveniently. On the top of some high tower or steeple, -place a kind of sentry-box, big enough to contain a man and an -electrical stand. From the middle of the stand let an iron rod rise and -pass bending out of the door and then upright twenty or thirty feet, -pointed very sharp at the end. If the electrical stand be kept clean and -dry, a man standing on it, when such clouds are passing low, might be -electrified and afford sparks, the rod drawing fire to him from a cloud. -If any danger to the man should be apprehended (though I think there -would be none), let him stand on the floor of his box, and now and then -bring near to the rod the loop of a wire that has one end fastened to -the leads, he holding it by a wax handle; so the sparks, if the rod is -electrified, will strike from the rod to the wire, and not affect him." - -The Royal Society "did not think these papers worth printing"! - -But, happily, Collinson printed them, and they went all over Europe. The -demonstration of the lightning theory, which he had wrought out by his -own experiments, was made in France, May 10, 1752; and in Philadelphia -by Franklin with the kite in the next month, before he had heard of the -success in France. Franklin's friend Dalibard tried the French -experiment. Here is his account of it, as he sent it to the French -Academy, as Roxana translated it for the young people:-- - - -I have had perfect success in following out the course indicated by Mr. -Franklin. - -I had set up at Marly-la-ville, situated six leagues from Paris, in a -fine plain at a very elevated level, a round rod of iron, about an inch -in diameter, forty feet long, and sharply pointed at its upper -extremity. To secure greater fineness at the point, I had it armed with -tempered steel, and then burnished, for want of gilding, so as to keep -it from rusting; beside that, this iron rod is bent near its lower end -into two acute but rounded angles; the first angle is two feet from the -lower end, and the second takes a contrary direction at three feet from -the first. - - * * * * * - -Wednesday, the 10th of May, 1752, between two and three in the -afternoon, a man named Coiffier, an old dragoon, whom I had intrusted -with making the observations in my absence, having heard rather a loud -clap of thunder, hastened at once to the machine, took the phial with -the wire, presented the loop of the wire to the rod, saw a small bright -spark come from it, and heard it crackle. He then drew a second spark, -brighter than the first and with a louder sound! He called his -neighbors, and sent for the Prior. This gentleman hastened to the spot -as fast as he could: the parishioners, seeing the haste of their priest, -imagined that poor Coiffier had been killed by the thunder; the alarm -was spread in the village; the hail-storm which began did not prevent -the flock from following its shepherd. This honest priest approached the -machine, and, seeing that there was no danger, went to work himself and -drew strong sparks. The cloud from which the storm and hail came was no -more than a quarter of an hour in passing directly over our machine, and -only this one thunder-clap was heard. As soon as the cloud had passed, -and no more sparks were drawn from the iron rod, the Prior of Marly sent -off Monsieur Coiffier himself, to bring me the following letter, which -he wrote in haste:-- - - -I can now inform you, Sir, of what you are looking for. The experiment -is completely successful. To-day, at twenty minutes past two, P. M., the -thunder rolled directly over Marly; the clap was rather loud. The -desire to oblige you, and my own curiosity, made me leave my arm-chair, -where I was occupied in reading. I went to Coiffier's, who had already -sent a child to me, whom I met on the way, to beg me to come. I -redoubled my speed through a torrent of hail. When I arrived at the -place where the bent rod was set up, I presented the wire, approaching -it several times toward the rod. At the distance of an inch and a half, -or about that, there came out of the rod a little column of bluish fire -smelling of sulphur, which struck the loop of the wire with an extreme -and rapid energy, and occasioned a sound like that which might be made -by striking on the rod with a key. I repeated the experiment at least -six times, in the space of about four minutes, in the presence of -several persons; and each experiment which I made lasted the space of a -_Pater_ and an _Ave_. I tried to go on; the action of the fire slackened -little by little. I went nearer, and drew nothing more but a few sparks, -and at last nothing appeared. - -The thunder-clap which caused this event was followed by no other; it -all ended in a great quantity of hail. I was so occupied with what I saw -at the moment of the experiment, that, having been struck on the arm a -little above my elbow, I cannot say whether it was in touching the wire -or the rod, I was not even aware of the injury which the blow had given -me at the moment when I received it; but as the pain continued, on my -return home I uncovered my arm before Coiffier, and we perceived a -bruised mark winding round the arm, like what a wire would have made if -my bare flesh had been struck by it. As I was going back from Coiffier's -house, I met Monsieur le Vicaire, Monsieur de Milly, and the -schoolmaster, to whom I related what had just happened. They all three -declared that they smelt an odor of sulphur, which struck them more as -they approached me. I carried the same odor home with me, and my -servants noticed it without my having said anything to them about it. - -This, Monsieur, is an account given in haste, but simple and true, which -I attest, and you may depend on my being ready to give evidence of this -event on every opportunity. Coiffier was the first who made the -experiment, and repeated it several times; it was only on account of -what he had seen that he sent to ask me to come. If other witnesses than -he and I are necessary, you will find them. Coiffier is in haste to set -out. - -I am, with respectful consideration, Monsieur, - - Yours, &c., - [Signed] RAULET, _Prior of Marly_. - - MAY 10, 1752. - - -"I do not understand," said Uncle Fritz, "how it happened that no one -attempted the experiment before. Franklin had proposed it, very -distinctly, in 1750. His friend Dr. Stuber says that he was waiting for -the erection of a steeple in Philadelphia. You see, the Quakers, who had -founded this city, would have none; they derided what they called -'steeple-houses,' little foreseeing what advantage could be drawn from a -steeple. - -"Meanwhile, in 1750, in October, he did take a view of New York from the -'Dutch Church steeple,' which had been struck by lightning in the spring -of that year. And here he was able to confirm his theory, by seeing that -'wire is a good conductor of lightning, as it is of electricity.'" - - -MUSICAL GLASSES. - -While some of the children were reading these electrical passages, -others were turning over the next volume; and to their great delight, -they found a picture of the "Musical Glasses." - -"I never had the slightest idea what musical glasses were," said Jack; -and he spouted from Goldsmith the passage from "The Vicar of Wakefield," -where the fashionable ladies from London talked about "Shakspeare and -the musical glasses." - -"Were they Dr. Franklin's musical glasses?" - -"I never thought of that," said Uncle Fritz, well pleased; "but I think -it is so. John, look and see what year 'The Vicar of Wakefield' was -written in." - -John turned to the Cyclopædia, and it proved that Goldsmith wrote that -book in 1766. - -"And you see," said Uncle Fritz, "that it was in 1762 that Franklin made -his improvement, and that Mr. Puckeridge, the Irish gentleman, had -arranged his glasses before. I think you would find that the instrument -gradually worked its way into fashion,--slowly, as such things then did -in England,--and that Goldsmith knew about Dr. Franklin's modification. - -"I do not now remember any other place where Goldsmith's life and his -touched. But they must have known a great many of the same people. -Franklin was all mixed up with the Grub Street people." - -Meanwhile John was following up the matter in the Cyclopædia. But he did -not find "Armonica." Uncle Fritz bade him try in the "H" volume; and -there, sure enough, was "Harmonica," with quite a little history of the -invention. Mr. Puckeridge's fascinating name is there tamed down to -Pochrich, probably by some German translator. Dr. Franklin's instrument -is described, and the Cyclopædia man adds:-- - -"From the effect which it was supposed to have upon the nervous system, -it has been suggested that the fingers should not be allowed to come in -immediate contact with the glasses, but that the tones should be -produced by means of keys, as with a harpsichord. Such an instrument has -been made, and called the '_harpsichord harmonica_.' But these -experiments have not produced anything of much value. It is impossible -that the delicacy, the swell, and the continuation of the tone should be -carried to such perfection as in the simpler method. The harmonica, -however much it excels all other instruments in the delicacy and -duration of its tones, yet is confined to those of a soft and melancholy -character and to slow, solemn movements, and can hardly be combined to -advantage with other instruments. In accompanying the human voice it -throws it into the shade; and in concerts the other instruments lose in -effect, because so far inferior to it in tone. It is therefore best -enjoyed by itself, and may produce a charming effect in certain romantic -situations." - -"'Romantic situations'! I should think so," said Mabel, laughing. "Is -not that like the dear German man that wrote this? I see myself lugging -my harmonica to the edge of the Kauterskill Falls." - -"How do you know he was a German?" said Alice. - -"Because, where John read 'the simpler method,' it says 'the -before-mentioned method.' No Englishman or American in his senses ever -said 'before-mentioned' if he could help himself." - -"Do let us see how dear Dr. Franklin made his machine." - -And the girls unfolded the old-fashioned picture, which is in the sixth -volume of Sparks's Franklin, and read his description of it as he wrote -it to Beccaria. - -"Is it the Beccaria who did about capital punishment?" asked Fergus. - -"No," Uncle Fritz said, "though they lived at the same time. They were -not brothers. The capital-punishment man was the Marquis _of_ Beccaria, -and that _of_ makes a great difference in Europe. This man 'did' -electricity, as you would say; and his name is plain Beccaria without -any _of_." - -Then Mabel, commanding silence, at last read the letter to Beccaria. And -when she had done, Uncle Fritz said that he should think there might be -many a boy or girl who could not buy a piano or what he profanely called -a Yang-Yang,--by which he meant a reed organ,--who would like to make a -harmonica. The letter, in a part not copied here, tells how to tune the -glasses. And any one who lived near a glass-factory, and was on the -good-natured side of a good workman, could have the glasses made without -much expense. - - -_Letter of Franklin to J. B. Beccaria._ - - LONDON, July 13, 1762. - -REVEREND SIR,--... Perhaps, however, it may be agreeable to you, as you -live in a musical country, to have an account of the new instrument -lately added here to the great number that charming science was already -possessed of. As it is an instrument that seems peculiarly adapted to -Italian music, especially that of the soft and plaintive kind, I will -endeavor to give you such a description of it, and of the manner of -constructing it, that you or any of your friends may be enabled to -imitate it, if you incline so to do, without being at the expense and -trouble I have been to bring it to its present perfection. - -You have doubtless heard of the sweet tone that is drawn from a -drinking-glass by passing a wet finger round its brim. One Mr. -Puckeridge, a gentleman from Ireland, was the first who thought of -playing tunes formed of these tones. He collected a number of glasses of -different sizes, fixed them near each other on a table, tuned them by -putting into them water more or less, as each note required. The tones -were brought out by passing his finger round their brims. He was -unfortunately burned here, with his instrument, in a fire which consumed -the house he lived in. Mr. E. Delaval, a most ingenious member of our -Royal Society, made one in imitation of it, with a better form and -choice of glasses, which was the first I saw or heard. Being charmed by -the sweetness of its tones, and the music he produced from it, I wished -only to see the glasses disposed in a more convenient form, and brought -together in a narrower compass, so as to admit of a greater number of -tones, and all within reach of hand to a person sitting before the -instrument, which I accomplished, after various intermediate trials, and -less commodious forms, both of glasses and construction, in the -following manner. - -The glasses are blown as nearly as possible in the form of hemispheres, -having each an open neck or socket in the middle. The thickness of the -glass near the brim about a tenth of an inch, or hardly quite so much, -but thicker as it comes nearer the neck, which in the largest glasses is -about an inch deep, and an inch and a half wide within, these dimensions -lessening as the glasses themselves diminish in size, except that the -neck of the smallest ought not to be shorter than half an inch. The -largest glass is nine inches diameter, and the smallest three inches. -Between these two are twenty-three different sizes, differing from each -other a quarter of an inch in diameter. To make a single instrument -there should be at least six glasses blown of each size; and out of this -number one may probably pick thirty-seven glasses (which are sufficient -for three octaves with all the semitones) that will be each either the -note one wants or a little sharper than that note, and all fitting so -well into each other as to taper pretty regularly from the largest to -the smallest. It is true there are not thirty-seven sizes, but it often -happens that two of the same size differ a note or half-note in tone, by -reason of a difference in thickness, and these may be placed one in the -other without sensibly hurting the regularity of the taper form. - -The glasses being thus turned, you are to be provided with a case for -them, and a spindle on which they are to be fixed. My case is about -three feet long, eleven inches every way wide at the biggest end; for it -tapers all the way, to adapt it better to the conical figure of the set -of glasses. This case opens in the middle of its height, and the upper -part turns up by hinges fixed behind. The spindle, which is of hard -iron, lies horizontally from end to end of the box within, exactly in -the middle, and is made to turn on brass gudgeons at each end. It is -round, an inch in diameter at the thickest end, and tapering to a -quarter of an inch at the smallest. A square shank comes from its -thickest end through the box, on which shank a wheel is fixed by a -screw. This wheel serves as a fly to make the motion equable, when the -spindle with the glasses is turned by the foot like a spinning-wheel. -My wheel is of mahogany, eighteen inches diameter, and pretty thick, so -as to conceal near its circumference about twenty-five pounds of lead. -An ivory pin is fixed in the face of this wheel, and about four inches -from the axis. Over the neck of this pin is put the loop of the string -that comes up from the movable step to give it motion. The case stands -on a neat frame with four legs. - -To fix the glasses on the spindle, a cork is first to be fitted in each -neck pretty tight, and projecting a little without the neck, that the -neck of one may not touch the inside of another when put together, for -that would make a jarring. These corks are to be perforated with holes -of different diameters, so as to suit that part of the spindle on which -they are to be fixed. When a glass is put on, by holding it stiffly -between both hands, while another turns the spindle, it may be gradually -brought to its place. But care must be taken that the hole be not too -small, lest, in forcing it up, the neck should split; nor too large, -lest the glass, not being firmly fixed, should turn or move on the -spindle, so as to touch or jar against its neighboring glass. The -glasses are thus placed one in another, the largest on the biggest end -of the spindle, which is to the left hand; the neck of this glass is -towards the wheel, and the next goes into it in the same position, only -about an inch of its brim appearing beyond the brim of the first; thus -proceeding, every glass when fixed shows about an inch of its brim (or -three quarters of an inch, or half an inch, as they grow smaller) beyond -the brim of the glass that contains it; and it is from these exposed -parts of each glass that the tone is drawn, by laying a finger upon one -of them as the spindle and glasses turn round. - -My largest glass is G, a little below the reach of a common voice, and -my highest G, including three complete octaves. To distinguish the -glasses the more readily to the eye, I have painted the apparent parts -of the glasses withinside, every semitone white, and the other notes of -the octave with the seven prismatic colors,--viz., C, red; D, orange; E, -yellow; F, green; G, blue; A, indigo; B, purple; and C, red again,--so -that glasses of the same color (the white excepted) are always octaves -to each other. - -This instrument is played upon by sitting before the middle of the set -of glasses, as before the keys of a harpsichord, turning them with the -foot, and wetting them now and then with a sponge and clean water. The -fingers should be first a little soaked in water, and quite free from -all greasiness; a little fine chalk upon them is sometimes useful, to -make them catch the glass and bring out the tone more readily. Both -hands are used, by which means different parts are played together. -Observe that the tones are best brought out when the glasses turn _from_ -the ends of the fingers, not when they turn _to_ them. - -The advantages of this instrument are, that its tones are incomparably -sweet, beyond those of any other; that they may be swelled and softened -at pleasure by stronger or weaker pressure of the finger, and continued -to any length; and that the instrument, being once well tuned, never -again wants tuning. - -In honor of your musical language, I have borrowed from it the name of -this instrument, calling it the Armonica. - -With great respect and esteem, I am, &c., - - B. FRANKLIN. - - - - -VII. - -THEORISTS OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. - - -RICHARD LOVELL EDGEWORTH. - -At the next meeting there was a slight deviation from the absolutely -expected. Bedford and Mabel desired to dispense with the regular order -of the day, and moved for permission to bring in a new inventor, -"invented by myself," said Mabel,--"entirely by myself, assisted by -Bedford. Nobody that I know of ever heard of him before. He is a new -discovery." - -"Who is he?" asked Horace, somewhat piqued that there should be any one -interesting of whom he had not heard even the name. - -"What did he invent?" asked Emma. - -"Did he write memoirs?" asked Fergus. - -"Did you ever read 'Frank'?" asked Mabel, in what is known as the -Socratic method. - -There was a slight stir at the mention of this little classic. Few -seemed to be able to answer in the affirmative. - -"I have read 'Rollo,'" said Horace. - -"I have read 'Frank,'" said Will Withers, "and 'Harry and Lucy,' and the -'Parents' Assistant,' and 'Sandford and Merton,' and 'Henry Milner.' In -fact, there are few of those books, all kindred volumes, which I have -not read. They have had an important effect upon my later life." - -"Hinc illae lachrymae," in a low tone from Clem Waters. - -For Colonel Ingham, the turn taken by the conversation had a peculiar -charm. He was of the generation before the rest, and what were to them -but ghostly ideals were to him glad memories of a happy past. - -"Good!" said he. "'Frank' was, in a sense, the greatest book ever -written. Do you remember that part where Frank lifted up the skirts of -his coat when passing through the greenhouse?" he asked of Mabel. - -"I should think I did," said Mabel and Will. As for Bedford, he had only -a vague recollection of it. The others considered the conversation to be -trembling upon the verge of insanity. - -"Perhaps," said Florence, gently, "I might be allowed to suggest that -although you have heard of 'Frank' and those other persons mentioned, we -have not. I do not think that I ever heard of an inventor named -Frank,--did he have any other name?--and I am usually considered," she -went on modestly, "tolerably well informed. Therefore the present -conversation, though probably edifying in a high degree to those who -have read 'Frank,' or who have some interest in horticulture and -greenhouses, can hardly fail to be very stupid to those of us who have -not." - -"My dear child," said the Colonel, "you are right. Mabel and I, and Will -and Bedford here, are of the generation that is passing off the stage. -We look back to the things of our youth, hardly considering that there -are those to whom that period suggests Noah and his ark." - -"But who is the inventor?" asked some one who thought that the -conversation was gradually leaving the trodden path. - -"Oh, we had almost forgotten him," said Bedford. - -"The inventor," said Mabel, producing two volumes from under her arm, -"is Mr. Richard Lovell Edgeworth, the father of Maria Edgeworth." - -"What did he invent?" asked many of the company. - -"He invented the telegraph." - -"Well, I never knew that before." - -"I thought Morse invented the telegraph." - -"Didn't Dr. Franklin invent the telegraph?" - -"I thought Edison--" - -Other remarks were also made, showing a certain amount of incredulity. - -"You mistake," said Bedford, placidly; "you are all of you under a -misapprehension. I think that you all of you allude to the electric -telegraph,--an invention of a later date than that of Mr. Edgeworth, and -one of more value, as far as practical affairs are concerned. No; Mr. -Edgeworth invented, or thinks he invented, the telegraph as it was used -in the eighteenth century and the early part of the nineteenth, -sometimes named the Semaphore. It wasn't a difficult invention, and I -don't believe it ever came to any very practical use as constructed by -Edgeworth, though French telegraphs were very useful." - -"What kind of a telegraph was it?" - -"Well, it was just the kind of a telegraph that the conductor of a -railroad train is when he waves his arms to the engineer to go ahead. -There's an account of it by Edgeworth in one of these books, with -pictures to it." - -"But my chief interest about Edgeworth," said Mabel, "is in his memoirs, -which are written partly by himself and partly by his daughter. They are -really very amusing. He was married five times,--once with a door-key -when he was only fourteen." - -This startling intelligence roused even Colonel Ingham to demand -particulars. Was he married to all five at once? to all of them when he -was only fourteen? - -"No," admitted Mabel, with some regret; "he was married to them, all at -different times, and he was divorced from the one he married at fourteen -with the door-key." - -"They were only married for fun," said Bedford. "It was all a joke. They -were at a wedding, and they thought it would be funny after the real -marriage to have a mock one. So they did, and married Edgeworth to a -girl who was there. It was a real marriage, for they were afterwards -divorced." - -"Well," said Sam Edmeston, "I shall be glad to hear about this -gentleman, I'm sure, though I never did hear of him before. But may I -ask why it was necessary to introduce him by means of an allusion to -'Frank' and other works which we have few of us ever read, though it is -very possible that we may some of us have heard of them?" - -"I see why Mabel spoke first of 'Frank,'" said Colonel Ingham. "And I -think that she did very well to bring Edgeworth in as she has done. And -Edgeworth, though I had not thought of him before, is very fit to be one -of our inventors, not so much for his individual accomplishments, which -were little more than curious,--telegraph and all,--as for being a good -representative of his age. Those of you who know a little of the century -between 1750 and 1850 know that it was an age to which many of the -secrets of physical science were being opened for the first time. -Everybody was going back to Nature to see what he could learn from her. -This movement swept all over France and England. Every gentleman -dabbled in the sciences, and made his experiments and inventions. -Voltaire in France had a great laboratory made for him in which he -passed some years in chemical experiments. It was the age, too, of great -inventions,--of the application of physical forces to the life of man. -The invention of the steam-engine by Watt, and the applications of it to -the locomotive and the steamboat, came along toward the end of this -period, and marked the work of the greatest men. But every one could not -invent a steam-engine. So, by the hundreds of country gentlemen who -studied science, chemistry, and astronomy, and the rest, there were -constructed hundreds of orreries, globes, carriages, model-telegraphs, -and such things; and it is of these men that Edgeworth is the best, or -at least the most available, representative, on account of his very -interesting memoirs. - -"Such books as 'Harry and Lucy' and 'Frank' are the mirror of this -movement. But to this is joined something more, which John Morley speaks -of in saying, 'An age touched by the spirit of hope turns naturally to -the education of the young.' Then people knew that their own times were -about as worthless as times could well be; but as they learned more, -they began to hope that things were improving, and that the children -might see better times than those in which the fathers lived. And as -physical science was to them an all-important factor in this approaching -millennium, they took pains to teach these things to the young. Any of -you who have read 'Frank' or 'Sandford and Merton' will see what I mean. -It was the hope that the children might be able to take the work where -the fathers left it, and carry it on. And the children did. But I do not -believe that any one of these eighteenth-century theorists had the first -or vaguest idea of the point to which his children and grandchildren -would carry his work. - -"So much for Mr. Edgeworth from my point of view," concluded the -Colonel. "You will hear what he thought of himself from Bedford." - - -EDGEWORTH'S TELEGRAPH. - -[DESCRIBED BY HIMSELF.] - -Bets of a rash or ingenious sort were in fashion in those days, and one -proposal of what was difficult and uncommon led to another. A famous -match was at that time pending at Newmarket between two horses that were -in every respect as nearly equal as possible. Lord March, one evening at -Ranelagh, expressed his regret to Sir Francis Delaval that he was not -able to attend Newmarket at the next meeting. "I am obliged," said he, -"to stay in London. I shall, however, be at the Turf Coffee House. I -shall station fleet horses on the road to bring me the earliest -intelligence of the event of the race, and shall manage my bets -accordingly." - -I asked at what time in the evening he expected to know who was winner. -He said about nine in the evening. I asserted that I should be able to -name the winning horse at four o'clock in the afternoon. Lord March -heard my assertion with so much incredulity as to urge me to defend -myself; and at length I offered to lay five hundred pounds, that I would -in London name the winning horse at Newmarket at five o'clock in the -evening of the day when the great match in question was to be run. Sir -Francis, having looked at me for encouragement, offered to lay five -hundred pounds on my side; Lord Eglintoun did the same; Shaftoe and -somebody else took up their bets; and the next day we were to meet at -the Turf Coffee House, to put our bets in writing. After we went home, I -explained to Sir Francis Delaval the means that I proposed to use. I had -early been acquainted with Wilkins's "Secret and Swift Messenger;" I had -also read in Hooke's Works of a scheme of this sort, and I had -determined to employ a telegraph nearly resembling that which I have -since published. The machinery I knew could be prepared in a few days. - -Sir Francis immediately perceived the feasibility of my scheme, and -indeed its certainty of success. It was summer-time; and by employing a -sufficient number of persons, we could place our machines so near as to -be almost out of the power of the weather. When we all met at the Turf -Coffee House, I offered to double my bet; so did Sir Francis. The -gentlemen on the opposite side were willing to accept my offer; but -before I would conclude my wager, I thought it fair to state to Lord -March that I did not depend upon the fleetness or strength of horses to -carry the desired intelligence, but upon other means, which I had, of -being informed in London which horse had actually won at Newmarket, -between the time when the race should be concluded and five o 'clock in -the evening. My opponents thanked me for my candor and declined the bet. -My friends blamed me extremely for giving up such an advantageous -speculation. None of them, except Sir Francis, knew the means which I -had intended to employ; and he kept them a profound secret, with a view -to use them afterwards for his own purposes. With that energy which -characterized everything in which he engaged, he immediately erected, -under my directions, an apparatus between his house and part of -Piccadilly,--an apparatus which was never suspected to be telegraphic. -I also set up a night telegraph between a house which Sir F. Delaval -occupied at Hampstead, and one to which I had access in Great Russell -Street, Bloomsbury. This nocturnal telegraph answered well, but was too -expensive for common use. - -Upon my return home to Hare Hatch, I tried many experiments on different -modes of telegraphic communication. My object was to combine secrecy -with expedition. For this purpose I intended to employ windmills, which -might be erected for common economical uses, and which might at the same -time afford easy means of communication from place to place upon -extraordinary occasions. There is a windmill at Nettlebed, which can be -distinctly seen with a good glass from Assy Hill, between Maidenhead and -Henly, the highest ground in England south of the Trent. With the -assistance of Mr. Perrot, of Hare Hatch, I ascertained the -practicability of my scheme between these places, which are nearly -sixteen miles asunder. - -I have had occasion to show my claim to the revival of this invention in -modern times, and in particular to prove that I had practised -telegraphic communication in the year 1767, long before it was ever -attempted in France. To establish these truths, I obtained from Mr. -Perrot, a Berkshire gentleman, who resided in the neighborhood of Hare -Hatch, and who was witness to my experiments, his testimony to the facts -which I have just related. I have his letter; and before its contents -were published in the Memoirs of the Irish Academy for the year 1796, I -showed it to Lord Charlemont, President of the Royal Irish Academy. - - -MR. EDGEWORTH'S TELEGRAPH IN IRELAND. - -[DESCRIBED BY HIS DAUGHTER.] - -In August, 1794, my father made a trial of his telegraph between -Pakenham Hall and Edgeworth Town, a distance of twelve miles. He found -it to succeed beyond his expectations; and in November following he made -another trial of it at Collon, at Mr. Foster's, in the county of Louth. -The telegraphs were on two hills, at fifteen miles' distance from each -other. A communication of intelligence was made, and an answer received, -in the space of five minutes. Mr. Foster--my father's friend, and the -friend of everything useful to Ireland--was well convinced of the -advantage and security this country would derive from a system of quick -and certain communication; and, being satisfied of the sufficiency of -this telegraph, advised that a memorial on the subject should be drawn -up for Government. Accordingly, under his auspices, a memorial was -presented, in 1795, to Lord Camden, then Lord Lieutenant. His Excellency -glanced his eye over the paper, and said that he did not think such an -establishment necessary, but desired to reserve the matter for further -consideration. My father waited in Dublin for some time. The suspense -and doubt in which courtiers are obliged to live is very different from -that state of philosophical doubt which the wise recommend, and to which -they are willing to submit. My father's patience was soon exhausted. The -county in which he resided was then in a disturbed state; and he was -eager to return to his family, who required his protection. Besides, to -state things exactly as they were, his was not the sort of temper -suited to attendance upon the great. - -The disturbances in the County of Longford were quieted for a time by -the military; but again, in the autumn of the ensuing year (September, -1796), rumors of an invasion prevailed, and spread with redoubled force -through Ireland, disturbing commerce, and alarming all ranks of -well-disposed subjects. My father wrote to Lord Carhampton, then -Commander-in-Chief, and to Mr. Pelham (now Lord Chichester), who was -then Secretary in Ireland, offering his services. The Secretary -requested Mr. Edgeworth would furnish him with a memorial. Aware of the -natural antipathy that public men feel at the sight of long memorials, -this was made short enough to give it a chance of being read. - - -(Presented, Oct. 6, 1796.) - -Mr. Edgeworth will undertake to convey intelligence from Dublin to Cork, -and back to Dublin, by means of fourteen or fifteen different stations, -at the rate of one hundred pounds per annum for each station, as long as -Government shall think proper; and from Dublin to any other place, at -the same rate, in proportion to the distance: provided that when -Government chooses to discontinue the business, they shall pay one -year's contract over and above the current expense, as some compensation -for the prime cost of the apparatus, and the trouble of the first -establishment. - - -In a letter of a single page, accompanying this memorial, it was stated, -that to establish a telegraphic corps of men sufficient to convey -intelligence to every part of the kingdom where it should be necessary, -stations tenable against a mob and against musketry might be effected -for the sum of _six or seven thousand pounds_. It was further observed, -that of course there must be a considerable difference between a partial -and a general plan of telegraphic communication; that Mr. Edgeworth was -perfectly willing to pursue either, or to adopt without reserve any -better plan that Government should approve. Thanks were returned, and -approbation expressed. - -Nothing now appeared in suspense except the _mode_ of the establishment, -whether it should be civil or military. Meantime Mr. Pelham spoke of the -Duke of York's wish to have a reconnoitring telegraph, and observed that -Mr. Edgeworth's would be exactly what his Royal Highness wanted. Mr. -Edgeworth in a few days constructed a portable telegraph, and offered it -to Mr. Pelham. He accepted it, and at his request my brother Lovell -carried it to England, and presented it to the Duke from Mr. Pelham. - -During the interval of my brother's absence in England, my father had no -doubt that arrangements were making for a telegraphic establishment -in Ireland. But the next time he went to the castle, he saw -signs of a change in the Secretary's countenance, who seemed much -hurried,--promised he would write,--wrote, and conveyed, in diplomatic -form, a final refusal. Mr. Pelham indeed endeavored to make it as civil -as he could, concluding his letter with these words:-- - - -The utility of a telegraph may hereafter be considered greater; but I -trust that at all events those talents which have been directed to this -pursuit will be turned to some other object, and that the public will -have the benefit of that extraordinary activity and zeal which I have -witnessed on this occasion in some other institution which I am sure -that the ingenuity of the author will not require much time to suggest. - -I have the honor to be, with great respect, &c, - - T. PELHAM. - -DUBLIN CASTLE, Nov. 17, 1796. - - -Of his offer to establish a communication from the coast of Cork to -Dublin, at _his own expense_, no notice was taken. "He had, as was known -to Government, expended £500 of his own money; as much more would have -erected a temporary establishment for a year to Cork. Thus the utility -of this invention might have been tried, and the most prudent government -upon earth could not have accused itself of extravagance in being -partner with a private gentleman in an experiment which had, with -inferior apparatus, and at four times the expense, been tried in France -and England, and approved." The most favorable supposition by which we -can account for the conduct of the Irish Government in this business is -that a superior influence in England forbade them to proceed. "It must," -said my father, "be mortifying to a viceroy who comes over to Ireland -with enlarged views and benevolent intentions, to discover, when he -attempts to act for himself, that he is peremptorily checked; that a -circle is chalked round him, beyond which he cannot move." - -No personal feelings of pique or disgust prevented my father from -renewing his efforts to be of service to his country. Two months after -the rejection of his telegraph, on Friday the 30th of December, 1796, -the French were on the Irish coasts. Of this he received intelligence -late at night. Immediately he sent a servant express to the Secretary, -with a letter offering to erect telegraphs, which he had in Dublin, on -any line that Government should direct, and proposing to bring his own -men with him; or to join the army with his portable telegraphs, to -reconnoitre. His servant was sent back with a note from the Secretary, -containing compliments and the promise of a speedy answer; no further -answer ever reached him. Upon this emergency he could, with the -assistance of his friends, have established an immediate communication -between Dublin and the coast, which should not have cost the country one -shilling. My father showed no mortification at the neglect with which he -was treated, but acknowledged that he felt much "concern in losing an -opportunity of saving an enormous expense to the public, and of -alleviating the anxiety and distress of thousands." A telegraph was most -earnestly wished for at this time by the best-informed people in -Ireland, as well as by those whose perceptions had suddenly quickened at -the view of immediate danger. Great distress, bankruptcies, and ruin to -many families, were the consequences of this attempted invasion. The -troops were harassed with contrary orders and forced marches, for want -of intelligence, and from that indecision which must always be the -consequence of insufficient information. Many days were spent in terror -and in fruitless wishes for the English fleet. One fact may mark the -hurry and confusion of the time; the cannon and the ball sent to Bantry -Bay were of different calibre. At last Ireland was providentially saved -by the change of wind, which prevented the enemy from effecting a -landing on her coast. - -That the public will feel little interest in the danger of an invasion -of Ireland which might have happened in the last century; that it can be -of little consequence to the public to hear how or why, twenty years -ago, this or that man's telegraph was not established,--I am aware; and -I am sensible that few will care how cheaply it might have been -obtained, or will be greatly interested in hearing of generous offers -which were not accepted, and patriotic exertions which were not -permitted to be of any national utility. I know that as a biographer I -am expected to put private feelings out of the question; and this duty, -as far as human nature will permit, I hope I have performed. - -The facts are stated from my own knowledge, and from a more detailed -account in his own "Letter to Lord Charlemont on the Telegraph,"--a -political pamphlet, uncommon at least for its temperate and good-humored -tone. - -Though all his exertions to establish a telegraph in Ireland were at -this time unsuccessful, yet he persevered in the belief that in future -modes of telegraphic communication would be generally adopted; and -instead of his hopes being depressed, they were raised and expanded by -new consideration of the subject in a scientific light. In the sixth -volume of the "Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy," he published an -"Essay on the Art of Conveying Swift and Secret Intelligence," in which -he gives a comprehensive view of the uses to which the system may be -applied, and a description, with plates, of his own machinery. Accounts -of his apparatus and specimens of his vocabulary have been copied into -various popular publications, therefore it is sufficient here to refer -to them. The peculiar advantages of his machinery consist, in the first -place, in being as free from friction as possible, consequently in its -being easily moved, and not easily destroyed by use; in the next place, -on its being simple, consequently easy to make and to repair. The -superior advantage of his vocabulary arises from its being -undecipherable. This depends on his employing the numerical figures -instead of the alphabet. With a power of almost infinite change, and -consequently with defiance of detection, he applies the combination of -numerical figures to the words of a common dictionary, or to any length -of phrase in any given vocabulary. He was the first who made this -application of figures to telegraphic communication. - -Much has been urged by various modern claimants for the honor of the -invention of the telegraph. In England the claims of Dr. Hooke and of -the Marquis of Worcester to the original idea are incontestable. But the -invention long lay dormant, till wakened into active service by the -French. Long before the French telegraph appeared, my father had tried -his first telegraphic experiments. As he mentions in his own narrative, -he tried the use of windmill sails in 1767 in Berkshire; and also a -nocturnal telegraph with lamps and illuminated letters, between London -and Hampstead. He refers for the confirmation of the facts to a letter -of Mr. Perrot's, a Berkshire gentleman who was with him at the time. The -original of this letter is now in my possession. It was shown in 1795 to -the President of the Royal Irish Academy. The following is a copy of -it:-- - - -DEAR SIR,--I perfectly recollect having several conversations with you -in 1767 on the subject of a speedy and secret conveyance of -intelligence. I recollect your going up the hills to see how far and how -distinctly the arms (and the position of them) of Nettlebed Windmill -sails were to be discovered with ease. - -As to the experiments from Highgate to London by means of lamps, I was -not present at the time, but I remember your mentioning the circumstance -to me in the same year. All these particulars were brought very strongly -to my memory when the French, some years ago, conveyed intelligence by -signals; and I then thought and declared that the merit of the invention -undoubtedly belonged to you. I am very glad that I have it in my power -to send you this confirmation, because I imagine there is no other -person now living who can bear witness to your observations in -Berkshire. - -I remain, dear Sir, - - Your affectionate friend, - JAMES L. PERROT. - -BATH, Dec. 9, 1795. - - -Claims of priority of invention are always listened to with doubt, or, -at best, with impatience. To those who bring the invention to -perfection, who actually adapt it to use, mankind are justly most -grateful, and to these, rather than to the original inventors, grant the -honors of a triumph. Sensible of this, the matter is urged no farther, -but left to the justice of posterity. - -I am happy to state, however, one plain fact, which stands independent -of all controversy, that my father's was the _first_, and I believe the -only, telegraph which ever spoke across the Channel from Ireland to -Scotland. He was, as he says in his essay on this subject, "ambitious of -being the first person who should connect the islands more closely by -facilitating their mutual intercourse;" and on the 24th of August, 1794, -my brothers had the satisfaction of sending by my father's telegraph -four messages across the Channel, and of receiving immediate answers, -before a vast concourse of spectators. - - -_Edgeworth to Dr. Darwin._ - - EDGEWORTHTOWN, Dec. 11, 1794. - -I have been employed for two months in experiments upon a telegraph of -my own invention. I tried it partially twenty-six years ago. It differs -from the French in distinctness and expedition, as the intelligence is -not conveyed alphabetically.... - -I intended to detail my telegraphs (in the plural), but I find that I -have not room at present. If you think it worth while, you shall have -the whole scheme before you, which I know you will improve for me. -Suffice it, that by day, at eighteen or twenty miles' distance, I show, -by four pointers, isosceles triangles, twenty feet high, on four -imaginary circles, eight imaginary points, which correspond with the -figures - - 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7. - -So that seven thousand different combinations are formed, of four -figures each, which refer to a dictionary of words that are referred -to,--of lists of the navy, army, militia, lords, commons, geographical -and technical terms, &c, besides an alphabet. So that everything one -wishes may be transmitted with expedition. - -By night, white lights are used. - - -_Dr. Darwin to Mr. Edgeworth._ - - DERBY, March 15, 1795. - -DEAR SIR,--I beg your pardon for not immediately answering your last -favor, which was owing to the great influence the evil demon has at -present in all affairs on this earth. That is, I lost your letter, and -have in vain looked over some scores of papers, and cannot find it. -Secondly, having lost your letter, I daily hoped to find it -again--without success. - -The telegraph you described I dare say would answer the purpose. It -would be like a giant wielding his long arms and talking with his -fingers; and those long arms might be covered with lamps in the night. -You would place four or six such gigantic figures in a line, so that -they should spell a whole word at once; and other such figures in sight -of each other, all round the coast of Ireland; and thus fortify -yourselves, instead of Friar Bacon's wall of brass round England, with -the brazen head, which spoke, "Time is! Time was! Time is past!" - - -MR. EDGEWORTH'S MACHINE. - -Having slightly mentioned the contrivances made use of by the ancients -for conveying intelligence swiftly, and having pointed out some of the -various important uses to which this art may be applied, I shall -endeavor to give a clear view of my attempts on this subject. - -Models of the French telegraph have been so often exhibited, and the -machine itself is so well known, that it is not necessary to describe it -minutely in this place. It is sufficient to say that it consists of a -tall pole, with three movable arms, which may be seen at a considerable -distance through telescopes; these arms may be set in as many different -positions as are requisite to express all the different letters of the -alphabet. By a successive combination of letters shown in this manner, -words and sentences are formed and intelligence communicated. No doubt -can be made of the utility of this machine, as it has been applied to -the most important purposes. It is obviously liable to mistakes, from -the number of changes requisite for each word, and from the velocity -with which it must be moved to convey intelligence with any tolerable -expedition. - -The name, however, which is well chosen, has become so familiar, that I -shall, with a slight alteration, adopt it for the apparatus which I am -going to describe. _Telegraph_ is a proper name for a machine which -describes at a distance. _Telelograph_, or contractedly _Tellograph_, is -a proper name for a machine that describes _words_ at a distance. - -Dr. Hooke, to whom every mechanic philosopher must recur, has written an -essay upon the subject of conveying swift intelligence, in which he -proposes to use large wooden letters in succession. The siege of Vienna -turned his attention to the business. His method is more cumbrous than -the French telegraph, but far less liable to error. - -I tried it before I had seen Hooke's work, in the year 1767 in London, -and I could distinctly read letters illuminated with lamps in Hampstead -Churchyard, from the house of Mr. Elers in Great Russell Street, -Bloomsbury, to whom I refer for date and circumstance. To him and to Mr. -E. Delaval, F.R.S., to Mr. Perrot, of Hare Hatch, and to Mr Woulfe the -chemist, I refer for the precedency which I claim in this invention. In -that year I invented the idea of my present tellograph, proposing to -make use of windmill sails instead of the hands or pointers which I now -employ. Mr. Perrot was so good as to accompany me more than once to a -hill near his house to observe with a telescope the windmill at -Nettlebed, which places are, I think, sixteen miles asunder. My -intention at that time was to convey not only a swift but an -unsuspected mode of intelligence. By means of common windmills this -might have been effected, before an account of the French telegraph was -made public. - -My machinery consists of four triangular pointers or hands [each upon a -separate pedestal, ranged along in a row], each of which points like the -hand of a clock to different situations in the circles which they -describe. It is easy to distinguish whether a hand moving vertically -points perpendicularly downwards or upwards, horizontally to the right -or left, or to any of the four intermediate positions. - -The eye can readily perceive the eight different positions in which one -of the pointers is represented [on the plate attached to the article in -the "Transactions," but here omitted]. Of these eight positions seven -only are employed to denote figures, the upright position of the hand or -pointer being reserved to represent o, or zero. The figures thus denoted -refer to a vocabulary in which all the words are numbered. Of the four -pointers, that which appears to the left hand of the observer represents -thousands; the others hundreds, tens, and units, in succession, as in -common numeration. - -[By these means, as Mr. Edgeworth showed, numbers from 1 up to 7,777, -omitting those having a digit above 7, could be displayed to the distant -observer, who on referring to his vocabulary discovered that they meant -such expressions as it might seem convenient to transmit by this -excellent invention.] - - -Although the electric telegraphs have long since superseded telegraphs -of this class in public use, the young people of Colonel Ingham's class -took great pleasure in the next summer in using Mr. Edgeworth's -telegraph to communicate with each other, by plans easily made in their -different country homes. - -It may interest the casual reader to know that the first words in the -first message transmitted on the telegraph between Scotland and Ireland, -alluded to above, were represented by the numbers 2,645, 2,331, 573, -1,113 244, 2,411, 6,336, which being interpreted are,-- - - "Hark from basaltic rocks and giant walls," - -and so on with the other lines, seven in number. This is Mr. Edgeworth's -concise history of telegraphy before his time. - -The art of conveying intelligence by sounds and signals is of the -highest antiquity. It was practised by Theseus in the Argonautic -expedition, by Agamemnon at the siege of Troy, and by Mardonius in the -time of Xerxes. It is mentioned frequently in Thucydides. It was used by -Tamerlane, who had probably never heard of the black sails of Theseus; -by the Moors in Spain; by the Welsh in Britain; by the Irish; and by the -Chinese on that famous wall by which they separated themselves from -Tartary. - - * * * * * - -All this detail about Mr. Edgeworth's telegraph resulted in much search -in the older encyclopædias. Quite full accounts were found, by the young -people, of his system, and of the French system afterwards employed, and -worked in France until the electric telegraph made all such inventions -unnecessary. - -Before the next meeting, Bedford Long, who lived on Highland Street in -Roxbury, and Hugh, who lived on the side of Corey Hill, were able to -communicate with each other by semaphore; and at the next meeting they -arranged two farther stations, so that John, at Cambridge, and Jane -Fortescue, at Lexington, were in the series. - -There being some half an hour left that afternoon, the children amused -themselves by looking up some other of Mr. Edgeworth's curious -experiments and vagaries. - - -MORE OF MR. EDGEWORTH'S FANCIES. - -During my residence at Hare Hatch another wager was proposed by me among -our acquaintance, the purport of which was that I undertook to find a -man who should, with the assistance of machinery, walk faster than any -other person that could be produced. The machinery which I intended to -employ was a huge hollow wheel, made very light, withinside of which, in -a barrel of six feet diameter, a man should walk. Whilst he stepped -thirty inches, the circumference of the large wheel, or rather wheels, -would revolve five feet on the ground; and as the machinery was to roll -on planks and on a plane somewhat inclined, when once the _vis inertiæ_ -of the machine should be overcome, it would carry on the man within it -as fast as he could possibly walk. I had provided means of regulating -the motion, so that the wheel should not run away with its master. I had -the wheel made; and when it was so nearly completed as to require but a -few hours' work to finish it, I went to London for Lord Effingham, to -whom I had promised that he should be present at the first experiment -made with it. But the bulk and extraordinary appearance of my machine -had attracted the notice of the country neighborhood; and, taking -advantage of my absence, some idle curious persons went to the carpenter -I employed, who lived on Hare Hatch Common. From him they obtained the -great wheel which had been left by me in his care. It was not finished. -I had not yet furnished it with the means of stopping or moderating its -motion. A young lad got into it; his companions launched it on a path -which led gently down hill towards a very steep chalk-pit. This pit was -at such a distance as to be out of their thoughts when they set the -wheel in motion. On it ran. The lad withinside plied his legs with all -his might. The spectators, who at first stood still to behold the -operation, were soon alarmed by the shouts of their companion, who -perceived his danger. The vehicle became quite ungovernable; the -velocity increased as it ran down hill. Fortunately the boy contrived to -jump from his rolling prison before it reached the chalk-pit; but the -wheel went on with such velocity as to outstrip its pursuers, and, -rolling over the edge of the precipice, it was dashed to pieces. - -The next day, when I came to look for my machine, intending to try it on -some planks which had been laid for it, I found, to my no small -disappointment, that the object of all my labors and my hopes was lying -at the bottom of a chalk-pit, broken into a thousand pieces. I could not -at that time afford to construct another wheel of this sort, and I -cannot therefore determine what might have been the success of my -scheme. - -As I am on the subject of carriages, I shall mention a sailing-carriage -that I tried on this common. The carriage was light, steady, and ran -with amazing velocity. One day, when I was preparing for a sail in it -with my friend and schoolfellow Mr. William Foster, my wheel-boat -escaped from its moorings just as we were going to step on board. With -the utmost difficulty I overtook it; and as I saw three or four -stage-coaches on the road, and feared that this sailing-chariot might -frighten their horses, I, at the hazard of my life, got into my carriage -while it was under full sail, and then, at a favorable part of the road, -I used the means I had of guiding it easily out of the way. But the -sense of the mischief which must have ensued if I had not succeeded in -getting into the machine at the proper place and stopping it at the -right moment was so strong as to deter me from trying any more -experiments on this carriage in such a dangerous place. - -Such should never be attempted except on a large common, _at a distance -from a high_ road. It may not, however, be amiss to suggest that upon a -long extent of iron railway in an open country carriages properly -constructed might make profitable voyages, from time to time, with sails -instead of horses; for though a constant or regular intercourse could -not be thus carried on, yet goods of a certain sort, that are salable at -any time, might be stored till wind and weather were favorable. - - -When Bedford had read this passage, John Fordyce said he had travelled -hundreds of miles on the Western railways where Mr. Edgeworth's sails -could have been applied without a "stage-coach" to be afraid of them. - - -JACK THE DARTER. - -In one of my journeys from Hare Hatch to Birmingham, I accidentally met -with a person whom I, as a mechanic, had a curiosity to see. This was a -sailor, who had amused London with a singular exhibition of dexterity. -He was called _Jack the Darter_. He threw his darts, which consisted of -thin rods of deal of about half an inch in diameter and of a yard long, -to an amazing height and distance; for instance, he threw them over what -was then called the New Church in the Strand. Of this feat I had heard, -but I entertained some doubts upon the subject. I had inquired from my -friends where this man could be found, but had not been able to discover -him. As I was driving towards Birmingham in an open carriage of a -singular construction, I overtook a man who walked remarkably fast, but -who stopped as I passed him, and eyed my equipage with uncommon -curiosity. There was something in his manner that made me speak to him; -and from the sort of questions he asked about my carriage, I found that -he was a clever fellow. I soon learned that he had walked over the -greatest part of England, and that he was perfectly acquainted with -London. It came into my head to inquire whether he had ever seen the -exhibition about which I was so desirous to be informed. - -"Lord! sir," said he, "I am myself Jack the Darter." He had a roll of -brown paper in his hand, which he unfolded, and soon produced a bundle -of the light deal sticks which he had the power of darting to such a -distance. He readily consented to gratify my curiosity; and after he had -thrown some of them to a prodigious height, I asked him to throw some of -them horizontally. At the first trial he threw one of them eighty yards -with great ease. I observed that he coiled a small string round the -stick, by which he gave it a rotary motion that preserved it from -altering its course; and at the same time it allowed the arm which threw -it time to exercise its whole force. - -If anything be simply thrown from the hand, it is clear that it can -acquire no greater velocity than that of the hand that throws it; but if -the body that is thrown passes through a greater space than the hand, -whilst the hand continues to communicate motion to the body to be -impelled, the body will acquire a velocity nearly double to that of the -hand which throws it. The ancients were aware of this; and they wrapped -a thong of leather round their javelins, by which they could throw them -with additional violence. This invention did not, I believe, belong to -the Greeks; nor do I remember its being mentioned by Homer or Xenophon. -It was in use among the Romans, but at what time it was introduced or -laid aside I know not. Whoever is acquainted with the science of -projectiles will perceive that this invention is well worthy of their -attention. - - -A ONE-WHEELED CHAISE. - -After having satisfied my curiosity about Jack the Darter, I proceeded -to Birmingham. I mentioned that I travelled in a carriage of a singular -construction. It was a one-wheeled chaise, which I had had made for the -purpose of going conveniently in narrow roads. It was made fast by -shafts to the horse's sides, and was furnished with two weights or -counterpoises, that hung below the shafts. The seat was not more than -eight and twenty or thirty inches from the ground, in order to bring the -centre of gravity of the whole as low as possible. The footboard turned -upon hinges fastened to the shafts, so that when it met with any -obstacle it gave way, and my legs were warned to lift themselves up. In -going through water my legs were secured by leathers, which folded up -like the sides of bellows; by this means I was pretty safe from wet. On -my road to Birmingham I passed through Long Compton, in Warwickshire, on -a Sunday. The people were returning from church, and numbers stopped to -gaze at me. There is, or was, a shallow ford near the town, over which -there was a very narrow bridge for horse and foot passengers, but not -sufficiently wide for wagons or chaises. Towards this bridge I drove. -The people, not perceiving the structure of my one-wheeled vehicle, -called to me with great eagerness to warn me that the bridge was too -narrow for carriages. I had an excellent horse, which went so fast as to -give but little time for examination. The louder they called, the faster -I drove; and when I had passed the bridge, they shouted after me with -surprise. I got on to Shipstone upon Stone; but before I had dined there -I found that my fame had overtaken me. My carriage was put into a -coach-house, so that those who came from Long Compton, not seeing it, -did not recognize me. I therefore had an opportunity of hearing all the -exaggerations and strange conjectures which were made by those who -related my passage over the narrow bridge. There were posts on the -bridge, to prevent, as I suppose, more than one horseman from passing at -once. Some of the spectators asserted that my carriage had gone over -these posts; others said that it had not wheels, which was indeed -literally true; but they meant to say that it was without any wheel. -Some were sure that no carriage ever went so fast; and all agreed that -at the end of the bridge, where the floods had laid the road for some -way under water, my carriage swam on the surface of the water. - - - - -VIII. - -JAMES WATT. - - -"Uncle Fritz," said Mabel Liddell, the next afternoon that our friends -had gathered together for a reading, "would it not be well for us all to -go down into the kitchen this afternoon, and watch the steam come out of -the kettle as Ellen makes tea for us?" - -"Why should it be well, Mabel?" said Colonel Ingham. "For my part, I -should prefer to remain in my own room, more especially as I consider my -armchair to be more suited to the comfort of one already on the downward -path in life than is the kitchen table, where we should have to sit -should we invade the premises of our friends below." - -"I was thinking," said Mabel, "of the manner in which James Watt when a -child invented the steam-engine, from observing the motion of the top of -the teakettle; and as we are to read about Watt this afternoon I thought -we might be in a more fit condition to understand his invention, and -might more fully comprehend his frame of mind while perfecting his great -work, should we also fix our eyes and minds on the top of the teakettle -in Ellen's kitchen." - -"Mabel, my child," said Uncle Fritz, "you talk like a book, and a very -interesting one at that; but I think, as the youngest of us would say, -that you are just a little off in your remarks. And as I observe that -Clem, who is going to read this afternoon, desires to deliver a sermon -of which your conversation seems to be the text, I will request all to -listen to him before we consider seriously vacating this apartment, -however poor it may be,"--and he glanced fondly around at the -comfortable arrangements that everywhere pervaded the study,--"and seek -the regions below." - -"I only wanted to say," began Clem, "that although Watt did on one -occasion (in his extreme youth) look at a teakettle with some interest, -he was not in the habit, at the time when he devoted most thought to the -steam-engine, of having a teakettle continually before him that he might -gain inspiration from observing the steam issue from its nose. And, as -Watt dispensed with this aid, I have no doubt that we may do so as well, -contenting ourselves with the results of the experiments in the -vaporization of water, which Ellen is now conducting in the form of tea. -Besides all this, however, I do want to say some things, before we read -aloud this afternoon (I hope this isn't really too much like a sermon), -about the steam-engine and the part that Watt had in perfecting it." - -At this point the irrepressible Mabel was heard to whisper to Bedford, -who sat next her: "Wasn't it curious that the same mind which grasped -the immense capabilities of the steam-engine should have been able also -to construct such a delicate lyric as - - 'How doth the little busy bee - Improve each shining hour'?" - -"Mabel," said Colonel Ingham, "you are absolutely unbearable. If you do -not keep in better order I shall be sorry that I dissuaded you from -descending to the kitchen. I see nothing incongruous myself in -indulging in mechanical experiments, and in throwing one's thoughts into -the form of verse,"--here the old gentleman colored slightly, as though -he recollected something of the sort,--"but it may be well to counteract -the impression your conversation may have made by stating that Isaac -Watts did not invent the steam-engine, nor did James Watt write the -beautiful words you have just quoted.--Now, Clem, I believe you have the -floor." - -"Well," said Clem, "I only want the floor for a short time in order to -explain about Watt and the steam-engine, and how much he was the -inventor of it, before we begin to read. - -"There are various points about the steam-engine which are really Watt's -invention,--the separate condenser, for instance,--but the idea of the -steam-engine was not original with him; that is, when he saw the steam -in the teakettle raise the lid and drop it again, he was not the first -to speculate on the power of steam." - -"Are you going to read us that part in the book, Clem?" asked Bedford, -with some interest. - -"Yes, if you like," said Clem. "I guess it tells about it in Mr. -Smiles's 'Life of Watt.'" So he began to overhaul the book he had -brought, and shortly discovered the anecdote referred to by Mabel with -such interest, and read it. - -"On one occasion he [James Watt] was reproved by Mrs. Muirhead, his -aunt, for his indolence at the tea-table. 'James Watt,' said the worthy -lady, 'I never saw such an idle boy as you are. Take a book, or employ -yourself usefully; for the last hour you have not spoken one word, but -taken off the lid of that kettle and put it on again, holding now a cup -and now a silver spoon over the steam, watching how it rises from the -spout, catching and counting the drops it falls into.' In the view of M. -Arago, the little James before the teakettle, becomes the great -engineer, preparing the discoveries which were soon to immortalize him. -In our opinion, the judgment of the aunt was the truest. There is no -reason to suppose that the mind of the boy was occupied with -philosophical theories on the condensation of steam, which he compassed -with so much difficulty in his maturer years. This is more probably an -afterthought borrowed from his subsequent discoveries. Nothing is -commoner than for children to be amused with such phenomena in the same -way that they will form air-bubbles in a cup of tea, and watch them -sailing over the surface till they burst. The probability is that little -James was quite as idle as he seemed." - -"That is very interesting," remarked Mabel. "Don't you think now, Uncle -Fritz, we had better go into the kitchen?" And she looked appealingly at -the old gentleman, who merely held up his finger for silence as Clem -continued his lecture. - -"What I meant to say," Clem went on, "was that other people before Watt -had found out the power of steam, and had used it too. There was one -Hero of Alexandria, who lived about two thousand years ago, who used -steam for many interesting purposes, notably for animating various -figures that took part in the idolatrous worship of his time, and thus -in deceiving the common people. But his contrivances, though engines -which went by steam, would hardly be called steam-engines. Between Hero -of Alexandria, of 160 B. C., and the Marquis of Worcester, of 1650 A. -D., there does not seem to have been much doing in the way of inventing -the steam-engine. But the Marquis of Worcester in Charles II.'s time was -a great philosopher, and did nobody knows exactly what with steam. But -though he did great things, he did not produce a particularly capable -engine, though he seems to have known more about steam than anybody else -did at his time. After the Marquis of Worcester and before Watt, there -were three men who did much towards inventing and improving the -steam-engine. Their names were Savery, Papin, and Newcomen. I don't -propose to tell you about the inventions of each one; but it's well -enough to remember that each one did important service in getting the -steam-engine to the point where Watt took hold of it. As it was on -Newcomen's engine that Watt made his first serious experiments, I think -we should all like to know something about it." - - -THE NEWCOMEN ENGINE. - -Newcomen's engine may be thus briefly described: The steam was generated -in a separate boiler, as in Savery's engine, from which it was conveyed -into a vertical cylinder underneath a piston fitting it closely, but -movable upwards and downwards through its whole length. The piston was -fixed to a rod, which was attached by a joint or chain to the end of a -lever vibrating upon an axis, the other end being attached to a rod -working a pump. When the piston in the cylinder was raised, steam was -let into the vacated space through a tube fitted into the top of the -boiler, and mounted with a stopcock. The pump-rod at the further end of -the lever being thus depressed, cold water was applied to the sides of -the cylinder, on which the steam within it was condensed, a vacuum was -produced, and the external air, pressing upon the top of the piston, -forced it down into the empty cylinder. The pump-rod was thereby raised; -and, the operation of depressing it being repeated, a power was thus -produced which kept the pump continuously at work. Such, in a few words, -was the construction and action of Newcomen's first engine.[8] - -While the engine was still in its trial state, a curious accident -occurred which led to a change in the mode of condensation, and proved -of essential importance in establishing Newcomen's engine as a practical -working power. The accident was this: in order to keep the cylinder as -free from air as possible, great pains were taken to prevent it passing -down by the side of the piston, which was carefully wrapped with cloth -or leather; and, still further to keep the cylinder air-tight, a -quantity of water was kept constantly on the upper side of the piston. -At one of the early trials the inventors were surprised to see the -engine make several strokes in unusually quick succession; and on -searching for the cause, they found it to consist in _a hole in the -piston_, which had let the cold water in a jet into the inside of the -cylinder, and thereby produced a rapid vacuum by the condensation of the -continued steam. A new light suddenly broke upon Newcomen. The idea of -condensing by injection of cold water directly into the cylinder, -instead of applying it on the outside, at once occurred to him; and he -proceeded to embody the expedient which had thus been accidentally -suggested as part of his machine. The result was the addition of the -injection pipe, through which, when the piston was raised and the -cylinder full of steam, a jet of cold water was thrown in, and, the -steam being suddenly condensed, the piston was at once driven down by -the pressure of the atmosphere. - -An accident of a different kind shortly after led to the improvement of -Newcomen's engine in another respect. To keep it at work, one man was -required to attend the fire, and another to turn alternately the two -cocks, one admitting the steam into the cylinder, the other admitting -the jet of cold water to condense it. The turning of these cocks was -easy work, usually performed by a boy. It was, however, a very -monotonous duty, though requiring constant attention. To escape the -drudgery and obtain an interval for rest or perhaps for play, a boy -named Humphrey Potter, who turned the cocks, set himself to discover -some method of evading his task. He must have been an ingenious boy, as -is clear from the arrangement he contrived with this object. Observing -the alternate ascent and descent of the beam above his head, he -bethought him of applying the movement to the alternate raising and -lowering of the levers which governed the cocks. The result was the -contrivance of what he called the _scoggan_ (meaning presumably the -loafer or lazy boy), consisting of a catch worked by strings from the -beam of the engine. This arrangement, when tried, was found to answer -the purpose intended. The action of the engine was thus made automatic; -and the arrangement, though rude, not only enabled Potter to enjoy his -play, but it had the effect of improving the working power of the engine -itself; the number of strokes which it made being increased from six or -eight to fifteen or sixteen in the minute. This invention was afterward -greatly improved by Mr. Henry Beighton, of Newcastle-on-Tyne, who added -the plug-rod and hand-gear. He did away with the catches and strings of -the boy Potter's rude apparatus, and substituted a rod suspended from -the beam, which alternately opened and shut the tappets attached to the -steam and injection cocks. - -Thus, step by step, Newcomen's engine grew in power and efficiency, and -became more and more complete as a self-acting machine. It will be -observed that, like all other inventions, it was not the product of any -one man's ingenuity, but of many. One contributed one improvement, and -another another. The essential features of the atmospheric engine were -not new. The piston and cylinder had been known as long ago as the time -of Hero. The expansive force of steam and the creation of a vacuum by -its condensation had been known to the Marquis of Worcester, Savery, -Papin, and many more. Newcomen merely combined in his machine the result -of their varied experience; and, assisted by the persons who worked with -him, down to the engine-boy Potter, he advanced the invention several -important stages; so that the steam-engine was no longer a toy or a -scientific curiosity, but had become a powerful machine capable of doing -useful work. - - -JAMES WATT AND THE STEAM-ENGINE. - -It was in the year 1759 that Robison[9] first called the attention of -his friend Watt to the subject of the steam-engine. Robison was then -only in his twentieth, and Watt in his twenty-third year. Robison's -idea was that the power of steam might be advantageously applied to the -driving of wheel-carriages; and he suggested that it would be the most -convenient for the purpose to place the cylinder with its open end -downwards to avoid the necessity of using a working-beam. Watt admits -that he was very ignorant of the steam-engine at the time; nevertheless, -he began making a model with two cylinders of tin plate, intending that -the pistons and their connecting-rods should act alternately on two -pinions attached to the axles of the carriage-wheels. But the model, -being slightly and inaccurately made, did not answer his expectations. -Other difficulties presented themselves, and the scheme was laid aside -because Robison left Glasgow to go to sea. Indeed, mechanical science -was not yet ripe for the locomotive. Robison's idea had, however, -dropped silently into the mind of his friend, where it grew from day to -day, slowly and at length fruitfully. - -At his intervals of leisure and in the quiet of his evenings, Watt -continued to prosecute his various studies. He was shortly attracted by -the science of chemistry, then in its infancy. Dr. Black was at that -time occupied with the investigations which led to his discovery of the -theory of latent heat, and it is probable that his familiar -conversations with Watt on the subject induced the latter to enter upon -a series of experiments with the view of giving the theory some -practical direction. His attention again and again reverted to the -steam-engine, though he had not yet seen even a model of one. Steam was -as yet almost unknown in Scotland as a working power. The first engine -was erected at Elphinstone Colliery, in Stirlingshire, about the year -1750; and the second more than ten years later, at Govan Colliery, near -Glasgow, where it was known by the startling name of "The Firework." -This had not, however, been set up at the time Watt had begun to inquire -into the subject. But he found that the college possessed the model of a -Newcomen engine for the use of the Natural Philosophy class, which had -been sent to London for repair. On hearing of its existence, he -suggested to his friend Dr. Anderson, Professor of Natural Philosophy, -the propriety of getting back the model; and a sum of money was placed -by the Senatus at the professor's disposal, "to recover the steam-engine -from Mr. Sisson, instrument-maker in London." - -In the mean time Watt sought to learn all that had been written on the -subject of the steam-engine. He ascertained from Desaguliers, Switzer, -and other writers, what had been accomplished by Savery, Newcomen, -Beighton, and others; and he went on with his own independent -experiments. His first apparatus was of the simplest possible kind. He -used common apothecaries' phials for his steam reservoirs, and canes -hollowed out for his steam-pipes. In 1761 he proceeded to experiment on -the force of steam by means of a small Papin's digester and a syringe. -The syringe was only the third of an inch in diameter, fitted with a -solid piston; and it was connected with the digester by a pipe furnished -with a stopcock, by which the steam was admitted or shut off at will. It -was also itself provided with a stopcock, enabling a communication to be -opened between the syringe and the outer air to permit the steam in the -syringe to escape. The apparatus, though rude, enabled the experimenter -to ascertain some important facts. When the steam in the digester was -raised and the cock turned, enabling it to rush against the lower side -of the piston, he found that the expansive force of the steam raised a -weight of fifteen pounds, with which the piston was loaded. Then on -turning on the cock and shutting off the connection with the digester at -the same time that a passage was opened to the air, the steam was -allowed to escape, when the weight upon the piston, being no longer -counteracted, immediately forced it to descend. - -Watt saw that it would be easy to contrive that the cocks should be -turned by the machinery itself with perfect regularity. But there was an -objection to this method. Water is converted into vapor as soon as its -elasticity is sufficient to overcome the weight of the air which keeps -it down. Under the ordinary pressure of the atmosphere water acquires -this necessary elasticity at 212°; but as the steam in the digester was -prevented from escaping, it acquired increased heat, and by consequence -increased elasticity. Hence it was that the steam which issued from the -digester was not only able to support the piston and the air which -pressed upon its upper surface, but the additional load with which the -piston was weighted. With the imperfect mechanical construction, -however, of those days, there was a risk lest the boiler should be burst -by the steam, which was apt to force its way through the ill-made joints -of the machine. This, conjoined with the great expenditure of steam on -the high-pressure system, led Watt to abandon the plan; and the -exigencies of his business for a time prevented him from pursuing his -experiments. - -At length the Newcomen model arrived from London; and in 1763 the little -engine, which was destined to become so famous, was put into the hands -of Watt. The boiler was somewhat smaller than an ordinary teakettle. The -cylinder of the engine was only of two inches diameter and six inches -stroke. Watt at first regarded it as merely "a fine plaything." It was, -however, enough to set him upon a track of thinking which led to the -most important results. When he had repaired the model and set it to -work, he found that the boiler, though apparently large enough, could -not supply steam in sufficient quantity, and only a few strokes of the -piston could be obtained, when the engine stopped. The fire was urged by -blowing, and more steam was produced; but still it would not work -properly. Exactly at the point at which another man would have abandoned -the task in despair, the mind of Watt became thoroughly roused. -"Everything," says Professor Robison, "was to him the beginning of a new -and serious study; and I knew that he would not quit it till he had -either discovered its insignificance or had made something of it." Thus -it happened with the phenomena presented by the model of the -steam-engine. Watt referred to his books, and endeavored to ascertain -from them by what means he might remedy the defects which he found in -the model; but they could tell him nothing. He then proceeded with an -independent course of experiments, resolved to work out the problem for -himself. In the course of his inquiries he came upon a fact which, more -than any other, led his mind into the train of thought which at last -conducted him to the invention of which the results were destined to -prove so stupendous. This fact was the existence of latent heat. - -In order to follow the track of investigation pursued by Watt, it is -necessary for a moment to revert to the action of the Newcomen -pumping-engine. A beam, moving upon a centre, had affixed to one end of -it a chain attached to the piston of the pump, and at the other a chain -attached to a piston that fitted into the steam-cylinder. It was by -driving this latter piston up and down the cylinder that the pump was -worked. To communicate the necessary movement to the piston, the steam -generated in a boiler was admitted to the bottom of the cylinder, -forcing out the air through a valve, where its pressure on the under -side of the piston counterbalanced the pressure of the atmosphere on its -upper side. The piston, thus placed between two equal forces, was drawn -up to the top of the cylinder by the greater weight of the pump-gear at -the opposite extremity of the beam. The steam, so far, only discharged -the office of the air it displaced; but if the air had been allowed to -remain, the piston once at the top of the cylinder could not have -returned, being pressed as much by the atmosphere underneath as by the -atmosphere above it. The steam, on the contrary, which was admitted by -the exclusion of air, _could be condensed_, and a vacuum created, by -injecting cold water through the bottom of the cylinder. The piston, -being now unsupported, was forced down by the pressure of the atmosphere -on its upper surface. When the piston reached the bottom, the steam was -again let in, and the process was repeated. Such was the engine in -ordinary use for pumping water at the time that Watt began his -investigations. - -Among his other experiments, he constructed a boiler which showed by -inspection the quantity of water evaporated in any given time, and the -quantity of steam used in every stroke of the engine. He was astonished -to discover that a _small_ quantity of water in the form of steam heated -a large quantity of cold water injected into the cylinder for the -purpose of cooling it; and upon further examination he ascertained that -steam heated six times its weight of cold water to 212°, which was the -temperature of the steam itself. "Being struck with this remarkable -fact," says Watt, "and not understanding the reason of it, I mentioned -it to my friend Dr. Black, who then explained to me his doctrine of -latent heat, which he had taught for some time before this period (the -summer of 1764); but having myself been occupied by the pursuits of -business, if I had heard of it I had not attended to it, when I thus -stumbled upon one of the material facts by which that beautiful theory -is supported." - -When Watt found that water in its conversion into vapor became such a -reservoir of heat, he was more than ever bent on economizing it; for the -great waste of heat involving so heavy a consumption of fuel was felt to -be the principal obstacle to the extended employment of steam as a -motive power. He accordingly endeavored, with the same quantity of fuel, -at once to increase the production of steam and to diminish its waste. -He increased the heating surface of the boiler by making flues through -it; he even made his boiler of wood, as being a worse conductor of heat -than the brickwork which surrounds common furnaces; and he cased the -cylinders and all the conducting pipes in materials which conducted heat -very slowly. But none of these contrivances were effectual; for it -turned out that the chief expenditure of steam, and consequently of -fuel, in the Newcomen engine, was occasioned by the reheating of the -cylinder after the steam had been condensed, and the cylinder was -consequently cooled by the injection into it of the cold water. Nearly -four fifths of the whole steam employed was condensed on its first -admission, before the surplus could act upon the piston. Watt therefore -came to the conclusion that to make a perfect steam-engine it was -necessary that _the cylinder should be always as hot as the steam that -entered it_; but it was equally necessary that the steam should be -condensed when the piston descended, nay, that it should be cooled down -below 100°, or a considerable amount of vapor would be given off, which -would resist the descent of the piston, and diminish the power of the -engine. Thus the cylinder was never to be at a less temperature than -212°, and yet at each descent of the piston it was to be less than -100°,--conditions which, on the very face of them, seemed to be wholly -incompatible. - -Though still occupied with his inquiries and experiments as to steam, -Watt did not neglect his proper business, but was constantly on the -look-out for improvements in instrument-making. A machine which he -invented for drawing in perspective proved a success; and he made a -considerable number of them to order, for customers in London as well as -abroad. He was also an indefatigable reader, and continued to extend his -knowledge of chemistry and mechanics by perusal of the best books on -these sciences. - -Above all subjects, however, the improvement of the steam-engine -continued to keep the fastest hold upon his mind. He still brooded over -his experiments with the Newcomen model, but did not seem to make much -way in introducing any practical improvement in its mode of working. His -friend Robison says he struggled long to condense with sufficient -rapidity without injection, trying one experiment after another, finding -out what would _not_ do, and exhibiting many beautiful specimens of -ingenuity and fertility of resource. He continued, to use his own words, -"to grope in the dark, misled by many an _ignis fatuus_." It was a -favorite saying of his that "Nature has a weak side, if we can only find -it out;" and he went on groping and feeling for it, but as yet in vain. -At length light burst upon him, and all at once the problem over which -he had been brooding was solved. - - -THE SEPARATE CONDENSER. - -One Sunday afternoon, in the spring of 1765, he went to take an -afternoon walk on the Green, then a quiet grassy meadow used as a -bleaching and grazing ground. On week days the Glasgow lasses came -thither with their largest kail-pots to boil their clothes in; and -sturdy queans might be seen, with coats kilted, trampling blankets in -their tubs. On Sundays the place was comparatively deserted; and hence -Watt, who lived close at hand, went there to take a quiet afternoon -stroll. His thoughts were as usual running on the subject of his -unsatisfactory experiments with the Newcomen engine, when the first idea -of the separate condenser suddenly flashed upon his mind. But the -notable discovery is best told in his own words, as related to Mr. -Robert Hart, many years after:-- - -"I had gone to take a walk on a fine Sabbath afternoon. I had entered -the Green by the gate at the foot of Charlotte Street, and had passed -the old washing-house. I was thinking upon the engine at the time, and -had gone as far as the herd's house, when the idea came into my mind -that as the steam was an elastic body, it would rush into a vacuum, and -if a communication were made between the cylinder and an exhausted -vessel, it would rush into it and might be then condensed without -cooling the cylinder. I then saw that I must get rid of the condensed -steam and the injection water if I used a jet, as in Newcomen's engine. -Two ways of doing this occurred to me. First, the water might be run off -by a descending pipe, if an off-let could be got at the depth of 35 or -36 feet, and any air might be extracted by a small pump. The second was -to make the pump large enough to extract both water and air." He -continued: "I had not walked farther than the Golf-house when the whole -thing was arranged in my mind." - -Great and prolific ideas are almost always simple. What seems impossible -at the outset appears so obvious when it is effected, that we are prone -to marvel that it did not force itself at once upon the mind. Late in -life Watt, with his accustomed modesty, declared his belief that if he -had excelled, it had been by chance, and the neglect of others. To -Professor Jardine he said that when it was analyzed the invention would -not appear so great as it seemed to be. "In the state," said he, "in -which I found the steam-engine, it was no great effort of mind to -observe that the quantity of fuel necessary to make it work would -forever prevent its extensive utility. The next step in my progress was -equally easy,--to inquire what was the cause of the great consumption of -fuel: this, too, was readily suggested, viz., the waste of fuel which -was necessary to bring the whole cylinder, piston, and adjacent parts -from the coldness of water to the heat of steam, no fewer than from -fifteen to twenty times in a minute." The question then occurred, How -was this to be avoided or remedied? It was at this stage that the idea -of carrying on the condensation in a separate vessel flashed upon his -mind, and solved the difficulty. - -Mankind has been more just to Watt than he was to himself. There was no -accident in the discovery. It had been the result of close and -continuous study; and the idea of the separate condenser was merely the -last step of a long journey, a step which could not have been taken -unless the road which led to it had been traversed. Dr. Black says, -"This capital improvement flashed upon his mind at once, and filled him -with rapture,"--a statement which, in spite of the unimpassioned nature -of Watt, we can readily believe. - -On the morning following his Sunday afternoon's walk on Glasgow Green, -Watt was up betimes, making arrangements for a speedy trial of his new -plan. He borrowed from a college friend a large brass syringe, an inch -and a third in diameter, and ten inches long, of the kind used by -anatomists for injecting arteries with wax previous to dissection. The -body of the syringe served for a cylinder, the piston-rod passing -through a collar of leather in its cover. A pipe connected with the -boiler was inserted at both ends for the admission of steam, and at the -upper end was another pipe to convey the steam to the condenser. The -axis of the stem of the piston was drilled with a hole, fitted with a -valve at its lower end, to permit the water produced by the condensed -steam on first filling the cylinder to escape. The first condenser made -use of was an improvised cistern of tinned plate, provided with a pump -to get rid of the water formed by the condensation of the steam, both -the condensing-pipes and the air-pump being placed in a reservoir of -cold water. - -"The steam-pipe," says Watt, "was adjusted to a small boiler. When the -steam was produced, it was admitted into the cylinder, and soon issued -through the perforation of the rod and at the valve of the condenser; -when it was judged that the air was expelled, the steam-cock was shut, -and the air-pump piston-rod was drawn up, which leaving the small pipes -of the condenser in a state of vacuum, the steam entered them, and was -condensed. The piston of the cylinder immediately rose, and lifted a -weight of about eighteen pounds, which was hung to the lower end of the -piston-rod. The exhaustion-cock was shut, the steam was re-admitted -into the cylinder, and the operation was repeated. The quantity of steam -consumed and the weights it could raise were observed, and, excepting -the non-application of the steam-case and external covering, the -invention was complete in so far as regarded the savings of steam and -fuel." - - -COMPLETING THE INVENTION. - -But although the invention was complete in Watt's mind, it took him many -long and laborious years to work out the details of the engine. His -friend Robison, with whom his intimacy was maintained during these -interesting experiments, has given a graphic account of the difficulties -which he successively encountered and overcame. He relates that on his -return from the country, after the college vacation in 1765, he went to -have a chat with Watt and communicate to him some observations he had -made on Desaguliers' and Belidor's account of the steam-engine. He went -straight into the parlor, without ceremony, and found Watt sitting -before the fire looking at a little tin cistern which he had on his -knee. Robison immediately started the conversation about steam; his -mind, like Watt's, being occupied with the means of avoiding the -excessive waste of heat in the Newcomen engine. Watt all the while kept -looking into the fire, and after a time laid down the cistern at the -foot of his chair, saying nothing. It seems that Watt felt rather -nettled that Robison had communicated to a mechanic of the town a -contrivance which he had hit upon for turning the cocks of his engine. -When Robison therefore pressed his inquiry, Watt at length looked at him -and said briskly, "You need not fash yourself any more about that, man. -I have now made an engine that shall not waste a particle of steam. It -shall all be boiling hot,--ay, and hot water injected, if I please." He -then pushed the little tin cistern with his foot under the table. - -Robison could learn no more of the new contrivance from Watt at that -time; but on the same evening he accidentally met a mutual acquaintance, -who, supposing he knew as usual the progress of Watt's experiments, -observed to him, "Well, have you seen Jamie Watt?" "Yes." "He'll be in -fine spirits now with his engine?" "Yes," said Robison, "very fine -spirits." "Gad!" said the other, "the separate condenser's the thing; -keep it but cold enough, and you may have a perfect vacuum, whatever be -the heat of the cylinder." This was Watt's secret, and the nature of the -contrivance was clear to Robison at once. - -It will be observed that Watt had not made a secret of it to his other -friends. Indeed, Robison himself admitted that one of Watt's greatest -delights was to communicate the results of his experiments to others, -and set them upon the same road to knowledge with himself; and that no -one could display less of the small jealousy of the tradesman than he -did. To his intimate friend Dr. Black he communicated the progress made -by him at every stage. The Doctor kindly encouraged him in his -struggles, cheered him in his encounter with difficulty, and, what was -of still more practical value at the time, helped him with money to -enable him to prosecute his invention. Communicative though Watt was -disposed to be, he learnt reticence when he found himself exposed to the -depredations of the smaller fry of inventors. Robison says that had he -lived in Birmingham or London at the time, the probability is that some -one or other of the numerous harpies who live by sucking other people's -brains would have secured patents for his more important inventions, and -thereby deprived him of the benefits of his skill, science, and labor. -As yet, however, there were but few mechanics in Glasgow capable of -understanding or appreciating the steam-engine; and the intimate friends -to whom he freely spoke of his discovery were too honorable to take -advantage of his confidence. Shortly after Watt communicated to Robison -the different stages of his invention, and the results at which he had -arrived, much to the delight of his friend. - -It will be remembered that in the Newcomen engine the steam was only -employed for the purpose of producing a vacuum, and that its working -power was in the down stroke, which was effected by the pressure of the -air upon the piston; hence it is now usual to call it the atmospheric -engine. Watt perceived that the air which followed the piston down the -cylinder would cool the latter, and that steam would be wasted by -reheating it. In order, therefore, to avoid this loss of heat, he -resolved to put an air-tight cover upon the cylinder, with a hole and -stuffing-box for the piston-rod to slide through, and to admit steam -above the piston, to act upon it instead of the atmosphere. When the -steam had done its duty in driving down the piston, a communication was -opened between the upper and lower part of the cylinder; and the same -steam, distributing itself equally in both compartments, sufficed to -restore equilibrium. The piston was now drawn up by the weight of the -pump-gear; the steam beneath it was then condensed in the separate -vessel so as to produce a vacuum, and a fresh jet of steam from the -boiler was let in above the piston, which forced it again to the bottom -of the cylinder. From an atmospheric engine it had thus become a true -steam-engine, and with much greater economy of steam than when the air -did half the duty. But it was not only important to keep the air from -flowing down the inside of the cylinder; the air which circulated within -cooled the metal and condensed a portion of the steam within; and this -Watt proposed to remedy by a second cylinder, surrounding the first, -with an interval between the two which was to be kept full of steam. - -One by one these various contrivances were struck out, modified, -settled, and reduced to definite plans,--the separate condenser, the air -and water pumps, the use of fat and oil (instead of water, as in the -Newcomen engine) to keep the piston working in the cylinder air-tight, -and the enclosing of the cylinder itself within another to prevent the -loss of heat. These were all emanations from the first idea of inventing -an engine working by a piston, in which the cylinder should be -continually hot and perfectly dry. "When once," says Watt, "the idea of -separate condensation was started, all these improvements followed as -corollaries in quick succession, so that in the course of one or two -days the invention was thus far complete in my mind." - - -WATT MAKES HIS MODEL. - -The next step was to construct a model engine for the purpose of -embodying the invention in a working form. With this object, Watt hired -an old cellar, situated in the first wide entry to the north of the -beef-market in King Street, and then proceeded with his model. He found -it much easier, however, to prepare his plan than to execute it. Like -most ingenious and inventive men, Watt was extremely fastidious; and -this occasioned considerable delay in the execution of the work. His -very inventiveness to some extent proved a hindrance; for new expedients -were perpetually occurring to him, which he thought would be -improvements, and which he, by turns, endeavored to introduce. Some of -these expedients he admits proved fruitless, and all of them occasioned -delay. Another of his chief difficulties was in finding competent -workmen to execute his plans. He himself had been accustomed only to -small metal work, with comparatively delicate tools, and had very little -experience "in the practice of mechanics _in great_" as he termed it. He -was therefore under the necessity of depending, in a great measure, upon -the handiwork of others. But mechanics capable of working out Watt's -designs in metal were then with difficulty to be found. The beautiful -self-action and workmanship which have since been called into being, -principally by his own invention, did not then exist. The only available -hands in Glasgow were the blacksmiths and tinners, little capable of -constructing articles out of their ordinary walks; and even in these -they were often found clumsy, blundering, and incompetent. The result -was, that in consequence of the malconstruction of the larger parts, -Watt's first model was only partially successful. The experiments made -with it, however, served to verify the expectations he had formed, and -to place the advantages of the invention beyond the reach of doubt. On -the exhausting-cock being turned, the piston, when loaded with eighteen -pounds, ascended as quickly as the blow of a hammer; and the moment the -steam-cock was opened, it descended with like rapidity, though the -steam was weak, and the machine snifted at many openings. - -Satisfied that he had laid hold of the right principle of a working -steam-engine, Watt felt impelled to follow it to an issue. He could give -his mind to no other business in peace until this was done. He wrote to -a friend that he was quite barren on every other subject. "My whole -thoughts," said he, "are bent on this machine. I can think of nothing -else." He proceeded to make another and bigger, and, he hoped, a more -satisfactory engine in the following August; and with that object he -removed from the old cellar in King Street to a larger apartment in the -then disused pottery, or delftwork, near the Broomielaw. There he shut -himself up with his assistant, John Gardiner, for the purpose of -erecting his engine. The cylinder was five or six inches in diameter, -with a two-feet stroke. The inner cylinder was enclosed in a wooden -steam-case, and placed inverted, the piston working through a hole in -the bottom of the steam-case. After two months continuous application -and labor it was finished and set to work; but it leaked in all -directions, and the piston was far from air-tight. The condenser also -was in a bad way, and needed many alterations. Nevertheless, the engine -readily worked with ten and a half pounds pressure on the inch, and the -piston lifted a weight of fourteen pounds. The improvement of the -cylinder and piston continued Watt's chief difficulty, and taxed his -ingenuity to the utmost. At so low an ebb was the art of making -cylinders that the one he used was not bored, but hammered, the -collective mechanical skill of Glasgow being then unequal to the boring -of a cylinder of the simplest kind; nor, indeed, did the necessary -appliances for the purpose then exist anywhere else. In the Newcomen -engine a little water was found upon the upper surface of the piston, -and sufficiently filled up the interstices between the piston and the -cylinder. But when Watt employed steam to drive down the piston, he was -deprived of this resource, for the water and steam could not coexist. -Even if he had retained the agency of the air above, the drip of water -from the crevices into the lower part of the cylinder would have been -incompatible with keeping the cylinder hot and dry, and, by turning into -vapor as it fell upon the heated metal, it would have impaired the -vacuum during the descent of the piston. - -While he was occupied with this difficulty, and striving to overcome it -by the adoption of new expedients, such as leather collars and improved -workmanship, he wrote to a friend, "My old white-iron man is dead;" the -old white-iron man, or tinner, being his leading mechanic. Unhappily, -also, just as he seemed to have got the engine into working order, the -beam broke, and, having great difficulty in replacing the damaged part, -the accident threatened, together with the loss of his best workman, to -bring the experiment to an end. Though discouraged by these -misadventures, he was far from defeated. But he went on as before, -battling down difficulty inch by inch, and holding good the ground he -had won, becoming every day more strongly convinced that he was in the -right track, and that the important uses of the invention, could he but -find time and means to perfect it, were beyond the reach of doubt. But -how to find the means! Watt himself was a comparatively poor man; having -no money but what he earned by his business of mechanical-instrument -making, which he had for some time been neglecting through his devotion -to the construction of his engine. What he wanted was capital, or the -help of a capitalist willing to advance him the necessary funds to -perfect his invention. To give a fair trial to the new apparatus would -involve an expenditure of several thousand pounds; and who on the spot -could be expected to invest so large a sum in trying a machine so -entirely new, depending for its success on physical principles very -imperfectly understood? - -There was no such help to be found in Glasgow. The tobacco lords,[10] -though rich, took no interest in steam power; and the manufacturing -class, though growing in importance, had full employment for their -little capital in their own concerns. - - -"How Watt succeeded in interesting Dr. Roebuck in his project, and thus -obtained funds to continue his experiments; how he finally joined with -Matthew Boulton in the great firm of Boulton and Watt, manufacturers of -steam-engines; how they pumped out all the water in the Cornish mines; -and how Watt finally attained prosperity as well as success,--is an -interesting story, but rather too long for these winter afternoons; and -as the story of the _invention_ of the steam-engine is substantially -told in the foregoing pages, we must stop our reading here, more -especially as it seems to be tea-time, and I hear Ellen ringing the bell -for supper." - - - - -IX. - -ROBERT FULTON. - - -They were to continue their talk and reading by following along the -developments in the use of steam. - -"Uncle Fritz," said Fanchon, "these agnostics make so much fun of our -dear Harry and Lucy, that they will not let me quote from 'The Botanic -Garden.'" - -Emma promised that they would laugh as little as they could. - -"'The Botanic Garden,'" said Fanchon, "was a stately, and I am afraid -some of you would say very pompous, poem, written by Dr. Darwin." - -"Dr. Darwin write poetry!" - -"It is not the Dr. Charles Darwin whom you have heard of; it was his -grandfather," said Uncle Fritz. - -And Fanchon went on: "All I ever knew of 'The Botanic Garden' was in the -quotations of our dear Harry and Lucy and Frank. But dear Uncle Fritz -has taken down the book for me, and here it is, with its funny old -pictures of Ladies' Slippers and such things." - -"I do not see what Ladies' Slippers have to do with steam-engines," said -Bedford Long, scornfully. - -"No!" said Fanchon, laughing; "but I do, and that is the difference -between you and me. Because, you see, I have read 'Harry and Lucy,' and -you have not." And she opened "The Botanic Garden" at the place where -she had put in a mark, and read:-- - - "Pressed by the ponderous air, the piston falls - Resistless, sliding through its iron walls; - Quick moves the balance beam of giant birth, - Wields its large limbs, and nodding shakes the earth. - The giant power, from earth's remotest caves - Lifts, with strong arm, her dark reluctant waves, - Each caverned rock and hidden depth explores, - Drags her dark coals, and digs her shining ores." - -"That is rather stilted poetry," said Uncle Fritz, "but a hundred years -ago people were used to stilted poetry. It describes sufficiently well -the original pumping-engine of Watt, and the lifting of coal from the -shafts of the deep English mines. Now, it was not till Watt had made his -improvements on the pumping-engine,--say in 1788,--that it was possible -to go any farther in the use of steam than its application to such -absolutely stationary purposes. It is therefore, I think, a good deal to -the credit of Dr. Darwin, that within three years after Watt's great -improvement in the condensing-engine the Doctor should have written -this:-- - - 'Soon shall thy arm, unconquered steam, afar - Drag the slow barge or drive the rapid car.' - -It was twelve years after he wrote this, that Fulton had an experimental -steamboat on the river Seine in France. It was sixteen years after, -that, with one of Watt's own engines, Fulton drove the 'Clermont' from -New York to Albany in thirty-six hours, and revolutionized the world in -doing it. - -"Poor James Mackintosh was in virtual exile in Calcutta at that time, -and he wrote this in his journal: 'A boat propelled by steam has gone a -hundred and fifty miles upon the Hudson in thirty-six hours. Four miles -an hour would bring Calcutta within a hundred days of London. Oh that we -had lived a hundred years later!' In less than fifty years after -Mackintosh wrote those words, Calcutta was within thirty days of London. - -"When Harry and Lucy read these verses in 1825, the 'rapid car' was -still in the future." - -"Yes," said Fanchon; "but Harry says, 'The rapid car is to come, and I -dare say that will be accomplished soon, papa; do not you think it -will?'" - -"I have sometimes wondered," said Uncle Fritz, "whether our American -word 'car' where the English say 'wagon' did not come from the 'rapid -car' of Dr. Darwin. Read on, Fanchon." And he put his finger on the -lines which Fanchon read:-- - - "Or on wide waving wings, expanded, bear - The flying chariot through the fields of air." - -"Monsieur ----, the French gentleman, tried a light steam-engine for the -propulsion of a balloon in 1872; but it does not seem to have had power -enough. Messrs. Renard and Krebs, in their successful flight of August -last, used an electric battery. - -"But we are getting away from Fulton, who is really the first who drove -the 'slow barge,' and indeed made it a very fast one." - -"Did you know him?" asked Emma Fortinbras, whose ideas of chronology are -very vague. - -"Oh, no!" said Uncle Fritz; "he died young and before my time. But I did -know a personal companion and friend, nay, a bedfellow of his, Benjamin -Church, who was with him in Paris at one of the crises of his life. -Fulton had a little steamboat on the river Seine, as I said just now; -and he had made interest with Napoleon to have it examined by a -scientific committee. Steam power was exactly what Napoleon wanted, to -take his great army across from Boulogne to England. The day came for -the great experiment. Church and Fulton slept, the night before, in the -same bed in their humble lodgings in Paris. At daybreak a messenger -waked them. He had come from the river to say that the weight of boiler -and machinery had been too much for the little boat, that her timbers -had given way, and that the whole had sunk to the bottom of the river. -But for this misfortune, the successful steamboat would have sailed upon -the Seine, and, for aught I know, Napoleon's grandchildren would now be -emperors of England." - -Until Watt had completed the structure of the double-acting -condensing-engine, the application of steam to any but the single object -of pumping water had been almost impracticable. It was not enough, in -order to render it applicable to general purposes, that the condensation -of the water should take place in a separate vessel, and that steam -itself should be used, instead of atmospheric pressure, as the moving -power; but it was also necessary that the steam should act as well -during the ascent as during the descent of the piston. Before steam -could be used in moving paddle-wheels, it was in addition necessary that -a ready and convenient mode of making the motion of the piston -continuous and rotary, should be discovered. All these improvements upon -the original form of the steam-engine are due to Watt, and he did not -complete their perfect combination before the year 1786. - -Evans, who, in this country, saw the possibility of constructing a -double-acting engine, even before Watt, and had made a model of his -machine, did not succeed in obtaining funds to make an experiment upon a -large scale before 1801. We conceive, therefore, that all those who -projected the application of steam to vessels before 1786, may be -excluded, without ceremony, from the list of those entitled to compete -with Fulton for the honors of invention. No one, indeed, could have seen -the powerful action of a pumping-engine without being convinced that the -energy which was applied so successfully to that single purpose, might -be made applicable to many others; but those who entertained a belief -that the original atmospheric engine, or even the single-acting engine -of Watt, could be applied to propel boats by paddle-wheels, showed a -total ignorance of mechanical principles. This is more particularly the -case with all those whose projects bore the strongest resemblance to the -plan which Fulton afterwards carried successfully into effect. Those who -approached most nearly to the attainment of success, were they who were -farthest removed from the plan of Fulton. His application was founded on -the properties of Watt's double-acting engine, and could not have been -used at all, until that instrument of universal application had received -the last finish of its inventor. - -In this list of failures, from proposing to do what the instrument they -employed was incapable of performing, we do not hesitate to include -Savery, Papin, Jonathan Hulls, Périer, the Marquis de Jouffroy, and all -the other names of earlier date than 1786, whom the jealousy of the -French and English nations have drawn from oblivion for the purpose of -contesting the priority of Fulton's claims. The only competitor, whom -they might have brought forward with some shadow of plausibility, is -Watt himself. No sooner had that illustrious inventor completed his -double-acting engine, than he saw at a glance the vast field of its -application. Navigation and locomotion were not omitted; but living in -an inland town, and in a country possessing no rivers of importance, his -views were limited to canals alone. In this direction he saw an -immediate objection to the use of any apparatus, of which so powerful an -agent as his engine should be the mover; for it was clear, that the -injury which would be done to the banks of the canal, would prevent the -possibility of its introduction. Watt, therefore, after having conceived -the idea of a steamboat, laid it aside, as unlikely to be of any -practical value. - -The idea of applying steam to navigation was not confined to Europe. -Numerous Americans entertained hopes of attaining the same object, but, -before 1786, with the same want of any reasonable hopes of success. -Their fruitless projects were, however, rebuked by Franklin, who, -reasoning upon the capabilities of the engine in its original form, did -not hesitate to declare all their schemes impracticable; and the -correctness of his judgment is at present unquestionable. - -Among those who, before the completion of Watt's invention, attempted -the structure of steamboats, must be named with praise Fitch and Rumsey. -They, unlike those whose names have been cited, were well aware of the -real difficulties which they were to overcome; and both were the authors -of plans which, if the engine had been incapable of further improvement, -might have had a partial and limited success. Fitch's trial was made in -1783, and Rumsey's in 1787. The latter date is subsequent to Watt's -double-acting engine; but as the project consisted merely in pumping in -water, to be afterwards forced out at the stern, the single-acting -engine was probably employed. Evans, whose engine might have answered -the purpose, was employed in the daily business of millwright; and -although he might, at any time, have driven these competitors from the -field, he took no steps to apply his dormant invention. - -Fitch, who had watched the graceful and rapid way of the Indian canoe, -saw in the oscillating motion of the old pumping-engine the means of -impelling paddles in a manner similar to that given them by the human -arm. This idea is extremely ingenious, and was applied in a simple and -beautiful manner. But the engine was yet too feeble and cumbrous to -yield an adequate force; and when it received its great improvement from -Watt, a more efficient mode of propulsion had become practicable, and -must have superseded Fitch's paddles had they even come into general -use. - -The experiments of Fitch and Rumsey in the United States, although -generally considered unsuccessful, did not deter others from similar -attempts. The great rivers and arms of the sea which intersect the -Atlantic coast, and, still more, the innumerable navigable arms of the -Father of Waters, appeared to call upon the ingenious machinist to -contrive means for their more convenient navigation. - -The improvement of the engine by Watt was now familiarly known; and it -was evident that it possessed sufficient powers for the purpose. The -only difficulty which existed, was in the mode of applying it. The first -person who entered into the inquiry was John Stevens, of Hokoken, who -commenced his researches in 1791. In these he was steadily engaged for -nine years, when he became the associate of Chancellor Livingston and -Nicholas Roosevelt. Among the persons employed by this association was -Brunel, who has since become distinguished in Europe as the inventor of -the block machinery used in the British navy-yards, and as the engineer -of the tunnel beneath the Thames. - -Even with the aid of such talent, the efforts of this association were -unsuccessful,--as we now know, from no error in principle, but from -defects in the boat to which it was applied. The appointment of -Livingston as ambassador to France broke up this joint effort; and, like -all previous schemes, it was considered abortive, and contributed to -throw discredit upon all undertakings of the kind. A grant of exclusive -privileges on the waters of the State of New York was made to this -association without any difficulty, it being believed that the scheme -was little short of madness. - -Livingston, on his arrival in France, found Fulton domiciliated with -Joel Barlow. The conformity in their pursuits led to intimacy, and -Fulton speedily communicated to Livingston the scheme[11] which he had -laid before Earl Stanhope in 1793. Livingston was so well pleased with -it that he at once offered to provide the funds necessary for an -experiment, and to enter into a contract for Fulton's aid in introducing -the method into the United States, provided the experiment were -successful. - -Fulton had, in his early discussion with Lord Stanhope, repudiated the -idea of an apparatus acting on the principle of the foot of an aquatic -bird, and had proposed paddle-wheels in its stead. On resuming his -inquiries after his arrangements with Livingston, it occurred to him to -compose wheels with a set of paddles revolving upon an endless chain -extending from the stem to the stern of the boat. It is probable that -the apparent want of success which had attended the experiments of -Symington[12] led him to doubt the correctness of his original views. - -That such doubt should be entirely removed, he had recourse to a series -of experiments upon a small scale. These were performed at Plombières, a -French watering-place, where he spent the summer of 1802. In these -experiments the superiority of the paddle-wheel over every other method -of propulsion that had yet been proposed, was fully established. His -original impressions being thus confirmed, he proceeded, late in the -year 1803, to construct a working model of his intended boat, which -model was deposited with a commission of French _savans_. He at the same -time began building a vessel sixty-six feet in length and eight feet in -width. To this an engine was adapted; and the experiment made with it -was so satisfactory, as to leave little doubt of final success. - -Measures were therefore immediately taken, preparatory to constructing a -steamboat on a larger scale in the United States. For this purpose, as -the workshops of neither France nor America could at that time furnish -an engine of good quality, it became necessary to resort to England for -that purpose. Fulton had already experienced the difficulty of being -compelled to employ artists unacquainted with the subject. It is, -indeed, more than probable, that, had he not, during his residence in -Birmingham, made himself familiar, not only with the general features, -but with the most minute details of the engine of Watt, the experiment -on the Seine could not have been made. In this experiment, and in the -previous investigations, it became obvious that the engine of Watt -required important modifications in order to adapt it to navigation. -These modifications had been planned by Fulton; but it now became -important, that they should be more fully tested. An engine was -therefore ordered from Watt and Boulton, without any specification of -the object to which it was to be applied; and its form was directed to -be varied from their usual models, in conformity to sketches furnished -by Fulton. - -The order for an engine intended to propel a vessel of large size, was -transmitted to Watt and Boulton in 1803. At about the same time, -Chancellor Livingston, having full confidence in the success of the -enterprise, caused an application to be made to the legislature of New -York for an exclusive privilege of navigating the waters of that State -by steam, that which was granted on a former occasion having expired. - -This privilege was granted with little opposition. Indeed, those who -might have been inclined to object, saw so much of the impracticable and -even of the ridiculous in the project, that they conceived the -application unworthy of serious debate. The condition attached to the -grant was, that a vessel should be propelled by steam at the rate of -four miles an hour, within a prescribed space of time. This reliance -upon the reserved rights of the States proved a fruitful source of -vexation to Livingston and Fulton, and imbittered the close of the life -of the latter, and reduced his family to penury. It can hardly be -doubted that, had an expectation been entertained, that the grant of a -State was ineffectual, and that the jurisdiction was vested in the -general government, a similar grant might have been obtained from -Congress. The influence of Livingston with the administration was -deservedly high, and that administration was supported by a powerful -majority; nor would it have been consistent with the principles of the -opposition to vote against any act of liberality to the introducer of a -valuable application of science. Livingston, however, confiding in his -skill as a lawyer, preferred the application to the State, and was thus, -by his own act, restricted to a limited field. - -Before the engine ordered from Watt and Boulton was completed, Fulton -visited England, and thus had an opportunity of visiting Birmingham, and -directing, in person, its construction. It could only have been at this -time, if ever, that he saw the boat of Symington;[13] but a view of it -could have produced no effect upon his own plans, which had been matured -in France, and carried, so far as the engine was concerned, to such an -extent as to admit of no alteration. - -The engine was at last completed, and reached New York in 1806. Fulton, -who returned to his native country about the same period, immediately -undertook the construction of a boat in which to place it. In ordering -his engine and in planning the boat, Fulton exhibited plainly how far -his scientific researches and practical experiments had placed him -before all his competitors. He had evidently ascertained, what each -successive year's experience proves more fully, the great advantages -possessed by large steamboats over those of smaller size; and thus, -while all previous attempts had been made in smaller vessels, he alone -resolved to make his final experiment in one of great dimensions. That a -vessel, intended to be propelled by steam, ought to have very different -proportions, and lines of a character wholly distinct from those of -vessels intended to be navigated by sails, was evident to him. No other -theory, however, of the resistance of fluids was admitted at the time -than that of Bossut, and there were no published experiments except -those of the British Society of Arts. Judged in reference to these, the -model chosen by Fulton was faultless, although it will not stand the -test of an examination founded upon a better theory and more accurate -experiments. - -The vessel was finished and fitted with her machinery in August, 1807. -An experimental excursion was forthwith made, at which a number of -gentlemen of science and intelligence were present. Many of these were -either sceptical or absolute unbelievers. But a few minutes served to -convert the whole party, and satisfy the most obstinate doubters, that -the long-desired object was at last accomplished. Only a few weeks -before, the cost of constructing and finishing the vessel threatening to -exceed the funds with which he had been provided by Livingston, Fulton -had attempted to obtain a supply by the sale of one third of the -exclusive right granted by the State of New York. No person was found -possessed of the faith requisite to induce him to embark in the project. -Those who had rejected this opportunity of investment, were now the -witnesses of the completion of the scheme, which they had considered as -an inadequate security for the desired funds. - -Within a few days from the time of the first experiment with the -steamboat, a voyage was undertaken in it to Albany. This city, situated -at the natural head of the navigation of the Hudson, is distant, by the -line of the channel of the river, rather less than one hundred and -fifty miles from New York. By the old post-road, the distance is one -hundred and sixty miles, at which that by water is usually estimated. -Although the greater part of the channel of the Hudson is both deep and -wide, yet for about fourteen miles below Albany this character is not -preserved, and the stream, confined within comparatively small limits, -is obstructed by bars of sand or spreads itself over shallows. In a few -remarkable instances, the sloops, which then exclusively navigated the -Hudson, had effected a passage in about sixteen hours; but a whole week -was not unfrequently employed in the voyage, and the average time of -passage was not less than four entire days. In Fulton's first attempt to -navigate this stream, the passage to Albany was performed in thirty-two -hours, and the return in thirty. - -Up to this time, although the exclusive grant had been sought and -obtained from the State of New York, it does not appear that either he -or his associate had been fully aware of the vast opening which the -navigation of the Hudson presented for the use of steam. They looked to -the rapid Mississippi and its branches, as the place where their triumph -was to be achieved; and the original boat, modelled for shallow waters, -was announced as intended for the navigation of that river. But even in -the very first attempt, numbers, called by business or pleasure to the -northern or western parts of the State of New York, crowded into the yet -untried vessel; and when the success of the attempt was beyond question, -no little anxiety was manifested, that the steamboat should be -established as a regular packet between New York and Albany. - -With these indications of public feeling Fulton immediately complied, -and regular voyages were made at stated times until the end of the -season. These voyages were not, however, unattended with inconvenience. -The boat, designed for a mere experiment, was incommodious; and many of -the minor arrangements by which facility of working and safety from -accident to the machinery were to be insured, were yet wanting. Fulton -continued a close and attentive observer of the performance of the -vessel; every difficulty, as it manifested itself, was met and removed -by the most masterly as well as simple contrivances. Some of these were -at once adopted, while others remained to be applied while the boat -should be laid up for the winter. He thus gradually formed in his mind -the idea of a complete and perfect vessel; and in his plan, no one part -which has since been found to be essential to the ease of manoeuvre or -security, was omitted. But the eyes of the whole community were now -fixed upon the steamboat; and as all those of competent mechanical -knowledge were, like Fulton himself, alive to the defects of the -original vessel, his right to priority of invention of various important -accessories has been disputed. - -The winter of 1807-8 was occupied in remodelling and rebuilding the -vessel, to which the name "Clermont" was now given. The guards and -housings for the wheels, which had been but temporary structures, -applied as their value was pointed out by experience, became solid and -essential parts of the boat. For a rudder of the ordinary form, one of -surface much more extended in its horizontal dimensions was substituted. -This, instead of being moved by a tiller, was acted upon by ropes -applied to its extremity; and these ropes were adapted to a -steering-wheel, which was raised aloft towards the bow of the vessel. - -It had been shown by the numbers who were transported during the first -summer, that at the same price for passage, many were willing to -undergo all the inconveniences of the original rude accommodations, in -preference to encountering the delays and uncertainty to which the -passage in sloops was exposed. Fulton did not, however, take advantage -of his monopoly, but with the most liberal spirit, provided such -accommodations for passengers, as in convenience and even splendor, had -not before been approached in vessels intended for the transportation of -travellers. This was, on his part, an exercise of almost improvident -liberality. By his contract with Chancellor Livingston, the latter -undertook to defray the whole cost of the engine and vessel, until the -experiment should result in success; but from that hour each was to -furnish an equal share of all investments. Fulton had no patrimonial -fortune, and what little he had saved from the product of his ingenuity -was now exhausted. But the success of the experiment had inspired the -banks and capitalists with confidence, and he now found no difficulty in -obtaining, in the way of loan, all that was needed. Still, however, a -debt was thus contracted which the continued demands made upon him for -new investments never permitted him to discharge. The "Clermont," thus -converted into a floating palace, gay with ornamental painting, gilding, -and polished woods, began her course of passages for the second year in -the month of April. - -The first voyage of this year was of the most discouraging character. -Chancellor Livingston, who had, by his own experiments, approached as -near to success as any other person who, before Fulton, had endeavored -to navigate by steam, and who had furnished all the capital necessary -for the experiment, had plans and projects of his own. These he urged -into execution in spite of the opposition of Fulton. The boiler -furnished by Watt and Boulton was not adapted to the object. Copied from -those used on the land, it required that its fireplace and flues should -be constructed of masonry. These added so much weight to the apparatus, -that the rebuilt boat would hardly have floated had they been retained. -In order to replace this boiler, Livingston had planned a compound -structure of wood and copper, which he insisted should be tried. - -It is only necessary for us to say, that this boiler proved a complete -failure. Steam began to issue from its joints a few hours after the -"Clermont" left New York. It then became impossible to keep up a proper -degree of tension, and the passage was thus prolonged to forty-eight -hours. These defects increased after leaving Albany on the return, and -the boiler finally gave way altogether within a few miles of New York. -The time of the downward passage was thus extended to fifty-six hours. -Fulton was, however, thus relieved from all further interference; this -fruitless experiment was decisive as to his superiority over his -colleague in mechanical skill. He therefore immediately planned and -directed the execution of a new boiler, which answered the purpose -perfectly; and although there are many reasons why boilers of a totally -different form and of subsequent invention should be preferred, it is, -for its many good properties, extensively used, with little alteration, -up to the present day. But a few weeks sufficed to build and set this -boiler, and in the month of June the regular passages of the "Clermont" -were renewed. - -In observing the hour appointed for departure, both from New York and -Albany, Fulton determined to insist upon the utmost regularity. It -required no little perseverance and resolution to carry this system of -punctuality into effect. Persons accustomed to be waited for by -packet-boats and stages, assented with great reluctance to what they -conceived to be a useless adherence to precision of time. The benefits -of this punctuality were speedily perceptible; the whole system of -internal communication of the State of New York was soon regulated by -the hours of arrival and departure of Fulton's steamboats; and the same -system of precision was copied in all other steamboat lines. The -certainty of conveyance at stated times being thus secured, the number -of travellers was instantly augmented; and before the end of the second -summer, the boat became far too small for the passengers, who crowded to -avail themselves of this novel, punctual, and unprecedentedly rapid -method of transport. - -Such success, however, was not without its alloy. The citizens of Albany -and the river towns saw, as they thought, in the steamboat, the means of -enticing their customers from their ancient marts to the more extensive -market of the chief city; the skippers of the river mourned the -inevitable loss of a valuable part of their business; and innumerable -projectors beheld with envy the successful enterprise of Fulton. - -Among the latter class was one who, misled by false notions of -mechanical principles, fancied that in the mere oscillations of a -pendulum lay a power sufficient for any purpose whatever. Availing -himself of a well-constructed model, he exhibited to the inhabitants of -Albany a pendulum which continued its motions for a considerable time, -without requiring any new impulse, and at the same time propelled a pair -of wheels. These wheels, however, did not work in water. Those persons -who felt themselves aggrieved by the introduction of steamboats, quickly -embraced this project, prompted by an enmity to Fulton, and determined, -if they could not defeat his object, at least to share in the profits of -its success. - -It soon appeared, from preliminary experiments, made in a sloop -purchased for the purpose, that a steam-engine would be required to give -motion to the pendulum; and it was observed that the water-wheels, when -in connection with the pendulum, had a very irregular motion. A -fly-wheel was therefore added, and the pendulum was now found to be a -useless incumbrance. Enlightened by these experiments, the association -proceeded to build two boats; and these were exact copies, not only of -the hull and all the accessories of the "Clermont," but the engine -turned out to be identical in form and structure with one which Fulton -was at the very time engaged in fitting to his second boat, "The Car of -Neptune." - -The pretence of bringing into use a new description of prime mover was -of course necessarily abandoned, and the owners of the new steamboats -determined boldly to test the constitutionality of the exclusive grant -to Fulton. Fulton and Livingston, in consequence, applied to the Court -of Chancery of the State of New York for an injunction, which was -refused. On an appeal to the Court of Errors this decision of the -Chancellor was reversed; but the whole of the profits which might have -been derived from the business of the year were prevented from accruing -to Livingston and Fulton, who, compelled to contend in price with an -opposition supported by popular feeling in Albany, were losers rather -than gainers by the operations of the season. - -As no appeal was taken from this last decision, the waters of the State -of New York remained in the exclusive possession of Fulton and his -partner, until the death of the former. This exclusive possession was -not, however, attended with all the advantages that might have been -anticipated. The immense increase of travel which the facilities of -communication created, rendered it imperative upon the holders of the -monopoly to provide new facilities by the construction of new vessels. -The cost of these could not be defrayed out of the profits. Hence new -and heavy debts were necessarily contracted by Fulton, while Livingston, -possessed of an ample fortune, required no pecuniary aid beyond what he -was able to meet from his own resources. - -The most formidable opposition which was made to the privileges of -Fulton, was founded upon the discoveries of Fitch. We have seen, that he -constructed a boat which made some passages between Trenton and -Philadelphia; but the method which he used, was that of paddles, which -are far inferior to the paddle-wheel. Of the inferiority of the method -of paddles, had any doubt remained, positive evidence was afforded in -the progress of this dispute; for in order to bring the question to the -test of a legal decision, a boat propelled by them was brought into the -waters of the State of New York. The result of the experiment was so -decisive, that when the parties engaged in the enterprise had succeeded -in their designs, they made no attempt to propel their boats by any -other method than that of wheels. - -Fulton, assailed in his exclusive privileges derived from State grants, -took, for his further protection, a patent from the general government. -This is dated in 1809, and was followed by another, for improvements -upon it, in 1811. It now appeared, that the very circumstance in which -the greatest merit of his method consists, was to be the obstacle to his -maintaining an exclusive privilege. Discarding all complexity, he had -limited himself to the simple means of adapting paddle-wheels to the -crank of Watt's engine; and, under the patent laws, it seems hardly -possible that such a simple yet effectual method could be guarded by a -specification. As has been the case with many other important -discoveries, the most ignorant conceived that they might themselves have -discovered it; and those unacquainted with the history of the attempts -at navigation by steam, were compelled to wonder that it had been left -for Fulton to bring it into successful operation. - -Before the death of Fulton, the steamboats on the Hudson River were -increased in number to five. A sixth was built under his direction for -the navigation of the Sound; and, this water being rendered unsafe by -the presence of an enemy's[14] squadron, the boat plied for a time upon -the Hudson. In the construction of this boat he had, in his own opinion, -exhausted the power of steam in navigation, having given it a speed of -nine miles an hour; and it is a remarkable fact, which manifests his -acquaintance with theory and skill in calculation, that he in all cases -predicted with almost absolute accuracy, the velocity of the vessels he -caused to be constructed. The engineers of Great Britain came, long -after, to a similar conclusion in respect to the maximum of speed. - -It is now, however, well known, that, with a proper construction of -prows, the resistance to vessels moving at higher velocities than nine -miles an hour, increases in a much less ratio than had been inferred -from experiments made upon wedge-shaped bodies; and that the velocity of -the pistons of steam-engines may be conveniently increased beyond the -limit fixed by the practice of Watt. - -For these important discoveries the world is indebted principally to -Robert L. Stevens. That Fulton must have reached them in the course of -his own practice can hardly be doubted, had his valuable life been -spared to watch the performance of the vessels he was engaged in -building at the time of his premature death.[15] These were, a large -boat intended for the navigation of the Hudson, to which the name of his -partner, Chancellor Livingston, was given, and one planned for the -navigation of the ocean. The latter was constructed with the intention -of making a passage to St. Petersburg; but this scheme was interrupted -by his death, which took place at the moment he was about to add to his -glory, as the first constructor of a successful steamboat, that of being -the first navigator of the ocean by this new and mighty agent. - - - - -X. - -GEORGE STEPHENSON AND THE LOCOMOTIVE. - - -"What I say is this," said Nahum, "that all your Vesuvius dividends, and -all your pickers and slobbers, and shirtings at four cents, and all the -rest of your great cotton victory, depend on railroads. If your father -could not go to Lewiston and see his foreman and people, and come back -before you can say Jack Robinson, there would be no mills at Lewiston -such as there are. There might be a poor little sawmill making shingles, -as you free-traders want." This with scorn at Fergus, perhaps, or some -one else suspected of views unfavorable to protection. - -Then Nahum shook hands with Uncle Fritz, and apologized for his zeal, -adding: "I am telling the boys why I want to go to Altoona, and to -become a railroad man. I say that the new plant in India might knock -cotton higher than a kite, and that people might learn to live without -novels or magazines, but that they must have transportation all the -same. And I am going into the railroad business. I am going to hew down -the mountains and fill up the valleys." The boy was fairly eloquent in -his enthusiasm. - -"It is in your blood, my brave fellow," said Uncle Fritz. "People -thought your grandfather was crazy when he said it, sixty years ago. -But it proved he was the seer and the prophet, and they were the fools." - -"And who invented railroads?" asked Blanche. - -"As to that, the man invented a railroad who first put two boards down -over two ruts to make a cart run easier. Almost as soon as there were -mines, there must have been some sort of rail for the use of the wagons -which brought out the ore. These rails became so useful that they were -continued from the mine to the high-road, whatever it was. But it was -not till the first quarter of this century, that rails were laid for -general use. The earliest railroad in the United States was laid at the -quarries in Quincy, in Massachusetts, in 1825." - -Uncle Fritz was so well pleased at their eagerness that he brought out -for them some of the old books, and some of the new. In especial he bade -them all read Smiles's "Life of Stephenson" before they came to him -again. For to George Stephenson, as they soon learned, more than to any -one man, the world owes the step forward which it made when locomotives -were generally used on railroads. Since that time the improvements in -both have gone on together. - -Before they met again, at Uncle Fritz's suggestion, Fergus and Hester -prepared this sketch of the details of Stephenson's earlier invention, -purposely that Uncle Fritz might use it when these papers should be -printed together. - - -GEORGE STEPHENSON. - -An efficient and economical working locomotive engine still remained to -be invented, and to accomplish this object Stephenson now applied -himself. Profiting by what his predecessors had done,--warned by their -failures and encouraged by their partial successes,--he began his -labors. There was still wanting the man who should accomplish for the -locomotive what James Watt had done for the steam-engine, and combine in -a complete form the best points in the separate plans of others, -embodying with them such original inventions and adaptations of his own, -as to entitle him to the merit of inventing the working locomotive, as -James Watt is to be regarded as the inventor of the working -condensing-engine. This was the great work upon which George Stephenson -now entered, though probably without any adequate idea of the ultimate -importance of his work to society and civilization. - -He proceeded to bring the subject of constructing a "Travelling Engine," -as he denominated the locomotive, under the notice of the lessees of the -Killingworth Colliery,[16] in the year 1813. Lord Ravensworth, the -principal partner, had already formed a very favorable opinion of the -new colliery engine-wright from the improvements which he had effected -in the colliery engines, both above and below ground; and after -considering the matter, and hearing Stephenson's explanations, he -authorized him to proceed with the construction of a locomotive, though -his lordship was by some called a fool for advancing money for such a -purpose. "The first locomotive that I made," said Stephenson, many years -after, when speaking of his early career at a public meeting in -Newcastle, "was at Killingworth Colliery, and with Lord Ravensworth's -money. Yes, Lord Ravensworth and partners were the first to intrust me, -thirty-two years since, with money to make a locomotive engine. I said -to my friends, there was no limit to the speed of such an engine, if the -works could be made to stand." - -Our engine-wright had, however, many obstacles to encounter before he -could get fairly to work upon the erection of his locomotive. His chief -difficulty was in finding workmen sufficiently skilled in mechanics and -in the use of tools to follow his instructions, and embody his designs -in a practical shape. The tools then in use about the colliery were rude -and clumsy, and there were no such facilities, as now exist, for turning -out machinery of any entirely new character. Stephenson was under the -necessity of working with such men and tools as were at his command, and -he had in a great measure to train and instruct the workmen himself. The -new engine was built in the workshops at the West Morr, the leading -mechanic being John Thirlwall, the colliery blacksmith,--an excellent -mechanic in his way, though quite new to the work now intrusted to him. - -In this first locomotive, constructed at Killingworth, Stephenson to -some extent followed the plan of Blenkinsop's engine. The wrought-iron -boiler was cylindrical, eight feet in length and thirty-four inches in -diameter, with an internal flue-tube twenty inches wide passing through -it. The engine had two vertical cylinders, of eight inches diameter and -two feet stroke, let into the boiler, which worked the propelling gear -with cross-heads and connecting-rods. The power of the two cylinders was -combined by means of spur-wheels, which communicated the motive power to -the wheels supporting the engine on the rail. The engine thus worked -upon what is termed the second motion. The chimney was of wrought-iron, -round which was a chamber extending back to the feed-pumps, for the -purpose of heating the water previous to its injection into the boiler. -The engine had no springs, and was mounted on a wooden frame supported -on four wheels. In order to neutralize as much as possible the jolts and -shocks which such an engine would necessarily encounter, from the -obstacles and inequalities of the then very imperfect plate-way, the -water-barrel, which served for a tender, was fixed to the end of a lever -and weighted; the other end of the lever being connected with the frame -of the locomotive carriage. By this means the weight of the two was more -equally distributed, though the contrivance did not by any means -compensate for the total absence of springs. - -The wheels of the locomotive were all smooth, Stephenson having -satisfied himself by experiment that the adhesion between the wheels of -a loaded engine and the rail would be sufficient for the purposes of -traction.[17] - -The engine was, after much labor and anxiety, and frequent alterations -of parts, at length brought to completion, having been about ten months -in hand. It was placed upon the Killingworth Railway on the 25th of -July, 1814, and its powers were tried on the same day. On an ascending -gradient of 1 in 450, the engine succeeded in drawing after it eight -loaded carriages, of thirty tons weight, at about four miles an hour; -and for some time after it continued regularly at work. - -Although a considerable advance upon previous locomotives, "Blucher" -(as the engine was popularly called) was nevertheless a somewhat -cumbrous and clumsy machine. The parts were huddled together. The boiler -constituted the principal feature; and, being the foundation of the -other parts, it was made to do duty not only as a generator of steam, -but also as a basis for the fixings of the machinery and for the -bearings of the wheels and axles. The want of springs was seriously -felt; and the progress of the engine was a succession of jolts, causing -considerable derangement to the working. The mode of communicating the -motive power to the wheels by means of the spur-gear also caused -frequent jerks, each cylinder alternately propelling or becoming -propelled by the other, as the pressure of the one upon the wheels -became greater or less than the pressure of the other; and when the -teeth of the cog-wheels became at all worn, a rattling noise was -produced during the travelling of the engine. - -As the principal test of the success of the locomotive was its economy -as compared with horse-power, careful calculations were made with the -view of ascertaining this important point. The result was, that it was -found the working of the engine was at first barely economical; and at -the end of the year the steam-power and the horse-power were ascertained -to be as nearly as possible upon a par in point of cost. - -We give the remainder of the history of George Stephenson's efforts to -produce an economical working locomotive in the words of his son Robert, -as communicated to Mr. Smiles in 1856, for the purposes of his father's -"Life." - -"A few months of experience and careful observation upon the operation -of this (his first) engine convinced my father that the complication -arising out of the action of the two cylinders being combined by -spur-wheels would prevent their coming into practical application. He -then directed his attention to an entire change in the construction and -mechanical arrangements, and in the following year took out a patent, -dated Feb. 28, 1815, for an engine which combined in a remarkable degree -the essential requisites of an economical locomotive,--that is to say, -few parts, simplicity in their action, and great simplicity in the mode -by which power was communicated to the wheels supporting the engine. - -"This second engine consisted, as before, of two vertical cylinders; -which communicated directly with each pair of the four wheels that -supported the engine by a cross-head and a pair of connecting-rods. But -in attempting to establish a direct communication between the cylinders -and the wheels that rolled upon the rails, considerable difficulties -presented themselves. The ordinary joints could not be employed to unite -the engine, which was a rigid mass, with the wheels rolling upon the -irregular surface of the rails; for it was evident that the two rails of -the line of railway could not always be maintained at the same level -with respect to each other,--that one wheel at the end of the axle might -be depressed into a part of the line which had subsided, while the other -would be elevated. In such a position of the axle and wheels it was -clear that a rigid communication between the cross-head and the wheels -was impracticable. Hence it became necessary to form a joint at the top -of the piston-rod where it united with the cross-head, so as to permit -the cross-head always to preserve complete parallelism with the axle of -the wheels with which it was in communication. - -"In order to obtain the flexibility combined with direct action, which -was essential for insuring power and avoiding needless friction and -jars from irregularities in the rail, my father employed the 'ball and -socket joint' for effecting a union between the ends of the cross-heads, -where they were united with the crank-pins attached to each -driving-wheel. By this arrangement the parallelism between the -cross-head and the axle was at all times maintained, it being permitted -to take place without producing jar or friction upon any part of the -machine. - -"The next important point was to combine each pair of wheels by some -simple mechanism, instead of the cog-wheels which had formerly been -used. My father began by inserting each axle into two cranks, at right -angles to each other, with rods communicating horizontally between them. -An engine was made upon this plan, and answered extremely well. But at -that period (1815) the mechanical skill of the country was not equal to -the task of forging cranked axles of the soundness and strength -necessary to stand the jars incident to locomotive work; so my father -was compelled to fall back upon a substitute which, though less simple -and less efficient, was within the mechanical capabilities of the -workmen of that day, either for construction or repair. He adopted a -chain, which rolled over indented wheels placed on the centre of each -axle, and so arranged that the two pairs of wheels were effectually -coupled and made to keep pace with each other. But these chains after a -few years' use became stretched, and then the engines were liable to -irregularity in their working, especially in changing from working back -to forward again. Nevertheless, these engines continued in profitable -use upon the Killingworth Colliery Railway for some years. Eventually -the chain was laid aside, and the wheels were united by rods on the -_outside_ instead of rods and crank-axles inside, as specified in the -original patent; and this expedient completely answered the purpose -required, without involving any expensive or difficult workmanship. - -"Another important improvement was introduced in this engine. The -eduction steam had hitherto been allowed to escape direct into the open -atmosphere; but my father having observed the great velocity with which -the smoke issued from the chimney of the same engine, thought that by -conveying the eduction steam into the chimney, and there allowing it to -escape in a vertical direction, its velocity would be imparted to the -smoke from the engine, or to the ascending current of air in the -chimney. The experiment was no sooner made than the power of the engine -became more than doubled; combustion was stimulated, as it were, by a -blast; consequently, the power of the boiler for generating steam was -increased, and in the same proportion, the useful duty of the engine was -augmented. - -"Thus, in 1815 my father had succeeded in manufacturing an engine which -included the following important improvements on all previous attempts -in the same direction: simple and direct communication between the -cylinder and the wheels rolling upon the rails; joint adhesion of all -the wheels, attained by the use of horizontal connecting-rods; and, -finally, a beautiful method of exciting the combustion of fuel by -employing the waste steam which had formerly been allowed to escape -uselessly. It is perhaps not too much to say that this engine, as a -mechanical contrivance, contained the germ of all that has since been -effected. It may be regarded, in fact, as a type of the present -locomotive engine. - -"In describing my father's application of the waste steam for the -purpose of increasing the intensity of combustion in the boiler, and -thus increasing the power of the engine without adding to its weight, -and while claiming for this engine the merit of being a type of all -those which have been successfully devised since the commencement of the -Liverpool and Manchester Railway, it is necessary to observe that the -next great improvement in the same direction, the 'multitubular boiler,' -which took place some years later, could never have been used without -the help of that simple expedient, _the steam-blast_, by which power -only, the burning of coke was rendered possible. - -"I cannot pass over this last-named invention of my father's without -remarking how slightly, as an original idea, it has been appreciated; -and yet how small would be the comparative value of the locomotive -engine of the present day, without the application of that important -invention. - -"Engines constructed by my father in the year 1818, upon the principles -just described, are in use on the Killingworth Colliery Railway to this -very day (1856), conveying, at the speed of perhaps five or six miles an -hour, heavy coal-trains, probably as economically as any of the more -perfect engines now in use." - -The invention of the steam-blast by George Stephenson in 1815 was -fraught with the most important consequences to railway locomotion; and -it is not saying too much to aver that the success of the locomotive has -been in a great measure the result of its adoption. Without the -steam-blast, by means of which the intensity of combustion is maintained -at its highest point, producing a correspondingly rapid evolution of -steam, high rates of speed could not have been kept up; the advantages -of the multitubular boiler (afterward invented) could never have been -fully tested; and locomotives might still have been dragging themselves -unwieldily along at a rate of a little more than five or six miles an -hour. - -As the period drew near for the opening of the line, the question of the -tractive power to be employed was anxiously discussed. At the Brusselton -decline, fixed engines must necessarily be made use of; but with respect -to the mode of working the railway generally, it was decided that horses -were to be largely employed, and arrangements were made for their -purchase. - -Although locomotives had been regularly employed in hauling coal-wagons -on the Middleton Colliery Railway, near Leeds, for more than twelve -years, and on the Wylam and Killingworth Railways, near Newcastle, for -more than ten years, great scepticism still prevailed as to the economy -of employing them for the purpose in lieu of horses. In this case, it -would appear that seeing was _not_ believing. The popular scepticism was -as great at Newcastle, where the opportunities for accurate observation -were the greatest, as anywhere else. In 1824 the scheme of a canal -between that town and Carlisle again came up; and although a few timid -voices were raised on behalf of a railway, the general opinion was still -in favor of a canal. The example of the Hetton Railway, which had been -successfully worked by Stephenson's locomotives for two years past, was -pointed to in proof of the practicability of a locomotive line between -the two places; but the voice of the press, as well as of the public, -was decidedly against the "new-fangled roads." - -When such was the state of public opinion as to railway locomotion, some -idea may be formed of the clear-sightedness and moral courage of the -Stockton and Darlington directors in ordering three of Stephenson's -locomotive engines, at a cost of several thousand pounds, against the -opening of the railway. - -These were constructed after Stephenson's most matured designs, and -embodied all the improvements which he had contrived up to that time. -No. 1 engine, the "Locomotion," which was first delivered, weighed about -eight tons. It had one large flue, or tube, through the boiler, by which -the heated air passed direct from the furnace at the one end, lined with -fire-bricks, to the chimney at the other. The combustion in the furnace -was quickened by the adoption of the steam-blast in the chimney. The -heat raised was sometimes so great, and it was so imperfectly abstracted -by the surrounding water, that the chimney became almost red-hot. Such -engines, when put to their speed, were found capable of running at the -rate of from twelve to sixteen miles an hour; but they were better -adapted for the heavy work of hauling coal-trains at low speed--for -which, indeed, they were specially constructed--than for running at the -higher speed afterward adopted. Nor was it contemplated by the directors -as possible, at the time when they were ordered, that locomotives could -be made available for the purposes of passenger travelling. Besides, the -Stockton and Darlington Railway did not run through a district in which -passengers were supposed to be likely to constitute any considerable -portion of the traffic. - -We may easily imagine the anxiety felt by George Stephenson during the -progress of the works toward completion, and his mingled hopes and -doubts--though the doubts were but few--as to the issue of this great -experiment. When the formation of the line near Stockton was well -advanced, the engineer one day, accompanied by his son Robert and John -Dixon, made a journey of inspection of the works. The party reached -Stockton, and proceeded to dine at one of the inns there. After dinner, -Stephenson ventured on the very unusual measure of ordering in a bottle -of wine, to drink success to the railway. John Dixon relates with pride -the utterance of the master on the occasion "Now, lads," said he to the -two young men, "I venture to tell you that I think you will live to see -the day when railways will supersede almost all other methods of -conveyance in this country,--when mail-coaches will go by railway, and -railroads will become the great highways for the king and all his -subjects. The time is coming when it will be cheaper for a working man -to travel on a railway than to walk on foot. I know there are great and -almost insurmountable difficulties to be encountered, but what I have -said will come to pass as sure as you now hear me. I only wish I may -live to see the day, though that I can scarcely hope for, as I know how -slow all human progress is, and with what difficulty I have been able to -get the locomotive introduced thus far, notwithstanding my more than ten -years' successful experiment at Killingworth." The result, however, -outstripped even George Stephenson's most sanguine expectations; and his -son Robert, shortly after his return from America in 1827, saw his -father's locomotive generally adopted as the tractive power on -mining-railways. - -Tuesday, the 27th of September, 1825, was a great day for Darlington. -The railway, after having been under construction for more than three -years, was at length about to be opened. The project had been the talk -of the neighborhood for so long that there were few people within a -range of twenty miles who did not feel more or less interested about it. -Was it to be a failure or a success? Opinions were pretty equally -divided as to the railway; but as regarded the locomotive, the general -belief was that it would "never answer." However, there was the -locomotive "No. 1" delivered upon the line, and ready to draw the first -train of wagons on the opening day. - -A great concourse of people assembled on the occasion. Some came from -Newcastle and Durham, many from the Aucklands, while Darlington held a -general holiday and turned out all its population. To give _éclat_ to -the opening, the directors of the company issued a programme of the -proceedings, intimating the times at which the procession of wagons -would pass certain points along the line. The proprietors assembled as -early as six in the morning at the Brusselton fixed engine, where the -working of the inclined planes was successfully rehearsed. A train of -wagons laden with coals and merchandise was drawn up the western incline -by the fixed engine, a length of nineteen hundred and sixty yards in -seven and a half minutes, and then lowered down the incline on the -eastern side of the hill, eight hundred and eighty yards, in five -minutes. - -At the foot of the incline the procession of vehicles was formed, -consisting of the locomotive engine No. 1, driven by George Stephenson -himself; after it, six wagons loaded with coals and flour; then a -covered coach containing directors and proprietors; next, twenty-one -coal-wagons fitted up for passengers (with which they were crammed); and -lastly, six more wagons loaded with coals. - -Strange to say, a man on a horse, carrying a flag with the motto of the -company inscribed on it, _Periculum privatum utilitas publica_,[18] -headed the procession! A lithographic view of the great event, published -shortly after, duly exhibits the horseman and his flag. It was not -thought so dangerous a place, after all. The locomotive was only -supposed to be able to go at the rate of from four to six miles an hour, -and an ordinary horse could easily keep ahead of that. - -Off started the procession, with the horseman at its head. A great -concourse of people stood along the line. Many of them tried to -accompany it by running, and some gentlemen on horseback galloped across -the fields to keep up with the train. The railway descending with a -gentle decline toward Darlington, the rate of speed was consequently -variable. At a favorable part of the road Stephenson determined to try -the speed of the engine, and he called upon the horseman with the flag -to get out of his way! Most probably, deeming it unnecessary to carry -his _periculum privatum_ farther, the horseman turned aside, and -Stephenson "put on the steam." The speed was at once raised to twelve -miles an hour, and, at a favorable part of the road, to fifteen. The -runners on foot, the gentlemen on horseback, and the horseman with the -flag were consequently soon left far behind. When the train reached -Darlington, it was found that four hundred and fifty passengers occupied -the wagons, and that the load of men, coals, and merchandise amounted to -about ninety tons. - -At Darlington the procession was rearranged. The six loaded coal-wagons -were left behind, and other wagons were taken on with a hundred and -fifty more passengers, together with a band of music. The train then -started for Stockton,--a distance of only twelve miles,--which was -reached in about three hours. The day was kept throughout the district -as a holiday; and horses, gigs, carts, and other vehicles, filled with -people, stood along the railway, as well as crowds of persons on foot, -waiting to see the train pass. The whole population of Stockton turned -out to receive the procession, and, after a walk through the streets, -the inevitable dinner in the Town Hall wound up the day's proceedings. - - -The principal circumstances connected with the construction of the -"Rocket," as described by Robert Stephenson to Mr. Smiles, may be -briefly stated. The tubular principle was adopted in a more complete -manner than had yet been attempted. Twenty-five copper tubes, each three -inches in diameter, extended from one end of the boiler to the other, -the heated air passing through them on its way to the chimney; and the -tubes being surrounded by the water of the boiler. It will be obvious -that a large extension of the heating surface was thus effectually -secured. The principal difficulty was in fitting the copper tubes in the -boiler ends so as to prevent leakage. They were manufactured by a -Newcastle copper-smith, and soldered to brass screws which were screwed -into the boiler ends, standing out in great knobs. When the tubes were -thus fitted, and the boiler was filled with water, hydraulic pressure -was applied; but the water squirted out at every joint, and the factory -floor was soon flooded. Robert went home in despair; and in the first -moment of grief he wrote to his father that the whole thing was a -failure. By return of post came a letter from his father, telling him -that despair was not to be thought of,--that he must "try again;" and he -suggested a mode of overcoming the difficulty, which his son had already -anticipated and proceeded to adopt. It was to bore clean holes in the -boiler ends, fit in the smooth copper tubes as tightly as possible, -solder up, and then raise the steam. This plan succeeded perfectly; the -expansion of the copper completely filling up all interstices, and -producing a perfectly water-tight boiler, capable of standing extreme -external pressure. - -The mode of employing the steam-blast for the purpose of increasing the -draught in the chimney, was also the subject of numerous experiments. -When the engine was first tried, it was thought that the blast in the -chimney was not sufficiently strong for the purpose of keeping up the -intensity of the fire in the furnace, so as to produce high-pressure -steam with the required velocity. The expedient was therefore adopted of -hammering the copper tubes at the point at which they entered the -chimney, whereby the blast was considerably sharpened; and on a farther -trial it was found that the draught was increased to such an extent as -to enable abundance of steam to be raised. The rationale of the blast -may be simply explained by referring to the effect of contracting the -pipe of a water-hose, by which the force of the jet of water is -proportionately increased. Widen the nozzle of the pipe and the jet is, -in like manner, diminished. So is it with the steam-blast in the chimney -of the locomotive. - -Doubts were, however, expressed whether the greater draught obtained by -the contraction of the blast-pipe were not counterbalanced in some -degree by the pressure upon the piston. Hence a series of experiments -was made with pipes of different diameters, and their efficiency was -tested by the amount of vacuum that was produced in the smoke-box. The -degree of rarefaction was determined by a glass tube fixed to the bottom -of the smoke-box, and descending into a bucket of water, the tube being -open at both ends. As the rarefaction took place, the water would of -course rise in the tube, and the height to which it rose above the -surface of the water in the bucket was made the measure of the amount -of rarefaction. These experiments proved that a considerable increase of -draught was obtained by the contraction of the orifice; accordingly, the -two blast-pipes opening from the cylinders into either side of the -"Rocket" chimney, and turned up within it, were contracted slightly -below the area of the steam-ports; and before the engine left the -factory, the water rose in the glass tube three inches above the water -in the bucket. - -The other arrangements of the "Rocket" were briefly these: The boiler -was cylindrical with flat ends, six feet in length, and three feet four -inches in diameter. The upper half of the boiler was used as a reservoir -for the steam, the lower half being filled with water. Through the lower -part the copper tubes extended, being open to the fire-box at one end, -and to the chimney at the other. The fire-box, or furnace, two feet wide -and three feet high, was attached immediately behind the boiler, and was -also surrounded with water. The cylinders of the engine were placed on -each side of the boiler, in an oblique position, one end being nearly -level with the top of the boiler at its after end, and the other -pointing toward the centre of the foremost or driving pair of wheels, -with which the connection was directly made from the piston-rod to a pin -on the outside of the wheel. The engine, together with its load of -water, weighed only four tons and a quarter; and it was supported on -four wheels, not coupled. The tender was four-wheeled, and similar in -shape to a wagon,--the foremost part holding the fuel, and the hind part -a water-cask. - -When the "Rocket" was finished, it was placed upon the Killingworth -Railway for the purpose of experiment. The new boiler arrangement was -found perfectly successful. The steam was raised rapidly and -continuously, and in a quantity which then appeared marvellous. The same -evening Robert despatched a letter to his father at Liverpool, informing -him to his great joy, that the "Rocket" was "all right," and would be in -complete working trim by the day of trial. The engine was shortly after -sent by wagon to Carlisle, and thence shipped for Liverpool. - -The time so much longed for by George Stephenson had now arrived, when -the merits of the passenger locomotive were about to be put to the test. -He had fought the battle for it until now, almost single-handed. -Engrossed by his daily labors and anxieties, and harassed by -difficulties and discouragements which would have crushed the spirit of -a less resolute man, he had held firmly to his purpose through good and -through evil report. The hostility which he had experienced from some of -the directors opposed to the adoption of the locomotive, was the -circumstance that caused him the greatest grief of all; for where he had -looked for encouragement, he found only carping and opposition. But his -pluck never failed him; and now the "Rocket" was upon the ground to -prove, to use his own words, "whether he was a man of his word or not." - -Great interest was felt at Liverpool, as well as throughout the country, -in the approaching competition. Engineers, scientific men, and mechanics -arrived from all quarters to witness the novel display of mechanical -ingenuity on which such great results depended. The public generally -were no indifferent spectators, either. The populations of Liverpool, -Manchester, and the adjacent towns felt that the successful issue of the -experiment would confer upon them individual benefits and local -advantages almost incalculable, while populations at a distance waited -for the result with almost equal interest. - -On the day appointed for the great competition of locomotives at -Rainhill, the following engines were entered for the prize:-- - -1. Messrs. Braithwaite and Ericsson's "Novelty." - -2. Mr. Timothy Hackworth's "Sanspareil." - -3. Messrs. R. Stephenson & Co.'s "Rocket." - -4. Mr. Burstall's "Perseverance." - -Another engine was entered by Mr. Brandreth, of Liverpool,--the -"Cycloped," weighing three tons, worked by a horse in a frame,--but it -could not be admitted to the competition. The above were the only four -exhibited, out of a considerable number of engines constructed in -different parts of the country in anticipation of this contest, many of -which could not be satisfactorily completed by the day of trial. - -The day fixed for the competition was the 1st of October; but to allow -sufficient time to get the locomotives into good working order, the -directors extended it to the 6th. On the morning of the 6th the ground -at Rainhill presented a lively appearance, and there was as much -excitement as if the St. Leger were about to be run. Many thousand -spectators looked on, among whom were some of the first engineers and -mechanicians of the day. A stand was provided for the ladies; the -"beauty and fashion" of the neighborhood were present, and the side of -the railroad was lined with carriages of all descriptions. - -It was quite characteristic of the Stephensons that although their -engine did not stand first on the list for trial, it was the first that -was ready; and it was accordingly ordered out by the judges for an -experimental trip. Yet the "Rocket" was by no means the "favorite" with -either the judges or the spectators. Nicholas Wood has since stated that -the majority of the judges were strongly predisposed in favor of the -"Novelty," and that nine tenths, if not ten tenths, of the persons -present were against the "Rocket" because of its appearance.[19] Nearly -every person favored some other engine, so that there was nothing for -the "Rocket" but the practical test. The first trip made by it was quite -successful. It ran about twelve miles, without interruption, in about -fifty-three minutes. - -The "Novelty" was next called out. It was a light engine, very compact -in appearance, carrying the water and fuel upon the same wheels as the -engine. The weight of the whole was only three tons and one -hundred-weight. A peculiarity of this engine was that the air was driven -or forced through the fire by means of bellows. The day being now far -advanced, and some dispute having arisen as to the method of assigning -the proper load for the "Novelty," no particular experiment was made -farther than that the engine traversed the line by way of exhibition, -occasionally moving at the rate of twenty-four miles an hour. The -"Sanspareil," constructed by Mr. Timothy Hackworth, was next exhibited, -but no particular experiment was made with it on this day. This engine -differed but little in its construction from the locomotive last -supplied by the Stephensons to the Stockton and Darlington Railway, of -which Mr. Hackworth was the locomotive foreman. - -The contest was postponed until the following day; but before the judges -arrived on the ground, the bellows for creating the blast in the -"Novelty" gave way, and it was found incapable of going through its -performance. A defect was also detected in the boiler of the -"Sanspareil," and some farther time was allowed to get it repaired. The -large number of spectators who had assembled to witness the contest were -greatly disappointed at this postponement; but to lessen it, Stephenson -again brought out the "Rocket," and attaching to it a coach containing -thirty-four persons, he ran them along the line at the rate of from -twenty-four to thirty miles an hour, much to their gratification and -amazement. Before separating, the judges ordered the engine to be in -readiness by eight o'clock on the following morning, to go through its -definitive trial according to the prescribed conditions. - -On the morning of the 8th of October the "Rocket" was again ready for -the contest. The engine was taken to the extremity of the stage, the -fire-box was filled with coke, the fire lighted, and the steam raised -until it lifted the safety-valve loaded to a pressure of fifty pounds to -the square inch. This proceeding occupied fifty-seven minutes. The -engine then started on its journey, dragging after it about thirteen -tons weight in wagons, and made the first ten trips backward and forward -along the two miles of road, running the thirty-five miles, including -stoppages, in an hour and forty-eight minutes. The second ten trips were -in like manner performed in two hours and three minutes. The maximum -velocity attained during the trial trip was twenty-nine miles an hour, -or about three times the speed that one of the judges of the competition -had declared to be the limit of possibility. The average speed at which -the whole of the journeys were performed was fifteen miles an hour, or -five miles beyond the rate specified in the conditions published by the -company. The entire performance excited the greatest astonishment among -the assembled spectators; the directors felt confident that their -enterprise was now on the eve of success; and George Stephenson rejoiced -to think that, in spite of all false prophets and fickle counsellors, -the locomotive system was now safe. When the "Rocket," having performed -all the conditions of the contest, arrived at the "grand stand" at the -close of its day's successful run, Mr. Cropper--one of the directors -favorable to the fixed-engine system--lifted up his hands, and -exclaimed, "Now has George Stephenson at last delivered himself." - -Neither the "Novelty" nor the "Sanspareil" was ready for trial until the -10th, on the morning of which day an advertisement appeared, stating -that the former engine was to be tried on that day, when it would -perform more work than any engine on the ground. The weight of the -carriages attached to it was only seven tons. The engine passed the -first post in good style; but in returning, the pipe from the -forcing-pump burst and put an end to the trial. The pipe was afterward -repaired, and the engine made several trips by itself, in which it was -said to have gone at the rate of from twenty-four to twenty-eight miles -an hour. - -The "Sanspareil" was not ready until the 13th; and when its boiler and -tender were filled with water, it was found to weigh four hundred-weight -beyond the weight specified in the published conditions as the limit of -four-wheeled engines; nevertheless, the judges allowed it to run on the -same footing as the other engines, to enable them to ascertain whether -its merits entitled it to favorable consideration. It travelled at the -average speed of about fourteen miles an hour with its load attached; -but at the eighth trip the cold-water pump got wrong, and the engine -could proceed no farther. - -It was determined to award the premium to the successful engine on the -following day, the 14th, on which occasion there was an unusual -assemblage of spectators. The owners of the "Novelty" pleaded for -another trial, and it was conceded. But again it broke down. Then Mr. -Hackworth requested the opportunity for making another trial of his -"Sanspareil." But the judges had now had enough of failures, and they -declined, on the ground that not only was the engine above the -stipulated weight, but that it was constructed on a plan which they -could not recommend for adoption by the directors of the company. One of -the principal practical objections to this locomotive was the enormous -quantity of coke consumed or wasted by it,--about six hundred and -ninety-two pounds per hour when travelling,--caused by the sharpness of -the steam-blast in the chimney, which blew a large proportion of the -burning coke into the air. - -The "Perseverance" of Mr. Burstall was found unable to move at more than -five or six miles an hour, and it was withdrawn from the contest at an -early period. The "Rocket" was thus the only engine that had performed, -and more than performed, all the stipulated conditions; and it was -declared to be entitled to the prize of £500, which was awarded to the -Messrs. Stephenson and Booth[20] accordingly. And farther to show that -the engine had been working quite within its powers, George Stephenson -ordered it to be brought upon the ground and detached from all -incumbrances, when, in making two trips, it was found to travel at the -astonishing rate of thirty-five miles an hour. - -The "Rocket" had thus eclipsed the performances of all locomotive -engines that had yet been constructed, and outstripped even the sanguine -expectations of its constructors. It satisfactorily answered the report -of Messrs. Walker and Rastrick, and established the efficiency of the -locomotive for working the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, and indeed -all future railways. The "Rocket" showed that a new power had been born -into the world, full of activity and strength, with boundless capability -of work. It was the simple but admirable contrivance of the steam-blast, -and its combination with the multitubular boiler, that at once gave -locomotion a vigorous life, and secured the triumph of the railway -system. As has been well observed, this wonderful ability to increase -and multiply its powers of performance with the emergency that demands -them, has made this giant engine the noblest creation of human wit, the -very lion among machines. - -The success of the Rainhill experiment, as judged by the public, may be -inferred from the fact that the shares of the company immediately rose -ten per cent, and nothing farther was heard of the proposed twenty-one -fixed engines, engine-houses, ropes, etc. All this cumbersome apparatus -was thenceforth effectually disposed of. - - -When the reading was over, Bedford said: "When I heard you were going to -have George Stephenson this afternoon, I wrote to my cousin Prentiss -Armstrong, who has been at the locomotive works at Altoona for several -years, and asked him about locomotives nowadays, that I might be able to -compare them with the locomotives of George Stephenson's time. This is -his letter, which I'll read, if there be no objection:"-- - - -DEAR BEDFORD,--Speaking roughly, a freight-engine of the "Consolidation" -type (eight driving-wheels and two truck-wheels) weighs from -forty-seven to forty-eight tons of two thousand pounds. On a road with -no grades over twenty feet to the mile (1 in 250) it will haul over one -thousand tons at fifteen miles an hour. If the train is of merchandise, -it will be of say fifty cars, each weighing ten tons and carrying ten -tons. If it is of coal or ore, the cars will each carry twenty or -twenty-five tons. - -["The 'Rocket,'" said Bedford, "which was the successful engine at the -Rainhill competition, weighed a little over four tons and had four -wheels. Dragging a weight of thirteen tons in wagons, it made -thirty-five miles in about two hours."] - -Our Engine No. 2 [continued the letter] made a mile on a level in -forty-three seconds with no train, but there are very few such records. -Two of our fast trains (four cars each, weighing twenty-five tons) make -a schedule in one place (level) of nine miles in eight minutes. I have -seen a record of a run on the Bound Brook route of four cars, ten miles -in eight minutes. I think this must have been down hill. - -I hope these facts will answer your views. If there's anything else that -I can get up for you, I shall be glad to do it. - - Yours truly, - PRENTISS ARMSTRONG. - - - - -XI. - -ELI WHITNEY. - - -The young people all came in laughing. - -"And what is it?" said Uncle Fritz, good-naturedly. - -"It is this," said Alice, "that I say that all this is very entertaining -about Palissy the Potter and Benvenuto Cellini; and I have been boasting -that I know as much of the steam-engine as Lucy did, who was 'sister to -Harry.' But I do not see that this is going to profit Blanche when she -shall make her celebrated visit to Mr. Bright, and when he asks her what -is the last sweet thing in creels or in fly-frames." - -"Is it certain that Blanche is to go?" said Uncle Fritz, doubtfully. - -"Oh, dear, Uncle Fritz, do you know?" said Blanche, in mock heroics; -"are you in the sacred circle which decides? Will the Vesuvius pass its -dividend, or will it scatter its blessings right and left, so that we -can go to Paris and all the world be happy?" - -"I wish I knew," said Colonel Ingham; "for on that same dividend depends -the question whether I build four new rooms at Little Crastis for the -accommodation of my young friends when they visit me there." - -"Could you tell us," said Fergus, "what is the cause of the depression -in the cotton-manufacture?" - -"Don't tell him, Uncle Fritz," said Fanchon, "for the two best of -reasons,--first, that half of us will not understand if you do; and -second, that none of us will remember." - -Colonel Ingham laughed. "And third," he said, "that we are to talk about -Inventions and Inventors, and we shall not get to Fergus's grand -question till we come to the series on 'Political Economy and Political -Economists.' - -"You are all quite right in all your suggestions and criticisms. It is -quite time that you girls should know something of the industry which is -important not only to all the Southern States, but to all the -manufacturing States. Cotton is the cheapest article for clothing in the -world, and the use of it goes farther and farther every year. The -manufacture is also improving steadily. Thirty men, women, and children -will make as much cotton cloth to-day as a hundred could make the year -you were born, Hester. I saw cottons for sale to-day at four cents a -yard which would have cost nearly three times that money thirty years -ago. So I have laid out for you these sketches of the life of Eli -Whitney, on whose simple invention, as you remember, all this wealth of -production may be said to depend. You college boys ought to be pleased -to know, that within a year after this man graduated from Yale College, -he had made an invention and set it a going, which entirely changed the -face of things in his own country. At that moment there was so little -cotton raised in America, that Whitney himself had never seen cotton -wool or cotton seed, when he was first asked if he could make a machine -which would separate one from the other. It was so little known, indeed, -that when John Jay of New York negotiated a treaty of commerce with -England in 1794, the year after Whitney's invention, he did not know -that any cotton was produced in the United States. The treaty did not -provide for our cotton, and had to be changed after it was brought back -to America. With this invention by Whitney, it was possible to clean -cotton from the seed. The Southern States, which before had no staple of -importance, had in that moment an immense addition to their resources. -Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Tennessee, besides the States in -the old thirteen, were settled almost wholly to call into being new -lands for raising cotton. To these were afterwards added Arkansas, -Florida, and Texas. With this new industry slave labor became vastly -more profitable; and the institution of slavery, which would else have -died out probably, received an immense stimulus. Fortunately for the -country and the world, the Constitution had fixed the year 1808, as the -end of the African slave trade. But, up to that date, slaves were pushed -in with a constantly increasing rapidity, so that the new States were -peopled very largely with absolute barbarians. There is hardly another -instance in history where it is so easy to trace in a very few years, -results so tremendous following from a single invention by a single man. - -"Fortunately for us, Miss Lamb has just published a portrait of Eli -Whitney in the 'Magazine of History.' Here it is, in the October number -of the 'Magazine of History.' - -"As to processes of manufacture, of course we can learn little or -nothing about them here. But you had better read carefully this article -in Ure's 'Dictionary of Arts,' though it is a little old-fashioned, and -then you will be prepared to make up parties to go out to the Hecla, or -up to Lowell or Lawrence, where you can see with your own eyes. - -"And now I will read you a little sketch of the life of Eli Whitney." - - -ELI WHITNEY. - -Eli Whitney was born at Westborough, Worcester County, Massachusetts, -Dec. 8, 1765. His parents belonged to the middle class in society, who, -by the labors of husbandry, managed by uniform industry and strict -frugality to provide well for a rising family. - -The paternal ancestors of Mr. Whitney emigrated from England among the -early settlers of Massachusetts, and their descendants were among the -most respectable farmers of Worcester County. His maternal ancestors, of -the name of Fay, were also English emigrants, and ranked among the -substantial yeomanry of Massachusetts. A family tradition respecting the -occasion of their coming to this country may serve to illustrate the -history of the times. The story is, that about two hundred years ago, -the father of the family, who resided in England, a man of large -property and great respectability, called together his sons and -addressed them thus: "America is to be a great country. I am too old to -emigrate myself; but if any one of you will go, I will give him a double -share of my property." The youngest son instantly declared his -willingness to go, and his brothers gave their consent. He soon set off -for the New World, and landed in Boston, in the neighborhood of which -place he purchased a large tract of land, where he enjoyed the -satisfaction of receiving two visits from his venerable father. His son -John Fay, from whom the subject of this memoir is immediately descended, -removed from Boston to Westborough, where he became the proprietor of a -large tract of land, since known by the name of the Fay Farm. - -From the sister of Mr. Whitney, we have derived some particulars -respecting his childhood and youth, and we shall present the anecdotes -to our readers in the artless style in which they are related by our -correspondent, believing that they would be more acceptable in this -simple dress than if, according to the modest suggestion of the writer, -they should be invested with a more labored diction. The following -incident, though trivial in itself, will serve to show at how early a -period certain qualities of strong feeling tempered by prudence, for -which Mr. Whitney afterward became distinguished, began to display -themselves. When he was six or seven years old he had overheard the -kitchen maid, in a fit of passion, calling his mother, who was in a -delicate state of health, hard names, at which he expressed great -displeasure to his sister. "She thought," said he, "that I was not big -enough to hear her talk so about my mother. I think she ought to have a -flogging; and if I knew how to bring it about, she should have one." His -sister advised him to tell their father. "No," he replied, "it will hurt -his feelings and mother's too; and besides, it is likely the girl will -say she never said so, and that would make a quarrel. It is best to say -nothing about it." - -Indications of his mechanical genius were likewise developed at a very -early age. Of his early passion for such employments, his sister gives -the following account: "Our father had a workshop, and sometimes made -wheels of different kinds, and chairs. He had a variety of tools, and a -lathe for turning chair-posts. This gave my brother an opportunity of -learning the use of tools when very young. He lost no time; but as soon -as he could handle tools, he was always making something in the shop, -and seemed not to like working on the farm. On a time, after the death -of our mother, when our father had been absent from home two or three -days, on his return he inquired of the housekeeper what the boys had -been doing. She told him what B. and J. had been about. 'But what has -Eli been doing?' said he. She replied he had been making a fiddle. 'Ah,' -said he, despondingly, 'I fear Eli will have to take his portion in -fiddles.' He was at this time about twelve years old. His sister adds -that this fiddle was finished throughout, like a common violin, and made -tolerably good music. It was examined by many persons, and all -pronounced it to be a remarkable piece of work for such a boy to -perform. From this time he was employed to repair violins, and had many -nice jobs, which were always executed to the entire satisfaction, and -often to the astonishment, of his customers. His father's watch being -the greatest piece of mechanism that had yet presented itself to his -observation, he was extremely desirous of examining its interior -construction, but was not permitted to do so. One Sunday morning, -observing that his father was going to meeting, and would leave at home -the wonderful little machine, he immediately feigned illness as an -apology for not going to church. As soon as the family were out of -sight, he flew to the room where the watch hung, and taking it down he -was so delighted with its motions that he took it all to pieces before -he thought of the consequences of his rash deed; for his father was a -stern parent, and punishment would have been the reward of his idle -curiosity, had the mischief been detected. He, however, put all the work -so neatly together that his father never discovered his audacity until -he himself told him, many years afterwards. - -"Whitney lost his mother at an early age, and when he was thirteen years -old his father married a second time. His stepmother, among her articles -of furniture, had a handsome set of table knives that she valued very -highly. Whitney could not but see this, and said to her, 'I could make -as good ones if I had tools, and I could make the necessary tools if I -had a few common tools to make them with.' His stepmother thought he was -deriding her, and was much displeased; but it so happened, not long -afterwards, that one of the knives got broken, and he made one exactly -like it in every respect except the stamp on the blade. This he would -likewise have executed, had not the tools required been too expensive -for his slender resources." - -When Whitney was fifteen or sixteen years of age he suggested to his -father an enterprise, which was an earnest of the similar undertakings -in which he engaged on a far greater scale in later life. This being the -time of the Revolutionary War, nails were in great demand and bore a -high price. At that period nails were made chiefly by hand, with little -aid from machinery. Young Whitney proposed to his father to procure him -a few tools, and to permit him to set up the manufacture. His father -consented; and he went steadily to work, and suffered nothing to divert -him from his task until his day's work was completed. By extraordinary -diligence he gained time to make tools for his own use, and to put in -knife-blades, and to perform many other curious little jobs which -exceeded the skill of the country artisans. At this laborious occupation -the enterprising boy wrought alone, with great success, and with much -profit to his father, for two winters, pursuing the ordinary labors of -the farm during the summers. At this time he devised a plan for -enlarging his business and increasing his profits. He whispered his -scheme to his sister, with strong injunctions of secrecy; and requesting -leave of his father to go to a neighboring town, without specifying his -object, he set out on horseback in quest of a fellow-laborer. Not -finding one as easily as he had anticipated, he proceeded from town to -town with a perseverance which was always a strong trait of his -character, until, at a distance of forty miles from home, he found such -a workman as he desired. He also made his journey subservient to his -mechanical skill, for he called at every workshop on his way and gleaned -all the information he could respecting the mechanical arts. - -At the close of the war the business of making nails was no longer -profitable; but a fashion prevailing among the ladies of fastening on -their bonnets with long pins, he contrived to make those with such skill -and dexterity that he nearly monopolized the business, although he -devoted to it only such seasons of leisure as he could redeem from the -occupations of the farm, to which he now principally betook himself. He -added to this article, the manufacture of walking-canes, which he made -with peculiar neatness. - -In respect to his proficiency in learning while young, we are informed -that he early manifested a fondness for figures and an uncommon aptitude -for arithmetical calculations, though in the other rudiments of -education he was not particularly distinguished. Yet at the age of -fourteen he had acquired so much general information, as to be regarded -on this account, as well as on account of his mechanical skill, a very -remarkable boy. - -From the age of nineteen, young Whitney conceived the idea of obtaining -a liberal education; but, being warmly opposed by his stepmother, he was -unable to procure the decided consent of his father, until he had -reached the age of twenty-three years. But, partly by the avails of his -manual labor and partly by teaching a village school, he had been so far -able to surmount the obstacles thrown in his way, that he had prepared -himself for the Freshman Class in Yale College, which he entered in May, -1789. - -The propensity of Mr. Whitney to mechanical inventions and occupations, -was frequently apparent during his residence at college. On a particular -occasion, one of the tutors, happening to mention some interesting -philosophical experiment, regretted that he could not exhibit it to his -pupils, because the apparatus was out of order and must be sent abroad -to be repaired. Mr. Whitney proposed to undertake this task, and -performed it greatly to the satisfaction of the faculty of the college. - -A carpenter being at work upon one of the buildings of the gentleman -with whom Mr. Whitney boarded, the latter begged permission to use his -tools, during the intervals of study; but the mechanic, being a man of -careful habits, was unwilling to trust them with a student, and it was -only after the gentleman of the house had become responsible for all -damages, that he would grant the permission. But Mr. Whitney had no -sooner commenced his operations than the carpenter was surprised at his -dexterity, and exclaimed, "There was one good mechanic spoiled when you -went to college." - -Soon after Mr. Whitney took his degree, in the autumn of 1792, he -entered into an engagement with a Mr. B. of Georgia, to reside in his -family as a private teacher. On his way thither, he was so fortunate as -to have the company of Mrs. Greene, the widow of General Greene, who, -with her family, was returning to Savannah after spending the summer at -the North. At that time it was deemed unsafe to travel through our -country without having had the small-pox, and accordingly Mr. Whitney -prepared himself for the excursion, by procuring inoculation while in -New York. As soon as he was sufficiently recovered, the party set sail -for Savannah. As his health was not fully re-established, Mrs. Greene -kindly invited him to go with the family to her residence at Mulberry -Grove, near Savannah, and remain until he was recruited. The invitation -was accepted; but lest he should not yet have lost all power of -communicating that dreadful disease, Mrs. Greene had white flags (the -meaning of which was well understood) hoisted at the landing and at all -the avenues leading to the house. As a requital for her hospitality, her -guest procured the virus and inoculated all the servants of the -household, more than fifty in number, and carried them safely through -the disorder. - -Mr. Whitney had scarcely set his foot in Georgia, before he was met by a -disappointment which was an earnest of that long series of adverse -events which, with scarcely an exception, attended all his future -negotiations in the same State. On his arrival he was informed that Mr. -B. had employed another teacher, leaving Whitney entirely without -resources or friends, except those whom he had made in the family of -General Greene. In these benevolent people, however, his case excited -much interest; and Mrs. Greene kindly said to him, "My young friend, you -propose studying the law; make my house your home, your room your -castle, and there pursue what studies you please." He accordingly began -the study of the law under that hospitable roof. - -Mrs. Greene was engaged in a piece of embroidery in which she employed a -peculiar kind of frame, called a _tambour_. She complained that it was -badly constructed, and that it tore the delicate threads of her work. -Mr. Whitney, eager for an opportunity to oblige his hostess, set himself -to work and speedily produced a tambour-frame, made on a plan entirely -new, which he presented to her. Mrs. Greene and her family were greatly -delighted with it, and thought it a wonderful proof of ingenuity. - -Not long afterwards a large party of gentlemen, consisting principally -of officers who had served under the General in the Revolutionary Army, -came from Augusta and the upper country, to visit the family of General -Greene. They fell into conversation upon the state of agriculture among -them, and expressed great regret that there was no means of cleansing -the green seed cotton, or separating it from its seed, since all the -lands which were unsuitable for the cultivation of rice, would yield -large crops of cotton. But until ingenuity could devise some machine -which would greatly facilitate the process of cleaning, it was vain to -think of raising cotton for market. Separating one pound of the clean -staple from the seed was a day's work for a woman; but the time usually -devoted to picking cotton was the evening, after the labor of the field -was over. Then the slaves--men, women, and children--were collected in -circles, with one whose duty it was to rouse the dozing and quicken the -indolent. While the company were engaged in this conversation, -"Gentlemen," said Mrs. Greene, "apply to my young friend Mr. Whitney; he -can make anything." Upon which she conducted them into a neighboring -room, and showed them her tambour-frame and a number of toys which Mr. -Whitney had made or repaired for the children. She then introduced the -gentlemen to Whitney himself, extolling his genius and commending him to -their notice and friendship. He modestly disclaimed all pretensions to -mechanical genius; and when they named their object, he replied that he -had never seen either cotton or cotton seed in his life. Mrs. Greene -said to one of the gentlemen, "I have accomplished my aim. Mr. Whitney -is a very deserving young man, and to bring him into notice was my -object. The interest which our friends now feel for him will, I hope, -lead to his getting some employment to enable him to prosecute the study -of the law." - -But a new turn, that no one of the company dreamed of, had been given to -Mr. Whitney's views. It being out of season for cotton in the seed, he -went to Savannah and searched among the warehouses and boats until he -found a small parcel of it. This he carried home, and communicated his -intentions to Mr. Miller, who warmly encouraged him, and assigned him a -room in the basement of the house, where he set himself to work with -such rude materials and instruments as a Georgia plantation afforded. -With these resources, however, he made tools better suited to his -purpose, and drew his own wire (of which the teeth of the earliest gins -were made),--an article which was not at that time to be found in the -market of Savannah. Mrs. Greene and Mr. Miller were the only persons -ever admitted to his workshop, and the only persons who knew in what way -he was employing himself. The many hours he spent in his mysterious -pursuits, afforded matter of great curiosity and often of raillery to -the younger members of the family. Near the close of the winter, the -machine was so nearly completed as to leave no doubt of its success. - -Mrs. Greene was eager to communicate to her numerous friends the -knowledge of this important invention, peculiarly important at that -time, because then the market was glutted with all those articles which -were suited to the climate and soil of Georgia, and nothing could be -found to give occupation to the negroes and support to the white -inhabitants. This opened suddenly to the planters boundless resources of -wealth, and rendered the occupations of the slaves less unhealthy and -laborious than they had been before. - -Mrs. Greene, therefore, invited to her house gentlemen from different -parts of the State; and on the first day after they had assembled, she -conducted them to a temporary building which had been erected for the -machine, and they saw with astonishment and delight, that more cotton -could be separated from the seed in one day, by the labor of a single -hand, than could be done in the usual manner in the space of many -months. - -Mr. Whitney might now have indulged in bright reveries of fortune and of -fame; but we shall have various opportunities of seeing that he tempered -his inventive genius with an unusual share of the calm, considerate -qualities of the financier. Although urged by his friends to secure a -patent and devote himself to the manufacture and introduction of his -machines, he coolly replied that, on account of the great expenses and -trouble which always attend the introduction of a new invention, and the -difficulty of enforcing a law in favor of patentees, in opposition to -the individual interests of so large a number of persons as would be -concerned in the culture of this article, it was with great reluctance -that he should consent to relinquish the hopes of a lucrative -profession, for which he had been destined, with an expectation of -indemnity either from the justice or the gratitude of his countrymen, -even should the invention answer the most sanguine anticipations of his -friends. - -The individual who contributed most to incite him to persevere in the -undertaking, was Phineas Miller. Mr. Miller was a native of Connecticut -and a graduate of Yale College. Like Mr. Whitney, soon after he had -completed his education at college, he came to Georgia as a private -teacher in the family of General Greene, and after the decease of the -General, he became the husband of Mrs. Greene. He had qualified himself -for the profession of the law, and was a gentleman of cultivated mind -and superior talents; but he was of an ardent temperament, and therefore -well fitted to enter with zeal into the views which the genius of his -friend had laid open to him. He also had considerable funds at command, -and proposed to Mr. Whitney to become his joint adventurer, and to be at -the whole expense of maturing the invention until it should be patented. -If the machine should succeed in its intended operation, the parties -agreed, under legal formalities, "that the profits and advantages -arising therefrom, as well as all privileges and emoluments to be -derived from patenting, making, vending, and working the same, should be -mutually and equally shared between them." This instrument bears date -May 27, 1793; and immediately afterward they commenced business under -the firm of Miller and Whitney. - -An invention so important to the agricultural interest (and, as it has -proved, to every department of human industry) could not long remain a -secret. The knowledge of it soon spread through the State, and so great -was the excitement on the subject, that multitudes of persons came from -all quarters of the State to see the machine; but it was not deemed safe -to gratify their curiosity until the patent right had been secured. But -so determined were some of the populace to possess this treasure, that -neither law nor justice could restrain them; they broke open the -building by night, and carried off the machine. In this way the public -became possessed of the invention; and before Mr. Whitney could complete -his model and secure his patent, a number of machines were in successful -operation, constructed with some slight deviation from the original, -with the hope of escaping the penalty for evading the patent right. - -As soon as the copartnership of Miller and Whitney was formed, Mr. -Whitney repaired to Connecticut, where, as far as possible, he was to -perfect the machine, obtain a patent, and manufacture and ship to -Georgia such a number of machines as would supply the demand. - -Within three days after the conclusion of the copartnership, Mr. Whitney -having set out for the North, Mr. Miller commenced his long -correspondence relative to the cotton-gin. The first letter announces -that encroachments upon their rights had already begun. "It will be -necessary," says Mr. Miller, "to have a considerable number of gins -made, to be in readiness to send out as soon as the patent is obtained, -in order to satisfy the absolute demands, and make people's heads easy -on the subject; _for I am informed of two other claimants for the honor -of the invention of cotton-gins, in addition to those we knew before_." - -On the 20th of June, 1793, Mr. Whitney presented his patent to Mr. -Jefferson, then Secretary of State; but the prevalence of the yellow -fever in Philadelphia (which was then the seat of government) prevented -his concluding the business relative to the patent until several months -afterwards. To prevent being anticipated, he took, however, the -precaution to make oath to the invention before the notary public of the -city of New Haven, which he did on the 28th of October of the same year. - -Mr. Jefferson, who had much curiosity in regard to mechanical -inventions, took a peculiar interest in this machine, and addressed to -the inventor an obliging letter, desiring farther particulars respecting -it, and expressing a wish to procure one for his own use.[21] Mr. -Whitney accordingly sketched the history of the invention, and of the -construction and performances of the machine. "It is about a year," says -he, "since I first turned my attention to constructing this machine, at -which time I was in the State of Georgia. Within about ten days after my -first conception of the plan, I made a small though imperfect model. -Experiments with this encouraged me to make one on a larger scale; but -the extreme difficulty of procuring workmen and proper materials in -Georgia prevented my completing the larger one until some time in April -last. This, though much larger than my first attempt, is not above one -third as large as the machines may be made with convenience. The -cylinder is only two feet two inches in length, and six inches in -diameter. It is turned by hand, and requires the strength of one man to -keep it in constant motion. It is the stated task of one negro to clean -fifty weight (I mean fifty pounds after it is separated from the seed) -of the green cotton seed per day." - -In the year 1812 Mr. Whitney made application to Congress for the -renewal of his patent for the cotton-gin. In his memorial he presented a -history of the struggles he had been forced to encounter in defence of -his right, observing that he had been unable to obtain any decision on -the merits of his claim until he had been _eleven years_ in the law, and -_thirteen years_ of his patent term had expired. He sets forth that his -invention had been a source of opulence to thousands of the citizens of -the United States; that, as a labor-saving machine, it would enable one -man to perform the work of a thousand men; and that it furnishes to the -whole family of mankind, at a very cheap rate, the most essential -article of their clothing. Hence he humbly conceived himself entitled to -a further remuneration from his country, and thought he ought to be -admitted to a more liberal participation with his fellow-citizens in -the benefits of his invention. Although so great advantages had been -already experienced, and the prospect of future benefits was so -promising, still, many of those whose interest had been most enhanced by -this invention, had obstinately persisted in refusing to make any -compensation to the inventor. The very men whose wealth had been -acquired by the use of this machine, and who had grown rich beyond all -former example, had combined their exertions to prevent the patentee -from deriving any emolument from his invention. From that State in which -he had first made and where he had first introduced his machine, and -which had derived the most signal benefits from it, he had received -nothing; and from no State had he received the amount of half a cent per -pound on the cotton cleaned with his machines in one year. Estimating -the value of the labor of one man at twenty cents per day, the whole -amount which had been received by him for his invention was not equal to -the value of the labor saved in _one hour_ by his machines then in use -in the United States. "This invention," he proceeds, "now gives to the -southern section of the Union, over and above the profits which would be -derived from the cultivation of any other crop, an annual emolument of -at least _three millions_ of dollars."[22] The foregoing statement does -not rest on conjecture, it is no visionary speculation,--all these -advantages have been realized; the planters of the Southern States have -counted the cash, felt the weight of it in their pockets, and heard the -exhilarating sound of its collision. Nor do the advantages stop here. -This immense source of wealth is but just beginning to be opened. Cotton -is a more cleanly and healthful article of cultivation than tobacco and -indigo, which it has superseded, and does not so much impoverish the -soil. This invention has already trebled the value of the land through a -large extent of territory; and the degree to which the cultivation of -cotton may be still augmented, is altogether incalculable. This species -of cotton has been known in all countries where cotton has been raised, -from time immemorial, but was never known as an article of commerce -until since this method of cleaning it was discovered. In short (to -quote the language of Judge Johnson), "if we should assert that the -benefits of this invention exceed _one hundred millions of dollars_, we -could prove the assertion by correct calculation." It is objected that -if the patentee succeeds in procuring the renewal of his patent, he will -be too rich. There is no probability that the patentee, if the term of -his patent were extended for twenty years, would ever obtain for his -invention one half as much as many an individual will gain by use of it. -Up to the present time, the whole amount of what he has acquired from -this source (after deducting his expenses) does not exceed one half the -sum which a single individual has gained by the use of the machine in -one year. It is true that considerable sums have been obtained from some -of the States where the machine is used; but no small portion of these -sums has been expended in prosecuting his claim in a State where nothing -has been obtained, and where his machine has been used to the greatest -advantage. - - -There was much more which was curious, laid out in different books; but -the call came for supper, and the young people obeyed. - - - - -XII. - -JAMES NASMYTH. - - -THE STEAM-HAMMER. - -"My dear Uncle Fritz, I have found something very precious." - -"I hope it is a pearl necklace, my dear," was his reply, "though I see -no one who needs such ornaments less." - -Hester waltzed round the room, and dropped a very low courtesy before -Uncle Fritz in acknowledgment of his compliment; and all the others -clapped their hands. They asked her, more clamorously than Uncle Fritz, -what she had found. - -"I have found a man--" - -"That is more than Diogenes could." - -"Horace, I shall send you out of the room, or back on first principles. -Do you not know that it is not nice to interrupt?" - -"I have found a man, Uncle Fritz, who is an inventor, a great inventor; -and he is very nice, and he likes people and people like him, and he -always succeeds,--his things turn out well, like Dr. Franklin's; and he -says the world has always been grateful to him. He never sulks or -complains; he knows all about the moon, and makes wonderful pictures of -it; and he's enormously rich, I believe, too,--but that's not so much -matter. The best of all is, that he began just as we begin. He had a -nice father and a nice mother and a good happy home, and was brought up -like good decent children. Now really, Uncle Fritz, you mustn't laugh; -but do you not think that most of the people whose lives we read have to -begin horridly? They have to be beaten when they are apprentices, or -their fathers and mothers have to die, or they have to walk through -Philadelphia with loaves of bread under their arms, or to be brought up -in poor-houses or something. Now, nothing of that sort happened to my -inventor. And I am very much encouraged. For my father never beat me, -and my mother never scolded me half as much as I deserved, and I never -was in a poor-house, and I never carried a loaf of bread under my arm, -and so I really was afraid I should come to no good. But now I have -found my new moon-man, I am very much encouraged." - -The others laughed heartily at Hester's zeal, and Blanche asked what -Hester's hero had invented, and what was his name. The others turned to -Uncle Fritz half incredulously. But Uncle Fritz came to Hester's relief. - -"Hester is quite right," he said; "and his name it is James Nasmyth. He -has invented a great many things, quite necessary in the gigantic system -of modern machine-building. He has chosen the steam-hammer for his -device. Here is a picture of it on the outside of his Life. You see I -was ready for you, Hester." - -The children looked with interest on the device, and Fergus said that it -was making heraldry do as it should, and speak in the language of the -present time. - -Then Uncle Fritz bade Hester find for them a passage in the biography -where Mr. Nasmyth tells how he changed the old motto of the family. -Oddly enough, the legend says that the first Nasmyth took his name -after a romantic escape, when one of his pursuers, finding him disguised -as a blacksmith, cried out, "Ye're _nae smyth_." - -It is a little queer that this name should have been given to the family -of a man, who, in his time, forged heavier pieces of iron than had ever -been forged before, and, indeed, invented the machinery by which this -should be done. The old Scotch family had for a motto the words - - "Non arte, sed Marte." - -With a very just pride, James Nasmyth has changed the motto, and made it - - "Non Marte, sed arte." - -That is, while they said, "Not by art, but by war," this man, who has -done more work for the world, directly or indirectly, than any of -Aladdin's genii, says, "Not by war, but by art." - -Hester was well pleased that their old friend justified her enthusiasm -so entirely. He and she began dipping into her copy and his copy of the -biography, which is one of the most interesting books of our time. - - -JAMES NASMYTH. - -My grandfather, Michael Naesmyth, like his father and grandfather, was a -builder and architect. The buildings he designed and erected for the -Scotch nobility and gentry were well arranged, carefully executed, and -thoroughly substantial. I remember my father pointing out to me the -extreme care and attention with which he finished his buildings. He -inserted small fragments of basalt into the mortar of the external -joints of the stones, at close and regular distances, in order to -protect the mortar from the adverse action of the weather; and to this -day they give proof of their efficiency. - -The excellence of my grandfather's workmanship was a thing that my own -father impressed upon me when a boy. It stimulated in me the desire to -aim at excellence in everything that I undertook, and in all practical -matters to arrive at the highest degree of good workmanship. I believe -that these early lessons had a great influence upon my future career. - -My father, Alexander Nasmyth, was the second son of Michael Nasmyth. He -was born in his father's house in the Grassmarket, on the 9th of -September, 1758. - -I have not much to say about my father's education. For the most part he -was his own schoolmaster. I have heard him say that his mother taught -him his A B C, and that he afterward learned to read at Mammy Smith's. -This old lady kept a school for boys and girls at the top of a house in -the Grassmarket. There my father was taught to read his Bible and to -learn his Carritch (the Shorter Catechism). - -My father's profession was that of a portrait-painter, to begin with; -but later he devoted himself to landscape-painting. But he did not -confine himself to this pursuit. He was an all-round man, with something -of the universal about him. He was a painter, an architect, and a -mechanic. Above all, he was an incessantly industrious man. - -I was born on the morning of the 19th of August, 1808, at my father's -house in Edinburgh. I was named James Hall, after a dear friend of my -father. My mother afterward told me that I must have been a "very -noticin' bairn," as she observed me, when I was only a few days old, -following with my little eyes any one who happened to be in the room, as -if I had been thinking to my little self, "Who are you?" - -When I was about four or five years old I was observed to give a decided -preference to the use of my left hand. At first everything was done to -prevent my using it in preference to the right, until my father, after -viewing a little sketch I had drawn with my left hand, allowed me to go -on in my own way. I used my right hand in all that was necessary, and my -left in all sorts of practical manipulative affairs. My left hand has -accordingly been my most willing and obedient servant, and in this way I -became ambidexter. - -In due time I was sent to school; and while attending the High School, -from 1817 to 1820, there was the usual rage among boys for -spinning-tops, "peeries," and "young cannon." By means of my father's -excellent foot-lathe I turned out the spinning-tops in capital style, so -much so that I became quite noted among my school companions. They all -wanted to have specimens of my productions. They would give any price -for them. The peeries were turned with perfect accuracy, and the -steel-shod or spinning pivot was centred so as to correspond with the -heaviest diameter at the top. They would spin twice as long as the -bought peeries. When at full speed they would "sleep;" that is, turn -round without a particle of wavering. This was considered high art as -regarded top-spinning. - -Flying-kites and tissue-paper balloons were articles that I was also -somewhat famed for producing. There was a good deal of special skill -required for the production of a flying-kite. It must be perfectly still -and steady when at its highest flight in the air. Paper messengers were -sent up to it along the string which held it to the ground. The top of -the Calton Hill was the most favorite place for enjoying this pleasant -amusement. - -Another article for which I became equally famous was the manufacture of -small brass cannon. These I cast and bored, and mounted on their -appropriate gun-carriages. They proved very effective, especially in the -loudness of the report when fired. I also converted large cellar-keys -into a sort of hand-cannon. A touch-hole was bored into the barrel of -the key, with a sliding brass collar that allowed the key-guns to be -loaded and primed, ready for firing. - -The principal occasion on which the brass cannon and hand-guns were used -was on the 4th of June,--King George the Third's birthday. This was -always celebrated with exuberant and noisy loyalty. The guns of the -Castle were fired at noon, and the number of shots corresponded with the -number of years that the king had reigned. The grand old Castle was -enveloped in smoke, and the discharges reverberated along the streets -and among the surrounding hills. Everything was in holiday order. The -coaches were hung with garlands, the shops were ornamented, the troops -were reviewed on Bruntsfield Links, and the citizens drank the king's -health at the Cross, throwing the glasses over their backs. The boys -fired off gunpowder, or threw squibs or crackers, from morning till -night. It was one of the greatest schoolboy events of the year. - -My little brass cannon and hand-guns were very busy that day. They were -fired until they became quite hot. These were the pre-lucifer days. The -fire to light the powder at the touch-hole was obtained by the use of a -flint, a steel, and a tinder-box. The flint was struck sharply on the -steel, a spark of fire consequently fell into the tinder-box, and the -match (of hemp string, soaked in saltpetre) was readily lit and fired -off the little guns. - -One of my attached cronies was Tom Smith. Our friendship began at the -High School in 1818. A similarity of disposition bound us together. -Smith was the son of an enterprising general merchant at Leith. His -father had a special genius for practical chemistry. He had established -an extensive color-manufactory at Portobello, near Edinburgh, where he -produced white lead, red lead, and a great variety of colors,--in the -preparation of which he required a thorough knowledge of chemistry. Tom -Smith inherited his father's tastes, and admitted me to share in his -experiments, which were carried on in a chemical laboratory situated -behind his father's house at the bottom of Leith Walk. - -We had a special means of communication. When anything particular was -going on at the laboratory, Tom hoisted a white flag on the top of a -high pole in his father's garden. Though I was more than a mile away, I -kept a lookout in the direction of the laboratory with a spy-glass. My -father's house was at the top of Leith Walk, and Smith's house was at -the bottom of it. When the flag was hoisted I could clearly see the -invitation to me to come down. I was only too glad to run down the Walk -and join my chum, to take part in some interesting chemical process. Mr. -Smith, the father, made me heartily welcome. He was pleased to see his -son so much attached to me, and he perhaps believed that I was worthy of -his friendship. We took zealous part in all the chemical proceedings, -and in that way Tom was fitting himself for the business of his life. - -Mr. Smith was a most genial-tempered man. He was shrewd and -quick-witted, like a native of York, as he was. I received the greatest -kindness from him as well as from his family. His house was like a -museum. It was full of cabinets, in which were placed choice and -interesting objects in natural history, geology, mineralogy, and -metallurgy. All were represented. Many of these specimens had been -brought to him from abroad by his ship-captains, who transported his -color manufactures and other commodities to foreign parts. - -My friend Tom Smith and I made it a rule--and in this we were encouraged -by his father--that, so far as was possible, we ourselves should -actually _make_ the acids and other substances used in our experiments. -We were not to buy them ready-made, as this would have taken the zest -out of our enjoyment. We should have lost the pleasure and instruction -of producing them by means of our own wits and energies. To encounter -and overcome a difficulty is the most interesting of all things. Hence, -though often baffled, we eventually produced perfect specimens of -nitrous, nitric, and muriatic acids. We distilled alcohol from duly -fermented sugar and water, and rectified the resultant spirit from -fusel-oil by passing the alcoholic vapor through animal charcoal before -it entered the worm of the still. We converted part of the alcohol into -sulphuric ether. We produced phosphorus from old bones, and elaborated -many of the mysteries of chemistry. - -The amount of practical information which we obtained by this system of -making our own chemical agents, was such as to reward us, in many -respects, for the labor we underwent. To outsiders it might appear a -very troublesome and roundabout way of getting at the finally desired -result; but I feel certain that there is no better method of rooting -chemical or any other instruction deeply in our minds. Indeed, I regret -that the same system is not pursued by the youth of the present day. -They are seldom if ever called upon to exert their own wits and industry -to obtain the requisites for their instruction. A great deal is now said -about technical education; but how little there is of technical -handiness or head work! Everything is _bought ready-made_ to their -hands; and hence there is no call for individual ingenuity. - -I left the High School at the end of 1820. I carried with me a small -amount of Latin and no Greek. I do not think I was much the better for -my small acquaintance with the dead languages. - -By the time I was seventeen years old I had acquired a considerable -amount of practical knowledge as to the use and handling of mechanical -tools, and I desired to turn it to some account. I was able to construct -working models of steam-engines and other apparatus required for the -illustration of mechanical subjects. I began with making a small working -steam-engine, for the purpose of grinding the oil-colors used by my -father in his artistic work. The result was quite satisfactory. Many -persons came to see my active little steam-engine at work; and they were -so pleased with it that I received several orders for small workshop -engines, and also for some models of steam-engines to illustrate the -subjects taught at Mechanics' Institutions. - -I contrived a sectional model of a complete condensing steam-engine of -the beam and parallel-motion construction. The model, as seen from one -side, exhibited every external detail in full and due action when the -fly-wheel was moved round by hand; while on the other, or sectional -side, every detail of the interior was seen, with the steam-valves and -air-pump, as well as the motion of the piston in the cylinder, with the -construction of the piston and the stuffing-box, together with the -slide-valve and steam-passages, all in due position and relative -movement. - -I was a regular attendant at the Edinburgh School of Arts from 1821 to -1826, meanwhile inventing original contrivances of various sorts. - -About the year 1827, when I was nineteen years old, the subject of -steam-carriages to run upon common roads occupied considerable -attention. Several engineers and mechanical schemers had tried their -hands, but as yet no substantial results had come of their attempts to -solve the problem. Like others, I tried my hand. Having made a small -working model of a steam-carriage, I exhibited it before the members of -the Scottish Society of Arts. The performance of this active little -machine was so gratifying to the Society, that they requested me to -construct one of such power as to enable four or six persons to be -conveyed along the ordinary roads. The members of the Society, in their -individual capacity, subscribed £60, which they placed in my hands, as -the means of carrying out their project. - -I accordingly set to work at once. I had the heavy parts of the engine -and carriage done at Anderson's foundry at Leith. There was in -Anderson's employment a most able general mechanic, named Robert -Maclaughlan, who had served his time at Carmichael's, of Dundee. -Anderson possessed some excellent tools, which enabled me to proceed -rapidly with the work. Besides, he was most friendly, and took much -delight in being concerned in my enterprise. This "big job" was executed -in about four months. The steam-carriage was completed and exhibited -before the members of the Society of Arts. Many successful trials were -made with it on the Queensferry Road, near Edinburgh. The runs were -generally of four or five miles, with a load of eight passengers, -sitting on benches about three feet from the ground. - -The experiments were continued for nearly three months, to the great -satisfaction of the members. - -The chief object of my ambition was now to be taken on at Henry -Maudsley's works in London. I had heard so much of his engineering work, -of his assortment of machine-making tools, and of the admirable -organization of his manufactory, that I longed to obtain employment -there. But I was aware that my father had not the means of paying the -large premium required for placing me there, and I was also informed -that Maudsley had ceased to take pupils, they caused him so much -annoyance. My father and I went to London; and Mr. Maudsley received us -in the most kind and frank manner, and courteously invited us to go -round the works. When this was concluded I ventured to say to Mr. -Maudsley that "I had brought up with me from Edinburgh some working -models of steam-engines and mechanical drawings, and I should feel truly -obliged if he would allow me to show them to him." "By all means," said -he; "bring them to me to-morrow at twelve o'clock." I need not say how -much pleased I was at this permission to exhibit my handiwork, and how -anxious I felt as to the result of Mr. Maudsley's inspection of it. - -I carefully unpacked my working model of the steam-engine at the -carpenter's shop, and had it conveyed, together with my drawings, on a -handcart to Mr. Maudsley's, next morning, at the appointed hour. I was -allowed to place my work for his inspection in a room next his office -and counting-house. I then called at his residence, close by, where he -kindly received me in his library. He asked me to wait until he and his -partner, Joshua Field, had inspected my handiwork. - -I waited anxiously. Twenty long minutes passed. At last he entered the -room, and from a lively expression in his countenance I observed in a -moment that the great object of my long-cherished ambition had been -attained. He expressed, in good round terms, his satisfaction at my -practical ability as a workman, engineer, and mechanical draughtsman. -Then, opening the door which led from his library into his beautiful -private workshop, he said, "This is where I wish you to work, beside me, -as my assistant workman. From what I have seen there is no need of an -apprenticeship in your case." - -One of his favorite maxims was, "First _get a clear notion_ of what you -desire to accomplish, and then in all probability you will succeed in -doing it." Another was, "Keep a sharp lookout upon your materials; get -rid of every pound of material you can _do without_; put to yourself the -question, 'What business has it to be there?' avoid complexities, and -make everything as simple as possible." Mr. Maudsley was full of quaint -maxims and remarks,--the result of much shrewdness, keen observation, -and great experience. They were well worthy of being stored up in the -mind, like a set of proverbs, full of the life and experience of men. -His thoughts became compressed into pithy expressions exhibiting his -force of character and intellect. His quaint remarks on my first visit -to his workshop and on subsequent occasions proved to me invaluable -guides to "right thinking" in regard to all matters connected with -mechanical structure. - -On the morning of Monday, May 30, 1829, I began my regular attendance at -Mr. Maudsley's workshop, and remained with him until he died, Feb. 14, -1831. It was a very sad thing for me to lose my dear old master, who -always treated me like a friend and companion. At his death I passed -over into the service of his worthy partner, Joshua Field, until my -twenty-third year, when I intended to begin business for myself. - -I first settled myself at Manchester, but afterwards established a large -business outside of Manchester on the Bridgewater Canal. In August, -1836, the Bridgewater Foundry was in complete and efficient action. The -engine ordered at Londonderry was at once put in hand, and the concern -was fairly started in its long career of prosperity. The wooden -workshops had been erected upon the grass, but the greensward soon -disappeared. The hum of the driving-belts, the whirl of the machinery, -the sound of the hammer upon the anvil, gave the place an air of busy -activity. As work increased, workmen multiplied. The workshops were -enlarged. Wood gave place to brick. Cottages for the accommodation of -the work-people sprung up in the neighborhood, and what had once been a -quiet grassy field became the centre of a busy population. - -It was a source of vast enjoyment to me, while engaged in the anxious -business connected with the establishment of the foundry, to be -surrounded with so many objects of rural beauty. The site of the works -being on the west side of Manchester, we had the benefit of breathing -pure air during the greater part of the year. The scenery round about -was very attractive. Exercise was a source of health to the mind as well -as the body. As it was necessary that I should reside as near as -possible to the works, I had plenty of opportunities for enjoying the -rural scenery of the neighborhood. I had the good fortune to become the -tenant of a small cottage in the ancient village of Barton, in -Cheshire, at the very moderate rental of fifteen pounds a year. The -cottage was situated on the banks of the river Irwell, and was only -about six minutes' walk from the works at Patricroft. It suited my -moderate domestic arrangements admirably. - -On June 16, 1840, a day of happy memory, I was married to Miss Anne -Hartop. - -I was present at the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, on -Sept. 15, 1830. Every one knows the success of the undertaking. Railways -became the rage. They were projected in every possible direction; and -when made, locomotives were required to work them. When George -Stephenson was engaged in building his first locomotive, at -Killingworth, he was greatly hampered, not only by the want of handy -mechanics, but by the want of efficient tools. But he did the best that -he could. His genius overcame difficulties. It was immensely to his -credit that he should have so successfully completed his engines for the -Stockton and Darlington, and afterward for the Liverpool and Manchester, -Railway. - -Only a few years had passed, and self-acting tools were now enabled to -complete, with precision and uniformity, machines that before had been -deemed almost impracticable. In proportion to the rapid extension of -railways the demand for locomotives became very great. As our machine -tools were peculiarly adapted for turning out a large amount of -first-class work, we directed our attention to this class of business. -In the course of about ten years after the opening of the Liverpool and -Manchester Railway, we executed considerable orders for locomotives for -the London and Southampton, the Manchester and Leeds, and the Gloucester -Railway Companies. - -The Great Western Railway Company invited us to tender for twenty of -their very ponderous engines. They proposed a very tempting condition of -the contract. It was that if, after a month's trial of the locomotives, -their working proved satisfactory, a premium of £100 was to be added to -the price of each engine and tender. The locomotives were made and -delivered; they ran the stipulated number of test miles between London -and Bristol in a perfectly satisfactory manner; and we not only received -the premium, but, what was much more encouraging, we received a special -letter from the board of directors, stating their entire satisfaction -with the performance of our engines, and desiring us to refer other -contractors to them with respect to the excellence of our workmanship. -This testimonial was altogether spontaneous, and proved extremely -valuable in other quarters. - -The date of the first sketch of my steam-hammer was Nov. 24, 1839. It -consisted of, first, a massive anvil, on which to rest the work; second, -a block of iron constituting the hammer, or blow-giving portion; and, -third, an inverted steam cylinder, to whose piston-rod the hammer-block -was attached. All that was then required to produce a most effective -hammer, was simply to admit steam of sufficient pressure into the -cylinder, so as to act on the under side of the piston, and thus to -raise the hammer-block attached to the end of the piston-rod. By a very -simple arrangement of a slide-valve under the control of an attendant, -the steam was allowed to escape, and thus permit the massive block of -iron rapidly to descend by its own gravity upon the work then upon the -anvil. - -Thus, by the more or less rapid manner in which the attendant allowed -the steam to enter or escape from the cylinder, any required number or -any intensity of blows could be delivered. Their succession might be -modified in an instant; the hammer might be arrested and suspended -according to the requirements of the work. The workman might thus, as it -were, _think in blows_. He might deal them out on to the ponderous -glowing mass, and mould or knead it into the desired form as if it were -a lump of clay, or pat it with gentle taps, according to his will or at -the desire of the forgeman. - -Rude and rapidly sketched out as it was, this my first delineation of -the steam-hammer will be found to comprise all the essential elements of -the invention. There was no want of orders when the valuable qualities -of the steam-hammer came to be seen and experienced; soon after I had -the opportunity of securing a patent for it in the United States, where -it soon found its way into the principal iron-works of the country. As -time passed by, I had furnished steam-hammers to the principal foundries -in England, and had sent them abroad even to Russia. - - * * * * * - -But the English Government is proverbially slow in recognizing such -improvements. It was not till years had passed by, that Mr. Nasmyth was -asked to furnish hammers to government works. Then he was invited to -apply them to pile-driving. He says:-- - - -My first order for my pile-driver was a source of great pleasure to me. -It was for the construction of some great royal docks at Devonport. An -immense portion of the shore of the Hamoaze had to be walled in so as to -exclude the tide. - -When I arrived on the spot with my steam pile-driver, there was a great -deal of curiosity in the dockyard as to the action of the new machine. -The pile-driving machine-men gave me a good-natured challenge to vie -with them in driving down a pile. They adopted the old method, while I -adopted the new one. The resident managers sought out two great pile -logs of equal size and length,-seventy feet long and eighteen inches -square. At a given signal we started together. I let in the steam, and -the hammer at once began to work. The four-ton block showered down blows -at the rate of eighty a minute, and in the course of _four and a half -minutes_ my pile was driven down to its required depth. The men working -at the ordinary machine had only begun to drive. It took them upward of -_twelve hours_ to complete the driving of their pile! - -Such a saving of time in the performance of similar work--by steam -_versus_ manual labor--had never before been witnessed. The energetic -action of the steam-hammer, sitting on the shoulders of the pile high up -aloft, and following it suddenly down, the rapidly hammered blows -keeping time with the flashing out of the waste steam at the end of each -stroke, was indeed a remarkable sight. When my pile was driven the -hammer-block and guide-case were speedily re-hoisted by the small engine -that did all the laboring and locomotive work of the machine, the -steam-hammer portion of which was then lowered on to the shoulders of -the next pile in succession. Again it set to work. At this the -spectators, crowding about in boats, pronounced their approval in the -usual British style of "Three cheers!" My new pile-driver was thus -acknowledged as another triumphant proof of the power of steam. - - * * * * * - -In the course of the year 1843 it was necessary for me to make a journey -to St. Petersburg. My object was to endeavor to obtain an order for a -portion of the locomotives required for working the line between that -city and Moscow. The railway had been constructed under the engineership -of Major Whistler, and it was shortly about to be opened. - -The Major gave me a frank and cordial reception, and informed me of the -position of affairs. The Emperor, he said, was desirous of training a -class of Russian mechanics to supply not only the locomotives, but to -keep them constantly in repair. The locomotives must be made in Russia. -I received, however, a very large order for boilers and other detail -parts of the Moscow machines. - -I enjoyed greatly my visit to St. Petersburg, and my return home through -Stockholm and Copenhagen. - -Travelling one day in Sweden, the post-house where I was set down was an -inn, although without a sign-board. The landlady was a bright, cheery, -jolly woman. She could not speak a word of English, nor I a word of -Dannemora Swedish. I was very thirsty and hungry, and wanted something -to eat. How was I to communicate my wishes to the landlady? I resorted, -as I often did, to the universal language of the pencil. I took out my -sketch-book, and in a few minutes I made a drawing of a table with a -dish of smoking meat upon it, a bottle and a glass, a knife and fork, a -loaf, a salt-cellar, and a corkscrew. She looked at the drawing and gave -a hearty laugh. She nodded pleasantly, showing that she clearly -understood what I wanted. She asked me for the sketch, and went into the -back garden to show it to her husband, who inspected it with great -delight. I went out and looked about the place, which was very -picturesque. After a short time the landlady came to the door and -beckoned me in, and I found spread out on the table everything that I -desired,--a broiled chicken, smoking hot from the gridiron, a bottle of -capital home-brewed ale, and all the _et ceteras_ of an excellent -repast. I made use of my pencil in many other ways. I always found that -a sketch was as useful as a sentence. Besides, it generally created a -sympathy between me and my entertainers. - -As the Bridgewater Foundry had been so fortunate as to earn for itself a -considerable reputation for mechanical contrivances, the workshops were -always busy. They were crowded with machine tools in full action, and -exhibited to all comers their effectiveness in the most satisfactory -manner. Every facility was afforded to those who desired to see them at -work; and every machine and machine tool that was turned out became in -the hands of its employers the progenitor of a numerous family. - -Indeed, on many occasions I had the gratification of seeing my -mechanical notions adopted by rival or competitive machine constructors, -often without acknowledgment; though, notwithstanding this point of -honor, there was room enough for all. Though the parent features were -easily recognizable, I esteemed such plagiarisms as a sort of -left-handed compliment to their author. I also regarded them as a proof -that I had hit the mark in so arranging my mechanical combinations as to -cause their general adoption; and many of them remain unaltered to this -day. - -My favorite pursuit, after my daily excursions at the foundry, was -astronomy. I constructed for myself a telescope of considerable power, -and, mounting my ten-inch instrument, I began my survey of the heavens. -I began as a learner, and my learning grew with experience. There were -the prominent stars, the planets, the Milky Way,--with thousands of -far-off suns,--to be seen. My observations were at first merely -general; by degrees they became particular. I was not satisfied with -enjoying these sights myself. I made my friends and neighbors sharers in -my pleasure, and some of them enjoyed the wonders of the heavens as much -as I did. - -In my early use of the telescope I had fitted the speculum into a light -square tube of deal, to which the eyepiece was attached, so as to have -all the essential parts of the telescope combined together in the most -simple and portable form. I had often to move it from place to place in -my small garden at the side of the Bridgewater Canal, in order to get it -clear of the trees and branches which intercepted some object in the -heavens which I wished to see. How eager and enthusiastic I was in those -days! Sometimes I got out of bed in the clear small hours of the -morning, and went down to the garden in my night-shirt. I would take the -telescope in my arms and plant it in some suitable spot, where I might -take a peep at some special planet or star then above the horizon. - -It became bruited about that a ghost was seen at Patricroft! A barge was -silently gliding along the canal near midnight, when the boatman -suddenly saw a figure in white. "It moved among the trees, with a coffin -in its arms!" The apparition was so sudden and strange that he -immediately concluded that it was a ghost. The weird sight was reported -all along the canal, and also at Wolverhampton, which was the boatman's -headquarters. He told the people at Patricroft, on his return journey, -what he had seen; and great was the excitement produced. The place was -haunted; there was no doubt about it! After all, the rumor was founded -on fact; for the ghost was merely myself in my night-shirt, and the -coffin was my telescope, which I was quietly shifting from one place to -another, in order to get a clearer sight of the heavens at midnight. - -I had been for some time contemplating the possibility of retiring -altogether from business. I had got enough of the world's goods, and was -willing to make way for younger men. - -Many long years of pleasant toil and exertion had done their work. A -full momentum of prosperity had been given to my engineering business at -Patricroft. My share in the financial results accumulated, with -accelerated rapidity, to an amount far beyond my most sanguine hopes. -But finding, from long-continued and incessant mental efforts, that my -nervous system was beginning to become shaken, especially in regard to -an affection of the eyes, which in some respects damaged my sight, I -thought the time had arrived for me to retire from commercial life. - -Behold us, then, settled down at Hammerfield for life. We had plenty to -do. My workshop was fully equipped. My hobbies were there, and I could -work them to my heart's content. The walls of our various rooms were -soon hung with pictures and other works of art, suggestive of many -pleasant associations of former days. Our library bookcase was crowded -with old friends in the shape of books that had been read and re-read -many times, until they had almost become part of ourselves. Old -Lancashire friends made their way to us when "up in town," and expressed -themselves delighted with our pleasant house and its beautiful -surroundings. - -I was only forty-eight years old, which may be considered the prime of -life. But I had plenty of hobbies, perhaps the chief of which was -astronomy. No sooner had I settled at Hammerfield than I had my -telescopes brought out and mounted. The fine, clear skies with which we -were favored furnished me with abundant opportunities for the use of my -instruments. I began again my investigations on the sun and the moon, -and made some original discoveries. - -It is time to come to an end of my recollections. I have endeavored to -give a brief _résumé_ of my life and labors. I hope they may prove -interesting as well as useful to others. Thanks to a good constitution -and a frame invigorated by work, I continue to lead, with my dear wife, -a happy life. - - - - -XIII. - -SIR HENRY BESSEMER. - - -THE AGE OF STEEL. - -In intervals of the reading meetings so many of the children's -afternoons with Uncle Fritz had been taken up with excursions to see -machinery at work, that their next meeting at the Oliver House was, as -it proved, the last for the winter. - -They had gone to the pumping-station of the waterworks, and had seen the -noiseless work of the great steam-engine there. They had gone to the -Ætna Mills at Watertown, and with the eye of the flesh had seen "rovers" -and shuttles, and had been taught what "slobbers" are. They had gone to -Waltham, and had been taught something of the marvellous skill and -delicacy expended on the manufacture of watches. They had gone to Rand -and Avery's printing-house; and here they not only saw the processes of -printing, but they saw steam power "converted" into electricity. They -had gone to the Locomotive Factory in Albany Street, and understood, -much better than before, the inventions of George Stephenson, under the -lead of the foremen in the shops, who had been very kind to them. - -On their last meeting Uncle Fritz reminded them of something which one -of these gentlemen had taught them about the qualities of steel and -iron; and again of what they had seen of steel-springs at Waltham, when -they saw how the balances of watches are arranged. - -"Some bright person has called our time 'the Age of Steel,'" he said. -"You know Ovid's division was 'the Age of Gold, the Age of Silver, the -Age of Brass, the Age of Iron.' And Ovid, who was in low spirits, -thought the Age of Iron was the worst of all. Now, we begin to improve -if we have entered the Age of Steel; for steel is, poetically speaking, -glorified iron. - -"Now the person to whom we owe it, that, in practice, we can build steel -ships to-day where we once built iron ships, and lay steel rails to-day -where even Stephenson was satisfied with iron, is Sir Henry Bessemer. -The Queen knighted him in recognition of the service he had rendered to -the world by his improvements in the processes of turning iron into -steel. - -"It is impossible to estimate the addition which these improvements have -made to the physical power of the world. I have not the most recent -figures, but look at this," said Uncle Fritz. And he gave to John to -read from a Life of Sir Henry Bessemer:-- - -"Prior to this invention the entire production of cast steel in Great -Britain was only about fifty thousand tons annually; and its average -price, which ranged from £50 to £600, prohibited its use for many of the -purposes to which it is now universally applied. After the invention, in -the year 1877, the Bessemer steel produced in Great Britain alone -amounted to 750,000 tons, or fifteen times the total of the former -method of manufacture, while the selling price averaged only £10 per -ton, and the coal consumed in producing it was less by 3,500,000 tons -than would have been required in order to make the same quality of -steel by the old, or Sheffield, process. The total reduction of cost is -equal to about £30,000,000 sterling upon the quantity manufactured in -England during the year." - -The same book goes on to show that in other nations £20,000,000 worth of -Bessemer steel was produced in the same year. - -"You see," said Uncle Fritz, "that here is an addition to the real -wealth of the world such as makes any average fairy story about diamonds -and rubies rather cheap and contemptible. - -"You will like Sir Henry Bessemer, Hester, because he was happily -trained and had good chances when he was a boy. And you will be amused -to see how his bright wife was brighter than all the internal-revenue -people. She was so bright that she lost him the appointment which had -enabled him to marry her. But I think he says somewhere, with a good -deal of pride, that but for that misfortune, and the injustice which -accompanied it, he should have probably never made his great inventions. -It is one more piece of 'Partial evil,--universal good.'" - -Then the children, with Uncle Fritz's aid, began picking out what they -called the plums from the accounts he showed them of Sir Henry -Bessemer's life. - - -BESSEMER'S FAMILY. - -At the time of the great Revolution of 1792 there was employed in the -French mint a man of great ingenuity, who had become a member of the -French Academy of Sciences at the age of twenty-five. When Robespierre -became Dictator of France, this scientific academician was transferred -from the mint to the management of a public bakery, established for the -purpose of supplying the populace of Paris with bread. In that position -he soon became the object of revolutionary frenzy. One day a rumor was -set afloat that the loaves supplied were light in weight; and, spreading -like wildfire, it was made the occasion of a fearful tumult. The manager -of the bakery was instantly seized and cast into prison. He succeeded in -escaping, but it was at the peril of his life. Knowing the peril he was -in, he lost no time in making his way to England; and he only succeeded -in doing so by adroitly using some documents he possessed bearing the -signature of the Dictator. Landing in England a ruined man, his talents -soon proved a passport to success. He was appointed to a position in the -English mint; and by the exercise of his ingenuity in other directions, -he ere long acquired sufficient means to buy a small estate at Charlton, -in Hertfordshire. Such, in brief, were the circumstances that led to the -settlement there of Anthony Bessemer, the father of Sir Henry Bessemer. -The latter may be said to have been born an inventor. His father was an -inventor before him. After settling in England, his inventive ingenuity -was displayed in making improvements in microscopes and in -type-founding, and in the discovery of what his son has happily -described as the true alchemy. The latter discovery, which he made about -the beginning of the present century, was a source of considerable -profit to him. It is generally known that when gold articles are made by -the jewellers, there are various discolorations left on their surface by -the process of manufacture; and in order to clear their surface, they -are put into a solution of alum, salt, and saltpetre, which dissolves a -large quantity of the copper that is used as an alloy. Anthony Bessemer -discovered that this powerful acid not only dissolved the copper, but -also dissolved a quantity of gold. He accordingly began to buy up this -liquor; and as he was the only one who knew that it contained gold in -solution, he had no difficulty in arranging for the purchase of it from -all the manufacturers in London. From that liquor he succeeded in -extracting gold in considerable quantities for many years. By some means -that he kept secret (and the secret died with him), he deposited the -particles of gold on the shavings of another metal, which, being -afterwards melted, left the pure gold in small quantities. Thirty years -afterward the Messrs. Elkington invented the electrotype process, which -had the same effect. Anthony Bessemer was also eminently successful as a -type-founder. When in France, before the Revolution of 1792, he cut a -great many founts of type for Messrs. Firmin Didot, the celebrated -French type-founders; and after his return to England he betook himself, -as a diversion, to type-cutting for Mr. Henry Caslon, the celebrated -English type-founder. He engraved an entire series, from pica to -diamond,--a work which occupied several years. The success of these -types led to the establishment of the firm of Bessemer and Catherwood as -type-founders, carrying on business at Charlton. The great improvement -which Anthony Bessemer introduced into the art of type-making was not so -much in the engraving as in the composition of the metal. He discovered -that an alloy of copper, tin, and bismuth was the most durable metal for -type; and the working of this discovery was very successful in his -hands. The secret of his success, however, he kept unknown to the trade. -He knew that if it were suspected that the superiority of his type -consisted in the composition of the metal, analysis would reveal it, -and others would then be able to compete with him. So, to divert -attention from the real cause, he pointed out to the trade that the -shape of his type was different, as the angle at which all the lines -were produced from the surface was more obtuse in his type than in those -of other manufacturers, at the same time contending that his type would -wear longer. Other manufacturers ridiculed this account of Bessemer's -type, but experience showed that it lasted nearly twice as long as other -type. The business flourished for a dozen years under his direction, and -during that period the real cause of its success was kept a secret. The -process has since been re-discovered and patented. Such were some of the -inventive efforts of the father of one of the greatest inventors of the -present age. - - -HENRY BESSEMER. - -The youngest son of Anthony Bessemer, Henry, was born at Charlton, in -Hertfordshire, in 1813. His boyhood was spent in his native village; and -while receiving the rudiments of an ordinary education in the -neighboring town of Hitchin, the leisure and retirement of rural life -afforded ample time, though perhaps little inducement, for the display -of the natural bent of his mind. Notwithstanding his scanty and -imperfect mechanical appliances, his early years were devoted to the -cultivation of his inventive faculties. His parents encouraged him in -his youthful efforts. - -At the age of eighteen he came to London, "knowing no one," he says, -"and myself unknown,--a mere cipher in a vast sea of human enterprise." -Here he worked as a modeller and designer with encouraging success. He -engraved a large number of elegant and original designs on steel, with a -diamond point, for patent-medicine labels. He got plenty of this sort of -work to do, and was well paid for it. In his boyhood his favorite -amusement was the modelling of objects in clay; and even in this -primitive school of genius he worked with so much success that at the -age of nineteen he exhibited one of his beautiful models at the Royal -Academy, then held at Somerset House. - - -STAMPED PAPER. - -Thus he soon began to make his way in the metropolis; and in the course -of the following year he was maturing some plans in connection with the -production of stamps which he sanguinely hoped would lead him on to -fortune. At that time the old forms of stamps were in use that had been -employed since the days of Queen Anne; and as they were easily -transferred from old deeds to new ones, the Government lost a large -amount annually by this surreptitious use of old stamps instead of new -ones. The ordinary impressed or embossed stamps, such as are now -employed on bills of exchange, or impressed directly on skins or -parchment, were liable to be entirely obliterated if exposed for some -months to a damp atmosphere. A deed so exposed would at last appear as -if unstamped, and would therefore become invalid. Special precautions -were therefore observed in order to prevent this occurrence. It was the -practice to gum small pieces of blue paper on the parchment; and, to -render it still more secure, a strip of metal foil was passed through -it, and another small piece of paper with the printed initials of the -sovereign was gummed over the loose end of the foil at the back. The -stamp was then impressed on the blue paper, which, unlike parchment, is -incapable of losing the impression by exposure to a damp atmosphere. -Experience showed, however, that by placing a little piece of moistened -blotting-paper for a few hours over the paper, the gum became so -softened that the two pieces of paper and the slip of foil could be -easily removed from an old deed and then used for a new one. In this way -stamps could be used a second and third time; and by thus utilizing the -expensive stamps on old deeds of partnerships that were dissolved, or -leases that were expired, the public revenue lost thousands of pounds -every year. Sir Charles Persley, of the Stamp Office, told Sir Henry -Bessemer that the Government were probably defrauded of £100,000 per -annum in that way. The young inventor at once set to work, for the -express purpose of devising a stamp that could not be used twice. His -first discovery was a mode by which he could have reproduced easily and -cheaply thousands of stamps of any pattern. "The facility," he says, -"with which I could make a permanent die from a thin paper original, -capable of producing a thousand copies, would have opened a wide door -for successful frauds if my process had been known to unscrupulous -persons; for there is not a government stamp or a paper seal of a -corporate body that every common office clerk could not forge in a few -minutes at the office of his employer or at his own home. The production -of such a die from a common paper stamp is a work of only ten minutes; -the materials cost less than one penny; no sort of technical skill is -necessary, and a common copying-press or a letter stamp yields most -successful copies." To this day a successful forger has to employ a -skilful die-sinker to make a good imitation in steel of the document he -wishes to forge; but if such a method as that discovered and described -by Sir Henry Bessemer were known, what a prospect it would open up! -Appalled at the effect which the communication of such a process would -have had upon the business of the Stamp Office, he carefully kept the -knowledge of it to himself; and to this day it remains a profound -secret. - -More than ever impressed with the necessity for an improved form of -stamp, and conscious of his own capability to produce it, he labored for -some months to accomplish his object, feeling sure that, if successful, -he would be amply rewarded by the Government. To insure the secrecy of -his experiments, he worked at them during the night, after his ordinary -business of the day was over. He succeeded at last in making a stamp -which obviated the great objection to the then existing form, inasmuch -as it would be impossible to transfer it from one deed to another, to -obliterate it by moisture, or to take an impression from it capable of -producing a duplicate. Flushed with success and confident of the reward -of his labors, he waited upon Sir Charles Persley at Somerset House, and -showed him, by numerous proofs, how easily all the then existing stamps -could be forged, and his new invention to prevent forgery. Sir Charles, -who was much astonished at the one invention and pleased with the other, -asked Bessemer to call again in a few days. At the second interview Sir -Charles asked him to work out the principle of the new stamping -invention more fully. Accordingly Bessemer devoted five or six weeks' -more labor to the perfecting of his stamp, with which the Stamp Office -authorities were now well pleased. The design, as described by the -inventor, was circular, about two and a half inches in diameter, and -consisted of a garter with a motto in capital letters, surmounted by a -crown. Within the garter was a shield, and the garter was filled with -network in imitation of lace. The die was executed in steel, which -pierced the parchment with more than four hundred holes; and these holes -formed the stamp. It is by a similar process that valentine makers have -since learned to make the perforated paper used in their trade. Such a -stamp removed all the objections to the old one. So pleased was Sir -Charles with it that he recommended it to Lord Althorp, and it was soon -adopted by the Stamp Office. At the same time Sir Henry was asked -whether he would be satisfied with the position of Superintendent of -Stamps with £500 or £600 per annum, as compensation for his invention, -instead of a sum of money from the treasury. This appointment he gladly -agreed to accept; for, being engaged to be married at the time, he -thought his future position in life was settled. Shortly afterwards he -called on the young lady to whom he was engaged, and communicated the -glad tidings to her, at the same time showing her the design of his new -stamp. On explaining to her that its chief virtue was that the new -stamps thus produced could not, like the old ones, be fraudulently used -twice or thrice, she instantly suggested that if all stamps had a date -put upon them they could not be used at a future time without detection. -The idea was new to him; and, impressed with its practical character, he -at once conceived a plan for the insertion of movable dates in the die -of his stamp. The method by which this is now done is too well known to -require description here; but in 1833 it was a new invention. Having -worked out the details of a stamp with movable dates, he saw that it -was more simple and more easily worked than his elaborate die for -perforating stamps; but he also saw that if he disclosed his latest -invention it might interfere with his settled prospects in connection -with the carrying out of his first one. It was not without regret, too, -that he saw the results of many months of toil and the experiments of -many lonely nights at once superseded; but his conviction of the -superiority of his latest design was so strong, and his own sense of -honor and his confidence in that of the Government was so unsuspecting, -that he boldly went and placed the whole matter before Sir Charles -Persley. Of course the new design was preferred. Sir Charles truly -observed that with this new plan all the old dies, old presses, and old -workmen could be employed. Among the other advantages it presented to -the Government, it did not fail to strike Sir Charles that no -Superintendent of Stamps would now be necessary,--a recommendation which -the perforated die did not possess. The Stamp Office therefore abandoned -the ingenuous and ingenious inventor. The old stamps were called in, and -the new ones issued in a few weeks; the revenue from stamps grew -enormously, and forged or feloniously used stamps are now almost unheard -of. The Stamp Office reaped a benefit which it is scarcely possible to -estimate fully, while Bessemer did not receive a farthing. Shortly after -the new stamp was adopted by Act of Parliament, Lord Althorp resigned, -and his successors disclaimed all liability. When the disappointed -inventor pressed his claim, he was met by all sorts of half-promises and -excuses, which ended in nothing. The disappointment was all the more -galling because, if Bessemer had stuck to his first-adopted plan, his -services would have been indispensable to its execution; and it was -therefore through his putting a better and more easily worked plan -before them that his services were coolly ignored. "I had no patent to -fall back upon," he says, in describing the incident afterward. "I could -not go to law, even if I wished to do so; for I was reminded, when -pressing for mere money out of pocket, that I had done all the work -voluntarily and of my own accord. Wearied and disgusted, I at last -ceased to waste time in calling at the Stamp Office,--for time was -precious to me in those days,--and I felt that nothing but increased -exertions could make up for the loss of some nine months of toil and -expenditure. Thus sad and dispirited, and with a burning sense of -injustice overpowering all other feelings, I went my way from the Stamp -Office, too proud to ask as a favor that which was indubitably my -right." - - -GOLD PAINT. - -Shortly after he had taken out his first patent for his improvement in -type-founding, his attention was accidentally turned to the manufacture -of bronze powder, which is used in gold-work, japanning, gold-printing, -and similar operations. While engaged in ornamenting a vignette in his -sister's album, he had to purchase a small quantity of this bronze, and -was struck with the great difference between the price of the raw -material and that of the manufactured article. The latter sold for -112_s._ a pound, while the raw material only cost 11_d._ a pound. He -concluded that the difference was caused by the process of manufacture, -and made inquiries with the view of learning the nature of the process. -He found, however, that this manufacture was hardly known in England. -The article was supplied to English dealers from Nuremberg and other -towns in Germany. He did not succeed, therefore, in finding any one who -could tell him how it was produced. In these circumstances he determined -to try to make it himself, and worked for a year and a half at the -solution of this task. Other men had tried it and failed, and he was on -the point of failing too. After eighteen months of fruitless labor he -came to the conclusion that he could not make it, and gave it up. But it -is the highest attribute of genius to succeed where others fail, and, -impelled by this instinct, he resumed his investigations after six -months' repose. At last success crowned his efforts. The profits of his -previous inventions now supplied him with funds sufficient to provide -the mechanical appliances he had designed. - -Knowing very little of the patent law, and considering it so insecure -that the safest way to reap the full benefit of his new invention was to -keep it to himself, he determined to work his process of bronze-making -in strict secrecy; and every precaution was therefore adopted for this -purpose. He first put up a small apparatus with his own hands, and -worked it entirely himself. By this means he produced the required -article at 4_s._ a pound. He then sent out a traveller with samples of -it, and the first order he got was at 80_s._ a pound. Being thus fully -assured of success, he communicated his plans to a friend, who agreed to -put £10,000 into the business, as a sleeping partner, in order to work -the new manufacture on a larger scale. The entire working of the concern -was left in the hands of Sir Henry, who accordingly proceeded to enlarge -his means of production. To insure secrecy, he made plans of all the -machinery required, and then divided them into sections. He next sent -these sectional drawings to different engineering works, in order to -get his machinery made piecemeal in different parts of England. This -done, he collected the various pieces, and fitted them up himself,--a -work that occupied him nine months. Finding everything at last in -perfect working order, he engaged four or five assistants in whom he had -confidence, and paid them very high wages on condition that they kept -everything in the strictest secrecy. Bronze powder was now produced in -large quantities by means of five self-acting machines, which not only -superseded hand labor entirely, but were capable of producing as much -daily as sixty skilled operatives could do by the old hand system. - -To this day the mechanical means by which his famous gold paint is -produced remains a secret. The machinery is driven by a steam-engine in -an adjoining room; and into the room where the automatic machinery is at -work none but the inventor and his assistants have ever entered. When a -sufficient quantity of work is done, a bell is rung to give notice to -the engine-man to stop the engine; and in this way the machinery has -been in constant use for over forty years without having been either -patented or pirated. Its profit was as great as its success. At first he -made 1,000 per cent profit; and though there are other products that now -compete with this bronze, it still yields 300 per cent profit. "All this -time," says the successful inventor thirty years afterward, "I have been -afraid to improve the machinery, or to introduce other engineers into -the works to improve them. Strange to say, we have thus among us a -manufacture wholly unimproved for thirty years. I do not believe there -is another instance of such a thing in the kingdom. I believe that if I -had patented it, the fourteen years would not have run out without other -people making improvements in the manufacture. Of the five machines I -use, three are applicable to other processes, one to color-making -especially; so much so that notwithstanding the very excellent income -which I derive from the manufacture, I had once nearly made up my mind -to throw it open and make it public, for the purpose of using part of my -invention for the manufacture of colors. Three out of my five assistants -have died; and if the other two were to die and myself too, no one would -know what the invention is." Since this was said (in 1871), Sir Henry -has rewarded the faithfulness of his two surviving assistants by handing -over to them the business and the factory. - - -BESSEMER STEEL. - -Sir Henry Bessemer was first led to turn his attention to the -improvement of the manufacture of iron by a remark of Commander Minie, -who was superintending certain trials of the results of Sir Henry's -experiments in obtaining rotation of shot fired from a smooth-bore gun. -"The shots," said Minie, "rotate properly; but if you cannot get -stronger metal for your guns, such heavy projectiles will be of little -use." - -At this time Sir Henry had no connection with the iron or steel trade, -and knew little or nothing of metallurgy. But this fact he has always -represented as being rather an advantage than a drawback. "I find," he -says, "in my experience with regard to inventions, that the most -intelligent manufacturers invent many small improvements in various -departments of their manufactures,--but, generally speaking, these are -only small ameliorations based on the nature of the operation they are -daily pursuing; while, on the contrary, persons wholly unconnected with -any particular business have their minds so free and untrammelled to -new things as they are, and as they would present themselves to an -independent observer, that they are the men who eventually produce the -greatest changes." It was in this spirit that he began his -investigations in metallurgy. His first business was to make himself -acquainted with the information contained in the best works then -published on the subject. He also endeavored to add some practical -knowledge to what he learned from books. With this view he visited the -iron-making districts in the north, and there obtained an insight into -the working merits and defects of the processes then in use. On his -return to London he arranged for the use of an old factory in St. -Pancras, where he began his own series of experiments. He converted the -factory into a small experimental "iron-works," in which his first -object was to improve the quality of iron. For this purpose he made many -costly experiments without the desired measure of success, but not -without making some progress in the right direction. After twelve months -spent in these experiments he produced an improved quality of cast iron, -which was almost as white as steel, and was both tougher and stronger -than the best cast iron then used for ordnance. Of this metal he cast a -small model gun, which was turned and bored. This gun he took to Paris, -and presented it personally to the Emperor,[23] as the result of his -labors thus far. His Majesty encouraged him to continue his experiments, -and desired to be further informed of the results. - -As Sir Henry continued his labors, he extended their scope from the -production of refined iron to that of steel; and in order to protect -himself, he took out a patent for each successive improvement. One idea -after another was put to the test of experiment; one furnace after -another was pulled down, and numerous mechanical appliances were -designed and tried in practice. During these experiments he specified a -multitude of improvements in the crucible process of making steel; but -he still felt that much remained to be done. At the end of eighteen -months, he says, "the idea struck me" of rendering cast iron malleable -by the introduction of atmospheric air into the fluid metal. His first -experiment to test this idea was made in a crucible in the laboratory. -He there found that by blowing air into the molten metal in the -crucible, by means of a movable blow-pipe, he could convert ten pounds -or twelve pounds of crude iron into the softest malleable iron. The -samples thus produced were so satisfactory in all their mechanical tests -that he brought them under the notice of Colonel Eardley Wilmot, then -the Superintendent of the Royal Gun Factories, who expressed himself -delighted and astonished at the result, and who offered him facilities -for experimenting in Woolwich Arsenal. These facilities were extended to -him in the laboratory by Professor Abel, who made numberless analyses of -the material as he advanced with his experiments. The testing department -was also put at his disposal, for testing the tensile strength and -elasticity of different samples of soft malleable iron and steel. The -first piece that was rolled at Woolwich was preserved by Sir Henry as a -memento. It was a small bar of metal, about a foot long and an inch -wide, and was converted from a state of pig iron in a crucible of only -ten pounds. That small piece of bar, after being rolled, was tried, to -see how far it was capable of welding; and he was surprised to see how -easily it answered the severest tests. After this he commenced -experiments on a larger scale. He had proved in the laboratory that the -principle of purifying pig iron by atmospheric air was possible; but he -feared, from what he knew of iron metallurgy, that as he approached the -condition of pure soft malleable iron, he must of necessity require a -temperature that he could not hope to attain under these conditions. In -order to produce larger quantities of metal in this way, one of his -first ideas was to apply the air to the molten iron in crucibles; and -accordingly, in October, 1855, he took out a patent embodying this idea. -He proposed to erect a large circular furnace, with openings for the -reception of melting-pots containing fluid iron, and pipes were made to -conduct air into the centre of each pot, and to force it among the -particles of metal. Having thus tested the purifying effect of cold air -introduced into the melting iron in pots, he labored for three months in -trying to overcome the mechanical difficulties experienced in this -complicated arrangement. He wondered whether it would not be possible to -dispense with the pipes and pots, and perform the whole operation in one -large circular or egg-shaped vessel. The difficult thing in doing so, -was to force the air all through the mass of liquid metal. While this -difficulty was revolving in his mind, the labor and anxiety entailed by -previous experiments brought on a short but severe illness; and while he -was lying in bed, pondering for hours upon the prospects of succeeding -in another experiment with the pipes and pots, it occurred to him that -the difficulty might be got over by introducing air into a large vessel -from below into the molten mass within. - -Though he entertained grave doubts as to the practicability of carrying -out this idea, chiefly owing to the high temperature required to -maintain the iron in a state of fluidity while the impurities were being -burned out, he determined to put it to a working test; and on recovering -health he immediately began to design apparatus for this purpose. He -constructed a circular vessel, measuring three feet in diameter and five -feet in height, and capable of holding seven hundred-weight of iron. He -next ordered a small, powerful air-engine and a quantity of crude iron -to be put down on the premises in St. Pancras, that he had hired for -carrying on his experiments. The name of these premises was Baxter -House, formerly the residence of old Richard Baxter; and the simple -experiment we are now going to describe has made that house more famous -than ever. The primitive apparatus being ready, the engine was made to -force streams of air, under high pressure, through the bottom of the -vessel, which was lined with fire-clay; and the stoker was told to pour -the metal, when it was sufficiently melted, in at the top of it. A -cast-iron plate--one of those lids which commonly cover the coal-holes -in the pavement--was hung over the converter; and all being got ready, -the stoker in some bewilderment poured in the metal. Instantly out came -a volcanic eruption of such dazzling coruscations as had never been seen -before. The dangling pot-lid dissolved in the gleaming volume of flame, -and the chain by which it hung grew red and then white, as the various -stages of the process were unfolded to the gaze of the wondering -spectators. The air-cock to regulate the blast was beside the -converting-vessel; but no one dared to go near it, much less -deliberately to shut it. In this dilemma, however, they were soon -relieved by finding that the process of decarburization or combustion -had expended all its fury; and, most wonderful of all, the result was -steel! The new metal was tried. Its quality was good. The problem was -solved. The new process appeared successful. The inventor was elated, as -well he might be! - -The new process was received with astonishment by all the iron-working -world. It was approved by many, but scoffed at by others. As trials went -on, however, the feeling against it increased. The iron so made was -often "rotten," and no one could tell exactly why. - -Bessemer, however, continued to investigate everything for himself, -regardless of all suggestions. Some ideas of permanent value were -offered to him, but were set at nought. It was not till another series -of independent experiments were made that he himself discovered the -secret of failure. It then appeared that, by mere chance, the iron used -in his first experiments was Blaenavon pig, which is exceptionally free -from phosphorus; and consequently, when other sorts of iron were thrown -at random into the converter, the phosphorus manifested its refractory -nature in the unworkable character of the metal produced. Analyses made -by Professor Abel for Sir Henry showed that this was the real cause of -failure. Once convinced of this fact, Sir Henry set to work for the -purpose of removing this hostile element. He saw how phosphorus was -removed in the puddling-furnace, and he now tried to do the same thing -in his converter. Another series of costly and laborious experiments was -conducted; and first one patent and then another was taken out, tried, -and abandoned. His last idea was to make a vessel in which the -converting process did not take place, but into which he could put the -pig iron as soon as it was melted, along with the same kind of materials -that were used in the puddling-furnace. He was then of opinion that he -must come as near to puddling as possible, in order to get the -phosphorus out of the iron. Just as he was preparing to put this plan -into operation, there arrived in England some pig iron which he had -ordered from Sweden some months previously. When this iron, which was -free from phosphorus, was put into the converter, it yielded, in the -very first experiment, a metal of so high a quality that he at once -abandoned his efforts to dephosphorize ordinary iron. The Sheffield -manufacturers were then selling steel at £60 a ton; and he thought that -as he could buy pig iron at £7 a ton, and by blowing it a few minutes in -the converter could make it into what was being sold at such a high -price, the problem was solved. - -But there was yet one thing wanting. He had now succeeded in producing -the purest malleable iron ever made, and that, too, by a quicker and -less expensive process than was ever known before. But what he wanted -was to make steel. The former is iron in its greatest possible purity; -the latter is pure iron containing a small percentage of carbon to -harden it. There has been an almost endless controversy in trying to -make a definition that will fix the dividing line that separates the one -metal from the other.[24] - -For our present purpose, suffice it to quote the account given in a -popular treatise on metallurgy, published at the time when Bessemer was -in the midst of his experiments. "Wrought iron," it says, "or soft -iron, may contain no carbon; and if perfectly pure, would contain none, -nor indeed any other impurity. This is a state to be desired and aimed -at, but it has never yet been perfectly attained in practice. The best -as well as the commonest foreign irons always contain more or less -carbon.... Carbon may exist in iron in the ratio of 65 parts to 10,000 -without assuming the properties of steel. If the proportion be greater -than that, and anywhere between the limits of 65 parts of carbon to -10,000 parts of iron and 2 parts of carbon to 100 of iron, the alloy -assumes the properties of steel. In cast iron the carbon exceeds 2 per -cent, but in appearance and properties it differs widely from the -hardest steel. These properties, although we quote them, are somewhat -doubtful; and the chemical constitution of these three substances may, -perhaps, be regarded as still undetermined." Now, in the Bessemer -converter the carbon was almost entirely consumed. In the small gun just -described,[25] there were only 14 parts of carbon for 1,000,000 parts of -iron. Bessemer's next difficulty was to carburize his pure iron, and -thus to make it into steel. "The wrought iron," says Mr. I. L. Bell, "as -well as the steel made according to Sir Henry Bessemer's original plan, -though a purer specimen of metal was never heard of except in the -laboratory, was simply worthless. In this difficulty, a ray of -scientific truth, brought to light one hundred years before, came to the -rescue. Bergmann was one of the earliest philosophers who discarded all -theory, and introduced into chemistry that process of analysis which is -the indispensable antecedent of scientific system. This Swedish -experimenter had ascertained the existence of manganese in the iron of -that country, and connected its presence with suitability for steel -purposes." Manganese is a kind of iron exceptionally rich in carbon, and -also exceptionally free from other impurities. Berzelius, Rinman, -Karsten, Berthier, and other metallurgists had before now discussed its -effect when combined with ordinary iron; and the French were so well -aware that ferro-manganese ores were superior for steel-making purposes -that they gave them the name of _mines d'acier_. So Bessemer, after many -experiments, discovered a method whereby, with the use of -ferro-manganese, he could make what is known as mild steel. The process -of manufacture, when described by Sir Henry Bessemer at Cheltenham in -1856,[26] was so nearly complete, that only two important additions were -made afterwards. One was the introduction of the ferro-manganese for the -purpose of imparting to his pure liquid iron the properties of "mild -steel." The other was an improvement in the mechanical apparatus. He -found that when the air had been blown into the iron till all the carbon -was expelled, the continuance of "the blow" afterward consumed the iron -at a very rapid rate, and a great loss of iron thus took place. It was -therefore necessary to cease blowing at a particular moment. At first he -saw no practical way by which he could prevent the metal going into the -air-holes in the bottom of the vessel below the level of the liquid -mass, so as to stop them up immediately on ceasing to force the air -through them; for if he withdrew the pressure of air, the whole -apparatus would be destroyed for a time. Here, again, his inventive -genius found a remedy. He had the converter holding the molten iron -mounted on an axis, which enabled him at any moment he liked to turn it -round and to bring the holes above the level of the metal; whenever this -was done the process of conversion or combustion ceased of itself, and -the apparatus had only to be turned back again in order to resume the -operation. This turning on an axis of a furnace weighing eleven tons, -and containing five tons of liquid metal, at a temperature scarcely -approachable, was a system entirely different from anything that had -preceded it; for it he took out what he considered one of his most -important patents, "and," he says, "I am vain enough to believe that so -long as my process lasts, the motion of the vessel containing the fluid -on its axis will be retained as an absolute necessity for any form which -the process may take at any future time." The patent for this invention -was taken out about four years after his original patent for the -converter. - -Uncle Fritz showed them a picture of this gigantic kettle, which holds -this mass of molten metal and yet turns so easily. - -"But," said Helen, "you have a model of it here, Uncle Fritz." And she -pointed to her Uncle Fritz's inkstand, which is something the shape of a -fat beet-root, with the point turned up to receive the ink. Uncle Fritz -nodded his approval. These inkstands, which turn over on a little brazen -axis, were probably first made by some one who had seen the great -eleven-ton converters. - -Uncle Fritz showed the children the picture in the "Practical Magazine," -and they spent some time together in looking over the pages of the -volume for 1876. - -The Bessemer process was now perfect. Nearly four years had elapsed -since its conception and first application; and in addition to the -necessary labor and anxiety he had experienced, no less than £20,000 -had been expended in making experiments that were necessary to complete -its success. It only remained to bring the process into general use. - - * * * * * - -The young people asked quite eagerly whether they could see the -processes of "conversion" anywhere, and were glad to be told that -Bessemer steel is made in many parts of America. One of their young -friends, who was educated at the "Technology," is in charge of a -department at Steelton, in Pennsylvania, and they have all written -letters to him. - -The American steel-makers have a great variety of ores to choose from, -and they have found it possible, by using different ores, to avoid the -difficulties which Mr. Bessemer first met in using the ores of England. - -And so far are the processes now simplified, that in many American -establishments the molten iron is received liquid from the blast -furnaces, and does not have to be reduced a second time in a cupola -furnace, as was the iron used by Mr. Bessemer. There is no cooling, in -such establishments, between the ore and the finished steel. - - - - -XIV. - -THE LAST MEETING. - - -GOODYEAR. - -When the day for the next meeting came, Uncle Fritz had a large -collection of books and magazines in the little rolling racks and tables -where such things are kept. But no one of them was opened. - -No. The young people appeared in great strength, all at the same moment, -and notified him that he was to put on his hat and his light overcoat, -and go with them on what they called the first "Alp" of the season. For -there is a pretence in the little company that they are an Alpine Club, -and that for eight months of the year it is their duty to climb the -highest mountains near Boston. - -Now, the very highest of these peaks is the summit hill of the Blue -Hills, to which indeed Massachusetts owes its name. For "Matta" in the -Algonquin tongue meant "great," and "Chuset" meant "a hill." And a woman -who was living on a little hummock near Squantum, just before Winthrop -and the rest landed, was the sacred Sachem of the Massachusetts Indians. -Hence the name of Mattachusetts Bay; and then, by euphony or bad -spelling, or both, Massachusetts. - -Uncle Fritz obeyed the rabble rout, as he is apt to do. He retired for a -minute to put on heavier shoes, and, when he reappeared, he took the -seat of honor in the leading omnibus. And a very merry expedition they -had to the summit, where, as the accurate Fergus told them, they were -six hundred feet above the level of the sea. There was but little wood, -and they were able to lie and sit in a large group on the ground just on -the lee side of the hill, where they could look off on the endless sea. - -"Whom should you have told us about, had it rained?" said Mabel Fordyce. - -"Oh! you were to have had your choice. There are still left many -inventors. I had looked at Mr. Parton's Life of Goodyear, and the very -curious brief prepared for the court about his patents. Half of you -would not be here to-day but for that ingenious and long-suffering man." - -"Should not I have come?" said Gertrude, incredulously. - -"Surely not," said Uncle Fritz, laughing. "I saw your water-proof in -your shawl-strap. I know your mamma well enough to know that you would -never have been permitted to come so far from home without that ægis, or -without those trig, pretty overshoes. You owe waterproof and overshoes -both to the steady perseverance of Goodyear and to the loyal help of his -wife and daughters. Some day you must read Mr. Webster's eulogy on him -and them. Indeed, he is the American Palissy. You hear a good deal of -woman's rights; but, really, modern women had no rights worth speaking -of till Mr. Goodyear enabled them to go out-doors in all weathers. - -"I meant we should have an afternoon with the Goodyears. Then I meant -that you should know, Gertrude, where that slice of bread came from." - -"Well," said she, "I do not know much, but I do know that. It came out -of the bread-box." - -"Very good," said the Colonel, laughing. "But somebody put it into the -bread-box. And it is quite as well that you should know who put it in. -American girls and American boys ought to know that men's prayer for -'Daily Bread' is answered more and more largely every year. They ought -to know why. Well, the great reason is that reaping and binding after -the reapers, nay, that sowing the corn, and every process between sowing -and harvest, has been wellnigh perfected by the American inventors. So I -had wanted to give a day or two to reapers and binders, and the other -machinery of harvesting. Indeed, if our winter had been as long as poor -Captain Greely's was, and if you had met me every week, we should have -had a new invention for each one. Here are the telephone and the -telegraph. Here is the use of the electric light. Here is the -sewing-machine, with all its nice details, like the button-hole maker. -Nay, every button is made by its own machinery. Here are carpets one -quarter cheaper than they were only four years ago; cotton cloths made -more by machinery and less by hand labor; nay, they tell us that the -cotton is to be picked by a machine before long. - -"But these are things you must work up for yourselves. You are on a good -track now, and have learned some of the principles of such study. - -"Go to the originals whenever you can. Read what you understand, and -fall back on what you did not understand at first, so as to try it -again." - -"Do you not think that all the great things have been invented, Uncle -Fritz?" - -This was John Angier's rather melancholy question. - -"Not a bit of it, my boy. Certainly not for as keen eyes as yours and as -handy hands. Let me tell you what I heard President Dawson say. He is -President of McGill University, and is counted one of the first physical -philosophers in America. - -"He said this in substance: 'What will future times say of us, the men -of the end of the nineteenth century? They will say, "What was the ban -on those men, what numbed them or held them still, as if in fear? Why -did they not apply in daily life their own great discoveries of the -central laws of Nature? They were able to work out principles. Why could -they not embody them in useful inventions? They discovered the Ocean of -Truth, but they stood frightened on its shore. They found the great -principles of science, and for their application they seem to have been -satisfied when they had built the steam-engine, had devised the -telegraph, the telephone, the phonograph, and when they had set the -electric light a blazing."' - -"You see, John, that he thinks there is enough more for you and the rest -to invent and to discover." - -Then Uncle Fritz took from his ulster pocket Mr. Parton's volume of -biographical sketches. - -"It is all very fine for you, Miss Alice," he said, "to lie there on -your waterproof, and to be sure that even mamma will not scold when you -go home. But take the book, and read, and see who has wept and who has -starved that you might lie there." - -And Alice read the passages he had marked for her. - - -The difficulty of all this may be inferred when we state that at the -present time it takes an intelligent man a year to learn how to conduct -the process with certainty, though he is provided, from the start, with -the best implements and appliances which twenty years' experience has -suggested. And poor Goodyear had now reduced himself, not merely to -poverty, but to isolation. No friend of his could conceal his impatience -when he heard him pronounce the word "India-rubber." Business-men -recoiled from the name of it. He tells us that two entire years passed, -after he had made his discovery, before he had convinced one human being -of its value. Now, too, his experiments could no longer be carried on -with a few pounds of India-rubber, a quart of turpentine, a phial of -aquafortis, and a little lampblack. He wanted the means of producing a -high, uniform, and controllable degree of heat,--a matter of much -greater difficulty than he anticipated. We catch brief glimpses of him -at this time in the volumes of testimony. We see him waiting for his -wife to draw the loaves from her oven, that he might put into it a batch -of India-rubber to bake, and watching it all the evening, far into the -night, to see what effect was produced by one hour's, two hours', three -hours', six hours' baking. We see him boiling it in his wife's -saucepans, suspending it before the nose of her teakettle, and hanging -it from the handle of that vessel to within an inch of the boiling -water. We see him roasting it in the ashes and in hot sand, toasting it -before a slow fire and before a quick fire, cooking it for one hour and -for twenty-four hours, changing the proportions of his compound and -mixing them in different ways. No success rewarded him while he employed -only domestic utensils. Occasionally, it is true, he produced a small -piece of perfectly vulcanized India-rubber; but upon subjecting other -pieces to precisely the same process, they would blister or char. - -Then we see him resorting to the shops and factories in the neighborhood -of Woburn, asking the privilege of using an oven after working hours, -or of hanging a piece of India-rubber in the "man-hole" of the boiler. -The foremen testify that he was a great plague to them, and smeared -their works with his sticky compound; but though they regarded him as -little better than a troublesome lunatic, they all appear to have helped -him very willingly. He frankly confesses that he lived at this time on -charity; for although _he_ felt confident of being able to repay the -small sums which pity for his family enabled him to borrow, his -neighbors who lent him the money were as far as possible from expecting -payment. Pretending to lend, they meant to give. One would pay his -butcher's bill or his milk-bill; another would send in a barrel of -flour; another would take in payment some articles of the old stock of -India-rubber; and some of the farmers allowed his children to gather -sticks in their fields to heat his hillocks of sand containing masses of -sulphurized India-rubber. If the people of New England were not the most -"neighborly" people in the world, his family must have starved, or he -must have given up his experiments. But, with all the generosity of his -neighbors, his children were often sick, hungry, and cold, without -medicine, food, or fuel. One witness testifies: "I found, in 1839, that -they had not fuel to burn nor food to eat, and did not know where to get -a morsel of food from one day to another, unless it was sent in to -them." We can neither justify nor condemn their father. Imagine Columbus -within sight of the new world, and his obstinate crew declaring it was -only a mirage, and refusing to row him ashore. Never was mortal man -surer that he had a fortune in his hand, than Charles Goodyear was when -he would take a piece of scorched and dingy India-rubber from his pocket -and expound its marvellous properties to a group of incredulous -villagers. Sure also was he that he was just upon the point of a -practicable success. Give him but an oven and would he not turn you out -fire-proof and cold-proof India-rubber, as fast as a baker can produce -loaves of bread? Nor was it merely the hope of deliverance from his -pecuniary straits that urged him on. In all the records of his career, -we perceive traces of something nobler than this. His health being -always infirm, he was haunted with the dread of dying before he had -reached a point in his discoveries where other men, influenced by -ordinary motives, could render them available. - -By the time that he had exhausted the patience of the foremen of the -works near Woburn, he had come to the conclusion that an oven was the -proper means of applying heat to his compound. An oven he forthwith -determined to build. Having obtained the use of a corner of a factory -yard, his aged father, two of his brothers, his little son, and himself -sallied forth, with pickaxe and shovels, to begin the work; and when -they had done all that unskilled labor could effect towards it, he -induced a mason to complete it, and paid him in brick-layers' aprons -made of aquafortized India-rubber. This first oven was a tantalizing -failure. The heat was neither uniform nor controllable. Some of the -pieces of India-rubber would come out so perfectly "cured" as to -demonstrate the utility of his discovery; but others, prepared in -precisely the same manner, as far as he could discern, were spoiled, -either by blistering or charring. He was puzzled and distressed beyond -description; and no single voice consoled or encouraged him. Out of the -first piece of cloth which he succeeded in vulcanizing he had a coat -made for himself, which was not an ornamental garment in its best -estate; but, to prove to the unbelievers that it would stand fire, he -brought it so often in contact with hot stoves, that at last it -presented an exceedingly dingy appearance. His coat did not impress the -public favorably, and it served to confirm the opinion that he was -laboring under a mania. - -In the midst of his first disheartening experiments with sulphur, he had -an opportunity of escaping at once from his troubles. A house in Paris -made him an advantageous offer for the use of his aquafortis process. -From the abyss of his misery the honest man promptly replied, that that -process, valuable as it was, was about to be superseded by a new method, -which he was then perfecting, and as soon as he had developed it -sufficiently he should be glad to close with their offers. Can we wonder -that his neighbors thought him mad? - -It was just after declining the French proposal that he endured his -worst extremity of want and humiliation. It was in the winter of -1839-40; one of those long and terrible snowstorms for which New England -is noted, had been raging for many hours, and he awoke one morning to -find his little cottage half buried in snow, the storm still continuing, -and in his house not an atom of fuel nor a morsel of food. His children -were very young, and he was himself sick and feeble. The charity of his -neighbors was exhausted, and he had not the courage to face their -reproaches. As he looked out of the window upon the dreary and -tumultuous scene,--"fit emblem of his condition," he remarks,--he called -to mind that a few days before, an acquaintance, a mere acquaintance, -who lived some miles off, had given him upon the road a more friendly -greeting than he was then accustomed to receive. It had cheered his -heart as he trudged sadly by, and it now returned vividly to his mind. -To this gentleman he determined to apply for relief, if he could reach -his house. Terrible was his struggle with the wind and the deep drifts. -Often he was ready to faint with fatigue, sickness, and hunger, and he -would be obliged to sit down upon a bank of snow to rest. He reached the -house and told his story, not omitting the oft-told tale of his new -discovery,--that mine of wealth, if only he could procure the means of -working it. The eager eloquence of the inventor was seconded by the -gaunt and yellow face of the man. His generous acquaintance entertained -him cordially, and lent him a sum of money, which not only carried his -family through the worst of the winter, but enabled him to continue his -experiments on a small scale. O. B. Coolidge, of Woburn, was the name of -this benefactor. - -On another occasion, when he was in the most urgent need of materials, -he looked about his house to see if there was left one relic of better -days upon which a little money could be borrowed. There was nothing but -his children's school-books,--the last things from which a New Englander -is willing to part. There was no other resource. He gathered them up, -and sold them for five dollars, with which he laid in a fresh stock of -gum and sulphur, and kept on experimenting. - - -Alice and Hester looked over the rest of the story while the others -packed up the wrecks of the picnic and prepared to go down the hill. -Then they joined Uncle Fritz in the advance, and thanked him very -seriously for what he had shown them. - -"Such a story as that," said Hester, "is worth more than anything about -cut-offs or valves." - -"I think so too," said he. - -"I should like," said the girl, "to write to those children of his a -letter to thank them for what they have done, and what he did for me, -and a million girls like me." - -"It would be a good thing to do," said he, "and I think I can put you in -the way." - -"And I do hope," said Alice, eagerly, "that if we are ever tested in -that way we shall bear the test." - -"Dear Uncle Fritz, if we cannot invent a flying-machine, and have not -learned how to close up rivets this winter, we have learned at least how -to bear each other's burdens." - - - - -FOOTNOTES: - - -[1] These are the quinqueremes, fastened together, of the other account. - -[2] The estimates of a talent vary somewhat, but ten talents made about -seven hundred pounds. - -[3] Quoted in Fabricius's Greek fragments. - -[4] Encyclopædia Americana: art. "Roger Bacon." - -[5] See "Stories of Adventure." - -[6] As St. James says, "The wisdom from above is _first_ pure." - -[7] Joseph Droz, born in 1773. His essay was published in 1806, and had -come to its fourth edition in 1825. - -[8] The first-steam-engines were devised in order to supply some motor -for the pumps which were necessary, all over England, to keep the mines -free from water. The locomotive engine, as will be seen later, owes its -birth to the efforts of colliery engineers to find some means of drawing -coal better than the horse-power generally in use. - -[9] John Robison, at this time a student at Glasgow College, and -afterwards Professor of Natural Philosophy at Edinburgh. He was at -one time Master of the Marine Cadet Academy at Cronstadt. - -[10] The principal men of Glasgow were the importers of tobacco from -Virginia. - -[11] Earl Stanhope, among other projects, had conceived "the hope of -being able to apply the steam-engine to navigation by the aid of a -peculiar apparatus modelled after the foot of an aquatic fowl." Fulton, -on being consulted by the Earl, doubted the feasibility, and suggested -the very means which he afterward made successful upon the Hudson. - -[12] Symington was an engineer who had been carrying out some -experiments of Miller of Dalswinton in regard to the practicability of -steam navigation. - -[13] Who subsequently made charge that Fulton, having seen his steamboat -and made copious notes thereon, had thus been able to make his boat upon -the Hudson. - -[14] This was in the course of the War of 1812. - -[15] Fulton died Feb. 24, 1815; he was born in 1765. - -[16] Killingworth is a town some seven or eight miles north of -Newcastle, in Northumberland. George Stephenson was at this time the -engine-wright of the colliery. It may be said here that the principal -use for which the early locomotive engines and railroads were designed -was to convey coal from the pit to a market. It was not till the success -of the mining and quarrying railways led to the building of the -Liverpool and Manchester Road, between two great cities, that the value -of the railroad for the transfer of passengers was recognized. - -[17] It had been generally the opinion that cog-wheels must be used -which should fit into cogs in the rail. Otherwise it was imagined the -wheels would revolve without proceeding. - -[18] "The private risk is the public benefit." - -[19] It had a sort of resemblance to a grasshopper, caused by the angle -at which the piston and cylinder were placed. - -[20] Mr. Henry Booth, secretary to the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, -suggested to Mr. Stephenson the idea of a multitubular boiler. - -[21] This letter is dated Nov. 24, 1793. - -[22] This was in 1812, twenty years after the invention of the gin. The -saving in 1885 is enormously greater. - -[23] Napoleon III., under whose protection Bessemer had been -experimenting in projectiles when his attention was turned to the -manufacture of iron. - -[24] In Grüner's text-book on steel, he says: "In its properties, as -well as in its manufacture, steel is comprised between the limits of -cast and wrought iron. It cannot even be said where steel begins or -ends. It is a series which begins with the most impure black pig iron, -and ends with the softest and purest wrought iron. [Karsten stated this -in these words in 1823.] Cast-iron passes into hard steel in becoming -malleable (natural steel for wire-mills, the 'Wildstahl' of the -Germans); and steel, properly so called, passes into iron, giving in -succession mild steel, steel of the nature of iron, steely iron, and -granular iron." - -[25] A small cannon cast by Sir Henry, the description of which we have -omitted. - -[26] Immediately after his first successful experiment at St. Pancras, -described above. - - - - -INDEX. - - - Abel, Professor, 275, 278 - - Althorp, Lord, 268 - - Anderson, 246 - - Archimedes, 18, 20 - - - Bacon, Roger, 37 - - Barlow, Joel, 179 - - Baxter House, 277 - - Beccaria, 114 - - Bell, I. L., 280 - - Benvenuto Cellini, 58 - - Bernard Palissy, 82 - - Berthier, 281 - - Berzelius, 281 - - Bessemer, Andrew, 262 - - Bessemer, Sir Henry, 259 - - Bessemer and Catherwood, 263 - - Black, Dr., 165 - - Blue Hills, Mass., 284 - - Bossuet, 183 - - Boulton, Matthew, 171, 181 - - Bourbon, Constable, 63 - - Braithwaite and Ericsson, 212 - - Brandreth, 212 - - Bridgewater Foundry, 249, 255 - - Brunel, Isambert, 178 - - Bungy, Friar, 41 - - Burstall, 212, 216 - - - Carriage, Sailing, 141 - - Car of Neptune, 189 - - Caslon, Henry, 263 - - Cellini, Benvenuto, 58 - - Chaise, One-wheeled, 144 - - Charles IX. of France, 96 - - Cheltenham, 281 - - Church, Benjamin, 174 - - Circle, The Square of, 22 - - Clement VII., 62 - - Condensation, 159 - - Conductors of Electricity, 105 - - Constable Bourbon, shot, 63 - - Coolidge, O. B., 292 - - Court of Chancery, N. Y., 189 - - - Dalibard, 108 - - Darwin, Dr., 135 - - Dawson, President, 286 - - De Foe, Daniel, 99 - - Devonport, 252 - - Didot, Finnin, 263 - - Dixon, John, 205 - - Droz, François Xavier Joseph, 102 - - - Edgeworth, Richard Lovell, 119 - - Edison's Laboratory, 51 - - Electricity, 103 - - Elkingtons, 263 - - Engines, Early Steam, 149 - - Euclid, 20 - - Evans, Oliver, 175 - - Experiment, The Great, 111 - - - Field, Joshua, 249 - - Fitch, John, 177, 190 - - "Firework," The, 155 - - Francis I., 71 - - Franklin, Benjamin, 97, 177, 237 - - Fulton, Robert, 173 - - - Gig, One-wheeled, 145 - - Glasses, Musical, 115-117 - - Gold Paint, 270 - - Goodyear, Charles, 285 - - Greene, Mrs. General, 227, 229 - - Grüner, 279 - - Gun Factories, 275 - - - Hackworth, Timothy, 212 - - Hammerfield, 257 - - Harmonica, 113 - - Hart's Recollections, 161 - - Hartop, Annie (Mrs. Bessemer), 250 - - Helton Railway, 203 - - Hiero, 21 - - Hitchin, 264 - - Hooke, Dr. Robert, 137 - - Hulls, Jonathan, 176 - - - Jack the Darter, 142 - - Jay, John, 220 - - Jefferson, Thomas, 233 - - Jouffroy, Marquis de, 176 - - - Karsten, 281 - - Keramics, 82 - - Killingworth Colliery, 195 - - - Latent Heat, 157 - - Lightning, 107 - - Livingston, Chancellor, 178 - - - Mackintosh, James, 173 - - Maclaughlan, Robert, 246 - - Manchester, 249 - - Marcellus attacks Syracuse, 26 - - Massachusetts, Derivation of Name, 284 - - Maudsley, Henry, 247 - - Middleton Colliery Railway, 203 - - Miller, Phineas, 231 - - Minie, Commander, 273 - - Musical Glasses, 115 - - - Napoleon I., 175 - - Napoleon III., 274 - - Nasmyth, James, 238 - - Newcomen Engine, 150, 167, 169 - - Nuremburg, 271 - - - Palissy the Potter, 82 - - Papin, Denis, 176 - - Patricroft, 256 - - Périer, 176 - - Persley, Sir Charles, 266 - - Plombières, 180 - - Pope Clement VII., 62 - - Potter, Humphrey, 152 - - Practical Magazine, 282 - - - Quincy, 194 - - - Rastrick and Walker, 217 - - Ravensworth, Lord, 195 - - Renard and Krebs, 174 - - Resolution Book, 101 - - Rinman, 281 - - Robespierre, Max, 261 - - Robison, 154, 165 - - Roebuck, Dr., 171 - - Roger Bacon, 37 - - Roosevelt, Nicholas, 178 - - Royal Academy, 265 - - Royal Gun Factories, 275 - - Rumsey, James, 177 - - - St. Pancras, 274 - - St. Petersburg, 192, 253 - - Savery, 176 - - Scottish Society of Arts, 246 - - Sharp Conductors, 105 - - Somerset House, 265 - - Sounds and Signals, 139 - - Stanhope, Earl, 179 - - Stamp Office, English, 266 - - Steam-Engines, Early, 149 - - Stephenson, George, 193 - - Stephenson, Robert, 208 - - Stevens, John, 178 - - Stevens, Robert L., 192 - - Sweden, 254 - - Symington, 180, 182 - - Syracuse, Siege of, 25 - - - Telegraph, Edgeworth's, 124 - - Telegraph, English, 133 - - Telegraph, Irish, 127 - - Telegraph, Home, 139 - - Telegraphs, 125, 126 - - Tellograph, 137 - - Thirteen Virtues, 100 - - Travelling Engine, 195 - - - Ugolini, Giorgio, 65 - - - Virgil, 53 - - - Walker and Rastrick, 217 - - Walking-machine, 140 - - Watt, James, 146 - - Whistler, Major G. W., 254 - - Whitney, Eli, 219 - - Wilmot, Col. Eardley, 275 - - Wood, Nicholas, 213 - - Woolwich Arsenal, 275 - - Wylam and Killingworth Railway, 203 - - - Zonara, 32 - - - University Press: John Wilson & Son, Cambridge. - - - * * * * * - - - - -MR. HALE'S BOY BOOKS. - - - STORIES OF WAR, - _Told by Soldiers_. - - STORIES OF THE SEA, - _Told by Sailors_. - - STORIES OF ADVENTURE, - _Told by Adventurers_. - - STORIES OF DISCOVERY, - _Told by Discoverers_. - - STORIES OF INVENTION, - _Told by Inventors_. - -Collected and edited by EDWARD E. HALE. 16mo, cloth, black and gold. -Price, $1.00 per volume. - - - _For sale by all booksellers, or mailed, post-paid, on receipt of - price by the Publishers_, - - ROBERTS BROTHERS, BOSTON. - - - -EDWARD E. HALE'S WRITINGS. - - -TEN TIMES ONE IS TEN. 16mo. $1.00. - -CHRISTMAS EVE AND CHRISTMAS DAY: Ten Christmas Stories. With -Frontispiece by Darley. 16mo. $1.25. - -UPS AND DOWNS. An Every-day Novel, 16mo. $1.50. - -A SUMMER VACATION. 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The book is crisp and bright, and has a pleasant - flavor; and whatever is lovely in the spirit of its author, or of - good report in his name, one may look here and find promise of - both fulfilled."--_Exchange._ - - -=WHAT CAREER?= or, The Choice of a Vocation and the Use of Time. -16mo. $1.25. - - "'What Career?' is a book which will do anybody good to read; - especially is it a profitable book for young men to 'read, mark, - and inwardly digest.' Mr. Hale seems to know what young men need, - and here he gives them the result of his large experience and - careful observation. A list of the subjects treated in this little - volume will sufficiently indicate its scope: (1) The Leaders Lead; - (2) The Specialties; (3) Noblesse Oblige; (4) The Mind's Maximum; - (5) A Theological Seminary; (6) Character; (7) Responsibilities of - Young Men; (8) Study Outside School; (9) The Training of Men; (10) - Exercise."--_Watchman._ - - -=UPS AND DOWNS.= An Every-Day Novel. 16mo. $1.50. - - "This book is certainly very enjoyable. It delineates American - life so graphically that we feel as if Mr. Hale must have seen - every rood of ground he describes, and must have known personally - every character he so cleverly depicts. In his hearty fellowship - with young people lies his great power. The story is permeated - with a spirit of glad-heartedness and elasticity which in this - hurried, anxious, money-making age it is most refreshing to meet - with in any one out of his teens; and the author's sympathy with, - and respect for, the little romances of his young friends is most - fraternal."--_New Church Magazine._ - - -=SEVEN SPANISH CITIES=, and the Way to Them. 16mo. $1.25. - - "The Rev. E. E. Hale's 'Spanish Cities' is in the author's most - lively style, full of fun, with touches of romance, glimpses of - history, allusions to Oriental literature, earnest talk about - religion, consideration of Spanish politics, and a rapid, running - description of everything that observant eyes could possibly see. - Mr. Hale makes Spain more attractive and more amusing than any - other traveller has done, and he lavishes upon her epigram and - wit."--_Boston Advertiser._ - - -=CHRISTMAS EVE AND CHRISTMAS DAY.= Ten Stories. 16mo. $1.25. - - "Many an eye has moistened, and many a heart grown kindlier with - Christmas thoughts over 'Daily Bread,' and some of the lesser - stars which now shine in the same galaxy; and the volume which - contains them will carry on their humane ministry to many a future - Christmas time."--_Christian Register._ - - -=IN HIS NAME.= A Story of the Waldenses, Seven Hundred Years ago. -Square 18mo. Paper, 30 cents; cloth, $1.00. - - "A touching, almost a thrilling, tale is this by E. E. Hale, in - its pathetic simplicity and its deep meaning. It is a story of the - Waldenses in the days when Richard Coeur de Lion and his - splendid following wended their way to the Crusades, and when the - name of Christ inspired men who dwelt in palaces, and men who - sheltered themselves in the forests of France. 'In his Name' was - the 'Open Sesame' to the hearts of such as these, and it is to - illustrate the power of this almost magical phrase that the story - is written. That it is charmingly written, follows from its - authorship. There is in fact no little book that we have seen of - late that offers so much of so pleasant reading in such little - space, and conveys so apt and pertinent a lesson of pure - religion."--_N. Y. Commercial Advertiser._ - - "The very loveliest Christmas story ever written. It has the ring - of an old Troubadour in it." - - -=A SUMMER VACATION.= 16mo. 50 cents. - - "After Mr. Hale's return from Europe he preached to his people - four sermons concerning his European experience. At the request of - 'some who heard them,' Mr. Hale has allowed these sermons to be - published with this title. They are full of vigorous thought, wide - philanthropy, and practical suggestions, and will be read with - interest by all classes."--_Boston Transcript._ - - - _Sold everywhere. Mailed, post-paid, on receipt of price, by the - Publishers_, - - ROBERTS BROTHERS, BOSTON. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Stories of Invention, by Edward E. 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