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diff --git a/40257-h/40257-h.htm b/40257-h/40257-h.htm index f2a8f97..339ab43 100644 --- a/40257-h/40257-h.htm +++ b/40257-h/40257-h.htm @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ <html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> <head> - <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=UTF-8" /> <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> <title> The Project Gutenberg eBook of Man's Place in Nature and Other Essays, by Thomas Henry Huxley. @@ -173,46 +173,7 @@ sub {font-size: .6em; vertical-align: -10%;} </style> </head> <body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Man's Place in Nature and Other Essays, by -Thomas Henry Huxley - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Man's Place in Nature and Other Essays - -Author: Thomas Henry Huxley - -Release Date: July 16, 2012 [EBook #40257] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MAN'S PLACE IN NATURE *** - - - - -Produced by Pat McCoy, Adrian Mastronardi and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries) - - - - - - -</pre> - +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 40257 ***</div> <p><span class="pagenum">[Pg ii]</span></p> @@ -481,7 +442,7 @@ universe were thereby excluded.</p> <p>Great leaders of thought, in fact, are not accustomed to take a narrow view of existence, or to suppose that one mode -of regarding it, or one set of formulæ expressing it, can +of regarding it, or one set of formulæ expressing it, can possibly be sufficient and complete. Even a sheet of paper has two sides: a terrestrial globe presents different aspects from different points of view; a crystal has a variety of @@ -698,7 +659,7 @@ in 1854; “Time and Life” (<i>Macmillan’s Magazine</i>), Dec. on the Phenomena of Organic Nature,” 1863, in “Collected Essays,” vol. vii. “Evidence as to Man’s Place in Nature,” 1863. Of his other works, the translation by Huxley and -Busk of “Kölliker’s Manual of Human Histology,” appeared +Busk of “Kölliker’s Manual of Human Histology,” appeared in 1853. “Lectures on the Elements of Comparative Anatomy,” “Elementary Atlas of Comparative Osteology”; two Science Lectures, “The Circulation of the Blood” and @@ -757,7 +718,7 @@ Apes</span> of earlier date than that contained in Pigafetta’s “Description of the Kingdom of Congo,”<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> drawn up from the notes of a Portuguese sailor, Eduardo Lopez, and published in 1598. The tenth chapter of this work -is entitled “De Animalibus quæ in hac provincia re<span class="pagenum">[Pg 2]</span>periuntur,” +is entitled “De Animalibus quæ in hac provincia re<span class="pagenum">[Pg 2]</span>periuntur,” and contains a brief passage to the effect that “in the Songan country, on the banks of the Zaire, there are multitudes of apes, which afford great delight to the @@ -765,7 +726,7 @@ nobles by imitating human gestures.” As this might apply to almost any kind of apes, I should have thought little of it, had not the brothers De Bry, whose engravings illustrate the work, thought fit, in their eleventh “Argumentum,” -to figure two of these “Simiæ magnatum deliciæ.” +to figure two of these “Simiæ magnatum deliciæ.” So much of the plate as contains these apes is faithfully copied in the woodcut (<a href="#F1">Fig. 1</a>), and it will be observed that they are tail-less, long-armed, and large-eared; and @@ -783,7 +744,7 @@ date from the 17th century, and are due to an Englishman.</p> <div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> <a id="F1" name="F1"></a> <img src="images/illus_018.png" width="600" height="576" alt="" title="Fig. 1." /> -<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 1.—Simiæ magnatum deliciæ.—De Bry, 1598.</span> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 1.—Simiæ magnatum deliciæ.—De Bry, 1598.</span> </div> <p>The first edition of that most amusing old book, @@ -982,13 +943,13 @@ word “<i>Pongo</i>” in the later history of the man-like Apes.</p> <p>The generation which succeeded Battell saw the first of the man-like Apes which was ever brought to Europe, or, at any rate, whose visit found a historian. In the third -book of Tulpius’ “Observationes Medicæ,” published in +book of Tulpius’ “Observationes Medicæ,” published in 1641, the 56th chapter or section is devoted to what he calls <i>Satyrus indicus</i>, “called by the Indians Orang-autang, or Man-of-the-Woods, and by the Africans Quoias Morrou.” He gives a very good figure, evidently from the life, of the specimen of this animal, “nostra memoria ex<span class="pagenum">[Pg 8]</span> -Angolâ delatum,” presented to Frederick Henry Prince +Angolâ delatum,” presented to Frederick Henry Prince of Orange. Tulpius says it was as big as a child of three years old, and as stout as one of six years: and that its back was covered with black hair. It is plainly a @@ -1122,12 +1083,12 @@ and figure testify, was, without doubt, a Chimpanzee.</p> <div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> <a id="F6" name="F6"></a> <img src="images/illus_028.png" width="600" height="338" alt="" title="Fig. 6." /> -<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 6.—The Anthropomorpha of Linnæus.</span> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 6.—The Anthropomorpha of Linnæus.</span> </div> -<p>Linnæus knew nothing, of his own observation, of the +<p>Linnæus knew nothing, of his own observation, of the man-like Apes of either Africa or Asia, but a dissertation -by his pupil Hoppius in the “Amœnitates Academicæ” +by his pupil Hoppius in the “Amœnitates Academicæ” (VI. “Anthropomorpha”) may be regarded as embodying his views respecting these animals.</p> @@ -1135,26 +1096,26 @@ his views respecting these animals.</p> accompanying woodcut, <a href="#F6">Fig. 6</a>, is a reduced copy. The figures are entitled (from left to right) 1. <i>Troglodyta Bontii</i>; 2. <i>Lucifer Aldrovandi</i>; 3. <i>Satyrus Tulpii</i>; 4. -<i>Pygmæus Edwardi</i>. The first is a bad copy of Bontius’ +<i>Pygmæus Edwardi</i>. The first is a bad copy of Bontius’ fictitious “Ourang-outang,” in whose existence, however, -Linnæus appears to have fully believed; for in the -standard edition of the “Systema Naturæ,” it is enumerated +Linnæus appears to have fully believed; for in the +standard edition of the “Systema Naturæ,” it is enumerated as a second species of Homo; “H. nocturnus.” <i>Lucifer Aldrovandi</i> is a copy of a figure in Aldrovandus, “De Quadrupedibus digitatis viviparis,” Lib. 2, p. 249 -(1645), entitled “Cercopithecus formæ raræ <i>Barbilius</i><span class="pagenum">[Pg 13]</span> +(1645), entitled “Cercopithecus formæ raræ <i>Barbilius</i><span class="pagenum">[Pg 13]</span> vocatus et originem a china ducebat.” Hoppius is of opinion that this may be one of that cat-tailed people, -of whom Nicolaus Köping affirms that they eat a boat’s +of whom Nicolaus Köping affirms that they eat a boat’s crew, “gubernator navis” and all! In the “Systema -Naturæ” Linnæus calls it in a note, <i>Homo caudatus</i>, and +Naturæ” Linnæus calls it in a note, <i>Homo caudatus</i>, and seems inclined to regard it as a third species of man. According to Temminck, <i>Satyrus Tulpii</i> is a copy of the figure of a Chimpanzee published by Scotin in 1738, which I have not seen. It is the <i>Satyrus indicus</i> of -the “Systema Naturæ,” and is regarded by Linnæus as +the “Systema Naturæ,” and is regarded by Linnæus as possibly a distinct species from <i>Satyrus sylvestris</i>. The -last, named <i>Pygmæus Edwardi</i>, is copied from the figure +last, named <i>Pygmæus Edwardi</i>, is copied from the figure of a young “Man of the Woods,” or true Orang-Utan, given in Edwards “Gleanings of Natural History” (1758).</p> @@ -1174,9 +1135,9 @@ volume of his great work, he was personally familiar with the young of one kind of African man-like Ape, and with the adult of an Asiatic species—while the Orang-Utan and the Mandrill of Smith were known to him by report. -Furthermore, the Abbé Prevost had translated a good +Furthermore, the Abbé Prevost had translated a good deal of Purchas’ Pilgrims into French, in his “Histoire -générale des Voyages” (1748), and there Buffon found a +générale des Voyages” (1748), and there Buffon found a version of Andrew Battell’s account of the Pongo and the Engeco. All these data Buffon attempts to weld together into harmony in his chapter entitled “Les @@ -1184,15 +1145,15 @@ Orang-outangs ou le Pongo et le Jocko.” To this title the following note is appended:—</p> <blockquote><p>“Orang-outang nom de cet animal aux Indes orientales: -Pongo nom de cet animal à Lowando Province de Congo.</p> +Pongo nom de cet animal à Lowando Province de Congo.</p> -<p>“Jocko, Enjocko, nom de cet animal à Congo que nous -avons adopté. <i>En</i> est l’article que nous avons retranché.”</p></blockquote> +<p>“Jocko, Enjocko, nom de cet animal à Congo que nous +avons adopté. <i>En</i> est l’article que nous avons retranché.”</p></blockquote> <p><span class="pagenum">[Pg 14]</span>Thus it was that Andrew Battell’s “Engeco” became metamorphosed into “Jocko,” and, in the latter shape, was spread all over the world, in consequence of the -extensive popularity of Buffon’s works. The Abbé +extensive popularity of Buffon’s works. The Abbé Prevost and Buffon between them, however, did a good deal more disfigurement to Battell’s sober account than “cutting off an article.” Thus Battell’s statement that @@ -1204,7 +1165,7 @@ me in conference with him, that one of these Pongos tooke a negro boy of his which lived a moneth with them,” stands in the French version, “un pongo lui enleva un petit negre qui passa un <i>an</i> entier dans la -societé de ces animaux.”</p> +societé de ces animaux.”</p> <p>After quoting the account of the great Pongo, Buffon justly remarks, that all the “Jockos” and “Orangs” @@ -1269,7 +1230,7 @@ says, is found only in Borneo, and chiefly about Banjermassing, Mampauwa, and Landak. Of these he had seen some fifty during his residence in the Indies; but none exceeded 2<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub> feet in length. The larger sort, often -regarded as chimæra, continues Radermacher, would, +regarded as chimæra, continues Radermacher, would, perhaps long have remained so, had it not been for the exertions of the Resident at Rembang, M. Palm, who,<span class="pagenum">[Pg 16]</span> on returning from Landak towards Pontiana, shot one, @@ -1320,7 +1281,7 @@ feet high.</p> <div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> <img src="images/illus_033.png" width="600" height="330" alt="" title="Fig. 7." /> <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 7.—The Pongo Skull, sent by Radermacher to Camper, after -Camper’s original sketches, as reproduced by Lucæ.</span> +Camper’s original sketches, as reproduced by Lucæ.</span> </div> <p>Did either of these original specimens, on which Von @@ -1339,7 +1300,7 @@ which are better calculated, however, to give an idea of the form than of the real size of the parts.”</p> <p>These sketches have been reproduced by Fischer and -by Lucæ, and bear date 1783, Soemmering having received +by Lucæ, and bear date 1783, Soemmering having received them in 1784. Had either of Von Wurmb’s specimens reached Holland, they would hardly have been unknown at this time to Camper, who, however, goes @@ -1411,7 +1372,7 @@ Temminck’s memoir is remarkable for the completeness of the evidence which it affords as to the modification which the form of the Orang undergoes according to age and sex. Tiedemann first published an account of -the brain of the young Orang, while Sandifort, Müller +the brain of the young Orang, while Sandifort, Müller and Schlegel, described the muscles and the viscera of the adult, and gave the earliest detailed and trustworthy history of the habits of the great Indian Ape in a state of @@ -1464,7 +1425,7 @@ conclusion, but have added many new details.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNancho <p>One of the most interesting among the many valuable discoveries made by Dr. Thomas Savage is the fact, that the natives in the Gaboon country at the present day, -apply to the Chimpanzee a name—“Enché-eko”—which +apply to the Chimpanzee a name—“Enché-eko”—which is obviously identical with the “Engeko” of Battell; a discovery which has been confirmed by all later inquirers. Battell’s “lesser monster,” being thus proved to be a<span class="pagenum">[Pg 21]</span> @@ -1499,13 +1460,13 @@ the enabling the excellent American anatomist already mentioned, Professor Wyman, to describe, from ample materials, the distinctive osteological characters of the new form. This animal was called by the natives of the -Gaboon “Engé-ena,” a name obviously identical with +Gaboon “Engé-ena,” a name obviously identical with the “Ingena” of Bowdich; and Dr. Savage arrived at the conviction that this last discovered of all the great Apes was the long-sought “Pongo” of Battell.</p> <p>The justice of this conclusion, indeed, is beyond doubt—for -not only does the “Engé-ena” agree with Battell’s +not only does the “Engé-ena” agree with Battell’s “greater monster” in its hollow eyes, its great stature and its dun or iron-grey colour, but the only other man-like Ape which inhabits these latitudes—the Chimpanzee—is @@ -1514,9 +1475,9 @@ monster,” and is excluded from any possibility of being<span class="pagenu the “Pongo,” by the fact that it is black and not dun, to say nothing of the important circumstance already mentioned that it still retains the name of “Engeko,” or -“Enché-eko,” by which Battell knew it.</p> +“Enché-eko,” by which Battell knew it.</p> -<p>In seeking for a specific name for the “Engé-ena,” +<p>In seeking for a specific name for the “Engé-ena,” however, Dr. Savage wisely avoided the much misused “Pongo”; but finding in the ancient Periplus of Hanno the word “Gorilla” applied to certain hairy savage @@ -1527,7 +1488,7 @@ appellation. But Dr. Savage, more cautious than some of his successors, by no means identifies his ape with Hanno’s “wild men.” He merely says that the latter were “probably one of the species of the Orang;” -and I quite agree with M. Brullé that there is no ground +and I quite agree with M. Brullé that there is no ground for identifying the modern “Gorilla” with that of the Carthaginian admiral.</p> @@ -1599,7 +1560,7 @@ thumbs and great toes, feet longer than the hands, a black face, and dark-grey or dun hair.</p> <p>For the purpose which I have at present in view, it is -unnecessary that I should enter into any further minutiæ<span class="pagenum">[Pg 24]</span> +unnecessary that I should enter into any further minutiæ<span class="pagenum">[Pg 24]</span> respecting the distinctive characters of the genera and species into which these man-like Apes are divided by naturalists. Suffice it to say, that the Orangs and the @@ -1607,7 +1568,7 @@ Gibbons constitute the distinct genera, <i>Simia</i> and <i>Hylobates</i>; while the Chimpanzees and Gorillas are by some regarded simply as distinct species of one genus, <i>Troglodytes</i>; by others as distinct genera—<i>Troglodytes</i> being -reserved for the Chimpanzees, and <i>Gorilla</i> for the Engé-ena +reserved for the Chimpanzees, and <i>Gorilla</i> for the Engé-ena or Pongo.</p> <hr class="tb" /> @@ -1662,7 +1623,7 @@ man-like Apes; while the slenderness of their bodies renders their mass far smaller in proportion even to this diminished height.</p> -<p>Dr. Salomon Müller, an accomplished Dutch naturalist, +<p>Dr. Salomon Müller, an accomplished Dutch naturalist, who lived for many years in the Eastern Archipelago, and to the results of whose personal experience I shall frequently have occasion to refer, states that the Gibbons @@ -1735,7 +1696,7 @@ or inferior extremities, the others being raised upwards to preserve their equilibrium, as rope-dancers are assisted by long poles at fairs. Their progression was not by<span class="pagenum">[Pg 27]<br />[Pg 28]</span> placing one foot before the other, but by simultaneously -using both, as in jumping.” Dr. Salomon Müller also +using both, as in jumping.” Dr. Salomon Müller also states that the Gibbons progress upon the ground by a short series of tottering jumps, effected only by the hind limbs, the body being held altogether upright.</p> @@ -1876,14 +1837,14 @@ is reason if that is not an exercise of it?”</p> the <span class="smcap">Orang-Utan</span> extant, is that given in the “Verhande<span class="pagenum">[Pg 31]</span>lingen over de Natuurlijke Geschiedenis der Nederlandsche overzeesche Bezittingen (1839-45),” by Dr. Salomon -Müller and Dr. Schlegel, and I shall base what I have to +Müller and Dr. Schlegel, and I shall base what I have to say upon this subject almost entirely on their statements, adding, here and there, particulars of interest from the writings of Brooke, Wallace, and others.</p> <div class="figcenter" style="width: 464px;"> <img src="images/illus_047.png" width="464" height="600" alt="" title="Fig. 9." /> -<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 9.—An adult male Orang-Utan, after Müller and Schlegel.</span> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 9.—An adult male Orang-Utan, after Müller and Schlegel.</span> </div> <p>The Orang-Utan would rarely seem to exceed four feet<span class="pagenum">[Pg 32]</span> @@ -1950,14 +1911,14 @@ but, as soon as night draws on, he descends from the height and seeks out a fit bed in the lower and darker part, or in the leafy top of a small tree, among which he prefers Nibong Palms, Pandani, or one of those parasitic -Orchids which give the primæval forests of Borneo so +Orchids which give the primæval forests of Borneo so characteristic and striking an appearance. But wherever he determines to sleep, there he prepares himself a sort of nest: little boughs and leaves are drawn together round <span class="pagenum">[Pg 34]</span>the selected spot, and bent crosswise over one another; while to make the bed soft, great leaves of Ferns, of Orchids, of <i>Pandanus fascicularis</i>, <i>Nipa fruticans</i>, &c., are laid over -them. Those which Müller saw, many of them being very +them. Those which Müller saw, many of them being very fresh, were situated at a height of ten to twenty-five feet above the ground, and had a circumference, on the average, of two or three feet. Some were packed many inches @@ -2087,12 +2048,12 @@ and beats him to death, or rips up his throat by pulling the jaws asunder!</p> <p>Much of what has been here stated was probably -derived by Dr. Müller from the reports of his Dyak +derived by Dr. Müller from the reports of his Dyak hunters; but a large male, four feet high, lived in captivity, under his observation, for a month, and receives a very bad character.</p> -<p>“He was a very wild beast,” says Müller, “of prodigious +<p>“He was a very wild beast,” says Müller, “of prodigious strength, and false and wicked to the last degree. If any one approached he rose up slowly with a low growl, fixed his eyes in the direction in which he meant to make his @@ -2102,7 +2063,7 @@ cage, and then extending his long arm, gave a sudden (though Orangs will bite one another), his great weapons of offence and defence being his hands.</p> -<p>His intelligence was very great; and Müller remarks, +<p>His intelligence was very great; and Müller remarks, that though the faculties of the Orang have been estimated too highly, yet Cuvier, had he seen this specimen, would not have considered its intelligence to be only a little @@ -2160,7 +2121,7 @@ species of Orang. The external surface of the skull varies considerably in size, as do also the zygomatic aperture and the temporal muscle; but they bear no necessary relation to each other, a small muscle often existing with -a large cranial surface, and <i>vice versâ</i>. Now, those skulls +a large cranial surface, and <i>vice versâ</i>. Now, those skulls which have the largest and strongest jaws and the widest zygomatic aperture, have the muscles so large that they meet on the crown of the skull, and deposit the bony @@ -2224,7 +2185,7 @@ adult males.</p> Anthropoids, analogy alone might justify us in expecting the African species to offer similar peculiarities, separately or combined; or, at any rate, would destroy the force -of any attempted <i>à priori</i> argument against such direct +of any attempted <i>à priori</i> argument against such direct testimony as might be adduced in favour of their existence. And, if the organization of any of the African Apes could be demonstrated to fit it better than either @@ -2413,9 +2374,9 @@ from its mouth to some fifty or sixty miles upward....</p> a corruption of the word <i>Mpongwe</i>, the name of the tribe on the banks of the Gaboon, and hence applied to the region they inhabit. Their local name for the Chimpanzee -is <i>Enché-eko</i>, as near as it can be Anglicized, from<span class="pagenum">[Pg 45]</span> +is <i>Enché-eko</i>, as near as it can be Anglicized, from<span class="pagenum">[Pg 45]</span> which the common term ‘Jocko’ probably comes. The -Mpongwe appellation for its new congener is <i>Engé-ena</i>, +Mpongwe appellation for its new congener is <i>Engé-ena</i>, prolonging the sound of the first vowel, and slightly sounding the second.</p></blockquote> @@ -2424,13 +2385,13 @@ sounding the second.</p></blockquote> <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 10.—The Gorilla (after Wolff).</span> </div> -<blockquote><p>“The habitat of the <i>Engé-ena</i> is the interior of lower -Guinea, whilst that of the <i>Enché-eko</i> is nearer the sea-board.</p> +<blockquote><p>“The habitat of the <i>Engé-ena</i> is the interior of lower +Guinea, whilst that of the <i>Enché-eko</i> is nearer the sea-board.</p> <p>“Its height is about five feet; it is disproportionately broad across the shoulders, thickly covered with coarse<span class="pagenum">[Pg 46]</span> black hair, which is said to be similar in its arrangement -to that of the <i>Enché-eko</i>; with age it becomes grey, which +to that of the <i>Enché-eko</i>; with age it becomes grey, which fact has given rise to the report that both animals are seen of different colours.</p> @@ -2439,7 +2400,7 @@ great width and elongation of the face, the depth of the molar region, the branches of the lower jaw being very deep and extending far backward, and the comparative smallness of the cranial portion; the eyes are very large, -and said to be like those of the Enché-eko, a bright +and said to be like those of the Enché-eko, a bright hazel; nose broad and flat, slightly elevated towards the root; the muzzle broad, and prominent lips and chin, with scattered grey hairs; the under lip highly mobile, @@ -2461,7 +2422,7 @@ aspect.</p> <p>“Neck short, thick, and hairy; chest and shoulders very broad, said to be fully double the size of the -Enché-ekos; arms very long, reaching some way below +Enché-ekos; arms very long, reaching some way below the knee—the forearm much the shortest; hands very large, the thumbs much larger than the fingers....</p> @@ -2636,7 +2597,7 @@ have already cited.</p> <p>Bearing in mind what is known regarding the Orang and the Gibbon, the statements of Dr. Savage and Mr. Ford do not appear to me to be justly open to -criticism on <i>à priori</i> grounds. The Gibbons, as we have +criticism on <i>à priori</i> grounds. The Gibbons, as we have seen, readily assume the erect posture, but the Gorilla is far better fitted by its organization for that attitude than are the Gibbons: if the laryngeal pouches of the Gibbons, @@ -2741,7 +2702,7 @@ called.” “Drill” is used in the same sense in Charleton’ Zoicon,” 1668. The singular etymology of the word given by Buffon seems hardly a probable one.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Histoire Naturelle, Suppl. tome 7ème, 1789.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Histoire Naturelle, Suppl. tome 7ème, 1789.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Camper, Œuvres, i. p. 56.</p></div> @@ -2751,8 +2712,8 @@ Deel. Derde Druk. 1826.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> “Briefe des Herrn v. Wurmb und des H. Baron von Wollzogen. Gotha, 1794.”</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> See Blumenbach, “Abbildungen Naturhistorichen Gegenstände,” -No. 12, 1810; and Tilesius, “Naturhistoriche Früchte der ersten +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> See Blumenbach, “Abbildungen Naturhistorichen Gegenstände,” +No. 12, 1810; and Tilesius, “Naturhistoriche Früchte der ersten Kaiserlich-Russischen Erdumsegelung,” p. 115, 1813.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Speaking broadly and without prejudice to the question, whether @@ -2773,7 +2734,7 @@ osteology of Troglodytes Gorilla,” by the same authors, ibid., vol. v., <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> The largest Orang-Utan, cited by Temminck, measured, when standing upright, 4 ft.; but he mentions having just received news -of the capture of an Orang 5 ft. 3 in. high. Schlegel and Müller say +of the capture of an Orang 5 ft. 3 in. high. Schlegel and Müller say that their largest old male measured, upright, 1.25 Netherlands “el”; and from the crown to the end of the toes, 1.5 el; the circumference of the body being about 1 el. The largest old female @@ -2848,13 +2809,13 @@ Gorilla. Boston Journal of Natural History, 1847.</p></div> ON THE RELATIONS OF MAN TO THE LOWER ANIMALS.</h2> -<blockquote><p>Multis videri poterit, majorem esse differentiam Simiæ et Hominis, +<blockquote><p>Multis videri poterit, majorem esse differentiam Simiæ et Hominis, quam diei et noctis; verum tamen hi, comparatione instituta inter -summos Europæ Heroës et Hottentottos ad Caput bonæ spei degentes, +summos Europæ Heroës et Hottentottos ad Caput bonæ spei degentes, difficillime sibi persuadebunt, has eosdem habere natales; vel si virginem nobilem aulicam, maxime comtam et humanissimam, conferre vellent cum homine sylvestri et sibi relicto, vix augurari -possent, hunc et illam ejusdem esse speciei.—<i>Linnæi Amœnitates +possent, hunc et illam ejusdem esse speciei.—<i>Linnæi Amœnitates Acad. “Anthropomorpha.”</i></p></blockquote> @@ -3228,11 +3189,11 @@ form, indicated by the name of the organ.</p> <div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> <img src="images/illus_077.png" width="600" height="322" alt="" title="Fig. 14." /> -<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 14.—A. Human ovum (after Kölliker). a. germinal vesicle. +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 14.—A. Human ovum (after Kölliker). a. germinal vesicle. b. germinal spot.<br /> B. A very early condition of Man, with yelk-sac, allantois, and amnion (original).<br /> -C. A more advanced stage (after Kölliker), compare <a href="#F13"><span class="smcap">Fig. 13</span>, C</a>.</span> +C. A more advanced stage (after Kölliker), compare <a href="#F13"><span class="smcap">Fig. 13</span>, C</a>.</span> </div> <p>But, exactly in those respects in which the developing @@ -3274,7 +3235,7 @@ presented by animals has, in fact, led naturalists to arrange them into groups, or assemblages, all the members of each group presenting a certain amount of definable resemblance, and the number of points of similarity -being smaller as the group is larger and <i>vice versâ</i>. Thus, +being smaller as the group is larger and <i>vice versâ</i>. Thus, all creatures which agree only in presenting the few distinctive marks of animality form the “Kingdom” <span class="smcap">Animalia</span>. The numerous animals which agree only @@ -3308,7 +3269,7 @@ members of the same orders. These successive pairs of animals may, and some do, differ from one another immensely, in such matters as the proportions and structure of their limbs; the number of their dorsal -and lumbar vertebræ; the adaptation of their frames to +and lumbar vertebræ; the adaptation of their frames to climbing, leaping, or running; the number and form of their teeth; and the characters of their skulls and of the contained brain. But, with all these differences, @@ -3492,9 +3453,9 @@ and the ribs and pelvis, or bony hip-basin, which are connected with it, in Man and in the Gorilla respectively.</p> <p>In Man, in consequence partly of the disposition of -the articular surfaces of the vertebræ, and largely of the +the articular surfaces of the vertebræ, and largely of the elastic tension of some of the fibrous bands, or ligaments, -which connect these vertebræ together, the spinal column, +which connect these vertebræ together, the spinal column, as a whole, has an elegant S-like curvature, being convex forwards in the neck, concave in the back, convex in the loins, or lumbar region, and concave again in the sacral @@ -3504,7 +3465,7 @@ the spine, and through it to the head, by locomotion in the erect position.</p> <p>Furthermore, under ordinary circumstances, Man has -seven vertebræ in his neck, which are called <i>cervical</i>; +seven vertebræ in his neck, which are called <i>cervical</i>; twelve succeed these, bearing ribs and forming the upper part of the back, whence they are termed <i>dorsal</i>; five lie in the loins, bearing no distinct, or free, ribs, and are @@ -3516,14 +3477,14 @@ four little more or less moveable bones, so small as to be insignificant, constitute the <i>coccyx</i> or rudimentary tail.</p> <p>In the Gorilla, the vertebral column is similarly divided -into cervical, dorsal, lumbar, sacral and coccygeal vertebræ, -and the total number of cervical and dorsal vertebræ, +into cervical, dorsal, lumbar, sacral and coccygeal vertebræ, +and the total number of cervical and dorsal vertebræ, taken together, is the same as in Man; but the development of a pair of ribs to the first lumbar vertebra, which is an exceptional occurrence in Man, is the rule in the Gorilla; and hence, as lumbar are distinguished from -dorsal vertebræ only by the presence or absence of free -ribs, the seventeen “dorso-lumbar” vertebræ of the +dorsal vertebræ only by the presence or absence of free +ribs, the seventeen “dorso-lumbar” vertebræ of the Gorilla are divided into thirteen dorsal and four lumbar, while in Man they are twelve dorsal and five lumbar.</p> @@ -3531,12 +3492,12 @@ while in Man they are twelve dorsal and five lumbar.</p> thirteen pair of ribs,<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> but the Gorilla sometimes has fourteen pairs, while an Orang-Utan skeleton in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons has twelve -dorsal and five lumbar vertebræ, as in Man. Cuvier +dorsal and five lumbar vertebræ, as in Man. Cuvier notes the same number in a <i>Hylobates</i>. On the other hand, among the lower Apes, many possess twelve dorsal -and six or seven lumbar vertebræ; the Douroucouli has +and six or seven lumbar vertebræ; the Douroucouli has fourteen dorsal and eight lumbar, and a Lemur (<i>Stenops -tardigradus</i>) has fifteen dorsal and nine lumbar vertebræ.</p> +tardigradus</i>) has fifteen dorsal and nine lumbar vertebræ.</p> <p>The vertebral column of the Gorilla, as a whole, differs from that of Man in the less marked character of its @@ -3550,7 +3511,7 @@ even concave forwards, throughout the lumbar region.</p> <p>Whether we take these characters then, or such minor ones as those which are derivable from the proportional<span class="pagenum">[Pg 69]</span> -length of the spines of the cervical vertebræ, and the +length of the spines of the cervical vertebræ, and the like, there is no doubt whatsoever as to the marked difference between Man and the Gorilla; but there is as little, that equally marked differences, of the very same @@ -4044,7 +4005,7 @@ with the heel-bone.</p> <p>But perhaps the most absolutely distinctive character about the muscles of the foot is the existence of what is -termed the <i>peronæus longus</i>, a long muscle fixed to the +termed the <i>peronæus longus</i>, a long muscle fixed to the outer bone of the leg, and sending its tendon to the outer ankle, behind and below which it passes, and then crosses the foot obliquely to be attached to the base of @@ -4056,7 +4017,7 @@ hand by the following absolute anatomical differences:—</p> <blockquote><p>1. By the arrangement of the tarsal bones.</p> <p>2. By having a short flexor and a short extensor muscle of the digits.</p> -<p>3. By possessing the muscle termed <i>peronæus longus</i>.</p></blockquote> +<p>3. By possessing the muscle termed <i>peronæus longus</i>.</p></blockquote> <p>And if we desire to ascertain whether the terminal division of a limb, in other Primates, is to be called a @@ -4099,7 +4060,7 @@ At the same time, the foot is set more obliquely upon the leg than in man.</p> <p>As to the muscles, there is a short flexor, a short -extensor, and a <i>peronæus longus</i>, while the tendons of +extensor, and a <i>peronæus longus</i>, while the tendons of the long flexors of the great toe and of the other toes are united together and with an accessory fleshy bundle.</p> @@ -4198,7 +4159,7 @@ fleshy bundle.</p> that the foot loses no one of its essential characters. Every Monkey and Lemur exhibits the characteristic arrangement of tarsal bones, possesses a short flexor and -short extensor muscle, and a <i>peronæus longus</i>. Varied +short extensor muscle, and a <i>peronæus longus</i>. Varied as the proportions and appearance of the organ may be, the terminal division of the hind limb remains, in plan and principle of construction, a foot, and never, in those @@ -4403,7 +4364,7 @@ as the brain exactly fills the cavity of the skull, it is obvious that the relations of these two parts of the cranial cavity at once informs us of the relations of their contents. Now in man, in all the old world, and in all the new world -Simiæ, with one exception, when the face is directed +Simiæ, with one exception, when the face is directed forwards, this line of attachment of the tentorium, or impression for the lateral sinus, as it is technically called, is nearly horizontal, and the cerebral chamber invariably @@ -4556,10 +4517,10 @@ other families of the same order, there can be no justification for placing him in a distinct order.</p> <p>And thus the sagacious foresight of the great lawgiver -of systematic zoology, Linnæus, becomes justified, and a +of systematic zoology, Linnæus, becomes justified, and a century of anatomical research brings us back to his conclusion, that man is a member of the same order (for -which the Linnæan term <span class="smcap">Primates</span> ought to be retained) +which the Linnæan term <span class="smcap">Primates</span> ought to be retained) as the Apes and Lemurs. This order is now divisible into seven families, of about equal systematic value: the first, the <span class="smcap">Anthropini</span>, contains Man alone; the second, @@ -4620,7 +4581,7 @@ effected, had he been a more sober and cautious thinker; and though I have heard of the announcement of a formula touching “the ordained continuous becoming of organic forms,” it is obvious that it is the first duty of a -hypothesis to be intelligible, and that a qua-quâ-versal +hypothesis to be intelligible, and that a qua-quâ-versal proposition of this kind, which may be read backwards, or forwards, or sideways, with exactly the same amount of signification, does not really exist, though it may seem to @@ -4666,7 +4627,7 @@ a perfect right to claim provisional acceptance.</p> aware, inconsistent with any known biological fact; on the contrary, if admitted, the facts of Development, of Comparative Anatomy, of Geographical Distribution, and -of Palæontology, become connected together, and exhibit +of Palæontology, become connected together, and exhibit a meaning such as they never possessed before; and I, for one, am fully convinced, that if not precisely true, that hypothesis is as near an approximation to the truth @@ -4705,7 +4666,7 @@ may accept the undulatory theory of light, subject to the proof of the existence of the hypothetical ether; or<span class="pagenum">[Pg 101]</span> as the chemist adopts the atomic theory, subject to the proof of the existence of atoms; and for exactly the same -reasons, namely, that it has an immense amount of primâ +reasons, namely, that it has an immense amount of primâ facie probability; that it is the only means at present within reach of reducing the chaos of observed facts to order; and lastly, that it is the most powerful instrument @@ -4830,7 +4791,7 @@ to that place of proud and seemingly inaccessible glory.</p> <p>But the geologist is right; and due reflection on his teachings, instead of diminishing our reverence and our wonder, adds all the force of intellectual sublimity to the -mere æsthetic intuition of the uninstructed beholder.</p> +mere æsthetic intuition of the uninstructed beholder.</p> <p>And after passion and prejudice have died away, the same result will attend the teachings of the naturalist @@ -4884,7 +4845,7 @@ year 1856.</p> <p>In the year 1857, however, Professor Owen, either in ignorance of these well-known facts or else unjustifiably suppressing -them, submitted to the Linnæan Society a paper “On the +them, submitted to the Linnæan Society a paper “On the Characters, Principles of Division, and Primary Groups of the Class Mammalia,” which was printed in the Society’s Journal, and contains the following passage:—“In Man, the @@ -4898,7 +4859,7 @@ that anatomists have assigned to that part the character of a third lobe; <i>it is peculiar to the genus Homo, and equally peculiar is the posterior horn of the lateral ventricle and the <span class="pagenum">[Pg 106]</span>‘hippocampus minor,’ which characterise the hind lobe of each -hemisphere</i>.”—<i>Journal of the Proceedings of the Linnæan +hemisphere</i>.”—<i>Journal of the Proceedings of the Linnæan Society</i>, Vol. ii. p. 19.</p> <p>As the essay in which this passage stands had no less @@ -4974,7 +4935,7 @@ first Plate.</p> <p>“As M. Gratiolet (l. c. p. 18), however, is careful to remark, ‘unfortunately the brain which they have taken as a model -was greatly altered (profondément affaissé), whence the +was greatly altered (profondément affaissé), whence the general form of the brain is given in these plates in a manner which is altogether incorrect.’ Indeed, it is perfectly obvious, from a comparison of a section of the skull of the @@ -4989,10 +4950,10 @@ one else; but, so far from retracting the grave errors into which he had fallen, Professor Owen has persisted in and reiterated them; first, in a lecture delivered before the Royal Institution on the 19th of March, 1861, which is admitted -to have been accurately reproduced in the “Athenæum” for +to have been accurately reproduced in the “Athenæum” for the 23rd of the same month, in a letter addressed by Professor Owen to that journal on the 30th of March. The -“Athenæum” report was accompanied by a diagram purporting +“Athenæum” report was accompanied by a diagram purporting to represent a Gorilla’s brain, but in reality so extraordinary a misrepresentation, that Professor Owen substantially, though not explicitly, withdraws it in the letter in @@ -5016,7 +4977,7 @@ Owen’s knowledge by myself in the passage of my article in the “Natural History Review” above quoted.</p> <p>I drew public attention to this circumstance again in my -reply to Professor Owen, published in the “Athenæum” for +reply to Professor Owen, published in the “Athenæum” for April 13th, 1861; but the exploded figure was reproduced once more by Professor Owen, without the slightest allusion to its inaccuracy, in the “Annals of Natural History” for June @@ -5038,11 +4999,11 @@ of M. Gratiolet, quoted above, and they illustrated, by new and careful figures, the posterior lobe, the posterior cornu, and the hippocampus minor of the Orang. Furthermore, having demonstrated the parts, at one of the sittings -of the Academy, they add, “la présence des parties contestées -y a été universellement reconnue par les anatomistes présents -à la séance. Le seul doute qui soit resté se rapporte au pes -Hippocampi minor.... A l’état frais l’indice du petit pied -d’Hippocampe était plus prononcé que maintenant.”</p> +of the Academy, they add, “la présence des parties contestées +y a été universellement reconnue par les anatomistes présents +à la séance. Le seul doute qui soit resté se rapporte au pes +Hippocampi minor.... A l’état frais l’indice du petit pied +d’Hippocampe était plus prononcé que maintenant.”</p> <p>Professor Owen repeated his erroneous assertions at the meeting of the British Association in 1861, and again, without @@ -5129,12 +5090,12 @@ Gorilla, and therefore, in discussing cerebral characters, I shall take that of the Chimpanzee as my highest term among the Apes.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> “More than once,” says Peter Camper, “have I met with more -than six lumbar vertebræ in man.... Once I found thirteen -ribs and four lumbar vertebræ.” Fallopius noted thirteen pair of -ribs and only four lumbar vertebræ; and Eustachius once found -eleven dorsal vertebræ and six lumbar vertebræ.—“Œuvres de +than six lumbar vertebræ in man.... Once I found thirteen +ribs and four lumbar vertebræ.” Fallopius noted thirteen pair of +ribs and only four lumbar vertebræ; and Eustachius once found +eleven dorsal vertebræ and six lumbar vertebræ.—“Œuvres de Pierre Camper,” T. 1, p. 42. As Tyson states, his “Pygmie” had -thirteen pair of ribs and five lumbar vertebræ. The question of the +thirteen pair of ribs and five lumbar vertebræ. The question of the curves of the spinal column in the Apes requires further investigation.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> It has been affirmed that Hindoo crania sometimes contain as @@ -5306,7 +5267,7 @@ or oppose, that view.</p> <p>I shall confine myself, in discussing this question, to those fragmentary Human skulls from the caves of Engis in the valley of the Meuse, in Belgium, and of the Neanderthal -near Düsseldorf, the geological relations of which +near Düsseldorf, the geological relations of which <span class="pagenum">[Pg 112]</span>have been examined with so much care by Sir Charles Lyell; upon whose high authority I shall take it for granted, that the Engis skull belonged to a contemporary @@ -5322,15 +5283,15 @@ separates the present geological epoch from that which immediately preceded it. And there can be no doubt that the physical geography of Europe has changed wonderfully, since the bones of Men and Mammoths, -Hyænas and Rhinoceroses were washed pell-mell into +Hyænas and Rhinoceroses were washed pell-mell into the cave of Engis.</p> <p>The skull from the cave of Engis was originally discovered by Professor Schmerling, and was described by him, together with other human remains disinterred at the same time, in his valuable work, “Recherches sur -les ossemens fossiles découverts dans les cavernes de la -Province de Liège,” published in 1833 (p. 59, <i>et seq.</i>), +les ossemens fossiles découverts dans les cavernes de la +Province de Liège,” published in 1833 (p. 59, <i>et seq.</i>), from which the following paragraphs are extracted, the precise expressions of the author being, as far as possible, preserved.</p> @@ -5378,7 +5339,7 @@ a half above the floor of the cavern, to the walls of which it adhered strongly.</p> <p>“The earth which contained this human skull exhibited -no trace of disturbance: teeth of rhinoceros, horse, hyæna, +no trace of disturbance: teeth of rhinoceros, horse, hyæna, <span class="pagenum">[Pg 114]</span>and bear, surrounded it on all sides.</p> <p>“The famous Blumenbach<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> has directed attention to the @@ -5442,7 +5403,7 @@ the size of which is truly remarkable.<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_3 <p>“Figure 4 is a fragment of a superior maxillary bone, the molar teeth of which are worn down to the roots.</p> -<p>“I possess two vertebræ, a first and last dorsal.</p> +<p>“I possess two vertebræ, a first and last dorsal.</p> <p>“A clavicle of the left side (see Plate III., Fig. 1); although it belonged to a young individual, this bone @@ -5479,7 +5440,7 @@ were only two fragments of parietal bones, but many bones of the extremities. In one case, a broken fragment of an ulna was soldered to a like fragment of a radius by stalagmite, a condition frequently observed -among the bones of the Cave Bear (<i>Ursus spelæus</i>), found +among the bones of the Cave Bear (<i>Ursus spelæus</i>), found in the Belgian caverns.</p> <p>It was in the cavern of Engis that Professor Schmerling @@ -5494,7 +5455,7 @@ in the Comptes Rendus of the Academy of Sciences of Paris, for July 2nd, 1838, speaks of a visit (and apparently a very hasty one) paid to the collection of Professor “Schermidt” (which is presumably a misprint for Schmerling) -at Liège. The writer briefly criticises the drawings +at Liège. The writer briefly criticises the drawings which illustrate Schmerling’s work, and affirms that the “human cranium is a little longer than it is represented” in Schmerling’s figure. The only other remark worth @@ -5506,7 +5467,7 @@ compared with those of the varieties of recent human crania, few <i>certain</i> conclusions can be put forward; for much greater differences exist between the different specimens of well-characterized varieties, than between the -fossil cranium of Liège and that of one of those varieties +fossil cranium of Liège and that of one of those varieties selected as a term of comparison.”</p> <p><span class="pagenum">[Pg 117]</span>Geoffroy St. Hilaire’s remarks are, it will be observed, @@ -5523,7 +5484,7 @@ possession.</p> <p>A piece of the occipital bone, which Schmerling seems to have missed, has since been fitted on to the rest of the cranium by an accomplished anatomist, Dr. Spring -of Liège, under whose direction an excellent plaster cast +of Liège, under whose direction an excellent plaster cast was made for Sir Charles Lyell. It is upon and from a duplicate of that cast that my own observations and the accompanying figures, the outlines of which are copied @@ -5618,7 +5579,7 @@ Mr. Busk.</p> <p>“In the early part of the year 1857, a human skeleton was discovered in a limestone cave in the Neanderthal, -near Hochdal, between Düsseldorf and Elberfeld. Of +near Hochdal, between Düsseldorf and Elberfeld. Of this, however, I was unable to procure more than a plaster cast of the cranium, taken at Elberfeld, from which I drew up an account of its remarkable conformation, which @@ -5663,7 +5624,7 @@ them from one of his letters. “A small cave or grotto, high enough to admit a man, and about 15 feet deep from the entrance, which is 7 or 8 feet wide, exists in the southern wall of the gorge of the Neanderthal, as it is -termed, at a distance of about 100 feet from the Düssel, +termed, at a distance of about 100 feet from the Düssel, and about 60 feet above the bottom of the valley. In its earlier and uninjured condition, this cavern opened upon a narrow plateau lying in front of it, and from which the @@ -5848,7 +5809,7 @@ cracks. At the meeting of the Lower Rhine Society at Bonn, on the 1st April, 1857, Prof. Meyer stated that he had noticed in the museum of Poppelsdorf similar dendritic crystallizations on several fossil bones of -animals, and particularly on those of <i>Ursus spelæus</i>, +animals, and particularly on those of <i>Ursus spelæus</i>, but still more abundantly and beautifully displayed on<span class="pagenum">[Pg 126]</span> the fossil bones and teeth of <i>Equus adamiticus</i>, <i>Elephas primigenius</i>, &c., from the caves of Bolve and Sundwig. @@ -5917,7 +5878,7 @@ race, since crania exist among living savages, which, though not exhibiting such a remarkable conformation of the forehead, which gives the skull somewhat the aspect of that of the large apes, still in other respects, as for -instance in the greater depth of the temporal fossæ, the +instance in the greater depth of the temporal fossæ, the crest-like, prominent temporal ridges, and a generally less capacious cranial cavity, exhibit an equally low stage of development. There is no reason for supposing that the @@ -6451,7 +6412,7 @@ projection than a long one (<a href="#F29">Fig. 29</a>, <i>Negro</i>).</p> <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 29.—Sections of orthognathous (light contour) and prognathous (dark contour) skulls, one-third of the natural size. <i>a b</i>, Basicranial axis; <i>b c</i>, <i>b′ c′</i>, plane of the occipital foramen; <i>d d′</i>, hinder -end of the palatine bone; <i>e e′</i>, front end of the upper jaw; <i>TT</i>´, +end of the palatine bone; <i>e e′</i>, front end of the upper jaw; <i>TT</i>´, insertion of the tentorium.</span> </div> @@ -6650,7 +6611,7 @@ on the other hand, it is even more closely affined to the skulls of certain ancient people who inhabited Denmark during the “stone period,” and were probably either contemporaneous with, or later than, the makers of the -“refuse heaps,” or “Kjokkenmöddings” of that country.</p> +“refuse heaps,” or “Kjokkenmöddings” of that country.</p> <p>The correspondence between the longitudinal contour of the Neanderthal skull and that of some of those skulls @@ -6683,7 +6644,7 @@ Mammoth and the tichorhine Rhinoceros till now, I do not know that this result is other than might be expected.</p> -<p>Where, then, must we look for primæval Man? Was +<p>Where, then, must we look for primæval Man? Was the oldest <i>Homo sapiens</i> pliocene or miocene, or yet more ancient? In still older strata do the fossilized bones of an Ape more anthropoid, or a Man more pithecoid, than @@ -6697,8 +6658,8 @@ has yet been made of the antiquity of Man.</p> <div class="footnotes"><p class="title">FOOTNOTES:</p> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> Decas Collectionis suæ craniorum diversarum gentium illustrata. -Gottingæ, 1790-1820.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> Decas Collectionis suæ craniorum diversarum gentium illustrata. +Gottingæ, 1790-1820.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> In a subsequent passage, Schmerling remarks upon the occurrence of an incisor tooth “of enormous size” from the caverns of @@ -6710,7 +6671,7 @@ in a straight line—so that the bone is rather a small than a large one.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> <span class="smcap">On the Crania of the most Ancient Races of Man.</span> By -Professor D. Schaaffhausen, of Bonn. (From Müller’s Archiv., 1858, +Professor D. Schaaffhausen, of Bonn. (From Müller’s Archiv., 1858, p. 453.) With Remarks, and original Figures, taken from a Cast of the Neanderthal Cranium. By George Busk, F.R.S., &c. Natural History Review, April, 1861.</p></div> @@ -7707,7 +7668,7 @@ further out from the shore, which will be at <i>y</i><sup>1</sup>, <i>x</i><sup> being the new sea-level. The consequence will be that the layer of mud (A), being now, for the most part, further than the force of the current is strong enough to -convey even the finest <i>débris</i>, will, of course, receive no +convey even the finest <i>débris</i>, will, of course, receive no more deposits, and having attained a certain thickness, will now grow no thicker.</p> @@ -8406,7 +8367,7 @@ that you are quite wrong, and that all these terrible apparatus are being used by yourselves every day and every hour of your lives.</p> -<p>There is a well-known incident in one of Molière’s +<p>There is a well-known incident in one of Molière’s plays, where the author makes the hero express unbounded delight on being told that he had been talking prose during the whole of his life. In the same way, I trust, that you @@ -9117,7 +9078,7 @@ in the liquids in which they afterwards appear. For my own part, I conceive that, with the particulars of M. Pasteur’s experiments before us, we cannot fail to arrive<span class="pagenum">[Pg 207]</span> at his conclusions; and that the doctrine of spontaneous -generation has received a final <i>coup de grâce</i>.</p> +generation has received a final <i>coup de grâce</i>.</p> <p>You, of course, understand that all this in no way interferes with the <i>possibility</i> of the fabrication of organic @@ -9208,7 +9169,7 @@ reproduction of the form of the original being from which the bulb proceeds.</p> <p>Among animals the same thing takes place. Among -the lower forms of animal life, the infusorial animalculæ +the lower forms of animal life, the infusorial animalculæ we have already spoken of throw off certain portions, or break themselves up in various directions, sometimes transversely or sometimes longitudinally; or they may @@ -9218,7 +9179,7 @@ Polype, for instance, which multiplies itself in this way. Just in the same way as the gardener is able to multiply<span class="pagenum">[Pg 210]</span> and reproduce the peculiarities and characters of particular plants by means of cuttings, so can the physiological -experimentalist,—as was shown by the Abbé Trembley +experimentalist,—as was shown by the Abbé Trembley many years ago,—so can he do the same thing with many of the lower forms of animal life. M. de Trembley showed that you could take a polype and cut it into two, or four, @@ -9302,7 +9263,7 @@ members, without in any way deviating from the plan of the organism from which these portions have been detached. And so far does this go, that some experi<span class="pagenum">[Pg 212]</span>mentalists have carefully examined the lower orders of -animals,—among them the Abbé Spallanzani, who made +animals,—among them the Abbé Spallanzani, who made a number of experiments upon snails and salamanders,—and have found that they might mutilate them to an incredible extent; that you might cut off the jaw or the @@ -9490,7 +9451,7 @@ phenomena, we call them spontaneous.</p> little is known with perfect accuracy, I will mention to you some two or three cases, because they are very remarkable in themselves, and also because I shall want -to use them afterwards. Réaumur, a famous French +to use them afterwards. Réaumur, a famous French naturalist, a great many years ago, in an essay which he wrote upon the art of hatching chickens,—which was indeed a very curious essay,—had occasion to speak of @@ -9552,7 +9513,7 @@ was four children; the first, who was christened Salvator, had six fingers and six toes, like his father; the second was George, who had five fingers and toes, but one of them was deformed, showing a tendency to variation; -the third was Andrè; he had five fingers and five +the third was Andrè; he had five fingers and five toes, quite perfect; the fourth was a girl, Marie; she had five fingers and five toes, but her thumbs were deformed, showing a tendency toward the sixth.</p> @@ -9569,7 +9530,7 @@ there were two girls with six fingers and six toes; there was one girl with six fingers and five toes on the right side, and five fingers and five toes on the left side, so that she was half and half. The last, a boy, had five -fingers and five toes. The third, Andrè, you will recollect, +fingers and five toes. The third, Andrè, you will recollect, was perfectly well-formed, and he had many children whose hands and feet were all regularly developed. Marie, the last, who, of course, married a man who had @@ -9602,7 +9563,7 @@ have been in every case a further development of that abnormal type. You see it is only in the fourth, in the person of Marie, that the tendency, when it appears but<span class="pagenum">[Pg 219]</span> slightly in the second generation, is washed out in the -third, while the progeny of Andrè, who escaped in the +third, while the progeny of Andrè, who escaped in the first instance, escape altogether.</p> <p>We have in this case a good example of nature’s tendency @@ -9615,7 +9576,7 @@ generation, which is largely marked with it. In this case, as I have said, there was no means of the second generation intermarrying with any but five-fingered persons, and the question naturally suggests itself, What would -have been the result of such marriage? Réaumur +have been the result of such marriage? Réaumur narrates this case only as far as the third generation. Certainly it would have been an exceedingly curious thing if we could have traced this matter any further; @@ -9818,9 +9779,9 @@ the development of the ribs, and the size, shape, and development of the breastbone. We may notice, too,—and I mention the fact because it has been disputed by what is assumed to be high authority,—the variation in -the number of the sacral vertebræ. The number of these<span class="pagenum">[Pg 224]</span> +the number of the sacral vertebræ. The number of these<span class="pagenum">[Pg 224]</span> varies from eleven to fourteen, and that without any -diminution in the number of the vertebræ of the back or +diminution in the number of the vertebræ of the back or of the tail. Then the number and position of the tail-feathers may vary enormously, and so may the number of the primary and secondary feathers of the wings. Again, @@ -9907,8 +9868,8 @@ of their internal and important structural characters to a very great degree; not only might there be changes in the proportions of the skull, and the characters of the feet and beaks, and so on; but that there might be an -absolute difference in the number of the vertebræ of the -back, as in the sacral vertebræ of the Pouter; and so +absolute difference in the number of the vertebræ of the +back, as in the sacral vertebræ of the Pouter; and so great is the extent of the variation in these and similar characters that I pointed out to you, by reference to the skeletons and the diagrams, that these extreme varieties @@ -10674,13 +10635,13 @@ there are a great many more humble bees in the neighbourhood of towns, than out in the open country; and the explanation of the matter is this: the humble bees build nests, in which they store their honey and deposit -the larvæ and eggs. The field mice are amazingly fond -of the honey and larvæ; therefore, wherever there are +the larvæ and eggs. The field mice are amazingly fond +of the honey and larvæ; therefore, wherever there are plenty of field mice, as in the country, the humble bees are kept down; but in the neighbourhood of towns, the number of cats which prowl about the fields eat up the field mice, and of course the more mice they eat up the -less there are to prey upon the larvæ of the bees—the +less there are to prey upon the larvæ of the bees—the cats are therefore the <span class="smcap lowercase">INDIRECT HELPERS</span> of the bees.<span class="pagenum">[Pg 244]</span><a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a></p> <p>Coming back a step farther we may say that the old @@ -10728,7 +10689,7 @@ in any way connected with his particular speculations, but on matters of fact, brought forward by himself, or collected by himself, and which appear incidentally in his book. If a man <i>will</i> make a book, professing to discuss -a single question, an encyclopædia, I cannot help it.</p> +a single question, an encyclopædia, I cannot help it.</p> <p>Now, having had an opportunity of considering in this sort of way the different statements bearing upon all @@ -10826,7 +10787,7 @@ demonstrate our hypothesis, or, on the other, to upset and reject it altogether, by testing it in three ways. We must, in the first place, be prepared to prove that the supposed<span class="pagenum">[Pg 248]</span> causes of the phenomena exist in nature; that they are -what the logicians call <i>vera causæ</i>—true causes;—in the +what the logicians call <i>vera causæ</i>—true causes;—in the next place, we should be prepared to show that the assumed causes of the phenomena are competent to produce such phenomena as those which we wish to @@ -11048,14 +11009,14 @@ organized beings as the results of the gradual modification of a primitive type, the facts receive a meaning, and you see that these older conditions are the necessary predecessors of the present. Viewed in this light the facts of -palæontology receive a meaning—upon any other hypothesis, +palæontology receive a meaning—upon any other hypothesis, I am unable to see, in the slightest degree, what knowledge or signification we are to draw out of them. Again, note as bearing upon the same point, the singular -likeness which obtains between the successive Faunæ and -Floræ, whose remains are preserved on the rocks: you +likeness which obtains between the successive Faunæ and +Floræ, whose remains are preserved on the rocks: you never find any great and enormous difference between the -immediately successive Faunæ and Floræ, unless you have +immediately successive Faunæ and Floræ, unless you have reason to believe there has also been a great lapse of time or a great change of conditions. The animals, for instance, of the newest tertiary rocks, in any part of the @@ -11095,7 +11056,7 @@ of an armadillo-like mammal shall be like an armadillo. Upon that supposition, I say, the facts are intelligible; upon any other, that I am aware of, they are not.</p> -<p>So far, the facts of palæontology are consistent with +<p>So far, the facts of palæontology are consistent with almost any form of the doctrine of progressive modification; they would not be absolutely inconsistent with the wild speculations of De Maillet, or with the less objectionable @@ -11118,9 +11079,9 @@ and its modifications may, occasionally, all find the conditions fitted for their existence; and though they come into competition, to a certain extent, with one another, the derivative species may not necessarily extirpate the -primitive one, or <i>vice versâ</i>.</p> +primitive one, or <i>vice versâ</i>.</p> -<p>Now palæontology shows us many facts which are +<p>Now palæontology shows us many facts which are perfectly harmonious with these observed effects of the process by which Mr. Darwin supposes species to have originated, but which appear to me to be totally inconsistent @@ -11472,10 +11433,10 @@ structural difference.</p> let me say that you may go away with it as my mature conviction, that Mr. Darwin’s work is the greatest contribution which has been made to biological science -since the publication of the “Règne Animal” of Cuvier,<span class="pagenum">[Pg 263]</span> +since the publication of the “Règne Animal” of Cuvier,<span class="pagenum">[Pg 263]</span> and since that of the “History of Development,” of Von Baer. I believe that if you strip it of its theoretical -part it still remains one of the greatest encyclopædias of +part it still remains one of the greatest encyclopædias of biological doctrine that any one man ever brought forth; and I believe that, if you take it as the embodiment of an hypothesis, it is destined to be the guide of biological @@ -11536,7 +11497,7 @@ of Biology; and I think a few preliminary considerations will place before you in a clear light the vast difference which exists between the living bodies with which Physiological science is concerned, and the remainder of the<span class="pagenum">[Pg 265]</span> -universe;—between the phænomena of Number and +universe;—between the phænomena of Number and Space, of Physical and of Chemical force, on the one hand, and those of Life on the other.</p> @@ -11609,7 +11570,7 @@ this peculiarity of shape, presents no appreciable physical or chemical difference whereby it might be distinguished from the particle of dead protein.</p> -<p>But the difference in the phænomena to which it will +<p>But the difference in the phænomena to which it will give rise is immense: in the first place it will develope a vast quantity of physical force—cleaving the water in all directions, with considerable rapidity, by means of the @@ -11671,8 +11632,8 @@ we give the name of Life?</p> <p>I, for one, cannot tell you. It may be that, by and bye, philosophers will discover some higher laws of which the facts of life are particular cases—very possibly they -will find out some bond between physico-chemical phænomena -on the one hand, and vital phænomena on the +will find out some bond between physico-chemical phænomena +on the one hand, and vital phænomena on the other. At present, however, we assuredly know of none; and I think we shall exercise a wise humility in confessing that, for us at least, this successive assumption of @@ -11694,7 +11655,7 @@ clearly manifested in the multitudinous stages through which the germ of an oak or of a man passes. Whatever forms the Living Being may take on, whether simple or complex,—<i>production</i>, <i>growth</i>, <i>reproduction</i>,—are the -phænomena which distinguish it from that which does +phænomena which distinguish it from that which does not live.</p> <p>If this be true, it is clear that the student, in passing @@ -11850,7 +11811,7 @@ differ from all others, inasmuch as in <i>them</i>, classification takes place by type and not by definition.<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a></p> <p>It is said, in short, that a natural-history class is not -capable of being defined—that the class Rosaceæ, for +capable of being defined—that the class Rosaceæ, for instance, or the class of Fishes, is not accurately and absolutely definable, inasmuch as its members will present exceptions to every possible definition; and that @@ -11918,7 +11879,7 @@ of the <i>Circulation of the Blood</i>.</p> <p>In this case, <i>simple observation</i> yields us a knowledge of the existence of the blood from some accidental -hæmorrhage, we will say: we may even grant that it +hæmorrhage, we will say: we may even grant that it informs us of the localisation of this blood in particular vessels, the heart, &c., from some accidental cut or the like. It teaches also the existence of a pulse in various @@ -11948,7 +11909,7 @@ general proposition, thus:—<i>all horses have a circulation of their blood</i>.</p> <p>Henceforward a horse is a sort of indication or label, -telling us where we shall find a peculiar series of phænomena +telling us where we shall find a peculiar series of phænomena called the circulation of the blood.</p> <p>Here is our <i>general proposition</i> then.</p> @@ -11986,7 +11947,7 @@ the trouble to go through the process of verification at all; and it would not be without a parallel in the history of the human mind, if our imaginary physiologist now maintained that he was acquainted with asinine circulation -<i>à priori</i>.</p> +<i>à priori</i>.</p> <p>However, if I might impress any caution upon your minds, it is, the utterly conditional nature of all our @@ -12263,7 +12224,7 @@ Gardens.</p> <p>On the other hand, systematic teaching in Biology cannot be attempted with success until the student has attained to a certain knowledge of physics and chemistry: -for though the phænomena of life are dependent neither +for though the phænomena of life are dependent neither on physical nor on chemical, but on vital forces, yet they result in all sorts of physical and chemical changes, which can only be judged by their own laws.</p> @@ -12317,10 +12278,10 @@ Comparison?</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> “Proceeding to the second class of means,—Experiment cannot but be less and less decisive, in proportion to the complexity of the -phænomena to be explored; and therefore we saw this resource to be +phænomena to be explored; and therefore we saw this resource to be less effectual in chemistry than in physics: and we now find that it is eminently useful in chemistry in comparison with physiology. <i>In -fact, the nature of the phænomena seems to offer almost insurmountable +fact, the nature of the phænomena seems to offer almost insurmountable impediments to any extensive and prolific application of such a procedure in biology.</i>”—<span class="smcap">Comte</span>, vol. i. p. 367.</p> @@ -12328,8 +12289,8 @@ in biology.</i>”—<span class="smcap">Comte</span>, vol. i. p. 367.</ on, but that will hardly relieve him from the responsibility of such a paragraph as the above.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> Nouvelle Fonction du Foie considéré comme organe producteur -de matière sucrée chez l’Homme et les Animaux, par M. Claude +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> Nouvelle Fonction du Foie considéré comme organe producteur +de matière sucrée chez l’Homme et les Animaux, par M. Claude Bernard.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> “<i>Natural Groups given by Type, not by Definition....</i> The @@ -12394,7 +12355,7 @@ physical progression are therefore perfectly consistent, if we regard geological time as having the same relation to pre-geological time as historical time has to it.</p> -<p>The accepted doctrines of palæontology are by no means<span class="pagenum">[Pg 284]</span> +<p>The accepted doctrines of palæontology are by no means<span class="pagenum">[Pg 284]</span> in harmony with these tendencies of physical geology. It is generally believed that there is a vast contrast between the ancient and the modern organic worlds—it is incessantly @@ -12409,7 +12370,7 @@ adhesion.</p> differences which really exist between the ancient and the modern forms of life, and leaving the negative ones to be met by the other lines of argument, an impartial -examination of the facts revealed by palæontology seems +examination of the facts revealed by palæontology seems to show that these differences and contrasts have been greatly exaggerated.</p> @@ -12428,7 +12389,7 @@ types” of life; and examples of them are abundant enough in both the animal and the vegetable worlds.</p> <p>Among plants, for instance, ferns, club mosses, and -<i>Coniferæ</i>, some of them apparently generically identical +<i>Coniferæ</i>, some of them apparently generically identical with those now living, are met with as far back as the carboniferous epoch; the cone of the oolitic <i>Araucaria</i> is hardly distinguishable from that of existing species; @@ -12467,7 +12428,7 @@ of its eyes.</p> <p>The vertebrate sub-kingdom furnishes many examples of the same kind. The <i>Ganoidei</i> and <i>Elasmobranchii</i> are known to have persisted from at least the middle of the -Palæozoic epoch to our own times, without exhibiting a +Palæozoic epoch to our own times, without exhibiting a greater amount of deviation from the typical characters of these orders, than may be found within their limits at the present day.</p> @@ -12477,7 +12438,7 @@ was represented at the beginning of the Mesozoic epoch, if not earlier, by species identical in the essential character of their organization with those now living, and presenting differences only in such points as the form of -the articular faces of their vertebræ, in the extent to which +the articular faces of their vertebræ, in the extent to which the nasal passages are separated from the mouth by bone, and in the proportions of the limbs. Even such imperfect knowledge as we possess of the ancient mammalian fauna @@ -12504,7 +12465,7 @@ lends any countenance—their existence would seem to show, that the amount of modification which living beings have undergone during geological time is but very small in relation to the whole series of changes which they have -suffered. In fact, palæontology and physical geology are +suffered. In fact, palæontology and physical geology are in perfect harmony, and coincide in indicating that all we know of the conditions in our world during geological time, is but the last term of a vast and, so far as our @@ -12537,7 +12498,7 @@ and differences among themselves that they are capable of classification into groups or formations, and these formations again are brigaded together into still larger assemblages, called by the older geologists, primary, -secondary, and tertiary; by the moderns, palæozoic, +secondary, and tertiary; by the moderns, palæozoic, mesozoic, and cainozoic: the basis of the former nomenclature being the relative age of the groups of strata; that of the latter, the kinds of living forms contained in @@ -12555,7 +12516,7 @@ in the ancient world, mud and sand accumulated on sea-bottoms at tenfold their present rate, it is clear that a bed of mud or sand ten feet thick would have been formed then in the same time as a stratum of similar materials -one foot thick would be formed now, and <i>vice versâ</i>.</p> +one foot thick would be formed now, and <i>vice versâ</i>.</p> <p><span class="pagenum">[Pg 288]</span>At the outset of his studies, therefore, the physical geologist had to choose between two hypotheses; either, @@ -12598,7 +12559,7 @@ last and the newest of the revolutions of the globe. And in proportion as physical geography—which is the geology of our own epoch—has grown into a science, and the present order of nature has been ransacked to find what, -<i>hibernicè</i>, we may call precedents for the phenomena of +<i>hibernicè</i>, we may call precedents for the phenomena of the past, so the apparent necessity of supposing the past to be widely different from the present has diminished.</p> @@ -12629,7 +12590,7 @@ shores; the hardened sea-sands of the oldest epochs show ripple-marks, such as may now be found on every sandy coast; nay, more, the pits left by ancient rain-drops prove that even in the very earliest ages, the “bow in the -clouds” must have adorned the palæozoic firmament. So +clouds” must have adorned the palæozoic firmament. So that if we could reverse the legend of the Seven Sleepers,—if we could sleep back through the past, and awake a million ages before our own epoch, in the midst of the @@ -12690,7 +12651,7 @@ more remarkable that the moment the question changes from one of physics and chemistry to one of natural history, scientific opinions and the popular prejudices,<span class="pagenum">[Pg 291]</span> which reflect them in a distorted form, undergo a sudden -metamorphosis. Geologists and palæontologists write +metamorphosis. Geologists and palæontologists write about the “beginning of life” and the “first-created forms of living beings,” as if they were the most familiar things in the world; and even cautious writers seem to be @@ -12764,7 +12725,7 @@ vegetable and the animal kingdoms. The oldest group of plants with which we are well acquainted is that of whose remains coal is constituted; and, so far as they can be identified, the carboniferous plants are ferns, or -club-mosses, or Coniferæ, in many cases generically +club-mosses, or Coniferæ, in many cases generically identical with those now living!</p> <p>Among animals, instances of the same kind may be @@ -12774,11 +12735,11 @@ the chalk; and the casts of lower silurian <i>Foraminifera</i>, which Ehrenberg has recently described, seem to indicate the existence at that remote period of forms singularly like those which now exist. Among the corals, the -palæozoic <i>Tabulata</i> are constructed on precisely the same +palæozoic <i>Tabulata</i> are constructed on precisely the same type as the modern millepores; and if we turn to molluscs, the most competent malacologists fail to discover<span class="pagenum">[Pg 293]</span> -any generic distinction between the <i>Craniæ</i>, <i>Lingulæ</i>, and -<i>Discinæ</i> of the silurian rocks and those which now live. +any generic distinction between the <i>Craniæ</i>, <i>Lingulæ</i>, and +<i>Discinæ</i> of the silurian rocks and those which now live. Our existing <i>Nautilus</i> has its representative species in every great formation, from the oldest to the newest; and <i>Loligo</i>, the squid of modern seas, appears in the @@ -12792,13 +12753,13 @@ run about our coal-cellars; and its locusts, termites, and dragon-flies are closely allied to the members of the same groups which now chirrup about our fields, undermine our houses, or sail with swift grace about the banks of -our sedgy pools. And, in like manner, the palæozoic +our sedgy pools. And, in like manner, the palæozoic scorpions can only be distinguished by the eye of a naturalist from the modern ones.</p> <p>Finally, with respect to the <i>Vertebrata</i>, the same law holds good: certain types, such as those of the ganoid and -placoid fishes, having persisted from the palæozoic epoch +placoid fishes, having persisted from the palæozoic epoch to the present time without a greater amount of deviation from the normal standard than that which is seen within the limits of the group as it now exists. Even among the @@ -12856,7 +12817,7 @@ in the great lapse of pregeologic time, and are now perhaps for ever lost.</p> <p>In other words, when rightly studied, the teachings of -palæontology are at one with those of physical geology. +palæontology are at one with those of physical geology. Our farthest explorations carry us back but a little way above the mouth of the great river of Life: where it arose, and by what channels the noble tide has reached @@ -13056,7 +13017,7 @@ in natural history.</p> <p>Nor has the discussion of the subject been restrained within the limits of conversation. When the public is eager and interested, reviewers must minister to its wants, -and the genuine <i>littérateur</i> is too much in the habit of +and the genuine <i>littérateur</i> is too much in the habit of acquiring his knowledge from the book he judges—as the<span class="pagenum">[Pg 300]</span> Abyssinian is said to provide himself with steaks from the ox which carries him—to be withheld from criticism of a @@ -13163,7 +13124,7 @@ morphological peculiarities. Thus horses form a species, because the group of animals to which that name is applied is distinguished from all others in the world by the following constantly associated characters. They -have 1. A vertebral column; 2. Mammæ; 3. A placental +have 1. A vertebral column; 2. Mammæ; 3. A placental embryo; 4. Four legs; 5. A single well-developed toe in each foot provided with a hoof; 6. A bushy tail; and 7. Callosities on the inner sides of both the fore and @@ -13184,7 +13145,7 @@ from the other.</p> <p>However bare and simple this definition of species may appear to be, we confidently appeal to all practical -naturalists, whether zoologists, botanists, or palæontologists, +naturalists, whether zoologists, botanists, or palæontologists, to say if, in the vast majority of cases, they know, or mean to affirm, anything more of the group of animals or plants they so denominate than what has just been<span class="pagenum">[Pg 303]</span> @@ -13283,7 +13244,7 @@ of the house would be regarded as a kind of monster.</p> <p>So that the one end to which in all living beings the formative impulse is tending—the one scheme which the -Archæus of the old speculators strives to carry out, seems +Archæus of the old speculators strives to carry out, seems to be to mould the offspring into the likeness of the parent. It is the first great law of reproduction, that the offspring tends to resemble its parent or parents, more @@ -13388,8 +13349,8 @@ the neighbours’ fences, in which they were in the habit of indulging, much to the good farmer’s vexation.</p> <p>The second case is that detailed by a no less unexceptionable -authority than Réaumur, in his “Art de faire -éclorre les poulets.” A Maltese couple, named Kelleia, +authority than Réaumur, in his “Art de faire +éclorre les poulets.” A Maltese couple, named Kelleia, whose hands and feet were constructed upon the ordinary human model, had born to them a son, Gratio, who possessed six perfectly moveable fingers on each hand and six @@ -13441,7 +13402,7 @@ unfair advantage over the normal descendants from the same stock. This is strikingly exemplified by the case of Gratio Kelleia, who married a woman with the ordinary pentadactyle extremities, and had by her four children, -Salvator, George, André, and Marie. Of these children<span class="pagenum">[Pg 309]</span> +Salvator, George, André, and Marie. Of these children<span class="pagenum">[Pg 309]</span> Salvator, the eldest boy, had six fingers and six toes, like his father; the second and third, also boys, had five fingers and toes, like their mother, though the hands and @@ -13471,7 +13432,7 @@ toes on the right foot, but only five toes on the left; and lastly, a boy with only five fingers and toes. In these instances, therefore, the variety, as it were, leaped over one generation to reproduce itself in full force in the -next. Finally, the purely pentadactyle André was the +next. Finally, the purely pentadactyle André was the father of many children, not one of whom departed from the normal parental type.</p> @@ -13582,7 +13543,7 @@ the beak and of the skull; in the proportions of the beak to the skull; in the number of tail-feathers; in the absolute and relative size of the feet; in the presence or absence of the uropygial gland; in the number -of vertebræ in the back; in short, in precisely those +of vertebræ in the back; in short, in precisely those characters in which the genera and species of birds differ from one another.</p> @@ -13603,7 +13564,7 @@ Mr. Darwin’s researches prove that the skeleton of the wings in domestic pigeons has hardly varied at all from that of the wild type; while, on the other hand,<span class="pagenum">[Pg 313]</span> it is in exactly those respects, such as the relative length -of the beak and skull, the number of the vertebræ, and +of the beak and skull, the number of the vertebræ, and the number of the tail-feathers, in which muscular exertion can have no important influence, that the utmost amount of variation has taken place.</p> @@ -14105,7 +14066,7 @@ to the same genera, or family groups, as those which now inhabit the same great geographical area. The crocodilian reptiles which existed in the earliest secondary epoch were similar in general structure to those now living, but exhibit -slight differences in their vertebræ, nasal passages, and +slight differences in their vertebræ, nasal passages, and one or two other points. The guinea-pig has teeth which are shed before it is born, and hence can never subserve the masticatory purpose for which they seem contrived, @@ -14162,7 +14123,7 @@ Scilla’s demonstration of the true nature of fossils.</p> <p>A contemporary of Newton and of Leibnitz, sharing therefore in the intellectual activity of the remarkable age which witnessed the birth of modern physical science, -Benoît de Maillet spent a long life as a consular agent of +Benoît de Maillet spent a long life as a consular agent of the French Government in various Mediterranean ports. For sixteen years, in fact, he held the office of Consul-General in Egypt, and the wonderful phenomena offered<span class="pagenum">[Pg 326]</span> @@ -14230,34 +14191,34 @@ of the Indian philosopher Telliamed, his <i>alter ego</i>, might have been written by the most philosophical uniformitarian of the present day.</p> -<blockquote><p>“Ce qu’il y a d’étonnant, est que pour arriver à ces +<blockquote><p>“Ce qu’il y a d’étonnant, est que pour arriver à ces connoissances il semble avoir perverti l’ordre naturel, -puisqu’au lieu de s’attacher d’abord à rechercher l’origine -de notre globe il a commencé par travailler à s’instruire -de la nature. Mais à l’entendre, ce renversement de -l’ordre a été pour lui l’effet d’un génie favorable qui l’a -conduit pas à pas et comme par la main aux découvertes -les plus sublimes. C’est en décomposant la substance de +puisqu’au lieu de s’attacher d’abord à rechercher l’origine +de notre globe il a commencé par travailler à s’instruire +de la nature. Mais à l’entendre, ce renversement de +l’ordre a été pour lui l’effet d’un génie favorable qui l’a +conduit pas à pas et comme par la main aux découvertes +les plus sublimes. C’est en décomposant la substance de ce globe par une anatomie exacte de toutes ses parties -qu’il a premièrement appris de quelles matières il était -composé et quels arrangemens ces mêmes matières observaient -entre elles. Ces lumières jointes à l’esprit de comparaison -toujours nécessaire à quiconque entreprend de -percer les voiles dont la nature aime à se cacher, ont -servi de guide à notre philosophe pour parvenir à des -connoissances plus intéressantes. Par la matière et -l’arrangement de ces compositions il prétend avoir reconnu -quelle est la véritable origine de ce globe que -nous habitons, comment et par qui il a été formé.”—(Pp. +qu’il a premièrement appris de quelles matières il était +composé et quels arrangemens ces mêmes matières observaient +entre elles. Ces lumières jointes à l’esprit de comparaison +toujours nécessaire à quiconque entreprend de +percer les voiles dont la nature aime à se cacher, ont +servi de guide à notre philosophe pour parvenir à des +connoissances plus intéressantes. Par la matière et +l’arrangement de ces compositions il prétend avoir reconnu +quelle est la véritable origine de ce globe que +nous habitons, comment et par qui il a été formé.”—(Pp. xix. xx.)</p></blockquote> <p><span class="pagenum">[Pg 328]</span>But De Maillet was before his age, and as could hardly fail to happen to one who speculated on a zoological and -botanical question before Linnæus, and on a physiological +botanical question before Linnæus, and on a physiological problem before Haller, he fell into great errors here and there; and hence, perhaps, the general neglect of his work. Robinet’s speculations are rather behind than in advance -of those of De Maillet, and though Linnæus may have +of those of De Maillet, and though Linnæus may have played with the hypothesis of transmutation, it obtained no serious support until Lamarck adopted it, and advocated it with great ability in his “Philosophie Zoologique.”</p> @@ -14330,7 +14291,7 @@ met their death at the hands of man; and so little does he dream of there being any other destructive causes at work, that, in discussing the possible existence of fossil shells, he asks, “Pourquoi d’ailleurs seroient-ils perdues -dès que l’homme n’a pu opérer leur destruction?” +dès que l’homme n’a pu opérer leur destruction?” (“Phil. Zool.,” vol. i. p. 77). Of the influence of selection Lamarck has as little notion, and he makes no use of the wonderful phenomena which are exhibited by domesti<span class="pagenum">[Pg 330]</span>cated @@ -14364,7 +14325,7 @@ state of mind under the circumstances.</p> <p>Such being the general ferment in the minds of naturalists, it is no wonder that they mustered strong in the -rooms of the Linnæan Society, on the first of July of the +rooms of the Linnæan Society, on the first of July of the year 1858, to hear two papers by authors living on opposite sides of the globe, working out their results independently, and yet professing to have discovered one and the same @@ -14373,7 +14334,7 @@ one of these authors was an able naturalist, Mr. Wallace, who had been employed for some years in studying the productions of the islands of the Indian Archipelago, and who had forwarded a memoir embodying his views to -Mr. Darwin for communication to the Linnæan Society. +Mr. Darwin for communication to the Linnæan Society. On perusing the essay Mr. Darwin was not a little surprised to find that it embodied some of the leading ideas of a great work which he had been preparing for twenty years,<span class="pagenum">[Pg 331]</span> @@ -14383,7 +14344,7 @@ or sixteen years before. Perplexed in what manner to do full justice both to his friend and to himself, Mr. Darwin placed the matter in the hands of Dr. Hooker and Sir Charles Lyell, by whose advice he communicated a brief -abstract of his own views to the Linnæan Society, at the +abstract of his own views to the Linnæan Society, at the same time that Mr. Wallace’s paper was read. Of that abstract, the work on the “Origin of Species” is an enlargement, but a complete statement of Mr. Darwin’s @@ -14524,7 +14485,7 @@ under domestication, by human influence, and any operation which can be effected by nature, for man interferes intelligently. Reduced to its elements, this argument implies that an effect produced with trouble by an -intelligent agent must, <i>à fortiori</i> be more troublesome, if +intelligent agent must, <i>à fortiori</i> be more troublesome, if not impossible, to an unintelligent agent. Even putting aside the question whether nature, acting as she does according to definite and invariable laws, can be rightly called @@ -14682,7 +14643,7 @@ of science sweep on in ever-widening circles, and more aspiring flights, though a limitless creation. While astronomy, with its telescope, ranges beyond the known stars, and physiology, with its microscope, is subdividing<span class="pagenum">[Pg 338]</span> -infinite minutiæ, we may expect that our historic centuries +infinite minutiæ, we may expect that our historic centuries may be treated as inadequate counters in the history of the planet on which we are placed. We must expect new conceptions of the nature and relations of its denizens, as @@ -14846,14 +14807,14 @@ why certain living beings are found in certain regions of the world and not in others. The palm, as we know, will not grow in our climate, nor the oak in Greenland. The white bear cannot live where the tiger -thrives, nor <i>vice versâ</i>, and the more the natural habits +thrives, nor <i>vice versâ</i>, and the more the natural habits of animal and vegetable species are examined, the more do they seem, on the whole, limited to particular provinces. But when we look into the facts established by the study of the geographical distribution of animals and<span class="pagenum">[Pg 342]</span> plants it seems utterly hopeless to attempt to understand the strange and apparently capricious relations which -they exhibit. One would be inclined to suppose <i>à priori</i> +they exhibit. One would be inclined to suppose <i>à priori</i> that every country must be naturally peopled by those animals that are fittest to live and thrive in it. And yet how, on this hypothesis, are we to account for the absence @@ -14889,7 +14850,7 @@ inconceivable immensity of the time of whose lapse they are the imperfect, but the only accessible witnesses. Now, throughout the greater part of this long series of stratified rocks are scattered, sometimes very abundantly, multitudes -of organic remains, the fossilised exuviæ of animals +of organic remains, the fossilised exuviæ of animals and plants which lived and died while the mud of which the rocks are formed was yet soft ooze, and could receive and bury them. It would be a great error to suppose<span class="pagenum">[Pg 343]</span> @@ -14898,7 +14859,7 @@ museums exhibit fossil shells of immeasurable antiquity, as perfect as the day they were formed, whole skeletons without a limb disturbed—nay, the changed flesh, the developing embryos, and even the very footsteps of -primæval organisms. Thus the naturalist finds in the +primæval organisms. Thus the naturalist finds in the bowels of the earth species as well defined as, and in some groups of animals more numerous than, those that breathe the upper air. But, singularly enough, the majority of @@ -15140,7 +15101,7 @@ without the selection no race. Before admitting the possibility of natural species having originated in any similar way, it must be proved that there is in nature some power which takes the place of man, and performs -a selection <i>suâ sponte</i>. It is the claim of Mr. Darwin +a selection <i>suâ sponte</i>. It is the claim of Mr. Darwin that he professes to have discovered the existence and the <i>modus operandi</i> of this natural selection, as he terms it; and, if he be right, the process is perfectly simple @@ -15214,7 +15175,7 @@ predecessors. But it is quite another matter to affirm absolutely either the truth or falsehood of Mr. Darwin’s views at the present stage of the inquiry. Goethe has an excellent aphorism defining that state of mind which he -calls <i>Thätige Skepsis</i>—active doubt. It is doubt which +calls <i>Thätige Skepsis</i>—active doubt. It is doubt which so loves truth that it neither dares rest in doubting, nor extinguish itself by unjustified belief; and we commend this state of mind to students of species, with respect to @@ -15266,16 +15227,16 @@ and those who devote themselves especially to the pursuit of such sciences have been, and are, commonly termed “Naturalists.”</p> -<p>Linnæus was a naturalist in this wide sense, and his -“Systema Naturæ” was a work upon natural history +<p>Linnæus was a naturalist in this wide sense, and his +“Systema Naturæ” was a work upon natural history in the broadest acceptation of the term; in it, that great methodizing spirit embodied all that was known in his time of the distinctive characters of minerals, animals, and plants. But the enormous stimulus which -Linnæus gave to the investigation of nature soon rendered +Linnæus gave to the investigation of nature soon rendered it impossible that any one man should write -another “Systema Naturæ,” and extremely difficult for -any one to become a naturalist such as Linnæus was.</p> +another “Systema Naturæ,” and extremely difficult for +any one to become a naturalist such as Linnæus was.</p> <p>Great as have been the advances made by all the three branches of science, of old included under the title of @@ -15315,7 +15276,7 @@ his object, he is called an anatomist, or a physiologist, or an ethnologist; but if he dissects animals, or examines into the mode in which their functions are performed, he is a comparative anatomist or comparative physiologist. -If he turns his attention to fossil animals he is a palæontologist. +If he turns his attention to fossil animals he is a palæontologist. If his mind is more particularly directed to the description, specific discrimination, classification, and distribution of animals he is termed a zoologist.</p> @@ -15416,7 +15377,7 @@ called technically the “carapace,” ending in front in a sharp spine, on either side of which are the curious compound eyes, set upon the ends of stout moveable stalks. Behind these, on the under side of the body, are two -pairs of long feelers or antennæ, followed by six pairs of +pairs of long feelers or antennæ, followed by six pairs of jaws, folded against one another over the mouth, and five pairs of legs, the foremost of these being the great pinchers, or claws, of the lobster.</p> @@ -15816,7 +15777,7 @@ and not mere hearsay.</p> in zoological science granted by this department, I should pursue a course precisely similar in principle to that which I have taken to-night. I should select a fresh-water -sponge, a fresh-water polype or a <i>Cyanæa</i>, a fresh-water +sponge, a fresh-water polype or a <i>Cyanæa</i>, a fresh-water mussel, a lobster, a fowl, as types of the five primary<span class="pagenum">[Pg 365]</span> divisions of the animal kingdom. I should explain their structure very fully, and show how each illustrated @@ -16202,391 +16163,13 @@ Edinburgh & London</p> <p>Page 67: "<sup>11</sup>⁄<sub>18</sub>" changed to "<sup>11</sup>⁄<sub>18</sub>ths" (not more than <sup>11</sup>⁄<sub>18</sub>ths of its length).</p> -<p>Page 151, Footnote 41: "pp." changed to "p." (From Müller's Archiv., 1858, p. 453.)</p> +<p>Page 151, Footnote 41: "pp." changed to "p." (From Müller's Archiv., 1858, p. 453.)</p> <p>Page 166: "kindgom" changed to "kingdom" (of the animal kingdom which has been guessed at) and (with that of the animal kingdom).</p> <p>Page 184: "order" changed to "orders" (Summing up all the orders of animals).</p> </div> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Man's Place in Nature and Other Essays, by -Thomas Henry Huxley - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MAN'S PLACE IN NATURE *** - -***** This file should be named 40257-h.htm or 40257-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/0/2/5/40257/ - -Produced by Pat McCoy, Adrian Mastronardi and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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