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diff --git a/40257-8.txt b/40257-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 97e9cbd..0000000 --- a/40257-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,13844 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Man's Place in Nature and Other Essays, by -Thomas Henry Huxley - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Man's Place in Nature and Other Essays - -Author: Thomas Henry Huxley - -Release Date: July 16, 2012 [EBook #40257] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MAN'S PLACE IN NATURE *** - - - - -Produced by Pat McCoy, Adrian Mastronardi and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries) - - - - - -TRANSCRIBER NOTES: - - Words or letters contained within underscores, i.e. _EVERYMAN'S - LIBRARY_, are words which were in italics in the original. - - Letters or numbers preceded by a carat symbol, ^, indicate letters - or numbers which were in superscript in the original. - - Letters with a macron are indicated in the following manner: [=a]. - - Additional Transcriber Notes can be found at the end of this - project. - - - - - EVERYMAN'S LIBRARY - EDITED BY ERNEST RHYS - - SCIENCE - - HUXLEY'S ESSAYS - WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY - SIR OLIVER LODGE - - - - - THE PUBLISHERS OF _EVERYMAN'S - LIBRARY_ WILL BE PLEASED TO SEND - FREELY TO ALL APPLICANTS A LIST - OF THE PUBLISHED AND PROJECTED - VOLUMES TO BE COMPRISED UNDER - THE FOLLOWING TWELVE HEADINGS: - - TRAVEL SCIENCE FICTION - THEOLOGY & PHILOSOPHY - HISTORY CLASSICAL - CHILDREN'S BOOKS - ESSAYS ORATORY - POETRY & DRAMA - BIOGRAPHY - ROMANCE - - -[Illustration] - - - IN TWO STYLES OF BINDING, CLOTH, - FLAT BACK, COLOURED TOP, AND - LEATHER, ROUND CORNERS, GILT TOP. - - - LONDON: J. M. DENT & CO. - - - - -[Illustration: HOC SOLUM SCIO QUOD NIHIL SCIO] - - - - - MAN'S PLACE - IN NATURE - AND OTHER - ESSAYS BY - THOMAS - HENRY - HUXLEY - - -[Illustration] - - - LONDON: PUBLISHED - by J. M. DENT. & CO. - AND IN NEW YORK - BY E. P. DUTTON & CO. - - - - - _First Edition, February 1906_ - - _Reprinted July 1906_ - - - - -CONTENTS - - - PAGE - - I. ON THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE MAN-LIKE APES 1 - - II. ON THE RELATIONS OF MAN TO THE LOWER ANIMALS 52 - - III. ON SOME FOSSIL REMAINS OF MAN 111 - - IV. THE PRESENT CONDITION OF ORGANIC NATURE 151 - - V. THE PAST CONDITION OF ORGANIC NATURE 168 - - VI. THE METHOD BY WHICH THE CAUSES OF THE PRESENT - AND PAST CONDITIONS OF ORGANIC NATURE ARE TO - BE DISCOVERED.--THE ORIGINATION OF LIVING BEINGS 186 - - VII. THE PERPETUATION OF LIVING BEINGS, HEREDITARY - TRANSMISSION AND VARIATION 208 - - VIII. THE CONDITIONS OF EXISTENCE AS AFFECTING - THE PERPETUATION OF LIVING BEINGS 225 - - IX. A CRITICAL EXAMINATION OF THE POSITION OF MR. - DARWIN'S WORK, "ON THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES," IN - RELATION TO THE COMPLETE THEORY OF THE CAUSES - OF THE PHENOMENA OF ORGANIC NATURE 245 - - X. ON THE EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF THE NATURAL - HISTORY SCIENCES 264 - - (Lecture delivered at St. Martin's Hall, - July 22, 1854). - - XI. ON THE PERSISTENT TYPES OF ANIMAL LIFE 283 - - (Lecture delivered at the Royal Institution, - June 3, 1859.) - - XII. TIME AND LIFE 287 - - (_Macmillan's Magazine_, December 1859.) - - XIII. DARWIN ON THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES 299 - - (_Westminster Review_, April 1860.) - - XIV. THE DARWINIAN HYPOTHESIS 337 - - (_Times_, December 26, 1859.) - - XV. A LOBSTER; OR, THE STUDY OF ZOOLOGY 352 - - (Lecture delivered at South Kensington - Museum, May 14, 1860). - - - - - INTRODUCTION - - -Forty years ago the position of scientific studies was not so firmly -established as it is to-day, and a conflict was necessary to secure -their general recognition. The forces of obscurantism and of free and -easy dogmatism were arrayed against them; and, just as in former -centuries astronomy, and in more recent times geology, so in our own -lifetime biology, has had to offer a harsh and fighting front, lest its -progress be impeded by the hostility born of preconceived opinions, and -by the bigotry of self-appointed guardians of conservative views. - -The man who probably did as much as any to fight the battle of science -in the nineteenth century, and secure the victory for free enquiry and -progressive knowledge, is Thomas Henry Huxley; and it is an interesting -fact that already the lapse of time is making it possible to bring his -writings in cheap form to the notice of a multitude of interested -readers. The pugnacious attitude, however, which, forty years ago, was -appropriate, has become a little antique now; the conflict is not indeed -over, but it has either totally shifted its ground, or is continued on -the old battlefield chiefly by survivors, and by a few of a younger -generation who have been brought up in the old spirit. - -The truths of materialism now run but little risk of being denied or -ignored, they run perhaps some danger of being exaggerated. Brilliantly -true and successful in their own territory, they are occasionally pushed -by enthusiastic disciples over the frontier line into regions where they -can do nothing but break down. As if enthusiastic worshippers of -motor-cars, proud of their performance on the good roads of France, -should take them over into the Sahara or essay them on a Polar -expedition. - -That represents the mistake which, in modern times, by careless -thinkers, is being made. They tend to press the materialistic statements -and scientific doctrines of a great man like Huxley, as if they were -co-extensive with all existence. This is not really a widening of the -materialistic aspect of things, it is a cramping of everything else; it -is an attempt to limit the universe to one of its aspects. - -But the mistake is not made solely, nor even chiefly, by those eager -disciples who are pursuing the delusive gleam of a materialistic -philosophy--for these there is hope,--to attempt is a healthy exercise, -and they will find out their mistake in time; but the mistake is also -made by those who are specially impressed with the spiritual side of -things, who so delight to see guidance and management everywhere, that -they wish to blind their eyes to the very mechanism whereby it is -accomplished. They think that those who point out and earnestly study -the mechanism are undermining the foundations of faith. Nothing of the -kind. A traveller in the deck-cabin of an Atlantic liner may prefer to -ignore the engines and the firemen, and all the machinery and toil which -is urging him luxuriously forward over the waves in the sunshine; he may -try to imagine that he is on a sailing vessel propelled by the free air -of heaven alone; but there is just as much utilization of natural forces -to a desired end in one case of navigation as in the other, and every -detail of the steamship, down to the last drop of sweat from a fireman's -grimy body, is an undeniable reality. - -There are people who still resent the conclusions of biology as to man's -place in nature, and try to counteract them; but, as the late Professor -Ritchie said ("Philosophical Studies," page 24)-- - - "It is a mistake, which has constantly been made in the - past by those who are anxious for the spiritual interests - of man, to interfere with the changes which are going on - in scientific conceptions. Such interference has always - ended in the defeat of the supporters of the - quasi-scientific doctrines which the growing science of - the time has discarded. Theology interfered with Galileo, - and gained nothing in the end by its interference. - Astronomy, geology, biology, anthropology, historical - criticism, have at different periods raised alarm in the - minds of those who dread a materialistic view of man's - nature; and with the very best intentions they have tried - to fight the supposed enemy on his own ground, eagerly - welcoming, for instance, every sign of disagreement - between Darwinians and Lamarckians, or every dispute - between different schools of historical critics, as if - the spiritual well-being of mankind were bound up with - the scientific beliefs of the seventeenth, or even - earlier, century, as if _e.g._ it made all the difference - in man's spiritual nature whether he was made directly - out of inorganic dust or slowly ascended from lower - organic forms. These are questions that must be settled - by specialists. On the other hand, philosophic criticism - is in place when the scientific specialist begins to - dogmatize about the universe as a whole, when he speaks - for example as if an accurate narrative of the various - steps by which the lower forms of life have passed into - the higher was a sufficient explanation to us of the - mystery of existence." - -Let it be understood, therefore, that science is one thing, and -philosophy another: that science most properly concerns itself with -matter and motion, and reduces phenomena, as far as it can, to -mechanism. The more successfully it does that, the more it fulfils its -end and aim; but when, on the strength of that achievement, it seeks to -blossom into a philosophy, when it endeavours to conclude that its scope -is complete and all-inclusive, that nothing exists in the universe but -mechanism, and that the aspect of things from a scientific point of view -is their only aspect,--then it is becoming narrow and bigoted and -deserving of rebuke. Such rebuke it received from Huxley, such rebuke it -will always receive from scientific men who realize properly the -magnitude of existence and the vast potentialities of the universe. - -Our opportunities of exploration are good as far as they go, but they -are not extensive; we live as it were in the mortar of one of the stones -of St. Paul's Cathedral; and yet so assiduously have we cultivated our -faculties that we can trace something of the outline of the whole design -and have begun to realize the plan of the building--a surprising feat -for insects of limited faculty. And--continuing the parable--two schools -of thought have arisen: one saying that it was conceived in the mind of -an architect and designed and built wholly by him, the other saying that -it was put together stone by stone in accordance with the laws of -mechanics and physics. Both statements are true, and those that -emphasize the latter are not thereby denying the existence of -Christopher Wren, though to the unwise enthusiasts on the side of design -they may appear to be doing so. Each side is stating a truth, and -neither side is stating the whole truth. Nor should we find it easy with -all our efforts to state the whole truth exhaustively, even about such a -thing as that. Those who deny any side of truth are to that extent -unbelievers, and Huxley was righteously indignant with those -shortsighted bigots who blasphemed against that aspect of divine truth -which had been specially revealed to him. This is what he lived to -preach, and to this he was faithful to the uttermost. - -Let him be thought of as a devotee of truth, and a student of the more -materialistic side of things, but never let him be thought of as a -philosophical materialist or as one who abounded in cheap negations. - -The objection which it is necessary to express concerning Materialism as -a complete system is based not on its assertions but on its negations. -In so far as it makes positive assertions, embodying the result of -scientific discovery and even of scientific speculation based thereupon, -there is no fault to find with it; but when, on the strength of that, it -sets up to be a philosophy of the universe--all inclusive, therefore, -and shutting out a number of truths otherwise perceived, or which appeal -to other faculties, or which are equally true and are not really -contradictory of legitimately materialistic statements--then it is that -its insufficiency and narrowness have to be displayed. As Professor -Ritchie said:--"The 'legitimate materialism of the sciences' simply -means temporary and convenient abstraction from the cognitive conditions -under which there are 'facts' or 'objects' for us at all; it is -'dogmatic materialism' which is metaphysics of the bad sort." - -It will be probably instructive, and it may be sufficient, if I show -that two great leaders in scientific thought (one the greatest of all -men of science who have yet lived), though well aware of much that -could be said positively on the materialistic side, and very willing to -admit or even to extend the province of science or exact knowledge to -the uttermost, yet were very far from being philosophic materialists or -from imagining that other modes of regarding the universe were thereby -excluded. - -Great leaders of thought, in fact, are not accustomed to take a narrow -view of existence, or to suppose that one mode of regarding it, or one -set of formulæ expressing it, can possibly be sufficient and complete. -Even a sheet of paper has two sides: a terrestrial globe presents -different aspects from different points of view; a crystal has a variety -of facets; and the totality of existence is not likely to be more simple -than any of these--is not likely to be readily expressible in any form -of words, or to be thoroughly conceivable by any human mind. - -It may be well to remember that Sir Isaac Newton was a Theist of the -most pronounced and thorough conviction, although he had a great deal to -do with the reduction of the major Cosmos to mechanics, _i.e._, with its -explanation by the elaborated machinery of simple forces; and he -conceived it possible that, in the progress of science, this process of -reduction to mechanics would continue till it embraced nearly all the -phenomena of nature. (See extract below.) That, indeed, has been the -effort of science ever since, and therein lies the legitimate basis for -materialistic statements, though not for a materialistic philosophy. - -The following sound remarks concerning Newton are taken from Huxley's -"Hume," p. 246:-- - - "Newton demonstrated all the host of heaven to be but the - elements of a vast mechanism, regulated by the same laws - as those which express the falling of a stone to the - ground. There is a passage in the preface to the first - edition of the 'Principia' which shows that Newton was - penetrated, as completely as Descartes, with the belief - that all the phenomena of nature are expressible in terms - of matter and motion:-- - - "'Would that the rest of the phenomena of nature could be - deduced by a like kind of reasoning from mechanical - principles. For many circumstances lead me to suspect - that all these phenomena may depend upon certain forces, - in virtue of which the particles of bodies, by causes not - yet known, are either mutually impelled against one - another, and cohere into regular figures, or repel and - recede from one another; which forces being unknown, - philosophers have as yet explored nature in vain. But I - hope that, either by this method of philosophizing, or by - some other and better, the principles here laid down may - throw some light upon the matter.'" - -Here is a full-blown anticipation of an intelligible exposition of the -Universe in terms of matter and force--the substantial basis of what -smaller men call materialism and develop into what they consider to be a -materialistic philosophy. But there is no necessity for any such scheme; -and Professor Huxley himself, who is commonly spoken of by half-informed -people as if he were a philosophic materialist, was really nothing of -the kind; for although, like Newton, fully imbued with the mechanical -doctrine, and of course far better informed concerning the biological -departments of nature, and the discoveries which have in the last -century been made,--and though he rightly regarded it as his mission to -make the scientific point of view clear to his benighted contemporaries, -and was full of enthusiasm for the facts on which materialists take -their stand,--he saw clearly that these alone were insufficient for a -philosophy. The following extracts from the Hume volume will show that -he entirely repudiated materialism as a satisfactory or complete -philosophical system, and that he was especially severe on gratuitous -denials applied to provinces beyond our scope:-- - - "While it is the summit of human wisdom to learn the - limit of our faculties, it may be wise to recollect that - we have no more right to make denials, than to put forth - affirmatives, about what lies beyond that limit. Whether - either mind or matter has a 'substance' or not, is a - problem which we are incompetent to discuss: and it is - just as likely that the common notions upon the subject - should be correct as any others.... 'The same principles - which, at first view, lead to scepticism, pursued to a - certain point, bring men back to common sense'" (p. 282). - - - "Moreover, the ultimate forms of existence which we - distinguish in our little speck of the universe are, - possibly, only two out of infinite varieties of - existence, not only analogous to matter and analogous to - mind, but of kinds which we are not competent so much as - to conceive,--in the midst of which, indeed, we might be - set down, with no more notion of what was about us, than - the worm in a flower-pot, on a London balcony, has of the - life of the great city" (p. 286). - -And again on pp. 251 and 279:-- - - "It is worth any amount of trouble to ... know by one's - own knowledge the great truth ... that the honest and - rigorous following up of the argument which leads us to - 'materialism' inevitably carries us beyond it." - - "To sum up. If the materialist affirms that the universe - and all its phenomena are resolvable into matter and - motion, Berkeley replies, True; but what you call matter - and motion are known to us only as forms of - consciousness; their being is to be conceived or known; - and the existence of a state of consciousness apart from - a thinking mind is a contradiction in terms. - - "I conceive that this reasoning is irrefragable. And, - therefore, if I were obliged to choose between absolute - materialism and absolute idealism, I should feel - compelled to accept the latter alternative." - -Let the jubilant but uninstructed and comparatively ignorant amateur -materialist therefore beware, and bethink himself twice or even thrice -before he conceives that he understands the universe and is competent to -pour scorn upon the intuitions and perceptions of great men in what may -be to him alien regions of thought and experience. - -Let him explain, if he can, what he means by his own identity, or the -identity of any thinking or living being, which at different times -consists of a totally different set of material particles. Something -there clearly is which confers personal identity and constitutes an -individual: it is a property characteristic of every form of life, even -the humblest; but it is not yet explained or understood, and it is no -answer to assert gratuitously that there is some fundamental substance -or material basis on which that identity depends, any more than it is -an explanation to say that it depends upon a soul. These are all forms -of words. As Hume says, quoted by Huxley with approval, in the work -already cited, p. 194:-- - - "It is impossible to attach any definite meaning to the - word 'substance,' when employed for the hypothetical - substratum of soul and matter.... If it be said that our - personal identity requires the assumption of a substance - which remains the same while the accidents of perception - shift and change, the question arises what is meant by - personal identity?... A plant or an animal, in the course - of its existence, from the condition of an egg or seed to - the end of life, remains the same neither in form, nor in - structure, nor in the matter of which it is composed: - every attribute it possesses is constantly changing, and - yet we say that it is always one and the same individual" - (p. 194). - -And in his own preface to the Hume volume Huxley expresses himself -forcibly thus--equally antagonistic as was his wont to both ostensible -friend and ostensible foe, as soon as they got off what he considered -the straight path:-- - - "That which it may be well for us not to forget is, that - the first-recorded judicial murder of a scientific - thinker [Socrates] was compassed and effected, not by a - despot, nor by priests, but was brought about by eloquent - demagogues.... Clear knowledge of what one does not know - is just as important as knowing what one does know.... - - "The development of exact natural knowledge in all its - vast range, from physics to history and criticism, is the - consequence of the working out, in this province, of the - resolution to 'take nothing for truth without clear - knowledge that it is such'; to consider all beliefs open - to criticism; to regard the value of authority as neither - greater nor less, than as much as it can prove itself to - be worth. The modern spirit is not the spirit 'which - always denies,' delighting only in destruction; still - less is it that which builds castles in the air rather - than not construct; it is that spirit which works and - will work 'without haste and without rest,' gathering - harvest after harvest of truth into its barns, and - devouring error with unquenchable fire" (p. viii). - -The harvesting of truth is a fairly safe operation, for if some -falsehood be inadvertently harvested along with the grain we may hope -that, having a less robust and hardy nature, it will before long be -detected by its decaying odour; but the rooting up and devouring of -error with unquenchable fire is a more dangerous enterprise, inasmuch as -flames are apt to spread beyond our control; and the lack of -infallibility in the selection of error may to future generations become -painfully apparent. - -The phrase represents a good healthy energetic mood however, and in a -world liable to become overgrown with weeds and choked with refuse, the -cleansing work of a firebrand may from time to time be a necessity, in -order that the free wind of heaven and the sunlight may once more reach -the fertile soil. - -But it is unfair to think of Huxley even when young as a firebrand, -though it is true that he was to some extent a man of war, and though -the fierce and consuming mood is rather more prominent in his early -writings than in his later work. - -A fighting attitude was inevitable forty years ago, because then the -truths of biology were being received with hostility, and the free -science and philosophy of a later time seemed likely to have a poor -chance of life. But the world has changed or is changing now, the -wholesome influences of fire have done their work, and it would be a -rather barbarous anachronism to apply the same agency among the young -green shoots of healthy learning which are springing up in the cleared -ground. - - OLIVER LODGE. - - 1906. - - * * * * * - -Among the earlier published works of T. H. Huxley (1825-1895), and of -the essays contained in this volume: "The Darwinian Hypothesis" first -appeared in the _Times_, Dec. 26, 1859; "On the Educational Value of the -Natural History Sciences" (Address given at St. Martin's Hall), was -published in 1854; "Time and Life" (_Macmillan's Magazine_), Dec. 1859; -"The Origin of Species" (_Westminster Review_), April 1860; "A Lobster: -or, The Study of Zoology," 1861. "Geological Contemporaneity and -Persistent Types of Life" (Address to Geological Society), 1862, was -re-published in "Lay Sermons," vol. viii.; "Six Lectures to Working Men -on the Phenomena of Organic Nature," 1863, in "Collected Essays," vol. -vii. "Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature," 1863. Of his other works, -the translation by Huxley and Busk of "Kölliker's Manual of Human -Histology," appeared in 1853. "Lectures on the Elements of Comparative -Anatomy," "Elementary Atlas of Comparative Osteology"; two Science -Lectures, "The Circulation of the Blood" and "Corals and Coral Reefs," -and "Lessons in Elementary Physiology," in 1866. "Introduction to the -Classification of Animals," 1869. "Lay Sermons, Essays, and Reviews," -1870. "Critiques and Addresses," 1873. "On Yeast: A Lecture," 1872. "A -Manual of the Anatomy of Vertebrated Animals," 1871. "Manual of the -Anatomy of Invertebrated Animals," 1877. "American Addresses," 1877. -"Physiography," 1877. "Hume" in "English Men of Letters," 1878. "The -Crayfish: an Introduction to the Study of Zoology," 1880. "Science and -Culture, and other Essays," 1881. "Essays upon some Controverted -Questions," 1892. "Evolution and Ethics" (the Romanes Lecture), 1893. -Huxley also assisted in editing the series of Science Primers published -by Messrs. Macmillan, and contributed the introductory volume himself. -The "Collected Essays," in nine vols., containing all that he cared to -preserve, 1893. "The Scientific Memoirs of T. H. Huxley," edited by -Professor Michael Foster and Professor E. Ray Lankester, in five vols., -1898-1903. His "Life and Letters," edited by his son, Leonard Huxley, -was published in 1900. - -[Illustration: _Skeletons of the_ - -GIBBON. ORANG. CHIMPANZEE. GORILLA. MAN. - -_Photographically reduced from Diagrams of the natural size_ (_except -that of the Gibbon, which was twice as large as nature_), _drawn by Mr. -Waterhouse Hawkins from specimens in the Museum of the Royal College of -Surgeons_.] - - - - -HUXLEY'S ESSAYS - - - - -I - - ON THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE - MAN-LIKE APES. - - -Ancient traditions, when tested by the severe processes of modern -investigation, commonly enough fade away into mere dreams: but it is -singular how often the dream turns out to have been a half-waking one, -presaging a reality. Ovid foreshadowed the discoveries of the geologist: -the Atlantis was an imagination, but Columbus found a western world: and -though the quaint forms of Centaurs and Satyrs have an existence only in -the realms of art, creatures approaching man more nearly than they in -essential structure, and yet as thoroughly brutal as the goat's or -horse's half of the mythical compound, are now not only known, but -notorious. - -I have not met with any notice of one of these MAN-LIKE APES of earlier -date than that contained in Pigafetta's "Description of the Kingdom of -Congo,"[1] drawn up from the notes of a Portuguese sailor, Eduardo -Lopez, and published in 1598. The tenth chapter of this work is entitled -"De Animalibus quæ in hac provincia reperiuntur," and contains a brief -passage to the effect that "in the Songan country, on the banks of the -Zaire, there are multitudes of apes, which afford great delight to the -nobles by imitating human gestures." As this might apply to almost any -kind of apes, I should have thought little of it, had not the brothers -De Bry, whose engravings illustrate the work, thought fit, in their -eleventh "Argumentum," to figure two of these "Simiæ magnatum deliciæ." -So much of the plate as contains these apes is faithfully copied in the -woodcut (Fig. 1), and it will be observed that they are tail-less, -long-armed, and large-eared; and about the size of Chimpanzees. It may -be that these apes are as much figments of the imagination of the -ingenious brothers as the winged, two-legged, crocodile-headed dragon -which adorns the same plate; or, on the other hand, it may be that the -artists have constructed their drawings from some essentially faithful -description of a Gorilla or a Chimpanzee. And, in either case, though -these figures are worth a passing notice, the oldest trustworthy and -definite accounts of any animal of this kind date from the 17th -century, and are due to an Englishman. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Simiæ magnatum deliciæ.--De Bry, 1598.] - -The first edition of that most amusing old book, "Purchas his -Pilgrimage," was published in 1613, and therein are to be found many -references to the statements of one whom Purchas terms "Andrew Battell -(my neere neighbour, dwelling at Leigh in Essex) who served under Manuel -Silvera Perera, Governor under the King of Spaine, at his city of Saint -Paul, and with him went farre into the countrey of Angola"; and again, -"my friend, Andrew Battle, who lived in the kingdom of Congo many -yeares," and who, "upon some quarell betwixt the Portugals (among whom -he was a sergeant of a band) and him, lived eight or nine moneths in the -woodes." From this weather-beaten old soldier, Purchas was amazed to -hear "of a kinde of Great Apes, if they might so bee termed, of the -height of a man, but twice as bigge in feature of their limmes, with -strength proportionable, hairie all over, otherwise altogether like men -and women in their whole bodily shape.[2] They lived on such wilde -fruits as the trees and woods yielded, and in the night time lodged on -the trees." - -This extract is, however, less detailed and clear in its statements than -a passage in the third chapter of the second part of another -work--"Purchas his Pilgrimes," published in 1625, by the same -author--which has been often, though hardly ever quite rightly, cited. -The chapter is entitled, "The strange adventures of Andrew Battell, of -Leigh in Essex, sent by the Portugals prisoner to Angola, who lived -there and in the adjioining regions neere eighteene yeeres." And the -sixth section of this chapter is headed--"Of the Provinces of Bongo, -Calongo, Mayombe, Manikesocke, Motimbas: of the Ape Monster Pongo, their -hunting: Idolatries; and divers other observations." - - "This province (Calongo) toward the east bordereth upon - Bongo, and toward the north upon Mayombe, which is nineteen - leagues from Longo along the coast. - - "This province of Mayombe is all woods and groves, so - overgrowne that a man may travaile twentie days in the shadow - without any sunne or heat. Here is no kind of corne nor - graine, so that the people liveth onely upon plantanes and - roots of sundrie sorts, very good; and nuts; nor any kinde of - tame cattell, nor hens. - - "But they have great store of elephant's flesh, which they - greatly esteeme, and many kinds of wild beasts; and great - store of fish. Here is a great sandy bay, two leagues to the - northward of Cape Negro,[3] which is the port of Mayombe. - Sometimes the Portugals lade log-wood in this bay. Here is a - great river, called Banna: in the winter it hath no barre, - because the generall winds cause a great sea. But when the - sunne hath his south declination, then a boat may goe in; for - then it is smooth because of the raine. This river is very - great, and hath many ilands and people dwelling in them. The - woods are so covered with baboones, monkies, apes and - parrots, that it will feare any man to travaile in them - alone. Here are also two kinds of monsters, which are common - in these woods, and very dangerous. - - "The greatest of these two monsters is called Pongo in their - language, and the lesser is called Engeco. This Pongo is in - all proportion like a man; but that he is more like a giant - in stature than a man; for he is very tall, and hath a man's - face, hollow-eyed, with long haire upon his browes. His face - and eares are without haire, and his hands also. His bodie is - full of haire, but not very thicke; and it is of a dunnish - colour. - - "He differeth not from a man but in his legs; for they have - no calfe. Hee goeth alwaies upon his legs, and carrieth his - hands clasped in the nape of his necke when he goeth upon the - ground. They sleepe in the trees, and build shelters for the - raine. They feed upon fruit that they find in the woods, and - upon nuts, for they eate no kind of flesh. They cannot - speake, and have no understanding more than a beast. The - people of the countrie, when they travaile in the woods make - fires where they sleepe in the night; and in the morning when - they are gone, the Pongoes will come and sit about the fire - till it goeth out; for they have no understanding to lay the - wood together. They goe many together and kill many negroes - that travaile in the woods. Many times they fall upon the - elephants which come to feed where they be, and so beate them - with their clubbed fists, and pieces of wood, that they will - runne roaring away from them. Those Pongoes are never taken - alive because they are so strong, that ten men cannot hold - one of them; but yet they take many of their young ones with - poisoned arrowes. - - "The young Pongo hangeth on his mother's belly with his hands - fast clasped about her, so that when the countrie people kill - any of the females they take the young one, which hangeth - fast upon his mother. - - "When they die among themselves, they cover the dead with - great heaps of boughs and wood, which is commonly found in - the forest."[4] - -It does not appear difficult to identify the exact region of which -Battell speaks. Longo is doubtless the name of the place usually spelled -Loango on our maps. Mayombe still lies some nineteen leagues northward -from Loango, along the coast; and Cilongo or Kilonga, Manikesocke, and -Motimbas are yet registered by geographers. The Cape Negro of Battell, -however, cannot be the modern Cape Negro in 16° S., since Loango itself -is in 4° S. latitude. On the other hand, the "great river called Banna" -corresponds very well with the "Camma" and "Fernand Vas," of modern -geographers, which form a great delta on this part of the African coast. - -Now this "Camma" country is situated about a degree and a-half south of -the Equator, while a few miles to the north of the line lies the Gaboon, -and a degree or so north of that, the Money River--both well known to -modern naturalists as localities where the largest of man-like Apes has -been obtained. Moreover, at the present day, the word Engeco, or -N'schego, is applied by the natives of these regions to the smaller of -the two great Apes which inhabit them; so that there can be no rational -doubt that Andrew Battell spoke of that which he knew of his own -knowledge, or, at any rate, by immediate report from the natives of -Western Africa. The "Engeco," however, is that "other monster" whose -nature Battell "forgot to relate," while the name "Pongo"--applied to -the animal whose characters and habits are so fully and carefully -described--seems to have died out, at least in its primitive form and -signification. Indeed, there is evidence that not only in Battell's -time, but up to a very recent date, it was used in a totally different -sense from that in which he employs it. - -For example, the second chapter of Purchas' work, which I have just -quoted, contains "A Description and Historicall Declaration of the -Golden Kingdom of Guinea, &c. &c. Translated from the Dutch, and -compared also with the Latin," wherein it is stated (p. 986) that-- - - "The River Gaboon lyeth about fifteen miles northward - from Rio de Angra, and eight miles northward from Cape de - Lope Gonsalvez (Cape Lopez), and is right under the - Equinoctial line, about fifteene miles from St. Thomas, - and is a great land, well and easily to be knowne. At the - mouth of the river there lieth a sand, three or foure - fathoms deepe, whereon it beateth mightily with the - streame which runneth out of the river into the sea. This - river, in the mouth thereof, is at least four miles - broad; but when you are about the Iland called _Pongo_, - it is not above two miles broad.... On both sides the - river there standeth many trees.... The Iland called - _Pongo_, which hath a monstrous high hill." - -The French naval officers, whose letters are appended to the late M. -Isidore Geoff. Saint Hilaire's excellent essay on the Gorilla,[5] note -in similar terms the width of the Gaboon, the trees that line its banks -down to the water's edge, and the strong current that sets out of it. -They describe two islands in its estuary;--one low, called Perroquet; -the other high, presenting three conical hills, called Coniquet; and one -of them, M. Franquet, expressly states that, formerly, the Chief of -Coniquet was called _Meni-Pongo_, meaning thereby Lord of _Pongo_; and -that the _N'Pongues_ (as, in agreement with Dr. Savage, he affirms the -natives call themselves) term the estuary of the Gaboon itself -_N'Pongo_. - -It is so easy, in dealing with savages, to misunderstand their -applications of words to things, that one is at first inclined to -suspect Battell of having confounded the name of this region, where his -"greater monster" still abounds, with the name of the animal itself. But -he is so right about other matters (including the name of the "lesser -monster") that one is loth to suspect the old traveller of error; and, -on the other hand, we shall find that a voyager of a hundred years' -later date speaks of the name "Boggoe," as applied to a great Ape, by -the inhabitants of quite another part of Africa--Sierra Leone. - -[Illustration: _Homo Sylvestris. Orang Outang._ - -FIG. 2.--The Orang of Tulpius, 1641.] - -But I must leave this question to be settled by philologers and -travellers; and I should hardly have dwelt so long upon it except for -the curious part played by this word "_Pongo_" in the later history of -the man-like Apes. - -The generation which succeeded Battell saw the first of the man-like -Apes which was ever brought to Europe, or, at any rate, whose visit -found a historian. In the third book of Tulpius' "Observationes Medicæ," -published in 1641, the 56th chapter or section is devoted to what he -calls _Satyrus indicus_, "called by the Indians Orang-autang, or -Man-of-the-Woods, and by the Africans Quoias Morrou." He gives a very -good figure, evidently from the life, of the specimen of this animal, -"nostra memoria ex Angolâ delatum," presented to Frederick Henry Prince -of Orange. Tulpius says it was as big as a child of three years old, and -as stout as one of six years: and that its back was covered with black -hair. It is plainly a young Chimpanzee. - -In the meanwhile, the existence of other, Asiatic, man-like Apes became -known, but at first in a very mythical fashion. Thus Bontius (1658) -gives an altogether fabulous and ridiculous account and figure of an -animal which he calls "Orang-outang"; and though he says, "vidi Ego -cujus effigiem hic exhibeo," the said effigies (see Fig. 6 for Hoppius' -copy of it) is nothing but a very hairy woman of rather comely aspect, -and with proportions and feet wholly human. The judicious English -anatomist, Tyson, was justified in saying of this description by -Bontius, "I confess I do mistrust the whole representation." - -It is to the last mentioned writer, and his coadjutor Cowper, that we -owe the first account of a man-like ape which has any pretensions to -scientific accuracy and completeness. The treatise entitled, -"_Orang-outang, sive Homo Sylvestris_; or the Anatomy of a Pygmie -compared with that of a _Monkey_, an _Ape_, and a _Man_," published by -the Royal Society in 1699, is, indeed, a work of remarkable merit, and -has, in some respects, served as a model to subsequent inquirers. This -"Pygmie," Tyson tells us, "was brought from Angola, in Africa; but was -first taken a great deal higher up the country"; its hair "was of a -coal-black colour, and strait," and "when it went as a quadruped on all -four, 'twas awkwardly; not placing the palm of the hand flat to the -ground, but it walk'd upon its knuckles, as I observed it to do when -weak and had not strength enough to support its body."--"From the top of -the head to the heel of the foot, in a strait line, it measured -twenty-six inches." - -[Illustration: FIGS. 3 and 4.--The "Pygmie" reduced from Tyson's figures -1 and 2, 1699.] - -These characters, even without Tyson's good figures (Figs. 3 and 4), -would have been sufficient to prove his "Pygmie" to be a young -Chimpanzee. But the opportunity of examining the skeleton of the very -animal Tyson anatomised having most unexpectedly presented itself to me, -I am able to bear independent testimony to its being a veritable -_Troglodytes niger_,[6] though still very young. Although fully -appreciating the resemblances between his Pygmie and Man, Tyson by no -means overlooked the differences between the two, and he concludes his -memoir by summing up first, the points in which "the Ourang-outang or -Pygmie more resembled a Man than Apes and Monkeys do," under forty-seven -distinct heads; and then giving, in thirty-four similar brief -paragraphs, the respects in which "the Ourang-outang or Pygmie differ'd -from a Man and resembled more the Ape and Monkey kind." - -After a careful survey of the literature of the subject extant in his -time, our author arrives at the conclusion that his "Pygmie" is -identical neither with the Orangs of Tulpius and Bontius, nor with the -Quoias Morrou of Dapper (or rather of Tulpius), the Barris of d'Arcos, -nor with the Pongo of Battell; but that it is a species of ape probably -identical with the Pygmies of the Ancients, and, says Tyson, though it -"does so much resemble _a Man_ in many of its parts, more than any of -the ape kind, or any other animal in the world, that I know of: yet by -no means do I look upon it as the product of a _mixt_ generation--'tis a -_Brute-Animal sui generis_, and a particular _species of Ape_." - -The name of "Chimpanzee," by which one of the African Apes is now so -well known, appears to have come into use in the first half of the -eighteenth century, but the only important addition made, in that -period, to our acquaintance with the man-like apes of Africa is -contained in "A New Voyage to Guinea," by William Smith, which bears the -date 1744. - -In describing the animals of Sierra Leone, p. 51, this writer says:-- - - "I shall next describe a strange sort of animal, called - by the white men in this country Mandrill,[7] but why it - is so called I know not, nor did I ever hear the name - before, neither can those who call them so tell, except - it be for their near resemblance of a human creature, - though nothing at all like an Ape. Their bodies, when - full grown, are as big in circumference as a middle-sized - man's--their legs much shorter, and their feet larger; - their arms and hands in proportion. The head is - monstrously big, and the face broad and flat, without any - other hair but the eyebrows; the nose very small, the - mouth wide, and the lips thin. The face, which is covered - by a white skin, is monstrously ugly, being all over - wrinkled as with old age; the teeth broad and yellow; the - hands have no more hair than the face, but the same white - skin, though all the rest of the body is covered with - long black hair, like a bear. They never go upon all - fours, like apes; but cry, when vexed or teased, just - like children.... - -[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Facsimile of William Smith's figure of the -"Mandrill," 1744.] - - "When I was at Sherbro, one Mr. Cummerbus, whom I shall - have occasion hereafter to mention, made me a present of - one of these strange animals, which are called by the - natives Boggoe: it was a she-cub, of six months' age, but - even then larger than a Baboon. I gave it in charge to - one of the slaves, who knew how to feed and nurse it, - being a very tender sort of animal; but whenever I went - off the deck the sailors began to teaze it--some loved to - see its tears and hear it cry; others hated its - snotty-nose; one who hurt it, being checked by the negro - that took care of it, told the slave he was very fond of - his country-woman, and asked him if he should not like - her for a wife? To which the slave very readily replied, - 'No, this no my wife; this a white woman--this fit wife - for you.' This unlucky wit of the negro's, I fancy, - hastened its death, for next morning it was found dead - under the windlass." - -William Smith's "Mandrill," or "Boggoe," as his description and figure -testify, was, without doubt, a Chimpanzee. - -[Illustration: FIG. 6.--The Anthropomorpha of Linnæus.] - -Linnæus knew nothing, of his own observation, of the man-like Apes of -either Africa or Asia, but a dissertation by his pupil Hoppius in the -"Amoenitates Academicæ" (VI. "Anthropomorpha") may be regarded as -embodying his views respecting these animals. - -The dissertation is illustrated by a plate, of which the accompanying -woodcut, Fig. 6, is a reduced copy. The figures are entitled (from left -to right) 1. _Troglodyta Bontii_; 2. _Lucifer Aldrovandi_; 3. _Satyrus -Tulpii_; 4. _Pygmæus Edwardi_. The first is a bad copy of Bontius' -fictitious "Ourang-outang," in whose existence, however, Linnæus appears -to have fully believed; for in the standard edition of the "Systema -Naturæ," it is enumerated as a second species of Homo; "H. nocturnus." -_Lucifer Aldrovandi_ is a copy of a figure in Aldrovandus, "De -Quadrupedibus digitatis viviparis," Lib. 2, p. 249 (1645), entitled -"Cercopithecus formæ raræ _Barbilius_ vocatus et originem a china -ducebat." Hoppius is of opinion that this may be one of that cat-tailed -people, of whom Nicolaus Köping affirms that they eat a boat's crew, -"gubernator navis" and all! In the "Systema Naturæ" Linnæus calls it in -a note, _Homo caudatus_, and seems inclined to regard it as a third -species of man. According to Temminck, _Satyrus Tulpii_ is a copy of the -figure of a Chimpanzee published by Scotin in 1738, which I have not -seen. It is the _Satyrus indicus_ of the "Systema Naturæ," and is -regarded by Linnæus as possibly a distinct species from _Satyrus -sylvestris_. The last, named _Pygmæus Edwardi_, is copied from the -figure of a young "Man of the Woods," or true Orang-Utan, given in -Edwards "Gleanings of Natural History" (1758). - -Buffon was more fortunate than his great rival. Not only had he the rare -opportunity of examining a young Chimpanzee in the living state, but he -became possessed of an adult Asiatic man-like Ape--the first and the -last adult specimen of any of these animals brought to Europe for many -years. With the valuable assistance of Daubenton, Buffon gave an -excellent description of this creature, which, from its singular -proportions, he termed the long-armed Ape, or Gibbon. It is the modern -_Hylobates lar_. - -Thus when, in 1766, Buffon wrote the fourteenth volume of his great -work, he was personally familiar with the young of one kind of African -man-like Ape, and with the adult of an Asiatic species--while the -Orang-Utan and the Mandrill of Smith were known to him by report. -Furthermore, the Abbé Prevost had translated a good deal of Purchas' -Pilgrims into French, in his "Histoire générale des Voyages" (1748), and -there Buffon found a version of Andrew Battell's account of the Pongo -and the Engeco. All these data Buffon attempts to weld together into -harmony in his chapter entitled "Les Orang-outangs ou le Pongo et le -Jocko." To this title the following note is appended:-- - - "Orang-outang nom de cet animal aux Indes orientales: - Pongo nom de cet animal à Lowando Province de Congo. - - "Jocko, Enjocko, nom de cet animal à Congo que nous avons - adopté. _En_ est l'article que nous avons retranché." - -Thus it was that Andrew Battell's "Engeco" became metamorphosed into -"Jocko," and, in the latter shape, was spread all over the world, in -consequence of the extensive popularity of Buffon's works. The Abbé -Prevost and Buffon between them, however, did a good deal more -disfigurement to Battell's sober account than "cutting off an article." -Thus Battell's statement that the Pongos "cannot speake, and have no -understanding more than a beast," is rendered by Buffon "qu'il ne peut -parler _quoiqu'il ait plus d'entendement que les autres animaux_"; and -again, Purchas' affirmation, "He told me in conference with him, that -one of these Pongos tooke a negro boy of his which lived a moneth with -them," stands in the French version, "un pongo lui enleva un petit negre -qui passa un _an_ entier dans la societé de ces animaux." - -After quoting the account of the great Pongo, Buffon justly remarks, -that all the "Jockos" and "Orangs" hitherto brought to Europe were -young; and he suggests that, in their adult condition, they might be as -big as the Pongo or "great Orang"; so that, provisionally, he regarded -the Jockos, Orangs, and Pongos as all of one species. And perhaps this -was as much as the state of knowledge at the time warranted. But how it -came about that Buffon failed to perceive the similarity of Smith's -"Mandrill" to his own "Jocko," and confounded the former with so totally -different a creature as the blue-faced Baboon, is not so easily -intelligible. - -Twenty years later Buffon changed his opinion,[8] and expressed his -belief that the Orangs constituted a genus with two species,--a large -one, the Pongo of Battell, and a small one, the Jocko: that the small -one (Jocko) is the East Indian Orang; and that the young animals from -Africa, observed by himself and Tulpius, are simply young Pongos. - -In the meanwhile, the Dutch naturalist, Vosmaer, gave, in 1778, a very -good account and figure of a young Orang, brought alive to Holland, and -his countryman, the famous anatomist, Peter Camper, published (1779) an -essay on the Orang-Utan of similar value to that of Tyson on the -Chimpanzee. He dissected several females and a male, all of which, from -the state of their skeleton and their dentition, he justly supposes to -have been young. However, judging by the analogy of man, he concludes -that they could not have exceeded four feet in height in the adult -condition. Furthermore, he is very clear as to the specific distinctness -of the true East Indian Orang. - -"The Orang," says he, "differs not only from the Pigmy of Tyson and from -the Orang of Tulpius by its peculiar colour and its long toes, but also -by its whole external form. Its arms, its hands, and its feet are -longer, while the thumbs, on the contrary, are much shorter, and the -great toes much smaller in proportion."[9] And again, "The true Orang, -that is to say, that of Asia, that of Borneo, is consequently not the -Pithecus, or tail-less Ape, which the Greeks, and especially Galen, have -described. It is neither the Pongo nor the Jocko, nor the Orang of -Tulpius, nor the Pigmy of Tyson,--_it is an animal of a peculiar -species_, as I shall prove in the clearest manner by the organs of voice -and the skeleton in the following chapters" (l. c. p. 64). - -A few years later, M. Radermacher, who held a high office in the -Government of the Dutch dominions in India, and was an active member of -the Batavian Society of Arts and Sciences, published, in the second part -of the Transactions of that Society,[10] a Description of the Island of -Borneo, which was written between the years 1779 and 1781, and, among -much other interesting matter, contains some notes upon the Orang. The -small sort of Orang-Utan, viz. that of Vosmaer and of Edwards, he says, -is found only in Borneo, and chiefly about Banjermassing, Mampauwa, and -Landak. Of these he had seen some fifty during his residence in the -Indies; but none exceeded 2-1/2 feet in length. The larger sort, often -regarded as chimæra, continues Radermacher, would, perhaps long have -remained so, had it not been for the exertions of the Resident at -Rembang, M. Palm, who, on returning from Landak towards Pontiana, shot -one, and forwarded it to Batavia in spirit, for transmission to Europe. - -Palm's letter describing the capture runs thus:--"Herewith I send your -Excellency, contrary to all expectation (since long ago I offered more -than a hundred ducats to the natives for an Orang-Utan of four or five -feet high) an Orang which I heard of this morning about eight o'clock. -For a long time we did our best to take the frightful beast alive in the -dense forest about half way to Landak. We forgot even to eat, so anxious -were we not to let him escape; but it was necessary to take care he did -not revenge himself, as he kept continually breaking off heavy pieces of -wood and green branches, and dashing them at us. This game lasted till -four o'clock in the afternoon, when we determined to shoot him; in which -I succeeded very well, and indeed better than I ever shot from a boat -before; for the bullet went just into the side of his chest, so that he -was not much damaged. We got him into the prow still living, and bound -him fast, and next morning he died of his wounds. All Pontiana came on -board to see him when we arrived." Palm gives his height from the head -to the heel as 49 inches. - -A very intelligent German officer, Baron Von Wurmb, who at this time -held a post in the Dutch East India service, and was Secretary of the -Batavian Society, studied this animal, and his careful description of -it, entitled "Beschrijving van der Groote Borneosche Orang-outang of de -Oost-Indische Pongo," is contained in the same volume of the Batavian -Society's Transactions. After Von Wurmb had drawn up his description he -states, in a letter dated Batavia, Feb. 18, 1781,[11] that the specimen -was sent to Europe in brandy to be placed in the collection of the -Prince of Orange; "unfortunately," he continues, "we hear that the ship -has been wrecked." Von Wurmb died in the course of the year 1781, the -letter in which this passage occurs being the last he wrote; but in his -posthumous papers, published in the fourth part of the Transactions of -the Batavian Society, there is a brief description, with measurements, -of a female Pongo four feet high. - -[Illustration: FIG. 7.--The Pongo Skull, sent by Radermacher to -Camper, after Camper's original sketches, as reproduced by Lucæ.] - -Did either of these original specimens, on which Von Wurmb's -descriptions are based, ever reach Europe? It is commonly supposed that -they did; but I doubt the fact. For, appended to the memoir "De -l'Ourang-outang," in the collected edition of Camper's works, tome i., -pp. 64-66, is a note by Camper himself, referring to Von Wurmb's papers, -and continuing thus:--"Heretofore, this kind of ape had never been known -in Europe. Radermacher has had the kindness to send me the skull of one -of these animals, which measured fifty-three inches, or four feet five -inches, in height. I have sent some sketches of it to M. Soemmering at -Mayence, which are better calculated, however, to give an idea of the -form than of the real size of the parts." - -These sketches have been reproduced by Fischer and by Lucæ, and bear -date 1783, Soemmering having received them in 1784. Had either of Von -Wurmb's specimens reached Holland, they would hardly have been unknown -at this time to Camper, who, however, goes on to say:--"It appears that -since this, some more of these monsters have been captured, for an -entire skeleton, very badly set up, which had been sent to the Museum -of the Prince of Orange, and which I saw only on the 27th of June, 1784, -was more than four feet high. I examined this skeleton again on the 19th -December, 1785, after it had been excellently put to rights by the -ingenious Onymus." - -It appears evident, then, that this skeleton, which is doubtless that -which has always gone by the name of Wurmb's Pongo, is not that of the -animal described by him, though unquestionably similar in all essential -points. - -Camper proceeds to note some of the most important features of this -skeleton; promises to describe it in detail by-and-bye; and is evidently -in doubt as to the relation of this great "Pongo" to his "petit Orang." - -The promised further investigations were never carried out; and so it -happened that the Pongo of Von Wurmb took its place by the side of the -Chimpanzee, Gibbon, and Orang as a fourth and colossal species of -man-like Ape. And indeed nothing could look much less like the -Chimpanzees or the Orangs, then known, than the Pongo; for all the -specimens of Chimpanzee and Orang which had been observed were small of -stature, singularly human in aspect, gentle and docile; while Wurmb's -Pongo was a monster almost twice their size, of vast strength and -fierceness, and very brutal in expression; its great projecting muzzle, -armed with strong teeth, being further disfigured by the outgrowth of -the cheeks into fleshy lobes. - -Eventually, in accordance with the usual marauding habits of the -Revolutionary armies, the "Pongo" skeleton was carried away from Holland -into France, and notices of it, expressly intended to demonstrate its -entire distinctness from the Orang and its affinity with the baboons, -were given, in 1798, by Geoffroy St. Hilaire and Cuvier. - -Even in Cuvier's "Tableau Elementaire," and in the first edition of his -great work, the "Regne Animal," the "Pongo" is classed as a species of -Baboon. However, so early as 1818, it appears that Cuvier saw reason to -alter this opinion, and to adopt the view suggested several years -before by Blumenbach,[12] and after him by Tilesius, that the Bornean -Pongo is simply an adult Orang. In 1824, Rudolphi demonstrated, by the -condition of the dentition, more fully and completely than had been done -by his predecessors, that the Orangs described up to that time were all -young animals, and that the skull and teeth of the adult would probably -be such as those seen in the Pongo of Wurmb. In the second edition of -the "Regne Animal" (1829), Cuvier infers, from the "proportions of all -the parts" and "the arrangements of the foramina and sutures of the -head," that the Pongo is the adult of the Orang-Utan, "at least of a -very closely allied species," and this conclusion was eventually placed -beyond all doubt by Professor Owen's Memoir published in the "Zoological -Transactions" for 1835, and by Temminck in his "Monographies de -Mammalogie." Temminck's memoir is remarkable for the completeness of the -evidence which it affords as to the modification which the form of the -Orang undergoes according to age and sex. Tiedemann first published an -account of the brain of the young Orang, while Sandifort, Müller and -Schlegel, described the muscles and the viscera of the adult, and gave -the earliest detailed and trustworthy history of the habits of the great -Indian Ape in a state of nature; and as important additions have been -made by later observers, we are at this moment better acquainted with -the adult of the Orang-Utan, than with that of any of the other greater -man-like Apes. - -It is certainly the Pongo of Wurmb;[13] and it is as certainly not the -Pongo of Battell, seeing that the Orang-Utan is entirely confined to the -great Asiatic islands of Borneo and Sumatra. - -And while the progress of discovery thus cleared up the history of the -Orang, it also became established that the only other man-like Apes in -the eastern world were the various species of Gibbon--Apes of smaller -stature, and therefore attracting less attention than the Orangs, -though they are spread over a much wider range of country, and are hence -more accessible to observation. - - * * * * * - -Although the geographical area inhabited by the "Pongo" and "Engeco" of -Battell is so much nearer to Europe than that in which the Orang and -Gibbon are found, our acquaintance with the African Apes has been of -slower growth; indeed, it is only within the last few years that the -truthful story of the old English adventurer has been rendered fully -intelligible. It was not until 1835 that the skeleton of the adult -Chimpanzee became known, by the publication of Professor Owen's -above-mentioned very excellent memoir "On the osteology of the -Chimpanzee and Orang," in the Zoological Transactions--a memoir which, -by the accuracy of its descriptions, the carefulness of its comparisons, -and the excellence of its figures, made an epoch in the history of our -knowledge of the bony framework, not only of the Chimpanzee, but of all -the anthropoid Apes. - -By the investigations herein detailed, it became evident that the old -Chimpanzee acquired a size and aspect as different from those of the -young known to Tyson, to Buffon, and to Traill, as those of the old -Orang from the young Orang; and the subsequent very important researches -of Messrs. Savage and Wyman, the American missionary and anatomist, have -not only confirmed this conclusion, but have added many new details.[14] - -One of the most interesting among the many valuable discoveries made by -Dr. Thomas Savage is the fact, that the natives in the Gaboon country at -the present day, apply to the Chimpanzee a name--"Enché-eko"--which is -obviously identical with the "Engeko" of Battell; a discovery which has -been confirmed by all later inquirers. Battell's "lesser monster," being -thus proved to be a veritable existence, of course a strong presumption -arose that his "greater monster," the "Pongo," would sooner or later be -discovered. And, indeed, a modern traveller, Bowdich, had, in 1819, -found strong evidence, among the natives, of the existence of a second -great Ape, called the "Ingena," "five feet high, and four across the -shoulders," the builder of a rude house, on the outside of which it -slept. - -In 1847, Dr. Savage had the good fortune to make another and most -important addition to our knowledge of the man-like Apes; for, being -unexpectedly detained at the Gaboon river, he saw in the house of the -Rev. Mr. Wilson, a missionary resident there, "a skull represented by -the natives to be a monkey-like animal, remarkable for its size, -ferocity, and habits." From the contour of the skull, and the -information derived from several intelligent natives, "I was induced," -says Dr. Savage (using the term Orang in its old general sense), "to -believe that it belonged to a new species of Orang. I expressed this -opinion to Mr. Wilson, with a desire for further investigation; and, if -possible, to decide the point by the inspection of a specimen alive or -dead." The result of the combined exertions of Messrs. Savage and Wilson -was not only the obtaining of a very full account of the habits of this -new creature, but a still more important service to science, the -enabling the excellent American anatomist already mentioned, Professor -Wyman, to describe, from ample materials, the distinctive osteological -characters of the new form. This animal was called by the natives of the -Gaboon "Engé-ena," a name obviously identical with the "Ingena" of -Bowdich; and Dr. Savage arrived at the conviction that this last -discovered of all the great Apes was the long-sought "Pongo" of Battell. - -The justice of this conclusion, indeed, is beyond doubt--for not only -does the "Engé-ena" agree with Battell's "greater monster" in its hollow -eyes, its great stature and its dun or iron-grey colour, but the only -other man-like Ape which inhabits these latitudes--the Chimpanzee--is at -once identified, by its smaller size, as the "lesser monster," and is -excluded from any possibility of being the "Pongo," by the fact that it -is black and not dun, to say nothing of the important circumstance -already mentioned that it still retains the name of "Engeko," or -"Enché-eko," by which Battell knew it. - -In seeking for a specific name for the "Engé-ena," however, Dr. Savage -wisely avoided the much misused "Pongo"; but finding in the ancient -Periplus of Hanno the word "Gorilla" applied to certain hairy savage -people, discovered by the Carthaginian voyager in an island on the -African coast, he attached the specific name "_Gorilla_" to his new ape, -whence arises its present well-known appellation. But Dr. Savage, more -cautious than some of his successors, by no means identifies his ape -with Hanno's "wild men." He merely says that the latter were "probably -one of the species of the Orang;" and I quite agree with M. Brullé that -there is no ground for identifying the modern "Gorilla" with that of the -Carthaginian admiral. - -Since the memoir of Savage and Wyman was published, the skeleton of the -Gorilla has been investigated by Professor Owen and by the late -Professor Duvernoy, of the Jardin des Plantes, the latter having further -supplied a valuable account of the muscular system and of many of the -other soft parts; while African missionaries and travellers have -confirmed and expanded the account originally given of the habits of -this great man-like Ape, which has had the singular fortune of being the -first to be made known to the general world and the last to be -scientifically investigated. - -Two centuries and a half have passed away since Battell told his stories -about the "greater" and the "lesser monsters" to Purchas, and it has -taken nearly that time to arrive at the clear result that there are four -distinct kinds of Anthropoids--in Eastern Asia, the Gibbons and the -Orangs; in Western Africa, the Chimpanzees and the Gorilla. - - * * * * * - -The man-like Apes, the history of whose discovery has just been -detailed, have certain characters of structure and of distribution in -common. Thus they all have the same number of teeth as man--possessing -four incisors, two canines, four false molars, and six true molars in -each jaw, or 32 teeth in all, in the adult condition; while the milk -dentition consists of 20 teeth--or four incisors, two canines, and four -molars in each jaw. They are what are called catarrhine Apes--that is, -their nostrils have a narrow partition and look downwards; and, -furthermore, their arms are always longer than their legs, the -difference being sometimes greater and sometimes less; so that if the -four were arranged in the order of the length of their arms in -proportion to that of their legs, we should have this series--Orang -(1-4/9--1), Gibbon (1-1/4--1), Gorilla (1-1/5--1), Chimpanzee -(1-1/16--1). In all, the fore-limbs are terminated by hands, provided -with longer or shorter thumbs; while the great toe of the foot, always -smaller than in Man, is far more moveable than in him and can be -opposed, like a thumb, to the rest of the foot. None of these apes have -tails, and none of them possess the cheek-pouches common among monkeys. -Finally, they are all inhabitants of the old world. - -The Gibbons are the smallest, slenderest, and longest-limbed of the -man-like Apes: their arms are longer in proportion to their bodies than -those of any of the other man-like Apes, so that they can touch the -ground when erect; their hands are longer than their feet, and they are -the only Anthropoids which possess callosities like the lower monkeys. -They are variously coloured. The Orangs have arms which reach to the -ankles in the erect position of the animal; their thumbs and great toes -are very short, and their feet are longer than their hands. They are -covered with reddish-brown hair, and the sides of the face, in adult -males, are commonly produced into two crescentic, flexible excrescences, -like fatty tumours. The Chimpanzees have arms which reach below the -knees; they have large thumbs and great toes, their hands are longer -than their feet, and their hair is black, while the skin of the face is -pale. The Gorilla, lastly, has arms which reach to the middle of the -leg, large thumbs and great toes, feet longer than the hands, a black -face, and dark-grey or dun hair. - -For the purpose which I have at present in view, it is unnecessary that -I should enter into any further minutiæ respecting the distinctive -characters of the genera and species into which these man-like Apes are -divided by naturalists. Suffice it to say, that the Orangs and the -Gibbons constitute the distinct genera, _Simia_ and _Hylobates_; while -the Chimpanzees and Gorillas are by some regarded simply as distinct -species of one genus, _Troglodytes_; by others as distinct -genera--_Troglodytes_ being reserved for the Chimpanzees, and _Gorilla_ -for the Engé-ena or Pongo. - - * * * * * - -Sound knowledge respecting the habits and mode of life of the man-like -Apes has been even more difficult of attainment than correct information -regarding their structure. - -Once in a generation, a Wallace may be found physically, mentally, and -morally qualified to wander unscathed through the tropical wilds of -America and of Asia; to form magnificent collections as he wanders; and -withal to think out sagaciously the conclusions suggested by his -collections: but, to the ordinary explorer or collector, the dense -forests of equatorial Asia and Africa, which constitute the favourite -habitation of the Orang, the Chimpanzee, and the Gorilla, present -difficulties of no ordinary magnitude: and the man who risks his life by -even a short visit to the malarious shores of those regions may well be -excused if he shrinks from facing the dangers of the interior; if he -contents himself with stimulating the industry of the better seasoned -natives, and collecting and collating the more or less mythical reports -and traditions with which they are too ready to supply him. - -In such a manner most of the earlier accounts of the habits of the -man-like Apes originated; and even now a good deal of what passes -current must be admitted to have no very safe foundation. The best -information we possess is that, based almost wholly on direct European -testimony, respecting the Gibbons; the next best evidence relates to the -Orangs; while our knowledge of the habits of the Chimpanzee and the -Gorilla stands much in need of support and enlargement by additional -testimony from instructed European eye-witnesses. - -It will therefore be convenient in endeavouring to form a notion of what -we are justified in believing about these animals, to commence with the -best known man-like Apes, the Gibbons and Orangs; and to make use of the -perfectly reliable information respecting them as a sort of criterion of -the probable truth or falsehood of assertions respecting the others. - -Of the GIBBONS, half a dozen species are found scattered over the -Asiatic islands, Java, Sumatra, Borneo, and through Malacca, Siam, -Arracan, and an uncertain extent of Hindostan, on the main land of Asia. -The largest attain a few inches above three feet in height, from the -crown to the heel, so that they are shorter than the other man-like -Apes; while the slenderness of their bodies renders their mass far -smaller in proportion even to this diminished height. - -Dr. Salomon Müller, an accomplished Dutch naturalist, who lived for many -years in the Eastern Archipelago, and to the results of whose personal -experience I shall frequently have occasion to refer, states that the -Gibbons are true mountaineers, loving the slopes and edges of the hills, -though they rarely ascend beyond the limit of the fig-trees. All day -long they haunt the tops of the tall trees; and though, towards evening, -they descend in small troops to the open ground, no sooner do they spy a -man than they dart up the hill-sides, and disappear in the darker -valleys. - -All observers testify to the prodigious volume of voice possessed by -these animals. According to the writer whom I have just cited, in one of -them, the Siamang, "the voice is grave and penetrating, resembling the -sounds g[=o]ek, g[=o]ek, g[=o]ek, g[=o]ek, goek ha ha ha ha -haa[=a][=a][=a], and may easily be heard at a distance of half a -league." While the cry is being uttered, the great membranous bag under -the throat which communicates with the organ of voice, the so-called -"laryngeal sac," becomes greatly distended, diminishing again when the -creature relapses into silence. - -M. Duvaucel, likewise, affirms that the cry of the Siamang may be heard -for miles--making the woods ring again. So Mr. Martin[15] describes the -cry of the agile Gibbon as "overpowering and deafening" in a room, and -"from its strength, well calculated for resounding through the vast -forests." Mr. Waterhouse, an accomplished musician as well as zoologist, -says, "The Gibbon's voice is certainly much more powerful than that of -any singer I ever heard." And yet it is to be recollected that this -animal is not half the height of, and far less bulky in proportion than, -a man. - -There is good testimony that various species of Gibbon readily take to -the erect posture. Mr. George Bennett,[16] a very excellent observer, in -describing the habits of a male _Hylobates syndactylus_ which remained -for some time in his possession, says: "He invariably walks in the erect -posture when on a level surface; and then the arms either hang down, -enabling him to assist himself with his knuckles; or what is more usual, -he keeps his arms uplifted in nearly an erect position, with the hands -pendent ready to seize a rope, and climb up on the approach of danger or -on the obtrusion of strangers. He walks rather quick in the erect -posture, but with a waddling gait, and is soon run down if, whilst -pursued, he has no opportunity of escaping by climbing.... When he walks -in the erect posture he turns the leg and foot outwards, which occasions -him to have a waddling gait and to seem bow-legged." - -Dr. Burrough states of another Gibbon, the Horlack or Hooluk: - - "They walk erect; and when placed on the floor, or in an - open field, balance themselves very prettily, by raising - their hands over their head and slightly bending the arm - at the wrist and elbow, and then run tolerably fast, - rocking from side to side; and, if urged to greater - speed, they let fall their hands to the ground, and - assist themselves forward, rather jumping than running, - still keeping the body, however, nearly erect." - -Somewhat different evidence, however, is given by Dr. Winslow Lewis:[17] - -"Their only manner of walking was on their posterior or inferior -extremities, the others being raised upwards to preserve their -equilibrium, as rope-dancers are assisted by long poles at fairs. Their -progression was not by placing one foot before the other, but by -simultaneously using both, as in jumping." Dr. Salomon Müller also -states that the Gibbons progress upon the ground by a short series of -tottering jumps, effected only by the hind limbs, the body being held -altogether upright. - -[Illustration: FIG. 8.--A Gibbon (_H. pileatus_), after Wolf.] - -But Mr. Martin (l. c. p. 418), who also speaks from direct observation, -says of the Gibbons generally: - - "Pre-eminently qualified for arboreal habits, and - displaying among the branches amazing activity, the - Gibbons are not so awkward or embarrassed on a level - surface as might be imagined. They walk erect, with a - waddling or unsteady gait, but at a quick pace; the - equilibrium of the body requiring to be kept up, either - by touching the ground with the knuckles, first on one - side then on the other, or by uplifting the arms so as to - poise it. As with the Chimpanzee, the whole of the - narrow, long sole of the foot is placed upon the ground - at once and raised at once, without any elasticity of - step." - -After this mass of concurrent and independent testimony, it cannot -reasonably be doubted that the Gibbons commonly and habitually assume -the erect attitude. - -But level ground is not the place where these animals can display their -very remarkable and peculiar locomotive powers, and that prodigious -activity which almost tempts one to rank them among flying rather than -among ordinary climbing mammals. - -Mr. Martin (l. c. p. 430) has given so excellent and graphic an account -of the movements of a _Hylobates agilis_, living in the Zoological -Gardens, in 1840, that I will quote it in full: - - "It is almost impossible to convey in words an idea of - the quickness and graceful address of her movements: they - may indeed be termed aerial, as she seems merely to touch - in her progress the branches among which she exhibits her - evolutions. In these feats her hands and arms are the - sole organs of locomotion; her body hanging as if - suspended by a rope, sustained by one hand (the right, - for example), she launches herself, by an energetic - movement, to a distant branch, which she catches with the - left hand; but her hold is less than momentary: the - impulse for the next launch is acquired: the branch then - aimed at is attained by the right hand again, and quitted - instantaneously, and so on, in alternate succession. In - this manner spaces of twelve and eighteen feet are - cleared, with the greatest ease and uninterruptedly, for - hours together, without the slightest appearance of - fatigue being manifested; and it is evident that, if more - space could be allowed, distances very greatly exceeding - eighteen feet would be as easily cleared; so that - Duvaucel's assertion that he has seen these animals - launch themselves from one branch to another, forty feet - asunder, startling as it is, may be well credited. - Sometimes, on seizing a branch in her progress, she will - throw herself, by the power of one arm only, completely - round it, making a revolution with such rapidity as - almost to deceive the eye, and continue her progress with - undiminished velocity. It is singular to observe how - suddenly this Gibbon can stop, when the impetus given by - the rapidity and distance of her swinging leaps would - seem to require a gradual abatement of her movements. In - the very midst of her flight a branch is seized, the body - raised, and she is seen, as if by magic, quietly seated - on it, grasping it with her feet. As suddenly she again - throws herself into action. - - "The following facts will convey some notion of her - dexterity and quickness. A live bird was let loose in her - apartment; she marked its flight, made a long swing to a - distant branch, caught the bird with one hand in her - passage, and attained the branch with her other hand; her - aim, both at the bird and at the branch, being as - successful as if one object only had engaged her - attention. It may be added that she instantly bit off the - head of the bird, picked its feathers, and then threw it - down without attempting to eat it. - - "On another occasion this animal swung herself from a - perch, across a passage at least twelve feet wide, - against a window which it was thought would be - immediately broken: but not so; to the surprise of all, - she caught the narrow framework between the panes with - her hand, in an instant attained the proper impetus, and - sprang back again to the cage she had left--a feat - requiring not only great strength, but the nicest - precision." - -The Gibbons appear to be naturally very gentle, but there is very good -evidence that they will bite severely when irritated--a female -_Hylobates agilis_ having so severely lacerated one man with her long -canines, that he died; while she had injured others so much that, by way -of precaution, these formidable teeth had been filed down; but, if -threatened, she would still turn on her keeper. The Gibbons eat insects, -but appear generally to avoid animal food. A Siamang, however, was seen -by Mr. Bennett to seize and devour greedily a live lizard. They commonly -drink by dipping their fingers in the liquid and then licking them. It -is asserted that they sleep in a sitting posture. - -Duvaucel affirms that he has seen the females carry their young to the -waterside and there wash their faces, in spite of resistance and cries. -They are gentle and affectionate in captivity--full of tricks and -pettishness, like spoiled children, and yet not devoid of a certain -conscience, as an anecdote, told by Mr. Bennett (l. c. p. 156), will -show. It would appear that his Gibbon had a peculiar inclination for -disarranging things in the cabin. Among these articles, a piece of soap -would especially attract his notice, and for the removal of this he had -been once or twice scolded. "One morning," says Mr. Bennett, "I was -writing, the ape being present in the cabin, when casting my eyes -towards him, I saw the little fellow taking the soap. I watched him -without his perceiving that I did so: and he occasionally would cast a -furtive glance towards the place where I sat. I pretended to write; he, -seeing me busily occupied, took the soap, and moved away with it in his -paw. When he had walked half the length of the cabin, I spoke quietly, -without frightening him. The instant he found I saw him, he walked back -again, and deposited the soap nearly in the same place from whence he -had taken it. There was certainly something more than instinct in that -action: he evidently betrayed a consciousness of having done wrong both -by his first and last actions--and what is reason if that is not an -exercise of it?" - - * * * * * - -The most elaborate account of the natural history of the ORANG-UTAN -extant, is that given in the "Verhandelingen over de Natuurlijke -Geschiedenis der Nederlandsche overzeesche Bezittingen (1839-45)," by -Dr. Salomon Müller and Dr. Schlegel, and I shall base what I have to say -upon this subject almost entirely on their statements, adding, here and -there, particulars of interest from the writings of Brooke, Wallace, and -others. - -[Illustration: FIG. 9.--An adult male Orang-Utan, after Müller and -Schlegel.] - -The Orang-Utan would rarely seem to exceed four feet in height, but the -body is very bulky, measuring two-thirds of the height in -circumference.[18] - -The Orang-Utan is found only in Sumatra and Borneo, and is common in -neither of these islands--in both of which it occurs always in low, flat -plains, never in the mountains. It loves the densest and most sombre of -the forests, which extend from the sea-shore inland, and thus is found -only in the eastern half of Sumatra, where alone such forests occur, -though, occasionally, it strays over to the western side. - -On the other hand, it is generally distributed through Borneo, except in -the mountains, or where the population is dense. In favourable places, -the hunter may, by good fortune, see three or four in a day. - -Except in the pairing time, the old males usually live by themselves. -The old females, and the immature males, on the other hand, are often -met with in twos and threes; and the former occasionally have young with -them, though the pregnant females usually separate themselves, and -sometimes remain apart after they have given birth to their offspring. -The young Orangs seem to remain unusually long under their mother's -protection, probably in consequence of their slow growth. While -climbing, the mother always carries her young against her bosom, the -young holding on by his mother's hair.[19] At what time of life the -Orang-Utan becomes capable of propagation, and how long the females go -with young, is unknown, but it is probable that they are not adult until -they arrive at ten or fifteen years of age. A female which lived for -five years at Batavia, had not attained one-third the height of the wild -females. It is probable that, after reaching adult years, they go on -growing, though slowly, and that they live to forty or fifty years. The -Dyaks tell of old Orangs, which have not only lost all their teeth, but -which find it so troublesome to climb, that they maintain themselves on -windfalls and juicy herbage. - -The Orang is sluggish, exhibiting none of that marvellous activity -characteristic of the Gibbons. Hunger alone seems to stir him to -exertion, and when it is stilled he relapses into repose. When the -animal sits, it curves its back and bows its head, so as to look -straight down on the ground; sometimes it holds on with its hands by a -higher branch, sometimes lets them hang phlegmatically down by its -side--and in these positions the Orang will remain, for hours together, -in the same spot, almost without stirring, and only now and then giving -utterance to its deep, growling voice. By day, he usually climbs from -one tree-top to another, and only at night descends to the ground, and -if then threatened with danger, he seeks refuge among the underwood. -When not hunted, he remains a long time in the same locality, and -sometimes stops for many days on the same tree--a firm place among its -branches serving him for a bed. It is rare for the Orang to pass the -night in the summit of a large tree, probably because it is too windy -and cold there for him; but, as soon as night draws on, he descends from -the height and seeks out a fit bed in the lower and darker part, or in -the leafy top of a small tree, among which he prefers Nibong Palms, -Pandani, or one of those parasitic Orchids which give the primæval -forests of Borneo so characteristic and striking an appearance. But -wherever he determines to sleep, there he prepares himself a sort of -nest: little boughs and leaves are drawn together round the selected -spot, and bent crosswise over one another; while to make the bed soft, -great leaves of Ferns, of Orchids, of _Pandanus fascicularis_, _Nipa -fruticans_, &c., are laid over them. Those which Müller saw, many of -them being very fresh, were situated at a height of ten to twenty-five -feet above the ground, and had a circumference, on the average, of two -or three feet. Some were packed many inches thick with _Pandanus_ -leaves; others were remarkable only for the cracked twigs, which, united -in a common centre, formed a regular platform. "The rude _hut_," says -Sir James Brooke, "which they are stated to build in the trees, would be -more properly called a seat or nest, for it has no roof or cover of any -sort. The facility with which they form this nest is curious, and I had -an opportunity of seeing a wounded female weave the branches together -and seat herself, within a minute." - -According to the Dyaks, the Orang rarely leaves his bed before the sun -is well above the horizon and has dissipated the mists. He gets up about -nine, and goes to bed again about five; but sometimes not till late in -the twilight. He lies sometimes on his back; or, by way of change, turns -on one side or the other, drawing his limbs up to his body, and resting -his head on his hand. When the night is cold, windy, or rainy, he -usually covers his body with a heap of _Pandanus_, _Nipa_, or Fern -leaves, like those of which his bed is made, and he is especially -careful to wrap up his head in them. It is this habit of covering -himself up which has probably led to the fable that the Orang builds -huts in the trees. - -Although the Orang resides mostly amid the boughs of great trees, during -the daytime, he is very rarely seen squatting on a thick branch, as -other apes, and particularly the Gibbons, do. The Orang, on the -contrary, confines himself to the slender leafy branches, so that he is -seen right at the top of the trees, a mode of life which is closely -related to the constitution of his hinder limbs, and especially to that -of his seat. For this is provided with no callosities, such as are -possessed by many of the lower apes, and even by the Gibbons; and those -bones of the pelvis, which are termed the ischia, and which form the -solid framework of the surface on which the body rests in the sitting -posture, are not expanded like those of the apes which possess -callosities, but are more like those of man. - -An Orang climbs so slowly and cautiously,[20] as, in this act, to -resemble a man more than an ape, taking great care of his feet, so that -injury of them seems to affect him far more than it does other apes. -Unlike the Gibbons, whose forearms do the greater part of the work, as -they swing from branch to branch, the Orang never makes even the -smallest jump. In climbing, he moves alternately one hand and one foot, -or, after having laid fast hold with the hands, he draws up both feet -together. In passing from one tree to another, he always seeks out a -place where the twigs of both come close together, or interlace. Even -when closely pursued, his circumspection is amazing: he shakes the -branches to see if they will bear him, and then bending an overhanging -bough down by throwing his weight gradually along it, he makes a bridge -from the tree he wishes to quit to the next.[21] - -On the ground the Orang always goes laboriously and shakily, on all -fours. At starting he will run faster than a man, though he may soon be -overtaken. The very long arms which, when he runs, are but little bent, -raise the body of the Orang remarkably, so that he assumes much the -posture of a very old man bent down by age, and making his way along by -the help of a stick. In walking, the body is usually directed straight -forward, unlike the other apes, which run more or less obliquely; except -the Gibbons, who in these, as in so many other respects, depart -remarkably from their fellows. - -The Orang cannot put its feet flat on the ground, but is supported upon -their outer edges, the heel resting more on the ground, while the curved -toes partly rest upon the ground by the upper side of their first joint, -the two outermost toes of each foot completely resting on this surface. -The hands are held in the opposite manner, their inner edges serving as -the chief support. The fingers are then bent out in such a manner that -their foremost joints, especially those of the two innermost fingers, -rest upon the ground by their upper sides, while the point of the free -and straight thumb serves as an additional fulcrum. - -The Orang never stands on its hind legs, and all the pictures, -representing it as so doing, are as false as the assertion that it -defends itself with sticks, and the like. - -The long arms are of especial use, not only in climbing, but in the -gathering of food from boughs to which the animal could not trust his -weight. Figs, blossoms, and young leaves of various kinds, constitute -the chief nutriment of the Orang; but strips of bamboo two or three feet -long were found in the stomach of a male. They are not known to eat -living animals. - -Although, when taken young, the Orang-Utan soon becomes domesticated, -and indeed seems to court human society, it is naturally a very wild and -shy animal, though apparently sluggish and melancholy. The Dyaks affirm, -that when the old males are wounded with arrows only, they will -occasionally leave the trees and rush raging upon their enemies, whose -sole safety lies in instant flight, as they are sure to be killed if -caught.[22] - -But, though possessed of immense strength, it is rare for the Orang to -attempt to defend itself, especially when attacked with fire-arms. On -such occasions he endeavours to hide himself, or to escape along the -topmost branches of the trees, breaking off and throwing down the -boughs as he goes. When wounded he betakes himself to the highest -attainable point of the tree, and emits a singular cry, consisting at -first of high notes, which at length deepen into a low roar, not unlike -that of a panther. While giving out the high notes the Orang thrusts out -his lips into a funnel shape; but in uttering the low notes he holds his -mouth wide open, and at the same time the great throat bag, or laryngeal -sac, becomes distended. - -According to the Dyaks, the only animal the Orang measures his strength -with is the crocodile, who occasionally seizes him on his visits to the -water side. But they say that the Orang is more than a match for his -enemy, and beats him to death, or rips up his throat by pulling the jaws -asunder! - -Much of what has been here stated was probably derived by Dr. Müller -from the reports of his Dyak hunters; but a large male, four feet high, -lived in captivity, under his observation, for a month, and receives a -very bad character. - -"He was a very wild beast," says Müller, "of prodigious strength, and -false and wicked to the last degree. If any one approached he rose up -slowly with a low growl, fixed his eyes in the direction in which he -meant to make his attack, slowly passed his hand between the bars of his -cage, and then extending his long arm, gave a sudden grip--usually at -the face." He never tried to bite (though Orangs will bite one another), -his great weapons of offence and defence being his hands. - -His intelligence was very great; and Müller remarks, that though the -faculties of the Orang have been estimated too highly, yet Cuvier, had -he seen this specimen, would not have considered its intelligence to be -only a little higher than that of the dog. - -His hearing was very acute, but the sense of vision seemed to be less -perfect. The under lip was the great organ of touch, and played a very -important part in drinking, being thrust out like a trough, so as either -to catch the falling rain, or to receive the contents of the half -cocoa-nut shell full of water with which the Orang was supplied, and -which, in drinking, he poured into the trough thus formed. - -In Borneo the Orang-Utan of the Malays goes by the name of "_Mias_" -among the Dyaks, who distinguish several kinds as _Mias Pappan_, or -_Zimo_, _Mias Kassu_, and _Mias Rambi_. Whether these are distinct -species, however, or whether they are mere races, and how far any of -them are identical with the Sumatran Orang, as Mr. Wallace thinks the -Mias Pappan to be, are problems which are at present undecided; and the -variability of these great apes is so extensive, that the settlement of -the question is a matter of great difficulty. Of the form called "Mias -Pappan," Mr. Wallace[23] observes, "It is known by its large size, and -by the lateral expansion of the face into fatty protuberances, or -ridges, over the temporal muscles, which have been mis-termed -_callosities_, as they are perfectly soft, smooth, and flexible. Five of -this form, measured by me, varied only from 4 feet 1 inch to 4 feet 2 -inches in height, from the heel to the crown of the head, the girth of -the body from 3 feet to 3 feet 7-1/2 inches, and the extent of the -outstretched arms from 7 feet 2 inches to 7 feet 6 inches; the width of -the face from 10 to 13-1/4 inches. The colour and length of the hair -varied in different individuals, and in different parts of the same -individual; some possessed a rudimentary nail on the great toe, others -none at all; but they otherwise present no external differences on which -to establish even varieties of a species. - -"Yet, when we examine the crania of these individuals, we find -remarkable differences of form, proportion, and dimension, no two being -exactly alike. The slope of the profile, and the projection of the -muzzle, together with the size of the cranium, offer differences as -decided as those existing between the most strongly marked forms of the -Caucasian and African crania in the human species. The orbits vary in -width and height, the cranial ridge is either single or double, either -much or little developed, and the zygomatic aperture varies considerably -in size. This variation in the proportions of the crania enables us -satisfactorily to explain the marked difference presented by the -single-crested and double-crested skulls, which have been thought to -prove the existence of two large species of Orang. The external surface -of the skull varies considerably in size, as do also the zygomatic -aperture and the temporal muscle; but they bear no necessary relation to -each other, a small muscle often existing with a large cranial surface, -and _vice versâ_. Now, those skulls which have the largest and strongest -jaws and the widest zygomatic aperture, have the muscles so large that -they meet on the crown of the skull, and deposit the bony ridge which -separates them, and which is the highest in that which has the smallest -cranial surface. In those which combine a large surface with -comparatively weak jaws, and small zygomatic aperture, the muscles, on -each side, do not extend to the crown, a space of from 1 to 2 inches -remaining between them, and along their margins small ridges are formed. -Intermediate forms are found, in which the ridges meet only in the -hinder part of the skull. The form and size of the ridges are therefore -independent of age, being sometimes more strongly developed in the less -aged animal. Professor Temminck states that the series of skulls in the -Leyden Museum shows the same result." - -Mr. Wallace observed two male adult Orangs (Mias Kassu of the Dyaks), -however, so very different from any of these that he concludes them to -be specifically distinct; they were respectively 3 feet 8-1/2 inches and -3 feet 9-1/2 inches high, and possessed no sign of the cheek -excrescences, but otherwise resembled the larger kinds. The skull has -no crest, but two bony ridges, 1-3/4 inches to 2 inches apart, as in the -_Simia morio_ of Professor Owen. The teeth, however, are immense, -equalling or surpassing those of the other species. The females of both -these kinds, according to Mr. Wallace, are devoid of excrescences, and -resemble the smaller males, but are shorter by 1-1/2 to 3 inches, and -their canine teeth are comparatively small, subtruncated and dilated at -the base, as in the so-called _Simia morio_, which is, in all -probability, the skull of a female of the same species as the smaller -males. Both males and females of this smaller species are -distinguishable, according to Mr. Wallace, by the comparatively large -size of the middle incisors of the upper jaw. - - * * * * * - -So far as I am aware, no one has attempted to dispute the accuracy of -the statements which I have just quoted regarding the habits of the two -Asiatic man-like Apes; and if true, they must be admitted as evidence, -that such an Ape-- - -1stly, May readily move along the ground in the erect, or semi-erect, -position, and without direct support from its arms. - -2ndly, That it may possess an extremely loud voice, so loud as to be -readily heard one or two miles. - -3rdly, That it may be capable of great viciousness and violence when -irritated: and this is especially true of adult males. - -4thly, That it may build a nest to sleep in. - -Such being well-established facts respecting the Asiatic Anthropoids, -analogy alone might justify us in expecting the African species to offer -similar peculiarities, separately or combined; or, at any rate, would -destroy the force of any attempted _à priori_ argument against such -direct testimony as might be adduced in favour of their existence. And, -if the organization of any of the African Apes could be demonstrated to -fit it better than either of its Asiatic allies for the erect position -and for efficient attack, there would be still less reason for doubting -its occasional adoption of the upright attitude or of aggressive -proceedings. - -From the time of Tyson and Tulpius downwards, the habits of the young -CHIMPANZEE in a state of captivity have been abundantly reported and -commented upon. But trustworthy evidence as to the manners and customs -of adult anthropoids of this species, in their native woods, was almost -wanting up to the time of the publication of the paper by Dr. Savage, to -which I have already referred; containing notes of the observations -which he made, and of the information which he collected from sources -which he considered trustworthy, while resident at Cape Palmas, at the -north-western limit of the Bight of Benin. - -The adult Chimpanzees, measured by Dr. Savage, never exceeded, though -the males may almost attain, five feet in height. - - "When at rest, the sitting posture is that generally - assumed. They are sometimes seen standing and walking, - but when thus detected, they immediately take to all - fours, and flee from the presence of the observer. Such - is their organization that they cannot stand erect, but - lean forward. Hence they are seen, when standing, with - the hands clasped over the occiput, or the lumbar region, - which would seem necessary to balance or ease of posture. - - "The toes of the adult are strongly flexed and turned - inwards, and cannot be perfectly straightened. In the - attempt the skin gathers into thick folds on the back, - shewing that the full expansion of the foot, as is - necessary in walking, is unnatural. The natural position - is on all fours, the body anteriorly resting upon the - knuckles. These are greatly enlarged, with the skin - protuberant and thickened like the sole of the foot. - - "They are expert climbers, as one would suppose from - their organization. In their gambols they swing from limb - to limb to a great distance, and leap with astonishing - agility. It is not unusual to see the 'old folks' (in the - language of an observer) sitting under a tree regaling - themselves with fruit and friendly chat, while their - 'children' are leaping around them, and swinging from - tree to tree with boisterous merriment. - - "As seen here, they cannot be called _gregarious_, seldom - more than five, or ten at most, being found together. It - has been said, on good authority, that they occasionally - assemble in large numbers, in gambols. My informant - asserts that he saw once not less than fifty so engaged; - hooting, screaming, and drumming with sticks upon old - logs, which is done in the latter case with equal - facility by the four extremities. They do not appear ever - to act on the offensive, and seldom, if ever really, on - the defensive. When about to be captured, they resist by - throwing their arms about their opponent, and attempting - to draw him into contact with their teeth." (Savage, l. - c. p. 384.) - -With respect to this last point Dr. Savage is very explicit in another -place: - - "_Biting_ is their principal art of defence. I have seen - one man who had been thus severely wounded in the feet. - - "The strong development of the canine teeth in the adult - would seem to indicate a carnivorous propensity; but in - no state save that of domestication do they manifest it. - At first they reject flesh, but easily acquire a fondness - for it. The canines are early developed, and evidently - designed to act the important part of weapons of defence. - When in contact with man almost the first effort of the - animal is--_to bite_. - - "They avoid the abodes of men, and build their - habitations in trees. Their construction is more that of - _nests_ than _hut_, as they have been erroneously termed - by some naturalists. They generally build not far above - the ground. Branches or twigs are bent, or partly broken, - and crossed, and the whole supported by the body of a - limb or a crotch. Sometimes a nest will be found near the - _end_ of a _strong leafy branch_ twenty or thirty feet - from the ground. One I have lately seen that could not be - less than forty feet, and more probably it was fifty. But - this is an unusual height. - - "Their dwelling-place is not permanent, but changed in - pursuit of food and solitude, according to the force of - circumstances. We more often see them in elevated places; - but this arises from the fact that the low grounds, being - more favourable for the natives' rice-farms, are the - oftener cleared, and hence are almost always wanting in - suitable trees for their nests.... It is seldom that more - than one or two nests are seen upon the same tree, or in - the same neighbourhood: five have been found, but it was - an unusual circumstance.... - - "They are very filthy in their habits.... It is a - tradition with the natives generally here, that they were - once members of their own tribe: that for their depraved - habits they were expelled from all human society, and, - that through an obstinate indulgence of their vile - propensities, they have degenerated into their present - state and organization. They are, however, eaten by them, - and when cooked with the oil and pulp of the palm-nut - considered a highly palatable morsel. - - "They exhibit a remarkable degree of intelligence in - their habits, and, on the part of the mother, much - affection for their young. The second female described - was upon a tree when first discovered, with her mate and - two young ones (a male and a female). Her first impulse - was to descend with great rapidity, and make off into the - thicket, with her mate and female offspring. The young - male remaining behind, she soon returned to the rescue. - She ascended and took him in her arms, at which moment - she was shot, the ball passing through the forearm of the - young one, on its way to the heart of the mother.... - - "In a recent case, the mother, when discovered, remained - upon the tree with her offspring, watching intently the - movements of the hunter. As he took aim, she motioned - with her hand, precisely in the manner of a human being, - to have him desist and go away. When the wound has not - proved instantly fatal, they have been known to stop the - flow of blood by pressing with the hand upon the part, - and when this did not succeed, to apply leaves and - grass.... When shot, they give a sudden screech, not - unlike that of a human being in sudden and acute - distress." - -The ordinary voice of the Chimpanzee, however, is affirmed to be hoarse, -guttural, and not very loud, somewhat like "whoo-whoo" (l. c. p. 365). - -The analogy of the Chimpanzee to the Orang, in its nest-building habit -and in the mode of forming its nest, is exceedingly interesting; while, -on the other hand, the activity of this ape, and its tendency to bite, -are particulars in which it rather resembles the Gibbons. In extent of -geographical range, again, the Chimpanzees--which are found from Sierra -Leone to Congo--remind one of the Gibbons, rather than of either of -the other man-like Apes; and it seems not unlikely that, as is the case -with the Gibbons, there may be several species spread over the -geographical area of the genus. - -The same excellent observer, from whom I have borrowed the preceding -account of the habits of the adult Chimpanzee, published, fifteen years -ago,[24] an account of the GORILLA, which has, in its most essential -points, been confirmed by subsequent observers, and to which so very -little has really been added, that in justice to Dr. Savage I give it -almost in full. - - "It should be borne in mind that my account is based upon - the statements of the aborigines of that region (the - Gaboon). In this connection, it may also be proper for me - to remark, that having been a missionary resident for - several years, studying, from habitual intercourse, the - African mind and character, I felt myself prepared to - discriminate and decide upon the probability of their - statements. Besides, being familiar with the history and - habits of its interesting congener (_Trog. niger_, - Geoff.), I was able to separate their accounts of the two - animals, which, having the same locality and a similarity - of habit, are confounded in the minds of the mass, - especially as but few--such as traders to the interior - and huntsmen--have ever seen the animal in question. - - "The tribe from which our knowledge of the animal is - derived, and whose territory forms its habitat, is the - _Mpongwe_, occupying both banks of the River Gaboon, from - its mouth to some fifty or sixty miles upward.... - - "If the word 'Pongo' be of African origin, it is probably - a corruption of the word _Mpongwe_, the name of the tribe - on the banks of the Gaboon, and hence applied to the - region they inhabit. Their local name for the Chimpanzee - is _Enché-eko_, as near as it can be Anglicized, from - which the common term 'Jocko' probably comes. The Mpongwe - appellation for its new congener is _Engé-ena_, - prolonging the sound of the first vowel, and slightly - sounding the second. - -[Illustration: FIG. 10.--The Gorilla (after Wolff).] - - "The habitat of the _Engé-ena_ is the interior of lower - Guinea, whilst that of the _Enché-eko_ is nearer the - sea-board. - - "Its height is about five feet; it is disproportionately - broad across the shoulders, thickly covered with coarse - black hair, which is said to be similar in its - arrangement to that of the _Enché-eko_; with age it - becomes grey, which fact has given rise to the report - that both animals are seen of different colours. - - "_Head._--The prominent features of the head are, the - great width and elongation of the face, the depth of the - molar region, the branches of the lower jaw being very - deep and extending far backward, and the comparative - smallness of the cranial portion; the eyes are very - large, and said to be like those of the Enché-eko, a - bright hazel; nose broad and flat, slightly elevated - towards the root; the muzzle broad, and prominent lips - and chin, with scattered grey hairs; the under lip highly - mobile, and capable of great elongation when the animal - is enraged, then hanging over the chin; skin of the face - and ears naked, and of a dark brown, approaching to - black. - - "The most remarkable feature of the head is a high ridge, - or crest of hair, in the course of the sagittal suture, - which meets posteriorly with a transverse ridge of the - same, but less prominent, running round from the back of - one ear to the other. The animal has the power of moving - the scalp freely forward and back, and when enraged is - said to contract it strongly over the brow, thus bringing - down the hairy ridge and pointing the hair forward, so as - to present an indescribably ferocious aspect. - - "Neck short, thick, and hairy; chest and shoulders very - broad, said to be fully double the size of the - Enché-ekos; arms very long, reaching some way below the - knee--the forearm much the shortest; hands very large, - the thumbs much larger than the fingers.... - - "The gait is shuffling; the motion of the body, which is - never upright as in man, but bent forward, is somewhat - rolling, or from side to side. The arms being longer than - the Chimpanzee, it does not stoop as much in walking; - like that animal, it makes progression by thrusting its - arms forward, resting the hands on the ground, and then - giving the body a half jumping half swinging motion - between them. In this act it is said not to flex the - fingers, as does the Chimpanzee, resting on its - knuckles, but to extend them, making a fulcrum of the - hand. When it assumes the walking posture, to which it is - said to be much inclined, it balances its huge body by - flexing its arms upward. - - "They live in bands, but are not so numerous as the - Chimpanzees: the females generally exceed the other sex - in number. My informants all agree in the assertion that - but one adult male is seen in a band; that when the young - males grow up, a contest takes place for mastery, and the - strongest, by killing and driving out the others, - establishes himself as the head of the community." - -Dr. Savage repudiates the stories about the Gorillas carrying off women -and vanquishing elephants, and then adds: - - "Their dwellings, if they may be so called, are similar - to those of the Chimpanzee, consisting simply of a few - sticks and leafy branches, supported by the crotches and - limbs of trees: they afford no shelter, and are occupied - only at night. - -[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Gorilla walking (after Wolff).] - - "They are exceedingly ferocious, and always offensive in - their habits, never running from man, as does the - Chimpanzee. They are objects of terror to the natives, - and are never encountered by them except on the - defensive. The few that have been captured were killed by - elephant-hunters and native traders, as they came - suddenly upon them while passing through the forests. - - "It is said that when the male is first seen he gives a - terrific yell, that resounds far and wide through the - forest, something like kh--ah! kh--ah! prolonged and - shrill. His enormous jaws are widely opened at each - expiration, his under lip hangs over the chin, and the - hairy ridge and scalp are contracted upon the brow, - presenting an aspect of indescribable ferocity. - - "The females and young, at the first cry, quickly - disappear. He then approaches the enemy in great fury, - pouring out his horrid cries in quick succession. The - hunter awaits his approach with his gun extended: if his - aim is not sure, he permits the animal to grasp the - barrel, and as he carries it to his mouth (which is his - habit) he fires. Should the gun fail to go off, the - barrel (that of the ordinary musket, which is thin) is - crushed between his teeth, and the encounter soon proves - fatal to the hunter. - - "In the wild state, their habits are in general like - those of the _Troglodytes niger_, building their nests - loosely in trees, living on similar fruits, and changing - their place of resort from force of circumstances." - -Dr. Savage's observations were confirmed and supplemented by those of -Mr. Ford, who communicated an interesting paper on the Gorilla to the -Philadelphian Academy of Sciences, in 1852. With respect to the -geographical distribution of this greatest of all the man-like Apes, Mr. -Ford remarks: - - "This animal inhabits the range of mountains that - traverse the interior of Guinea, from the Cameroon in the - north, to Angola in the south, and about 100 miles - inland, and called by the geographers Crystal Mountains. - The limit to which this animal extends, either north or - south, I am unable to define. But that limit is doubtless - some distance north of this river [Gaboon]. I was able to - certify myself of this fact in a late excursion to the - head-waters of the Mooney (Danger) River, which comes - into the sea some sixty miles from this place. I was - informed (credibly, I think) that they were numerous - among the mountains in which that river rises, and far - north of that. - - "In the south, this species extends to the Congo River, - as I am told by native traders who have visited the coast - between the Gaboon and that river. Beyond that, I am not - informed. This animal is only found at a distance from - the coast in most cases, and, according to my best - information, approaches it nowhere so nearly as on the - south side of this river, where they have been found - within ten miles of the sea. This, however, is only of - late occurrence. I am informed by some of the oldest - Mpongwe men that formerly he was only found on the - sources of the river, but that at present he may be - found within half-a-day's walk of its mouth. Formerly he - inhabited the mountainous ridge where Bushmen alone - inhabited, but now he boldly approaches the Mpongwe - plantations. This is doubtless the reason of the scarcity - of information in years past, as the opportunities for - receiving a knowledge of the animal have not been - wanting; traders having for one hundred years frequented - this river, and specimens, such as have been brought here - within a year, could not have been exhibited without - having attracted the attention of the most stupid." - -One specimen Mr. Ford examined weighed 170 lbs., without the thoracic, -or pelvic, viscera, and measured four feet four inches round the chest. -This writer describes so minutely and graphically the onslaught of the -Gorilla--though he does not for a moment pretend to have witnessed the -scene--that I am tempted to give this part of his paper in full, for -comparison with other narratives: - - "He always rises to his feet when making an attack, - though he approaches his antagonist in a stooping - posture. - - "Though he never lies in wait, yet, when he hears, sees, - or scents a man, he immediately utters his characteristic - cry, prepares for an attack, and always acts on the - offensive. The cry he utters resembles a grunt more than - a growl, and is similar to the cry of the Chimpanzee, - when irritated, but vastly louder. It is said to be - audible at a great distance. His preparation consists in - attending the females and young ones, by whom he is - usually accompanied, to a little distance. He, however, - soon returns, with his crest erect and projecting - forward, his nostrils dilated, and his under-lip thrown - down; at the same time uttering his characteristic yell, - designed, it would seem, to terrify his antagonist. - Instantly, unless he is disabled by a well-directed shot, - he makes an onset, and, striking his antagonist with the - palm of his hands, or seizing him with a grasp from which - there is no escape, he dashes him upon the ground, and - lacerates him with his tusks. - - "He is said to seize a musket, and instantly crush the - barrel between his teeth.... This animal's savage nature - is very well shewn by the implacable desperation of a - young one that was brought here. It was taken very young, - and kept four months, and many means were used to tame - it; but it was incorrigible, so that it bit me an hour - before it died." - -Mr. Ford discredits the house-building and elephant-driving stories, and -says that no well-informed natives believe them. They are tales told to -children. - -I might quote other testimony to a similar effect, but, as it appears to -me, less carefully weighed and sifted, from the letters of MM. Franquet -and Gautier Laboullay, appended to the memoir of M. I. G. St. Hilaire, -which I have already cited. - -Bearing in mind what is known regarding the Orang and the Gibbon, the -statements of Dr. Savage and Mr. Ford do not appear to me to be justly -open to criticism on _à priori_ grounds. The Gibbons, as we have seen, -readily assume the erect posture, but the Gorilla is far better fitted -by its organization for that attitude than are the Gibbons: if the -laryngeal pouches of the Gibbons, as is very likely, are important in -giving volume to a voice which can be heard for half a league, the -Gorilla, which has similar sacs, more largely developed, and whose bulk -is fivefold that of a Gibbon, may well be audible for twice that -distance. If the Orang fights with its hands, the Gibbons and -Chimpanzees with their teeth, the Gorilla may, probably enough, do -either or both; nor is there anything to be said against either -Chimpanzee or Gorilla building a nest, when it is proved that the -Orang-Utan habitually performs that feat. - -With all this evidence, now ten to fifteen years old, before the world, -it is not a little surprising that the assertions of a recent traveller, -who, so far as the Gorilla is concerned, really does very little more -than repeat, on his own authority, the statements of Savage and of Ford, -should have met with so much and such bitter opposition. If subtraction -be made of what was known before, the sum and substance of what M. Du -Chaillu has affirmed as a matter of his own observation respecting the -Gorilla, is, that, in advancing to the attack, the great brute beats his -chest with his fists. I confess I see nothing very improbable, or very -much worth disputing about, in this statement. - -With respect to the other man-like Apes of Africa, M. Du Chaillu tells -us absolutely nothing, of his own knowledge, regarding the common -Chimpanzee; but he informs us of a bald-headed species or variety, the -_nschiego mbouve_, which builds itself a shelter, and of another rare -kind with a comparatively small face, large facial angle, and peculiar -note, resembling "Kooloo." - -As the Orang shelters itself with a rough coverlet of leaves, and the -common Chimpanzee, according to that eminently trustworthy observer Dr. -Savage, makes a sound like "Whoo-whoo,"--the grounds of the summary -repudiation with which M. Du Chaillu's statements on these matters have -been met is not obvious. - -If I have abstained from quoting M. Du Chaillu's work, then, it is not -because I discern any inherent improbability in his assertions -respecting the man-like Apes; nor from any wish to throw suspicion on -his veracity; but because, in my opinion, so long as his narrative -remains in its present state of unexplained and apparently inexplicable -confusion, it has no claim to original authority respecting any subject -whatsoever. - -It may be truth, but it is not evidence. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] REGNUM CONGO: hoc est VERA DESCRIPTIO REGNI AFRICANI QUOD TAM AB -INCOLIS QUAM LUSITANIS CONGUS APPELLATUR, per Philippum Pigafettam, olim -ex Edoardo Lopez acroamatis lingua Italica excerpta, num Latio sermone -donata ab August. Cassiod. Reinio. Iconibus et imaginibus rerum -memorabilium quasi vivis, opera et industria Joan. Theodori et Joan. -Israelis de Bry, fratrum exornata. Francofurti, MDXCVIII. - -[2] "Except this that their legges had no calves."--[Ed. 1626.] And in a -marginal note, "These great apes are called Pongo's." - -[3] _Purchas' note._--Cape Negro is in 16 degrees south of the line. - -[4] Purchas' marginal note, p. 982:--"The Pongo a giant ape. He told me -in conference with him, that one of these Pongoes tooke a negro boy of -his which lived a moneth with them. For they hurt not those which they -surprise at unawares, except they look on them; which he avoyded. He -said their highth was like a man's, but their bignesse twice as great. I -saw the negro boy. What the other monster should be he hath forgotten to -relate; and these papers came to my hand since his death, which, -otherwise, in my often conferences, I might have learned. Perhaps he -meaneth the Pigmy Pongo killers mentioned." - -[5] Archives du Museum, tome x. - -[6] I am indebted to Dr. Wright, of Cheltenham, whose paleontological -labours are so well known, for bringing this interesting relic to my -knowledge. Tyson's granddaughter, it appears, married Dr. Allardyce, a -physician of repute in Cheltenham, and brought, as part of her dowry, -the skeleton of the "Pygmie." Dr. Allardyce presented it to the -Cheltenham Museum, and, through the good offices of my friend Dr. -Wright, the authorities of the Museum have permitted me to borrow, what -is, perhaps, its most remarkable ornament. - -[7] "Mandrill" seems to signify a "man-like ape," the word "Drill" or -"Dril" having been anciently employed in England to denote an Ape or -Baboon. Thus in the fifth edition of Blount's "Glossographia, or a -Dictionary interpreting the hard words of whatsoever language now used -in our refined English tongue ... very useful for all such as desire to -understand what they read," published in 1681, I find, "Dril--a -stone-cutter's tool wherewith he bores little holes in marble, &c. Also -a large overgrown Ape and Baboon, so called." "Drill" is used in the -same sense in Charleton's "Onomasticon Zoicon," 1668. The singular -etymology of the word given by Buffon seems hardly a probable one. - -[8] Histoire Naturelle, Suppl. tome 7ème, 1789. - -[9] Camper, OEuvres, i. p. 56. - -[10] Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap. Tweede Deel. Derde -Druk. 1826. - -[11] "Briefe des Herrn v. Wurmb und des H. Baron von Wollzogen. Gotha, -1794." - -[12] See Blumenbach, "Abbildungen Naturhistorichen Gegenstände," No. 12, -1810; and Tilesius, "Naturhistoriche Früchte der ersten -Kaiserlich-Russischen Erdumsegelung," p. 115, 1813. - -[13] Speaking broadly and without prejudice to the question, whether -there be more than one species of Orang. - -[14] See "Observations on the external characters and habits of the -Troglodytes niger, by Thomas N. Savage, M.D., and on its organization, -by Jeffries Wyman, M.D.," Boston Journal of Natural History, vol. iv., -1843-4; and "External characters, habits, and osteology of Troglodytes -Gorilla," by the same authors, ibid., vol. v., 1847. - -[15] "Man and Monkies," p. 423. - -[16] "Wanderings in New South Wales," vol. ii. chap. viii., 1834. - -[17] Boston Journal of Natural History, vol. i., 1834. - -[18] The largest Orang-Utan, cited by Temminck, measured, when standing -upright, 4 ft.; but he mentions having just received news of the capture -of an Orang 5 ft. 3 in. high. Schlegel and Müller say that their largest -old male measured, upright, 1.25 Netherlands "el"; and from the crown to -the end of the toes, 1.5 el; the circumference of the body being about 1 -el. The largest old female was 1.09 el high, when standing. The adult -skeleton in the College of Surgeons' Museum, if set upright, would stand -3 ft. 6-8 in. from crown to sole. Dr. Humphry gives 3 ft. 8 in. as the -mean height of two Orangs. Of seventeen Orangs examined by Mr. Wallace, -the largest was 4 ft. 2 in. high, from the heel to the crown of the -head. Mr. Spencer St. John, however, in his "Life in the Forests of the -Far East," tells us of an Orang of "5 ft. 2 in., measuring fairly from -the head to the heel," 15 in. across the face, and 12 in. round the -wrist. It does not appear, however, that Mr. St. John measured this -Orang himself. - -[19] See Mr. Wallace's account of an infant "Orang-utan," in the "Annals -of Natural History" for 1856. Mr. Wallace provided his interesting -charge with an artificial mother of buffalo-skin, but the cheat was too -successful. The infant's entire experience led it to associate teats -with hair, and feeling the latter, it spent its existence in vain -endeavours to discover the former. - -[20] "They are the slowest and least active of all the monkey tribe, and -their motions are surprisingly awkward and uncouth."--Sir James Brooke, -in the "Proceedings of the Zoological Society," 1841. - -[21] Mr. Wallace's account of the progression of the Orang almost -exactly corresponds with this. - -[22] Sir James Brooke, in a letter to Mr. Waterhouse, published in the -proceedings of the Zoological Society for 1841, says:--"On the habits of -the Orangs, as far as I have been able to observe them, I may remark -that they are as dull and slothful as can well be conceived, and on no -occasion, when pursuing them, did they move so fast as to preclude my -keeping pace with them easily through a moderately clear forest; and -even when obstructions below (such as wading up to the neck) allowed -them to get away some distance, they were sure to stop and allow me to -come up. I never observed the slightest attempt at defence, and the wood -which sometimes rattled about our ears was broken by their weight, and -not thrown, as some persons represent. If pushed to extremity, however, -the _Pappan_ could not be otherwise than formidable, and one unfortunate -man, who, with a party, was trying to catch a large one alive, lost two -of his fingers, besides being severely bitten on the face, whilst the -animal finally beat off his pursuers and escaped." - -Mr. Wallace, on the other hand, affirms that he has several times -observed them throwing down branches when pursued. "It is true he does -not throw them at a person, but casts them down vertically; for it is -evident that a bough cannot be thrown to any distance from the top of a -lofty tree. In one case a female Mias, on a durian tree, kept up for at -least ten minutes a continuous shower of branches and of the heavy, -spined fruits, as large as 32-pounders, which most effectually kept us -clear of the tree she was on. She could be seen breaking them off and -throwing them down with every appearance of rage, uttering at intervals -a loud pumping grunt, and evidently meaning mischief."--"On the Habits -of the Orang-Utan," Annals of Nat. History, 1856. This statement, it -will be observed, is quite in accordance with that contained in the -letter of the Resident Palm quoted above (p. 16). - -[23] On the Orang-Utan, or Mias of Borneo, Annals of Natural History, -1856. - -[24] Notice of the external characters and habits of Troglodytes -Gorilla. Boston Journal of Natural History, 1847. - - - - -II - - ON THE RELATIONS OF MAN TO THE - LOWER ANIMALS. - - - Multis videri poterit, majorem esse differentiam Simiæ et - Hominis, quam diei et noctis; verum tamen hi, - comparatione instituta inter summos Europæ Heroës et - Hottentottos ad Caput bonæ spei degentes, difficillime - sibi persuadebunt, has eosdem habere natales; vel si - virginem nobilem aulicam, maxime comtam et humanissimam, - conferre vellent cum homine sylvestri et sibi relicto, - vix augurari possent, hunc et illam ejusdem esse - speciei.--_Linnæi Amoenitates Acad. "Anthropomorpha."_ - -The question of questions for mankind--the problem which underlies all -others, and is more deeply interesting than any other--is the -ascertainment of the place which Man occupies in nature and of his -relations to the universe of things. Whence our race has come; what are -the limits of our power over nature, and of nature's power over us; to -what goal we are tending; are the problems which present themselves anew -and with undiminished interest to every man born into the world. Most of -us, shrinking from the difficulties and dangers which beset the seeker -after original answers to these riddles, are contented to ignore them -altogether, or to smother the investigating spirit under the featherbed -of respected and respectable tradition. But, in every age, one or two -restless spirits, blessed with that constructive genius, which can only -build on a secure foundation, or cursed with the mere spirit of -scepticism, are unable to follow in the well-worn and comfortable track -of their forefathers and contemporaries, and unmindful of thorns and -stumbling-blocks, strike out into paths of their own. The sceptics end -in the infidelity which asserts the problem to be insoluble, or in the -atheism which denies the existence of any orderly progress and -governance of things: the men of genius propound solutions which grow -into systems of Theology or of Philosophy, or veiled in musical language -which suggests more than it asserts, take the shape of the Poetry of an -epoch. - -Each such answer to the great question, invariably asserted by the -followers of its propounder, if not by himself, to be complete and -final, remains in high authority and esteem, it may be for one century, -or it may be for twenty: but, as invariably, Time proves each reply to -have been a mere approximation to the truth--tolerable chiefly on -account of the ignorance of those by whom it was accepted, and wholly -intolerable when tested by the larger knowledge of their successors. - -In a well-worn metaphor, a parallel is drawn between the life of man and -the metamorphosis of the caterpillar into the butterfly; but the -comparison may be more just as well as more novel, if for its former -term we take the mental progress of the race. History shows that the -human mind, fed by constant accessions of knowledge, periodically grows -too large for its theoretical coverings, and bursts them asunder to -appear in new habiliments, as the feeding and growing grub, at -intervals, casts its too narrow skin and assumes another, itself but -temporary. Truly the imago state of Man seems to be terribly distant, -but every moult is a step gained, and of such there have been many. - -Since the revival of learning, whereby the Western races of Europe were -enabled to enter upon that progress towards true knowledge, which was -commenced by the philosophers of Greece, but was almost arrested in -subsequent long ages of intellectual stagnation, or, at most, gyration, -the human larva has been feeding vigorously, and moulting in proportion. -A skin of some dimension was cast in the 16th century, and another -towards the end of the 18th, while, within the last fifty years, the -extraordinary growth of every department of physical science has spread -among us mental food of so nutritious and stimulating a character that a -new ecdysis seems imminent. But this is a process not unusually -accompanied by many throes and some sickness and debility, or, it may -be, by graver disturbances; so that every good citizen must feel bound -to facilitate the process, and even if he have nothing but a scalpel to -work withal, to ease the cracking integument to the best of his ability. - -In this duty lies my excuse for the publication of these essays. For it -will be admitted that some knowledge of man's position in the animate -world is an indispensable preliminary to the proper understanding of his -relations to the universe--and this again resolves itself, in the long -run, into an inquiry into the nature and the closeness of the ties which -connect him with those singular creatures whose history[25] has been -sketched in the preceding pages. - -The importance of such an inquiry is indeed intuitively manifest. -Brought face to face with these blurred copies of himself, the least -thoughtful of men is conscious of a certain shock, due perhaps, not so -much to disgust at the aspect of what looks like an insulting -caricature, as to the awakening of a sudden and profound mistrust of -time-honoured theories and strongly-rooted prejudices regarding his own -position in nature, and his relations to the under-world of life; while -that which remains a dim suspicion for the unthinking, becomes a vast -argument, fraught with the deepest consequences, for all who are -acquainted with the recent progress of the anatomical and physiological -sciences. - -I now propose briefly to unfold that argument, and to set forth, in a -form intelligible to those who possess no special acquaintance with -anatomical science, the chief facts upon which all conclusions -respecting the nature and the extent of the bonds which connect man with -the brute world must be based: I shall then indicate the one immediate -conclusion which, in my judgment, is justified by those facts, and I -shall finally discuss the bearing of that conclusion upon the hypotheses -which have been entertained respecting the Origin of Man. - -The facts to which I would first direct the reader's attention, though -ignored by many of the professed instructors of the public mind, are -easy of demonstration and are universally agreed to by men of science; -while their significance is so great, that whoso has duly pondered over -them will, I think, find little to startle him in the other revelations -of Biology. I refer to those facts which have been made known by the -study of Development. - -It is a truth of very wide, if not of universal, application, that every -living creature commences its existence under a form different from, and -simpler than, that which it eventually attains. - -The oak is a more complex thing than the little rudimentary plant -contained in the acorn; the caterpillar is more complex than the egg; -the butterfly than the caterpillar; and each of these beings, in passing -from its rudimentary to its perfect condition, runs through a series of -changes, the sum of which is called its Development. In the higher -animals these changes are extremely complicated; but, within the last -half-century, the labours of such men as Von Baer, Rathke, Reichert, -Bischof, and Remak have almost completely unravelled them, so that the -successive stages of development which are exhibited by a Dog, for -example, are now as well known to the embryologist as are the steps of -the metamorphosis of the silkworm moth to the school-boy. It will be -useful to consider with attention the nature and the order of the stages -of canine development, as an example of the process in the higher -animals generally. - -The Dog, like all animals, save the very lowest (and further inquiries -may not improbably remove the apparent exception), commences its -existence as an egg: as a body which is, in every sense, as much an egg -as that of a hen, but is devoid of that accumulation of nutritive matter -which confers upon the bird's egg its exceptional size and domestic -utility; and wants the shell, which would not only be useless to an -animal incubated within the body of its parent, but would cut it off -from access to the source of that nutriment which the young creature -requires, but which the minute egg of the mammal does not contain within -itself. - -The Dog's egg is, in fact, a little spheroidal bag (Fig. 12), formed of -a delicate transparent membrane called the _vitelline membrane_, and -about 1/130 to 1/120th an inch in diameter. It contains a mass of viscid -nutritive matter--the "_yelk_"--within which is inclosed a second much -more delicate spheroidal bag, called the "_germinal vesicle_" (_a_). In -this, lastly, lies a more solid rounded body, termed the "_germinal -spot_" (_b_). - -[Illustration: FIG. 12.--A. Egg of the Dog, with the vitelline membrane -burst, so as to give exit to the yelk, the germinal vesicle (_a_), and -its included spot (_b_). B. C. D. E. F. Successive changes of the yelk -indicated in the text. After Bischoff.] - -The egg, or "Ovum," is originally formed within a gland, from which, in -due season, it becomes detached, and passes into the living chamber -fitted for its protection and maintenance during the protracted process -of gestation. Here, when subjected to the required conditions, this -minute and apparently insignificant particle of living matter becomes -animated by a new and mysterious activity. The germinal vesicle and spot -cease to be discernible (their precise fate being one of the yet -unsolved problems of embryology), but the yelk becomes circumferentially -indented, as if an invisible knife had been drawn round it, and thus -appears divided into two hemispheres (Fig. 12, C). - -By the repetition of this process in various planes, these hemispheres -become subdivided, so that four segments are produced (D); and these, in -like manner, divide and subdivide again, until the whole yelk is -converted into a mass of granules, each of which consists of a minute -spheroid of yelk-substance, inclosing a central particle, the so-called -"_nucleus_" (F). Nature, by this process, has attained much the same -result as that at which a human artificer arrives by his operations in a -brickfield. She takes the rough plastic material of the yelk and breaks -it up into well-shaped, tolerably even-sized masses, handy for building -up into any part of the living edifice. - -Next, the mass of organic bricks, or "_cells_" as they are technically -called, thus formed, acquires an orderly arrangement, becoming converted -into a hollow spheroid with double walls. Then, upon one side of this -spheroid, appears a thickening, and, by and bye, in the centre of the -area of thickening, a straight shallow groove (Fig. 13, A) marks the -central line of the edifice which is to be raised, or, in other words, -indicates the position of the middle line of the body of the future dog. -The substance bounding the groove on each side next rises up into a -fold, the rudiment of the side wall of that long cavity, which will -eventually lodge the spinal marrow and the brain; and in the floor of -this chamber appears a solid cellular cord, the so-called "_notochord_." -One end of the inclosed cavity dilates to form the head (Fig. 13, B), -the other remains narrow, and eventually becomes the tail; the side -walls of the body are fashioned out of the downward continuation of the -walls of the groove; and from them, by and bye, grow out little buds -which, by degrees, assume the shape of limbs. Watching the fashioning -process stage by stage, one is forcibly reminded of the modeller in -clay. Every part, every organ, is at first, as it were, pinched up -rudely, and sketched out in the rough; then shaped more accurately; and -only, at last, receives the touches which stamp its final character. - -Thus, at length, the young puppy assumes such a form as is shown in Fig. -13, C. In this condition it has a disproportionately large head, as -dissimilar to that of a dog as the bud-like limbs are unlike his legs. - -The remains of the yelk, which have not yet been applied to the -nutrition and growth of the young animal, are contained in a sac -attached to the rudimentary intestine, and termed the yelk-sac, or -"_umbilical vesicle_." Two membranous bags, intended to subserve -respectively the protection and nutrition of the young creature, have -been developed from the skin and from the under and hinder surface of -the body; the former, the so-called "_amnion_," is a sac filled with -fluid, which invests the whole body of the embryo, and plays the part of -a sort of water-bed for it; the other, termed the "_allantois_," grows -out, loaded with blood-vessels, from the ventral region, and eventually -applying itself to the walls of the cavity, in which the developing -organism is contained, enables these vessels to become the channel by -which the stream of nutriment, required to supply the wants of the -offspring, is furnished to it by the parent. - -[Illustration: FIG. 13.--A. Earliest rudiment of the Dog. B. Rudiment -further advanced, showing the foundations of the head, tail, and -vertebral column. C. The very young puppy, with attached ends of the -yelk-sac and allantois, and invested in the amnion.] - -The structure which is developed by the interlacement of the vessels of -the offspring with those of the parent, and by means of which the former -is enabled to receive nourishment and to get rid of effete matters, is -termed the "_Placenta_." - -It would be tedious, and it is unnecessary for my present purpose, to -trace the process of development further; suffice it to say, that, by a -long and gradual series of changes, the rudiment here depicted and -described becomes a puppy, is born, and then, by still slower and less -perceptible steps, passes into the adult Dog. - -There is not much apparent resemblance between a barndoor Fowl and the -Dog who protects the farm-yard. Nevertheless the student of development -finds, not only that the chick commences its existence as an egg, -primarily identical, in all essential respects, with that of the Dog, -but that the yelk of this egg undergoes division--that the primitive -groove arises, and that the contiguous parts of the germ are fashioned, -by precisely similar methods, into a young chick, which, at one stage of -its existence, is so like the nascent Dog, that ordinary inspection -would hardly distinguish the two. - - * * * * * - -The history of the development of any other vertebrate animal, Lizard, -Snake, Frog, or Fish, tells the same story. There is always, to begin -with, an egg having the same essential structure as that of the -Dog:--the yelk of that egg always undergoes division, or -"_segmentation_" as it is often called: the ultimate products of that -segmentation constitute the building materials for the body of the young -animal; and this is built up round a primitive groove, in the floor of -which a notochord is developed. Furthermore, there is a period in which -the young of all these animals resemble one another, not merely in -outward form, but in all essentials of structure, so closely, that the -differences between them are inconsiderable, while, in their subsequent -course, they diverge more and more widely from one another. And it is a -general law, that, the more closely any animals resemble one another in -adult structure, the longer and the more intimately do their embryos -resemble one another: so that, for example, the embryos of a Snake and -of a Lizard remain like one another longer than do those of a Snake and -of a Bird; and the embryo of a Dog and of a Cat remain like one another -for a far longer period than do those of a Dog and a Bird; or of a Dog -and an Opossum; or even than those of a Dog and a Monkey. - -Thus the study of development affords a clear test of closeness of -structural affinity, and one turns with impatience to inquire what -results are yielded by the study of the development of Man. Is he -something apart? Does he originate in a totally different way from Dog, -Bird, Frog, and Fish, thus justifying those who assert him to have no -place in nature and no real affinity with the lower world of animal -life? Or does he originate in a similar germ, pass through the same slow -and gradually progressive modifications,--depend on the same -contrivances for protection and nutrition, and finally enter the world -by the help of the same mechanism? The reply is not doubtful for a -moment, and has not been doubtful any time these thirty years. Without -question, the mode of origin and the early stages of the development of -man are identical with those of the animals immediately below him in the -scale:--without a doubt, in these respects, he is far nearer the Apes, -than the Apes are to the Dog. - -The Human ovum is about 1/125 of an inch in diameter, and might be -described in the same terms as that of the Dog, so that I need only -refer to the figure illustrative (14 A.) of its structure. It leaves the -organ in which it is formed in a similar fashion and enters the organic -chamber prepared for its reception in the same way, the conditions of -its development being in all respects the same. It has not yet been -possible (and only by some rare chance can it ever be possible) to study -the human ovum in so early a developmental stage as that of yelk -division, but there is every reason to conclude that the changes it -undergoes are identical with those exhibited by the ova of other -vertebrated animals; for the formative materials of which the -rudimentary human body is composed, in the earliest conditions in which -it has been observed, are the same as those of other animals. Some of -these earliest stages are figured below and, as will be seen, they are -strictly comparable to the very early states of the Dog; the marvellous -correspondence between the two which is kept up, even for some time, as -development advances, becoming apparent by the simple comparison of the -figures with those on page 58. - -Indeed, it is very long before the body of the young human being can be -readily discriminated from that of the young puppy; but, at a tolerably -early period, the two become distinguishable by the different form of -their adjuncts, the yelk-sac and the allantois. The former, in the Dog, -becomes long and spindle-shaped, while in Man it remains spherical; the -latter, in the Dog, attains an extremely large size, and the vascular -processes which are developed from it and eventually give rise to the -formation of the placenta (taking root, as it were, in the parental -organism, so as to draw nourishment therefrom, as the root of a tree -extracts it from the soil) are arranged in an encircling zone, while in -Man, the allantois remains comparatively small, and its vascular -rootlets are eventually restricted to one disk-like spot. Hence, while -the placenta of the Dog is like a girdle, that of Man has the cake-like -form, indicated by the name of the organ. - -[Illustration: FIG. 14.--A. Human ovum (after Kölliker). a. germinal -vesicle. b. germinal spot. B. A very early condition of Man, with -yelk-sac, allantois, and amnion (original). C. A more advanced stage -(after Kölliker), compare FIG. 13, C.] - -But, exactly in those respects in which the developing Man differs from -the Dog, he resembles the ape, which, like man, has a spheroidal -yelk-sac and a discoidal--sometimes partially lobed--placenta. - -So that it is only quite in the later stages of development that the -young human being presents marked differences from the young ape, while -the latter departs as much from the dog in its development, as the man -does. - -Startling as the last assertion may appear to be, it is demonstrably -true, and it alone appears to me sufficient to place beyond all doubt -the structural unity of man with the rest of the animal world, and more -particularly and closely with the apes. - - * * * * * - -Thus, identical in the physical processes by which he -originates--identical in the early stages of his formation--identical in -the mode of his nutrition before and after birth, with the animals which -lie immediately below him in the scale--Man, if his adult and perfect -structure be compared with theirs, exhibits, as might be expected, a -marvellous likeness of organization. He resembles them as they resemble -one another--he differs from them as they differ from one another.--And, -though these differences and resemblances cannot be weighed and -measured, their value may be readily estimated; the scale or standard of -judgment, touching that value, being afforded and expressed by the -system of classification of animals now current among zoologists. - -A careful study of the resemblances and differences presented by animals -has, in fact, led naturalists to arrange them into groups, or -assemblages, all the members of each group presenting a certain amount -of definable resemblance, and the number of points of similarity being -smaller as the group is larger and _vice versâ_. Thus, all creatures -which agree only in presenting the few distinctive marks of animality -form the "Kingdom" ANIMALIA. The numerous animals which agree only in -possessing the special characters of Vertebrates form one "Sub-kingdom" -of this Kingdom. Then the Sub-kingdom VERTEBRATA is subdivided into the -five "Classes," Fishes, Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds, and Mammals, and -these into smaller groups called "Orders"; these into "Families" and -"Genera"; while the last are finally broken up into the smallest -assemblages, which are distinguished by the possession of constant, -not-sexual, characters. These ultimate groups are Species. - -Every year tends to bring about a greater uniformity of opinion -throughout the zoological world as to the limits and characters of these -groups, great and small. At present, for example, no one has the least -doubt regarding the characters of the classes Mammalia, Aves, or -Reptilia; nor does the question arise whether any thoroughly well-known -animal should be placed in one class or the other. Again, there is a -very general agreement respecting the characters and limits of the -orders of Mammals, and as to the animals which are structurally -necessitated to take a place in one or another order. - -No one doubts, for example, that the Sloth and the Ant-eater, the -Kangaroo and the Opossum, the Tiger and the Badger, the Tapir and the -Rhinoceros, are respectively members of the same orders. These -successive pairs of animals may, and some do, differ from one another -immensely, in such matters as the proportions and structure of their -limbs; the number of their dorsal and lumbar vertebræ; the adaptation of -their frames to climbing, leaping, or running; the number and form of -their teeth; and the characters of their skulls and of the contained -brain. But, with all these differences, they are so closely connected in -all the more important and fundamental characters of their organization, -and so distinctly separated by these same characters from other animals, -that zoologists find it necessary to group them together as members of -one order. And if any new animal were discovered, and were found to -present no greater difference from the Kangaroo and the Opossum, for -example, than these animals do from one another, the zoologist would not -only be logically compelled to rank it in the same order with these, but -he would not think of doing otherwise. - -Bearing this obvious course of zoological reasoning in mind, let us -endeavour for a moment to disconnect our thinking selves from the mask -of humanity; let us imagine ourselves scientific Saturnians, if you -will, fairly acquainted with such animals as now inhabit the Earth, and -employed in discussing the relations they bear to a new and singular -"erect and featherless biped," which some enterprising traveller, -overcoming the difficulties of space and gravitation, has brought from -that distant planet for our inspection, well preserved, may be, in a -cask of rum. We should all, at once, agree upon placing him among the -mammalian vertebrates; and his lower jaw, his molars, and his brain, -would leave no room for doubting the systematic position of the new -genus among those mammals, whose young are nourished during gestation by -means of a placenta, or what are called the "placental mammals." - -Further, the most superficial study would at once convince us that, -among the orders of placental mammals, neither the Whales nor the hoofed -creatures, nor the Sloths and Ant-eaters, nor the carnivorous Cats, -Dogs, and Bears, still less the Rodent Rats and Rabbits, or the -Insectivorous Moles and Hedgehogs, or the Bats, could claim our "_Homo_" -as one of themselves. - -There would remain then, but one order for comparison, that of the Apes -(using that word in its broadest sense), and the question for discussion -would narrow itself to this--is Man so different from any of these Apes -that he must form an order by himself? Or does he differ less from them -than they differ from one another, and hence must take his place in the -same order with them? - -Being happily free from all real, or imaginary, personal interest in the -results of the inquiry thus set afoot, we should proceed to weigh the -arguments on one side and on the other, with as much judicial calmness -as if the question related to a new Opossum. We should endeavour to -ascertain, without seeking either to magnify or diminish them, all the -characters by which our new Mammal differed from the Apes; and if we -found that these were of less structural value, than those which -distinguish certain members of the Ape order from others universally -admitted to be of the same order, we should undoubtedly place the newly -discovered tellurian genus with them. - -I now proceed to detail the facts which seem to me to leave us no -choice but to adopt the last mentioned course. - - * * * * * - -It is quite certain that the Ape which most nearly approaches man, in -the totality of its organization, is either the Chimpanzee or the -Gorilla; and as it makes no practical difference, for the purposes of my -present argument, which is selected for comparison, on the one hand, -with Man, and on the other hand, with the rest of the Primates,[26] I -shall select the latter (so far as its organization is known)--as a -brute now so celebrated in prose and verse, that all must have heard of -him, and have formed some conception of his appearance. I shall take up -as many of the most important points of difference between man and this -remarkable creature, as the space at my disposal will allow me to -discuss, and the necessities of the argument demand; and I shall inquire -into the value and magnitude of these differences, when placed side by -side with those which separate the Gorilla from other animals of the -same order. - -In the general proportions of the body and limbs there is a remarkable -difference between the Gorilla and Man, which at once strikes the eye. -The Gorilla's brain-case is smaller, its trunk larger, its lower limbs -shorter, its upper limbs longer in proportion than those of Man. - -I find that the vertebral column of a full-grown Gorilla, in the Museum -of the Royal College of Surgeons, measures 27 inches along its anterior -curvature, from the upper edge of the atlas, or first vertebra of the -neck, to the lower extremity of the sacrum; that the arm, without the -hand, is 31-1/2 inches long; that the leg, without the foot, is 26-1/2 -inches long; that the hand is 9-3/4 inches long; the foot 11-1/4 inches -long. - -In other words, taking the length of the spinal column as 100, the arm -equals 115, the leg 96, the hand 36, and the foot 41. - -In the skeleton of a male Bosjesman, in the same collection, the -proportions, by the same measurement, to the spinal column, taken as -100, are--the arm 78, the leg 110, the hand 26, and the foot 32. In a -woman of the same race the arm is 83, and the leg 120, the hand and foot -remaining the same. In a European skeleton I find the arm to be 80, the -leg 117, the hand 26, the foot 35. - -Thus the leg is not so different as it looks at first sight, in its -proportions to the spine in the Gorilla and in the Man--being very -slightly shorter than the spine in the former, and between 1/10 and 1/5 -longer than the spine in the latter. The foot is longer and the hand -much longer in the Gorilla; but the great difference is caused by the -arms, which are very much longer than the spine in the Gorilla, very -much shorter than the spine in the Man. - -The question now arises how are the other Apes related to the Gorilla in -these respects--taking the length of the spine, measured in the same -way, at 100. In an adult Chimpanzee, the arm is only 96, the leg 90, the -hand 43, the foot 39--so that the hand and the leg depart more from the -human proportion and the arm less, while the foot is about the same as -in the Gorilla. - -In the Orang, the arms are very much longer than in the Gorilla (122), -while the legs are shorter (88); the foot is longer than the hand (52 -and 48), and both are much longer in proportion to the spine. - -In the other man-like Apes again, the Gibbons, these proportions are -still further altered; the length of the arms being to that of the -spinal column as 19 to 11; while the legs are also a third longer than -the spinal column, so as to be longer than in Man, instead of shorter. -The hand is half as long as the spinal column, and the foot, shorter -than the hand, is about 5/11ths of the length of the spinal column. - -Thus _Hylobates_ is as much longer in the arms than the Gorilla, as the -Gorilla is longer in the arms than Man; while, on the other hand, it is -as much longer in the legs than the Man, as the Man is longer in the -legs than the Gorilla, so that it contains within itself the extremest -deviations from the average length of both pairs of limbs (see the -Frontispiece). - -The Mandrill presents a middle condition, the arms and legs being nearly -equal in length, and both being shorter than the spinal column; while -hand and foot have nearly the same proportions to one another and to the -spine, as in Man. - -In the Spider monkey (_Ateles_) the leg is longer than the spine, and -the arm than the leg; and, finally, in that remarkable Lemurine form, -the Indri (_Lichanotus_), the leg is about as long as the spinal column, -while the arm is not more than 11/18ths of its length; the hand having -rather less and the foot rather more, than one-third the length of the -spinal column. - -These examples might be greatly multiplied, but they suffice to show -that, in whatever proportion of its limbs the Gorilla differs from Man, -the other Apes depart still more widely from the Gorilla, and that, -consequently, such differences of proportion can have no ordinal value. - - * * * * * - -We may next consider the differences presented by the trunk, consisting -of the vertebral column, or backbone, and the ribs and pelvis, or bony -hip-basin, which are connected with it, in Man and in the Gorilla -respectively. - -In Man, in consequence partly of the disposition of the articular -surfaces of the vertebræ, and largely of the elastic tension of some of -the fibrous bands, or ligaments, which connect these vertebræ together, -the spinal column, as a whole, has an elegant S-like curvature, being -convex forwards in the neck, concave in the back, convex in the loins, -or lumbar region, and concave again in the sacral region; an arrangement -which gives much elasticity to the whole backbone, and diminishes the -jar communicated to the spine, and through it to the head, by locomotion -in the erect position. - -Furthermore, under ordinary circumstances, Man has seven vertebræ in his -neck, which are called _cervical_; twelve succeed these, bearing ribs -and forming the upper part of the back, whence they are termed _dorsal_; -five lie in the loins, bearing no distinct, or free, ribs, and are -called _lumbar_; five, united together into a great bone, excavated in -front, solidly wedged in between the hip bones, to form the back of the -pelvis, and known by the name of the _sacrum_, succeed these; and -finally, three or four little more or less moveable bones, so small as -to be insignificant, constitute the _coccyx_ or rudimentary tail. - -In the Gorilla, the vertebral column is similarly divided into cervical, -dorsal, lumbar, sacral and coccygeal vertebræ, and the total number of -cervical and dorsal vertebræ, taken together, is the same as in Man; but -the development of a pair of ribs to the first lumbar vertebra, which is -an exceptional occurrence in Man, is the rule in the Gorilla; and hence, -as lumbar are distinguished from dorsal vertebræ only by the presence or -absence of free ribs, the seventeen "dorso-lumbar" vertebræ of the -Gorilla are divided into thirteen dorsal and four lumbar, while in Man -they are twelve dorsal and five lumbar. - -Not only, however, does Man occasionally possess thirteen pair of -ribs,[27] but the Gorilla sometimes has fourteen pairs, while an -Orang-Utan skeleton in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons has -twelve dorsal and five lumbar vertebræ, as in Man. Cuvier notes the same -number in a _Hylobates_. On the other hand, among the lower Apes, many -possess twelve dorsal and six or seven lumbar vertebræ; the Douroucouli -has fourteen dorsal and eight lumbar, and a Lemur (_Stenops -tardigradus_) has fifteen dorsal and nine lumbar vertebræ. - -The vertebral column of the Gorilla, as a whole, differs from that of -Man in the less marked character of its curves, especially in the -slighter convexity of the lumbar region. Nevertheless, the curves are -present, and are quite obvious in young skeletons of the Gorilla and -Chimpanzee which have been prepared without removal of the ligaments. In -young Orangs similarly preserved, on the other hand, the spinal column -is either straight, or even concave forwards, throughout the lumbar -region. - -Whether we take these characters then, or such minor ones as those which -are derivable from the proportional length of the spines of the -cervical vertebræ, and the like, there is no doubt whatsoever as to the -marked difference between Man and the Gorilla; but there is as little, -that equally marked differences, of the very same order, obtain between -the Gorilla and the lower apes. - -[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Front and side views of the bony pelvis of Man, -the Gorilla and Gibbon: reduced from drawings made from nature, of the -same absolute length, by Mr. Waterhouse Hawkins.] - -The Pelvis, or bony girdle of the hips, of Man is a strikingly human -part of his organization; the expanded haunch bones affording support -for his viscera during his habitually erect posture, and giving space -for the attachment of the great muscles which enable him to assume and -to preserve that attitude. In these respects the pelvis of the Gorilla -differs very considerably from his (Fig. 15). But go no lower than the -Gibbon, and see how vastly more he differs from the Gorilla than the -latter does from Man, even in this structure. Look at the flat, narrow -haunch bones--the long and narrow passage--the coarse, outwardly curved, -ischiatic prominences on which the Gibbon habitually rests, and which -are coated by the so-called "callosities," dense patches of skin, wholly -absent in the Gorilla, in the Chimpanzee, and in the Orang, as in Man! - -In the lower Monkeys and in the Lemurs the difference becomes more -striking still, the pelvis acquiring an altogether quadrupedal -character. - -But now let us turn to a nobler and more characteristic organ--that by -which the human frame seems to be, and indeed is, so strongly -distinguished from all others,--I mean the skull. The differences -between a Gorilla's skull and a Man's are truly immense (Fig. 16). In -the former, the face, formed largely by the massive jaw-bones, -predominates over the brain case, or cranium proper: in the latter, the -proportions of the two are reversed. In the Man, the occipital foramen, -through which passes the great nervous cord connecting the brain with -the nerves of the body, is placed just behind the centre of the base of -the skull, which thus becomes evenly balanced in the erect posture; in -the Gorilla, it lies in the posterior third of that base. In the Man, -the surface of the skull is comparatively smooth, and the supraciliary -ridges or brow prominences usually project but little--while, in the -Gorilla, vast crests are developed upon the skull, and the brow ridges -overhang the cavernous orbits, like great penthouses. - -Sections of the skulls, however, show that some of the apparent defects -of the Gorilla's cranium arise, in fact, not so much from deficiency of -brain case as from excessive development of the parts of the face. The -cranial cavity is not ill-shaped, and the forehead is not truly -flattened or very retreating, its really well-formed curve being simply -disguised by the mass of bone which is built up against it (Fig. 16). - -But the roofs of the orbits rise more obliquely into the cranial cavity, -thus diminishing the space for the lower part of the anterior lobes of -the brain, and the absolute capacity of the cranium is far less than -that of Man. So far as I am aware, no human cranium belonging to an -adult man has yet been observed with a less cubical capacity than 62 -cubic inches, the smallest cranium observed in any race of men by -Morton, measuring 63 cubic inches; while, on the other hand, the most -capacious Gorilla skull yet measured has a content of not more than -34-1/2 cubic inches. Let us assume, for simplicity's sake, that the -lowest Man's skull has twice the capacity of that of the highest -Gorilla.[28] - -No doubt, this is a very striking difference, but it loses much of its -apparent systematic value, when viewed by the light of certain other -equally indubitable facts respecting cranial capacities. - -The first of these is, that the difference in the volume of the cranial -cavity of different races of mankind is far greater, absolutely, than -that between the lowest Man and the highest Ape, while, relatively, it -is about the same. For the largest human skull measured by Morton -contained 114 cubic inches, that is to say, had very nearly double the -capacity of the smallest; while its absolute preponderance, of 52 cubic -inches--is far greater than that by which the lowest adult male human -cranium surpasses the largest of the Gorillas (62-34-1/2 = 27-1/2). -Secondly, the adult crania of Gorillas which have as yet been measured -differ among themselves by nearly one-third, the maximum capacity being -34.5 cubic inches, the minimum 24 cubic inches; and, thirdly, after -making all due allowance for difference of size, the cranial capacities -of some of the lower Apes fall nearly as much, relatively, below those -of the higher Apes as the latter fall below Man. - -Thus, even in the important matter of cranial capacity, Men differ more -widely from one another than they do from the Apes; while the lowest -Apes differ as much, in proportion, from the highest, as the latter does -from Man. The last proposition is still better illustrated by the study -of the modifications which other parts of the cranium undergo in the -Simian series. - -It is the large proportional size of the facial bones and the great -projection of the jaws which confers upon the Gorilla's skull its small -facial angle and brutal character. - -But if we consider the proportional size of the facial bones to the -skull proper only, the little _Chrysothrix_ (Fig. 16) differs very -widely from the Gorilla, and in the same way as Man does; while the -Baboons (_Cynocephalus_, Fig. 16) exaggerate the gross proportions of -the muzzle of the great Anthropoid, so that its visage looks mild and -human by comparison with theirs. The difference between the Gorilla -and the Baboon is even greater than it appears at first sight; for the -great facial mass of the former is largely due to a downward development -of the jaws; an essentially human character, superadded upon that almost -purely forward, essentially brutal, development of the same parts which -characterizes the Baboon, and yet more remarkably distinguishes the -Lemur. - -[Illustration: -FIG. 16.--Sections of the skulls of Man and various Apes, drawn so as to -give the cerebral cavity the same length in each case, thereby -displaying the varying proportions of the facial bones. The line _b_ -indicates the plane of the tentorium, which separates the cerebrum from -the cerebellum; _d_, the axis of the occipital outlet of the skull. The -extent of cerebral cavity behind _c_, which is a perpendicular erected -on _b_ at the point where the tentorium is attached posteriorly, -indicates the degree to which the cerebrum overlaps the cerebellum--the -space occupied by which is roughly indicated by the dark shading. In -comparing these diagrams, it must be recollected, that figures on so -small a scale as these simply exemplify the statements in the text, the -proof of which is to be found in the objects themselves.] - -Similarly, the occipital foramen of _Mycetes_ (Fig. 16), and still more -of the Lemurs, is situated completely in the posterior face of the -skull, or as much further back than that of the Gorilla, as that of the -Gorilla is further back than that of Man; while, as if to render patent -the futility of the attempt to base any broad classificatory distinction -on such a character, the same group of Platyrhine, or American monkeys, -to which the _Mycetes_ belongs, contains the _Chrysothrix_, whose -occipital foramen is situated far more forward than in any other ape, -and nearly approaches the position it holds in Man. - -Again, the Orang's skull is as devoid of excessively developed -supraciliary prominences as a Man's, though some varieties exhibit great -crests elsewhere (see p. 39); and in some of the Cebine Apes and in the -_Chrysothrix_, the cranium is as smooth and rounded as that of Man -himself. - -What is true of these leading characteristics of the skull, holds good, -as may be imagined, of all minor features; so that for every constant -difference between the Gorilla's skull and the Man's, a similar constant -difference of the same order (that is to say, consisting in excess or -defect of the same quality) may be found between the Gorilla's skull and -that of some other ape. So that, for the skull, no less than for the -skeleton in general, the proposition holds good, that the differences -between Man and the Gorilla are of smaller value than those between the -Gorilla and some other Apes. - -In connection with the skull, I may speak of the teeth--organs which -have a peculiar classificatory value, and whose resemblances and -differences of number, form, and succession, taken as a whole, are -usually regarded as more trustworthy indicators of affinity than any -others. - -Man is provided with two sets of teeth--milk teeth and permanent teeth. -The former consist of four incisors, or cutting teeth; two canines, or -eye-teeth; and four molars, or grinders, in each jaw--making twenty in -all. The latter (Fig. 17) comprise four incisors, two canines, four -small grinders, called premolars or false molars, and six large -grinders, or true molars, in each jaw--making thirty-two in all. The -internal incisors are larger than the external pair, in the upper jaw, -smaller than the external pair, in the lower jaw. The crowns of the -upper molars exhibit four cusps, or blunt-pointed elevations, and a -ridge crosses the crown obliquely, from the inner, anterior, cusp to the -outer, posterior cusp (Fig. 17 _m^2_). The anterior lower molars have -five cusps, three external and two internal. The premolars have two -cusps, one internal and one external, of which the outer is the higher. - -In all these respects the dentition of the Gorilla may be described in -the same terms as that of Man; but in other matters it exhibits many and -important differences (Fig. 17). - -Thus the teeth of man constitute a regular and even series--without any -break and without any marked projection of one tooth above the level of -the rest; a peculiarity which, as Cuvier long ago showed, is shared by -no other mammal save one--as different a creature from man as can well -be imagined--namely, the long extinct _Anoplotherium_. The teeth of the -Gorilla, on the contrary, exhibit a break, or interval, termed the -_diastema_, in both jaws: in front of the eye-tooth, or between it and -the outer incisor, in the upper jaw; behind the eye-tooth, or between it -and the front false molar, in the lower jaw. Into this break in the -series, in each jaw, fits the canine of the opposite jaw; the size of -the eye-tooth in the Gorilla being so great that it projects, like a -tusk, far beyond the general level of the other teeth. The roots of the -false molar teeth of the Gorilla, again, are more complex than in Man, -and the proportional size of the molars is different. The Gorilla has -the crown of the hindmost grinder of the lower jaw more complex, and the -order of eruption of the permanent teeth is different; the permanent -canines making their appearance before the second and third molars in -Man, and after them in the Gorilla. - -Thus, while the teeth of the Gorilla closely resemble those of Man in -number, kind, and in the general pattern of their crowns, they exhibit -marked differences from those of Man in secondary respects, such as -relative size, number of fangs, and order of appearance. - -But, if the teeth of the Gorilla be compared with those of an Ape, no -further removed from it than a _Cynocephalus_, or Baboon, it will be -found that differences and resemblances of the same order are easily -observable; but that many of the points in which the Gorilla resembles -Man are those in which it differs from the Baboon; while various -respects in which it differs from Man are exaggerated in the -_Cynocephalus_. The number and the nature of the teeth remain the same -in the Baboon as in the Gorilla and in Man. But the pattern of the -Baboon's upper molars is quite different from that described above (Fig. -17), the canines are proportionally longer and more knife-like; the -anterior premolar in the lower jaw is specially modified; the posterior -molar of the lower jaw is still larger and more complex than in the -Gorilla. - -Passing from the old-world Apes to those of the new world, we meet with -a change of much greater importance than any of these. In such a genus -as _Cebus_, for example (Fig. 17), it will be found that while in some -secondary points, such as the projection of the canines and the -diastema, the resemblance to the great ape is preserved; in other and -most important respects, the dentition is extremely different. Instead -of 20 teeth in the milk set, there are 24: instead of 32 teeth in the -permanent set, there are 36, the false molars being increased from eight -to twelve. And in form, the crowns of the molars are very unlike those -of the Gorilla, and differ far more widely from the human pattern. - -[Illustration: FIG. 17.--Lateral views, of the same length, of the upper -jaws of various Primates. _i_, incisors; _c_, canines; _pm_, premolars; -_m_, molars. A line is drawn through the first molar of Man, Gorilla, -_Cynocephalus_, and _Cebus_, and the grinding surface of the second -molar is shown in each, its anterior and internal angle being just above -the _m_ of _m^2_.] - -The Marmosets, on the other hand, exhibit the same number of teeth as -Man and the Gorilla; but, notwithstanding this, their dentition is very -different, for they have four more false molars, like the other -American monkeys--but as they have four fewer true molars, the total -remains the same. And passing from the American Apes to the Lemurs, the -dentition becomes still more completely and essentially different from -that of the Gorilla. The incisors begin to vary both in number and in -form. The molars acquire, more and more, a many-pointed, insectivorous -character, and in one Genus, the Aye-Aye (_Cheiromys_), the canines -disappear, and the teeth completely simulate those of a Rodent (Fig. -17). - -Hence it is obvious that, greatly as the dentition of the highest Ape -differs from that of Man, it differs far more widely from that of the -lower and lowest Apes. - - * * * * * - -Whatever part of the animal fabric--whatever series of muscles, whatever -viscera might be selected for comparison--the result would be the -same--the lower Apes and the Gorilla would differ more than the Gorilla -and the Man. I cannot attempt in this place to follow out all these -comparisons in detail, and indeed it is unnecessary I should do so. But -certain real, or supposed, structural distinctions between man and the -apes remain, upon which so much stress has been laid, that they require -careful consideration, in order that the true value may be assigned to -those which are real, and the emptiness of those which are fictitious -may be exposed. I refer to the characters of the hand, the foot, and the -brain. - -Man has been defined as the only animal possessed of two hands -terminating his fore-limbs, and of two feet ending his hind limbs, while -it has been said that all the apes possess four hands; and he has been -affirmed to differ fundamentally from all the apes in the characters of -his brain, which alone, it has been strangely asserted and re-asserted, -exhibits the structures known to anatomists as the posterior lobe, the -posterior cornu of the lateral ventricle, and the hippocampus minor. - -That the former proposition should have gained general acceptance is not -surprising--indeed, at first sight, appearances are much in its favour: -but, as for the second, one can only admire the surpassing courage of -its enunciator, seeing that it is an innovation which is not only -opposed to generally and justly accepted doctrines, but which is -directly negatived by the testimony of all original inquirers, who have -specially investigated the matter: and that it neither has been, nor can -be, supported by a single anatomical preparation. It would, in fact, be -unworthy of serious refutation, except for the general and natural -belief that deliberate and reiterated assertions must have some -foundation. - - * * * * * - -Before we can discuss the first point with advantage we must consider -with some attention, and compare together, the structure of the human -hand and that of the human foot, so that we may have distinct and clear -ideas of what constitutes a hand and what a foot. - -The external form of the human hand is familiar enough to every one. It -consists of a stout wrist followed by a broad palm, formed of flesh, and -tendons, and skin, binding together four bones, and dividing into four -long and flexible digits, or fingers, each of which bears on the back of -its last joint a broad and flattened nail. The longest cleft between any -two digits is rather less than half as long as the hand. From the outer -side of the base of the palm a stout digit goes off, having only two -joints instead of three; so short, that it only reaches to a little -beyond the middle of the first joint of the finger next it; and further -remarkable by its great mobility, in consequence of which it can be -directed outwards, almost at a right angle to the rest. This digit is -called the "_pollex_," or thumb; and, like the others, it bears a flat -nail upon the back of its terminal joint. In consequence of the -proportions and mobility of the thumb, it is what is termed "opposable"; -in other words, its extremity can, with the greatest ease, be brought -into contact with the extremities of any of the fingers; a property upon -which the possibility of our carrying into effect the conceptions of the -mind so largely depends. - -The external form of the foot differs widely from that of the hand; and -yet, when closely compared, the two present some singular resemblances. -Thus the ankle corresponds in a manner with the wrist; the sole with the -palm; the toes with the fingers; the great toe with the thumb. But the -toes, or digits of the foot, are far shorter in proportion than the -digits of the hand, and are less moveable, the want of mobility being -most striking in the great toe--which, again, is very much larger in -proportion to the other toes than the thumb to the fingers. In -considering this point, however, it must not be forgotten that the -civilized great toe, confined and cramped from childhood upwards, is -seen to a great disadvantage, and that in uncivilized and barefooted -people it retains a great amount of mobility, and even some sort of -opposability. The Chinese boatmen are said to be able to pull an oar, -the artisans of Bengal to weave, and the Carajas to steal fishhooks, by -its help; though, after all, it must be recollected that the structure -of its joints and the arrangement of its bones, necessarily render its -prehensile action far less perfect than that of the thumb. - -But to gain a precise conception of the resemblances and differences of -the hand and foot, and of the distinctive characters of each, we must -look below the skin, and compare the bony framework and its motor -apparatus in each (Fig. 18). - -The skeleton of the hand exhibits, in the region which we term the -wrist, and which is technically called the _carpus_--two rows of closely -fitted polygonal bones, four in each row, which are tolerably equal in -size. The bones of the first row with the bones of the forearm form the -wrist joint, and are arranged side by side, no one greatly exceeding or -over-lapping the rest. - -The four bones of the second row of the carpus bear the four long bones -which support the palm of the hand. The fifth bone of the same character -is articulated in a much more free and moveable manner than the others, -with its carpal bone, and forms the base of the thumb. These are called -_metacarpal_ bones, and they carry the _phalanges_, or bones of the -digits, of which there are two in the thumb, and three in each of the -fingers. - -[Illustration: FIG. 18.--The skeleton of the Hand and Foot of Man -reduced from Dr. Carter's drawings in Gray's "Anatomy." The hand is -drawn to a larger scale than the foot. The line _a a_ in the hand -indicates the boundary between the carpus and the metacarpus; _b b_ that -between the latter and the proximal phalanges; _c c_ marks the ends of -the distal phalanges. The line _a´ a´_ in the foot indicates the -boundary between the tarsus and metatarsus; _b´ b´_ marks that between -the metatarsus and the proximal phalanges; and _c´ c´_ bounds the ends -of the distal phalanges; _ca_, the calcaneum; _as_, the astragalus; -_sc_, the scaphoid bone in the tarsus.] - -The skeleton of the foot is very like that of the hand in some respects. -Thus there are three phalanges in each of the lesser toes, and only two -in the great toe, which answers to the thumb. There is a long bone, -termed _metatarsal_, answering to the metacarpal, for each digit; and -the _tarsus_, which corresponds with the carpus, presents four short -polygonal bones in a row, which correspond very closely with the four -carpal bones of the second row of the hand. In other respects the foot -differs very widely from the hand. Thus the great toe is the longest -digit but one; and its metatarsal is far less moveably articulated with -the tarsus, than the metacarpal of the thumb with the carpus. But a far -more important distinction lies in the fact that, instead of four more -tarsal bones there are only three; and that these three are not arranged -side by side, or in one row. One of them, the _os calcis_ or heel bone -(_ca_), lies externally, and sends back the large projecting heel; -another, the _astragalus_ (_as_), rests on this by one face, and by -another, forms, with the bones of the leg, the ankle joint; while a -third face, directed forwards, is separated from the three inner tarsal -bones of the row next the metatarsus by a bone called the _scaphoid_ -(_sc_). - -Thus there is a fundamental difference in the structure of the foot and -the hand, observable when the carpus and the tarsus are contrasted; and -there are differences of degree noticeable when the proportions and the -mobility of the metacarpals and metatarsals, with their respective -digits, are compared together. - -The same two classes of differences become obvious when the muscles of -the hand are compared with those of the foot. - -Three principal sets of muscles, called "flexors," bend the fingers and -thumb, as in clenching the fist, and three sets--the extensors--extend -them, as in straightening the fingers. These muscles are all "long -muscles"; that is to say, the fleshy part of each, lying in and being -fixed to the bones of the arm, is, at the other end, continued into -tendons, or rounded cords, which pass into the hand, and are ultimately -fixed to the bones which are to be moved. Thus, when the fingers are -bent, the fleshy parts of the flexors of the fingers, placed in the arm, -contract, in virtue of their peculiar endowment as muscles; and pulling -the tendinous cords, connected with their ends, cause them to pull down -the bones of the fingers towards the palm. - -Not only are the principal flexors of the fingers and of the thumb long -muscles, but they remain quite distinct from one another throughout -their whole length. - -In the foot, there are also three principal flexor muscles of the digits -or toes, and three principal extensors; but one extensor and one flexor -are short muscles; that is to say, their fleshy parts are not situated -in the leg (which corresponds with the arm), but in the back and in the -sole of the foot--regions which correspond with the back and the palm of -the hand. - -Again, the tendons of the long flexor of the toes, and of the long -flexor of the great toe, when they reach the sole of the foot, do not -remain distinct from one another, as the flexors in the palm of the hand -do, but they become united and commingled in a very curious -manner--while their united tendons receive an accessory muscle connected -with the heel-bone. - -But perhaps the most absolutely distinctive character about the muscles -of the foot is the existence of what is termed the _peronæus longus_, a -long muscle fixed to the outer bone of the leg, and sending its tendon -to the outer ankle, behind and below which it passes, and then crosses -the foot obliquely to be attached to the base of the great toe. No -muscle in the hand exactly corresponds with this, which is eminently a -foot muscle. - -To resume--the foot of man is distinguished from his hand by the -following absolute anatomical differences:-- - - 1. By the arrangement of the tarsal bones. - 2. By having a short flexor and a short extensor muscle of the digits. - 3. By possessing the muscle termed _peronæus longus_. - -And if we desire to ascertain whether the terminal division of a limb, -in other Primates, is to be called a foot or a hand, it is by the -presence or absence of these characters that we must be guided, and not -by the mere proportions and greater or lesser mobility of the great toe, -which may vary indefinitely without any fundamental alteration in the -structure of the foot. - - * * * * * - -Keeping these considerations in mind, let us now turn to the limbs of -the Gorilla. The terminal division of the fore-limb presents no -difficulty--bone for bone and muscle for muscle, are found to be -arranged essentially as in man, or with such minor differences as are -found as varieties in man. The Gorilla's hand is clumsier, heavier, and -has a thumb somewhat shorter in proportion than that of man; but no one -has ever doubted its being a true hand. - -At first sight, the termination of the hind limb of the Gorilla looks -very hand-like, and as it is still more so in many of the lower apes, -it is not wonderful that the appellation "Quadrumana," or four-handed -creatures, adopted from the older anatomists[29] by Blumenbach, and -unfortunately rendered current by Cuvier, should have gained such wide -acceptance as a name for the Simian group. But the most cursory -anatomical investigation at once proves that the resemblance of the -so-called "hind hand" to a true hand, is only skin deep, and that, in -all essential respects, the hind limb of the Gorilla is as truly -terminated by a foot as that of man. The tarsal bones, in all important -circumstances of number, disposition, and form, resemble those of man -(Fig. 19). The metatarsals and digits, on the other hand, are -proportionally longer and more slender, while the great toe is not only -proportionally shorter and weaker, but its metatarsal bone is united by -a more moveable joint with the tarsus. At the same time, the foot is set -more obliquely upon the leg than in man. - -As to the muscles, there is a short flexor, a short extensor, and a -_peronæus longus_, while the tendons of the long flexors of the great -toe and of the other toes are united together and with an accessory -fleshy bundle. - -The hind limb of the Gorilla, therefore, ends in a true foot, with a -very moveable great toe. It is a prehensile foot, indeed, but is in no -sense a hand: it is a foot which differs from that of man not in any -fundamental character, but in mere proportions, in the degree of -mobility, and in the secondary arrangement of its parts. - -It must not be supposed, however, because I speak of these differences -as not fundamental, that I wish to underrate their value. They are -important enough in their way, the structure of the foot being in strict -correlation with that of the rest of the organism in each case. Nor can -it be doubted that the greater division of physiological labour in Man, -so that the function of support is thrown wholly on the leg and foot, is -an advance in organization of very great moment to him; but, after all, -regarded anatomically, the resemblances between the foot of Man and the -foot of the Gorilla are far more striking and important than the -differences. - -[Illustration: FIG. 19.--Foot of Man, Gorilla, and Orang-Utan of the -same absolute length, to show the differences in proportion of each. -Letters as in Fig. 18. Reduced from original drawings by Mr. Waterhouse -Hawkins.] - -I have dwelt upon this point at length, because it is one regarding -which much delusion prevails; but I might have passed it over without -detriment to my argument, which only requires me to show that, be the -differences between the hand and foot of Man and those of the Gorilla -what they may--the differences between those of the Gorilla and those -of the lower Apes are much greater. - -It is not necessary to descend lower in the scale than the Orang for -conclusive evidence on this head. - -The thumb of the Orang differs more from that of the Gorilla than the -thumb of the Gorilla differs from that of Man, not only by its -shortness, but by the absence of any special long flexor muscle. The -carpus of the Orang, like that of most lower apes, contains nine bones, -while in the Gorilla, as in Man and the Chimpanzee, there are only -eight. - -The Orang's foot (Fig. 19) is still more aberrant; its very long toes -and short tarsus, short great toe, short and raised heel, great -obliquity of articulation in the leg, and absence of a long flexor -tendon to the great toe, separating it far more widely from the foot of -the Gorilla than the latter is separated from that of Man. - -But, in some of the lower apes, the hand and foot diverge still more -from those of the Gorilla, than they do in the Orang. The thumb ceases -to be opposable in the American monkeys; is reduced to a mere rudiment -covered by the skin in the Spider Monkey; and is directed forwards and -armed with a curved claw like the other digits, in the Marmosets--so -that, in all these cases, there can be no doubt but that the hand is -more different from that of the Gorilla than the Gorilla's hand is from -Man's. - -And as to the foot, the great toe of the Marmoset is still more -insignificant in proportion than that of the Orang--while in the Lemurs -it is very large, and as completely thumb-like and opposable as in the -Gorilla--but in these animals the second toe is often irregularly -modified, and in some species the two principal bones of the tarsus, the -_astragalus_ and the _os calcis_, are so immensely elongated as to -render the foot, so far, totally unlike that of any other mammal. - -So with regard to the muscles. The short flexor of the toes of the -Gorilla differs from that of Man by the circumstance that one slip of -the muscle is attached, not to the heel bone, but to the tendons of the -long flexors. The lower Apes depart from the Gorilla by an exaggeration -of the same character, two, three, or more, slips becoming fixed to the -long flexor tendons--or by a multiplication of the slips.--Again, the -Gorilla differs slightly from Man in the mode of interlacing of the long -flexor tendons: and the lower apes differ from the Gorilla in exhibiting -yet other, sometimes very complex, arrangements of the same parts, and -occasionally in the absence of the accessory fleshy bundle. - -Throughout all these modifications it must be recollected that the foot -loses no one of its essential characters. Every Monkey and Lemur -exhibits the characteristic arrangement of tarsal bones, possesses a -short flexor and short extensor muscle, and a _peronæus longus_. Varied -as the proportions and appearance of the organ may be, the terminal -division of the hind limb remains, in plan and principle of -construction, a foot, and never, in those respects, can be confounded -with a hand. - -Hardly any part of the bodily frame, then, could be found better -calculated to illustrate the truth that the structural differences -between Man and the highest Ape are of less value than those between the -highest and the lower Apes, than the hand or the foot, and yet, perhaps, -there is one organ the study of which enforces the same conclusion in a -still more striking manner--and that is the Brain. - -But before entering upon the precise question of the amount of -difference between the Ape's brain and that of Man, it is necessary that -we should clearly understand what constitutes a great, and what a small -difference in cerebral structure; and we shall be best enabled to do -this by a brief study of the chief modifications which the brain -exhibits in the series of vertebrate animals. - -The brain of a fish is very small, compared with the spinal cord into -which it is continued, and with the nerves which come off from it: of -the segments of which it is composed--the olfactory lobes, the cerebral -hemisphere, and the succeeding divisions--no one predominates so much -over the rest as to obscure or cover them; and the so-called optic lobes -are, frequently, the largest masses of all. In Reptiles, the mass of the -brain, relatively to the spinal cord, increases and the cerebral -hemispheres begin to predominate over the other parts; while in Birds -this predominance is still more marked. The brain of the lowest Mammals, -such as the duck-billed Platypus and the Opossums and Kangaroos, -exhibits a still more definite advance in the same direction. The -cerebral hemispheres have now so much increased in size as, more or -less, to hide the representatives of the optic lobes, which remain -comparatively small, so that the brain of a Marsupial is extremely -different from that of a Bird, Reptile, or Fish. A step higher in the -scale, among the placental Mammals, the structure of the brain acquires -a vast modification--not that it appears much altered externally, in a -Rat or in a Rabbit, from what it is in a Marsupial--nor that the -proportions of its parts are much changed, but an apparently new -structure is found between the cerebral hemispheres, connecting them -together, as what is called the "great commissure" or "corpus callosum." -The subject requires careful re-investigation, but if the currently -received statements are correct, the appearance of the "corpus callosum" -in the placental mammals is the greatest and most sudden modification -exhibited by the brain in the whole series of vertebrated animals--it is -the greatest leap anywhere made by Nature in her brain work. For the two -halves of the brain being once thus knit together, the progress of -cerebral complexity is traceable through a complete series of steps from -the lowest Rodent, or Insectivore, to Man; and that complexity consists, -chiefly, in the disproportionate development of the cerebral hemispheres -and of the cerebellum, but especially of the former, in respect to the -other parts of the brain. - -In the lower placental mammals, the cerebral hemispheres leave the -proper upper and posterior face of the cerebellum completely visible, -when the brain is viewed from above, but, in the higher forms, the -hinder part of each hemisphere, separated only by the tentorium (p. 92) -from the anterior face of the cerebellum, inclines backwards and -downwards, and grows out, as the so-called "posterior lobe," so as at -length to overlap and hide the cerebellum. In all Mammals, each cerebral -hemisphere contains a cavity which is termed the "ventricle," and as -this ventricle is prolonged, on the one hand, forwards, and on the other -downwards, into the substance of the hemisphere, it is said to have two -horns or "cornua," an "anterior cornu," and a "descending cornu." When -the posterior lobe is well developed, a third prolongation of the -ventricular cavity extends into it, and is called the "posterior cornu." - -In the lower and smaller forms of placental Mammals the surface of the -cerebral hemispheres is either smooth or evenly rounded, or exhibits a -very few grooves, which are technically termed "sulci," separating -ridges or "convolutions" of the substance of the brain; and the smaller -species of all orders tend to a similar smoothness of brain. But, in the -higher orders, and especially the larger members of these orders, the -grooves, or sulci, become extremely numerous, and the intermediate -convolutions proportionately more complicated in their meanderings, -until, in the Elephant, the Porpoise, the higher Apes, and Man, the -cerebral surface appears a perfect labyrinth of tortuous foldings. - -Where a posterior lobe exists and presents its customary cavity--the -posterior cornu--it commonly happens that a particular sulcus appears -upon the inner and under surface of the lobe, parallel with and beneath -the floor of the cornu--which is, as it were, arched over the roof of -the sulcus. It is as if the groove had been formed by indenting the -floor of the posterior horn from without with a blunt instrument, so -that the floor should rise as a convex eminence. Now this eminence is -what has been termed the "Hippocampus minor"; the "Hippocampus major" -being a larger eminence in the floor of the descending cornu. What may -be the functional importance of either of these structures we know not. - - * * * * * - -As if to demonstrate, by a striking example, the impossibility of -erecting any cerebral barrier between man and the apes, Nature has -provided us, in the latter animals, with an almost complete series of -gradations from brains little higher than that of a Rodent, to brains -little lower than that of Man. And it is a remarkable circumstance that -though, so far as our present knowledge extends, there _is_ one true -structural break in the series of forms of Simian brains, this hiatus -does not lie between Man and the man-like Apes, but between the lower -and the lowest Simians; or, in other words, between the old and new -world apes and monkeys, and the Lemurs. Every Lemur which has yet been -examined, in fact, has its cerebellum partially visible from above, and -its posterior lobe, with the contained posterior cornu and hippocampus -minor, more or less rudimentary. Every Marmoset, American monkey, old -world monkey, Baboon, or Man-like ape, on the contrary, has its -cerebellum entirely hidden, posteriorly, by the cerebral lobes, and -possesses a large posterior cornu, with a well-developed hippocampus -minor. - - * * * * * - -In many of these creatures, such as the Saimiri (_Chrysothrix_), the -cerebral lobes overlap and extend much further behind the cerebellum, in -proportion, than they do in man (Fig. 16)--and it is quite certain that, -in all, the cerebellum is completely covered behind, by well-developed -posterior lobes. The fact can be verified by every one who possesses the -skull of any old or new world monkey. For, inasmuch as the brain in all -mammals completely fills the cranial cavity, it is obvious that a cast -of the interior of the skull will reproduce the general form of the -brain, at any rate with such minute and, for the present purpose, -utterly unimportant differences as may result from the absence of the -enveloping membranes of the brain in the dry skull. But if such a cast -be made in plaster, and compared with a similar cast of the interior of -a human skull, it will be obvious that the cast of the cerebral chamber, -representing the cerebrum of the ape, as completely covers over and -overlaps the cast of the cerebellar chamber, representing the -cerebellum, as it does in the man (Fig. 20). A careless observer, -forgetting that a soft structure like the brain loses its proper shape -the moment it is taken out of the skull, may indeed mistake the -uncovered condition of the cerebellum of an extracted and distorted -brain for the natural relations of the parts; but his error must become -patent even to himself if he try to replace the brain within the -cranial chamber. To suppose that the cerebellum of an ape is naturally -uncovered behind is a miscomprehension comparable only to that of one -who should imagine that a man's lungs always occupy but a small portion -of the thoracic cavity--because they do so when the chest is opened, and -their elasticity is no longer neutralized by the pressure of the air. - -[Illustration: FIG. 20.--Drawings of the internal casts of a Man's and -of a Chimpanzee's skull, of the same absolute length, and placed in -corresponding positions, _A._ Cerebrum; _B._ Cerebellum. The former -drawing is taken from a cast in the Museum of the Royal College of -Surgeons, the latter from the photograph of the cast of a Chimpanzee's -skull, which illustrates the paper by Mr. Marshall "On the Brain of the -Chimpanzee" in the Natural History Review for July, 1861. The sharper -definition of the lower edge of the cast of the cerebral chamber in the -Chimpanzee arises from the circumstance that the tentorium remained in -that skull and not in the Man's. The cast more accurately represents the -brain in Chimpanzee than in the Man; and the great backward projection -of the posterior lobes of the cerebrum of the former, beyond the -cerebellum, is conspicuous.] - -And the error is the less excusable, as it must become apparent to every -one who examines a section of the skull of any ape above a Lemur, -without taking the trouble to make a cast of it. For there is a very -marked groove in every such skull, as in the human skull--which -indicates the line of attachment of what is termed the _tentorium_--a -sort of parchment-like shelf, or partition, which, in the recent state, -is interposed between the cerebrum and cerebellum, and prevents the -former from pressing upon the latter (see Fig. 16). - -This groove, therefore, indicates the line of separation between that -part of the cranial cavity which contains the cerebrum, and that which -contains the cerebellum; and as the brain exactly fills the cavity of -the skull, it is obvious that the relations of these two parts of the -cranial cavity at once informs us of the relations of their contents. -Now in man, in all the old world, and in all the new world Simiæ, with -one exception, when the face is directed forwards, this line of -attachment of the tentorium, or impression for the lateral sinus, as it -is technically called, is nearly horizontal, and the cerebral chamber -invariably overlaps or projects behind the cerebellar chamber. In the -Howler Monkey or _Mycetes_ (see Fig. 16), the line passes obliquely -upwards and backwards, and the cerebral overlap is almost nil; while in -the Lemurs, as in the lower mammals, the line is much more inclined in -the same direction, and the cerebellar chamber projects considerably -beyond the cerebral. - -When the gravest errors respecting points so easily settled as this -question respecting the posterior lobes can be authoritatively -propounded, it is no wonder that matters of observation, of no very -complex character, but still requiring a certain amount of care, should -have fared worse. Any one who cannot see the posterior lobe in an ape's -brain is not likely to give a very valuable opinion respecting the -posterior cornu or the hippocampus minor. If a man cannot see a church, -it is preposterous to take his opinion about its altar-piece or painted -window--so that I do not feel bound to enter upon any discussion of -these points, but content myself with assuring the reader that the -posterior cornu and the hippocampus minor, have now been seen--usually, -at least as well developed as in man, and often better--not only in the -Chimpanzee, the Orang, and the Gibbon, but in all the genera of the old -world baboons and monkeys, and in most of the new world forms, including -the Marmosets.[30] - -In fact, all the abundant and trustworthy evidence (consisting of the -results of careful investigations directed to the determination of these -very questions, by skilled anatomists) which we now possess, leads to -the conviction that, so far from the posterior lobe, the posterior -cornu, and the hippocampus minor, being structures peculiar to and -characteristic of man, as they have been over and over again asserted to -be, even after the publication of the clearest demonstration of the -reverse, it is precisely these structures which are the most marked -cerebral characters common to man with the apes. They are among the most -distinctly Simian peculiarities which the human organism exhibits. - -As to the convolutions, the brains of the apes exhibit every stage of -progress, from the almost smooth brain of the Marmoset, to the Orang and -the Chimpanzee, which fall but little below Man. And it is most -remarkable that, as soon as all the principal sulci appear, the pattern -according to which they are arranged is identical with that of the -corresponding sulci of man. The surface of the brain of a monkey -exhibits a sort of skeleton map of man's, and in the man-like Apes the -details become more and more filled in, until it is only in minor -characters, such as the greater excavation of the anterior lobes, the -constant presence of fissures usually absent in man, and the different -disposition and proportions of some convolutions, that the -Chimpanzee's or the Orang's brain can be structurally distinguished from -Man's. - -[Illustration: FIG. 21.--Drawings of the cerebral hemispheres of a Man -and of a Chimpanzee of the same length, in order to show the relative -proportions of the parts: the former taken from a specimen, which Mr. -Flower, Conservator of the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, was -good enough to dissect for me; the latter, from the photograph of a -similarly dissected Chimpanzee's brain, given in Mr. Marshall's paper -above referred to. _a_, posterior lobe; _b_, lateral ventricle; _c_, -posterior cornu; _x_, the hippocampus minor.] - -So far as cerebral structure goes, therefore, it is clear that Man -differs less from the Chimpanzee or the Orang, than these do even from -the Monkeys, and that the difference between the brains of the -Chimpanzee and of Man is almost insignificant, when compared with that -between the Chimpanzee brain and that of a Lemur. - -It must not be overlooked, however, that there is a very striking -difference in the absolute mass and weight between the lowest human -brain and that of the highest ape--a difference which is all the more -remarkable when we recollect that a full grown Gorilla is probably -pretty nearly twice as heavy as a Bosjes man, or as many an European -woman. It may be doubted whether a healthy human adult brain ever -weighed less than thirty-one or two ounces, or that the heaviest Gorilla -brain has exceeded twenty ounces. - -This is a very noteworthy circumstance, and doubtless will one day help -to furnish an explanation of the great gulf which intervenes between the -lowest man and the highest ape in intellectual power;[31] but it has -little systematic value, for the simple reason that, as may be -concluded from what has been already said respecting cranial capacity, -the difference in weight of brain between the highest and the lowest men -is far greater, both relatively and absolutely, than that between the -lowest man and the highest ape. The latter, as has been seen, is -represented by, say twelve, ounces of cerebral substance absolutely, or -by 32: 20 relatively; but as the largest recorded human brain weighed -between 65 and 66 ounces, the former difference is represented by more -than 33 ounces absolutely, or by 65: 32 relatively. Regarded -systematically the cerebral differences, of man and apes, are not of -more than generic value--his Family distinction resting chiefly on his -dentition, his pelvis, and his lower limbs. - - * * * * * - -Thus, whatever system of organs be studied, the comparison of their -modifications in the ape series leads to one and the same result--that -the structural differences which separate Man from the Gorilla and the -Chimpanzee are not so great as those which separate the Gorilla from the -lower apes. - -But in enunciating this important truth I must guard myself against a -form of misunderstanding, which is very prevalent. I find, in fact, that -those who endeavour to teach what nature so clearly shows us in this -matter, are liable to have their opinions misrepresented and their -phraseology garbled, until they seem to say that the structural -differences between man and even the highest apes are small and -insignificant. Let me take this opportunity then of distinctly -asserting, on the contrary, that they are great and significant; that -every bone of a Gorilla bears marks by which it might be distinguished -from the corresponding bone of a Man; and that, in the present creation, -at any rate, no intermediate link bridges over the gap between _Homo_ -and _Troglodytes_. - -It would be no less wrong than absurd to deny the existence of this -chasm; but it is at least equally wrong and absurd to exaggerate its -magnitude, and, resting on the admitted fact of its existence, to refuse -to inquire whether it is wide or narrow. Remember, if you will, that -there is no existing link between Man and the Gorilla, but do not forget -that there is a no less sharp line of demarcation, a no less complete -absence of any transitional form, between the Gorilla and the Orang, or -the Orang and the Gibbon. I say, not less sharp, though it is somewhat -narrower. The structural differences between Man and the Man-like Apes -certainly justify our regarding him as constituting a family apart from -them; though, inasmuch as he differs less from them than they do from -other families of the same order, there can be no justification for -placing him in a distinct order. - -And thus the sagacious foresight of the great lawgiver of systematic -zoology, Linnæus, becomes justified, and a century of anatomical -research brings us back to his conclusion, that man is a member of the -same order (for which the Linnæan term PRIMATES ought to be retained) as -the Apes and Lemurs. This order is now divisible into seven families, of -about equal systematic value: the first, the ANTHROPINI, contains Man -alone; the second, the CATARHINI, embraces the old world apes; the -third, the PLATYRHINI, all new world apes, except the Marmosets; the -fourth, the ARCTOPITHECINI, contains the Marmosets; the fifth, the -LEMURINI, the Lemurs--from which _Cheiromys_ should probably be excluded -to form a sixth distinct family, the CHEIROMYINI; while the seventh, the -GALEOPITHECINI, contains only the flying Lemur _Galeopithecus_,--a -strange form which almost touches on the Bats, as the _Cheiromys_ puts -on a rodent clothing, and the Lemurs simulate Insectivora. - -Perhaps no order of mammals presents us with so extraordinary a series -of gradations as this--leading us insensibly from the crown and summit -of the animal creation down to creatures, from which there is but a -step, as it seems, to the lowest, smallest, and least intelligent of the -placental Mammalia. It is as if nature herself had foreseen the -arrogance of man, and with Roman severity had provided that his -intellect, by its very triumphs, should call into prominence the slaves, -admonishing the conqueror that he is but dust. - - * * * * * - -These are the chief facts, this the immediate conclusion from them to -which I adverted in the commencement of this Essay. The facts, I -believe, cannot be disputed; and if so, the conclusion appears to me to -be inevitable. - -But if Man be separated by no greater structural barrier from the brutes -than they are from one another--then it seems to follow that if any -process of physical causation can be discovered by which the genera and -families of ordinary animals have been produced, that process of -causation is amply sufficient to account for the origin of Man. In other -words, if it could be shown that the Marmosets, for example, have arisen -by gradual modification of the ordinary Platyrhini, or that both -Marmosets and Platyrhini are modified ramifications of a primitive -stock--then, there would be no rational ground for doubting that man -might have originated, in the one case, by the gradual modification of a -man-like ape; or, in the othercase, as a ramification of the same -primitive stock as those apes. - -At the present moment, but one such process of physical causation has -any evidence in its favour; or, in other words, there is but one -hypothesis regarding the origin of species of animals in general which -has any scientific existence--that propounded by Mr. Darwin. For -Lamarck, sagacious as many of his views were, mingled them with so much -that was crude and even absurd, as to neutralize the benefit which his -originality might have effected, had he been a more sober and cautious -thinker; and though I have heard of the announcement of a formula -touching "the ordained continuous becoming of organic forms," it is -obvious that it is the first duty of a hypothesis to be intelligible, -and that a qua-quâ-versal proposition of this kind, which may be read -backwards, or forwards, or sideways, with exactly the same amount of -signification, does not really exist, though it may seem to do so. - -At the present moment, therefore, the question of the relation of man to -the lower animals resolves itself, in the end, into the larger question -of the tenability or untenability of Mr. Darwin's views. But here we -enter upon difficult ground, and it behoves us to define our exact -position with the greatest care. - -It cannot be doubted, I think, that Mr. Darwin has satisfactorily proved -that what he terms selection, or selective modification, must occur, and -does occur, in nature; and he has also proved to superfluity that such -selection is competent to produce forms as distinct, structurally, as -some genera even are. If the animated world presented us with none but -structural differences, I should have no hesitation in saying that Mr. -Darwin had demonstrated the existence of a true physical cause, amply -competent to account for the origin of living species, and of man among -the rest. - -But, in addition to their structural distinctions, the species of -animals and plants, or at least a great number of them, exhibit -physiological characters--what are known as distinct species, -structurally, being for the most part either altogether incompetent to -breed one with another; or if they breed, the resulting mule, or hybrid, -is unable to perpetuate its race with another hybrid of the same kind. - -A true physical cause is, however, admitted to be such only on one -condition--that it shall account for all the phenomena which come within -the range of its operation. If it is inconsistent with any one -phenomenon, it must be rejected; if it fails to explain any one -phenomenon, it is so far weak, so far to be suspected; though it may -have a perfect right to claim provisional acceptance. - -Now, Mr. Darwin's hypothesis is not, so far as I am aware, inconsistent -with any known biological fact; on the contrary, if admitted, the facts -of Development, of Comparative Anatomy, of Geographical Distribution, -and of Palæontology, become connected together, and exhibit a meaning -such as they never possessed before; and I, for one, am fully convinced, -that if not precisely true, that hypothesis is as near an approximation -to the truth as, for example, the Copernican hypothesis was to the true -theory of the planetary motions. - -But, for all this, our acceptance of the Darwinian hypothesis must be -provisional so long as one link in the chain of evidence is wanting; and -so long as all the animals and plants certainly produced by selective -breeding from a common stock are fertile, and their progeny are fertile -with one another, that link will be wanting. For, so long, selective -breeding will not be proved to be competent to do all that is required -of it to produce natural species. - -I have put this conclusion as strongly as possible before the reader, -because the last position in which I wish to find myself is that of an -advocate for Mr. Darwin's, or any other views--if by an advocate is -meant one whose business it is to smooth over real difficulties, and to -persuade where he cannot convince. - -In justice to Mr. Darwin, however, it must be admitted that the -conditions of fertility and sterility are very ill understood, and that -every day's advance in knowledge leads us to regard the hiatus in his -evidence as of less and less importance, when set against the multitude -of facts which harmonize with, or receive an explanation from, his -doctrines. - -I adopt Mr. Darwin's hypothesis, therefore, subject to the production of -proof that physiological species may be produced by selective breeding; -just as a physical philosopher may accept the undulatory theory of -light, subject to the proof of the existence of the hypothetical ether; -or as the chemist adopts the atomic theory, subject to the proof of the -existence of atoms; and for exactly the same reasons, namely, that it -has an immense amount of primâ facie probability; that it is the only -means at present within reach of reducing the chaos of observed facts to -order; and lastly, that it is the most powerful instrument of -investigation which has been presented to naturalists since the -invention of the natural system of classification, and the commencement -of the systematic study of embryology. - -But even leaving Mr. Darwin's views aside, the whole analogy of natural -operations furnishes so complete and crushing an argument against the -intervention of any but what are termed secondary causes, in the -production of all the phenomena of the universe; that, in view of the -intimate relations between Man and the rest of the living world; and -between the forces exerted by the latter and all other forces, I can see -no excuse for doubting that all are co-ordinated terms of Nature's great -progression, from the formless to the formed--from the inorganic to the -organic--from blind force to conscious intellect and will. - - * * * * * - -Science has fulfilled her function when she has ascertained and -enunciated truth; and were these pages addressed to men of science only, -I should now close this essay, knowing that my colleagues have learned -to respect nothing but evidence, and to believe that their highest duty -lies in submitting to it, however it may jar against their inclinations. - -But desiring, as I do, to reach the wider circle of the intelligent -public, it would be unworthy cowardice were I to ignore the repugnance -with which the majority of my readers are likely to meet the conclusions -to which the most careful and conscientious study I have been able to -give to this matter, has led me. - -On all sides I shall hear the cry--"We are men and women, not a mere -better sort of apes, a little longer in the leg, more compact in the -foot, and bigger in brain than your brutal Chimpanzees and Gorillas. The -power of knowledge--the conscience of good and evil--the pitiful -tenderness of human affections, raise us out of all real fellowship -with the brutes, however closely they may seem to approximate us." - -To this I can only reply that the exclamation would be most just and -would have my own entire sympathy, if it were only relevant. But, it is -not I who seek to base Man's dignity upon his great toe, or insinuate -that we are lost if an Ape has a hippocampus minor. On the contrary, I -have done my best to sweep away this vanity. I have endeavoured to show -that no absolute structural line of demarcation, wider than that between -the animals which immediately succeed us in the scale, can be drawn -between the animal world and ourselves; and I may add the expression of -my belief that the attempt to draw a psychical distinction is equally -futile, and that even the highest faculties of feeling and of intellect -begin to germinate in lower forms of life.[32] At the same time, no one -is more strongly convinced than I am of the vastness of the gulf between -civilized man and the brutes; or is more certain that whether _from_ -them or not, he is assuredly not _of_ them. No one is less disposed to -think lightly of the present dignity, or despairingly of the future -hopes, of the only consciously intelligent denizen of this world. - -We are indeed told by those who assume authority in these matters, that -the two sets of opinions are incompatible, and that the belief in the -unity of origin of man and brutes involves the brutalization and -degradation of the former. But is this really so? Could not a sensible -child confute, by obvious arguments, the shallow rhetoricians who would -force this conclusion upon us? Is it, indeed, true, that the Poet, or -the Philosopher, or the Artist whose genius is the glory of his age, is -degraded from his high estate by the undoubted historical probability, -not to say certainty, that he is the direct descendant of some naked and -bestial savage, whose intelligence was just sufficient to make him a -little more cunning than the Fox, and by so much more dangerous than the -Tiger? Or is he bound to howl and grovel on all fours because of the -wholly unquestionable fact, that he was once an egg, which no ordinary -power of discrimination could distinguish from that of a Dog? Or is the -philanthropist or the saint to give up his endeavours to lead a noble -life, because the simplest study of man's nature reveals, at its -foundations, all the selfish passions and fierce appetites of the merest -quadruped? Is mother-love vile because a hen shows it, or fidelity base -because dogs possess it? - -The common sense of the mass of mankind will answer these questions -without a moment's hesitation. Healthy humanity, finding itself hard -pressed to escape from real sin and degradation, will leave the brooding -over speculative pollution to the cynics and the "righteous overmuch" -who, disagreeing in everything else, unite in blind insensibility to the -nobleness of the visible world, and in inability to appreciate the -grandeur of the place Man occupies therein. - -Nay more, thoughtful men, once escaped from the blinding influences of -traditional prejudice, will find in the lowly stock whence man has -sprung, the best evidence of the splendour of his capacities; and will -discern in his long progress through the Past, a reasonable ground of -faith in his attainment of a nobler Future. - -They will remember that in comparing civilized man with the animal -world, one is as the Alpine traveller, who sees the mountains soaring -into the sky and can hardly discern where the deep shadowed crags and -roseate peaks end, and where the clouds of heaven begin. Surely the -awe-struck voyager may be excused if, at first, he refuses to believe -the geologist, who tells him that these glorious masses are, after all, -the hardened mud of primeval seas, or the cooled slag of subterranean -furnaces--of one substance with the dullest clay, but raised by inward -forces to that place of proud and seemingly inaccessible glory. - -But the geologist is right; and due reflection on his teachings, instead -of diminishing our reverence and our wonder, adds all the force of -intellectual sublimity to the mere æsthetic intuition of the -uninstructed beholder. - -And after passion and prejudice have died away, the same result will -attend the teachings of the naturalist respecting that great Alps and -Andes of the living world--Man. Our reverence for the nobility of -manhood will not be lessened by the knowledge, that Man is, in substance -and in structure, one with the brutes; for, he alone possesses the -marvellous endowment of intelligible and rational speech, whereby, in -the secular period of his existence, he has slowly accumulated and -organized the experience which is almost wholly lost with the cessation -of every individual life in other animals; so that now he stands raised -upon it as on a mountain top, far above the level of his humble fellows, -and transfigured from his grosser nature by reflecting, here and there, -a ray from the infinite source of truth. - - - _A succinct History of the Controversy respecting the - Cerebral Structure of Man and the Apes_ - -Up to the year 1857 all anatomists of authority, who had occupied -themselves with the cerebral structure of the Apes--Cuvier, Tiedemann, -Sandifort, Vrolik, Isidore G. St. Hilaire, Schroeder van der Kolk, -Gratiolet--were agreed that the brain of the Apes possesses a POSTERIOR -LOBE. - -Tiedemann, in 1825, figured and acknowledged in the text of his -"Icones," the existence of the POSTERIOR CORNU of the lateral ventricle -in the Apes, not only under the title of "Scrobiculus parvus loco cornu -posterioris"--a fact which has been paraded--but as "cornu posterius" -(Icones, p. 54), a circumstance which has been, as sedulously, kept in -the back ground. - -Cuvier (Lecons, T. iii. p. 103) says, "the anterior or lateral -ventricles possess a digital cavity [posterior cornu] only in Man and -the Apes.... Its presence depends on that of the posterior lobes." - -Schroeder van der Kolk and Vrolik, and Gratiolet, had also figured and -described the posterior cornu in various Apes. As to the HIPPOCAMPUS -MINOR Tiedemann had erroneously asserted its absence in the Apes; but -Schroeder van der Kolk and Vrolik had pointed out the existence of what -they considered a rudimentary one in the Chimpanzee, and Gratiolet had -expressly affirmed its existence in these animals. Such was the state of -our information on these subjects in the year 1856. - -In the year 1857, however, Professor Owen, either in ignorance of these -well-known facts or else unjustifiably suppressing them, submitted to -the Linnæan Society a paper "On the Characters, Principles of Division, -and Primary Groups of the Class Mammalia," which was printed in the -Society's Journal, and contains the following passage:--"In Man, the -brain presents an ascensive step in development, higher and more -strongly marked than that by which the preceding subclass was -distinguished from the one below it. Not only do the cerebral -hemispheres overlap the olfactory lobes and cerebellum, but they extend -in advance of the one and further back than the other. The posterior -development is so marked, that anatomists have assigned to that part the -character of a third lobe; _it is peculiar to the genus Homo, and -equally peculiar is the posterior horn of the lateral ventricle and the -'hippocampus minor,' which characterise the hind lobe of each -hemisphere_."--_Journal of the Proceedings of the Linnæan Society_, Vol. -ii. p. 19. - -As the essay in which this passage stands had no less ambitious an aim -than the remodelling of the classification of the Mammalia, its author -might be supposed to have written under a sense of peculiar -responsibility, and to have tested, with especial care, the statements -he ventured to promulgate. And even if this be expecting too much, -hastiness, or want of opportunity for due deliberation, cannot now be -pleaded in extenuation of any shortcomings; for the propositions cited -were repeated two years afterwards in the Reade Lecture, delivered -before so grave a body as the University of Cambridge, in 1859. - -When the assertions, which I have italicised in the above extract, first -came under my notice, I was not a little astonished at so flat a -contradiction of the doctrines current among well-informed anatomists; -but, not unnaturally imagining that the deliberate statements of a -responsible person must have some foundation in fact, I deemed it my -duty to investigate the subject anew before the time at which it would -be my business to lecture thereupon came round. The result of my -inquiries was to prove that Mr. Owen's three assertions, that "the third -lobe, the posterior horn of the lateral ventricle, and the hippocampus -minor," are "peculiar to the genus _Homo_," are contrary to the plainest -facts. I communicated this conclusion to the students of my class; and -then, having no desire to embark in a controversy which could not -redound to the honour of British science, whatever its issue, I turned -to more congenial occupations. - -The time speedily arrived, however, when a persistence in this reticence -would have involved me in an unworthy paltering with truth. - -At the meeting of the British Association at Oxford, in 1860, Professor -Owen repeated these assertions in my presence, and, of course, I -immediately gave them a direct and unqualified contradiction, pledging -myself to justify that unusual procedure elsewhere. I redeemed that -pledge by publishing, in the January number of the _Natural History -Review_ for 1861, an article wherein the truth of the three following -propositions was fully demonstrated (l. c. p. 71):-- - - "1. That the third lobe is neither peculiar to, nor - characteristic of, man seeing that it exists in all the - higher quadrumana." - - "2. That the posterior cornu of the lateral ventricle is - neither peculiar to, nor characteristic of, man, inasmuch - as it also exists in the higher quadrumana." - - "3. That the _hippocampus minor_ is neither peculiar to, - nor characteristic of, man, as it is found in certain of - the higher quadrumana." - -Furthermore, this paper contains the following paragraph (p. 76): - - "And lastly, Schroeder van der Kolk and Vrolik (op. cit. - p. 271), though they particularly note that 'the lateral - ventricle is distinguished from that of Man by the very - defective proportions of the posterior cornu, wherein only - a stripe is visible as an indication of the hippocampus - minor;' yet the Figure 4, in their second Plate, shows - that this posterior cornu is a perfectly distinct and - unmistakeable structure, quite as large as it often is in - Man. It is the more remarkable that Professor Owen should - have overlooked the explicit statement and figure of these - authors, as it is quite obvious, on comparison of the - figures, that his woodcut of the brain of a Chimpanzee (l. - c. p. 19) is a reduced copy of the second figure of - Messrs. Schroeder van der Kolk and Vrolik's first Plate. - - "As M. Gratiolet (l. c. p. 18), however, is careful to - remark, 'unfortunately the brain which they have taken as - a model was greatly altered (profondément affaissé), - whence the general form of the brain is given in these - plates in a manner which is altogether incorrect.' Indeed, - it is perfectly obvious, from a comparison of a section of - the skull of the Chimpanzee with these figures, that such - is the case; and it is greatly to be regretted that so - inadequate a figure should have been taken as a typical - representation of the Chimpanzee's brain." - -From this time forth, the untenability of his position might have been -as apparent to Professor Owen as it was to every one else; but, so far -from retracting the grave errors into which he had fallen, Professor -Owen has persisted in and reiterated them; first, in a lecture delivered -before the Royal Institution on the 19th of March, 1861, which is -admitted to have been accurately reproduced in the "Athenæum" for the -23rd of the same month, in a letter addressed by Professor Owen to that -journal on the 30th of March. The "Athenæum" report was accompanied by a -diagram purporting to represent a Gorilla's brain, but in reality so -extraordinary a misrepresentation, that Professor Owen substantially, -though not explicitly, withdraws it in the letter in question. In -amending this error, however, Professor Owen fell into another of much -graver import, as his communication concludes with the following -paragraph: "For the true proportion in which the cerebrum covers the -cerebellum in the highest Apes, reference should be made to the figure -of the undissected brain of the Chimpanzee in my 'Reade's Lecture on the -Classification, &c. of the Mammalia,' p. 25, fig. 7, 8vo. 1859." - -It would not be credible, if it were not unfortunately true, that this -figure, to which the trusting public is referred, without a word of -qualification, "for the true proportion in which the cerebrum covers the -cerebellum in the highest Apes," is exactly that unacknowledged copy of -Schroeder van der Kolk and Vrolik's figure whose utter inaccuracy had -been pointed out years before by Gratiolet, and had been brought to -Professor Owen's knowledge by myself in the passage of my article in the -"Natural History Review" above quoted. - -I drew public attention to this circumstance again in my reply to -Professor Owen, published in the "Athenæum" for April 13th, 1861; but -the exploded figure was reproduced once more by Professor Owen, without -the slightest allusion to its inaccuracy, in the "Annals of Natural -History" for June 1861! - -This proved too much for the patience of the original authors of the -figure, Messrs. Schroeder van der Kolk and Vrolik, who, in a note -addressed to the Academy of Amsterdam, of which they were members, -declared themselves to be, though decided opponents of all forms of the -doctrine of progressive development, above all things, lovers of truth: -and that, therefore, at whatever risk of seeming to lend support to -views which they disliked, they felt it their duty to take the first -opportunity of publicly repudiating Professor Owen's misuse of their -authority. - -In this note they frankly admitted the justice of the criticisms of M. -Gratiolet, quoted above, and they illustrated, by new and careful -figures, the posterior lobe, the posterior cornu, and the hippocampus -minor of the Orang. Furthermore, having demonstrated the parts, at one -of the sittings of the Academy, they add, "la présence des parties -contestées y a été universellement reconnue par les anatomistes présents -à la séance. Le seul doute qui soit resté se rapporte au pes Hippocampi -minor.... A l'état frais l'indice du petit pied d'Hippocampe était plus -prononcé que maintenant." - -Professor Owen repeated his erroneous assertions at the meeting of the -British Association in 1861, and again, without any obvious necessity, -and without adducing a single new fact or new argument, or being able in -any way to meet the crushing evidence from original dissections of -numerous Apes' brains, which had in the meanwhile been brought forward -by Prof. Rolleston,[33] F.R.S., Mr. Marshall,[34] F.R.S., Mr. -Flower,[35] Mr. Turner,[36] and myself,[37] revived the subject at the -Cambridge meeting of the same body in 1862. Not content with the -tolerably vigorous repudiation which these unprecedented proceedings met -with in Section D, Professor Owen sanctioned the publication of a -version of his own statements, accompanied by a strange -misrepresentation of mine (as may be seen by comparison of the "Times" -report of the discussion), in the "Medical Times" for October 11th, -1862. I subjoin the conclusion of my reply in the same journal for -October 25th. - - "If this were a question of opinion, or a question of - interpretation of parts or of terms,--were it even a - question of observation in which the testimony of my own - senses alone was pitted against that of another person, I - should adopt a very different tone in discussing this - matter. I should, in all humility, admit the likelihood of - having myself erred in judgment, failed in knowledge, or - been blinded by prejudice. - - "But no one pretends now, that the controversy is one of - terms or of opinions. Novel and devoid of authority as - some of Professor Owen's proposed definitions may have - been, they might be accepted without changing the great - features of the case. Hence, though special investigations - into these matters have been undertaken during the last - two years by Dr. Allen Thomson, by Dr. Rolleston, by Mr. - Marshall, and by Mr. Flower, all, as you are aware, - anatomists of repute in this country, and by Professors - Schroeder Van der Kolk, and Vrolik (whom Professor Owen - incautiously tried to press into his own service) on the - Continent, all these able and conscientious observers have - with one accord testified to the accuracy of my - statements, and to the utter baselessness of the - assertions of Professor Owen. Even the venerable Rudolph - Wagner, whom no man will accuse of progressionist - proclivities, has raised his voice on the same side; while - not a single anatomist, great or small, has supported - Professor Owen. - - "Now, I do not mean to suggest that scientific differences - should be settled by universal suffrage, but I do conceive - that solid proofs must be met by something more than empty - and unsupported assertions. Yet during the two years - through which this preposterous controversy has dragged - its weary length, Professor Owen has not ventured to - bring forward a single preparation in support of his - often-repeated assertions. - - "The case stands thus, therefore:--Not only are the - statements made by me in consonance with the doctrines of - the best older authorities, and with those of all recent - investigators, but I am quite ready to demonstrate them on - the first monkey that comes to hand; while Professor - Owen's assertions are not only in diametrical opposition - to both old and new authorities, but he has not produced, - and, I will add, cannot produce, a single preparation - which justifies them." - -I now leave this subject, for the present.--For the credit of my calling -I should be glad to be, hereafter, for ever silent upon it. But, -unfortunately, this is a matter upon which, after all that has occurred, -no mistake or confusion of terms is possible--and in affirming that the -posterior lobe, the posterior cornu, and the hippocampus minor exist in -certain Apes, I am stating either that which is true, or that which I -must know to be false. The question has thus become one of personal -veracity. For myself, I will accept no other issue than this, grave as -it is, to the present controversy. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[25] It will be understood that, in the preceding Essay, I have selected -for notice from the vast mass of papers which have been written upon the -man-like Apes, only those which seem to me to be of special moment. - -[26] We are not at present thoroughly acquainted with the brain of the -Gorilla, and therefore, in discussing cerebral characters, I shall take -that of the Chimpanzee as my highest term among the Apes. - -[27] "More than once," says Peter Camper, "have I met with more than six -lumbar vertebræ in man.... Once I found thirteen ribs and four lumbar -vertebræ." Fallopius noted thirteen pair of ribs and only four lumbar -vertebræ; and Eustachius once found eleven dorsal vertebræ and six -lumbar vertebræ.--"OEuvres de Pierre Camper," T. 1, p. 42. As Tyson -states, his "Pygmie" had thirteen pair of ribs and five lumbar vertebræ. -The question of the curves of the spinal column in the Apes requires -further investigation. - -[28] It has been affirmed that Hindoo crania sometimes contain as little -as 27 ounces of water, which would give a capacity of about 46 cubic -inches. The minimum capacity which I have assumed above, however, is -based upon the valuable tables published by Professor R. Wagner in his -"Vorstudien zu einer wissenschaftlichen Morphologie und Physiologie des -menschlichen Gehirns." As the result of the careful weighing of more -than 900 human brains, Professor Wagner states that one-half weighed -between 1200 and 1400 grammes, and that about two-ninths, consisting for -the most part of male brains, exceed 1400 grammes. The lightest brain of -an adult male, with sound mental faculties, recorded by Wagner, weighed -1020 grammes. As a gramme equals 15.4 grains, and a cubic inch of water -contains 252.4 grains, this is equivalent to 62 cubic inches of water; -so that as brain is heavier than water, we are perfectly safe against -erring on the side of diminution in taking this as the smallest capacity -of any adult male human brain. The only adult male brain, weighing as -little as 970 grammes, is that of an idiot; but the brain of an adult -woman, against the soundness of whose faculties nothing appears, weighed -as little as 907 grammes (55.3 cubic inches of water); and Reid gives an -adult female brain of still smaller capacity. The heaviest brain (1872 -grammes, or about 115 cubic inches) was, however, that of a woman; next -to it comes the brain of Cuvier (1861 grammes), then Byron (1807 -grammes), and then an insane person (1783 grammes). The lightest adult -brain recorded (720 grammes) was that of an idiotic female. The brains -of five children, four years old, weighed between 1275 and 992 grammes. -So that it may be safely said, that an average European child of four -years old has a brain twice as large as that of an adult Gorilla. - -[29] In speaking of the foot of his "Pygmie," Tyson remarks, p. -13:--"But this part in the formation and in its function too, being -liker a Hand than a Foot: for the distinguishing this sort of animals -from others, I have thought whether it might not be reckoned and called -rather Quadrumanus than Quadrupes, _i.e._ a four-handed rather than a -four-footed animal." - -As this passage was published in 1699, M. I. G. St. Hilaire is clearly -in error in ascribing the invention of the term "quadrumanous" to -Buffon, though "bimanous" may belong to him. Tyson uses "Quadrumanus" in -several places, as at p. 91.... "Our _Pygmie_ is no Man, nor yet the -_common Ape_, but a sort of _Animal_ between both; and though a _Biped_, -yet of the _Quadrumanus_-kind: though some _Men_ too have been observed -to use their _Feet_ like _Hands_, as I have seen several." - -[30] See the note at the end of this essay for a succinct history of the -controversy to which allusion is here made. - -[31] I say _help_ to furnish: for I by no means believe that it was any -original difference of cerebral quality, or quantity, which caused that -divergence between the human and the pithecoid stirpes, which has ended -in the present enormous gulf between them. It is no doubt perfectly -true, in a certain sense, that all difference of function is a result of -difference of structure; or, in other words, of difference in the -combination of the primary molecular forces of living substance; and, -starting from this undeniable axiom, objectors occasionally, and with -much seeming plausibility, argue that the vast intellectual chasm -between the Ape and Man implies a corresponding structural chasm in the -organs of the intellectual functions; so that, it is said, the -non-discovery of such vast differences proves, not that they are absent, -but that Science is incompetent to detect them. A very little -consideration, however, will, I think, show the fallacy of this -reasoning. Its validity hangs upon the assumption, that intellectual -power depends altogether on the brain--whereas the brain is only one -condition out of many on which intellectual manifestations depend; the -others being, chiefly, the organs of the senses and the motor -apparatuses, especially those which are concerned in prehension and in -the production of articulate speech. - -A man born dumb, notwithstanding his great cerebral mass and his -inheritance of strong intellectual instincts, would be capable of few -higher intellectual manifestations than an Orang or a Chimpanzee, if he -were confined to the society of dumb associates. And yet there might not -be the slightest discernible difference between his brain and that of a -highly intelligent and cultivated person. The dumbness might be the -result of a defective structure of the mouth, or of the tongue, or a -mere defective innervation of these parts; or it might result from -congenital deafness, caused by some minute defect of the internal ear, -which only a careful anatomist could discover. - -The argument, that because there is an immense difference between a -Man's intelligence and an Ape's, therefore, there must be an equally -immense difference between their brains, appears to me to be about as -well based as the reasoning by which one should endeavour to prove that, -because there is a "great gulf" between a watch that keeps accurate time -and another that will not go at all, there is therefore a great -structural hiatus between the two watches. A hair in the balance-wheel, -a little rust on a pinion, a bend in a tooth of the escapement, a -something so slight that only the practised eye of the watchmaker can -discover it, may be the source of all the difference. - -And believing, as I do, with Cuvier, that the possession of articulate -speech is the grand distinctive character of man (whether it be -absolutely peculiar to him or not), I find it very easy to comprehend, -that some equally inconspicuous structural difference may have been the -primary cause of the immeasurable and practically infinite divergence of -the Human from the Simian Stirps. - -[32] It is so rare a pleasure for me to find Professor Owen's opinions -in entire accordance with my own, that I cannot forbear from quoting a -paragraph which appeared in his Essay "On the Characters, &c., of the -Class Mammalia," in the "Journal of the Proceedings of the Linnean -Society of London" for 1857, but is unaccountably omitted in the "Reade -Lecture" delivered before the University of Cambridge two years later, -which is otherwise nearly a reprint of the paper in question. Prof. Owen -writes: - - "Not being able to appreciate or conceive of the - distinction between the psychical phenomena of a - Chimpanzee and of a Boschisman or of an Aztec, with - arrested brain growth, as being of a nature so essential - as to preclude a comparison between them, or as being - other than a difference of degree, I cannot shut my eyes - to the significance of that all-pervading similitude of - structure--every tooth, every bone, strictly - homologous--which makes the determination of the - difference between _Homo_ and _Pithecus_ the anatomist's - difficulty." - -Surely it is a little singular that the "anatomist," who finds it -"difficult" to "determine the difference" between _Homo_ and _Pithecus_, -should yet range them on anatomical grounds, in distinct sub-classes! - -[33] On the Affinities of the Brain of the Orang. Nat. Hist. Review, -April, 1861. - -[34] On the Brain of a young Chimpanzee. Ibid., July, 1861. - -[35] On the Posterior lobes of the Cerebrum of the Quadrumana. -Philosophical Transactions, 1862. - -[36] On the anatomical Relations of the Surfaces of the Tentorium to the -Cerebrum and Cerebellum in Man and the lower Mammals. Proceedings of the -Royal Society of Edinburgh, March, 1862. - -[37] On the Brain of Ateles. Proceedings of Zoological Society, 1861. - - - - -III - -ON SOME FOSSIL REMAINS OF MAN. - - -I have endeavoured to show, in the preceding Essay, that the ANTHROPINI, -or Man Family, form a very well defined group of the Primates, between -which and the immediately following Family, the CATARHINI, there is, in -the existing world, the same entire absence of any transitional form or -connecting link, as between the CATARHINI and PLATYRHINI. - -It is a commonly received doctrine, however, that the structural -intervals between the various existing modifications of organic beings -may be diminished, or even obliterated, if we take into account the long -and varied succession of animals and plants which have preceded these -now living and which are known to us only by their fossilized remains. -How far this doctrine is well based, how far, on the other hand, as our -knowledge at present stands, it is an overstatement of the real facts of -the case, and an exaggeration of the conclusions fairly deducible from -them, are points of grave importance, but into the discussion of which I -do not, at present, propose to enter. It is enough that such a view of -the relations of extinct to living beings has been propounded, to lead -us to inquire, with anxiety, how far the recent discoveries of human -remains in a fossil state bear out, or oppose, that view. - -I shall confine myself, in discussing this question, to those -fragmentary Human skulls from the caves of Engis in the valley of the -Meuse, in Belgium, and of the Neanderthal near Düsseldorf, the -geological relations of which have been examined with so much care by -Sir Charles Lyell; upon whose high authority I shall take it for -granted, that the Engis skull belonged to a contemporary of the Mammoth -(_Elephas primigenius_) and of the woolly Rhinoceros (_Rhinocerus -tichorhinus_), with the bones of which it was found associated; and that -the Neanderthal skull is of great, though uncertain, antiquity. Whatever -be the geological age of the latter skull, I conceive it is quite safe -(on the ordinary principles of paleontological reasoning) to assume that -the former takes us to, at least, the further side of the vague -biological limit, which separates the present geological epoch from that -which immediately preceded it. And there can be no doubt that the -physical geography of Europe has changed wonderfully, since the bones of -Men and Mammoths, Hyænas and Rhinoceroses were washed pell-mell into the -cave of Engis. - -The skull from the cave of Engis was originally discovered by Professor -Schmerling, and was described by him, together with other human remains -disinterred at the same time, in his valuable work, "Recherches sur les -ossemens fossiles découverts dans les cavernes de la Province de Liège," -published in 1833 (p. 59, _et seq._), from which the following -paragraphs are extracted, the precise expressions of the author being, -as far as possible, preserved. - - "In the first place, I must remark that these human - remains, which are in my possession, are characterized, - like the thousands of bones which I have lately been - disinterring, by the extent of the decomposition which - they have undergone, which is precisely the same as that - of the extinct species: all, with a few exceptions, are - broken; some few are rounded, as is frequently found to be - the case in fossil remains of other species. The fractures - are vertical or oblique; none of them are eroded; their - colour does not differ from that of other fossil bones, - and varies from whitish yellow to blackish. All are - lighter than recent bones, with the exception of those - which have a calcareous incrustation, and the cavities of - which are filled with such matter. - - "The cranium which I have caused to be figured, Plate I., - figs. 1, 2, is that of an old person. The sutures are - beginning to be effaced: all the facial bones are wanting, - and of the temporal bones only a fragment of that of the - right side is preserved. - -[Illustration: FIG. 22.--The skull from the cave of Engis--viewed from -the right side. _a_, glabella, _b_, occipital protuberance, (_a_ to _b_ -glabello-occipital line), _c_, auditory foramen.] - - "The face and the base of the cranium had been detached - before the skull was deposited in the cave, for we were - unable to find those parts, though the whole cavern was - regularly searched. The cranium was met with at a depth of - a metre and a half [five feet nearly] hidden under an - osseous breccia, composed of the remains of small animals, - and containing one rhinoceros tusk, with several teeth of - horses and of ruminants. This breccia, which has been - spoken of above (p. 30), was a metre [3-1/4 feet about] - wide, and rose to the height of a metre and a half above - the floor of the cavern, to the walls of which it adhered - strongly. - - "The earth which contained this human skull exhibited no - trace of disturbance: teeth of rhinoceros, horse, hyæna, - and bear, surrounded it on all sides. - - "The famous Blumenbach[38] has directed attention to the - differences presented by the form and the dimensions of - human crania of different races. This important work would - have assisted us greatly, if the face, a part essential - for the determination of race, with more or less accuracy, - had not been wanting in our fossil cranium. - - "We are convinced that even if the skull had been - complete, it would not have been possible to pronounce, - with certainty, upon a single specimen; for individual - variations are so numerous in the crania of one and the - same race, that one cannot, without laying oneself open to - large chances of error, draw any inference from a single - fragment of a cranium to the general form of the head to - which it belonged. - - "Nevertheless, in order to neglect no point respecting the - form of this fossil skull, we may observe that, from the - first, the elongated and narrow form of the forehead - attracted our attention. - - "In fact, the slight elevation of the frontal, its - narrowness, and the form of the orbit, approximate it more - nearly to the cranium of an Ethiopian than to that of an - European: the elongated form and the produced occiput are - also characters which we believe to be observable in our - fossil cranium; but to remove all doubt upon that subject - I have caused the contours of the cranium of an European - and of an Ethiopian to be drawn and the foreheads - represented. Plate II., Figs. 1 and 2, and, in the same - plate, Figs. 3 and 4, will render the differences easily - distinguishable; and a single glance at the figures, will - be more instructive than a long and wearisome description. - - "At whatever conclusion we may arrive as to the origin of - the man from whence this fossil skull proceeded, we may - express an opinion without exposing ourselves to a - fruitless controversy. Each may adopt the hypothesis which - seems to him most probable: for my own part, I hold it to - be demonstrated that this cranium has belonged to a person - of limited intellectual faculties, and we conclude thence - that it belonged to a man of a low degree of civilization: - a deduction which is borne out by contrasting the capacity - of the frontal with that of the occipital region. - - "Another cranium of a young individual was discovered in - the floor of the cavern beside the tooth of an elephant; - the skull was entire when found, but the moment it was - lifted it fell into pieces, which I have not, as yet, been - able to put together again. But I have represented the - bones of the upper jaw, Plate I., Fig. 5. The state of the - alveoli and the teeth, shows that the molars had not yet - pierced the gum. Detached milk molars and some fragments - of a human skull, proceed from this same place. The Figure - 3, represents a human superior incisor tooth, the size of - which is truly remarkable.[39] - - "Figure 4 is a fragment of a superior maxillary bone, the - molar teeth of which are worn down to the roots. - - "I possess two vertebræ, a first and last dorsal. - - "A clavicle of the left side (see Plate III., Fig. 1); - although it belonged to a young individual, this bone - shows that he must have been of great stature.[40] - - "Two fragments of the radius, badly preserved, do not - indicate that the height of the man, to whom they - belonged, exceeded five feet and a half. - - "As to the remains of the upper extremities, those which - are in my possession, consist merely of a fragment of an - ulna and of a radius (Plate III., Fig. 5 and 6). - - "Figure 2, Plate IV., represents a metacarpal bone, - contained in the breccia, of which we have spoken; it was - found in the lower part above the cranium: add to this - some metacarpal bones, found at very different distances, - half-a-dozen metatarsals, three phalanges of the hand, and - one of the foot. - - "This is a brief enumeration of the remains of human bones - collected in the cavern of Engis, which has preserved for - us the remains of three individuals, surrounded by those - of the Elephant, of the Rhinoceros, and of Carnivora of - species unknown in the present creation." - - * * * * * - -From the cave of Engihoul, opposite that of Engis, on the right bank of -the Meuse, Schmerling obtained the remains of three other individuals of -Man, among which were only two fragments of parietal bones, but many -bones of the extremities. In one case, a broken fragment of an ulna was -soldered to a like fragment of a radius by stalagmite, a condition -frequently observed among the bones of the Cave Bear (_Ursus spelæus_), -found in the Belgian caverns. - -It was in the cavern of Engis that Professor Schmerling found, incrusted -with stalagmite and joined to a stone, the pointed bone implement, which -he has figured in Fig. 7 of his Plate XXXVI., and worked flints were -found by him in all those Belgian caves, which contained an abundance of -fossil bones. - -A short letter from M. Geoffroy St. Hilaire, published in the Comptes -Rendus of the Academy of Sciences of Paris, for July 2nd, 1838, speaks -of a visit (and apparently a very hasty one) paid to the collection of -Professor "Schermidt" (which is presumably a misprint for Schmerling) at -Liège. The writer briefly criticises the drawings which illustrate -Schmerling's work, and affirms that the "human cranium is a little -longer than it is represented" in Schmerling's figure. The only other -remark worth quoting is this:--"The aspect of the human bones differs -little from that of the cave bones, with which we are familiar, and of -which there is a considerable collection in the same place. With respect -to their special forms, compared with those of the varieties of recent -human crania, few _certain_ conclusions can be put forward; for much -greater differences exist between the different specimens of -well-characterized varieties, than between the fossil cranium of Liège -and that of one of those varieties selected as a term of comparison." - -Geoffroy St. Hilaire's remarks are, it will be observed, little but an -echo of the philosophic doubts of the describer and discoverer of the -remains. As to the critique upon Schmerling's figures, I find that the -side view given by the latter is really about 3/10ths of an inch shorter -than the original, and that the front view is diminished to about the -same extent. Otherwise the representation is not, in any way, -inaccurate, but corresponds very well with the cast which is in my -possession. - -A piece of the occipital bone, which Schmerling seems to have missed, -has since been fitted on to the rest of the cranium by an accomplished -anatomist, Dr. Spring of Liège, under whose direction an excellent -plaster cast was made for Sir Charles Lyell. It is upon and from a -duplicate of that cast that my own observations and the accompanying -figures, the outlines of which are copied from very accurate Camera -lucida drawings, by my friend Mr. Busk, reduced to one-half of the -natural size, are made. - -As Professor Schmerling observes, the base of the skull is destroyed, -and the facial bones are entirely absent; but the roof of the cranium, -consisting of the frontal, parietal, and the greater part of the -occipital bones, as far as the middle of the occipital foramen, is -entire or nearly so. The left temporal bone is wanting. Of the right -temporal, the parts in the immediate neighbourhood of the auditory -foramen, the mastoid process, and a considerable portion of the squamous -element of the temporal are well preserved (Fig. 22). - -The lines of fracture which remain between the coadjusted pieces of the -skull, and are faithfully displayed in Schmerling's figure, are readily -traceable in the cast. The sutures are also discernible, but the complex -disposition of their serrations, shown in the figure, is not obvious in -the cast. Though the ridges which give attachment to muscles are not -excessively prominent, they are well marked, and taken together with the -apparently well developed frontal sinuses, and the condition of the -sutures, leave no doubt on my mind that the skull is that of an adult, -if not middle-aged man. - -The extreme length of the skull is 7.7 inches. Its extreme breadth, -which corresponds very nearly with the interval between the parietal -protuberances, is not more than 5.4 inches. The proportion of the length -to the breadth is therefore very nearly as 100 to 70. If a line be drawn -from the point at which the brow curves in towards the root of the nose, -and which is called the "glabella" (_a_), (Fig. 22), to the occipital -protuberance (_b_), and the distance to the highest point of the arch of -the skull be measured perpendicularly from this line, it will be found -to be 4.75 inches. Viewed from above, Fig. 23, A, the forehead presents -an evenly rounded curve, and passes into the contour of the sides and -back of the skull, which describes a tolerably regular elliptical curve. - -The front view (Fig. 23, B) shows that the roof of the skull was very -regularly and elegantly arched in the transverse direction, and that the -transverse diameter was a little less below the parietal protuberances, -than above them. The forehead cannot be called narrow in relation to the -rest of the skull, nor can it be called a retreating forehead; on the -contrary, the antero-posterior contour of the skull is well arched, so -that the distance along that contour, from the nasal depression to the -occipital protuberance, measures about 13.75 inches. The transverse arc -of the skull, measured from one auditory foramen to the other, across -the middle of the sagittal suture, is about 13 inches. The sagittal -suture itself is 5.5 inches long. - -The supraciliary prominences or brow-ridges (on each side of _a_, Fig. -22) are well, but not excessively, developed, and are separated by a -median depression. Their principal elevation is disposed so obliquely -that I judge them to be due to large frontal sinuses. - -If a line joining the glabella and the occipital protuberance (_a_, _b_, -Fig. 22) be made horizontal, no part of the occipital region projects -more than 1/10th an inch behind the posterior extremity of that line, -and the upper edge of the auditory foramen (_c_) is almost in contact -with a line drawn parallel with this upon the outer surface of the -skull. - -A transverse line drawn from one auditory foramen to the other -traverses, as usual, the forepart of the occipital foramen. The -capacity of the interior of this fragmentary skull has not been -ascertained. - -[Illustration: FIG. 23.--The Engis skull viewed from above (_A_) and in -front (_B_).] - - * * * * * - -The history of the Human remains from the cavern in the Neanderthal may -best be given in the words of their original describer, Dr. -Schaaffhausen,[41] as translated by Mr. Busk. - - "In the early part of the year 1857, a human skeleton was - discovered in a limestone cave in the Neanderthal, near - Hochdal, between Düsseldorf and Elberfeld. Of this, - however, I was unable to procure more than a plaster cast - of the cranium, taken at Elberfeld, from which I drew up - an account of its remarkable conformation, which was, in - the first instance, read on the 4th of February, 1857, at - the meeting of the Lower Rhine Medical and Natural History - Society, at Bonn.[42] Subsequently Dr. Fuhlrott, to whom - science is indebted for the preservation of these bones, - which were not at first regarded as human, and into whose - possession they afterwards came, brought the cranium from - Elberfeld to Bonn, and entrusted it to me for more - accurate anatomical examination. At the General Meeting of - the Natural History Society of Prussian Rhineland and - Westphalia, at Bonn, on the 2nd of June, 1857,[43] Dr. - Fuhlrott himself gave a full account of the locality, and - of the circumstances under which the discovery was made. - He was of opinion that the bones might be regarded as - fossil; and in coming to this conclusion, he laid especial - stress upon the existence of dendritic deposits, with - which their surface was covered, and which were first - noticed upon them by Professor Mayer. To this - communication I appended a brief report on the results of - my anatomical examination of the bones. The conclusions at - which I arrived were:--1st. That the extraordinary form - of the skull was due to a natural conformation hitherto - not known to exist, even in the most barbarous races. 2nd. - That these remarkable human remains belonged to a period - antecedent to the time of the Celts and Germans, and were - in all probability derived from one of the wild races of - Northwestern Europe, spoken of by Latin writers; and which - were encountered as autochthones by the German immigrants. - And 3rdly. That it was beyond doubt that these human - relics were traceable to a period at which the latest - animals of the diluvium still existed; but that no proof - of this assumption, nor consequently of their so-termed - _fossil_ condition, was afforded by the circumstances - under which the bones were discovered." - -As Dr. Fuhlrott has not yet published his description of these -circumstances, I borrow the following account of them from one of his -letters. "A small cave or grotto, high enough to admit a man, and about -15 feet deep from the entrance, which is 7 or 8 feet wide, exists in the -southern wall of the gorge of the Neanderthal, as it is termed, at a -distance of about 100 feet from the Düssel, and about 60 feet above the -bottom of the valley. In its earlier and uninjured condition, this -cavern opened upon a narrow plateau lying in front of it, and from which -the rocky wall descended almost perpendicularly into the river. It could -be reached, though with difficulty, from above. The uneven floor was -covered to a thickness of 4 or 5 feet with a deposit of mud, sparingly -intermixed with rounded fragments of chert. In the removing of this -deposit, the bones were discovered. The skull was first noticed, placed -nearest to the entrance of the cavern; and further in, the other bones, -lying in the same horizontal plane. Of this I was assured, in the most -positive terms, by two labourers who were employed to clear out the -grotto, and who were questioned by me on the spot. At first no idea was -entertained of the bones being human; and it was not till several weeks -after their discovery that they were recognised as such by me, and -placed in security. But, as the importance of the discovery was not at -the time perceived, the labourers were very careless in the collecting, -and secured chiefly only the larger bones; and to this circumstance it -may be attributed that fragments merely of the probably perfect skeleton -came into my possession." - -My anatomical examination of these bones afforded the following -results:-- - -The cranium is of unusual size, and of a long elliptical form. A most -remarkable peculiarity is at once obvious in the extraordinary -development of the frontal sinuses, owing to which the superciliary -ridges, which coalesce completely in the middle, are rendered so -prominent, that the frontal bone exhibits a considerable hollow or -depression above, or rather behind them, whilst a deep depression is -also formed in the situation of the root of the nose. The forehead is -narrow and low, though the middle and hinder portions of the cranial -arch are well developed. Unfortunately, the fragment of the skull that -has been preserved consists only of the portion situated above the roof -of the orbits and the superior occipital ridges, which are greatly -developed, and almost conjoined so as to form a horizontal eminence. It -includes almost the whole of the frontal bone, both parietals, a small -part of the squamous and the upper-third of the occipital. The recently -fractured surfaces show that the skull was broken at the time of its -disinterment. The cavity holds 16,876 grains of water, whence its -cubical contents may be estimated at 57.64 inches, or 1033.24 cubic -centimetres. In making this estimation, the water is supposed to stand -on a level with the orbital plate of the frontal, with the deepest notch -in the squamous margin of the parietal, and with the superior -semicircular ridges of the occipital. Estimated in dried millet-seed, -the contents equalled 31 ounces, Prussian Apothecaries' weight. The -semicircular line indicating the upper boundary of the attachment of the -temporal muscle, though not very strongly marked, ascends nevertheless -to more than half the height of the parietal bone. On the right -superciliary ridge is observable an oblique furrow or depression, -indicative of an injury received during life.[44] The coronal and -sagittal sutures are on the exterior nearly closed, and on the inside -so completely ossified as to have left no traces whatever, whilst the -lambdoidal remains quite open. The depressions for the Pacchionian -glands are deep and numerous; and there is an unusually deep vascular -groove immediately behind the coronal suture, which, as it terminates in -a foramen, no doubt transmitted a _vena emissaria_. The course of the -frontal suture is indicated externally by a slight ridge; and where it -joins the coronal, this ridge rises into a small protuberance. The -course of the sagittal suture is grooved, and above the angle of the -occipital bone the parietals are depressed. - - mm.[45] - The length of the skull from the nasal - process of the frontal over the vertex - to the superior semicircular lines of the - occipital measures 303 (300)=12.0". - - Circumference over the orbital ridges and - the superior semicircular lines of the - occipital 590 (590)=23.37" or 23". - - Width of the frontal from the middle of - the temporal line on one side to the - same point on the opposite 104 (114)=4.1"-4.5". - - Length of the frontal from the nasal - process to the coronal suture 133 (125)=5.25"-5". - - Extreme width of the frontal sinuses 25 (23)=1.0"-0.9". - - Vertical height above a line joining the - deepest notches in the squamous border - of the parietals 70 = 2.75". - - Width of hinder part of skull from one - parietal protuberance to the other 138 (150)=5.4"-5.9". - - Distance from the upper angle of the - occipital to the superior semicircular - lines 51 (60)=1.9"-2.4". - - Thickness of the bone at the parietal - protuberance 8. - - ---- at the angle of the occipital 9. - - ---- at the superior semicircular line of - the occipital 10 = 0.3". - - -Besides the cranium, the following bones have been secured:-- - -1. Both thigh-bones, perfect. These, like the skull, and all the other -bones, are characterized by their unusual thickness, and the great -development of all the elevations and depressions for the attachment of -muscles. In the Anatomical Museum at Bonn, under the designation of -"Giant's-bones," are some recent thigh-bones, with which in thickness -the foregoing pretty nearly correspond, although they are shorter. - - Giant's bones. Fossil bones. - mm. mm. - Length 542 = 21.4" 438 = 17.4" - Diameter of head of femur 54 = 2.14" 53 = 2.0" - " of lower articular end, from - one condyle to the other 89 = 3.5" 87 = 3.4" - Diameter of femur in the middle 33 = 1.2" 30 = 1.1" - -2. A perfect right humerus, whose size shows that it belongs to the -thigh-bones. - - mm. - Length 312 = 12.3" - Thickness in the middle 26 = 1.0" - Diameter of head 49 = 1.9" - -Also a perfect right radius of corresponding dimensions, and the -upper-third of a right ulna corresponding to the humerus and radius. - -3. A left humerus, of which the upper-third is wanting, and which is so -much slenderer than the right as apparently to belong to a distinct -individual; a left _ulna_, which, though complete, is pathologically -deformed, the coronoid process being so much enlarged by bony growth, -that flexure of the elbow beyond a right angle must have been -impossible; the anterior fossa of the humerus for the reception of the -coronoid process being also filled up with a similar bony growth. At the -same time, the olecranon is curved strongly downwards. As the bone -presents no sign of rachitic degeneration, it may be supposed that an -injury sustained during life was the cause of the anchylosis. When the -left ulna is compared with the right radius, it might at first sight be -concluded that the bones respectively belonged to different individuals, -the ulna being more than half an inch too short for articulation with a -corresponding radius. But it is clear that this shortening, as well as -the attenuation of the left humerus, are both consequent upon the -pathological condition above described. - -4. A left _ilium_, almost perfect, and belonging to the femur; a -fragment of the right _scapula_; the anterior extremity of a rib of the -right side; and the same part of a rib of the left side; the hinder part -of a rib of the right side; and, lastly, two hinder portions and one -middle portion of ribs, which, from their unusually rounded shape, and -abrupt curvature, more resemble the ribs of a carnivorous animal than -those of a man. Dr. H. v. Meyer, however, to whose judgment I defer, -will not venture to declare them to be ribs of any animal; and it only -remains to suppose that this abnormal condition has arisen from an -unusually powerful development of the thoracic muscles. - -The bones adhere strongly to the tongue, although, as proved by the use -of hydrochloric acid, the greater part of the cartilage is still -retained in them, which appears, however, to have undergone that -transformation into gelatine which has been observed by v. Bibra in -fossil bones. The surface of all the bones is in many spots covered with -minute black specks, which, more especially under a lens, are seen to be -formed of very delicate _dendrites_. These deposits, which were first -observed on the bones by Dr. Meyer, are most distinct on the inner -surface of the cranial bones. They consist of a ferruginous compound, -and, from their black colour, may be supposed to contain manganese. -Similar dendritic formations also occur, not unfrequently, on laminated -rocks, and are usually found in minute fissures and cracks. At the -meeting of the Lower Rhine Society at Bonn, on the 1st April, 1857, -Prof. Meyer stated that he had noticed in the museum of Poppelsdorf -similar dendritic crystallizations on several fossil bones of animals, -and particularly on those of _Ursus spelæus_, but still more abundantly -and beautifully displayed on the fossil bones and teeth of _Equus -adamiticus_, _Elephas primigenius_, &c., from the caves of Bolve and -Sundwig. Faint indications of similar _dendrites_ were visible in a -Roman skull from Siegburg; whilst other ancient skulls, which had lain -for centuries in the earth, presented no trace of them.[46] I am -indebted to H. v. Meyer for the following remarks on this subject:-- - - "The incipient formation of dendritic deposits, which - were formerly regarded as a sign of a truly fossil - condition, is interesting. It has even been supposed that - in diluvial deposits the presence of _dendrites_ might be - regarded as affording a certain mark of distinction - between bones mixed with the diluvium at a somewhat later - period and the true diluvial relics, to which alone it - was supposed that these deposits were confined. But I - have long been convinced that neither can the absence of - _dendrites_ be regarded as indicative of recent age, nor - their presence as sufficient to establish the great - antiquity of the objects upon which they occur. I have - myself noticed upon paper, which could scarcely be more - than a year old, dendritic deposits, which could not be - distinguished from those on fossil bones. Thus I possess - a dog's skull from the Roman colony of the neighbouring - Heddersheim, _Castrum Hadrianum_, which is in no way - distinguishable from the fossil bones from the Frankish - caves; it presents the same colour, and adheres to the - tongue just as they do; so that this character also, - which, at a former meeting of German naturalists at Bonn, - gave rise to amusing scenes between Buckland and - Schmerling, is no longer of any value. In disputed cases, - therefore, the condition of the bone can scarcely afford - the means for determining with certainty whether it be - fossil, that is to say, whether it belong to geological - antiquity or to the historical period." - -As we cannot now look upon the primitive world as representing a wholly -different condition of things, from which no transition exists to the -organic life of the present time, the designation of _fossil_, as -applied to _a bone_, has no longer the sense it conveyed in the time of -Cuvier. Sufficient grounds exist for the assumption that man coexisted -with the animals found in the _diluvium_; and many a barbarous race may, -before all historical time, have disappeared, together with the animals -of the ancient world, whilst the races whose organization is improved -have continued the genus. The bones which form the subject of this paper -present characters which, although not decisive as regards a geological -epoch, are, nevertheless, such as indicate a very high antiquity. It may -also be remarked that, common as is the occurrence of diluvial animal -bones in the muddy deposits of caverns, such remains have not hitherto -been met with in the caves of the Neanderthal; and that the bones, which -were covered by a deposit of mud not more than four or five feet thick, -and without any protective covering of stalagmite, have retained the -greatest part of their organic substance. - -These circumstances might be adduced against the probability of a -geological antiquity. Nor should we be justified in regarding the -cranial conformation as perhaps representing the most savage primitive -type of the human race, since crania exist among living savages, which, -though not exhibiting such a remarkable conformation of the forehead, -which gives the skull somewhat the aspect of that of the large apes, -still in other respects, as for instance in the greater depth of the -temporal fossæ, the crest-like, prominent temporal ridges, and a -generally less capacious cranial cavity, exhibit an equally low stage of -development. There is no reason for supposing that the deep frontal -hollow is due to any artificial flattening, such as is practised in -various modes by barbarous nations in the Old and New World. The skull -is quite symmetrical, and shows no indication of counter-pressure at the -occiput, whilst, according to Morton, in the Flat-heads of the Columbia, -the frontal and parietal bones are always unsymmetrical. Its -conformation exhibits the sparing development of the anterior part of -the head which has been so often observed in very ancient crania, and -affords one of the most striking proofs of the influence of culture and -civilization on the form of the human skull. - -In a subsequent passage, Dr. Schaaffhausen remarks: - - "There is no reason whatever for regarding the unusual - development of the frontal sinuses in the remarkable - skull from the Neanderthal as an individual or - pathological deformity; it is unquestionably a typical - race-character, and is physiologically connected with the - uncommon thickness of the other bones of the skeleton, - which exceeds by about one-half the usual proportions. - This expansion of the frontal sinuses, which are - appendages of the air-passages, also indicates an unusual - force and power of endurance in the movements of the - body, as may be concluded from the size of all the ridges - and processes for the attachment of the muscles or bones. - That this conclusion may be drawn from the existence of - large frontal sinuses, and a prominence of the lower - frontal region, is confirmed in many ways by other - observations. By the same characters, according to - Pallas, the wild horse is distinguished from the - domesticated, and, according to Cuvier, the fossil - cave-bear from every recent species of bear, whilst, - according to Roulin, the pig, which has become wild in - America, and regained a resemblance to the wild boar, is - thus distinguished from the same animal in the - domesticated state, as is the chamois from the goat; and, - lastly, the bull-dog, which is characterised by its large - bones and strongly-developed muscles from every other - kind of dog. The estimation of the facial angle, the - determination of which, according to Professor Owen, is - also difficult in the great apes, owing to the very - prominent supra-orbital ridges, in the present case is - rendered still more difficult from the absence both of - the auditory opening and of the nasal spine. But if the - proper horizontal position of the skull be taken from the - remaining portions of the orbital plates, and the - ascending line made to touch the surface of the frontal - bone behind the prominent supra-orbital ridges, the - facial angle is not found to exceed 56°.[47] - Unfortunately, no portions of the facial bones, whose - conformation is so decisive as regards the form and - expression of the head, have been preserved. The cranial - capacity, compared with the uncommon strength of the - corporeal frame, would seem to indicate a small cerebral - development. The skull, as it is, holds about 31 ounces - of millet-seed; and as, from the proportionate size of - the wanting bones, the whole cranial cavity should have - about 6 ounces more added, the contents, were it perfect, - may be taken at 37 ounces. Tiedemann assigns, as the - cranial contents in the Negro, 40, 38, and 35 ounces. The - cranium holds rather more than 36 ounces of water, which - corresponds to a capacity of 1033.24 cubic centimetres. - Huschke estimates the cranial contents of a Negress at - 1127 cubic centimetres; of an old Negro at 1146 cubic - centimetres. The capacity of the Malay skulls, estimated - by water, equalled 36, 33 ounces, whilst in the - diminutive Hindoos it falls to as little as 27 ounces." - -After comparing the Neanderthal cranium with many others, ancient and -modern, Professor Schaaffhausen concludes thus:-- - - "But the human bones and cranium from the Neanderthal - exceed all the rest in those peculiarities of - conformation which lead to the conclusion of their - belonging to a barbarous and savage race. Whether the - cavern in which they were found, unaccompanied with any - trace of human art, were the place of their interment, or - whether, like the bones of extinct animals elsewhere, - they had been washed into it, they may still be regarded - as the most ancient memorial of the early inhabitants of - Europe." - -Mr. Busk, the translator of Dr. Schaaffhausen's paper, has enabled us to -form a very vivid conception of the degraded character of the -Neanderthal skull, by placing side by side with its outline, that of the -skull of a Chimpanzee, drawn to the same absolute size. - - * * * * * - -Some time after the publication of the translation of Professor -Schaaffhausen's Memoir, I was led to study the cast of the Neanderthal -cranium with more attention than I had previously bestowed upon it, in -consequence of wishing to supply Sir Charles Lyell with a diagram, -exhibiting the special peculiarities of this skull, as compared with -other human skulls. In order to do this it was necessary to identify, -with precision, those points in the skulls compared which corresponded -anatomically. Of these points, the glabella was obvious enough; but when -I had distinguished another, defined by the occipital protuberance and -superior semicircular line, and had placed the outline of the -Neanderthal skull against that of the Engis skull, in such a position -that the glabella and occipital protuberance of both were intersected by -the same straight line, the difference was so vast and the flattening of -the Neanderthal skull so prodigious (compare Figs. 22 and 24, A), that I -at first imagined I must have fallen into some error. And I was the more -inclined to suspect this, as, in ordinary human skulls, the occipital -protuberance and superior semicircular curved line on the exterior of -the occiput correspond pretty closely with the "lateral sinuses" and the -line of attachment of the tentorium internally. But on the tentorium -rests, as I have said in the preceding Essay, the posterior lobe of the -brain; and hence, the occipital protuberance, and the curved line in -question, indicate, approximately, the lower limits of that lobe. Was it -possible for a human being to have the brain thus flattened and -depressed; or, on the other hand, had the muscular ridges shifted their -position? In order to solve these doubts, and to decide the question -whether the great supraciliary projections did, or did not, arise from -the development of the frontal sinuses, I requested Sir Charles Lyell to -be so good as to obtain for me from Dr. Fuhlrott, the possessor of the -skull, answers to certain queries, and if possible a cast, or at any -rate drawings, or photographs, of the interior of the skull. - -[Illustration: FIG. 24.--The skull from the Neanderthal cavern. A. side, -B. front, and C. top view. One-third the natural size. The outlines from -camera lucida drawings, one-half the natural size, by Mr. Busk: the -details from the cast and from Dr. Fuhlrott's photographs. _a_, -glabella; _b_, occipital protuberance; _d_, lambdoidal suture.] - -Dr. Fuhlrott replied, with a courtesy and readiness for which I am -infinitely indebted to him, to my inquiries, and furthermore sent three -excellent photographs. One of these gives a side view of the skull, and -from it Fig. 24, A. has been shaded. The second (Fig. 25, A.) exhibits -the wide openings of the frontal sinuses upon the inferior surface of -the frontal part of the skull, into which, Dr. Fuhlrott writes, "a probe -may be introduced to the depth of an inch," and demonstrates the great -extension of the thickened supraciliary ridges beyond the cerebral -cavity. The third, lastly (Fig. 25, B.), exhibits the edge and the -interior of the posterior, or occipital, part of the skull, and shows -very clearly the two depressions for the lateral sinuses, sweeping -inwards towards the middle line of the roof of the skull, to form the -longitudinal sinus. It was clear, therefore, that I had not erred in my -interpretation, and that the posterior lobe of the brain of the -Neanderthal man must have been as much flattened as I suspected it to -be. - -[Illustration: FIG. 25.--Drawings from Dr. Fuhlrott's photographs of -parts of the interior of the Neanderthal cranium. A. view of the under -and inner surface of the frontal region, showing the inferior apertures -of the frontal sinuses (_a_). B. corresponding view of the occipital -region of the skull, showing the impressions of the lateral sinuses (_a_ -_a_).] - -In truth, the Neanderthal cranium has most extraordinary characters. It -has an extreme length of 8 inches, while its breadth is only 5.75 -inches, or, in other words, its length is to its breadth as 100: 72. It -is exceedingly depressed, measuring only about 3.4 inches from the -glabello-occipital line to the vertex. The longitudinal arc, measured in -the same way as in the Engis skull, is 12 inches; the transverse arc -cannot be exactly ascertained, in consequence of the absence of the -temporal bones, but was probably about the same, and certainly exceeded -10-1/4 inches. The horizontal circumference is 23 inches. But this great -circumference arises largely from the vast development of the -supraciliary ridges, though the perimeter of the brain case itself is -not small. The large supraciliary ridges give the forehead a far more -retreating appearance than its internal contour would bear out. - -To an anatomical eye the posterior part of the skull is even more -striking than the anterior. The occipital protuberance occupies the -extreme posterior end of the skull, when the glabello-occipital line is -made horizontal, and so far from any part of the occipital region -extending beyond it, this region of the skull slopes obliquely upward -and forward, so that the lambdoidal suture is situated well upon the -upper surface of the cranium. At the same time, notwithstanding the -great length of the skull, the sagittal suture is remarkably short -(4-1/2 inches), and the squamosal suture is very straight. - -In reply to my questions Dr. Fuhlrott writes that the occipital bone "is -in a state of perfect preservation as far as the upper semicircular -line, which is a very strong ridge, linear at its extremities, but -enlarging towards the middle, where it forms two ridges (bourrelets), -united by a linear continuation, which is slightly depressed in the -middle." - -"Below the left ridge the bone exhibits an obliquely inclined surface, -six lines (French) long, and twelve lines wide." - -This last must be the surface, the contour of which is shown in Fig. 24, -A, below _b_. It is particularly interesting, as it suggests that, -notwithstanding the flattened condition of the occiput, the posterior -cerebral lobes must have projected considerably beyond the cerebellum, -and as it constitutes one among several points of similarity between the -Neanderthal cranium and certain Australian skulls. - - * * * * * - -Such are the two best known forms of human cranium, which have been -found in what may be fairly termed a fossil state. Can either be shown -to fill up or diminish, to any appreciable extent, the structural -interval which exists between Man and the man-like Apes? Or, on the -other hand, does neither depart more widely from the average structure -of the human cranium, than normally formed skulls of men are known to do -at the present day? - -It is impossible to form any opinion on these questions, without some -preliminary acquaintance with the range of variation exhibited by human -structure in general--a subject which has been but imperfectly studied, -while even of what is known, my limits will necessarily allow me to give -only a very imperfect sketch. - -The student of anatomy is perfectly well aware that there is not a -single organ of the human body the structure of which does not vary, to -a greater or less extent, in different individuals. The skeleton varies -in the proportions, and even to a certain extent in the connexions, of -its constituent bones. The muscles which move the bones vary largely in -their attachments. The varieties in the mode of distribution of the -arteries are carefully classified, on account of the practical -importance of a knowledge of their shiftings to the surgeon. The -characters of the brain vary immensely, nothing being less constant than -the form and size of the cerebral hemispheres, and the richness of the -convolutions upon their surface, while the most changeable structures of -all in the human brain, are exactly those on which the unwise attempt -has been made to base the distinctive characters of humanity, viz. the -posterior cornu of the lateral ventricle, the hippocampus minor, and the -degree of projection of the posterior lobe beyond the cerebellum. -Finally, as all the world knows, the hair and skin of human beings may -present the most extraordinary diversities in colour and in texture. - -So far as our present knowledge goes, the majority of the structural -varieties to which allusion is here made, are individual. The ape-like -arrangement of certain muscles which is occasionally met with[48] in the -white races of mankind, is not known to be more common among Negroes or -Australians: nor because the brain of the Hottentot Venus was found to -be smoother, to have its convolutions more symmetrically disposed, and -to be, so far, more ape-like than that of ordinary Europeans, are we -justified in concluding a like condition of the brain to prevail -universally among the lower races of mankind, however probable that -conclusion may be. - -We are, in fact, sadly wanting in information respecting the disposition -of the soft and destructible organs of every Race of Mankind but our -own; and even of the skeleton, our Museums are lamentably deficient in -every part but the cranium. Skulls enough there are, and since the time -when Blumenbach and Camper first called attention to the marked and -singular differences which they exhibit, skull collecting and skull -measuring has been a zealously pursued branch of Natural History, and -the results obtained have been arranged and classified by various -writers, among whom the late active and able Retzius must always be the -first named. - -Human skulls have been found to differ from one another, not merely in -their absolute size and in the absolute capacity of the brain case, but -in the proportions which the diameters of the latter bear to one -another; in the relative size of the bones of the face (and more -particularly of the jaws and teeth) as compared with those of the skull; -in the degree to which the upper jaw (which is of course followed by the -lower) is thrown backwards and downwards under the forepart of the brain -case, or forwards and upwards in front of and beyond it. They differ -further in the relations of the transverse diameter of the face, taken -through the cheek bones, to the transverse diameter of the skull; in the -more rounded or more gable-like form of the roof of the skull, and in -the degree to which the hinder part of the skull is flattened or -projects beyond the ridge, into and below which, the muscles of the neck -are inserted. - -In some skulls the brain case may be said to be "_round_," the extreme -length not exceeding the extreme breadth by a greater proportion than -100 to 80, while the difference may be much less.[49] Men possessing -such skulls were termed by Retzius "_brachycephalic_," and the skull of -a Calmuck, of which a front and side view (reduced outline copies of -which are given in Figure 26) are depicted by Von Baer in his excellent -"Crania selecta," affords a very admirable example of that kind of -skull. Other skulls, such as that of a Negro copied in Fig. 27 from Mr. -Busk's "Crania typica," have a very different, greatly elongated form, -and may be termed "_oblong_." In this skull the extreme length is to the -extreme breadth as 100 to not more than 67, and the transverse diameter -of the human skull may fall below even this proportion. People having -such skulls were called by Retzius "_dolichocephalic_." - -The most cursory glance at the side views of these two skulls will -suffice to prove that they differ, in another respect, to a very -striking extent. The profile of the face of the Calmuck is almost -vertical, the facial bones being thrown downwards and under the fore -part of the skull. The profile of the face of the Negro, on the other -hand, is singularly inclined, the front part of the jaws projecting far -forward beyond the level of the fore part of the skull. In the former -case the skull is said to be "_orthognathous_" or straight-jawed; in the -latter, it is called "_prognathous_," a term which has been rendered, -with more force than elegance, by the Saxon equivalent,--"snouty." - -Various methods have been devised in order to express with some accuracy -the degree of prognathism or orthognathism of any given skull; most of -these methods being essentially modifications of that devised by Peter -Camper, in order to attain what he called the "facial angle." - -[Illustration: FIG. 26.--Side and front views of the round and -orthognathous skull of a Calmuck after Von Baer. One-third the natural -size.] - -But a little consideration will show that any "facial angle" that has -been devised, can be competent to express the structural modifications -involved in prognathism and orthognathism, only in a rough and general -sort of way. For the lines, the intersection of which forms the facial -angle, are drawn through points of the skull, the position of each of -which is modified by a number of circumstances, so that the angle -obtained is a complex resultant of all these circumstances, and is not -the expression of any one definite organic relation of the parts of the -skull. - -I have arrived at the conviction that no comparison of crania is worth -very much, that is not founded upon the establishment of a relatively -fixed base line, to which the measurements, in all cases, must be -referred. Nor do I think it is a very difficult matter to decide what -that base line should be. The parts of the skull, like those of the rest -of the animal framework, are developed in succession: the base of the -skull is formed before its sides and roof; it is converted into -cartilage earlier and more completely than the sides and roof: and the -cartilaginous base ossifies, and becomes soldered into one piece long -before the roof. I conceive then that the base of the skull may be -demonstrated developmentally to be its relatively fixed part, the roof -and sides being relatively moveable. - -The same truth is exemplified by the study of the modifications which -the skull undergoes in ascending from the lower animals up to man. - -In such a mammal as a Beaver (Fig. 28), a line (_a_. _b_.) drawn through -the bones, termed basioccipital, basisphenoid, and presphenoid, is very -long in proportion to the extreme length of the cavity which contains -the cerebral hemispheres (_g_. _h_.). The plane of the occipital foramen -(_b_. _c_.) forms a slightly acute angle with this "basicranial axis," -while the plane of the tentorium (_i_. _T_.) is inclined at rather more -than 90° to the "basicranial axis"; and so is the plane of the -perforated plate (_a_. _d_.) by which the filaments of the olfactory -nerve leave the skull. Again, a line drawn through the axis of the face, -between the bones called ethmoid and vomer--the "basifacial axis" (_f_. -_e_.) forms an exceedingly obtuse angle, where, when produced, it cuts -the "basicranial axis." - -[Illustration: FIG. 27.--Oblong and prognathous skull of a Negro; side -and front views. One-third of the natural size.] - -If the angle made by the line _b_. _c_. with _a_. _b_., be called the -"occipital angle," and the angle made by the line _a_. _d_. with _a_. -_b_. be termed the "olfactory angle," and that made by _i_. _T_. with -_a_. _b_. the "tentorial angle," then all these, in the mammal in -question, are nearly right angles, varying between 80° and 110°. The -angle _e_. _f_. _b_., or that made by the cranial with the facial axis, -and which may be termed the "cranio-facial angle," is extremely obtuse, -amounting, in the case of the Beaver, to at least 150°. - -But if a series of sections of mammalian skulls, intermediate between a -Rodent and a Man (Fig. 28), be examined, it will be found that in the -higher crania the basicranial axis becomes shorter relatively to the -cerebral length; that the "olfactory angle" and "occipital angle" become -more obtuse; and that the "cranio-facial angle" becomes more acute by -the bending down, as it were, of the facial axis upon the cranial axis. -At the same time, the roof of the cranium becomes more and more arched, -to allow of the increasing height of the cerebral hemispheres, which is -eminently characteristic of man, as well as of that backward extension, -beyond the cerebellum, which reaches its maximum in the South American -Monkeys. So that, at last, in the human skull (Fig. 29), the cerebral -length is between twice and thrice as great as the length of the -basicranial axis; the olfactory plane is 20° or 30° on the _under_ side -of that axis; the occipital angle, instead of being less than 90°, is as -much as 150° or 160°; the cranio-facial angle may be 90° or less, and -the vertical height of the skull may have a large proportion to its -length. - -It will be obvious, from an inspection of the diagrams, that the -basicranial axis is, in the ascending series of Mammalia, a relatively -fixed line, on which the bones of the sides and roof of the cranial -cavity, and of the face, may be said to revolve downwards and forwards -or backwards, according to their position. The arc described by any one -bone or plane, however, is not by any means always in proportion to the -arc described by another. - -Now comes the important question, can we discern, between the lowest and -the highest forms of the human cranium anything answering, in however -slight a degree, to this revolution of the side and roof bones of the -skull upon the basicranial axis observed upon so great a scale in the -mammalian series? Numerous observations lead me to believe that we must -answer this question in the affirmative. - -[Illustration: FIG. 28.--Longitudinal and vertical sections of the -skulls of a Beaver (_Castor Canadensis_), a Lemur (_L. Catta_), and a -Baboon (_Cynocephalus Papio_), _a b_, the basicranial axis; _b c_, the -occipital plane; _i T_, the tentorial plane; _a d_, the olfactory plane; -_f e_, the basifacial axis; _c b a_, occipital angle; _T i a_, tentorial -angle; _d a b_, olfactory angle; _e f b_, cranio-facial angle; _g h_, -extreme length of the cavity which lodges the cerebral hemispheres or -"cerebral length." The length of the basicranial axis as to this length, -or, in other words, the proportional length of the line _g h_ to that of -_a b_ taken as 100, in the three skulls, is as follows:--Beaver 70 to -100; Lemur 119 to 100; Baboon 144 to 100. In an adult male Gorilla the -cerebral length is as 170 to the basicranial axis taken as 100, in the -Negro (Fig. 29) as 236 to 100. In the Constantinople skull (Fig. 29) as -266 to 100. The cranial difference between the highest Ape's skull and -the lowest Man's is therefore very strikingly brought out by these -measurements. - -In the diagram of the Baboon's skull the dotted lines _d^1d^2_, &c., -give the angles of the Lemur's and Beaver's skull, as laid down upon the -basicranial axis of the Baboon. The line _a b_ has the same length in -each diagram.] - -The diagrams in Figure 29 are reduced from very carefully made diagrams -of sections of four skulls, two round and orthognathous, two long and -prognathous, taken longitudinally and vertically, through the middle. -The sectional diagrams have then been superimposed, in such a manner, -that the basal axes of the skulls coincide by their anterior ends, and -in their direction. The deviations of the rest of the contours (which -represent the interior of the skulls only) show the differences of the -skulls from one another, when these axes are regarded as relatively -fixed lines. - -The dark contours are those of an Australian and of a Negro skull: the -light contours are those of a Tartar skull, in the Museum of the Royal -College of Surgeons; and of a well developed round skull from a cemetery -in Constantinople, of uncertain race, in my own possession. - -It appears, at once, from these views, that the prognathous skulls, so -far as their jaws are concerned, do really differ from the orthognathous -in much the same way as, though to a far less degree than, the skulls of -the lower mammals differ from those of Man. Furthermore, the plane of -the occipital foramen (_b c_) forms a somewhat smaller angle with the -axis in these particular prognathous skulls than in the orthognathous; -and the like may be slightly true of the perforated plate of the -ethmoid--though this point is not so clear. But it is singular to remark -that, in another respect, the prognathous skulls are less ape-like than -the orthognathous, the cerebral cavity projecting decidedly more beyond -the anterior end of the axis in the prognathous, than in the -orthognathous, skulls. - -It will be observed that these diagrams reveal an immense range of -variation in the capacity and relative proportion to the cranial axis, -of the different regions of the cavity which contains the brain, in the -different skulls. Nor is the difference in the extent to which the -cerebral overlaps the cerebellar cavity less singular. A round skull -(Fig. 29, _Const._) may have a greater posterior cerebral projection -than a long one (Fig. 29, _Negro_). - -[Illustration: FIG. 29.--Sections of orthognathous (light contour) and -prognathous (dark contour) skulls, one-third of the natural size. _a b_, -Basicranial axis; _b c_, _b´ c´_, plane of the occipital foramen; _d -d´_, hinder end of the palatine bone; _e e´_, front end of the upper -jaw; _TT_´, insertion of the tentorium.] - -Until human crania have been largely worked out in a manner similar to -that here suggested--until it shall be an opprobrium to an ethnological -collection to possess a single skull which is not bisected -longitudinally--until the angles and measurements here mentioned, -together with a number of others of which I cannot speak in this place, -are determined, and tabulated with reference to the basicranial axis as -unity, for large numbers of skulls of the different races of Mankind, I -do not think we shall have any very safe basis for that ethnological -craniology which aspires to give the anatomical characters of the crania -of the different Races of Mankind. - -At present, I believe that the general outlines of what may be safely -said upon that subject may be summed up in a very few words. Draw a line -on a globe from the Gold Coast in Western Africa to the steppes of -Tartary. At the southern and western end of that line there live the -most dolichocephalic, prognathous, curly-haired, dark-skinned of -men--the true Negroes. At the northern and eastern end of the same line -there live the most brachycephalic, orthognathous, straight-haired, -yellow-skinned of men--the Tartars and Calmucks. The two ends of this -imaginary line are indeed, so to speak, ethnological antipodes. A line -drawn at right angles, or nearly so, to this polar line through Europe -and Southern Asia to Hindostan, would give us a sort of equator, around -which round-headed, oval-headed, and oblong-headed, prognathous and -orthognathous, fair and dark races--but none possessing the excessively -marked characters of Calmuck or Negro--group themselves. - -It is worthy of notice that the regions of the antipodal races are -antipodal in climate, the greatest contrast the world affords, perhaps, -being that between the damp, hot, steaming, alluvial coast plains of the -West Coast of Africa and the arid, elevated steppes and plateaux of -Central Asia, bitterly cold in winter, and as far from the sea as any -part of the world can be. - -From Central Asia eastward to the Pacific Islands and subcontinents on -the one hand, and to America on the other, brachycephaly and -orthognathism gradually diminish, and are replaced by dolichocephaly and -prognathism, less, however, on the American Continent (throughout the -whole length of which a rounded type of skull prevails largely, but not -exclusively)[50] than in the Pacific region, where, at length, on the -Australian Continent and in the adjacent islands, the oblong skull, the -projecting jaws, and the dark skin reappear; with so much departure, in -other respects, from the Negro type, that ethnologists assign to these -people the special title of "Negritoes." - -The Australian skull is remarkable for its narrowness and for the -thickness of its walls, especially in the region of the supraciliary -ridge, which is frequently, though not by any means invariably, solid -throughout, the frontal sinuses remaining undeveloped. The nasal -depression, again, is extremely sudden, so that the brows overhang and -give the countenance a particularly lowering, threatening expression. -The occipital region of the skull, also, not unfrequently becomes less -prominent; so that it not only fails to project beyond a line drawn -perpendicular to the hinder extremity of the glabello-occipital line, -but even, in some cases, begins to shelve away from it, forwards, almost -immediately. In consequence of this circumstance, the parts of the -occipital bone which lie above and below the tuberosity make a much more -acute angle with one another than is usual, whereby the hinder part of -the base of the skull appears obliquely truncated. Many Australian -skulls have a considerable height, quite equal to that of the average of -any other race, but there are others in which the cranial roof becomes -remarkably depressed, the skull, at the same time, elongating so much -that, probably, its capacity is not diminished. The majority of skulls -possessing these characters, which I have seen, are from the -neighbourhood of Port Adelaide in South Australia, and have been used by -the natives as water vessels; to which end the face has been knocked -away, and a string passed through the vacuity and the occipital foramen, -so that the skull was suspended by the greater part of its basis. - -Figure 30 represents the contour of a skull of this kind from Western -Port, with the jaw attached, and of the Neanderthal skull, both reduced -to one-third of the size of nature. A small additional amount of -flattening and lengthening, with a corresponding increase of the -supraciliary ridge, would convert the Australian brain case into a form -identical with that of the aberrant fossil. - - * * * * * - -[Illustration: FIG. 30.--An Australian skull from Western Port, in the -Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, with the contour of the -Neanderthal skull. Both reduced to one-third the natural size.] - -And now, to return to the fossil skulls, and to the rank which they -occupy among, or beyond, these existing varieties of cranial -conformation. In the first place, I must remark, that, as Professor -Schmerling well observed (_supra_, p. 114) in commenting upon the Engis -skull, the formation of a safe judgment upon the question is greatly -hindered by the absence of the jaws from both the crania, so that there -is no means of deciding, with certainty, whether they were more or less -prognathous than the lower existing races of mankind. And yet, as we -have seen, it is more in this respect than any other, that human skulls -vary, towards and from, the brutal type--the brain case of an average -dolichocephalic European differing far less from that of a Negro, for -example, than his jaws do. In the absence of the jaws, then, any -judgment on the relations of the fossil skulls to recent Races must be -accepted with a certain reservation. - -But taking the evidence as it stands, and turning first to the Engis -skull, I confess I can find no character in the remains of that cranium -which, if it were a recent skull, would give any trustworthy clue as to -the Race to which it might appertain. Its contours and measurements -agree very well with those of some Australian skulls which I have -examined--and especially has it a tendency towards that occipital -flattening, to the great extent of which, in some Australian skulls, I -have alluded. But all Australian skulls do not present this flattening, -and the supraciliary ridge of the Engis skull is quite unlike that of -the typical Australians. - -On the other hand, its measurements agree equally well with those of -some European skulls. And assuredly, there is no mark of degradation -about any part of its structure. It is, in fact, a fair average human -skull, which might have belonged to a philosopher, or might have -contained the thoughtless brains of a savage. - -The case of the Neanderthal skull is very different. Under whatever -aspect we view this cranium, whether we regard its vertical depression, -the enormous thickness of its supraciliary ridges, its sloping occiput, -or its long and straight squamosal suture, we meet with ape-like -characters, stamping it as the most pithecoid of human crania yet -discovered. But Professor Schaaffhausen states (_supra_, p. 122), that -the cranium, in its present condition, holds 1033.24 cubic centimetres -of water, or about 63 cubic inches, and as the entire skull could hardly -have held less than an additional 12 cubic inches, its capacity may be -estimated at about 75 cubic inches, which is the average capacity given -by Morton for Polynesian and Hottentot skulls. - -[Illustration: FIG. 31.--Ancient Danish skull from a tumulus at Borreby; -one-third of the natural size. From a camera lucida drawing by Mr. -Busk.] - -So large a mass of brain as this, would alone suggest that the pithecoid -tendencies, indicated by this skull, did not extend deep into the -organization; and this conclusion is borne out by the dimensions of the -other bones of the skeleton given by Professor Schaaffhausen, which show -that the absolute height and relative proportions of the limbs, were -quite those of an European of middle stature. The bones are indeed -stouter, but this and the great development of the muscular ridges noted -by Dr. Schaaffhausen, are characters to be expected in savages. The -Patagonians, exposed without shelter or protection to a climate possibly -not very dissimilar from that of Europe at the time during which the -Neanderthal man lived, are remarkable for the stoutness of their limb -bones. - -In no sense, then, can the Neanderthal bones be regarded as the remains -of a human being intermediate between Men and Apes. At most, they -demonstrate the existence of a man whose skull may be said to revert -somewhat towards the pithecoid type--just as a Carrier, or a Pouter, or -a Tumbler, may sometimes put on the plumage of its primitive stock, the -_Columba livia_. And indeed, though truly the most pithecoid of known -human skulls, the Neanderthal cranium is by no means so isolated as it -appears to be at first, but forms, in reality, the extreme term of a -series leading gradually from it to the highest and best developed of -human crania. On the one hand, it is closely approached by the flattened -Australian skulls, of which I have spoken, from which other Australian -forms lead us gradually up to skulls having very much the type of the -Engis cranium. And, on the other hand, it is even more closely affined -to the skulls of certain ancient people who inhabited Denmark during the -"stone period," and were probably either contemporaneous with, or later -than, the makers of the "refuse heaps," or "Kjokkenmöddings" of that -country. - -The correspondence between the longitudinal contour of the Neanderthal -skull and that of some of those skulls from the tumuli at Borreby, very -accurate drawings of which have been made by Mr. Busk, is very close. -The occiput is quite as retreating, the supraciliary ridges are nearly -as prominent, and the skull is as low. Furthermore, the Borreby skull -resembles the Neanderthal form more closely than any of the Australian -skulls do, by the much more rapid retrocession of the forehead. On the -other hand, the Borreby skulls are all somewhat broader, in proportion -to their length, than the Neanderthal skull, while some attain that -proportion of breadth to length (80: 100) which constitutes -brachycephaly. - - * * * * * - -In conclusion, I may say, that the fossil remains of Man hitherto -discovered do not seem to me to take us appreciably nearer to that -lower pithecoid form, by the modification of which he has, probably, -become what he is. And considering what is now known of the most ancient -races of men; seeing that they fashioned flint axes and flint knives and -bone-skewers, of much the same pattern as those fabricated by the lowest -savages at the present day, and that we have every reason to believe the -habits and modes of living of such people to have remained the same from -the time of the Mammoth and the tichorhine Rhinoceros till now, I do not -know that this result is other than might be expected. - -Where, then, must we look for primæval Man? Was the oldest _Homo -sapiens_ pliocene or miocene, or yet more ancient? In still older strata -do the fossilized bones of an Ape more anthropoid, or a Man more -pithecoid, than any yet known await the researches of some unborn -paleontologist? - -Time will show. But, in the meanwhile, if any form of the doctrine of -progressive development is correct, we must extend by long epochs the -most liberal estimate that has yet been made of the antiquity of Man. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[38] Decas Collectionis suæ craniorum diversarum gentium illustrata. -Gottingæ, 1790-1820. - -[39] In a subsequent passage, Schmerling remarks upon the occurrence of -an incisor tooth "of enormous size" from the caverns of Engihoul. The -tooth figured is somewhat long, but its dimensions do not appear to me -to be otherwise remarkable. - -[40] The figure of this clavicle measures 5 inches from end to end in a -straight line--so that the bone is rather a small than a large one. - -[41] ON THE CRANIA OF THE MOST ANCIENT RACES OF MAN. By Professor D. -Schaaffhausen, of Bonn. (From Müller's Archiv., 1858, p. 453.) With -Remarks, and original Figures, taken from a Cast of the Neanderthal -Cranium. By George Busk, F.R.S., &c. Natural History Review, April, -1861. - -[42] Verhandl. d. Naturhist. Vereins der preuss. Rheinlande und -Westphalens., xiv. Bonn, 1857. - -[43] Ib. Correspondenzblatt. No. 2. - -[44] This, Mr. Busk has pointed out, is probably the notch for the -frontal nerve. - -[45] The numbers in brackets are those which I should assign to the -different measures, as taken from the plaster cast.--G. B. - -[46] Verh. des Naturhist. Vereins in Bonn, xiv. 1857. - -[47] Estimating the facial angle in the way suggested, on the cast I -should place it at 64° to 67°.--G. B. - -[48] See an excellent Essay by Mr. Church on the Myology of the Orang, -in the Natural History Review, for 1861. - -[49] In no normal human skull does the breadth of the brain-case exceed -its length. - -[50] See Dr. D. Wilson's valuable paper "On the supposed prevalence of -one Cranial Type throughout the American aborigines."--Canadian Journal, -vol. ii., 1857. - - - - -IV - - THE PRESENT CONDITION OF ORGANIC - NATURE. - - -When it was my duty to consider what subject I would select for the six -lectures which I shall now have the pleasure of delivering to you, it -occurred to me that I could not do better than endeavour to put before -you in a true light, or in what I might perhaps with more modesty call, -that which I conceive myself to be the true light, the position of a -book which has been more praised and more abused, perhaps, than any book -which has appeared for some years;--I mean Mr. Darwin's work on the -"Origin of Species." That work, I doubt not, many of you have read; for -I know the inquiring spirit which is rife among you. At any rate, all of -you will have heard of it,--some by one kind of report and some by -another kind of report; the attention of all and the curiosity of all -have been probably more or less excited on the subject of that work. All -I can do, and all I shall attempt to do, is to put before you that kind -of judgment which has been formed by a man, who, of course, is liable to -judge erroneously; but at any rate, of one whose business and profession -it is to form judgments upon questions of this nature. - -And here, as it will always happen when dealing with an extensive -subject, the greater part of my course--if, indeed, so small a number of -lectures can be properly called a course--must be devoted to preliminary -matters, or rather to a statement of those facts and of those principles -which the work itself dwells upon, and brings more or less directly -before us. I have no right to suppose that all or any of you are -naturalists; and even if you were, the misconceptions and -misunderstandings prevalent even among naturalists on these matters -would make it desirable that I should take the course I now propose to -take,--that I should start from the beginning,--that I should endeavour -to point out what is the existing state of the organic world--that I -should point out its past condition,--that I should state what is the -precise nature of the undertaking which Mr. Darwin has taken in hand; -that I should endeavour to show you what are the only methods by which -that undertaking can be brought to an issue, and to point out to you how -far the author of the work in question has satisfied those conditions, -how far he has not satisfied them, how far they are satisfiable by man, -and how far they are not satisfiable by man. - -To-night, in taking up the first part of the question, I shall endeavour -to put before you a sort of broad notion of our knowledge of the -condition of the living world. There are many ways of doing this. I -might deal with it pictorially and graphically. Following the example of -Humboldt in his "Aspects of Nature," I might endeavour to point out the -infinite variety of organic life in every mode of its existence, with -reference to the variations of climate and the like; and such an attempt -would be fraught with interest to us all; but considering the subject -before us, such a course would not be that best calculated to assist us. -In an argument of this kind we must go further and dig deeper into the -matter; we must endeavour to look into the foundations of living Nature, -if I may so say, and discover the principles involved in some of her -most secret operations. I propose, therefore, in the first place, to -take some ordinary animal with which you are all familiar, and, by -easily comprehensible and obvious examples drawn from it, to show what -are the kind of problems which living beings in general lay before us; -and I shall then show you that the same problems are laid open to us by -all kinds of living beings. But, first, let me say in what sense I have -used the words "organic nature." In speaking of the causes which lead to -our present knowledge of organic nature, I have used it almost as an -equivalent of the word "living," and for this reason,--that in almost -all living beings you can distinguish several distinct portions set -apart to do particular things and work in a particular way. These are -termed "organs," and the whole together is called "organic." And as it -is universally characteristic of them, the term "organic" has been very -conveniently employed to denote the whole of living nature,--the whole -of the plant world, and the whole of the animal world. - -Few animals can be more familiar to you than that whose skeleton is -shown on our diagram. You need not bother yourselves with this "_Equus -caballus_" written under it; that is only the Latin name of it, and does -not make it any better. It simply means the common Horse. Suppose we -wish to understand all about the Horse. Our first object must be to -study the structure of the animal. The whole of his body is inclosed -within a hide, a skin covered with hair; and if that hide or skin be -taken off, we find a great mass of flesh, or what is technically called -muscle, being the substance which by its power of contraction enables -the animal to move. These muscles move the hard parts one upon the -other, and so give that strength and power of motion which renders the -Horse so useful to us in the performance of those services in which we -employ him. - -And then, on separating and removing the whole of this skin and flesh, -you have a great series of bones, hard structures, bound together with -ligaments, and forming the skeleton which is represented here. - -[Illustration: FIG. 32.] - -In that skeleton there are a number of parts to be recognized. The long -series of bones, beginning from the skull and ending in the tail, is -called the spine, and those in front are the ribs; and then there are -two pairs of limbs, one before and one behind; and there are what we all -know as the fore-legs and the hind-legs. If we pursue our researches -into the interior of this animal, we find within the framework of the -skeleton a great cavity, or rather, I should say, two great -cavities,--one cavity beginning in the skull and running through the -neck-bones, along the spine, and ending in the tail, containing the -brain and the spinal marrow, which are extremely important organs. The -second great cavity, commencing with the mouth, contains the gullet, the -stomach, the long intestine, and all the rest of those internal -apparatus which are essential for digestion; and then in the same great -cavity, there are lodged the heart and all the great vessels going from -it; and, besides that, the organs of respiration--the lungs; and then -the kidneys, and the organs of reproduction, and so on. Let us now -endeavour to reduce this notion of a horse that we now have, to some -such kind of simple expression as can be at once, and without -difficulty, retained in the mind, apart from all minor details. If I -make a transverse section, that is, if I were to saw a dead horse -across, I should find that, if I left out the details, and supposing I -took my section through the anterior region, and through the fore-limbs, -I should have here this kind of section of the body (Fig. 32). Here -would be the upper part of the animal--that great mass of bones that we -spoke of as the spine (_a_, Fig. 32). Here I should have the alimentary -canal (_b_, Fig. 32). Here I should have the heart (_c_, Fig. 32); and -then you see, there would be a kind of double tube, the whole being -inclosed within the hide; the spinal marrow would be placed in the upper -tube (_a_, Fig. 32), and in the lower tube (_d d_, Fig. 32), there would -be the alimentary canal (_b_), and the heart (_c_); and here I shall -have the legs proceeding from each side. For simplicity's sake, I -represent them merely as stumps (_e e_, Fig. 32). Now that is a -horse--as mathematicians would say--reduced to its most simple -expression. Carry that in your minds, if you please, as a simplified -idea of the structure of the Horse. The considerations which I have now -put before you belong to what we technically call the "Anatomy" of the -Horse. Now, suppose we go to work upon these several parts,--flesh and -hair, and skin and bone, and lay open these various organs with our -scalpels, and examine them by means of our magnifying-glasses, and see -what we can make of them. We shall find that the flesh is made up of -bundles of strong fibres. The brain and nerves, too, we shall find, are -made up of fibres, and these queer-looking things that are called -ganglionic corpuscles. If we take a slice of the bone and examine it, we -shall find that it is very like this diagram of a section of the bone of -an ostrich, though differing, of course, in some details; and if we take -any part whatsoever of the tissue, and examine it, we shall find it all -has a minute structure, visible only under the microscope. All these -parts constitute microscopic anatomy or "Histology." These parts are -constantly being changed; every part is constantly growing, decaying, -and being replaced during the life of the animal. The tissue is -constantly replaced by new material; and if you go back to the young -state of the tissue in the case of muscle, or in the case of skin, or -any of the organs I have mentioned, you will find that they all come -under the same condition. Every one of these microscopic filaments and -fibres (I now speak merely of the general character of the whole -process)--every one of these parts--could be traced down to some -modification of a tissue which can be readily divided into little -particles of fleshy matter, of that substance which is composed of the -chemical elements, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, having such a -shape as this (Fig. 33). These particles, into which all primitive -tissues break up, are called cells. If I were to make a section of a -piece of the skin of my hand, I should find that it was made up of these -cells. If I examine the fibres which form the various organs of all -living animals, I should find that all of them, at one time or other, -had been formed out of a substance consisting of similar elements; so -that you see, just as we reduced the whole body in the gross to that -sort of simple expression given in Fig. 32, so we may reduce the whole -of the microscopic structural elements to a form of even greater -simplicity; just as the plan of the whole body may be so represented in -a sense (Fig. 32), so the primary structure of every tissue may be -represented by a mass of cells (Fig. 33). - -[Illustration: FIG. 33.] - -Having thus, in this sort of general way, sketched to you what I may -call, perhaps, the architecture of the body of the Horse, (what we term -technically its Morphology,) I must now turn to another aspect. A horse -is not a mere dead structure: it is an active, living, working machine. -Hitherto we have, as it were, been looking at a steam-engine with the -fires out, and nothing in the boiler; but the body of the living animal -is a beautifully-formed active machine, and every part has its different -work to do in the working of that machine, which is what we call its -life. The Horse, if you see him after his day's work is done, is -cropping the grass in the fields, as it may be, or munching the oats in -his stable. What is he doing? His jaws are working as a mill--and a very -complex mill too--grinding the corn, or crushing the grass to a pulp. As -soon as that operation has taken place, the food is passed down to the -stomach, and there it is mixed with the chemical fluid called the -gastric juice, a substance which has the peculiar property of making -soluble and dissolving out the nutritious matter in the grass, and -leaving behind those parts which are not nutritious; so that you have, -first, the mill, then a sort of chemical digester; and then the food, -thus partially dissolved, is carried back by the muscular contractions -of the intestines into the hinder parts of the body, while the soluble -portions are taken up into the blood. The blood is contained in a vast -system of pipes, spreading through the whole body, connected with a -force-pump,--the heart,--which, by its position and by the contractions -of its valves, keeps the blood constantly circulating in one direction, -never allowing it to rest; and then, by means of this circulation of the -blood, laden as it is with the products of digestion, the skin, the -flesh, the hair, and every other part of the body, draws from it that -which it wants, and every one of these organs derives those materials -which are necessary to enable it to do its work. - -The action of each of these organs, the performance of each of these -various duties, involve in their operation a continual absorption of -the matters necessary for their support, from the blood, and a constant -formation of waste products, which are returned to the blood, and -conveyed by it to the lungs and the kidneys, which are organs that have -allotted to them the office of extracting, separating, and getting rid -of these waste products; and thus the general nourishment, labour, and -repair of the whole machine is kept up with order and regularity. But -not only is it a machine which feeds and appropriates to its own support -the nourishment necessary to its existence--it is an engine for -locomotive purposes. The Horse desires to go from one place to another; -and to enable it to do this, it has those strong contractile bundles of -muscles attached to the bones of its limbs, which are put in motion by -means of a sort of telegraphic apparatus formed by the brain and the -great spinal cord running through the spine or backbone; and to this -spinal cord are attached a number of fibres termed nerves, which proceed -to all parts of the structure. By means of these the eyes, nose, tongue, -and skin--all the organs of perception--transmit impressions or -sensations to the brain, which acts as a sort of great central -telegraph-office, receiving impressions and sending messages to all -parts of the body, and putting in motion the muscles necessary to -accomplish any movement that may be desired. So that you have here an -extremely complex and beautifully-proportioned machine, with all its -parts working harmoniously together towards one common object--the -preservation of the life of the animal. - -Now, note this: the Horse makes up its waste by feeding, and its food is -grass or oats, or perhaps other vegetable products; therefore, in the -long run, the source of all this complex machinery lies in the vegetable -kingdom. But where does the grass, or the oat, or any other plant, -obtain this nourishing food-producing material? At first it is a little -seed, which soon begins to draw into itself from the earth and the -surrounding air matters which in themselves contain no vital properties -whatever; it absorbs into its own substance water, an inorganic body; it -draws into its substance carbonic acid, an inorganic matter; and -ammonia, another inorganic matter, found in the air; and then, by some -wonderful chemical process, the details of which chemists do not yet -understand, though they are near foreshadowing them, it combines them -into one substance, which is known to us as "Protein," a complex -compound of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, which alone -possesses the property of manifesting vitality and of permanently -supporting animal life. So that, you see, the waste products of the -animal economy, the effete materials which are continually being thrown -off by all living beings, in the form of organic matters, are constantly -replaced by supplies of the necessary repairing and rebuilding materials -drawn from the plants, which in their turn manufacture them, so to -speak, by a mysterious combination of those same inorganic materials. - -Let us trace out the history of the Horse in another direction. After a -certain time, as the result of sickness or disease, the effect of -accident, or the consequence of old age, sooner or later, the animal -dies. The multitudinous operations of this beautiful mechanism flag in -their performance, the Horse loses its vigour, and after passing through -the curious series of changes comprised in its formation and -preservation, it finally decays, and ends its life by going back into -that inorganic world from which all but an inappreciable fraction of its -substance was derived. Its bones become mere carbonate and phosphate of -lime; the matter of its flesh, and of its other parts, becomes, in the -long run, converted into carbonic acid, into water, and into ammonia. -You will now, perhaps, understand the curious relation of the animal -with the plant, of the organic with the inorganic world, which is shown -in this diagram. - -The plant gathers these inorganic materials together and makes them up -into its own substance. The animal eats the plant and appropriates the -nutritious portions to its own sustenance, rejects and gets rid of the -useless matters; and, finally, the animal itself dies, and its whole -body is decomposed and returned into the inorganic world. There is thus -a constant circulation from one to the other, a continual formation of -organic life from inorganic matters, and as constant a return of the -matter of living bodies to the inorganic world; so that the materials -of which our bodies are composed are largely, in all probability, the -substances which constituted the matter of long extinct creations, but -which have in the interval constituted a part of the inorganic world. - -[Illustration: INORGANIC WORLD. - -VEGETABLE WORLD. ANIMAL WORLD. - -FIG. 34.] - -Thus we come to the conclusion, strange at first sight, that the MATTER -constituting the living world is identical with that which forms the -inorganic world. And not less true is it that, remarkable as are the -powers or, in other words, as are the FORCES which are exerted by living -beings, yet all these forces are either identical with those which exist -in the inorganic world, or they are convertible into them; I mean in -just the same sense as the researches of physical philosophers have -shown that heat is convertible into electricity, that electricity is -convertible into magnetism, magnetism into mechanical force or chemical -force, and any one of them with the other, each being measurable in -terms of the other,--even so, I say, that great law is applicable to the -living world. Consider why is the skeleton of this horse capable of -supporting the masses of flesh and the various organs forming the living -body, unless it is because of the action of the same forces of cohesion -which combines together the particles of matter composing this piece of -chalk? What is there in the muscular contractile power of the animal -but the force which is expressible, and which is in a certain sense -convertible, into the force of gravity which it overcomes? Or, if you go -to more hidden processes, in what does the process of digestion differ -from those processes which are carried on in the laboratory of the -chemist? Even if we take the most recondite and most complex operations -of animal life--those of the nervous system, these of late years have -been shown to be--I do not say identical in any sense with the -electrical processes--but this has been shown, that they are in some way -or other associated with them; that is to say, that every amount of -nervous action is accompanied by a certain amount of electrical -disturbance in the particles of the nerves in which that nervous action -is carried on. In this way the nervous action is related to electricity -in the same way that heat is related to electricity; and the same sort -of argument which demonstrates the two latter to be related to one -another shows that the nervous forces are correlated to electricity; for -the experiments of M. Dubois Reymond and others have shown that whenever -a nerve is in a state of excitement, sending a message to the muscles or -conveying an impression to the brain, there is a disturbance of the -electrical condition of that nerve which does not exist at other times; -and there are a number of other facts and phenomena of that sort; so -that we come to the broad conclusion that not only as to living matter -itself, but as to the forces that matter exerts, there is a close -relationship between the organic and the inorganic world--the difference -between them arising from the diverse combination and disposition of -identical forces, and not from any primary diversity, so far as we can -see. - -I said just now that the Horse eventually died and became converted into -the same inorganic substances from whence all but an inappreciable -fraction of its substance demonstrably originated, so that the actual -wanderings of matter are as remarkable as the transmigrations of the -soul fabled by Indian tradition. But before death has occurred, in the -one sex or the other, and in fact in both, certain products or parts of -the organism have been set free, certain parts of the organisms of the -two sexes have come into contact with one another, and from that -conjunction, from that union which then takes place, there results the -formation of a new being. At stated times the mare, from a particular -part of the interior of her body, called the ovary, gets rid of a minute -particle of matter comparable in all essential respects with that which -we called a cell a little while since, which cell contains a kind of -nucleus in its centre, surrounded by a clear space and by a viscid mass -of protein substance (Fig. 33); and though it is different in appearance -from the eggs which we are mostly acquainted with, it is really an egg. -After a time this minute particle of matter, which may only be a small -fraction of a grain in weight, undergoes a series of changes,--wonderful, -complex changes. Finally, upon its surface there is fashioned a little -elevation, which afterwards becomes divided and marked by a groove. The -lateral boundaries of the groove extend upwards and downwards, and at -length give rise to a double tube. In the upper and smaller tube the -spinal marrow and brain are fashioned; in the lower, the alimentary -canal and heart; and at length two pairs of buds shoot out at the sides -of the body, and they are the rudiments of the limbs. In fact a true -drawing of a section of the embryo in this state would in all essential -respects resemble that diagram of a horse reduced to its simplest -expression, which I first placed before you (Fig. 32). - -Slowly and gradually these changes take place. The whole of the body, at -first, can be broken up into "cells," which become in one place -metamorphosed into muscle,--in another place into gristle and bone,--in -another place into fibrous tissue,--and in another into hair; every part -becoming gradually and slowly fashioned, as if there were an artificer -at work in each of these complex structures that I have mentioned. This -embryo, as it is called, then passes into other conditions. I should -tell you that there is a time when the embryos of neither dog, nor -horse, nor porpoise, nor monkey, nor man, can be distinguished by any -essential feature one from the other; there is a time when they each and -all of them resemble this one of the Dog. But as development advances, -all the parts acquire their speciality, till at length you have the -embryo converted into the form of the parent from which it started. So -that, you see, this living animal, this horse, begins its existence as a -minute particle of nitrogenous matter, which, being supplied with -nutriment (derived, as I have shown, from the inorganic world), grows up -according to the special type and construction of its parents, works and -undergoes a constant waste, and that waste is made good by nutriment -derived from the inorganic world; the waste given off in this way being -directly added to the inorganic world. Eventually the animal itself -dies, and, by the process of decomposition, its whole body is returned -to those conditions of inorganic matter in which its substance -originated. - -This, then, is that which is true of every living form, from the lowest -plant to the highest animal--to man himself. You might define the life -of every one in exactly the same terms as those which I have now used; -the difference between the highest and the lowest being simply in the -complexity of the developmental changes, the variety of the structural -forms, and the diversity of the physiological functions which are -exerted by each. - -If I were to take an oak tree, as a specimen of the plant world, I -should find that it originated in an acorn, which, too, commenced in a -cell; the acorn is placed in the ground, and it very speedily begins to -absorb the inorganic matters I have named, adds enormously to its bulk, -and we can see it, year after year, extending itself upward and -downward, attracting and appropriating to itself inorganic materials, -which it vivifies, and eventually, as it ripens, gives off its own -proper acorns, which again run the same course. But I need not multiply -examples,--from the highest to the lowest the essential features of life -are the same, as I have described in each of these cases. - -So much, then, for these particular features of the organic world, which -you can understand and comprehend, so long as you confine yourself to -one sort of living being, and study that only. - -But, as you know, horses are not the only living creatures in the -world; and again, horses, like all other animals, have certain -limits--are confined to a certain area on the surface of the earth on -which we live,--and, as that is the simpler matter, I may take that -first. In its wild state, and before the discovery of America, when the -natural state of things was interfered with by the Spaniards, the Horse -was only to be found in parts of the earth which are known to -geographers as the Old World; that is to say, you might meet with horses -in Europe, Asia, or Africa; but there were none in Australia, and there -were none whatsoever in the whole continent of America, from Labrador -down to Cape Horn. This is an empirical fact, and it is what is called, -stated in the way I have given it you, the "Geographical Distribution" -of the Horse. - -Why horses should be found in Europe, Asia, and Africa, and not in -America, is not obvious; the explanation that the conditions of life in -America are unfavourable to their existence, and that, therefore, they -had not been created there, evidently does not apply; for when the -invading Spaniards, or our own yeomen farmers, conveyed horses to these -countries for their own use, they were found to thrive well and multiply -very rapidly; and many are even now running wild in those countries, and -in a perfectly natural condition. Now, suppose we were to do for every -animal what we have here done for the Horse,--that is, to mark off and -distinguish the particular district or region to which each belonged; -and supposing we tabulated all these results, that would be called the -Geographical Distribution of animals, while a corresponding study of -plants would yield as a result the Geographical Distribution of plants. - -I pass on from that now, as I merely wished to explain to you what I -meant by the use of the term "Geographical Distribution." As I said, -there is another aspect, and a much more important one, and that is, the -relations of the various animals to one another. The Horse is a very -well-defined matter-of-fact sort of animal, and we are all pretty -familiar with its structure. I dare say it may have struck you, that it -resembles very much no other member of the animal kingdom, except -perhaps the Zebra or the Ass. But let me ask you to look along these -diagrams. Here is the skeleton of the Horse, and here the skeleton of -the Dog. You will notice that we have in the Horse a skull, a backbone -and ribs, shoulder-blades and haunch-bones. In the fore-limb, one upper -arm-bone, two fore arm-bones, wrist-bones (wrongly called knee), and -middle hand-bones, ending in the three bones of a finger, the last of -which is sheathed in the horny hoof of the fore-foot: in the hind-limb, -one thigh-bone, two leg-bones, ankle-bones, and middle foot-bones, -ending in the three bones of a toe, the last of which is encased in the -hoof of the hind-foot. Now turn to the Dog's skeleton. We find -identically the same bones, but more of them, there being more toes in -each foot, and hence more toe-bones. - -Well, that is a very curious thing! The fact is that the Dog and the -Horse--when one gets a look at them without the outward impediments of -the skin--are found to be made in very much the same sort of fashion. -And if I were to make a transverse section of the Dog, I should find the -same organs that I have already shown you as forming parts of the Horse. -Well, here is another skeleton--that of a kind of Lemur--you see he has -just the same bones; and if I were to make a transverse section of it, -it would be just the same again. In your mind's eye turn him round, so -as to put his backbone in a position inclined obliquely upwards and -forwards, just as in the next three diagrams, which represent the -skeletons of an Orang, a Chimpanzee, and a Gorilla, and you find you -have no trouble in identifying the bones throughout; and lastly turn to -the end of the series, the diagram representing a man's skeleton, and -still you find no great structural feature essentially altered. There -are the same bones in the same relations. From the Horse we pass on and -on, with gradual steps, until we arrive at last at the highest known -forms. On the other hand, take the other line of diagrams, and pass from -the Horse downwards in the scale to this fish; and still, though the -modifications are vastly greater, the essential framework of the -organization remains unchanged. Here, for instance, is a Porpoise; here -is its strong backbone, with the cavity running through it, which -contains the spinal cord; here are the ribs, here the shoulder-blade; -here is the little short upper-arm bone, here are the two forearm -bones, the wrist-bone, and the finger-bones. - -Strange, is it not, that the Porpoise should have in this queer-looking -affair--its flapper (as it is called), the same fundamental elements as -the fore-leg of the Horse or the Dog, or the Ape or Man; and here you -will notice a very curious thing,--the hinder limbs are absent. Now, let -us make another jump. Let us go to the Codfish: here you see is the -forearm, in this large pectoral fin--carrying your mind's eye onward -from the flapper of the Porpoise. And here you have the hinder limbs -restored in the shape of these ventral fins. If I were to make a -transverse section of this, I should find just the same organs that we -have before noticed. So that, you see, there comes out this strange -conclusion as the result of our investigations, that the Horse, when -examined and compared with other animals, is found by no means to stand -alone in nature; but that there are an enormous number of other -creatures which have backbones, ribs, and legs, and other parts arranged -in the same general manner, and in all their formation exhibiting the -same broad peculiarities. - -I am sure that you cannot have followed me even in this extremely -elementary exposition of the structural relations of animals, without -seeing what I have been driving at all through, which is, to show you -that, step by step, naturalists have come to the idea of a unity of -plan, or conformity of construction, among animals which appeared at -first sight to be extremely dissimilar. - -And here you have evidence of such a unity of plan among all the animals -which have backbones, and which we technically call _Vertebrata_. But -there are multitudes of other animals, such as crabs, lobsters, spiders, -and so on, which we term _Annulosa_. In these I could not point out to -you the parts that correspond with those of the Horse,--the backbone, -for instance,--as they are constructed upon a very different principle, -which is also common to all of them; that is to say, the Lobster, the -Spider, and the Centipede, have a common plan running through their -whole arrangement, in just the same way that the Horse, the Dog, and the -Porpoise assimilate to each other. - -Yet other creatures--whelks, cuttlefishes, oysters, snails, and all -their tribe (_Mollusca_)--resemble one another in the same way, but -differ from both _Vertebrata_ and _Annulosa_; and the like is true of -the animals called _Coelenterata_ (Polypes) and _Protozoa_ -(animalcules and sponges). - -Now, by pursuing this sort of comparison, naturalists have arrived at -the conviction that there are,--some think five, and some seven,--but -certainly not more than the latter number--and perhaps it is simpler to -assume five--distinct plans or constructions in the whole of the animal -world; and that the hundreds of thousands of species of creatures on the -surface of the earth, are all reducible to those five, or, at most, -seven, plans of organization. - -But can we go no further than that? When one has got so far, one is -tempted to go on a step and inquire whether we cannot go back yet -further and bring down the whole to modifications of one primordial -unit. The anatomist cannot do this; but if he call to his aid the study -of development, he can do it. For we shall find that, distinct as those -plans are, whether it be a porpoise or man, or lobster, or any of those -other kinds I have mentioned, every one begins its existence with one -and the same primitive form,--that of the egg, consisting, as we have -seen, of a nitrogenous substance, having a small particle or nucleus in -the centre of it. Furthermore, the earlier changes of each are -substantially the same. And it is in this that lies that true "unity of -organization" of the animal kingdom which has been guessed at and -fancied for many years; but which it has been left to the present time -to be demonstrated by the careful study of development. But is it -possible to go another step further still, and to show that in the same -way the whole of the organic world is reducible to one primitive -condition of form? Is there among the plants the same primitive form of -organization, and is that identical with that of the animal kingdom? The -reply to that question, too, is not uncertain or doubtful. It is now -proved that every plant begins its existence under the same form; that -is to say, in that of a cell--a particle of nitrogenous matter having -substantially the same conditions. So that if you trace back the oak to -its first germ, or a man, or a horse, or lobster, or oyster, or any -other animal you choose to name, you shall find each and all of these -commencing their existence in forms essentially similar to each other: -and, furthermore, that the first processes of growth, and many of the -subsequent modifications, are essentially the same in principle in -almost all. - -In conclusion, let me, in a few words, recapitulate the positions which -I have laid down. And you must understand that I have not been talking -mere theory; I have been speaking of matters which are as plainly -demonstrable as the commonest propositions of Euclid--of facts that must -form the basis of all speculations and beliefs in Biological science. We -have gradually traced down all organic forms, or, in other words, we -have analyzed the present condition of animated nature, until we found -that each species took its origin in a form similar to that under which -all the others commenced their existence. We have found the whole of the -vast array of living forms with which we are surrounded, constantly -growing, increasing, decaying, and disappearing; the animal constantly -attracting, modifying, and applying to its sustenance the matter of the -vegetable kingdom, which derived its support from the absorption and -conversion of inorganic matter. And so constant and universal is this -absorption, waste, and reproduction, that it may be said with perfect -certainty that there is left in no one of our bodies at the present -moment a millionth part of the matter of which they were originally -formed! We have seen, again, that not only is the living matter derived -from the inorganic world, but that the forces of that matter are all of -them correlative with and convertible into those of inorganic nature. - -This, for our present purposes, is the best view of the present -condition of organic nature which I can lay before you: it gives you the -great outlines of a vast picture, which you must fill up by your own -study. - -In the next lecture I shall endeavour in the same way to go back into -the past, and to sketch in the same broad manner the history of life in -epochs preceding our own. - - - - -V - - THE PAST CONDITION OF ORGANIC - NATURE. - - -In the lecture which I delivered last Monday evening, I endeavoured to -sketch in a very brief manner, but as well as the time at my disposal -would permit, the present condition of organic nature, meaning by that -large title simply an indication of the great, broad, and general -principles which are to be discovered by those who look attentively at -the phenomena of organic nature as at present displayed. The general -result of our investigations might be summed up thus: we found that the -multiplicity of the forms of animal life, great as that may be, may be -reduced to a comparatively few primitive plans or types of construction; -that a further study of the development of those different forms -revealed to us that they were again reducible, until we at last brought -the infinite diversity of animal, and even vegetable life, down to the -primordial form of a single cell. - -We found that our analysis of the organic world, whether animals or -plants, showed, in the long run, that they might both be reduced into, -and were, in fact, composed of the same constituents. And we saw that -the plant obtained the materials constituting its substance by a -peculiar combination of matters belonging entirely to the inorganic -world; that, then, the animal was constantly appropriating the -nitrogenous matters of the plant to its own nourishment, and returning -them back to the inorganic world, in what we spoke of as its waste; and -that, finally, when the animal ceased to exist, the constituents of its -body were dissolved and transmitted to that inorganic world whence they -had been at first abstracted. Thus we saw in both the blade of grass -and the horse but the same elements differently combined and arranged. -We discovered a continual circulation going on,--the plant drawing in -the elements of inorganic nature and combining them into food for the -animal creation; the animal borrowing from the plant the matter for its -own support, giving off during its life products which returned -immediately to the inorganic world; and that, eventually, the -constituent materials of the whole structure of both animals and plants -were thus returned to their original source: there was a constant -passage from one state of existence to another, and a returning back -again. - -Lastly, when we endeavoured to form some notion of the nature of the -forces exercised by living beings, we discovered that they--if not -capable of being subjected to the same minute analysis as the -constituents of those beings themselves--that they were correlative -with--that they were the equivalents of the forces of inorganic -nature--that they were, in the sense in which the term is now used, -convertible with them. That was our general result. - -And now, leaving the Present, I must endeavour in the same manner to put -before you the facts that are to be discovered in the Past history of -the living world, in the past conditions of organic nature. We have, -to-night, to deal with the facts of that history--a history involving -periods of time before which our mere human records sink into utter -insignificance--a history the variety and physical magnitude of whose -events cannot even be foreshadowed by the history of human life and -human phenomena--a history of the most varied and complex character. - -We must deal with the history, then, in the first place, as we should -deal with all other histories. The historical student knows that his -first business should be to inquire into the validity of his evidence, -and the nature of the record in which the evidence is contained, that he -may be able to form a proper estimate of the correctness of the -conclusions which have been drawn from that evidence. So, here, we must -pass, in the first place, to the consideration of a matter which may -seem foreign to the question under discussion. We must dwell upon the -nature of the records, and the credibility of the evidence they contain; -we must look to the completeness or incompleteness of those records -themselves, before we turn to that which they contain and reveal. The -question of the credibility of the history, happily for us, will not -require much consideration, for, in this history, unlike those of human -origin, there can be no cavilling, no differences as to the reality and -truth of the facts of which it is made up; the facts state themselves, -and are laid out clearly before us. - -But, although one of the greatest difficulties of the historical student -is cleared out of our path, there are other difficulties--difficulties -in rightly interpreting the facts as they are presented to us--which may -be compared with the greatest difficulties of any other kinds of -historical study. - -What is this record of the past history of the globe, and what are the -questions which are involved in an inquiry into its completeness or -incompleteness? That record is composed of mud; and the question which -we have to investigate this evening resolves itself into a question of -the formation of mud. You may think, perhaps, that this is a vast -step--of almost from the sublime to the ridiculous--from the -contemplation of the history of the past ages of the world's existence -to the consideration of the history of the formation of mud! But, in -nature, there is nothing mean and unworthy of attention; there is -nothing ridiculous or contemptible in any of her works; and this -inquiry, you will soon see, I hope, takes us to the very root and -foundations of our subject. - -How, then, is mud formed? Always, with some trifling exception, which I -need not consider now--always, as the result of the action of water, -wearing down and disintegrating the surface of the earth and rocks with -which it comes in contact--pounding and grinding it down, and carrying -the particles away to places where they cease to be disturbed by this -mechanical action, and where they can subside and rest. For the ocean, -urged by winds, washes, as we know, a long extent of coast, and every -wave, loaded as it is with particles of sand and gravel as it breaks -upon the shore, does something towards the disintegrating process. And -thus, slowly but surely, the hardest rocks are gradually ground down to -a powdery substance; and the mud thus formed, coarser or finer, as the -case may be, is carried by the rush of the tides, or currents, till it -reaches the comparatively deeper parts of the ocean, in which it can -sink to the bottom, that is, to parts where there is a depth of about -fourteen or fifteen fathoms, a depth at which the water is, usually, -nearly motionless, and in which, of course, the finer particles of this -detritus, or mud as we call it, sinks to the bottom. - -Or, again, if you take a river, rushing down from its mountain sources, -brawling over the stones and rocks that intersect its path, loosening, -removing, and carrying with it in its downward course the pebbles and -lighter matters from its banks, it crushes and pounds down the rocks and -earths in precisely the same way as the wearing action of the sea waves. -The matters forming the deposit are torn from the mountain-side and -whirled impetuously into the valley, more slowly over the plain, thence -into the estuary, and from the estuary they are swept into the sea. The -coarser and heavier fragments are obviously deposited first, that is, as -soon as the current begins to lose its force by becoming amalgamated -with the stiller depths of the ocean, but the finer and lighter -particles are carried further on, and eventually deposited in a deeper -and stiller portion of the ocean. - -It clearly follows from this that mud gives us a chronology; for it is -evident that supposing this, which I now sketch, to be the sea bottom, -and supposing this to be a coast-line; from the washing action of the -sea upon the rock, wearing and grinding it down into a sediment of mud, -the mud will be carried down and, at length, deposited in the deeper -parts of this sea-bottom, where it will form a layer; and then, while -that first layer is hardening, other mud which is coming from the same -source will, of course, be carried to the same place; and, as it is -quite impossible for it to get beneath the layer already there, it -deposits itself above it, and forms another layer, and in that way you -gradually have layers of mud constantly forming and hardening one above -the other, and conveying a record of time. - -It is a necessary result of the operation of the law of gravitation that -the uppermost layer shall be the youngest and the lowest the oldest, and -that the different beds shall be older at any particular point or spot -in exactly the ratio of their depth from the surface. So that if they -were upheaved afterwards, and you had a series of these different layers -of mud, converted into sandstone, or limestone, as the case might be, -you might be sure that the bottom layer was deposited first, and that -the upper layers were formed afterwards. Here, you see, is the first -step in the history--these layers of mud give us an idea of time. - -The whole surface of the earth,--I speak broadly, and leave out minor -qualifications,--is made up of such layers of mud, so hard, the majority -of them, that we call them rock, whether limestone or sandstone, or -other varieties of rock. And, seeing that every part of the crust of the -earth is made up in this way, you might think that the determination of -the chronology, the fixing of the time which it has taken to form this -crust is a comparatively simple matter. Take a broad average, ascertain -how fast the mud is deposited upon the bottom of the sea, or in the -estuary of rivers; take it to be an inch, or two, or three inches a -year, or whatever you may roughly estimate it at; then take the total -thickness of the whole series of stratified rocks, which geologists -estimate at twelve or thirteen miles, or about seventy thousand feet, -make a sum in short division, divide the total thickness by that of the -quantity deposited in one year, and the result will, of course, give you -the number of years which the crust has taken to form. - -Truly, that looks a very simple process! It would be so except for -certain difficulties, the very first of which is that of finding how -rapidly sediments are deposited; but the main difficulty--a difficulty -which renders any certain calculations of such a matter out of the -question--is this, the sea-bottom on which the deposit takes place is -continually shifting. - -Instead of the surface of the earth being that stable, fixed thing that -it is popularly believed to be, being, in common parlance, the very -emblem of fixity itself, it is incessantly moving, and is, in fact, as -unstable as the surface of the sea, except that its undulations are -infinitely slower and enormously higher and deeper. - -Now, what is the effect of this oscillation? Take the case to which I -have previously referred. The finer or coarser sediments that are -carried down by the current of the river will only be carried out a -certain distance, and eventually, as we have already seen, on reaching -the stiller part of the ocean, will be deposited at the bottom. - -Let C _y_ (Fig. 35) be the sea-bottom, _y_ D the shore, _x y_ the -sea-level, then the coarser deposit will subside over the region B, the -finer over A, while beyond A there will be no deposit at all; and, -consequently, no record will be kept, simply because no deposit is going -on. Now, suppose that the whole land, C, D, which we have regarded as -stationary, goes down, as it does so, both A and B go further out from -the shore, which will be at _y_^1, _x_^1 _y_^1, being the new sea-level. -The consequence will be that the layer of mud (A), being now, for the -most part, further than the force of the current is strong enough to -convey even the finest _débris_, will, of course, receive no more -deposits, and having attained a certain thickness, will now grow no -thicker. - -[Illustration: FIG. 35.] - -We should be misled in taking the thickness of that layer, whenever it -may be exposed to our view, as a record of time in the manner in which -we are now regarding this subject, as it would give us only an -imperfect and partial record: it would seem to represent too short a -period of time. - -Suppose, on the other hand, that the land (C D) had gone on rising -slowly and gradually--say an inch or two inches in the course of a -century,--what would be the practical effect of that movement? Why, that -the sediment A and B which has been already deposited, would eventually -be brought nearer to the shore-level, and again subjected to the wear -and tear of the sea; and directly the sea begins to act upon it, it -would of course soon cut up and carry it away, to a greater or less -extent, to be re-deposited further out. - -Well, as there is, in all probability, not one single spot on the whole -surface of the earth, which has not been up and down in this way a great -many times, it follows that the thickness of the deposits formed at any -particular spot cannot be taken (even supposing we had at first obtained -correct data as to the rate at which they took place) as affording -reliable information as to the period of time occupied in its deposit. -So that you see it is absolutely necessary from these facts, seeing that -our record entirely consists of accumulations of mud, superimposed one -on the other; seeing in the next place that any particular spots on -which accumulations have occurred, have been constantly moving up and -down, and sometimes out of the reach of a deposit, and at other times -its own deposit broken up and carried away, it follows that our record -must be in the highest degree imperfect, and we have hardly a trace left -of thick deposits, or any definite knowledge of the area that they -occupied in a great many cases. And mark this! That supposing even that -the whole surface of the earth had been accessible to the -geologist,--that man had had access to every part of the earth, and had -made sections of the whole, and put them all together,--even then his -record must of necessity be imperfect. - -But to how much has man really access? If you will look at this Map you -will see that it represents the proportion of the sea to the earth: this -coloured part indicates all the dry land, and this other portion is the -water. You will notice at once that the water covers three-fifths of the -whole surface of the globe, and has covered it in the same manner ever -since man has kept any record of his own observations, to say nothing of -the minute period during which he has cultivated geological inquiry. So -that three-fifths of the surface of the earth is shut out from us -because it is under the sea. Let us look at the other two-fifths, and -see what are the countries in which anything that may be termed -searching geological inquiry has been carried out: a good deal of -France, Germany, and Great Britain and Ireland, bits of Spain, of Italy, -and of Russia, have been examined, but of the whole great mass of -Africa, except parts of the southern extremity, we know next to nothing; -little bits of India, but of the greater part of the Asiatic continent -nothing; bits of the Northern American States and of Canada, but of the -greater part of the continent of North America, and in still larger -proportion, of South America, nothing! - -Under these circumstances, it follows that even with reference to that -kind of imperfect information which we can possess, it is only of about -the ten-thousandth part of the accessible parts of the earth that has -been examined properly. Therefore, it is with justice that the most -thoughtful of those who are concerned in these inquiries insist -continually upon the imperfection of the geological record; for, I -repeat, it is absolutely necessary, from the nature of things, that that -record should be of the most fragmentary and imperfect character. -Unfortunately this circumstance has been constantly forgotten. Men of -science, like young colts in a fresh pasture, are apt to be exhilarated -on being turned into a new field of inquiry, to go off at a hand-gallop, -in total disregard of hedges and ditches, to lose sight of the real -limitation of their inquiries, and to forget the extreme imperfection of -what is really known. Geologists have imagined that they could tell us -what was going on at all parts of the earth's surface during a given -epoch; they have talked of this deposit being contemporaneous with that -deposit, until, from our little local histories of the changes at -limited spots of the earth's surface, they have constructed a universal -history of the globe as full of wonders and portents as any other story -of antiquity. - -But what does this attempt to construct a universal history of the -globe imply? It implies that we shall not only have a precise knowledge -of the events which have occurred at any particular point, but that we -shall be able to say what events, at any one spot, took place at the -same time with those at other spots. - -Let us see how far that is in the nature of things practicable. Suppose -that here I make a section of the Lake of Killarney, and here the -section of another lake--that of Loch Lomond in Scotland for instance. -The rivers that flow into them are constantly carrying down deposits of -mud, and beds, or strata, are being as constantly formed, one above the -other, at the bottom of those lakes. Now, there is not a shadow of doubt -that in these two lakes the lower beds are all older than the -upper--there is no doubt about that; but what does _this_ tell us about -the age of any given bed in Loch Lomond, as compared with that of any -given bed in the Lake of Killarney? It is, indeed, obvious that if any -two sets of deposits are separated and discontinuous, there is -absolutely no means whatever given you by the nature of the deposit of -saying whether one is much younger or older than the other; but you may -say, as many have said and think, that the case is very much altered if -the beds which we are comparing are continuous. Suppose two beds of mud -hardened into rock,--A and B are seen in section (Fig. 36.) - -[Illustration: FIG. 36.] - -Well, you say, it is admitted that the lowermost bed is always the -older. Very well; B, therefore, is older than A. No doubt, _as a whole_, -it is so; or if any parts of the two beds which are in the same vertical -line are compared, it is so. But suppose you take what seems a very -natural step further, and say that the part _a_ of the bed A is younger -than the part _b_ of the bed B. Is this sound reasoning? If you find any -record of changes taking place at _b_, did they occur before any events -which took place while _a_ was being deposited? It looks all very plain -sailing, indeed, to say that they did; and yet there is no proof of -anything of the kind. As the former Director of this Institution, Sir H. -De la Beche, long ago showed, this reasoning may involve an entire -fallacy. It is extremely possible that _a_ may have been deposited ages -before _b_. It is very easy to understand how that can be. To return to -Fig. 35; when A and B were deposited, they were _substantially_ -contemporaneous; A being simply the finer deposit, and B the coarser of -the same detritus or waste of land. Now suppose that that sea-bottom -goes down (as shown in Fig. 35), so that the first deposit is carried no -farther than _a_, forming the bed A^1, and the coarse no farther than -_b_, forming the bed B^1, the result will be the formation of two -continuous beds, one of fine sediment (A A^1) over-lapping another of -coarse sediment (B B^1). Now suppose the whole sea-bottom is raised up, -and a section exposed about the point A^1; no doubt, _at this spot_, the -upper bed is younger than the lower. But we should obviously greatly err -if we concluded that the mass of the upper bed at A was younger than the -lower bed at B; for we have just seen that they are contemporaneous -deposits. Still more should we be in error if we supposed the upper bed -at A to be younger than the continuation of the lower bed at B^1; for A -was deposited long before B^1. In fine, if, instead of comparing -immediately adjacent parts of two beds, one of which lies upon another, -we compare distant parts, it is quite possible that the upper may be any -number of years older than the under, and the under any number of years -younger than the upper. - -Now you must not suppose that I put this before you for the purpose of -raising a paradoxical difficulty; the fact is, that the great mass of -deposits have taken place in sea-bottoms which are gradually sinking, -and have been formed under the very conditions I am here supposing. - -Do not run away with the notion that this subverts the principle I laid -down at first. The error lies in extending a principle which is -perfectly applicable to deposits in the same vertical line to deposits -which are not in that relation to one another. - -It is in consequence of circumstances of this kind, and of others that I -might mention to you, that our conclusions on and interpretations of the -record are really and strictly only valid so long as we confine -ourselves to one vertical section. I do not mean to tell you that there -are no qualifying circumstances, so that, even in very considerable -areas, we may safely speak of conformably superimposed beds being older -or younger than others at many different points. But we can never be -quite sure in coming to that conclusion, and especially we cannot be -sure if there is any break in their continuity, or any very great -distance between the points to be compared. - -Well now, so much for the record itself,--so much for its -imperfections,--so much for the conditions to be observed in -interpreting it, and its chronological indications, the moment we pass -beyond the limits of a vertical linear section. - -Now let us pass from the record to that which it contains,--from the -book itself to the writing and the figures on its pages. This writing -and these figures consist of remains of animals and plants which, in the -great majority of cases, have lived and died in the very spot in which -we now find them, or at least in the immediate vicinity. You must all of -you be aware--and I referred to the fact in my last lecture--that there -are vast numbers of creatures living at the bottom of the sea. These -creatures, like all others, sooner or later die, and their shells and -hard parts lie at the bottom; and then the fine mud which is being -constantly brought down by rivers and the action of the wear and tear of -the sea, covers them over and protects them from any further change or -alteration; and, of course, as in process of time the mud becomes -hardened and solidified, the shells of these animals are preserved and -firmly embedded in the limestone or sandstone which is being thus -formed. You may see in the galleries of the Museum upstairs specimens of -limestones in which such fossil remains of existing animals are -embedded. There are some specimens in which turtles' eggs have been -embedded in calcareous sand, and before the sun had hatched the young -turtles, they became covered over with calcareous mud, and thus have -been preserved and fossilized. - -Not only does this process of embedding and fossilization occur with -marine and other aquatic animals and plants, but it affects those land -animals and plants which are drifted away to sea, or become buried in -bogs or morasses; and the animals which have been trodden down by their -fellows and crushed in the mud at the river's bank, as the herd have -come to drink. In any of these cases, the organisms may be crushed or be -mutilated, before or after putrefaction, in such a manner that perhaps -only a part will be left in the form in which it reaches us. It is, -indeed, a most remarkable fact, that it is quite an exceptional case to -find a skeleton of any one of all the thousands of wild land animals -that we know are constantly being killed, or dying in the course of -nature: they are preyed on and devoured by other animals, or die in -places where their bodies are not afterwards protected by mud. There are -other animals existing in the sea, the shells of which form exceedingly -large deposits. You are probably aware that before the attempt was made -to lay the Atlantic telegraphic cable, the Government employed vessels -in making a series of very careful observations and soundings of the -bottom of the Atlantic; and although, as we must all regret, that up to -the present time that project has not succeeded, we have the -satisfaction of knowing that it yielded some most remarkable results to -science. The Atlantic Ocean had to be sounded right across, to depths of -several miles in some places, and the nature of its bottom was carefully -ascertained. Well, now, a space of about 1000 miles wide from east to -west, and I do not exactly know how many from north to south, but at any -rate 600 or 700 miles, was carefully examined, and it was found that -over the whole of that immense area an excessively fine chalky mud is -being deposited; and this deposit is entirely made up of animals whose -hard parts are deposited in this part of the ocean, and are doubtless -gradually acquiring solidity and becoming metamorphosed into a chalky -limestone. Thus, you see, it is quite possible in this way to preserve -unmistakable records of animal and vegetable life. Whenever the -sea-bottom, by some of those undulations of the earth's crust that I -have referred to, becomes upheaved, and sections or borings are made, or -pits are dug, then we become able to examine the contents and -constituents of these ancient sea-bottoms, and find out what manner of -animals lived at that period. - -Now it is a very important consideration in its bearing on the -completeness of the record, to inquire how far the remains contained in -these fossiliferous limestones are able to convey anything like an -accurate or complete account of the animals which were in existence at -the time of its formation. Upon that point we can form a very clear -judgment, and one in which there is no possible room for any mistake. -There are of course a great number of animals--such as jelly-fishes, and -other animals--without any hard parts, of which we cannot reasonably -expect to find any traces whatever: there is nothing of them to -preserve. Within a very short time, you will have noticed, after they -are removed from the water, they dry up to a mere nothing; certainly -they are not of a nature to leave any very visible traces of their -existence on such bodies as chalk or mud. Then again, look at land -animals; it is, as I have said, a very uncommon thing to find a land -animal entire after death. Insects and other carnivorous animals very -speedily pull them to pieces, putrefaction takes place, and so, out of -the hundreds of thousands that are known to die every year, it is the -rarest thing in the world to see one embedded in such a way that its -remains would be preserved for a lengthened period. Not only is this the -case, but even when animal remains have been safely embedded, certain -natural agents may wholly destroy and remove them. - -Almost all the hard parts of animals--the bones and so on--are composed -chiefly of phosphate of lime and carbonate of lime. Some years ago, I -had to make an inquiry into the nature of some very curious fossils sent -to me from the North of Scotland. Fossils are usually hard bony -structures that have become embedded in the way I have described, and -have gradually acquired the nature and solidity of the body with which -they are associated; but in this case I had a series of _holes_ in some -pieces of rock, and nothing else. Those holes, however, had a certain -definite shape about them, and when I got a skilful workman to make -castings of the interior of these holes, I found that they were the -impressions of the joints of a backbone and of the armour of a great -reptile, twelve or more feet long. This great beast had died and got -buried in the sand, the sand had gradually hardened over the bones, but -remained porous. Water had trickled through it, and that water being -probably charged with a superfluity of carbonic acid, had dissolved all -the phosphate and carbonate of lime, and the bones themselves had thus -decayed and entirely disappeared; but as the sandstone happened to have -consolidated by that time, the precise shape of the bones was retained. -If that sandstone had remained soft a little longer, we should have -known nothing whatsoever of the existence of the reptile whose bones it -had encased. - -How certain it is that a vast number of animals which have existed at -one period on this earth have entirely perished, and left no trace -whatever of their forms, may be proved to you by other considerations. -There are large tracts of sandstone in various parts of the world, in -which nobody has yet found anything but footsteps. Not a bone of any -description, but an enormous number of traces of footsteps. There is no -question about them. There is a whole valley in Connecticut covered with -these footsteps, and not a single fragment of the animals which made -them have yet been found. Let me mention another case while upon that -matter, which is even more surprising than those to which I have yet -referred. There is a limestone formation near Oxford, at a place called -Stonesfield, which has yielded the remains of certain very interesting -mammalian animals, and up to this time, if I recollect rightly, there -have been found seven specimens of its lower jaws, and not a bit of -anything else, neither limb-bones nor skull, or any part whatever; not a -fragment of the whole system! Of course, it would be preposterous to -imagine that the beasts had nothing else but a lower jaw! The -probability is, as Dr. Buckland showed, as the result of his -observations on dead dogs in the river Thames, that the lower jaw, not -being secured by very firm ligaments to the bones of the head, and being -a weighty affair, would easily be knocked off, or might drop away from -the body as it floated in water in a state of decomposition. The jaw -would thus be deposited immediately, while the rest of the body would -float and drift away altogether, ultimately reaching the sea, and -perhaps becoming destroyed. The jaw becomes covered up and preserved in -the river silt, and thus it comes that we have such a curious -circumstance as that of the lower jaws in the Stonesfield slates. So -that, you see, faulty as these layers of stone in the earth's crust are, -defective as they necessarily are as a record, the account of -contemporaneous vital phenomena presented by them is, by the necessity -of the case, infinitely more defective and fragmentary. - -It was necessary that I should put all this very strongly before you, -because, otherwise, you might have been led to think differently of the -completeness of our knowledge by the next facts I shall state to you. - -The researches of the last three-quarters of a century have, in truth, -revealed a wonderful richness of organic life in those rocks. Certainly -not fewer than thirty or forty thousand different species of fossils -have been discovered. You have no more ground for doubting that these -creatures really lived and died at or near the places in which we find -them than you have for like scepticism about a shell on the sea-shore. -The evidence is as good in the one case as in the other. - -Our next business is to look at the general character of these fossil -remains, and it is a subject which will be requisite to consider -carefully; and the first point for us is to examine how much the extinct -_Flora_ and _Fauna_ as a _whole_--disregarding altogether the -_succession_ of their constituents, of which I shall speak -afterwards--differ from the _Flora_ and _Fauna_ of the present day;--how -far they differ in what we _do_ know about them, leaving altogether out -of consideration speculations based on what we _do not_ know. - -I strongly imagine that if it were not for the peculiar appearance that -fossilized animals have, that any of you might readily walk through a -museum which contains fossil remains mixed up with those of the present -forms of life, and I doubt very much whether your uninstructed eyes -would lead you to see any vast or wonderful difference between the two. -If you looked closely, you would notice, in the first place, a great -many things very like animals with which you are acquainted now: you -would see differences of shape and proportion, but on the whole a close -similarity. - -I explained what I meant by ORDERS the other day, when I described the -animal kingdom as being divided into sub-kingdoms, classes, and orders. -If you divide the animal kingdom into orders, you will find that there -are above one hundred and twenty. The number may vary on one side or the -other, but this is a fair estimate. That is the sum total of the orders -of all the animals which we know now, and which have been known in past -times, and left remains behind. - -Now, how many of those are absolutely extinct? That is to say, how many -of these orders of animals have lived at a former period of the world's -history, but have at present no representatives? That is the sense in -which I meant to use the word "extinct." I mean that those animals did -live on this earth at one time, but have left no one of their kind with -us at the present moment. So that estimating the number of extinct -animals is a sort of way of comparing the past creation as a whole with -the present as a whole. Among the mammalia and birds there are none -extinct; but when we come to the reptiles there is a most wonderful -thing: out of the eight orders, or thereabouts, which you can make among -reptiles, one-half are extinct. These diagrams of the plesiosaurus, the -ichthyosaurus, the pterodactyle, give you a notion of some of these -extinct reptiles. And here is a cast of the pterodactyle and bones of -the ichthyosaurus and the plesiosaurus, just as fresh as if it had been -recently dug up in a churchyard. Thus, in the reptile class, there are -no less than half of the orders which are absolutely extinct. If we turn -to the _Amphibia_, there was one extinct order, the Labyrinthodonts, -typified by the large salamander-like beast shown in this diagram. - -No order of fishes is known to be extinct. Every fish that we find in -the strata--to which I have been referring--can be identified and placed -in one of the orders which exist at the present day. There is not known -to be a single ordinal form of insect extinct. There are only two orders -extinct among the _Crustacea_. There is not known to be an extinct order -of these creatures, the parasitic and other worms; but there are two, -not to say three, absolutely extinct orders of this class, the -_Echinodermata_; out of all the orders of the _Coelenterata_ and -_Protozoa_ only one, the Rugose Corals. - -So that, you see, out of somewhere about 120 orders of animals, taking -them altogether, you will not, at the outside estimate, find above ten -or a dozen extinct. Summing up all the orders of animals which have left -remains behind them, you will not find above ten or a dozen which cannot -be arranged with those of the present day; that is to say, that the -difference does not amount to much more than ten per cent.: and the -proportion of extinct orders of plants is still smaller. I think that -that is a very astounding, a most astonishing fact: seeing the enormous -epochs of time which have elapsed during the constitution of the surface -of the earth as it at present exists; it is, indeed, a most astounding -thing that the proportion of extinct ordinal types should be so -exceedingly small. - -But now, there is another point of view in which we must look at this -past creation. Suppose that we were to sink a vertical pit through the -floor beneath us, and that I could succeed in making a section right -through in the direction of New Zealand, I should find in each of the -different beds through which I passed the remains of animals which I -should find in that stratum and not in the others. First, I should come -upon beds of gravel or drift containing the bones of large animals, such -as the elephant, rhinoceros, and cave tiger. Rather curious things to -fall across in Piccadilly! If I should dig lower still, I should come -upon a bed of what we call the London clay, and in this, as you will see -in our galleries upstairs, are found remains of strange cattle, remains -of turtles, palms, and large tropical fruits; with shell-fish such as -you see the like of now only in tropical regions. If I went below that, -I should come upon the chalk, and there I should find something -altogether different, the remains of ichthyosauri and pterodactyles, and -ammonites, and so forth. - -I do not know what Mr. Godwin Austin would say comes next, but probably -rocks containing more ammonites, and more ichthyosauri and plesiosauri, -with a vast number of other things; and under that I should meet with -yet older rocks, containing numbers of strange shells and fishes; and in -thus passing from the surface to the lowest depths of the earth's crust, -the forms of animal life and vegetable life which I should meet with in -the successive beds would, looking at them broadly, be the more -different the further that I went down. Or, in other words, inasmuch as -we started with the clear principle, that in a series of -naturally-disposed mud beds the lowest are the oldest, we should come to -this result, that the farther we go back in time the more difference -exists between the animal and vegetable life of an epoch and that which -now exists. That was the conclusion to which I wished to bring you at -the end of this Lecture. - - - - -VI - - THE METHOD BY WHICH THE CAUSES OF - THE PRESENT AND PAST CONDITIONS - OF ORGANIC NATURE ARE TO BE DISCOVERED.--THE - ORIGINATION OF LIVING - BEINGS. - - -In the two preceding lectures I have endeavoured to indicate to you the -extent of the subject-matter of the inquiry upon which we are engaged; -and having thus acquired some conception of the Past and Present -phenomena of Organic Nature, I must now turn to that which constitutes -the great problem which we have set before ourselves;--I mean, the -question of what knowledge we have of the causes of these phenomena of -organic nature, and how such knowledge is obtainable. - -Here, on the threshold of the inquiry, an objection meets us. There are -in the world a number of extremely worthy, well-meaning persons, whose -judgments and opinions are entitled to the utmost respect on account of -their sincerity, who are of opinion that Vital Phenomena, and especially -all questions relating to the origin of vital phenomena, are questions -quite apart from the ordinary run of inquiry, and are, by their very -nature, placed out of our reach. They say that all these phenomena -originated miraculously, or in some way totally different from the -ordinary course of nature, and that therefore they conceive it to be -futile, not to say presumptuous, to attempt to inquire into them. - -To such sincere and earnest persons, I would only say, that a question -of this kind is not to be shelved upon theoretical or speculative -grounds. You may remember the story of the Sophist who demonstrated to -Diogenes in the most complete and satisfactory manner that he could not -walk; that, in fact, all motion was an impossibility; and that Diogenes -refuted him by simply getting up and walking round his tub. So, in the -same way, the man of science replies to objections of this kind, by -simply getting up and walking onward, and showing what science has done -and is doing,--by pointing to that immense mass of facts which have been -ascertained and systematized under the forms of the great doctrines of -Morphology, of Development, of Distribution, and the like. He sees an -enormous mass of facts and laws relating to organic beings, which stand -on the same good sound foundation as every other natural law. With this -mass of facts and laws before us, therefore, seeing that, as far as -organic matters have hitherto been accessible and studied, they have -shown themselves capable of yielding to scientific investigation, we may -accept this as proof that order and law reign there as well as in the -rest of nature. The man of science says nothing to objectors of this -sort, but supposes that we can and shall walk to a knowledge of the -origin of organic nature, in the same way that we have walked to a -knowledge of the laws and principles of the inorganic world. - -But there are objectors who say the same from ignorance and ill-will. To -such I would reply that the objection comes ill from them, and that the -real presumption, I may almost say the real blasphemy, in this matter, -is in the attempt to limit that inquiry into the causes of phenomena, -which is the source of all human blessings, and from which has sprung -all human prosperity and progress; for, after all, we can accomplish -comparatively little; the limited range of our own faculties bounds us -on every side,--the field of our powers of observation is small enough, -and he who endeavours to narrow the sphere of our inquiries is only -pursuing a course that is likely to produce the greatest harm to his -fellow-men. - -But now, assuming, as we all do, I hope, that these phenomena are -properly accessible to inquiry, and setting out upon our search into the -causes of the phenomena of organic nature, or, at any rate, setting out -to discover how much we at present know upon these abstruse matters, -the question arises as to what is to be our course of proceeding, and -what method we must lay down for our guidance. I reply to that question, -that our method must be exactly the same as that which is pursued in any -other scientific inquiry, the method of scientific investigation being -the same for all orders of facts and phenomena whatsoever. - -I must dwell a little on this point, for I wish you to leave this room -with a very clear conviction that scientific investigation is not, as -many people seem to suppose, some kind of modern black art. I say that -you might easily gather this impression from the manner in which many -persons speak of scientific inquiry, or talk about, inductive and -deductive philosophy, or the principles of the "Baconian philosophy." I -do protest that, of the vast number of cants in this world, there are -none, to my mind, so contemptible as the pseudo-scientific cant which is -talked about the "Baconian philosophy." - -To hear people talk about the great Chancellor,--and a very great man he -certainly was,--you would think that it was he who had invented science, -and that there was no such thing as sound reasoning before the time of -Queen Elizabeth! Of course you say, that cannot possibly be true; you -perceive, on a moment's reflection, that such an idea is absurdly wrong; -and yet, so firmly rooted is this sort of impression,--I cannot call it -an idea, or conception,--the thing is too absurd to be entertained,--but -so completely does it exist at the bottom of most men's minds, that this -has been a matter of observation with me for many years past. There are -many men who, though knowing absolutely nothing of the subject with -which they may be dealing, wish, nevertheless, to damage the author of -some view with which they think fit to disagree. What they do, then, is -not to go and learn something about the subject, which one would -naturally think the best way of fairly dealing with it; but they abuse -the originator of the view they question, in a general manner, and wind -up by saying that, "After all, you know, the principles and method of -this author are totally opposed to the canons of the Baconian -philosophy." Then everybody applauds, as a matter of course, and agrees -that it must be so. But if you were to stop them all in the middle of -their applause, you would probably find that neither the speaker nor his -applauders could tell you how or in what way it was so; neither the one -nor the other having the slightest idea of what they mean when they -speak of the "Baconian philosophy." - -You will understand, I hope, that I have not the slightest desire to -join in the outcry against either the morals, the intellect, or the -great genius of Lord Chancellor Bacon. He was undoubtedly a very great -man, let people say what they will of him; but notwithstanding all that -he did for philosophy, it would be entirely wrong to suppose that the -methods of modern scientific inquiry originated with him, or with his -age; they originated with the first man, whoever he was; and indeed -existed long before him, for many of the essential processes of -reasoning are exerted by the higher order of brutes as completely and -effectively as by ourselves. We see in many of the brute creation the -exercise of one, at least, of the same powers of reasoning as that which -we ourselves employ. - -The method of scientific investigation is nothing but the expression of -the necessary mode of working of the human mind. It is simply the mode -at which all phenomena are reasoned about, rendered precise and exact. -There is no more difference, but there is just the same kind of -difference, between the mental operations of a man of science and those -of an ordinary person, as there is between the operations and methods of -a baker or of a butcher weighing out his goods in common scales, and the -operations of a chemist in performing a difficult and complex analysis -by means of his balance and finely-graduated weights. It is not that the -action of the scales in the one case, and the balance in the other, -differ in the principles of their construction or manner of working; but -the beam of one is set on an infinitely finer axis than the other, and -of course turns by the addition of a much smaller weight. - -You will understand this better, perhaps, if I give you some familiar -example. You have all heard it repeated, I dare say, that men of science -work by means of Induction and Deduction, and that by the help of these -operations, they, in a sort of sense, wring from Nature certain other -things, which are called Natural Laws, and Causes, and that out of -these, by some cunning skill of their own, they build up Hypotheses and -Theories. And it is imagined by many, that the operations of the common -mind can be by no means compared with these processes, and that they -have to be acquired by a sort of special apprenticeship to the craft. To -hear all these large words, you would think that the mind of a man of -science must be constituted differently from that of his fellow-men; but -if you will not be frightened by terms, you will discover that you are -quite wrong, and that all these terrible apparatus are being used by -yourselves every day and every hour of your lives. - -There is a well-known incident in one of Molière's plays, where the -author makes the hero express unbounded delight on being told that he -had been talking prose during the whole of his life. In the same way, I -trust, that you will take comfort, and be delighted with yourselves, on -the discovery that you have been acting on the principles of inductive -and deductive philosophy during the same period. Probably there is not -one here who has not in the course of the day had occasion to set in -motion a complex train of reasoning, of the very same kind, though -differing of course in degree, as that which a scientific man goes -through in tracing the causes of natural phenomena. - -A very trivial circumstance will serve to exemplify this. Suppose you go -into a fruiterer's shop, wanting an apple,--you take up one, and, on -biting it, you find it is sour; you look at it, and see that it is hard -and green. You take up another one, and that too is hard, green, and -sour. The shopman offers you a third; but, before biting it, you examine -it, and find that it is hard and green, and you immediately say that you -will not have it, as it must be sour, like those that you have already -tried. - -Nothing can be more simple than that, you think; but if you will take -the trouble to analyze and trace out into its logical elements what has -been done by the mind, you will be greatly surprised. In the first -place, you have performed the operation of Induction. You found that, -in two experiences, hardness and greenness in apples went together with -sourness. It was so in the first case, and it was confirmed by the -second. True, it is a very small basis, but still it is enough to make -an induction from; you generalize the facts, and you expect to find -sourness in apples where you get hardness and greenness. You found upon -that a general law, that all hard and green apples are sour; and that, -so far as it goes, is a perfect induction. Well, having got your natural -law in this way, when you are offered another apple which you find is -hard and green, you say, "All hard and green apples are sour; this apple -is hard and green, therefore this apple is sour." That train of -reasoning is what logicians call a syllogism, and has all its various -parts and terms,--its major premiss, its minor premiss, and its -conclusion. And, by the help of further reasoning, which, if drawn out, -would have to be exhibited in two or three other syllogisms, you arrive -at your final determination, "I will not have that apple." So that, you -see, you have, in the first place, established a law by Induction, and -upon that you have founded a Deduction, and reasoned out the special -conclusion of the particular case. Well now, suppose, having got your -law, that at some time afterwards, you are discussing the qualities of -apples with a friend: you will say to him, "It is a very curious -thing,--but I find that all hard and green apples are sour!" Your friend -says to you, "But how do you know that?" You at once reply, "Oh, because -I have tried them over and over again, and have always found them to be -so." Well, if we were talking science instead of common sense, we should -call that an Experimental Verification. And, if still opposed, you go -further, and say, "I have heard from the people in Somersetshire and -Devonshire, where a large number of apples are grown, that they have -observed the same thing. It is also found to be the case in Normandy, -and in North America. In short, I find it to be the universal experience -of mankind wherever attention has been directed to the subject." -Whereupon, your friend, unless he is a very unreasonable man, agrees -with you, and is convinced that you are quite right in the conclusion -you have drawn. He believes, although perhaps he does not know he -believes it, that the more extensive Verifications are,--that the more -frequently experiments have been made, and results of the same kind -arrived at,--that the more varied the conditions under which the same -results are attained, the more certain is the ultimate conclusion, and -he disputes the question no further. He sees that the experiment has -been tried under all sorts of conditions, as to time, place, and people, -with the same result; and he says with you, therefore, that the law you -have laid down must be a good one, and he must believe it. - -In science we do the same thing;--the philosopher exercises precisely -the same faculties, though in a much more delicate manner. In scientific -inquiry it becomes a matter of duty to expose a supposed law to every -possible kind of verification, and to take care, moreover, that this is -done intentionally, and not left to a mere accident, as in the case of -the apples. And in science, as in common life, our confidence in a law -is in exact proportion to the absence of variation in the result of our -experimental verifications. For instance, if you let go your grasp of an -article you may have in your hand, it will immediately fall to the -ground. That is a very common verification of one of the best -established laws of nature--that of gravitation. The method by which men -of science establish the existence of that law is exactly the same as -that by which we have established the trivial proposition about the -sourness of hard and green apples. But we believe it in such an -extensive, thorough, and unhesitating manner because the universal -experience of mankind verifies it, and we can verify it ourselves at any -time; and that is the strongest possible foundation on which any natural -law can rest. - -So much, then, by way of proof that the method of establishing laws in -science is exactly the same as that pursued in common life. Let us now -turn to another matter, (though really it is but another phase of the -same question,) and that is, the method by which, from the relations of -certain phenomena, we prove that some stand in the position of causes -towards the others. - -I want to put the case clearly before you, and I will therefore show you -what I mean by another familiar example. I will suppose that one of you, -on coming down in the morning to the parlour of your house, finds that a -tea-pot and some spoons which had been left in the room on the previous -evening are gone,--the window is open, and you observe the mark of a -dirty hand on the window-frame, and perhaps, in addition to that, you -notice the impress of a hob-nailed shoe on the gravel outside. All these -phenomena have struck your attention instantly, and before two seconds -have passed you say, "Oh, somebody has broken open the window, entered -the room, and run off with the spoons and the tea-pot!" That speech is -out of your mouth in a moment. And you will probably add, "I know there -has; I am quite sure of it!" You mean to say exactly what you know; but -in reality you are giving expression to what is, in all essential -particulars, an Hypothesis. You do not _know_ it at all; it is nothing -but an hypothesis rapidly framed in your own mind! And, it is an -hypothesis founded on a long train of inductions and deductions. - -What are those inductions and deductions, and how have you got at this -hypothesis? You have observed, in the first place, that the window is -open; but by a train of reasoning involving many Inductions and -Deductions, you have probably arrived long before at the General -Law--and a very good one it is--that windows do not open of themselves; -and you therefore conclude that something has opened the window. A -second general law that you have arrived at in the same way is, that -tea-pots and spoons do not go out of a window spontaneously, and you are -satisfied that, as they are not now where you left them, they have been -removed. In the third place, you look at the marks on the window-sill, -and the shoe-marks outside, and you say that in all previous experience -the former kind of mark has never been produced by anything else but the -hand of a human being; and the same experience shows that no other -animal but man at present wears shoes with hob-nails in them such as -would produce the marks in the gravel. I do not know, even if we could -discover any of those "missing links" that are talked about, that they -would help us to any other conclusion! At any rate the law which states -our present experience is strong enough for my present purpose. You next -reach the conclusion, that as these kinds of marks have not been left by -any other animals than men, or are liable to be formed in any other way -than by a man's hand and shoe, the marks in question have been formed by -a man in that way. You have, further, a general law, founded on -observation and experience, and that, too, is, I am sorry to say, a very -universal and unimpeachable one,--that some men are thieves; and you -assume at once from all these premisses--and that is what constitutes -your hypothesis--that the man who made the marks outside and on the -window-sill, opened the window, got into the room, and stole your -tea-pot and spoons. You have now arrived at a _Vera Causa_;--you have -assumed a Cause which it is plain is competent to produce all the -phenomena you have observed. You can explain all these phenomena only by -the hypothesis of a thief. But that is a hypothetical conclusion, of the -justice of which you have no absolute proof at all; it is only rendered -highly probable by a series of inductive and deductive reasonings. - -I suppose your first action, assuming that you are a man of ordinary -common sense, and that you have established this hypothesis to your own -satisfaction, will very likely be to go off for the police, and set them -on the track of the burglar, with the view to the recovery of your -property. But just as you are starting with this object, some person -comes in, and on learning what you are about, says, "My good friend, you -are going on a great deal too fast. How do you know that the man who -really made the marks took the spoons? It might have been a monkey that -took them, and the man may have merely looked in afterwards." You would -probably reply, "Well, that is all very well, but you see it is contrary -to all experience of the way tea-pots and spoons are abstracted; so -that, at any rate, your hypothesis is less probable than mine." While -you are talking the thing over in this way, another friend arrives, one -of that good kind of people that I was talking of a little while ago. -And he might say, "Oh, my dear sir, you are certainly going on a great -deal too fast. You are most presumptuous. You admit that all these -occurrences took place when you were fast asleep, at a time when you -could not possibly have known anything about what was taking place. How -do you know that the laws of Nature are not suspended during the night? -It may be that there has been some kind of supernatural interference in -this case." In point of fact, he declares that your hypothesis is one of -which you cannot at all demonstrate the truth, and that you are by no -means sure that the laws of Nature are the same when you are asleep as -when you are awake. - -Well, now, you cannot at the moment answer that kind of reasoning. You -feel that your worthy friend has you somewhat at a disadvantage. You -will feel perfectly convinced in your own mind, however, that you are -quite right, and you say to him, "My good friend, I can only be guided -by the natural probabilities of the case, and if you will be kind enough -to stand aside and permit me to pass, I will go and fetch the police." -Well, we will suppose that your journey is successful, and that by good -luck you meet with a policeman; that eventually the burglar is found -with your property on his person, and the marks correspond to his hand -and to his boots. Probably any jury would consider those facts a very -good experimental verification of your hypothesis, touching the cause of -the abnormal phenomena observed in your parlour, and would act -accordingly. - -Now, in this supposititious case, I have taken phenomena of a very -common kind, in order that you might see what are the different steps in -an ordinary process of reasoning, if you will only take the trouble to -analyze it carefully. All the operations I have described, you will see, -are involved in the mind of any man of sense in leading him to a -conclusion as to the course he should take in order to make good a -robbery and punish the offender. I say that you are led, in that case, -to your conclusion by exactly the same train of reasoning as that which -a man of science pursues when he is endeavouring to discover the origin -and laws of the most occult phenomena. The process is, and always must -be, the same; and precisely the same mode of reasoning was employed by -Newton and Laplace in their endeavours to discover and define the causes -of the movements of the heavenly bodies, as you, with your own common -sense, would employ to detect a burglar. The only difference is, that -the nature of the inquiry being more abstruse, every step has to be most -carefully watched, so that there may not be a single crack or flaw in -your hypothesis. A flaw or crack in many of the hypotheses of daily life -may be of little or no moment as affecting the general correctness of -the conclusions at which we may arrive; but in a scientific inquiry a -fallacy, great or small, is always of importance, and is sure to be in -the long run constantly productive of mischievous, if not fatal results. - -Do not allow yourselves to be misled by the common notion that an -hypothesis is untrustworthy simply because it is an hypothesis. It is -often urged, in respect to some scientific conclusion, that, after all, -it is only an hypothesis. But what more have we to guide us in -nine-tenths of the most important affairs of daily life than hypotheses, -and often very ill-based ones? So that in science, where the evidence of -an hypothesis is subjected to the most rigid examination, we may rightly -pursue the same course. You may have hypotheses and hypotheses. A man -may say, if he likes, that the moon is made of green cheese: that is an -hypothesis. But another man, who has devoted a great deal of time and -attention to the subject, and availed himself of the most powerful -telescopes and the results of the observations of others, declares that -in his opinion it is probably composed of materials very similar to -those of which our own earth is made up: and that is also only an -hypothesis. But I need not tell you that there is an enormous difference -in the value of the two hypotheses. That one which is based on sound -scientific knowledge is sure to have a corresponding value; and that -which is a mere hasty random guess is likely to have but little value. -Every great step in our progress in discovering causes has been made in -exactly the same way as that which I have detailed to you. A person -observing the occurrence of certain facts and phenomena asks, naturally -enough, what process, what kind of operation known to occur in nature -applied to the particular case, will unravel and explain the mystery? -Hence you have the scientific hypothesis; and its value will be -proportionate to the care and completeness with which its basis had been -tested and verified. It is in these matters as in the commonest affairs -of practical life: the guess of the fool will be folly, while the guess -of the wise man will contain wisdom. In all cases, you see that the -value of the result depends on the patience and faithfulness with which -the investigator applies to his hypothesis every possible kind of -verification. - -I dare say I may have to return to this point by-and-by; but having -dealt thus far with our logical methods, I must now turn to something -which, perhaps, you may consider more interesting, or, at any rate, more -tangible. But in reality there are but few things that can be more -important for you to understand than the mental processes and the means -by which we obtain scientific conclusions and theories.[51] Having -granted that the inquiry is a proper one, and having determined on the -nature of the methods we are to pursue and which only can lead to -success, I must now turn to the consideration of our knowledge of the -nature of the processes which have resulted in the present condition of -organic nature. - -Here, let me say at once, lest some of you misunderstand me, that I have -extremely little to report. The question of how the present condition of -organic nature came about, resolves itself into two questions. The first -is: How has organic or living matter commenced its existence? And the -second is: How has it been perpetuated? On the second question I shall -have more to say hereafter. But on the first one, what I now have to say -will be for the most part of a negative character. - -If you consider what kind of evidence we can have upon this matter, it -will resolve itself into two kinds. We may have historical evidence and -we may have experimental evidence. It is, for example, conceivable, -that inasmuch as the hardened mud which forms a considerable portion of -the thickness of the earth's crust contains faithful records of the past -forms of life, and inasmuch as these differ more and more as we go -further down,--it is possible and conceivable that we might come to some -particular bed or stratum which should contain the remains of those -creatures with which organic life began upon the earth. And if we did -so, and if such forms of organic life were preservable, we should have -what I would call historical evidence of the mode in which organic life -began upon this planet. Many persons will tell you, and indeed you will -find it stated in many works on geology, that this has been done, and -that we really possess such a record; there are some who imagine that -the earliest forms of life of which we have as yet discovered any -record, are in truth the forms in which animal life began upon the -globe. The grounds on which they base that supposition are these:--That -if you go through the enormous thickness of the earth's crust and get -down to the older rocks, the higher vertebrate animals--the quadrupeds, -birds, and fishes--cease to be found; beneath them you find only the -invertebrate animals; and in the deepest and lowest rocks those remains -become scantier and scantier, not in any very gradual progression, -however, until, at length, in what are supposed to be the oldest rocks, -the animal remains which are found are almost always confined to four -forms,--_Oldhamia_, whose precise nature is not known, whether plant or -animal; _Lingula_, a kind of mollusc; _Trilobites_, a crustacean animal, -having the same essential plan of construction, though differing in many -details from a lobster or crab; and _Hymenocaris_, which is also a -crustacean. So that you have all the _Fauna_ reduced, at this period, to -four forms: one a kind of animal or plant that we know nothing about, -and three undoubted animals--two crustaceans and one mollusc. - -I think, considering the organization of these mollusca and crustacea, -and looking at their very complex nature, that it does indeed require a -very strong imagination to conceive that these were the first created of -all living things. And you must take into consideration the fact that -we have not the slightest proof that these which we call the oldest beds -are really so: I repeat, we have not the slightest proof of it. When you -find in some places that in an enormous thickness of rocks there are but -very scanty traces of life, or absolutely none at all; and that in other -parts of the world rocks of the very same formation are crowded with the -records of living forms, I think it is impossible to place any reliance -on the supposition, or to feel oneself justified in supposing that these -are the forms in which life first commenced. I have not time here to -enter upon the technical grounds upon which I am led to this -conclusion,--that could hardly be done properly in half a dozen lectures -on that part alone;--I must content myself with saying that I do not at -all believe that these are the oldest forms of life. - -I turn to the experimental side to see what evidence we have there. To -enable us to say that we know anything about the experimental -origination of organization and life, the investigator ought to be able -to take inorganic matters, such as carbonic acid, ammonia, water, and -salines, in any sort of inorganic combination, and be able to build them -up into Protein matter, and then that Protein matter ought to begin to -live in an organic form. That, nobody has done as yet, and I suspect it -will be a long while before anybody does do it. But the thing is by no -means so impossible as it looks; for the researches of modern chemistry -have shown us--I won't say the road towards it, but, if I may so say, -they have shown the finger-post pointing to the road that may lead to -it. - -It is not many years ago--and you must recollect that Organic Chemistry -is a young science, not above a couple of generations old, you must not -expect too much of it,--it is not many years ago since it was said to be -perfectly impossible to fabricate any organic compound; that is to say, -any non-mineral compound which is to be found in an organized being. It -remained so for a very long period; but it is now a considerable number -of years since a distinguished foreign chemist contrived to fabricate -Urea, a substance of a very complex character, which forms one of the -waste products of animal structures. And of late years a number of other -compounds, such as Butyric Acid, and others, have been added to the -list. I need not tell you that chemistry is an enormous distance from -the goal I indicate; all I wish to point out to you is, that it is by no -means safe to say that that goal may not be reached one day. It may be -that it is impossible for us to produce the conditions requisite to the -origination of life; but we must speak modestly about the matter, and -recollect that Science has put her foot upon the bottom round of the -ladder. Truly he would be a bold man who would venture to predict where -she will be fifty years hence. - -There is another inquiry which bears indirectly upon this question, and -upon which I must say a few words. You are all of you aware of the -phenomena of what is called spontaneous generation. Our forefathers, -down to the seventeenth century, or thereabouts, all imagined, in -perfectly good faith, that certain vegetable and animal forms gave -birth, in the process of their decomposition, to insect life. Thus, if -you put a piece of meat in the sun, and allowed it to putrefy, they -conceived that the grubs which soon began to appear were the result of -the action of a power of spontaneous generation which the meat -contained. And they could give you receipts for making various animal -and vegetable preparations which would produce particular kinds of -animals. A very distinguished Italian naturalist, named Redi, took up -the question, at a time when everybody believed in it; among others our -own great Harvey, the discoverer of the circulation of the blood. You -will constantly find his name quoted, however, as an opponent of the -doctrine of spontaneous generation; but the fact is, and you will see it -if you take the trouble to look into his works, Harvey believed it as -profoundly as any man of his time; but he happened to enunciate a very -curious proposition--that every living thing came from an _egg_; he did -not mean to use the word in the sense in which we now employ it, he only -meant to say that every living thing originated in a little rounded -particle of organized substance; and it is from this circumstance, -probably, that the notion of Harvey having opposed the doctrine -originated. Then came Redi, and he proceeded to upset the doctrine in a -very simple manner. He merely covered the piece of meat with some very -fine gauze, and then he exposed it to the same conditions. The result of -this was that no grubs or insects were produced; he proved that the -grubs originated from the insects who came and deposited their eggs in -the meat, and that they were hatched by the heat of the sun. By this -kind of inquiry he thoroughly upset the doctrine of spontaneous -generation, for his time at least. - -Then came the discovery and application of the microscope to scientific -inquiries, which showed to naturalists that besides the organisms which -they already knew as living beings and plants, there were an immense -number of minute things which could be obtained apparently almost at -will from decaying vegetable and animal forms. Thus, if you took some -ordinary black pepper or some hay, and steeped it in water, you would -find in the course of a few days that the water had become impregnated -with an immense number of animalcules swimming about in all directions. -From facts of this kind naturalists were led to revive the theory of -spontaneous generation. They were headed here by an English -naturalist,--Needham,--and afterwards in France by the learned Buffon. -They said that these things were absolutely begotten in the water of the -decaying substances out of which the infusion was made. It did not -matter whether you took animal or vegetable matter, you had only to -steep it in water and expose it, and you would soon have plenty of -animalcules. They made an hypothesis about this which was a very fair -one. They said, this matter of the animal world, or of the higher -plants, appears to be dead, but in reality it has a sort of dim life -about it, which, if it is placed under fair conditions, will cause it to -break up into the forms of these little animalcules, and they will go -through their lives in the same way as the animal or plant of which they -once formed a part. - -The question now became very hotly debated. Spallanzani, an Italian -naturalist, took up opposite views to those of Needham and Buffon, and -by means of certain experiments he showed that it was quite possible to -stop the process by boiling the water, and closing the vessel in which -it was contained. "Oh!" said his opponents, "but what do you know you -may be doing when you heat the air over the water in this way? You may -be destroying some property of the air requisite for the spontaneous -generation of the animalcules." - -However, Spallanzani's views were supposed to be upon the right side, -and those of the others fell into discredit; although the fact was that -Spallanzani had not made good his views. Well, then, the subject -continued to be revived from time to time, and experiments were made by -several persons; but these experiments were not altogether satisfactory. -It was found that if you put an infusion in which animalcules would -appear if it were exposed to the air into a vessel and boiled it, and -then sealed up the mouth of the vessel, so that no air, save such as had -been heated to 212°, could reach its contents, that then no animalcules -would be found; but if you took the same vessel and exposed the infusion -to the air, then you would get animalcules. Furthermore, it was found -that if you connected the mouth of the vessel with a red-hot tube in -such a way that the air would have to pass through the tube before -reaching the infusion, that then you would get no animalcules. Yet -another thing was noticed: if you took two flasks containing the same -kind of infusion, and left one entirely exposed to the air, and in the -mouth of the other placed a ball of cotton wool, so that the air would -have to filter itself through it before reaching the infusion, that -then, although you might have plenty of animalcules in the first flask, -you would certainly obtain none from the second. - -These experiments, you see, all tended towards one conclusion--that the -infusoria were developed from little minute spores or eggs which were -constantly floating in the atmosphere, and which lose their power of -germination if subjected to heat. But one observer now made another -experiment, which seemed to go entirely the other way, and puzzled him -altogether. He took some of this boiled infusion that I have been -speaking of, and by the use of a mercurial bath--a kind of trough used -in laboratories--he deftly inverted a vessel containing the infusion -into the mercury, so that the latter reached a little beyond the level -of the mouth of the _inverted_ vessel. You see that he thus had a -quantity of the infusion shut off from any possible communication with -the outer air by being inverted upon a bed of mercury. - -He then prepared some pure oxygen and nitrogen gases, and passed them by -means of a tube going from the outside of the vessel, up through the -mercury into the infusion; so that he thus had it exposed to a perfectly -pure atmosphere of the same constituents as the external air. Of course, -he expected he would get no infusorial animalcules at all in that -infusion; but, to his great dismay and discomfiture, he found he almost -always did get them. - -Furthermore, it has been found that experiments made in the manner -described above answer well with most infusions; but that if you fill -the vessel with boiled milk, and then stop the neck with cotton-wool, -you _will_ have infusoria. So that you see there were two experiments -that brought you to one kind of conclusion, and three to another; which -was a most unsatisfactory state of things to arrive at in a scientific -inquiry. - -Some few years after this, the question began to be very hotly discussed -in France. There was M. Pouchet, a professor at Rouen, a very learned -man, but certainly not a very rigid experimentalist. He published a -number of experiments of his own, some of which were very ingenious, to -show that if you went to work in a proper way, there was a truth in the -doctrine of spontaneous generation. Well, it was one of the most -fortunate things in the world that M. Pouchet took up this question, -because it induced a distinguished French chemist, M. Pasteur, to take -up the question on the other side; and he has certainly worked it out in -the most perfect manner. I am glad to say, too, that he has published -his researches in time to enable me to give you an account of them. He -verified all the experiments which I have just mentioned to you--and -then finding those extraordinary anomalies, as in the case of the -mercury bath and the milk, he set himself to work to discover their -nature. In the case of milk he found it to be a question of temperature. -Milk in a fresh state is slightly alkaline; and it is a very curious -circumstance, but this very slight degree of alkalinity seems to have -the effect of preserving the organisms which fall into it from the air -from being destroyed at a temperature of 212°, which is the boiling -point. But if you raise the temperature 10° when you boil it, the milk -behaves like everything else; and if the air with which it comes in -contact, after being boiled at this temperature, is passed through a -red-hot tube, you will not get a trace of organisms. - -He then turned his attention to the mercury bath, and found on -examination that the surface of the mercury was almost always covered -with a very fine dust. He found that even the mercury itself was -positively full of organic matters; that from being constantly exposed -to the air, it had collected an immense number of these infusorial -organisms from the air. Well, under these circumstances he felt that the -case was quite clear, and that the mercury was not what it had appeared -to M. Schwann to be,--a bar to the admission of these organisms; but -that, in reality, it acted as a reservoir from which the infusion was -immediately supplied with the large quantity that had so puzzled him. - -But not content with explaining the experiments of others, M. Pasteur -went to work to satisfy himself completely. He said to himself: "If my -view is right, and if, in point of fact, all these appearances of -spontaneous generation are altogether due to the falling of minute germs -suspended in the atmosphere,--why, I ought not only to be able to show -the germs, but I ought to be able to catch and sow them, and produce the -resulting organisms." He, accordingly, constructed a very ingenious -apparatus to enable him to accomplish the trapping of the "_germ dust_" -in the air. He fixed in the window of his room a glass tube, in the -centre of which he had placed a ball of gun-cotton, which, as you all -know, is ordinary cotton-wool, which, from having been steeped in strong -acid, is converted into a substance of great explosive power. It is also -soluble in alcohol and ether. One end of the glass tube was, of course, -open to the external air; and at the other end of it he placed an -aspirator, a contrivance for causing a current of the external air to -pass through the tube. He kept this apparatus going for four-and-twenty -hours, and then removed the _dusted_ gun-cotton, and dissolved it in -alcohol and ether. He then allowed this to stand for a few hours, and -the result was, that a very fine dust was gradually deposited at the -bottom of it. That dust, on being transferred to the stage of a -microscope, was found to contain an enormous number of starch grains. -You know that the materials of our food and the greater portion of -plants are composed of starch, and we are constantly making use of it in -a variety of ways, so that there is always a quantity of it suspended in -the air. It is these starch grains which form many of those bright -specks that we see dancing in a ray of light sometimes. But besides -these, M. Pasteur found also an immense number of other organic -substances such as spores of fungi, which had been floating about in the -air and had got caged in this way. - -He went farther, and said to himself, "If these really are the things -that give rise to the appearance of spontaneous generation, I ought to -be able to take a ball of this _dusted_ gun-cotton and put it into one -of my vessels, containing that boiled infusion which has been kept away -from the air, and in which no infusoria are at present developed, and -then, if I am right, the introduction of this gun-cotton will give rise -to organisms." - -Accordingly, he took one of these vessels of infusion, which had been -kept eighteen months, without the least appearance of life in it, and by -a most ingenious contrivance, he managed to break it open and introduce -such a ball of gun-cotton, without allowing the infusion or the cotton -ball to come into contact with any air but that which had been subjected -to a red heat, and in twenty-four hours he had the satisfaction of -finding all the indications of what had been hitherto called spontaneous -generation. He had succeeded in catching the germs and developing -organisms in the way he had anticipated. - -It now struck him that the truth of his conclusions might be -demonstrated without all the apparatus he had employed. To do this, he -took some decaying animal or vegetable substance, such as urine, which -is an extremely decomposable substance, or the juice of yeast, or -perhaps some other artificial preparation, and filled a vessel having a -long tubular neck, with it. He then boiled the liquid and bent that long -neck into an S shape or zig-zag, leaving it open at the end. The -infusion then gave no trace of any appearance of spontaneous generation, -however long it might be left, as all the germs in the air were -deposited in the beginning of the bent neck. He then cut the tube close -to the vessel, and allowed the ordinary air to have free and direct -access; and the result of that was the appearance of organisms in it, as -soon as the infusion had been allowed to stand long enough to allow of -the growth of those it received from the air, which was about -forty-eight hours. The result of M. Pasteur's experiments proved, -therefore, in the most conclusive manner, that all the appearances of -spontaneous generation arose from nothing more than the deposition of -the germs of organisms which were constantly floating in the air. - -To this conclusion, however, the objection was made, that if that were -the cause, then the air would contain such an enormous number of these -germs, that it would be a continual fog. But M. Pasteur replied that -they are not there in anything like the number we might suppose, and -that an exaggerated view has been held on that subject; he showed that -the chances of animal or vegetable life appearing in infusions, depend -entirely on the conditions under which they are exposed. If they are -exposed to the ordinary atmosphere around us, why, of course, you may -have organisms appearing early. But, on the other hand, if they are -exposed to air at a great height, or in some very quiet cellar, you will -often not find a single trace of life. - -So that M. Pasteur arrived at last at the clear and definite result, -that all these appearances are like the case of the worms in the piece -of meat, which was refuted by Redi, simply germs carried by the air and -deposited in the liquids in which they afterwards appear. For my own -part, I conceive that, with the particulars of M. Pasteur's experiments -before us, we cannot fail to arrive at his conclusions; and that the -doctrine of spontaneous generation has received a final _coup de grâce_. - -You, of course, understand that all this in no way interferes with the -_possibility_ of the fabrication of organic matters by the direct method -to which I have referred, remote as that possibility may be. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[51] Those who wish to study fully the doctrines of which I have -endeavoured to give some rough and ready illustrations, must read Mr. -John Stuart Mill's "System of Logic." - - - - -VII - - THE PERPETUATION OF LIVING BEINGS, - HEREDITARY TRANSMISSION AND - VARIATION. - - -The inquiry which we undertook, at our last meeting, into the state of -our knowledge of the causes of the phenomena of organic nature,--of the -past and of the present,--resolved itself into two subsidiary inquiries: -the first was, whether we know anything, either historically or -experimentally, of the mode of origin of living beings; the second -subsidiary inquiry was, whether, granting the origin, we know anything -about the perpetuation and modifications of the forms of organic beings. -The reply which I had to give to the first question was altogether -negative, and the chief result of my last lecture was, that, neither -historically nor experimentally, do we at present know anything -whatsoever about the origin of living forms. We saw that, historically, -we are not likely to know anything about it, although we may perhaps -learn something experimentally; but that at present we are an enormous -distance from the goal I indicated. - -I now, then, take up the next question, What do we know of the -reproduction, the perpetuation, and the modifications of the forms of -living beings, supposing that we have put the question as to their -origination on one side, and have assumed that at present the causes of -their origination are beyond us, and that we know nothing about them? -Upon this question the state of our knowledge is extremely different; it -is exceedingly large: and, if not complete, our experience is certainly -most extensive. It would be impossible to lay it all before you, and the -most I can do, or need do to-night, is to take up the principal points -and put them before you with such prominence as may subserve the -purposes of our present argument. - -The method of the perpetuation of organic beings is of two kinds,--the -asexual and the sexual. In the first the perpetuation takes place from -and by a particular act of an individual organism, which sometimes may -not be classed as belonging to any sex at all. In the second case, it is -in consequence of the mutual action and inter-action of certain portions -of the organisms of usually two distinct individuals--the male and the -female. The cases of asexual perpetuation are by no means so common as -the cases of sexual perpetuation; and they are by no means so common in -the animal as in the vegetable world. You are all probably familiar with -the fact, as a matter of experience, that you can propagate plants by -means of what are called "cuttings"; for example, that by taking a -cutting from a geranium plant, and rearing it properly, by supplying it -with light and warmth and nourishment from the earth, it grows up and -takes the form of its parent, having all the properties and -peculiarities of the original plant. - -Sometimes this process, which the gardener performs artificially, takes -place naturally; that is to say, a little bulb, or portion of the plant, -detaches itself, drops off, and becomes capable of growing as a separate -thing. That is the case with many bulbous plants, which throw off in -this way secondary bulbs, which are lodged in the ground and become -developed into plants. This is an asexual process, and from it results -the repetition or reproduction of the form of the original being from -which the bulb proceeds. - -Among animals the same thing takes place. Among the lower forms of -animal life, the infusorial animalculæ we have already spoken of throw -off certain portions, or break themselves up in various directions, -sometimes transversely or sometimes longitudinally; or they may give off -buds, which detach themselves and develop into their proper forms. There -is the common fresh-water Polype, for instance, which multiplies itself -in this way. Just in the same way as the gardener is able to multiply -and reproduce the peculiarities and characters of particular plants by -means of cuttings, so can the physiological experimentalist,--as was -shown by the Abbé Trembley many years ago,--so can he do the same thing -with many of the lower forms of animal life. M. de Trembley showed that -you could take a polype and cut it into two, or four, or many pieces, -mutilating it in all directions, and the pieces would still grow up and -reproduce completely the original form of the animal. These are all -cases of asexual multiplication, and there are other instances, and -still more extraordinary ones, in which this process takes place -naturally, in a more hidden, a more recondite kind of way. You are all -of you familiar with that little green insect, the _Aphis_ or blight, as -it is called. These little animals, during a very considerable part of -their existence, multiply themselves by means of a kind of internal -budding, the buds being developed into essentially asexual animals, -which are neither male nor female; they become converted into young -_Aphides_, which repeat the process, and their offspring after them, and -so on again; you may go on for nine or ten, or even twenty or more -successions; and there is no very good reason to say how soon it might -terminate, or how long it might not go on if the proper conditions of -warmth and nourishment were kept up. - -Sexual reproduction is quite a distinct matter. Here, in all these -cases, what is required is the detachment of two portions of the -parental organisms, which portions we know as the egg or the -spermatozoon. In plants it is the ovule and the pollen-grain, as in the -flowering plants, or the ovule and the antherozooid, as in the -flowerless. Among all forms of animal life, the spermatozoa proceed from -the male sex, and the egg is the product of the female. Now, what is -remarkable about this mode of reproduction is this, that the egg by -itself, or the spermatozoa by themselves, are unable to assume the -parental form; but if they be brought into contact with one another, the -effect of the mixture of organic substances proceeding from two sources -appears to confer an altogether new vigour to the mixed product. This -process is brought about, as we all know, by the sexual intercourse of -the two sexes, and is called the act of impregnation. The result of -this act on the part of the male and female is, that the formation of a -new being is set up in the ovule or egg; this ovule or egg soon begins -to be divided and subdivided, and to be fashioned into various complex -organisms, and eventually to develop into the form of one of its -parents, as I explained in the first lecture. These are the processes by -which the perpetuation of organic beings is secured. Why there should be -the two modes--why this reinvigoration should be required on the part of -the female element we do not know; but it is most assuredly the fact, -and it is presumable, that, however long the process of asexual -multiplication could be continued,--I say there is good reason to -believe that it would come to an end if a new commencement were not -obtained by a conjunction of the two sexual elements. - -That character which is common to these two distinct processes is this, -that, whether we consider the reproduction, or perpetuation, or -modification of organic beings as they take place asexually, or as they -may take place sexually,--in either case, I say, the offspring has a -constant tendency to assume, speaking generally, the character of the -parent. As I said just now, if you take a slip of a plant, and tend it -with care, it will eventually grow up and develop into a plant like that -from which it had sprung; and this tendency is so strong that, as -gardeners know, this mode of multiplying by means of cuttings is the -only secure mode of propagating very many varieties of plants; the -peculiarity of the primitive stock seems to be better preserved if you -propagate it by means of a slip than if you resort to the sexual mode. - -Again, in experiments upon the lower animals, such as the polype, to -which I have referred, it is most extraordinary that, although cut up -into various pieces, each particular piece will grow up into the form of -the primitive stock; the head, if separated, will reproduce the body and -the tail; and if you cut off the tail, you will find that that will -reproduce the body and all the rest of the members, without in any way -deviating from the plan of the organism from which these portions have -been detached. And so far does this go, that some experimentalists have -carefully examined the lower orders of animals,--among them the Abbé -Spallanzani, who made a number of experiments upon snails and -salamanders,--and have found that they might mutilate them to an -incredible extent; that you might cut off the jaw or the greater part of -the head, or the leg or the tail, and repeat the experiment several -times, perhaps, cutting off the same member again and again; and yet -each of those types would be reproduced according to the primitive type: -nature making no mistake, never putting on a fresh kind of leg, or head, -or tail, but always tending to repeat and to return to the primitive -type. - -It is the same in sexual reproduction: it is a matter of perfectly -common experience, that the tendency on the part of the offspring always -is, speaking broadly, to reproduce the form of the parents. The proverb -has it that the thistle does not bring forth grapes; so, among -ourselves, there is always a likeness, more or less marked and distinct, -between children and their parents. That is a matter of familiar and -ordinary observation. We notice the same thing occurring in the cases of -the domestic animals--dogs, for instance, and their offspring. In all -these cases of propagation and perpetuation, there seems to be a -tendency in the offspring to take the characters of the parental -organisms. To that tendency a special name is given--and as I may very -often use it, I will write it up here on this blackboard that you may -remember it--it is called _Atavism_; it expresses this tendency to -revert to the ancestral type, and comes from the Latin word _atavus_, -ancestor. - -Well, this _Atavism_which I shall speak of, is, as I said before, one of -the most marked and striking tendencies of organic beings; but, side by -side with this hereditary tendency there is an equally distinct and -remarkable tendency to variation. The tendency to reproduce the original -stock has, as it were, its limits, and side by side with it there is a -tendency to vary in certain directions, as if there were two opposing -powers working upon the organic being, one tending to take it in a -straight line, and the other tending to make it diverge from that -straight line, first to one side and then to the other. - -So that you see these two tendencies need not precisely contradict one -another, as the ultimate result may not always be very remote from what -would have been the case if the line had been quite straight. - -This tendency to variation is less marked in that mode of propagation -which takes place asexually; it is in that mode that the minor -characters of animal and vegetable structures are most completely -preserved. Still, it will happen sometimes, that the gardener, when he -has planted a cutting of some favourite plant, will find, contrary to -his expectation, that the slip grows up a little different from the -primitive stock--that it produces flowers of a different colour or make, -or some deviation in one way or another. This is what is called the -"sporting" of plants. - -In animals the phenomena of asexual propagation are so obscure, that at -present we cannot be said to know much about them; but if we turn to -that mode of perpetuation which results from the sexual process, then we -find variation a perfectly constant occurrence, to a certain extent; -and, indeed, I think that a certain amount of variation from the -primitive stock is the necessary result of the method of sexual -propagation itself; for, inasmuch as the thing propagated proceeds from -two organisms of different sexes and different makes and temperaments, -and as the offspring is to be either of one sex or the other, it is -quite clear that it cannot be an exact diagonal of the two, or it would -be of no sex at all; it cannot be an exact intermediate form between -that of each of its parents--it must deviate to one side or the other. -You do not find that the male follows the precise type of the male -parent, nor does the female always inherit the precise characteristics -of the mother,--there is always a proportion of the female character in -the male offspring, and of the male character in the female offspring. -That must be quite plain to all of you who have looked at all -attentively on your own children or those of your neighbours; you will -have noticed how very often it may happen that the son shall exhibit the -maternal type of character, or the daughter possess the characteristics -of the father's family. There are all sorts of intermixtures and -intermediate conditions between the two, where complexion, or beauty, or -fifty other different peculiarities belonging to either side of the -house, are reproduced in other members of the same family. Indeed, it is -sometimes to be remarked in this kind of variation, that the variety -belongs, strictly speaking, to neither of the immediate parents; you -will see a child in a family who is not like either its father or its -mother; but some old person who knew its grandfather or grandmother, or, -it may be, an uncle, or, perhaps, even a more distant relative, will see -a great similarity between the child and one of these. In this way it -constantly happens that the characteristic of some previous member of -the family comes out and is reproduced and recognized in the most -unexpected manner. - -But apart from that matter of general experience, there are some cases -which put that curious mixture in a very clear light. You are aware that -the offspring of the Ass and the Horse, or rather of the he-Ass and the -Mare, is what is called a Mule; and, on the other hand, the offspring of -the Stallion and the she-Ass is what is called a _Hinny_. It is a very -rare thing in this country to see a Hinny. I never saw one myself; but -they have been very carefully studied. Now, the curious thing is this, -that although you have the same elements in the experiment in each case, -the offspring is entirely different in character, according as the male -influence comes from the Ass or the Horse. Where the Ass is the male, as -in the case of the Mule, you find that the head is like that of the Ass, -that the ears are long, the tail is tufted at the end, the feet are -small, and the voice is an unmistakable bray; these are all points of -similarity to the Ass; but, on the other hand, the barrel of the body -and the cut of the neck are much more like those of the Mare. Then, if -you look at the Hinny,--the result of the union of the Stallion and the -she-Ass, then you find it is the Horse that has the predominance; that -the head is more like that of the Horse, the ears are shorter, the legs -coarser, and the type is altogether altered; while the voice, instead of -being a bray, is the ordinary neigh of the Horse. Here, you see, is a -most curious thing: you take exactly the same elements, Ass and Horse, -but you combine the sexes in a different manner, and the result is -modified accordingly. You have in this case, however, a result which is -not general and universal--there is usually an important preponderance, -but not always on the same side. - -Here, then, is one intelligible, and, perhaps, necessary cause of -variation: the fact, that there are two sexes sharing in the production -of the offspring, and that the share taken by each is different and -variable, not only for each combination, but also for different members -of the same family. - -Secondly, there is a variation, to a certain extent,--though in all -probability the influence of this cause has been very much -exaggerated--but there is no doubt that variation is produced, to a -certain extent, by what are commonly known as external conditions,--such -as temperature, food, warmth, and moisture. In the long run, every -variation depends, in some sense, upon external conditions, seeing that -everything has a cause of its own. I use the term "external conditions" -now in the sense in which it is ordinarily employed: certain it is, that -external conditions have a definite effect. You may take a plant which -has single flowers, and by dealing with the soil, and nourishment, and -so on, you may by-and-by convert single flowers into double flowers, and -make thorns shoot out into branches. You may thicken or make various -modifications in the shape of the fruit. In animals, too, you may -produce analogous changes in this way, as in the case of that deep -bronze colour which persons rarely lose after having passed any length -of time in tropical countries. You may also alter the development of the -muscles very much, by dint of training; all the world knows that -exercise has a great effect in this way; we always expect to find the -arm of a blacksmith hard and wiry, and possessing a large development of -the brachial muscles. No doubt, training, which is one of the forms of -external conditions, converts what are originally only instructions, -teachings, into habits, or, in other words, into organizations, to a -great extent; but this second cause of variation cannot be considered to -be by any means a large one. The third cause that I have to mention, -however, is a very extensive one. It is one that, for want of a better -name, has been called "spontaneous variation"; which means that when we -do not know anything about the cause of phenomena, we call it -spontaneous. In the orderly chain of causes and effects in this world, -there are very few things of which it can be said with truth that they -are spontaneous. Certainly not in these physical matters,--in these -there is nothing of the kind,--everything depends on previous -conditions. But when we cannot trace the cause of phenomena, we call -them spontaneous. - -Of these variations, multitudinous as they are, but little is known with -perfect accuracy, I will mention to you some two or three cases, because -they are very remarkable in themselves, and also because I shall want to -use them afterwards. Réaumur, a famous French naturalist, a great many -years ago, in an essay which he wrote upon the art of hatching -chickens,--which was indeed a very curious essay,--had occasion to speak -of variations and monstrosities. One very remarkable case had come under -his notice of a variation in the form of a human member, in the person -of a Maltese, of the name of Gratio Kelleia, who was born with six -fingers upon each hand, and the like number of toes to each of his feet. -That was a case of spontaneous variation. Nobody knows why he was born -with that number of fingers and toes, and as we don't know, we call it a -case of "spontaneous" variation. There is another remarkable case also. -I select these, because they happen to have been observed and noted very -carefully at the time. It frequently happens that a variation occurs, -but the persons who notice it do not take any care in noting down the -particulars, until at length, when inquiries come to be made, the exact -circumstances are forgotten; and hence, multitudinous as may be such -"spontaneous" variations, it is exceedingly difficult to get at the -origin of them. - -The second case is one of which you may find the whole details in the -"Philosophical Transactions" for the year 1813, in a paper communicated -by Colonel Humphreys to the President of the Royal Society,--"On a new -Variety in the Breed of Sheep," giving an account of a very remarkable -breed of sheep, which at one time was well known in the northern states -of America, and which went by the name of the Ancon or the Otter breed -of sheep. In the year 1791, there was a farmer of the name of Seth -Wright in Massachusetts, who had a flock of sheep, consisting of a ram -and, I think, of some twelve or thirteen ewes. Of this flock of ewes, -one at the breeding-time bore a lamb which was very singularly formed; -it had a very long body, very short legs, and those legs were bowed! I -will tell you by-and-by how this singular variation in the breed of -sheep came to be noted, and to have the prominence that it now has. For -the present, I mention only these two cases; but the extent of variation -in the breed of animals is perfectly obvious to any one who has studied -natural history with ordinary attention, or to any person who compares -animals with others of the same kind. It is strictly true that there are -never any two specimens which are exactly alike; however similar, they -will always differ in some certain particular. - -Now let us go back to Atavism,--to the hereditary tendency I spoke of. -What will come of a variation when you breed from it, when Atavism -comes, if I may say so, to intersect variation? The two cases of which I -have mentioned the history, give a most excellent illustration of what -occurs. Gratio Kelleia, the Maltese, married when he was twenty-two -years of age, and, as I suppose there were no six-fingered ladies in -Malta, he married an ordinary five-fingered person. The result of that -marriage was four children; the first, who was christened Salvator, had -six fingers and six toes, like his father; the second was George, who -had five fingers and toes, but one of them was deformed, showing a -tendency to variation; the third was Andrè; he had five fingers and five -toes, quite perfect; the fourth was a girl, Marie; she had five fingers -and five toes, but her thumbs were deformed, showing a tendency toward -the sixth. - -These children grew up, and when they came to adult years, they all -married, and of course it happened that they all married five-fingered -and five-toed persons. Now let us see what were the results. Salvator -had four children; they were two boys, a girl, and another boy: the -first two boys and the girl were six-fingered and six-toed like their -grandfather; the fourth boy had only five fingers and five toes. George -had only four children: there were two girls with six fingers and six -toes; there was one girl with six fingers and five toes on the right -side, and five fingers and five toes on the left side, so that she was -half and half. The last, a boy, had five fingers and five toes. The -third, Andrè, you will recollect, was perfectly well-formed, and he had -many children whose hands and feet were all regularly developed. Marie, -the last, who, of course, married a man who had only five fingers, had -four children: the first, a boy, was born with six toes, but the other -three were normal. - -Now observe what very extraordinary phenomena are presented here. You -have an accidental variation arising from what you may call a -monstrosity; you have that monstrosity tendency or variation diluted in -the first instance by an admixture with a female of normal construction, -and you would naturally expect that, in the results of such an union, -the monstrosity, if repeated, would be in equal proportion with the -normal type; that is to say, that the children would be half and half, -some taking the peculiarity of the father, and the others being of the -purely normal type of the mother; but you see we have a great -preponderance of the abnormal type. Well, this comes to be mixed once -more with the pure, the normal type, and the abnormal is again produced -in large proportion, notwithstanding the second dilution. Now what would -have happened if these abnormal types had intermarried with each other; -that is to say, suppose the two boys of Salvator had taken it into their -heads to marry their first cousins, the two first girls of George, their -uncle? You will remember that these are all of the abnormal type of -their grandfather. The result would probably have been, that their -offspring would have been in every case a further development of that -abnormal type. You see it is only in the fourth, in the person of Marie, -that the tendency, when it appears but slightly in the second -generation, is washed out in the third, while the progeny of Andrè, who -escaped in the first instance, escape altogether. - -We have in this case a good example of nature's tendency to the -perpetuation of a variation. Here it is certainly a variation which -carried with it no use or benefit; and yet you see the tendency to -perpetuation may be so strong, that, notwithstanding a great admixture -of pure blood, the variety continues itself up to the third generation, -which is largely marked with it. In this case, as I have said, there was -no means of the second generation intermarrying with any but -five-fingered persons, and the question naturally suggests itself, What -would have been the result of such marriage? Réaumur narrates this case -only as far as the third generation. Certainly it would have been an -exceedingly curious thing if we could have traced this matter any -further; had the cousins intermarried, a six-fingered variety of the -human race might have been set up. - -To show you that this supposition is by no means an unreasonable one, -let me now point out what took place in the case of Seth Wright's sheep, -where it happened to be a matter of moment to him to obtain a breed or -raise a flock of sheep like that accidental variety that I have -described--and I will tell you why. In that part of Massachusetts where -Seth Wright was living, the fields were separated by fences, and the -sheep, which were very active and robust, would roam abroad, and without -much difficulty jump over these fences into other people's farms. As a -matter of course, this exuberant activity on the part of the sheep -constantly gave rise to all sorts of quarrels, bickerings, and -contentions among the farmers of the neighbourhood; so it occurred to -Seth Wright, who was, like his successors, more or less 'cute, that if -he could get a stock of sheep like those with the bandy legs, they would -not be able to jump over the fences so readily; and he acted upon that -idea. He killed his old ram, and as soon as the young one arrived at -maturity, he bred altogether from it. The result was even more striking -than in the human experiment which I mentioned just now. Colonel -Humphreys testifies that it always happened that the offspring were -either pure Ancons or pure ordinary sheep; that in no case was there any -mixing of the Ancons with the others. In consequence of this, in the -course of a very few years, the farmer was able to get a very -considerable flock of this variety, and a large number of them were -spread throughout Massachusetts. Most unfortunately, however--I suppose -it was because they were so common--nobody took enough notice of them to -preserve their skeletons; and although Colonel Humphreys states that he -sent a skeleton to the President of the Royal Society at the same time -that he forwarded his paper, I am afraid that the variety has entirely -disappeared; for a short time after these sheep had become prevalent in -that district, the Merino sheep were introduced; and as their wool was -much more valuable, and as they were a quiet race of sheep, and showed -no tendency to trespass or jump over fences, the Otter breed of sheep, -the wool of which was inferior to that of the Merino, was gradually -allowed to die out. - -You see that these facts illustrate perfectly well what may be done if -you take care to breed from stocks that are similar to each other. After -having got a variation, if, by crossing a variation with the original -stock, you multiply that variation, and then take care to keep that -variation distinct from the original stock, and make them breed -together,--then you may almost certainly produce a race whose tendency -to continue the variation is exceedingly strong. - -This is what is called "selection"; and it is by exactly the same -process as that by which Seth Wright bred his Ancon sheep, that our -breeds of cattle, dogs, and fowls, are obtained. There are some -possibilities of exception, but still, speaking broadly, I may say that -this is the way in which all our varied races of domestic animals have -arisen; and you must understand that it is not one peculiarity or one -characteristic alone in which animals may vary. There is not a single -peculiarity or characteristic of any kind, bodily or mental, in which -offspring may not vary to a certain extent from the parent and other -animals. - -Among ourselves this is well known. The simplest physical peculiarity is -mostly reproduced. I know a case of a woman who has the lobe of one of -her ears a little flattened. An ordinary observer might scarcely notice -it, and yet every one of her children has an approximation to the same -peculiarity to some extent. If you look at the other extreme, too, the -gravest diseases, such as gout, scrofula, and consumption, may be handed -down with just the same certainty and persistence as we noticed in the -perpetuation of the bandy legs of the Ancon sheep. - -However, these facts are best illustrated in animals, and the extent of -the variation, as is well known, is very remarkable in dogs. For -example, there are some dogs very much smaller than others; indeed, the -variation is so enormous that probably the smallest dog would be about -the size of the head of the largest; there are very great variations in -the structural forms not only of the skeleton but also in the shape of -the skull, and in the proportions of the face and the disposition of the -teeth. - -The Pointer, the Retriever, Bulldog, and the Terrier, differ very -greatly, and yet there is every reason to believe that every one of -these races has arisen from the same source,--that all the most -important races have arisen by this selective breeding from accidental -variation. - -A still more striking case of what may be done by selective breeding, -and it is a better case, because there is no chance of that partial -infusion of error to which I alluded, has been studied very carefully by -Mr. Darwin,--the case of the domestic pigeons. I dare say there may be -some among you who may be pigeon _fanciers_, and I wish you to -understand that in approaching the subject, I would speak with all -humility and hesitation, as I regret to say that I am not a pigeon -fancier. I know it is a great art and mystery, and a thing upon which a -man must not speak lightly; but I shall endeavour, as far as my -understanding goes, to give you a summary of the published and -unpublished information which I have gained from Mr. Darwin. - -Among the enormous variety,--I believe there are somewhere about a -hundred and fifty kinds of pigeons,--there are four kinds which may be -selected as representing the extremest divergences of one kind from -another. Their names are the Carrier, the Pouter, the Fantail, and the -Tumbler. In these large diagrams that I have here they are each -represented in their relative sizes to each other. This first one is the -Carrier; you will notice this large excrescence on its beak; it has a -comparatively small head; there is a bare space round the eyes; it has a -long neck, a very long beak, very strong legs, large feet, long wings, -and so on. The second one is the Pouter, a very large bird, with very -long legs and beak. It is called the Pouter because it is in the habit -of causing its gullet to swell up by inflating it with air. I should -tell you that all pigeons have a tendency to do this at times, but in -the Pouter it is carried to an enormous extent. The birds appear to be -quite proud of their power of swelling and puffing themselves out in -this way; and I think it is about as droll a sight as you can well see -to look at a cage full of these pigeons puffing and blowing themselves -out in this ridiculous manner. - -This diagram is a representation of the third kind I mentioned--the -Fantail. It is, you see, a small bird, with exceedingly small legs and a -very small beak. It is most curiously distinguished by the size and -extent of its tail, which, instead of containing twelve feathers, may -have many more,--say thirty, or even more--I believe there are some with -as many as forty-two. This bird has a curious habit of spreading out the -feathers of its tail in such a way that they reach forward, and touch -its head; and if this can be accomplished, I believe it is looked upon -as a point of great beauty. - -But here is the last great variety,--the Tumbler; and of that great -variety, one of the principal kinds, and one most prized, is the -specimen represented here--the short-faced Tumbler. Its beak, you see, -is reduced to a mere nothing. Just compare the beak of this one and that -of the first one, the Carrier--I believe the orthodox comparison of the -head and beak of a thoroughly well-bred Tumbler is to stick an oat into -a cherry, and that will give you the proper relative proportions of the -beak and head. The feet and legs are exceedingly small, and the bird -appears to be quite a dwarf when placed side by side with this great -Carrier. - -These are differences enough in regard to their external appearance; but -these differences are by no means the whole or even the most important -of the differences which obtain between these birds. There is hardly a -single point of their structure which has not become more or less -altered; and to give you an idea of how extensive these alterations are, -I have here some very good skeletons, for which I am indebted to my -friend Mr. Tegetmeier, a great authority in these matters; by means of -which, if you examine them by-and-by, you will be able to see the -enormous difference in their bony structures. - -I had the privilege, some time ago, of access to some important MSS. of -Mr. Darwin, who, I may tell you, has taken very great pains and spent -much valuable time and attention on the investigation of these -variations, and getting together all the facts that bear upon them. I -obtained from these MSS. the following summary of the differences -between the domestic breeds of pigeons; that is to say, a notification -of the various points in which their organization differs. In the first -place, the back of the skull may differ a good deal, and the development -of the bones of the face may vary a great deal; the back varies a good -deal; the shape of the lower jaw varies; the tongue varies very greatly, -not only in correlation to the length and size of the beak, but it seems -also to have a kind of independent variation of its own. Then the amount -of naked skin round the eyes, and at the base of the beak, may vary -enormously; so may the length of the eyelids, the shape of the nostrils, -and the length of the neck. I have already noticed the habit of blowing -out the gullet, so remarkable in the Pouter, and comparatively so in the -others. There are great differences, too, in the size of the female and -the male, the shape of the body, the number and width of the processes -of the ribs, the development of the ribs, and the size, shape, and -development of the breastbone. We may notice, too,--and I mention the -fact because it has been disputed by what is assumed to be high -authority,--the variation in the number of the sacral vertebræ. The -number of these varies from eleven to fourteen, and that without any -diminution in the number of the vertebræ of the back or of the tail. -Then the number and position of the tail-feathers may vary enormously, -and so may the number of the primary and secondary feathers of the -wings. Again, the length of the feet and of the beak,--although they -have no relation to each other, yet appear to go together,--that is, you -have a long beak wherever you have long feet. There are differences also -in the periods of the acquirement of the perfect plumage,--the size and -shape of the eggs,--the nature of flight, and the powers of -flight,--so-called "_homing_" birds having enormous flying powers;[52] -while, on the other hand, the little Tumbler is so called because of its -extraordinary faculty of turning head over heels in the air, instead of -pursuing a distinct course. And, lastly, the dispositions and voices of -the birds may vary. Thus the case of the pigeons shows you that there is -hardly a single particular,--whether of instinct, or habit, or bony -structure, or of plumage,--of either the internal economy or the -external shape, in which some variation or change may not take place, -which, by selective breeding, may become perpetuated, and form the -foundation of, and give rise to, a new race. - -If you carry in your mind's eye these four varieties of pigeons, you -will bear with you as good a notion as you can have, perhaps, of the -enormous extent to which a deviation from a primitive type may be -carried by means of this process of selective breeding. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[52] The "_Carrier_," I learn from Mr. Tegetmeier, does not _carry_; a -high-bred bird of this breed being but a poor flier. The birds which fly -long distances, and come home,--"homing" birds,--and are consequently -used as carriers, are not "carriers" in the fancy sense. - - - - -VIII - - THE CONDITIONS OF EXISTENCE AS AFFECTING - THE PERPETUATION OF LIVING - BEINGS. - - -In the last Lecture I endeavoured to prove to you that, while, as a -general rule, organic beings tend to reproduce their kind, there is in -them, also, a constantly recurring tendency to vary--to vary to a -greater or to a less extent. Such a variety, I pointed out to you, might -arise from causes which we do not understand; we therefore called it -spontaneous; and it might come into existence as a definite and marked -thing, without any gradations between itself and the form which preceded -it. I further pointed out, that such a variety having once arisen, might -be perpetuated to some extent, and indeed to a very marked extent, -without any direct interference, or without any exercise of that process -which we called selection. And then I stated further, that by such -selection, when exercised artificially--if you took care to breed only -from those forms which presented the same peculiarities of any variety -which had arisen in this manner--the variation might be perpetuated, as -far as we can see, indefinitely. - -The next question, and it is an important one for us, is this: Is there -any limit to the amount of variation from the primitive stock which can -be produced by this process of selective breeding? In considering this -question, it will be useful to class the characteristics, in respect of -which organic beings vary, under two heads: we may consider structural -characteristics, and we may consider physiological characteristics. - -In the first place, as regards structural characteristics, I endeavoured -to show you, by the skeletons which I had upon the table, and by -reference to a great many well-ascertained facts, that the different -breeds of Pigeons, the Carriers, Pouters, and Tumblers, might vary in -any of their internal and important structural characters to a very -great degree; not only might there be changes in the proportions of the -skull, and the characters of the feet and beaks, and so on; but that -there might be an absolute difference in the number of the vertebræ of -the back, as in the sacral vertebræ of the Pouter; and so great is the -extent of the variation in these and similar characters that I pointed -out to you, by reference to the skeletons and the diagrams, that these -extreme varieties may absolutely differ more from one another in their -structural characters than do what naturalists call distinct SPECIES of -pigeons; that is to say, that they differ so much in structure that -there is a greater difference between the Pouter and the Tumbler than -there is between such wild and distinct forms as the Rock Pigeon or the -Ring Pigeon, or the Ring Pigeon and the Stock Dove; and indeed the -differences are of greater value than this, for the structural -differences between these domesticated pigeons are such as would be -admitted by a naturalist, supposing he knew nothing at all about their -origin, to entitle them to constitute even distinct genera. - -As I have used this term SPECIES, and shall probably use it a good deal, -I had better perhaps devote a word or two to explaining what I mean by -it. - -Animals and plants are divided into groups, which become gradually -smaller, beginning with a KINGDOM, which is divided into SUB-KINGDOMS; -then come the smaller divisions called PROVINCES; and so on from a -PROVINCE to a CLASS, from a CLASS to an ORDER, from _Orders_ to -_Families_, and from these to GENERA, until we come at length to the -smallest groups of animals which can be defined one from the other by -constant characters, which are not sexual; and these are what -naturalists call SPECIES in practice, whatever they may do in theory. - -If in a state of nature you find any two groups of living beings, which -are separated one from the other by some constantly-recurring -characteristic, I don't care how slight and trivial, so long as it is -defined and constant, and does not depend on sexual peculiarities, then -all naturalists agree in calling them two species; that is what is meant -by the use of the word species--that is to say, it is, for the practical -naturalist, a mere question of structural differences.[53] - -We have seen now--to repeat this point once more, and it is very -essential that we should rightly understand it--we have seen that -breeds, known to have been derived from a common stock by selection, may -be as different in their structure from the original stock as species -may be distinct from each other. - -But is the like true of the physiological characteristics of animals? Do -the physiological differences of varieties amount in degree to those -observed between forms which naturalists call distinct species? This is -a most important point for us to consider. - -As regards the great majority of physiological characteristics, there is -no doubt that they are capable of being developed, increased, and -modified by selection. - -There is no doubt that breeds may be made as different as species in -many physiological characters. I have already pointed out to you very -briefly the different habits of the breeds of Pigeons, all of which -depend upon their physiological peculiarities,--as the peculiar habit of -tumbling, in the Tumbler,--the peculiarities of flight, in the "homing" -birds,--the strange habit of spreading out the tail, and walking in a -peculiar fashion, in the Fantail,--and, lastly, the habit of blowing out -the gullet, so characteristic of the Pouter. These are all due to -physiological modifications, and in all these respects these birds -differ as much from each other as any two ordinary species do. - -So with Dogs in their habits and instincts. It is a physiological -peculiarity which leads the Greyhound to chase its prey by sight,--that -enables the Beagle to track it by the scent,--that impels the Terrier to -its rat-hunting propensity,--and that leads the Retriever to its habits -of retrieving. These habits and instincts are all the results of -physiological differences and peculiarities, which have been developed -from a common stock, at least there is every reason to believe so. But -it is a most singular circumstance, that while you may run through -almost the whole series of physiological processes, without finding a -check to your argument, you come at last to a point where you do find a -check, and that is in the reproductive processes. For there is a most -singular circumstance in respect to natural species--at least about some -of them--and it would be sufficient for the purposes of this argument, -if it were true of only one of them, but there is, in fact, a great -number of such cases--and that is, that similar as they may appear to be -to mere races or breeds, they present a marked peculiarity in the -reproductive process. If you breed from the male and female of the same -race, you of course have offspring of the like kind, and if you make the -offspring breed together, you obtain the same result, and if you breed -from these again, you will still have the same kind of offspring; there -is no check. But if you take members of two distinct species, however -similar they may be to each other, and make them breed together, you -will find a check, with some modifications and exceptions, however, -which I shall speak of presently. If you cross two such species with -each other, then,--although you may get offspring in the case of the -first cross, yet, if you attempt to breed from the products of that -crossing, which are what are called HYBRIDS--that is, if you couple a -male and a female hybrid--then the result is that in ninety-nine cases -out of a hundred you will get no offspring at all: there will be no -result whatsoever. - -The reason of this is quite obvious in some cases; the male hybrids, -although possessing all the external appearances and characteristics of -perfect animals, are physiologically imperfect and deficient in the -structural parts of the reproductive elements necessary to generation. -It is said to be invariably the case with the male mule, the cross -between the Ass and the Mare; and hence it is, that, although crossing -the Horse with the Ass is easy enough, and is constantly done, as far -as I am aware, if you take two mules, a male and a female, and endeavour -to breed from them, you get no offspring whatever; no generation will -take place. This is what is called the sterility of the hybrids between -two distinct species. - -You see that this is a very extraordinary circumstance; one does not see -why it should be. The common teleological explanation is, that it is to -prevent the impurity of the blood resulting from the crossing of one -species with another, but you see it does not in reality do anything of -the kind. There is nothing in this fact that hybrids cannot breed with -each other, to establish such a theory; there is nothing to prevent the -Horse breeding with the Ass, or the Ass with the Horse. So that this -explanation breaks down, as a great many explanations of this kind do, -that are only founded on mere assumptions. - -Thus you see that there is a great difference between "mongrels," which -are crosses between distinct races, and "hybrids," which are crosses -between distinct species. The mongrels are, so far as we know, fertile -with one another. But between species, in many cases, you cannot succeed -in obtaining even the first cross: at any rate it is quite certain that -the hybrids are often absolutely infertile one with another. - -Here is a feature, then, great or small as it may be, which -distinguishes natural species of animals. Can we find any approximation -to this in the different races known to be produced by selective -breeding from a common stock? Up to the present time the answer to that -question is absolutely a negative one. As far as we know at present, -there is nothing approximating to this check. In crossing the breeds -between the Fantail and the Pouter, the Carrier and the Tumbler, or any -other variety or race you may name--so far as we know at present--there -is no difficulty in breeding together the mongrels. Take the Carrier and -the Fantail, for instance, and let them represent the Horse and the Ass -in the case of distinct species; then you have, as the result of their -breeding, the Carrier-Fantail mongrel,--we will say the male and female -mongrel,--and, as far as we know, these two when crossed would not be -less fertile than the original cross, or than Carrier with Carrier. -Here, you see, is a physiological contrast between the races produced by -selective modification and natural species. I shall inquire into the -value of this fact, and of some modifying circumstances by and by; for -the present I merely put it broadly before you. - -But while considering this question of the limitations of species, a -word must be said about what is called RECURRENCE--the tendency of races -which have been developed by selective breeding from varieties to return -to their primitive type. This is supposed by many to put an absolute -limit to the extent of selective and all other variations. People say, -"It is all very well to talk about producing these different races, but -you know very well that if you turned all these birds wild, these -Pouters, and Carriers, and so on, they would all return to their -primitive stock." This is very commonly assumed to be a fact, and it is -an argument that is commonly brought forward as conclusive; but if you -will take the trouble to inquire into it rather closely, I think you -will find that it is not worth very much. The first question of course -is, Do they thus return to the primitive stock? And commonly as the -thing is assumed and accepted, it is extremely difficult to get anything -like good evidence of it. It is constantly said, for example, that if -domesticated Horses are turned wild, as they have been in some parts of -Asia Minor and South America, that they return at once to the primitive -stock from which they were bred. But the first answer that you make to -this assumption is, to ask who knows what the primitive stock was; and -the second answer is, that in that case the wild Horses of Asia Minor -ought to be exactly like the wild Horses of South America. If they are -both like the same thing, they ought manifestly to be like each other! -The best authorities, however, tell you that it is quite different. The -wild Horse of Asia is said to be of a dun colour, with a largish head, -and a great many other peculiarities; while the best authorities on the -wild Horses of South America tell you that there is no similarity -between their wild Horses and those of Asia Minor; the cut of their -heads is very different, and they are commonly chestnut or -bay-coloured. It is quite clear, therefore, that as by these facts there -ought to have been two primitive stocks, they go for nothing in support -of the assumption that races recur to one primitive stock, and so far as -this evidence is concerned, it falls to the ground. - -Suppose for a moment that it were so, and that domesticated races, when -turned wild, did return to some common condition, I cannot see that this -would prove much more than that similar conditions are likely to produce -similar results; and that when you take back domesticated animals into -what we call natural conditions, you do exactly the same thing as if you -carefully undid all the work you had gone through, for the purpose of -bringing the animal from its wild to its domesticated state. I do not -see anything very wonderful in the fact, if it took all that trouble to -get it from a wild state, that it should go back into its original state -as soon as you removed the conditions which produced the variation to -the domesticated form. There is an important fact, however, forcibly -brought forward by Mr. Darwin, which has been noticed in connection with -the breeding of domesticated pigeons; and it is, that however different -these breeds of pigeons may be from each other, and we have already -noticed the great differences in these breeds, that if, among any of -those variations, you chance to have a blue pigeon turn up, it will be -sure to have the black bars across the wings, which are characteristic -of the original wild stock, the Rock Pigeon. - -Now, this is certainly a very remarkable circumstance; but I do not see -myself how it tells very strongly either one way or the other. I think, -in fact, that this argument in favour of recurrence to the primitive -type might prove a great deal too much for those who so constantly bring -it forward. For example, Mr. Darwin has very forcibly urged, that -nothing is commoner than if you examine a dun horse--and I had an -opportunity of verifying this illustration lately, while in the islands -of the West Highlands, where there are a great many dun horses--to find -that horse exhibit a long black stripe down his back, very often stripes -on his shoulder, and very often stripes on his legs. I, myself, saw a -pony of this description a short time ago, in a baker's cart, near -Rothesay, in Bute: it had the long stripe down the back, and stripes on -the shoulders and legs, just like those of the Ass, the Quagga, and the -Zebra. Now, if we interpret the theory of recurrence as applied to this -case, might it not be said that here was a case of a variation -exhibiting the characters and conditions of an animal occupying -something like an intermediate position between the Horse, the Ass, the -Quagga, and the Zebra, and from which these had been developed? In the -same way with regard even to Man. Every anatomist will tell you that -there is nothing commoner, in dissecting the human body, than to meet -with what are called muscular variations--that is, if you dissect two -bodies very carefully, you will probably find that the modes of -attachment and insertion of the muscles are not exactly the same in -both, there being great peculiarities in the mode in which the muscles -are arranged; and it is very singular, that in some dissections of the -human body you will come upon arrangements of the muscles very similar -indeed to the same parts in the Apes. Is the conclusion in that case to -be, that this is like the black bars in the case of the Pigeon, and that -it indicates a recurrence to the primitive type from which the animals -have been probably developed? Truly, I think that the opponents of -modification and variation had better leave the argument of recurrence -alone, or it may prove altogether too strong for them. - -To sum up,--the evidence as far as we have gone is against the argument -as to any limit to divergences, so far as structure is concerned; and in -favour of a physiological limitation. By selective breeding we can -produce structural divergences as great as those of species, but we -cannot produce equal physiological divergences. For the present I leave -the question there. - -Now, the next problem that lies before us--and it is an extremely -important one--is this: Does this selective breeding occur in nature? -Because, if there is no proof of it, all that I have been telling you -goes for nothing in accounting for the origin of species. Are natural -causes competent to play the part of selection in perpetuating -varieties? Here we labour under very great difficulties. In the last -lecture I had occasion to point out to you the extreme difficulty of -obtaining evidence even of the first origin of those varieties which we -know to have occurred in domesticated animals. I told you, that almost -always the origin of these varieties is overlooked, so that I could only -produce two or three cases, as that of Gratio Kelleia and of the Ancon -sheep. People forget, or do not take notice of them until they come to -have a prominence; and if that is true of artificial cases, under our -own eyes, and in animals in our own care, how much more difficult it -must be to have at first hand good evidence of the origin of varieties -in nature! Indeed, I do not know that it is possible by direct evidence -to prove the origin of a variety in nature, or to prove selective -breeding; but I will tell you what we can prove--and this comes to the -same thing--that varieties exist in nature within the limits of species, -and, what is more, that when a variety has come into existence in -nature, there are natural causes and conditions, which are amply -competent to play the part of a selective breeder; and although that is -not quite the evidence that one would like to have--though it is not -direct testimony--yet it is exceeding good and exceedingly powerful -evidence in its way. - -As to the first point, of varieties existing among natural species, I -might appeal to the universal experience of every naturalist, and of any -person who has ever turned any attention at all to the characteristics -of plants and animals in a state of nature; but I may as well take a few -definite cases, and I will begin with Man himself. - -I am one of those who believe that, at present, there is no evidence -whatever for saying, that mankind sprang originally from any more than a -single pair; I must say, that I cannot see any good ground whatever, or -even any tenable sort of evidence, for believing that there is more than -one species of Man. Nevertheless, as you know, just as there are numbers -of varieties in animals, so there are remarkable varieties of men. I -speak not merely of those broad and distinct variations which you see at -a glance. Everybody, of course, knows the difference between a Negro -and a white man, and can tell a Chinaman from an Englishman. They each -have peculiar characteristics of colour and physiognomy; but you must -recollect that the characters of these races go very far deeper--they -extend to the bony structure, and to the characters of that most -important of all organs to us--the brain; so that, among men belonging -to different races, or even within the same race, one man shall have a -brain a third, or half, or even seventy per cent bigger than another; -and if you take the whole range of human brains, you will find a -variation in some cases of a hundred per cent. Apart from these -variations in the size of the brain, the characters of the skull vary. -Thus if I draw the figures of a Mongul and of a Negro head on the -blackboard, in the case of the last the breadth would be about -seven-tenths, and in the other it would be nine-tenths of the total -length. So that you see there is abundant evidence of variation among -men in their natural condition. And if you turn to other animals there -is just the same thing. The fox, for example, which has a very large -geographical distribution all over Europe, and parts of Asia, and on the -American Continent, varies greatly. There are mostly large foxes in the -North, and smaller ones in the South. In Germany alone, the foresters -reckon some eight different sorts. - -Of the tiger, no one supposes that there is more than one species; they -extend from the hottest parts of Bengal, into the dry, cold, bitter -steppes of Siberia, into a latitude of 50°,--so that they may even prey -upon the reindeer. These tigers have exceedingly different -characteristics, but still they all keep their general features, so that -there is no doubt as to their being tigers. The Siberian tiger has a -thick fur, a small mane, and a longitudinal stripe down the back, while -the tigers of Java and Sumatra differ in many important respects from -the tigers of Northern Asia. So lions vary; so birds vary; and so, if -you go further back and lower down in creation, you find that fishes -vary. In different streams, in the same country even, you will find the -trout to be quite different to each other and easily recognizable by -those who fish in the particular streams. There is the same differences -in leeches; leech collectors can easily point out to you the differences -and the peculiarities which you yourself would probably pass by; so with -fresh-water mussels; so, in fact, with every animal you can mention. - -In plants there is the same kind of variation. Take such a case even as -the common bramble. The botanists are all at war about it; some of them -wanting to make out that there are many species of it, and others -maintaining that they are but many varieties of one species; and they -cannot settle to this day which is a species and which is a variety! - -So that there can be no doubt whatsoever that any plant and any animal -may vary in nature; that varieties may arise in the way I have -described,--as spontaneous varieties,--and that those varieties may be -perpetuated in the same way that I have shown you spontaneous varieties -are perpetuated; I say, therefore, that there can be no doubt as to the -origin and perpetuation of varieties in nature. - -But the question now is:--Does selection take place in nature? is there -anything like the operation of man in exercising selective breeding, -taking place in nature? You will observe that, at present, I say nothing -about species; I wish to confine myself to the consideration of the -production of those natural races which everybody admits to exist. The -question is, whether in nature there are causes competent to produce -races, just in the same way as man is able to produce, by selection, -such races of animals as we have already noticed. - -When a variety has arisen, the CONDITIONS OF EXISTENCE are such as to -exercise an influence which is exactly comparable to that of artificial -selection. By Conditions of Existence I mean two things,--there are -conditions which are furnished by the physical, the inorganic world, and -there are conditions of existence which are furnished by the organic -world. There is, in the first place, CLIMATE; under that head I include -only temperature and the varied amount of moisture of particular places. -In the next place there is what is technically called STATION, which -means--given the climate, the particular kind of place in which an -animal or a plant lives or grows; for example, the station of a fish is -in the water, of a fresh-water fish in fresh water; the station of a -marine fish is in the sea, and a marine animal may have a station higher -or deeper. So again with land animals: the differences in their stations -are those of different soils and neighbourhoods; some being best adapted -to a calcareous, and others to an arenaceous soil. The third condition -of existence is FOOD, by which I mean food in the broadest sense, the -supply of the materials necessary to the existence of an organic being; -in the case of a plant the inorganic matters, such as carbonic acid, -water, ammonia, and the earthy salts or salines; in the case of the -animal the inorganic and organic matters, which we have seen they -require; then these are all, at least the two first, what we may call -the inorganic or physical conditions of existence. Food takes a -mid-place, and then come the organic conditions; by which I mean the -conditions which depend upon the state of the rest of the organic -creation, upon the number and kind of living beings, with which an -animal is surrounded. You may class these under two heads: there are -organic beings, which operate as _opponents_, and there are organic -beings which operate as _helpers_ to any given organic creature. The -opponents may be of two kinds: there are the _indirect opponents_, which -are what we may call _rivals_; and there are the _direct opponents_, -those which strive to destroy the creature; and these we call _enemies_. -By rivals I mean, of course, in the case of plants, those which require -for their support the same kind of soil and station, and, among animals, -those which require the same kind of station, or food, or climate; those -are the indirect opponents; the direct opponents are, of course, those -which prey upon an animal or vegetable. The _helpers_ may also be -regarded as direct and indirect: in the case of a carnivorous animal, -for example, a particular herbaceous plant may in multiplying be an -indirect helper, by enabling the herbivora on which the carnivore preys -to get more food, and thus to nourish the carnivore more abundantly; the -direct helper may be best illustrated by reference to some parasitic -creature, such as the tape-worm. The tape-worm exists in the human -intestines, so that the fewer there are of men the fewer there will be -of tape-worms, other things being alike. It is a humiliating reflection, -perhaps, that we may be classed as direct helpers to the tape-worm, but -the fact is so: we can all see that if there were no men there would be -no tape-worms. - -It is extremely difficult to estimate, in a proper way, the importance -and the working of the Conditions of Existence. I do not think there -were any of us who had the remotest notion of properly estimating them -until the publication of Mr. Darwin's work, which has placed them before -us with remarkable clearness; and I must endeavour, as far as I can in -my own fashion, to give you some notion of how they work. We shall find -it easiest to take a simple case, and one as free as possible from every -kind of complication. - -I will suppose, therefore, that all the habitable part of this -globe--the dry land, amounting to about 51,000,000 square miles,--I will -suppose that the whole of that dry land has the same climate, and that -it is composed of the same kind of rock or soil, so that there will be -the same station everywhere; we thus get rid of the peculiar influence -of different climates and stations. I will then imagine that there shall -be but one organic being in the world, and that shall be a plant. In -this we start fair. Its food is to be carbonic acid, water and ammonia, -and the saline matters in the soil, which are, by the supposition, -everywhere alike. We take one single plant, with no opponents, no -helpers, and no rivals; it is to be a "fair field, and no favour." Now, -I will ask you to imagine further that it shall be a plant which shall -produce every year fifty seeds, which is a very moderate number for a -plant to produce; and that, by the action of the winds and currents, -these seeds shall be equally and gradually distributed over the whole -surface of the land. I want you now to trace out what will occur, and -you will observe that I am not talking fallaciously any more than a -mathematician does when he expounds his problem. If you show that the -conditions of your problem are such as may actually occur in nature and -do not transgress any of the known laws of nature in working out your -proposition, then you are as safe in the conclusion you arrive at as is -the mathematician in arriving at the solution of his problem. In -science, the only way of getting rid of the complications with which a -subject of this kind is environed, is to work in this deductive method. -What will be the result, then? I will suppose that every plant requires -one square foot of ground to live upon; and the result will be that, in -the course of nine years, the plant will have occupied every single -available spot in the whole globe! I have chalked upon the blackboard -the figures by which I arrive at the result:-- - - Plants. Plants. - 1 × 50 in 1st year = 50 - 50 × 50 " 2nd " = 2,500 - 2,500 × 50 " 3rd " = 125,000 - 125,000 × 50 " 4th " = 6,250,000 - 6,250,000 × 50 " 5th " = 312,500,000 - 312,500,000 × 50 " 6th " = 15,625,000,000 - 15,625,000,000 × 50 " 7th " = 781,250,000,000 - 781,250,000,000 × 50 " 8th " = 39,062,500,000,000 - 39,062,500,000,000 × 50 " 9th " = 1,953,125,000,000,000 - - 51,000,000 sq. miles--the dry surface} - of the earth × 27,878,400--the } = sq. ft. 1,421,798,400,000,000 - number of sq. ft. in 1 sq. mile } --------------------- - - being 531,326,600,000,000 - square feet less than would be required at the end of the ninth year. - -You will see from this that, at the end of the first year the single -plant will have produced fifty more of its kind; by the end of the -second year these will have increased to 2500; and so on, in succeeding -years, you get beyond even trillions; and I am not at all sure that I -could tell you what the proper arithmetical denomination of the total -number really is; but, at any rate, you will understand the meaning of -all those noughts. Then you see that, at the bottom, I have taken the -51,000,000 of square miles, constituting the surface of the dry land; -and as the number of square feet are placed under and subtracted from -the number of seeds that would be produced in the ninth year, you can -see at once that there would be an immense number more of plants than -there would be square feet of ground for their accommodation. This is -certainly quite enough to prove my point; that between the eighth and -ninth year after being planted the single plant would have stocked the -whole available surface of the earth. - -This is a thing which is hardly conceivable--it seems hardly -imaginable--yet it is so. It is indeed simply the law of Malthus -exemplified. Mr. Malthus was a clergy-man, who worked out this subject -most minutely and truthfully some years ago; he showed quite -clearly,--and although he was much abused for his conclusions at the -time, they have never yet been disproved and never will be--he showed -that in consequence of the increase in the number of organic beings in a -geometrical ratio, while the means of existence cannot be made to -increase in the same ratio, that there must come a time when the number -of organic beings will be in excess of the power of production of -nutriment, and that thus some check must arise to the further increase -of those organic beings. At the end of the ninth year we have seen that -each plant would not be able to get its full square foot of ground, and -at the end of another year it would have to share that space with fifty -others the produce of the seeds which it would give off. - -What, then, takes place? Every plant grows up, flourishes, occupies its -square foot of ground, and gives off its fifty seeds; but notice this, -that out of this number only one can come to anything; there is thus, as -it were, forty-nine chances to one against its growing up; it depends -upon the most fortuitous circumstances whether any one of these fifty -seeds shall grow up and flourish, or whether it shall die and perish. -This is what Mr. Darwin has drawn attention to, and called the "STRUGGLE -FOR EXISTENCE"; and I have taken this simple case of a plant because -some people imagine that the phrase seems to imply a sort of fight. - -I have taken this plant and shown you that this is the result of the -ratio of the increase, the necessary result of the arrival of a time -coming for every species when exactly as many members must be destroyed -as are born; that is the inevitable ultimate result of the rate of -production. Now, what is the result of all this? I have said that there -are forty-nine struggling against every one; and it amounts to this, -that the smallest possible start given to any one seed may give it an -advantage which will enable it to get ahead of all the others; anything -that will enable any one of these seeds to germinate six hours before -any of the others will, other things being alike, enable it to choke -them out altogether. I have shown you that there is no particular in -which plants will not vary from each other; it is quite possible that -one of our imaginary plants may vary in such a character as the -thickness of the integument of its seeds; it might happen that one of -the plants might produce seeds having a thinner integument, and that -would enable the seeds of that plant to germinate a little quicker than -those of any of the others, and those seeds would most inevitably -extinguish the forty-nine times as many that were struggling with them. - -I have put it in this way, but you see the practical result of the -process is the same as if some person had nurtured the one and destroyed -the other seeds. It does not matter how the variation is produced, so -long as it is once allowed to occur. The variation in the plant once -fairly started tends to become hereditary and reproduce itself; the -seeds would spread themselves in the same way and take part in the -struggle with the forty-nine hundred, or forty-nine thousand, with which -they might be exposed. Thus, by degrees, this variety with some slight -organic change or modification, must spread itself over the whole -surface of the habitable globe, and extirpate or replace the other -kinds. That is what is meant by NATURAL SELECTION; that is the kind of -argument by which it is perfectly demonstrable that the conditions of -existence may play exactly the same part for natural varieties as man -does for domesticated varieties. No one doubts at all that particular -circumstances may be more favourable for one plant and less so for -another, and the moment you admit that, you admit the selective power of -nature. Now, although I have been putting a hypothetical case, you must -not suppose that I have been reasoning hypothetically. There are plenty -of direct experiments which bear out what we may call the theory of -natural selection; there is extremely good authority for the statement -that if you take the seed of mixed varieties of wheat and sow it, -collecting the seed next year and sowing it again, at length you will -find that out of all your varieties only two or three have lived, or -perhaps even only one. There were one or two varieties which were best -fitted to get on, and they have killed out the other kinds in just the -same way and with just the same certainty as if you had taken the -trouble to remove them. As I have already said, the operation of nature -is exactly the same as the artificial operation of man. - -But if this be true of that simple case, which I put before you, where -there is nothing but the rivalry of one member of a species with others, -what must be the operation of selective conditions, when you recollect -as a matter of fact, that for every species of animal or plant there are -fifty or a hundred species which might all, more or less, be -comprehended in the same climate, food, and station;--that every plant -has multitudinous animals which prey upon it, and which are its direct -opponents; and that these have other animals preying upon them,--that -every plant has its indirect helpers in the birds that scatter abroad -its seed, and the animals that manure it with their dung;--I say, when -these things are considered, it seems impossible that any variation -which may arise in a species in nature should not tend in some way or -other either to be a little better or worse than the previous stock; if -it is a little better it will have an advantage over and tend to -extirpate the latter in this crush and struggle; and if it is a little -worse it will itself be extirpated. - -I know nothing that more appropriately expresses this, than the phrase, -"the struggle for existence"; because it brings before your minds, in a -vivid sort of way, some of the simplest possible circumstances connected -with it. When a struggle is intense there must be some who are sure to -be trodden down, crushed, and overpowered by others; and there will be -some who just manage to get through only by the help of the slightest -accident. I recollect reading an account of the famous retreat of the -French troops, under Napoleon, from Moscow. Worn out, tired, and -dejected, they at length came to a great river over which there was but -one bridge for the passage of the vast army. Disorganized and -demoralized as that army was, the struggle must certainly have been a -terrible one--every one heeding only himself, and crushing through the -ranks and treading down his fellows. The writer of the narrative, who -was himself one of those who were fortunate enough to succeed in getting -over, and not among the thousands who were left behind or forced into -the river, ascribed his escape to the fact that he saw striding onward -through the mass a great strong fellow,--one of the French Cuirassiers, -who had on a large blue cloak--and he had enough presence of mind to -catch and retain a hold of this strong man's cloak. He says, "I caught -hold of his cloak, and although he swore at me and cut at and struck me -by turns, and at last, when he found he could not shake me off, fell to -entreating me to leave go or I should prevent him from escaping, besides -not assisting myself, I still kept tight hold of him, and would not quit -my grasp until he had at last dragged me through." Here you see was a -case of selective saving--if we may so term it--depending for its -success on the strength of the cloth of the Cuirassier's cloak. It is -the same in nature; every species has its bridge of Beresina; it has to -fight its way through and struggle with other species; and when well -nigh overpowered, it may be that the smallest chance, something in its -colour, perhaps--the minutest circumstance--will turn the scale one way -or the other. - -Suppose that by a variation of the black race it had produced the white -man at any time--you know that the Negroes are said to believe this to -have been the case, and to imagine that Cain was the first white man, -and that we are his descendants--suppose that this had ever happened, -and that the first residence of this human being was on the West Coast -of Africa. There is no great structural difference between the white man -and the Negro, and yet there is something so singularly different in the -constitution of the two, that the malarias of that country, which do not -hurt the black at all, cut off and destroy the white. Then you see -there would have been a selective operation performed; if the white man -had risen in that way, he would have been selected out and removed by -means of the malaria. Now there really is a very curious case of -selection of this sort among pigs, and it is a case of selection of -colour, too. In the woods of Florida there are a great many pigs, and it -is a very curious thing that they are all black, every one of them. -Professor Wyman was there some years ago, and on noticing no pigs but -these black ones, he asked some of the people how it was that they had -no white pigs, and the reply was that in the woods of Florida there was -a root which they called the Paint Root, and that if the white pigs were -to eat any of it, it had the effect of making their hoofs crack, and -they died, but if the black pigs ate any of it, it did not hurt them at -all. Here was a very simple case of natural selection. A skilful breeder -could not more carefully develop the black breed of pigs, and weed out -all the white pigs, than the Paint Root does. - -To show you how remarkably indirect may be such natural selective -agencies as I have referred to, I will conclude by noticing a case -mentioned by Mr. Darwin, and which is certainly one of the most curious -of its kind. It is that of the Humble Bee. It has been noticed that -there are a great many more humble bees in the neighbourhood of towns, -than out in the open country; and the explanation of the matter is this: -the humble bees build nests, in which they store their honey and deposit -the larvæ and eggs. The field mice are amazingly fond of the honey and -larvæ; therefore, wherever there are plenty of field mice, as in the -country, the humble bees are kept down; but in the neighbourhood of -towns, the number of cats which prowl about the fields eat up the field -mice, and of course the more mice they eat up the less there are to prey -upon the larvæ of the bees--the cats are therefore the INDIRECT HELPERS -of the bees.[54] - -Coming back a step farther we may say that the old maids are also -indirect friends of the humble bees, and indirect enemies of the field -mice, as they keep the cats which eat up the latter! This is an -illustration somewhat beneath the dignity of the subject, perhaps, but -it occurs to me in passing, and with it I will conclude this lecture. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[53] I lay stress here on the _practical_ signification of "Species." -Whether a physiological test between species exist or not, it is hardly -ever applicable by the practical naturalist. - -[54] The humble bees, on the other hand, are direct helpers of some -plants, such as the heartsease and red clover, which are fertilized by -the visits of the bees; and they are indirect helpers of the numerous -insects which are more or less completely supported by the heartsease -and red clover. - - - - -IX - - A CRITICAL EXAMINATION OF THE POSITION OF MR. DARWIN'S WORK, "ON THE - ORIGIN OF SPECIES," IN RELATION TO THE COMPLETE THEORY OF THE CAUSES - OF THE PHENOMENA OF ORGANIC NATURE. - - -In the preceding lectures I have endeavoured to give you an account of -those facts, and of those reasonings from facts, which form the data -upon which all theories regarding the causes of the phenomena of organic -nature must be based. And, although I have had frequent occasion to -quote Mr. Darwin--as all persons hereafter, in speaking upon these -subjects, will have occasion to quote his famous book on the "Origin of -Species,"--you must yet remember that, wherever I have quoted him, it -has not been upon theoretical points, or for statements in any way -connected with his particular speculations, but on matters of fact, -brought forward by himself, or collected by himself, and which appear -incidentally in his book. If a man _will_ make a book, professing to -discuss a single question, an encyclopædia, I cannot help it. - -Now, having had an opportunity of considering in this sort of way the -different statements bearing upon all theories whatsoever, I have to lay -before you, as fairly as I can, what is Mr. Darwin's view of the matter -and what position his theories hold, when judged by the principles which -I have previously laid down, as deciding our judgments upon all theories -and hypotheses. - -I have already stated to you that the inquiry respecting the causes of -the phenomena of organic nature resolves itself into two problems--the -first being the question of the origination of living or organic -beings; and the second being the totally distinct problem of the -modification and perpetuation of organic beings when they have already -come into existence. The first question Mr. Darwin does not touch; he -does not deal with it at all; but he says:--"Given the origin of organic -matter--supposing its creation to have already taken place, my object is -to show in consequence of what laws and what demonstrable properties of -organic matter, and of its environments, such states of organic nature -as those with which we are acquainted must have come about." This, you -will observe, is a perfectly legitimate proposition; every person has a -right to define the limits of the inquiry which he sets before himself; -and yet it is a most singular thing that in all the multifarious, and, -not unfrequently, ignorant attacks which have been made upon the "Origin -of Species," there is nothing which has been more speciously criticised -than this particular limitation. If people have nothing else to urge -against the book, they say--"Well, after all, you see Mr. Darwin's -explanation of the 'Origin of Species' is not good for much, because, in -the long run, he admits that he does not know how organic matter began -to exist. But if you admit any special creation for the first particle -of organic matter you may just as well admit it for all the rest; five -hundred or five thousand distinct creations are just as intelligible, -and just as little difficult to understand, as one." The answer to these -cavils is two-fold. In the first place, all human inquiry must stop -somewhere; all our knowledge and all our investigation cannot take us -beyond the limits set by the finite and restricted character of our -faculties, or destroy the endless unknown, which accompanies, like its -shadow, the endless procession of phenomena. So far as I can venture to -offer an opinion on such a matter, the purpose of our being in -existence, the highest object that human beings can set before -themselves, is not the pursuit of any such chimera as the annihilation -of the unknown; but it is simply the unwearied endeavour to remove its -boundaries a little further from our little sphere of action. - -I wonder if any historian would for a moment admit the objection, that -it is preposterous to trouble ourselves about the history of the Roman -Empire, because we do not know anything positive about the origin and -first building of the city of Rome! Would it be a fair objection to -urge, respecting the sublime discoveries of a Newton, or a Kepler, those -great philosophers, whose discoveries have been of the profoundest -benefit and service to all men,--to say to them--"After all that you -have told us as to how the planets revolve, and how they are maintained -in their orbits, you cannot tell us what is the cause of the origin of -the sun, moon, and stars. So what is the use of what you have done?" Yet -these objections would not be one whit more preposterous than the -objections which have been made to the "Origin of Species." Mr. Darwin, -then, had a perfect right to limit his inquiry as he pleased, and the -only question for us--the inquiry being so limited--is to ascertain -whether the method of his inquiry is sound or unsound; whether he has -obeyed the canons which must guide and govern all investigation, or -whether he has broken them; and it was because our inquiry this evening -is essentially limited to that question, that I spent a good deal of -time in a former lecture (which, perhaps some of you thought might have -been better employed) in endeavouring to illustrate the method and -nature of scientific inquiry in general. We shall now have to put in -practice the principles that I then laid down. - -I stated to you in substance, if not in words, that wherever there are -complex masses of phenomena to be inquired into, whether they be -phenomena of the affairs of daily life, or whether they belong to the -more abstruse and difficult problems laid before the philosopher, our -course of proceeding in unravelling that complex chain of phenomena with -a view to get at its cause, is always the same; in all cases we must -invent an hypothesis; we must place before ourselves some more or less -likely supposition respecting that cause; and then, having assumed an -hypothesis, having supposed a cause for the phenomena in question, we -must endeavour, on the one hand, to demonstrate our hypothesis, or, on -the other, to upset and reject it altogether, by testing it in three -ways. We must, in the first place, be prepared to prove that the -supposed causes of the phenomena exist in nature; that they are what -the logicians call _vera causæ_--true causes;--in the next place, we -should be prepared to show that the assumed causes of the phenomena are -competent to produce such phenomena as those which we wish to explain by -them; and in the last place, we ought to be able to show that no other -known causes are competent to produce these phenomena. If we can succeed -in satisfying these three conditions we shall have demonstrated our -hypothesis; or rather I ought to say, we shall have proved it as far as -certainty is possible for us; for, after all, there is no one of our -surest convictions which may not be upset, or at any rate modified by a -further accession of knowledge. It was because it satisfied these -conditions that we accepted the hypothesis as to the disappearance of -the tea-pot and spoons in the case I supposed in a previous lecture; we -found that our hypothesis on that subject was tenable and valid, because -the supposed cause existed in nature, because it was competent to -account for the phenomena, and because no other known cause was -competent to account for them; and it is upon similar grounds that any -hypothesis you choose to name is accepted in science as tenable and -valid. - -What is Mr. Darwin's hypothesis? As I apprehend it--for I have put it -into a shape more convenient for common purposes than I could find -_verbatim_ in his book--as I apprehend it, I say, it is, that all the -phenomena of organic nature, past and present, result from, or are -caused by, the inter-action of those properties of organic matter, which -we have called ATAVISM and VARIABILITY, with the CONDITIONS OF -EXISTENCE; or, in other words,--given the existence of organic matter, -its tendency to transmit its properties, and its tendency occasionally -to vary; and, lastly, given the conditions of existence by which organic -matter is surrounded--that these put together are the causes of the -Present and of the Past conditions of ORGANIC NATURE. - -Such is the hypothesis as I understand it. Now let us see how it will -stand the various tests which I laid down just now. In the first place, -do these supposed causes of the phenomena exist in nature? Is it the -fact that in nature these properties of organic matter--atavism and -variability--and those phenomena which we have called the conditions of -existence,--is it true that they exist? Well, of course, if they do not -exist, all that I have told you in the last three or four lectures must -be incorrect, because I have been attempting to prove that they do -exist, and I take it that there is abundant evidence that they do exist; -so far, therefore, the hypothesis does not break down. - -But in the next place comes a much more difficult inquiry:--Are the -causes indicated competent to give rise to the phenomena of organic -nature? I suspect that this is indubitable to a certain extent. It is -demonstrable, I think, as I have endeavoured to show you, that they are -perfectly competent to give rise to all the phenomena which are -exhibited by RACES in nature. Furthermore, I believe that they are quite -competent to account for all that we may call purely structural -phenomena which are exhibited by SPECIES in nature. On that point also I -have already enlarged somewhat. Again, I think that the causes assumed -are competent to account for most of the physiological characteristics -of species, and I not only think that they are competent to account for -them, but I think that they account for many things which otherwise -remain wholly unaccountable and inexplicable, and I may say -incomprehensible. For a full exposition of the grounds on which this -conviction is based, I must refer you to Mr. Darwin's work; all that I -can do now is to illustrate what I have said by two or three cases taken -almost at random. - -I drew your attention, on a previous evening, to the facts which are -embodied in our systems of Classification, which are the results of the -examination and comparison of the different members of the animal -kingdom one with another. I mentioned that the whole of the animal -kingdom is divisible into five sub-kingdoms; that each of these -sub-kingdoms is again divisible into provinces; that each province may -be divided into classes, and the classes into the successively smaller -groups, orders, families, genera, and species. - -Now, in each of these groups, the resemblance in structure among the -members of the group is closer in proportion as the group is smaller. -Thus, a man and a worm are members of the animal kingdom in virtue of -certain apparently slight though really fundamental resemblances which -they present. But a man and a fish are members of the same Sub-kingdom -_Vertebrata_, because they are much more like one another than either of -them is to a worm, or a snail, or any member of the other sub-kingdoms. -For similar reasons men and horses are arranged as members of the same -Class, _Mammalia_; men and apes as members of the same Order, -_Primates_; and if there were any animals more like men than they were -like any of the apes, and yet different from men in important and -constant particulars of their organization, we should rank them as -members of the same Family, or of the same Genus, but as of distinct -Species. - -That it is possible to arrange all the varied forms of animals into -groups, having this sort of singular subordination one to the other, is -a very remarkable circumstance; but, as Mr. Darwin remarks, this is a -result which is quite to be expected, if the principles which he lays -down be correct. Take the case of the races which are known to be -produced by the operation of atavism and variability, and the conditions -of existence which check and modify these tendencies. Take the case of -the pigeons that I brought before you: there it was shown that they -might be all classed as belonging to some one of five principal -divisions, and that within these divisions other subordinate groups -might be formed. The members of these groups are related to one another -in just the same way as the genera of a family, and the groups -themselves as the families of an order, or the orders of a class; while -all have the same sort of structural relations with the wild -Rock-pigeon, as the members of any great natural group have with a real -or imaginary typical form. Now, we know that all varieties of pigeons of -every kind have arisen by a process of selective breeding from a common -stock, the Rock-pigeon; hence, you see, that if all species of animals -have proceeded from some common stock, the general character of their -structural relations, and of our systems of classification, which -express those relations, would be just what we find them to be. In -other words, the hypothetical cause is, so far, competent to produce -effects similar to those of the real cause. - -Take, again, another set of very remarkable facts,--the existence of -what are called rudimentary organs, organs for which we can find no -obvious use, in the particular animal economy in which they are found, -and yet which are there. - -Such are the splint-like bones in the leg of the horse, which I here -show you, and which correspond with bones which belong to certain toes -and fingers in the human hand and foot. In the horse you see they are -quite rudimentary, and bear neither toes nor fingers; so that the horse -has only one "finger" in his fore-foot and one "toe" in his hind-foot. -But it is a very curious thing that the animals closely allied to the -horse show more toes than he; as the rhinoceros, for instance: he has -these extra toes well formed, and anatomical facts show very clearly -that he is very closely related to the horse indeed. So we may say that -animals, in an anatomical sense nearly related to the horse, have those -parts which are rudimentary in him, fully developed. - -Again, the sheep and the cow have no cutting-teeth, but only a hard pad -in the upper jaw. That is the common characteristic of ruminants in -general. But the calf has in its upper jaw some rudiments of teeth which -never are developed, and never play the part of teeth at all. Well, if -you go back in time, you find some of the older, now extinct, allies of -the ruminants have well-developed teeth in their upper jaws; and at the -present day the pig (which is in structure closely connected with -ruminants) has well-developed teeth in its upper jaw; so that here is -another instance of organs well developed and very useful, in one -animal, represented by rudimentary organs, for which we can discover no -purpose whatsoever, in another closely allied animal. The whalebone -whale, again, has horny "whalebone" plates in its mouth, and no teeth; -but the young foetal whale, before it is born, has teeth in its jaws; -they, however, are never used, and they never come to anything. But -other members of the group to which the whale belongs have -well-developed teeth in both jaws. - -Upon any hypothesis of special creation, facts of this kind appear to me -to be entirely unaccountable and inexplicable, but they cease to be so -if you accept Mr. Darwin's hypothesis, and see reason for believing that -the whalebone whale and the whale with teeth in its mouth both sprang -from a whale that had teeth, and that the teeth of the foetal whale -are merely remnants--recollections, if we may so say--of the extinct -whale. So in the case of the horse and the rhinoceros: suppose that both -have descended by modification from some earlier form which had the -normal number of toes, and the persistence of the rudimentary bones -which no longer support toes in the horse becomes comprehensible. - -In the language that we speak in England, and in the language of the -Greeks, there are identical verbal roots, or elements entering into the -composition of words. That fact remains unintelligible so long as we -suppose English and Greek to be independently created tongues; but when -it is shown that both languages are descended from one original, the -Sanscrit, we give an explanation of that resemblance. In the same way -the existence of identical structural roots, if I may so term them, -entering into the composition of widely different animals, is striking -evidence in favour of the descent of those animals from a common -original. - -To turn to another kind of illustration:--If you regard the whole series -of stratified rocks--that enormous thickness of sixty or seventy -thousand feet that I have mentioned before, constituting the only record -we have of a most prodigious lapse of time, that time being, in all -probability, but a fraction of that of which we have no record;--if you -observe in these successive strata of rocks successive groups of animals -arising and dying out, a constant succession, giving you the same kind -of impression, as you travel from one group of strata to another, as you -would have in travelling from one country to another;--when you find -this constant succession of forms, their traces obliterated except to -the man of science,--when you look at this wonderful history, and ask -what it means, it is only a paltering with words if you are offered the -reply,--"They were so created." - -But if, on the other hand, you look on all forms of organized beings as -the results of the gradual modification of a primitive type, the facts -receive a meaning, and you see that these older conditions are the -necessary predecessors of the present. Viewed in this light the facts of -palæontology receive a meaning--upon any other hypothesis, I am unable -to see, in the slightest degree, what knowledge or signification we are -to draw out of them. Again, note as bearing upon the same point, the -singular likeness which obtains between the successive Faunæ and Floræ, -whose remains are preserved on the rocks: you never find any great and -enormous difference between the immediately successive Faunæ and Floræ, -unless you have reason to believe there has also been a great lapse of -time or a great change of conditions. The animals, for instance, of the -newest tertiary rocks, in any part of the world, are always, and without -exception, found to be closely allied with those which now live in that -part of the world. For example, in Europe, Asia, and Africa, the large -mammals are at present rhinoceri, hippopotami, elephants, lions, tigers, -oxen, horses, &c.; and if you examine the newest tertiary deposits, -which contain the animals and plants which immediately preceded those -which now exist in the same country, you do not find gigantic specimens -of ant-eaters and kangaroos, but you find rhinoceroses, elephants, -lions, tigers, &c.,--of different species to those now living,--but -still their close allies. If you turn to South America, where, at the -present day, we have great sloths and armadilloes and creatures of that -kind, what do you find in the newest tertiaries? You find the great -sloth-like creature, the _Megatherium_, and the great armadillo, the -_Glyptodon_, and so on. And if you go to Australia you find the same law -holds good, namely, that that condition of organic nature which has -preceded the one which now exists, presents differences perhaps of -species, and of genera, but that the great types of organic structure -are the same as those which now flourish. - -What meaning has this fact upon any other hypothesis or supposition than -one of successive modification? But if the population of the world, in -any age, is the result of the gradual modification of the forms which -peopled it in the preceding age,--if that has been the case, it is -intelligible enough; because we may expect that the creature that -results from the modification of an elephantine mammal shall be -something like an elephant, and the creature which is produced by the -modification of an armadillo-like mammal shall be like an armadillo. -Upon that supposition, I say, the facts are intelligible; upon any -other, that I am aware of, they are not. - -So far, the facts of palæontology are consistent with almost any form of -the doctrine of progressive modification; they would not be absolutely -inconsistent with the wild speculations of De Maillet, or with the less -objectionable hypothesis of Lamarck. But Mr. Darwin's views have one -peculiar merit; and that is, that they are perfectly consistent with an -array of facts which are utterly inconsistent with and fatal to, any -other hypothesis of progressive modification which has yet been -advanced. It is one remarkable peculiarity of Mr. Darwin's hypothesis -that it involves no necessary progression or incessant modification, and -that it is perfectly consistent with the persistence for any length of -time of a given primitive stock, contemporaneously with its -modifications. To return to the case of the domestic breeds of pigeons, -for example; you have the Dove-cot pigeon, which closely resembles the -Rock-pigeon, from which they all started, existing at the same time with -the others. And if species are developed in the same way in nature, a -primitive stock and its modifications may, occasionally, all find the -conditions fitted for their existence; and though they come into -competition, to a certain extent, with one another, the derivative -species may not necessarily extirpate the primitive one, or _vice -versâ_. - -Now palæontology shows us many facts which are perfectly harmonious with -these observed effects of the process by which Mr. Darwin supposes -species to have originated, but which appear to me to be totally -inconsistent with any other hypothesis which has been proposed. There -are some groups of animals and plants, in the fossil world, which have -been said to belong to "persistent types," because they have persisted, -with very little change indeed, through a very great range of time, -while everything about them has changed largely. There are families of -fishes whose type of construction has persisted all the way from the -carboniferous rock right up to the cretaceous; and others which have -lasted through almost the whole range of the secondary rocks, and from -the lias to the older tertiaries. It is something stupendous this--to -consider a genus lasting without essential modifications through all -this enormous lapse of time while almost everything else was changed and -modified. - -Thus I have no doubt that Mr. Darwin's hypothesis will be found -competent to explain the majority of the phenomena exhibited by species -in nature; but in an earlier lecture I spoke cautiously with respect to -its power of explaining all the physiological peculiarities of species. - -There is, in fact, one set of these peculiarities which the theory of -selective modification, as it stands at present, is not wholly competent -to explain, and that is the group of phenomena which I mentioned to you -under the name of Hybridism, and which I explained to consist in the -sterility of the offspring of certain species when crossed one with -another. It matters not one whit whether this sterility is universal, or -whether it exists only in a single case. Every hypothesis is bound to -explain, or, at any rate, not be inconsistent with, the whole of the -facts which it professes to account for; and if there is a single one of -these facts which can be shown to be inconsistent with (I do not merely -mean inexplicable by, but contrary to,) the hypothesis, the hypothesis -falls to the ground,--it is worth nothing. One fact with which it is -positively inconsistent is worth as much, and as powerful in negativing -the hypothesis, as five hundred. If I am right in thus defining the -obligations of an hypothesis, Mr. Darwin, in order to place his views -beyond the reach of all possible assault, ought to be able to -demonstrate the possibility of developing from a particular stock by -selective breeding, two forms, which should either be unable to cross -one with another, or whose cross-bred offspring should be infertile with -one another. - -For, you see, if you have not done that you have not strictly fulfilled -all the conditions of the problem; you have not shown that you can -produce, by the cause assumed, all the phenomena which you have in -nature. Here are the phenomena of Hybridism staring you in the face, and -you cannot say, "I can, by selective modification, produce these same -results." Now, it is admitted on all hands that, at present, so far as -experiments have gone, it has not been found possible to produce this -complete physiological divergence by selective breeding. I stated this -very clearly before, and I now refer to the point, because, if it could -be proved, not only that this _has_ not been done, but that it _cannot_ -be done; if it could be demonstrated that it is impossible to breed -selectively, from any stock, a form which shall not breed with another, -produced from the same stock; and if we were shown that this must be the -necessary and inevitable result of all experiments, I hold that Mr. -Darwin's hypothesis would be utterly shattered. - -But has this been done? or what is really the state of the case? It is -simply that, so far as we have gone yet with our breeding, we have not -produced from a common stock two breeds which are not more or less -fertile with one another. - -I do not know that there is a single fact which would justify any one in -saying that any degree of sterility has been observed between breeds -absolutely known to have been produced by selective breeding from a -common stock. On the other hand, I do not know that there is a single -fact which can justify any one in asserting that such sterility cannot -be produced by proper experimentation. For my own part, I see every -reason to believe that it may, and will be so produced. For, as Mr. -Darwin has very properly urged, when we consider the phenomena of -sterility, we find they are most capricious; we do not know what it is -that the sterility depends on. There are some animals which will not -breed in captivity; whether it arises from the simple fact of their -being shut up and deprived of their liberty, or not, we do not know, but -they certainly will not breed. What an astounding thing this is, to find -one of the most important of all functions annihilated by mere -imprisonment! - -So, again, there are cases known of animals which have been thought by -naturalists to be undoubted species, which have yielded perfectly -fertile hybrids; while there are other species which present what -everybody believes to be varieties[55] which are more or less infertile -with one another. There are other cases which are truly extraordinary; -there is one, for example, which has been carefully examined,--of two -kinds of sea-weed, of which the male element of the one, which we may -call A, fertilizes the female element of the other, B; while the male -element of B will not fertilize the female element of A; so that, while -the former experiment seems to show us that they are _varieties_, the -latter leads to the conviction that they are _species_. - -When we see how capricious and uncertain this sterility is, how unknown -the conditions on which it depends, I say that we have no right to -affirm that those conditions will not be better understood by and by, -and we have no ground for supposing that we may not be able to -experiment so as to obtain that crucial result which I mentioned just -now. So that though Mr. Darwin's hypothesis does not completely -extricate us from this difficulty at present, we have not the least -right to say it will not do so. - -There is a wide gulf between the thing you cannot explain and the thing -that upsets you altogether. There is hardly any hypothesis in this world -which has not some fact in connection with it which has not been -explained, but that is a very different affair to a fact that entirely -opposes your hypothesis; in this case all you can say is, that your -hypothesis is in the same position as a good many others. - -Now, as to the third test, that there are no other causes competent to -explain the phenomena, I explained to you that one should be able to say -of an hypothesis, that no other known causes than those supposed by it -are competent to give rise to the phenomena. Here, I think, Mr. Darwin's -view is pretty strong. I really believe that the alternative is either -Darwinism or nothing, for I do not know of any rational conception or -theory of the organic universe which has any scientific position at all -beside Mr. Darwin's. I do not know of any proposition that has been put -before us with the intention of explaining the phenomena of organic -nature, which has in its favour a thousandth part of the evidence which -may be adduced in favour of Mr. Darwin's views. Whatever may be the -objections to his views, certainly all other theories are absolutely out -of court. - -Take the Lamarckian hypothesis, for example. Lamarck was a great -naturalist, and to a certain extent went the right way to work; he -argued from what was undoubtedly a true cause of some of the phenomena -of organic nature. He said it is a matter of experience that an animal -may be modified more or less in consequence of its desires and -consequent actions. Thus, if a man exercise himself as a blacksmith, his -arms will become strong and muscular; such organic modification is a -result of this particular action and exercise. Lamarck thought that by a -very simple supposition based on this truth he could explain the origin -of the various animal species: he said, for example, that the -short-legged birds which live on fish, had been converted into the -long-legged waders by desiring to get the fish without wetting their -feathers, and so stretching their legs more and more through successive -generations. If Lamarck could have shown experimentally, that even races -of animals could be produced in this way, there might have been some -ground for his speculations. But he could show nothing of the kind, and -his hypothesis has pretty well dropped into oblivion, as it deserved to -do. I said in an earlier lecture that there are hypotheses and -hypotheses, and when people tell you that Mr. Darwin's strongly-based -hypothesis is nothing but a mere modification of Lamarck's, you will -know what to think of their capacity for forming a judgment on this -subject. - -But you must recollect that when I say I think it is either Mr. Darwin's -hypothesis or nothing; that either we must take his view, or look upon -the whole of organic nature as an enigma, the meaning of which is wholly -hidden from us; you must understand that I mean that I accept it -provisionally, in exactly the same way as I accept any other hypothesis. -Men of science do not pledge themselves to creeds; they are bound by -articles of no sort; there is not a single belief that it is not a -bounden duty with them to hold with a light hand and to part with it, -cheerfully, the moment it is really proved to be contrary to any fact, -great or small. And if in course of time I see good reasons for such a -proceeding, I shall have no hesitation in coming before you, and -pointing out any change in my opinion without finding the slightest -occasion to blush for so doing. So I say that we accept this view as we -accept any other, so long as it will help us, and we feel bound to -retain it only so long as it will serve our great purpose--the -improvement of Man's estate and the widening of his knowledge. The -moment this, or any other conception, ceases to be useful for these -purposes, away with it to the four winds; we care not what becomes of -it! - -But to say truth, although it has been my business to attend closely to -the controversies roused by the publication of Mr. Darwin's book, I -think that not one of the enormous mass of objections and obstacles -which have been raised is of any very great value, except that sterility -case which I brought before you just now. All the rest are -misunderstandings of some sort, arising either from prejudice, or want -of knowledge, or still more from want of patience and care in reading -the work. - -For you must recollect that it is not a book to be read, with as much -ease, as its pleasant style may lead you to imagine. You spin through it -as if it were a novel the first time you read it, and think you know all -about it; the second time you read it you think you know rather less -about it; and the third time, you are amazed to find how little you have -really apprehended its vast scope and objects. I can positively say that -I never take it up without finding in it some new view, or light, or -suggestion that I have not noticed before. That is the best -characteristic of a thorough and profound book; and I believe this -feature of the "Origin of Species" explains why so many persons have -ventured to pass judgment and criticisms upon it which are by no means -worth the paper they are written on. - -Before concluding these lectures there is one point to which I must -advert,--though, as Mr. Darwin has said nothing about man in his book, -it concerns myself rather than him;--for I have strongly maintained on -sundry occasions that if Mr. Darwin's views are sound, they apply as -much to man as to the lower mammals, seeing that it is perfectly -demonstrable that the structural differences which separate man from the -apes are not greater than those which separate some apes from others. -There cannot be the slightest doubt in the world that the argument which -applies to the improvement of the horse from an earlier stock, or of ape -from ape, applies to the improvement of man from some simpler and lower -stock than man. There is not a single faculty--functional or structural, -moral, intellectual, or instinctive,--there is no faculty whatever that -is not capable of improvement; there is no faculty whatsoever which does -not depend upon structure, and as structure tends to vary, it is capable -of being improved. - -Well, I have taken a good deal of pains at various times to prove this, -and I have endeavoured to meet the objections of those who maintain, -that the structural differences between man and the lower animals are of -so vast a character and enormous extent, that even if Mr. Darwin's views -are correct, you cannot imagine this particular modification to take -place. It is, in fact, easy matter to prove that, so far as structure is -concerned, man differs to no greater extent from the animals which are -immediately below him than these do from other members of the same -order. Upon the other hand, there is no one who estimates more highly -than I do the dignity of human nature, and the width of the gulf in -intellectual and moral matters, which lies between man and the whole of -the lower creation. - -But I find this very argument brought forward vehemently by some. "You -say that man has proceeded from a modification of some lower animal, and -you take pains to prove that the structural differences which are said -to exist in his brain do not exist at all, and you teach that all -functions, intellectual, moral, and others, are the expression or the -result, in the long run, of structures, and of the molecular forces -which they exert." It is quite true that I do so. - -"Well, but," I am told at once, somewhat triumphantly, "you say in the -same breath that there is a great moral and intellectual chasm between -man and the lower animals. How is this possible when you declare that -moral and intellectual characteristics depend on structure, and yet tell -us that there is no such gulf between the structure of man and that of -the lower animals?" - -I think that objection is based upon a misconception of the real -relations which exist between structure and function, between mechanism -and work. Function is the expression of molecular forces and -arrangements no doubt; but, does it follow from this, that variation in -function so depends upon variation in structure that the former is -always exactly proportioned to the latter? If there is no such relation, -if the variation in function which follows on a variation in structure, -may be enormously greater than the variation of the structure, then, you -see, the objection falls to the ground. - -Take a couple of watches--made by the same maker, and as completely -alike as possible; set them upon the table, and the function of -each--which is its rate of going--will be performed in the same manner, -and you shall be able to distinguish no difference between them; but let -me take a pair of pincers, and if my hand is steady enough to do it, let -me just lightly crush together the bearings of the balance-wheel, or -force to a slightly different angle the teeth of the escapement of one -of them, and of course you know the immediate result will be that the -watch, so treated, from that moment will cease to go. But what -proportion is there between the structural alteration and the functional -result? Is it not perfectly obvious that the alteration is of the -minutest kind, yet that slight as it is, it has produced an infinite -difference in the performance of the functions of these two -instruments? - -Well, now, apply that to the present question. What is it that -constitutes and makes man what he is? What is it but his power of -language--that language giving him the means of recording his -experience--making every generation somewhat wiser than its -predecessor,--more in accordance with the established order of the -universe? - -What is it but this power of speech, of recording experience, which -enables men to be men--looking before and after and, in some dim sense, -understanding the working of this wondrous universe--and which -distinguishes man from the whole of the brute world? I say that this -functional difference is vast, unfathomable, and truly infinite in its -consequences; and I say at the same time, that it may depend upon -structural differences which shall be absolutely inappreciable to us -with our present means of investigation. What is this very speech that -we are talking about? I am speaking to you at this moment, but if you -were to alter, in the minutest degree, the proportion of the nervous -forces now active in the two nerves which supply the muscles of my -glottis, I should become suddenly dumb. The voice is produced only so -long as the vocal chords are parallel; and these are parallel only so -long as certain muscles contract with exact equality; and that again -depends on the equality of action of those two nerves I spoke of. So -that a change of the minutest kind in the structure of one of these -nerves, or in the structure of the part in which it originates, or of -the supply of blood to that part, or of one of the muscles to which it -is distributed, might render all of us dumb. But a race of dumb men, -deprived of all communication with those who could speak, would be -little indeed removed from the brutes. And the moral and intellectual -difference between them and ourselves would be practically infinite, -though the naturalist should not be able to find a single shadow of even -specific structural difference. - -But let me dismiss this question now, and, in conclusion, let me say -that you may go away with it as my mature conviction, that Mr. Darwin's -work is the greatest contribution which has been made to biological -science since the publication of the "Règne Animal" of Cuvier, and -since that of the "History of Development," of Von Baer. I believe that -if you strip it of its theoretical part it still remains one of the -greatest encyclopædias of biological doctrine that any one man ever -brought forth; and I believe that, if you take it as the embodiment of -an hypothesis, it is destined to be the guide of biological and -psychological speculation for the next three or four generations. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[55] And as I conceive with very good reason; but if any objector urges -that we cannot prove that they have been produced by artificial or -natural selection, the objection must be admitted--ultra-sceptical as it -is. But in science, scepticism is a duty. - - - - -X - - ON THE EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF THE - NATURAL HISTORY SCIENCES. - - -The subject to which I have to beg your attention during the ensuing -hour is "The Relation of Physiological Science to other branches of -knowledge." - -Had circumstances permitted of the delivery, in their strict logical -order, of that series of discourses of which the present lecture is a -member, I should have preceded my friend and colleague Mr. Henfrey, who -addressed you on Monday last; but while, for the sake of that order, I -must beg you to suppose that this discussion of the Educational bearings -of Biology in general _does_ precede that of Special Zoology and Botany, -I am rejoiced to be able to take advantage of the light thus already -thrown upon the tendency and methods of Physiological Science. - -Regarding Physiological Science then, in its widest sense--as the -equivalent of _Biology_--the Science of Individual Life--we have to -consider in succession: - -1. Its position and scope as a branch of knowledge. - -2. Its value as a means of mental discipline. - -3. Its worth as practical information. - -And lastly, - -4. At what period it may best be made a branch of Education. - -Our conclusions on the first of these heads must depend, of course, upon -the nature of the subject-matter of Biology; and I think a few -preliminary considerations will place before you in a clear light the -vast difference which exists between the living bodies with which -Physiological science is concerned, and the remainder of the -universe;--between the phænomena of Number and Space, of Physical and of -Chemical force, on the one hand, and those of Life on the other. - -The mathematician, the physicist, and the chemist contemplate things in -a condition of rest; they look upon a state of equilibrium as that to -which all bodies normally tend. - -The mathematician does not suppose that a quantity will alter, or that a -given point in space will change its direction with regard to another -point, spontaneously. And it is the same with the physicist. When Newton -saw the apple fall, he concluded at once that the act of falling was not -the result of any power inherent in the apple, but that it was the -result of the action of something else on the apple. In a similar -manner, all physical force is regarded as the disturbance of an -equilibrium to which things tended before its exertion,--to which they -will tend again after its cessation. - -The chemist equally regards chemical change in a body, as the effect of -the action of something external to the body changed. A chemical -compound once formed would persist for ever, if no alteration took place -in surrounding conditions. - -But to the student of Life the aspect of nature is reversed. Here, -incessant, and, so far as we know, spontaneous change is the rule, rest -the exception--the anomaly to be accounted for. Living things have no -inertia and tend to no equilibrium. - -Permit me, however, to give more force and clearness to these somewhat -abstract considerations, by an illustration or two. - -Imagine a vessel full of water, at the ordinary temperature, in an -atmosphere saturated with vapour. The _quantity_ and the _figure_ of -that water will not change, so far as we know, for ever. - -Suppose a lump of gold be thrown into the vessel--motion and disturbance -of figure exactly proportional to the momentum of the gold will take -place. But after a time the effects of this disturbance will -subside--equilibrium will be restored, and the water will return to its -passive state. - -Expose the water to cold--it will solidify--and in so doing its -particles will arrange themselves in definite crystalline shapes. But -once formed, these crystals change no further. - -Again, substitute for the lump of gold some substance capable of -entering into chemical relations with the water:--say, a mass of that -substance which is called "protein"--the substance of flesh:--a very -considerable disturbance of equilibrium will take place--all sorts of -chemical compositions and decompositions will occur; but in the end, as -before, the result will be the resumption of a condition of rest. - -Instead of such a mass of _dead_ protein, however, take a particle of -_living_ protein--one of those minute microscopic living things which -throng our pools, and are known as Infusoria--such a creature, for -instance, as an Euglena, and place it in our vessel of water. It is a -round mass provided with a long filament, and except in this peculiarity -of shape, presents no appreciable physical or chemical difference -whereby it might be distinguished from the particle of dead protein. - -But the difference in the phænomena to which it will give rise is -immense: in the first place it will develope a vast quantity of physical -force--cleaving the water in all directions, with considerable rapidity, -by means of the vibrations of the long filament or cilium. - -Nor is the amount of chemical energy which the little creature possesses -less striking. It is a perfect laboratory in itself, and it will act and -react upon the water and the matters contained therein; converting them -into new compounds resembling its own substance and, at the same time, -giving up portions of its own substance which have become effete. - -Furthermore, the Euglena will increase in size; but this increase is by -no means unlimited, as the increase of a crystal might be. After it has -grown to a certain extent it divides, and each portion assumes the form -of the original and proceeds to repeat the process of growth and -division. - -Nor is this all. For after a series of such divisions and subdivisions, -these minute points assume a totally new form, lose their long -tails--round themselves, and secrete a sort of envelope or box, in which -they remain shut up for a time, eventually to resume, directly or -indirectly, their primitive mode of existence. - -Now, so far as we know, there is no natural limit to the existence of -the Euglena, or of any other living germ. A living species once launched -into existence tends to live for ever. - -Consider how widely different this living particle is from the dead -atoms with which the physicist and chemist have to do! - -The particle of gold falls to the bottom and rests--the particle of dead -protein decomposes and disappears--it also rests: but the _living_ -protein mass neither tends to exhaustion of its forces nor to any -permanency of form, but is essentially distinguished as a disturber of -equilibrium so far as force is concerned,--as undergoing continual -metamorphosis and change, in point of form. - -Tendency to equilibrium of force, and to permanency of form then, are -the characters of that portion of the universe which does not live--the -domain of the chemist and physicist. - -Tendency to disturb existing equilibrium,--to take on forms which -succeed one another in definite cycles, is the character of the living -world. - -What is the cause of this wonderful difference between the dead particle -and the living particle of matter appearing in other respects identical? -that difference to which we give the name of Life? - -I, for one, cannot tell you. It may be that, by and bye, philosophers -will discover some higher laws of which the facts of life are particular -cases--very possibly they will find out some bond between -physico-chemical phænomena on the one hand, and vital phænomena on the -other. At present, however, we assuredly know of none; and I think we -shall exercise a wise humility in confessing that, for us at least, this -successive assumption of different states--(external conditions -remaining the same)--this _spontaneity of action_--if I may use a term -which implies more than I would be answerable for--which constitutes so -vast and plain a practical distinction between living bodies and those -which do not live, is an ultimate fact; indicating as such, the -existence of a broad line of demarcation between the subject-matter of -Biological and that of all other sciences. - -For I would have it understood that this simple Euglena is the type of -_all_ living things, so far as the distinction between these and inert -matter is concerned. That cycle of changes, which is constituted by -perhaps not more than two or three steps in the Euglena, is as clearly -manifested in the multitudinous stages through which the germ of an oak -or of a man passes. Whatever forms the Living Being may take on, whether -simple or complex,--_production_, _growth_, _reproduction_,--are the -phænomena which distinguish it from that which does not live. - -If this be true, it is clear that the student, in passing from the -physico-chemical to the physiological sciences, enters upon a totally -new order of facts; and it will next be for us to consider how far these -new facts involve _new_ methods, or require a modification of those with -which he is already acquainted. Now a great deal is said about the -peculiarity of the scientific method in general, and of the different -methods which are pursued in the different sciences. The Mathematics are -said to have one special method; Physics another, Biology a third, and -so forth. For my own part, I must confess that I do not understand this -phraseology. So far as I can arrive at any clear comprehension of the -matter, Science is not, as many would seem to suppose, a modification of -the black art, suited to the tastes of the nineteenth century, and -flourishing mainly in consequence of the decay of the Inquisition. - -Science is, I believe, nothing but _trained and organized common sense_, -differing from the latter only as a veteran may differ from a raw -recruit: and its methods differ from those of common sense only so far -as the guardsman's cut and thrust differ from the manner in which a -savage wields his club. The primary power is the same in each case, and -perhaps the untutored savage has the more brawny arm of the two. The -_real_ advantage lies in the point and polish of the swordsman's weapon; -in the trained eye quick to spy out the weakness of the adversary; in -the ready hand prompt to follow it on the instant. But after all, the -sword exercise is only the hewing and poking of the clubman developed -and perfected. - -So, the vast results obtained by Science are won by no mystical -faculties, by no mental processes, other than those which are practised -by every one of us, in the humblest and meanest affairs of life. A -detective policeman discovers a burglar from the marks made by his shoe, -by a mental process identical with that by which Cuvier restored the -extinct animals of Montmartre from fragments of their bones. Nor does -that process of induction and deduction by which a lady, finding a stain -of a peculiar kind upon her dress, concludes that somebody has upset the -inkstand thereon, differ in any way, in kind, from that by which Adams -and Leverrier discovered a new planet. - -The man of science, in fact, simply uses with scrupulous exactness, the -methods which we all, habitually and at every moment, use carelessly; -and the man of business must as much avail himself of the scientific -method--must be as truly a man of science--as the veriest book-worm of -us all; though I have no doubt that the man of business will find -himself out to be a philosopher with as much surprise as M. Jourdain -exhibited when he discovered that he had been all his life talking -prose. If, however, there be no real difference between the methods of -science and those of common life, it would seem on the face of the -matter highly improbable that there should be any difference between the -methods of the different sciences; nevertheless, it is constantly taken -for granted, that there is a very wide difference between the -Physiological and other sciences in point of method. - -In the first place it is said--and I take this point first, because the -imputation is too frequently admitted by Physiologists themselves--that -Biology differs from the Physico-chemical and Mathematical sciences, in -being "inexact." - -Now, this phrase "inexact" must refer either to the _methods_ or to the -_results_ of Physiological science. - -It cannot be correct to apply it to the methods; for, as I hope to show -you by and bye, these are identical in all sciences, and whatever is -true of Physiological method is true of Physical and Mathematical -method. - -Is it then the _results_ of Biological science which are "inexact"? I -think not. If I say that respiration is performed by the lungs; that -digestion is effected in the stomach; that the eye is the organ of -sight; that the jaws of a vertebrated animal never open sideways, but -always up and down; while those of an annulose animal always open -sideways, and never up and down--I am enumerating propositions which are -as exact as anything in Euclid. How then has this notion of the -inexactness of Biological science come about? I believe from two causes: -first, because, in consequence of the great complexity of the science -and the multitude of interfering conditions, we are very often only -enabled to predict approximately what will occur under given -circumstances; and secondly, because, on account of the comparative -youth of the Physiological sciences, a great many of their laws are -still imperfectly worked out. But in an educational point of view, it is -most important to distinguish between the essence of a science and the -accidents which surround it; and essentially, the methods and results of -Physiology are as exact as those of Physics or Mathematics. - -It is said that the Physiological method is especially -_comparative_[56]; and this dictum also finds favour in the eyes of -many. I should be sorry to suggest that the speculators on scientific -classification have been misled by the accident of the name of one -leading branch of Biology--_Comparative Anatomy_; but I would ask -whether _comparison_, and that classification which is the result of -comparison, are not the essence of every science whatsoever? How is it -possible to discover a relation of cause and effect of _any_ kind -without comparing a series of cases together in which the supposed cause -and effect occur singly, or combined? So far from comparison being in -any way peculiar to Biological science, it is, I think, the essence of -every science. - -A speculative philosopher again tells us that the Biological sciences -are distinguished by being sciences of observation and not of -experiment![57] - -Of all the strange assertions into which speculation without practical -acquaintance with a subject may lead even an able man, I think this is -the very strangest. Physiology not an experimental science! Why, there -is not a function of a single organ in the body which has not been -determined wholly and solely by experiment? How did Harvey determine the -nature of the circulation, except by experiment? How did Sir Charles -Bell determine the functions of the roots of the spinal nerves, save by -experiment? How do we know the use of a nerve at all, except by -experiment? Nay, how do you know even that your eye is your seeing -apparatus, unless you make the experiment of shutting it; or that your -ear is your hearing apparatus, unless you close it up and thereby -discover that you become deaf? - -It would really be much more true to say that Physiology is _the_ -experimental science _par excellence_ of all sciences; that in which -there is least to be learnt by mere observation, and that which affords -the greatest field for the exercise of those faculties which -characterize the experimental philosopher. I confess, if any one were to -ask me for a model application of the logic of experiment, I should know -no better work to put into his hands than Bernard's late Researches on -the Functions of the Liver.[58] - -Not to give this lecture a too controversial tone however, I must only -advert to one more doctrine, held by a thinker of our own age and -country, whose opinions are worthy of all respect. It is, that the -Biological sciences differ from all others, inasmuch as in _them_, -classification takes place by type and not by definition.[59] - -It is said, in short, that a natural-history class is not capable of -being defined--that the class Rosaceæ, for instance, or the class of -Fishes, is not accurately and absolutely definable, inasmuch as its -members will present exceptions to every possible definition; and that -the members of the class are united together only by the circumstance -that they are all more like some imaginary average rose or average fish, -than they resemble anything else. - -But here, as before, I think the distinction has arisen entirely from -confusing a transitory imperfection with an essential character. So long -as our information concerning them is imperfect, we class all objects -together according to resemblances which we _feel_, but cannot _define_: -we group them round _types_, in short. Thus, if you ask an ordinary -person what kinds of animals there are, he will probably say, beasts, -birds, reptiles, fishes, insects, &c. Ask him to define a beast from a -reptile, and he cannot do it; but he says, things like a cow or a horse -are beasts, and things like a frog or a lizard are reptiles. You see _he -does_ class by type, and not by definition. But how does this -classification differ from that of the scientific Zoologist? How does -the meaning of the scientific class-name of "Mammalia" differ from the -unscientific of "Beasts"? - -Why, exactly because the former depends on a definition, the latter on a -type. The class Mammalia is scientifically defined as "all animals which -have a vertebrated skeleton and suckle their young." Here is no -reference to type, but a definition rigorous enough for a geometrician. -And such is the character which every scientific naturalist recognizes -as that to which his classes must aspire--knowing, as he does, that -classification by type is simply an acknowledgment of ignorance and a -temporary device. - -So much in the way of negative argument as against the reputed -differences between Biological and other methods. No such differences, I -believe, really exist. The subject-matter of Biological science is -different from that of other sciences, but the methods of all are -identical; and these methods are-- - -1. _Observation_ of facts--including under this head that _artificial -observation_ which is called _experiment_. - -2. That process of tying up similar facts into bundles, ticketed and -ready for use, which is called _Comparison_ and _Classification_,--the -results of the process, the ticketed bundles, being named _General -propositions_. - -3. _Deduction_, which takes us from the general proposition to facts -again--teaches us, if I may so say, to anticipate from the ticket what -is inside the bundle. And finally-- - -4. _Verification_, which is the process of ascertaining whether, in -point of fact, our anticipation is a correct one. - -Such are the methods of all science whatsoever; but perhaps you will -permit me to give you an illustration of their employment in the science -of Life; and I will take as a special case, the establishment of the -doctrine of the _Circulation of the Blood_. - -In this case, _simple observation_ yields us a knowledge of the -existence of the blood from some accidental hæmorrhage, we will say: we -may even grant that it informs us of the localisation of this blood in -particular vessels, the heart, &c., from some accidental cut or the -like. It teaches also the existence of a pulse in various parts of the -body, and acquaints us with the structure of the heart and vessels. - -Here, however, _simple observation_ stops, and we must have recourse to -_experiment_. - -You tie a vein, and you find that the blood accumulates on the side of -the ligature opposite the heart. You tie an artery, and you find that -the blood accumulates on the side near the heart. Open the chest, and -you see the heart contracting with great force. Make openings into its -principal cavities, and you will find that all the blood flows out, and -no more pressure is exerted on either side of the arterial or venous -ligature. - -Now all these facts, taken together, constitute the evidence that the -blood is propelled by the heart through the arteries, and returns by the -veins--that, in short, the blood circulates. - -Suppose our experiments and observations have been made on horses, then -we group and ticket them into a general proposition, thus:--_all horses -have a circulation of their blood_. - -Henceforward a horse is a sort of indication or label, telling us where -we shall find a peculiar series of phænomena called the circulation of -the blood. - -Here is our _general proposition_ then. - -How and when are we justified in making our next step--a _deduction_ -from it? - -Suppose our physiologist, whose experience is limited to horses, meets -with a zebra for the first time,--will he suppose that his -generalization holds good for zebras also? - -That depends very much on his turn of mind. But we will suppose him to -be a bold man. He will say, "The zebra is certainly not a horse, but it -is very like one,--so like, that it must be the 'ticket' or mark of a -blood-circulation also; and, I conclude that the zebra has a -circulation." - -That is a deduction, a very fair deduction, but by no means to be -considered scientifically secure. This last quality in fact can only be -given by _verification_--that is, by making a zebra the subject of all -the experiments performed on the horse. Of course in the present case -the _deduction_ would be _confirmed_ by this process of verification, -and the result would be, not merely a positive widening of knowledge, -but a fair increase of confidence in the truth of one's generalizations -in other cases. - -Thus, having settled the point in the zebra and horse, our philosopher -would have great confidence in the existence of a circulation in the -ass. Nay, I fancy most persons would excuse him, if in this case he did -not take the trouble to go through the process of verification at all; -and it would not be without a parallel in the history of the human mind, -if our imaginary physiologist now maintained that he was acquainted with -asinine circulation _à priori_. - -However, if I might impress any caution upon your minds, it is, the -utterly conditional nature of all our knowledge,--the danger of -neglecting the process of verification under any circumstances; and the -film upon which we rest, the moment our deductions carry us beyond the -reach of this great process of verification. There is no better instance -of this than is afforded by the history of our knowledge of the -circulation of the blood in the animal kingdom until the year 1824. In -every animal possessing a circulation at all, which had been observed up -to that time, the current of the blood was known to take one definite -and invariable direction. Now, there is a class of animals called -_Ascidians_, which possess a heart and a circulation, and up to the -period of which I speak, no one would have dreamt of questioning the -propriety of the deduction, that these creatures have a circulation in -one direction; nor would any one have thought it worth while to verify -the point. But, in that year, M. von Hasselt happening to examine a -transparent animal of this class, found to his infinite surprise, that -after the heart had beat a certain number of times, it stopped, and then -began beating the opposite way--so as to reverse the course of the -current, which returned by and bye to its original direction. - -I have myself timed the heart of these little animals. I found it as -regular as possible in its periods of reversal: and I know no spectacle -in the animal kingdom more wonderful than that which it presents--all -the more wonderful that to this day it remains an unique fact, peculiar -to this class among the whole animated world. At the same time I know of -no more striking case of the necessity of the _verification_ of even -those deductions which seem founded on the widest and safest inductions. - -Such are the methods of Biology--methods which are obviously identical -with those of all other sciences, and therefore wholly incompetent to -form the ground of any distinction between it and them.[60] - -But I shall be asked at once, do you mean to say that there is no -difference between the habit of mind of a mathematician and that of a -naturalist? Do you imagine that Laplace might have been put into the -Jardin des Plantes, and Cuvier into the Observatory, with equal -advantage to the progress of the sciences they professed? - -To which I would reply, that nothing could be further from my thoughts. -But different habits and various special tendencies of two sciences do -not imply different methods. The mountaineer and the man of the plains -have very different habits of progression, and each would be at a loss -in the other's place; but the method of progression, by putting one leg -before the other, is the same in each case. Every step of each is a -combination of a lift and a push; but the mountaineer lifts more and the -lowlander pushes more. And I think the case of two sciences resembles -this. - -I do not question for a moment, that while the Mathematician is busy -with deductions _from_ general propositions, the Biologist is more -especially occupied with observation, comparison, and those processes -which lead _to_ general propositions. All I wish to insist upon is, -that this difference depends not on any fundamental distinction in the -sciences themselves, but on the accidents of their subject-matter, of -their relative complexity, and consequent relative perfection. - -The Mathematician deals with two properties of objects only, number and -extension, and all the inductions he wants have been formed and finished -ages ago. He is occupied now with nothing but deduction and -verification. - -The biologist deals with a vast number of properties of objects, and his -inductions will not be completed, I fear, for ages to come; but when -they are, his science will be as deductive and as exact as the -Mathematics themselves. - -Such is the relation of Biology to those sciences which deal with -objects having fewer properties than itself. But as the student in -reaching Biology looks back upon sciences of a less complex and -therefore more perfect nature, so on the other hand does he look forward -to other more complex and less perfect branches of knowledge. Biology -deals only with living beings as isolated things--treats only of the -life of the individual: but there is a higher division of science still, -which considers living beings as aggregates--which deals with the -relation of living beings one to another--the science which _observes_ -men--whose _experiments_ are made by nations one upon another, in -battle-fields--whose _general propositions_ are embodied in history, -morality, and religion--whose _deductions_ lead to our happiness or our -misery,--and whose _verifications_ so often come too late, and serve -only - - "To point a moral or adorn a tale"-- - -I mean the science of Society or _Sociology_. - -I think it is one of the grandest features of Biology, that it occupies -this central position in human knowledge. There is no side of the human -mind which physiological study leaves uncultivated. Connected by -innumerable ties with abstract science, Physiology is yet in the most -intimate relation with humanity; and by teaching us that law and order, -and a definite scheme of development, regulate even the strangest and -wildest manifestations of individual life, she prepares the student to -look for a goal even amidst the erratic wanderings of mankind, and to -believe that history offers something more than an entertaining chaos--a -journal of a toilsome, tragi-comic march nowhither. - -The preceding considerations have, I hope, served to indicate the -replies which befit the two first of the questions which I set before -you at starting, viz. what is the range and position of Physiological -Science as a branch of knowledge, and what is its value as a means of -mental discipline? - -Its _subject-matter_ is a large moiety of the universe--its _position_ -is midway between the physico-chemical and the social sciences. Its -_value_ as a branch of discipline is partly that which it has in common -with all sciences--the training and strengthening of common sense; -partly that which is more peculiar to itself--the great exercise which -it affords to the faculties of observation and comparison; and I may -add, the _exactness_ of knowledge which it requires on the part of those -among its votaries who desire to extend its boundaries. - -If what has been said as to the position and scope of Biology be -correct, our third question--what is the practical value of -physiological instruction?--might, one would think, be left to answer -itself. - -On other grounds even, were mankind deserving of the title "rational," -which they arrogate to themselves, there can be no question that they -would consider as the most necessary of all branches of instruction for -themselves and for their children--that which professes to acquaint them -with the conditions of the existence they prize so highly--which teaches -them how to avoid disease and to cherish health, in themselves and those -who are dear to them. - -I am addressing, I imagine, an audience of educated persons; and yet I -dare venture to assert, that with the exception of those of my hearers -who may chance to have received a medical education, there is not one -who could tell me what is the meaning and use of an act which he -performs a score of times every minute, and whose suspension would -involve his immediate death;--I mean the act of breathing--or who could -state in precise terms why it is that a confined atmosphere is injurious -to health. - -The _Practical value_ of Physiological knowledge! Why is it that -educated men can be found to maintain that a slaughter-house in the -midst of a great city is rather a good thing than otherwise?--that -mothers persist in exposing the largest possible amount of surface of -their children to the cold, by the absurd style of dress they adopt, and -then marvel at the peculiar dispensation of Providence, which removes -their infants by bronchitis and gastric fever? Why is it that quackery -rides rampant over the land; and that not long ago, one of the largest -public rooms in this great city could be filled by an audience gravely -listening to the reverend expositor of the doctrine--that the simple -physiological phenomena known as spirit-rapping, table-turning, -phreno-magnetism, and by I know not what other absurd and inappropriate -names, are due to the direct and personal agency of Satan? - -Why is all this, except from the utter ignorance as to the simplest laws -of their own animal life, which prevails among even the most highly -educated persons in this country? - -But there are other branches of Biological Science, besides Physiology -proper, whose practical influence, though less obvious, is not, as I -believe, less certain. I have heard educated men speak with an -ill-disguised contempt of the studies of the naturalist, and ask, not -without a shrug, "What is the use of knowing all about these miserable -animals--what bearing has it on human life?" - -I will endeavour to answer that question. I take it that all will admit -there is definite Government of this universe--that its pleasures and -pains are not scattered at random, but are distributed in accordance -with orderly and fixed laws, and that it is only in accordance with all -we know of the rest of the world, that there should be an agreement -between one portion of the sensitive creation and another in these -matters. - -Surely then it interests us to know the lot of other animal -creatures--however far below us, they are still the sole created things -which share with us the capability of pleasure and the susceptibility to -pain. - -I cannot but think that he who finds a certain proportion of pain and -evil inseparably woven up in the life of the very worms, will bear his -own share with more courage and submission; and will, at any rate, view -with suspicion those weakly amiable theories of the Divine government, -which would have us believe pain to be an oversight and a mistake,--to -be corrected by and bye. On the other hand, the predominance of -happiness among living things--their lavish beauty--the secret and -wonderful harmony which pervades them all, from the highest to the -lowest, are equally striking refutations of that modern Manichean -doctrine, which exhibits the world as a slave-mill, worked with many -tears, for mere utilitarian ends. - -There is yet another way in which natural history may, I am convinced, -take a profound hold upon practical life,--and that is, by its influence -over our finer feelings, as the greatest of all sources of that pleasure -which is derivable from beauty. I do not pretend that natural-history -knowledge, as such, can increase our sense of the beautiful in natural -objects. I do not suppose that the dead soul of Peter Bell, of whom the -great poet of nature says,-- - - "A primrose by the river's brim, - A yellow primrose was to him,-- - And it was nothing more,"-- - -would have been a whit roused from its apathy, by the information that -the primrose is a Dicotyledonous Exogen, with a monopetalous corolla and -central placentation. But I advocate natural-history knowledge from this -point of view, because it would lead us to _seek_ the beauties of -natural objects, instead of trusting to chance to force them on our -attention. To a person uninstructed in natural history, his country or -sea-side stroll is a walk through a gallery filled with wonderful works -of art, nine-tenths of which have their faces turned to the wall. Teach -him something of natural history, and you place in his hands a catalogue -of those which are worth turning round. Surely our innocent pleasures -are not so abundant in this life, that we can afford to despise this or -any other source of them. We should fear being banished for our neglect -to that limbo, where the great Florentine tells us are those who during -this life "wept when they might be joyful." - -But I shall be trespassing unwarrantably on your kindness, if I do not -proceed at once to my last point--the time at which Physiological -Science should first form a part of the Curriculum of Education. - -The distinction between the teaching of the facts of a science as -instruction, and the teaching it systematically as knowledge, has -already been placed before you in a previous lecture: and it appears to -me, that, as with other sciences, the _common facts_ of Biology--the -uses of parts of the body--the names and habits of the living creatures -which surround us--may be taught with advantage to the youngest child. -Indeed, the avidity of children for this kind of knowledge, and the -comparative ease with which they retain it, is something quite -marvellous. I doubt whether any toy would be so acceptable to young -children as a vivarium, of the same kind as, but of course on a smaller -scale than, those admirable devices in the Zoological Gardens. - -On the other hand, systematic teaching in Biology cannot be attempted -with success until the student has attained to a certain knowledge of -physics and chemistry: for though the phænomena of life are dependent -neither on physical nor on chemical, but on vital forces, yet they -result in all sorts of physical and chemical changes, which can only be -judged by their own laws. - -And now to sum up in a few words the conclusions to which I hope you see -reason to follow me. - -Biology needs no apologist when she demands a place--and a prominent -place--in any scheme of education worthy of the name. Leave out the -Physiological sciences from your curriculum, and you launch the student -into the world, undisciplined in that science whose subject-matter would -best develope his powers of observation; ignorant of facts of the -deepest importance for his own and others' welfare; blind to the richest -sources of beauty in God's creation; and unprovided with that belief in -a living law, and an order manifesting itself in and through endless -change and variety, which might serve to check and moderate that phase -of despair through which, if he take an earnest interest in social -problems, he will assuredly sooner or later pass. - -Finally, one word for myself. I have not hesitated to speak strongly -where I have felt strongly; and I am but too conscious that the -indicative and imperative moods have too often taken the place of the -more becoming subjunctive and conditional. I feel, therefore, how -necessary it is to beg you to forget the personality of him who has thus -ventured to address you, and to consider only the truth or error in what -has been said. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[56] "In the third place, we have to review the method of Comparison, -which is so specially adapted to the study of living bodies, and by -which, above all others, that study must be advanced. In Astronomy, this -method is necessarily inapplicable; and it is not till we arrive at -Chemistry that this third means of investigation can be used, and then -only in subordination to the two others. It is in the study, both -statical and dynamical, of living bodies that it first acquires its full -development; and its use elsewhere can be only through its application -here."--_Comte's Positive Philosophy_, translated by Miss Martineau. -Vol. i. p. 372. - -By what method does M. Comte suppose that the equality or inequality of -forces and quantities and the dissimilarity or similarity of -forms--points of some slight importance not only in Astronomy and -Physics, but even in Mathematics,--are ascertained, if not by -Comparison? - -[57] "Proceeding to the second class of means,--Experiment cannot but be -less and less decisive, in proportion to the complexity of the phænomena -to be explored; and therefore we saw this resource to be less effectual -in chemistry than in physics: and we now find that it is eminently -useful in chemistry in comparison with physiology. _In fact, the nature -of the phænomena seems to offer almost insurmountable impediments to any -extensive and prolific application of such a procedure in -biology._"--COMTE, vol. i. p. 367. - -M. Comte, as his manner is, contradicts himself two pages further on, -but that will hardly relieve him from the responsibility of such a -paragraph as the above. - -[58] Nouvelle Fonction du Foie considéré comme organe producteur de -matière sucrée chez l'Homme et les Animaux, par M. Claude Bernard. - -[59] "_Natural Groups given by Type, not by Definition...._ The class is -steadily fixed, though not precisely limited; it is given, though not -circumscribed; it is determined, not by a boundary-line without, but by -a central point within; not by what it strictly excludes, but what it -eminently includes; by an example, not by a precept; in short, instead -of Definition we have a _Type_ for our director. A type is an example of -any class, for instance, a species of a genus, which is considered as -eminently possessing the characters of the class. All the species which -have a greater affinity with this type-species than with any others, -form the genus, and are ranged about it, deviating from it in various -directions and different degrees."--_Whewell, The Philosophy of the -Inductive Sciences_, vol. i. pp. 476-7. - -[60] Save for the pleasure of doing so, I need hardly point out my -obligations to Mr. J. S. Mill's "System of Logic," in this view of -scientific method. - - - - -XI - - ON THE PERSISTENT TYPES OF - ANIMAL LIFE. - - -The successive modifications which the views of physical geologists have -undergone since the infancy of their science, with regard to the amount -and the nature of the changes which the crust of the globe has suffered, -have all tended in one direction, viz. towards the establishment of the -belief, that throughout that vast series of ages which was occupied by -the deposition of the stratified rocks, and which may be called -"geological time," (to distinguish it from the "historical time" which -followed, and the "pre-geological time," which preceded it) the -intensity and the character of the physical forces which have been in -operation, have varied within but narrow limits; so that, even in -Silurian or Cambrian times, the aspect of physical nature must have been -much what it is now. - -This uniformitarian view of telluric conditions, so far as geological -time is concerned, is, however, perfectly consistent with the notion of -a totally different state of things in antecedent epochs, and the -strongest advocate of such "physical uniformity" during the time of -which we have a record might, with perfect consistency, hold the -so-called "nebular hypothesis," or any other view involving the -conception of a long series of states very different from that which we -now know, and whose succession occupied pre-geological time. - -The doctrine of physical uniformity and that of physical progression are -therefore perfectly consistent, if we regard geological time as having -the same relation to pre-geological time as historical time has to it. - -The accepted doctrines of palæontology are by no means in harmony with -these tendencies of physical geology. It is generally believed that -there is a vast contrast between the ancient and the modern organic -worlds--it is incessantly assumed that we are acquainted with the -beginning of life, and with the primal manifestation of each of its -typical forms: nor does the fact that the discoveries of every year -oblige the holders of these views to change their ground, appear -sensibly to affect the tenacity of their adhesion. - -Without at all denying the considerable positive differences which -really exist between the ancient and the modern forms of life, and -leaving the negative ones to be met by the other lines of argument, an -impartial examination of the facts revealed by palæontology seems to -show that these differences and contrasts have been greatly exaggerated. - -Thus, of some two hundred known orders of plants, not one is exclusively -fossil. Among animals, there is not a single totally extinct class; and -of the orders, at the outside not more than seven per cent. are -unrepresented in the existing creation. - -Again, certain well marked forms of living beings have existed through -enormous epochs, surviving not only the changes of physical conditions, -but persisting comparatively unaltered, while other forms of life have -appeared and disappeared. Some forms may be termed "persistent types" of -life; and examples of them are abundant enough in both the animal and -the vegetable worlds. - -Among plants, for instance, ferns, club mosses, and _Coniferæ_, some of -them apparently generically identical with those now living, are met -with as far back as the carboniferous epoch; the cone of the oolitic -_Araucaria_ is hardly distinguishable from that of existing species; a -species of _Pinus_ has been discovered in the Purbecks, and a walnut -(_Juglans_) in the cretaceous rocks.[61] All these are types of -vegetable structure, abounding at the present day; and surely it is a -most remarkable fact to find them persisting with so little change -through such vast epochs. - -Every sub-kingdom of animals yields instances of the same kind. The -_Globigerina_ of the Atlantic soundings is identical with the cretaceous -species of the same genus; and the casts of lower Silurian -_Foraminifera_, recently described by Ehrenberg, assure us of the very -close resemblance between the oldest and the newest forms of many of the -_Protozoa_. - -Among the _Coelenterata_, the tabulate corals of the Silurian epoch -are wonderfully like the millepores of our own seas, as every one may -convince himself who compares _Heliolites_ with _Heliopora_. - -Turning to the _Mollusca_, the genera _Crania_, _Discina_, _Lingula_, -have persisted from the Silurian epoch to the present day, with so -little change, that very competent malacologists are sometimes puzzled -to distinguish the ancient from the modern species. _Nautili_ have a -like range, and the shell of the liassic _Loligo_ is similar to that of -the "squid" of our own seas. Among the _Annulosa_, the carboniferous -insects are in several cases referable to existing genera, as are the -_Arachnida_, the highest group of which, the scorpions, is represented -in the coal by a genus differing from its living congeners only in the -disposition of its eyes. - -The vertebrate sub-kingdom furnishes many examples of the same kind. The -_Ganoidei_ and _Elasmobranchii_ are known to have persisted from at -least the middle of the Palæozoic epoch to our own times, without -exhibiting a greater amount of deviation from the typical characters of -these orders, than may be found within their limits at the present day. - -Among the _Reptilia_, the highest group, that of the _Crocodilia_, was -represented at the beginning of the Mesozoic epoch, if not earlier, by -species identical in the essential character of their organization with -those now living, and presenting differences only in such points as the -form of the articular faces of their vertebræ, in the extent to which -the nasal passages are separated from the mouth by bone, and in the -proportions of the limbs. Even such imperfect knowledge as we possess of -the ancient mammalian fauna leads to the belief that certain of its -types, such as that of the _Marsupialia_, have persisted with no greater -change through as vast a lapse of time. - -It is difficult to comprehend the meaning of such facts as these, if we -suppose that each species of animal and plant, or each great type of -organization, was formed and placed upon the surface of the globe at -long intervals by a distinct act of creative power; and it is well to -recollect that such an assumption is as unsupported by tradition or -revelation as it is opposed to the general analogy of Nature. - -If, on the other hand, we view "Persistent Types," in relation to that -hypothesis which supposes the species of living beings living at any -time to be the result of the gradual modification of pre-existing -species--a hypothesis which though unproven, and sadly damaged by some -of its supporters, is yet the only one to which physiology lends any -countenance--their existence would seem to show, that the amount of -modification which living beings have undergone during geological time -is but very small in relation to the whole series of changes which they -have suffered. In fact, palæontology and physical geology are in perfect -harmony, and coincide in indicating that all we know of the conditions -in our world during geological time, is but the last term of a vast and, -so far as our present knowledge reaches, unrecorded progression. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[61] I state these facts on the authority of my friend Dr. Hooker.--T. -H. H. - - - - -XII - - TIME AND LIFE. - - MR. DARWIN'S "ORIGIN OF SPECIES" - - -Everyone knows that that superficial film of the earth's substance, -hardly ten miles thick, which is accessible to human investigation, is -composed for the most part of beds or strata of stone, the consolidated -muds and sands of former seas and lakes, which have been deposited one -upon the other, and hence are the older the deeper they lie. These -multitudinous strata present such resemblances and differences among -themselves that they are capable of classification into groups or -formations, and these formations again are brigaded together into still -larger assemblages, called by the older geologists, primary, secondary, -and tertiary; by the moderns, palæozoic, mesozoic, and cainozoic: the -basis of the former nomenclature being the relative age of the groups of -strata; that of the latter, the kinds of living forms contained in them. - -Though but a film if compared with the total diameter of our planet, the -total series of formations is vast indeed when measured by any human -standard, and, as all action implies time, so are we compelled to regard -these mineral masses as a measure of the time which has elapsed during -their accumulation. The amount of the time which they represent is, of -course, in the inverse proportion of the intensity of the forces which -have been in operation. If, in the ancient world, mud and sand -accumulated on sea-bottoms at tenfold their present rate, it is clear -that a bed of mud or sand ten feet thick would have been formed then in -the same time as a stratum of similar materials one foot thick would be -formed now, and _vice versâ_. - -At the outset of his studies, therefore, the physical geologist had to -choose between two hypotheses; either, throughout the ages which are -represented by the accumulated strata, and which we may call _geologic -time_, the forces of nature have operated with much the same average -intensity as at present, and hence the lapse of time which they -represent must be something prodigious and inconceivable, or, in the -primeval epochs, the natural powers were infinitely more intense than -now, and hence the time through which they acted to produce the effects -we see was comparatively short. - -The earlier geologists adopted the latter view almost with one consent. -For they had little knowledge of the present workings of nature, and -they read the records of geologic time as a child reads the history of -Rome or Greece, and fancies that antiquity was grand, heroic, and unlike -the present because it is unlike his little experience of the present. - -Even so the earlier observers were moved with wonder at the seeming -contrast between the ancient and the present order of nature. The -elemental forces seemed to have been grander and more energetic in -primeval times. Upheaved and contorted, rifted and fissured, pierced by -dykes of molten matter or worn away over vast areas by aqueous action, -the older rocks appeared to bear witness to a state of things far -different from that exhibited by the peaceful epoch on which the lot of -man has fallen. - -But by degrees thoughtful students of geology have been led to perceive -that the earliest efforts of nature have been by no means the grandest. -Alps and Andes are children of yesterday when compared with Snowdon and -the Cumberland hills; and the so-called glacial epoch--that in which -perhaps the most extensive physical changes of which any record remains -occurred--is the last and the newest of the revolutions of the globe. -And in proportion as physical geography--which is the geology of our own -epoch--has grown into a science, and the present order of nature has -been ransacked to find what, _hibernicè_, we may call precedents for the -phenomena of the past, so the apparent necessity of supposing the past -to be widely different from the present has diminished. - -The transporting power of the greatest deluge which can be imagined -sinks into insignificance beside that of the slowly floating, slowly -melting iceberg, or the glacier creeping along at its snail's pace of a -yard a day. The study of the deltas of the Nile, the Ganges, and the -Mississippi has taught us how slow is the wearing action of water, how -vast its effects when time is allowed for its operation. The reefs of -the Pacific, the deep-sea soundings of the Atlantic, show that it is to -the slow-growing coral and to the imperceptible animalcule, which lives -its brief space and then adds its tiny shell to the muddy cairn left by -its brethren and ancestors, that we must look as the agents in the -formation of limestone and chalk, and not to hypothetical oceans -saturated with calcareous salts and suddenly depositing them. - -And while the inquirer has thus learnt that existing forces--_give them -time_--are competent to produce all the physical phenomena we meet with -in the rocks, so, on the other side, the study of the marks left in the -ancient strata by past physical actions shows that these were similar to -those which now obtain. Ancient beaches are met with whose pebbles are -like those found on modern shores; the hardened sea-sands of the oldest -epochs show ripple-marks, such as may now be found on every sandy coast; -nay, more, the pits left by ancient rain-drops prove that even in the -very earliest ages, the "bow in the clouds" must have adorned the -palæozoic firmament. So that if we could reverse the legend of the Seven -Sleepers,--if we could sleep back through the past, and awake a million -ages before our own epoch, in the midst of the earliest geologic -times,--there is no reason to believe that sea, or sky, or the aspect of -the land would warn us of the marvellous retrospection. - -Such are the beliefs which modern physical geologists hold, or, at any -rate, tend towards holding. But, in so doing, it is obvious that they by -no means prejudge the question, as to what the physical condition of the -globe may have been before our chapters of its history begin, in what -may be called (with that licence which is implied in the often-used term -"prehistoric epoch") "pregeologic time." The views indicated, in fact, -are not only quite consistent with the hypothesis, that, in the still -earlier period referred to, the condition of our world was very -different; but they may be held by some to necessitate that hypothesis. -The physical philosopher who is accurately acquainted with the velocity -of a cannon-ball, and the precise character of the line which it -traverses for a yard of its course, is necessitated by what he knows of -the laws of nature to conclude that it came from a certain spot, whence -it was impelled by a certain force, and that it has followed a certain -trajectory. In like manner, the student of physical geology, who fully -believes in the uniformity of the general condition of the earth through -geologic time, may feel compelled by what he knows of causation, and by -the general analogy of nature, to suppose that our solar system was once -a nebulous mass, that it gradually condensed, that it broke up into that -wonderful group of harmoniously rolling balls we call planets and -satellites, and that then each of these underwent its appointed -metamorphosis, until at last our own share of the cosmic vapour passed -into that condition in which we first meet with definite records of its -state, and in which it has since, with comparatively little change, -remained. - -The doctrine of uniformity and the doctrine of progression are, -therefore, perfectly consistent; perhaps, indeed, they might be shown to -be necessarily connected with one another. - -If, however, the condition of the world, which has obtained throughout -geologic time, is but the sequel to a vast series of changes which took -place in pregeologic time, then it seems not unlikely that the duration -of this latter is to that of the former as the vast extent of geologic -time is to the length of the brief epoch we call the historical period; -and that even the oldest rocks are records of an epoch almost infinitely -remote from that which could have witnessed the first shaping of our -globe. - -It is probable that no modern geologist would hesitate to admit the -general validity of these reasonings when applied to the physics of his -subject, whence it is the more remarkable that the moment the question -changes from one of physics and chemistry to one of natural history, -scientific opinions and the popular prejudices, which reflect them in a -distorted form, undergo a sudden metamorphosis. Geologists and -palæontologists write about the "beginning of life" and the -"first-created forms of living beings," as if they were the most -familiar things in the world; and even cautious writers seem to be on -quite friendly terms with the "archetype" whereby the Creator was guided -"amidst the crash of falling worlds." Just as it used to be imagined -that the ancient universe was physically opposed to the present, so it -is still widely assumed that the living population of our globe, whether -animal or vegetable, in the older epochs, exhibited forms so strikingly -contrasted with those which we see around us, that there is hardly -anything in common between the two. It is constantly tacitly assumed -that we have before us all the forms of life which have ever existed; -and though the progress of knowledge, yearly and almost monthly, drives -the defenders of that position from their ground, they entrench -themselves in the new line of defences as if nothing had happened, and -proclaim that the _new_ beginning is the _real_ beginning. - - * * * * * - -Without for an instant denying or endeavouring to soften down the -considerable positive differences (the negative ones are met by another -line of argument) which undoubtedly obtain between the ancient and the -modern worlds of life, we believe they have been vastly overstated and -exaggerated, and this belief is based upon certain facts whose value -does not seem to have been fully appreciated, though they have long been -more or less completely known. - -The multitudinous kinds of animals and plants, both recent and fossil, -are, as is well known, arranged by zoologists and botanists, in -accordance with their natural relations, into groups which receive the -names of sub-kingdoms, classes, orders, families, genera and species. -Now it is a most remarkable circumstance that, viewed on the great -scale, living beings have differed so little throughout all geologic -time that there is no sub-kingdom and no class wholly extinct or without -living representatives. - -If we descend to the smaller groups, we find that the number of orders -of plants is about two hundred; and I have it on the best authority -that not one of these is exclusively fossil; so that there is absolutely -not a single extinct ordinal type of vegetable life; and it is not until -we descend to the next group, or the families, that we find types which -are wholly extinct. The number of orders of animals, on the other hand, -may be reckoned at a hundred and twenty, or thereabouts, and of these, -eight or nine have no living representatives. The proportion of extinct -ordinal types of animals to the existing types, therefore, does not -exceed seven per cent.--a marvellously small proportion when we consider -the vastness of geologic time. - -Another class of considerations--of a different kind, it is true, but -tending in the same direction--seems to have been overlooked. Not only -is it true that the general plan of construction of animals and plants -has been the same in all recorded time as at present, but there are -particular kinds of animals and plants which have existed throughout -vast epochs, sometimes through the whole range of recorded time, with -very little change. By reason of this persistency, the typical form of -such a kind might be called a "persistent type," in contradistinction to -those types which have appeared for but a short time in the course of -the world's history. Examples of these persistent types are abundant -enough in both the vegetable and the animal kingdoms. The oldest group -of plants with which we are well acquainted is that of whose remains -coal is constituted; and, so far as they can be identified, the -carboniferous plants are ferns, or club-mosses, or Coniferæ, in many -cases generically identical with those now living! - -Among animals, instances of the same kind may be found in every -sub-kingdom. The _Globigerina_ of the Atlantic soundings is identical -with that which occurs in the chalk; and the casts of lower silurian -_Foraminifera_, which Ehrenberg has recently described, seem to indicate -the existence at that remote period of forms singularly like those which -now exist. Among the corals, the palæozoic _Tabulata_ are constructed on -precisely the same type as the modern millepores; and if we turn to -molluscs, the most competent malacologists fail to discover any generic -distinction between the _Craniæ_, _Lingulæ_, and _Discinæ_ of the -silurian rocks and those which now live. Our existing _Nautilus_ has its -representative species in every great formation, from the oldest to the -newest; and _Loligo_, the squid of modern seas, appears in the lias, or -at the bottom of the mesozoic series, in a form, at most, specifically -different from its living congeners. In the great assemblage of annulose -animals, the two highest classes, the insects and spider tribe, exhibit -a wonderful persistency of type. The cockroaches of the carboniferous -epoch are exceedingly similar to those which now run about our -coal-cellars; and its locusts, termites, and dragon-flies are closely -allied to the members of the same groups which now chirrup about our -fields, undermine our houses, or sail with swift grace about the banks -of our sedgy pools. And, in like manner, the palæozoic scorpions can -only be distinguished by the eye of a naturalist from the modern ones. - -Finally, with respect to the _Vertebrata_, the same law holds good: -certain types, such as those of the ganoid and placoid fishes, having -persisted from the palæozoic epoch to the present time without a greater -amount of deviation from the normal standard than that which is seen -within the limits of the group as it now exists. Even among the -_Reptilia_--the class which exhibits the largest proportion of entirely -extinct forms of any--one type, that of the _Crocodilia_, has persisted -from at least the commencement of the Mesozoic epoch up to the present -time with so much constancy, that the amount of change which it exhibits -may fairly, in relation to the time which has elapsed, be called -insignificant. And the imperfect knowledge we have of the ancient -mammalian population of our earth leads to the belief that certain of -its types, such as that of the _Marsupialia_, have persisted with -correspondingly little change through a similar range of time. - -Thus it would appear to be demonstrable, that, notwithstanding the great -change which is exhibited by the animal population of the world as a -whole, certain types have persisted comparatively without alteration, -and the question arises, What bearing have such facts as these on our -notions of the history of life through geological time? The answer to -this question would seem to depend on the view we take respecting the -origin of species in general. If we assume that every species of animal -and of plant was formed by a distinct act of creative power, and if the -species which have incessantly succeeded one another were placed upon -the globe by these separate acts, then the existence of persistent types -is simply an unintelligible irregularity. Such assumption, however, is -as unsupported by tradition or by Revelation as it is opposed by the -analogy of the rest of the operations of nature; and those who imagine -that, by adopting any such hypothesis, they are strengthening the hands -of the advocates of the letter of the Mosaic account, are simply -mistaken. If, on the other hand, we adopt that hypothesis to which alone -the study of physiology lends any support--that hypothesis which, having -struggled beyond the reach of those fatal supporters, the Telliameds and -Vestigiarians, who so nearly caused its suffocation by wind in early -infancy, is now winning at least the provisional assent of all the best -thinkers of the day--the hypothesis that the forms or species of living -beings, as we know them, have been produced by the gradual modification -of pre-existing species--then the existence of persistent types seems to -teach us much. Just as a small portion of a great curve appears -straight, the apparent absence of change in direction of the line being -the exponent of the vast extent of the whole, in proportion to the part -we see; so, if it be true that all living species are the result of the -modification of other and simpler forms, the existence of these little -altered persistent types, ranging through all geological time, must -indicate that they are but the final terms of an enormous series of -modifications, which had their being in the great lapse of pregeologic -time, and are now perhaps for ever lost. - -In other words, when rightly studied, the teachings of palæontology are -at one with those of physical geology. Our farthest explorations carry -us back but a little way above the mouth of the great river of Life: -where it arose, and by what channels the noble tide has reached the -point when it first breaks upon our view, is hidden from us. - -The foregoing pages contain the substance of a lecture delivered before -the Royal Institution of Great Britain many months ago, and of course -long before the appearance of the remarkable work on the "Origin of -Species," just published by Mr. Darwin, who arrives at very similar -conclusions. Although, in one sense, I might fairly say that my own -views have been arrived at independently, I do not know that I can claim -any equitable right to property in them; for it has long been my -privilege to enjoy Mr. Darwin's friendship, and to profit by -corresponding with him, and by, to some extent, becoming acquainted with -the workings of his singularly original and well-stored mind. It was in -consequence of my knowledge of the general tenor of the researches in -which Mr. Darwin had been so long engaged; because I had the most -complete confidence in his perseverance, his knowledge, and, above all -things, his high-minded love of truth; and, moreover, because I found -that the better I became acquainted with the opinions of the best -naturalists regarding the vexed question of species, the less fixed they -seemed to be, and the more inclined they were to the hypothesis of -gradual modification, that I ventured to speak as strongly as I have -done in the final paragraphs of my discourse. - -Thus, my daw having so many borrowed plumes, I see no impropriety in -making a tail to this brief paper by taking another handful of feathers -from Mr. Darwin; endeavouring to point out in a few words, in fact, -what, as I gather from the perusal of his book, his doctrines really -are, and on what sort of basis they rest. And I do this the more -willingly, as I observe that already the hastier sort of critics have -begun, not to review my friend's book, but to howl over it in a manner -which must tend greatly to distract the public mind. - -No one will be better satisfied than I to see Mr. Darwin's book refuted, -if any person be competent to perform that feat; but I would suggest -that refutation is retarded, not aided, by mere sarcastic -misrepresentation. Every one who has studied cattle-breeding, or turned -pigeon-fancier, or "pomologist," must have been struck by the extreme -modifiability or plasticity of those kinds of animals and plants which -have been subjected to such artificial conditions as are imposed by -domestication. Breeds of dogs are more different from one another than -are the dog and the wolf; and the purely artificial races of pigeons, if -their origin were unknown, would most assuredly be reckoned by -naturalists as distinct species and even genera. - -These breeds are always produced in the same way. The breeder selects a -pair, one or other, or both, of which present an indication of the -peculiarity he wishes to perpetuate, and then selects from the offspring -of them those which are most characteristic, rejecting the others. From -the selected offspring he breeds again, and, taking the same precautions -as before, repeats the process until he has obtained the precise degree -of divergence from the primitive type at which he aimed. - -If he now breeds from the variety thus established for some generations, -taking care always to keep the stock pure, the tendency to produce this -particular variety becomes more and more strongly hereditary; and it -does not appear that there is any limit to the persistency of the race -thus developed. - -Men like Lamarck, apprehending these facts, and knowing that varieties -comparable to those produced by the breeder are abundantly found in -nature, and finding it impossible to discriminate in some cases between -varieties and true species, could hardly fail to divine the possibility -that species even the most distinct were, after all, only exceedingly -persistent varieties, and that they had arisen by the modification of -some common stock, just as it is with good reason believed that -turnspits and greyhounds, carrier and tumbler pigeons, have arisen. - -But there was a link wanting to complete the parallel. Where in nature -was the analogue of the breeder to be found? How could that operation of -selection, which is his essential function, be carried out by mere -natural agencies? Lamarck did not value this problem; neither did he -admit his impotence to solve it; but he guessed a solution. Now, -guessing in science is a very hazardous proceeding, and Lamarck's -reputation has suffered woefully for the absurdities into which his -baseless suppositions led him. - -Lamarck's conjectures, equipped with a new hat and stick, as Sir Walter -Scott was wont to say of an old story renovated, formed the foundation -of the biological speculations of the "Vestiges," a work which has done -more harm to the progress of sound thought on these matters than any -that could be named; and, indeed, I mention it here simply for the -purpose of denying that it has anything in common with what essentially -characterises Mr. Darwin's work. - -The peculiar feature of the latter is, in fact, that it professes to -tell us what in nature takes the place of the breeder; what it is that -favours the development of one variety into which a species may run, and -checks that of another; and, finally, shows how this natural selection, -as it is termed, may be the physical cause of the production of species -by modification. - -That which takes the place of the breeder and selector in nature is -Death. In a most remarkable chapter, "On the Struggle for Existence," -Mr. Darwin draws attention to the marvellous destruction of life which -is constantly going on in nature. For every species of living thing, as -for man, "_Eine Bresche ist ein jeder Tag_."--Every species has its -enemies; every species has to compete with others for the necessaries of -existence; the weakest goes to the wall, and death is the penalty -inflicted on all laggards and stragglers. Every variety to which a -species may give rise is either worse or better adapted to surrounding -circumstances than its parent. If worse, it cannot maintain itself -against death, and speedily vanishes again. But if better adapted, it -must, sooner or later, "improve" its progenitor from the face of the -earth, and take its place. If circumstances change, the victor will be -similarly supplanted by its own progeny; and thus, by the operation of -natural causes, unlimited modification may in the lapse of long ages -occur. - -For an explanation of what I have here called vaguely "surrounding -circumstances," and of why they continually change--for ample proof that -the "struggle for existence" is a very great reality, and assuredly -_tends_ to exert the influence ascribed to it--I must refer to Mr. -Darwin's book. I believe I have stated fairly the position upon which -his whole theory must stand or fall; and it is not my purpose to -anticipate a full review of his work. If it can be proved that the -process of natural selection, operating upon any species, can give rise -to varieties of species so different from one another that none of our -tests will distinguish them from true species, Mr. Darwin's hypothesis -of the origin of species will take its place among the established -theories of science, be its consequences whatever they may. If, on the -other hand, Mr. Darwin has erred, either in fact or in reasoning, his -fellow-workers will soon find out the weak points in his doctrines, and -their extinction by some nearer approximation to the truth will -exemplify his own principle of natural selection. - -In either case the question is one to be settled only by the -painstaking, truth-loving investigation of skilled naturalists. It is -the duty of the general public to await the result in patience; and, -above all things, to discourage, as they would any other crimes, the -attempt to enlist the prejudices of the ignorant, or the -uncharitableness of the bigoted, on either side of the controversy. - - - - -XIII - - DARWIN ON THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES. - - -Mr. Darwin's long-standing and well-earned scientific eminence probably -renders him indifferent to that social notoriety which passes by the -name of success; but if the calm spirit of the philosopher have not yet -wholly superseded the ambition and the vanity of the carnal man within -him, he must be well satisfied with the results of his venture in -publishing the "Origin of Species." Overflowing the narrow bounds of -purely scientific circles, the "species question" divides with Italy and -the Volunteers the attention of general society. Everybody has read Mr. -Darwin's book, or, at least, has given an opinion upon its merits or -demerits; pietists, whether lay or ecclesiastic, decry it with the mild -railing which sounds so charitable; bigots denounce it with ignorant -invective; old ladies, of both sexes, consider it a decidedly dangerous -book, and even savans, who have no better mud to throw, quote antiquated -writers to show that its author is no better than an ape himself; while -every philosophical thinker hails it as a veritable Whitworth gun in the -armoury of liberalism, and all competent naturalists and physiologists, -whatever their opinions as to the ultimate fate of the doctrines put -forth, acknowledge that the work in which they are embodied is a solid -contribution to knowledge and inaugurates a new epoch in natural -history. - -Nor has the discussion of the subject been restrained within the limits -of conversation. When the public is eager and interested, reviewers must -minister to its wants, and the genuine _littérateur_ is too much in the -habit of acquiring his knowledge from the book he judges--as the -Abyssinian is said to provide himself with steaks from the ox which -carries him--to be withheld from criticism of a profound scientific work -by the mere want of the requisite preliminary scientific acquirement; -while, on the other hand, the men of science who wish well to the new -views, no less than those who dispute their validity, have naturally -sought opportunities of expressing their opinions. Hence it is not -surprising that almost all the critical journals have noticed Mr. -Darwin's work at greater or less length, and so many disquisitions, of -every degree of excellence, from the poor product of ignorance, too -often stimulated by prejudice, to the fair and thoughtful essay of the -candid student of nature, have appeared, that it seems an almost -hopeless task to attempt to say anything new upon the question. - -But it may be doubted if the knowledge and acumen of prejudged -scientific opponents, or the subtlety of orthodox special pleaders, have -yet exerted their full force in mystifying the real issues of the great -controversy which has been set afoot, and whose end is hardly likely to -be seen by this generation; so that at this eleventh hour, and even -failing anything new, it may be useful to state afresh that which is -true, and to put the fundamental positions advocated by Mr. Darwin in -such a form that they may be grasped by those whose special studies lie -in other directions; and the adoption of this course may be the more -advisable, because notwithstanding its great deserts, and indeed partly -on account of them, the "Origin of Species" is by no means an easy book -to read--if by reading is implied the full comprehension of an author's -meaning. - -We do not speak jestingly in saying that it is Mr. Darwin's misfortune -to know more about the question he has taken up than any man living. -Personally and practically exercised in zoology, in minute anatomy, in -geology; a student of geographical distribution, not on maps and in -museums only, but by long voyages and laborious collection; having -largely advanced each of these branches of science, and having spent -many years in gathering and sifting materials for his present work, the -store of accurately registered facts upon which the author of the -"Origin of Species" is able to draw at will is prodigious. - -But this very superabundance of matter must have been embarrassing to a -writer who, for the present, can only put forward an abstract of his -views, and thence it arises, perhaps, that notwithstanding the clearness -of the style, those who attempt fairly to digest the book find much of -it a sort of intellectual pemmican--a mass of facts crushed and pounded -into shape, rather than held together by the ordinary medium of an -obvious logical bond: due attention will, without doubt, discover this -bond, but it is often hard to find. - -Again, from sheer want of room, much has to be taken for granted which -might readily enough be proved, and hence, while the adept, who can -supply the missing links in the evidence from his own knowledge, -discovers fresh proof of the singular thoroughness with which all -difficulties have been considered and all unjustifiable supposition -avoided, at every reperusal of Mr. Darwin's pregnant paragraphs, the -novice in biology is apt to complain of the frequency of what he fancies -is gratuitous assumption. - -Thus while it may be doubted if, for some years, any one is likely to be -competent to pronounce judgment on all the issues raised by Mr. Darwin, -there is assuredly abundant room for him, who, assuming the humbler, -though perhaps as useful, office of an interpreter between the "Origin -of Species" and the public, contents himself with endeavouring to point -out the nature of the problems which it discusses; to distinguish -between the ascertained facts and the theoretical views which it -contains; and finally, to show the extent to which the explanation it -offers satisfies the requirements of scientific logic. At any rate, it -is this office which we purpose to undertake in the following pages. - -It may be safely assumed that our readers have a general conception of -the nature of the objects to which the word "species" is applied; but it -has, perhaps, occurred to few, even of those who are naturalists _ex -professo_, to reflect, that, as commonly employed, the term has a double -sense and denotes two very different orders of relations. When we call -a group of animals, or of plants, a species, we may imply thereby -either, that all these animals or plants have some common peculiarity of -form or structure; or, we may mean that they possess some common -functional character. That part of biological science which deals with -form and structure is called Morphology--that which concerns itself with -function, Physiology--so that we may conveniently speak of these two -senses or aspects of "species"--the one as morphological, the other as -physiological. Regarded from the former point of view, a species is -nothing more than a kind of animal or plant, which is distinctly -definable from all others, by certain constant and not merely sexual, -morphological peculiarities. Thus horses form a species, because the -group of animals to which that name is applied is distinguished from all -others in the world by the following constantly associated characters. -They have 1. A vertebral column; 2. Mammæ; 3. A placental embryo; 4. -Four legs; 5. A single well-developed toe in each foot provided with a -hoof; 6. A bushy tail; and 7. Callosities on the inner sides of both the -fore and the hind legs. The asses again, form a distinct species, -because, with the same characters, as far as the fifth in the above -list, all asses have tufted tails, and have callosities only on the -inner side of the fore-legs. If animals were discovered having the -general characters of the horse, but sometimes with callosities only on -the fore legs, and more or less tufted tails; or animals having the -general characters of the ass, but with more or less bushy tails, and -sometimes with callosities on both pairs of legs, besides being -intermediate in other respects--the two species would have to be merged -into one. They could no longer be regarded as morphologically distinct -species, for they would not be distinctly definable one from the other. - -However bare and simple this definition of species may appear to be, we -confidently appeal to all practical naturalists, whether zoologists, -botanists, or palæontologists, to say if, in the vast majority of cases, -they know, or mean to affirm, anything more of the group of animals or -plants they so denominate than what has just been stated. Even the most -decided advocates of the received doctrines respecting species admit -this. - -"I apprehend," says Professor Owen,[62] "that few naturalists -now-a-days, in describing and proposing a name for what they call 'a new -_species_,' use that term to signify what was meant by it twenty or -thirty years ago, that is, an originally distinct creation, maintaining -its primitive distinction by obstructive generative peculiarities. The -proposer of the new species now intends to state no more than he -actually knows; as for example, that the differences in which he founds -the specific character are constant in individuals of both sexes, so far -as observation has reached; and that they are not due to domestication -or to artificially superinduced external circumstances, or to any -outward influence within his cognizance; that the species is wild, or is -such as it appears by nature." - -If we consider, in fact, that by far the largest proportion of recorded -existing species are known only by the study of their skins, or bones, -or other lifeless exuvia; that we are acquainted with none, or next to -none, of their physiological peculiarities, beyond those which can be -deduced from their structure, or are open to cursory observation; and -that we cannot hope to learn more of any of those extinct forms of life -which now constitute no inconsiderable proportion of the known Flora and -Fauna of the world; it is obvious that the definitions of these species -can be only of a purely structural or morphological character. It is -probable that naturalists would have avoided much confusion of ideas if -they had more frequently borne these necessary limitations of our -knowledge in mind. But while it may safely be admitted that we are -acquainted with only the morphological characters of the vast majority -of species--the functional or physiological peculiarities of a few have -been carefully investigated, and the result of that study forms a large -and most interesting portion of the physiology of reproduction. - -The student of nature wonders the more and is astonished the less, the -more conversant he becomes with her operations; but of all the perennial -miracles she offers to his inspection, perhaps the most worthy of -admiration is the development of a plant or of an animal from its -embryo. Examine the recently laid egg of some common animal, such as a -salamander or a newt. It is a minute spheroid in which the best -microscope will reveal nothing but a structureless sac, enclosing a -glairy fluid, holding granules in suspension. But strange possibilities -lie dormant in that semi-fluid globule. Let a moderate supply of warmth -reach its watery cradle, and the plastic matter undergoes changes so -rapid and yet so steady and purpose-like in their succession, that one -can only compare them to those operated by a skilled modeller upon a -formless lump of clay. As with an invisible trowel, the mass is divided -and subdivided into smaller and smaller portions, until it is reduced to -an aggregation of granules not too large to build withal the finest -fabrics of the nascent organism. And, then, it is as if a delicate -finger traced out the line to be occupied by the spinal column, and -moulded the contour of the body; pinching up the head at one end, the -tail at the other, and fashioning flank and limb into due salamandrine -proportions, in so artistic a way, that, after watching the process hour -by hour, one is almost involuntarily possessed by the notion, that some -more subtle aid to vision than an achromatic would show the hidden -artist, with his plan before him, striving with skilful manipulation to -perfect his work. - -As life advances, and the young amphibian ranges the waters, the terror -of his insect contemporaries, not only are the nutritious particles -supplied by its prey, by the addition of which to its frame growth takes -place, laid down, each in its proper spot, and in such due proportion to -the rest, as to reproduce the form, the colour and the size, -characteristic of the parental stock; but even the wonderful powers of -reproducing lost parts possessed by these animals are controlled by the -same governing tendency. Cut off the legs, the tail, the jaws, -separately or all together, and, as Spallanzani showed long ago, these -parts not only grow again, but the redintegrated limb is formed on the -same type as those which were lost. The new jaw or leg is a newt's, and -never by any accident more like that of a frog. What is true of the newt -is true of every animal and of every plant; the acorn tends to build -itself up again into a woodland giant such as that from whose twig it -fell; the spore of the humblest lichen reproduces the green or brown -incrustation which gave it birth; and at the other end of the scale of -life, the child that resembled neither the paternal nor the maternal -side of the house would be regarded as a kind of monster. - -So that the one end to which in all living beings the formative impulse -is tending--the one scheme which the Archæus of the old speculators -strives to carry out, seems to be to mould the offspring into the -likeness of the parent. It is the first great law of reproduction, that -the offspring tends to resemble its parent or parents, more closely than -anything else. - -Science will some day show us how this law is a necessary consequence of -the more general laws which govern matter; but for the present, more can -hardly be said than that it appears to be in harmony with them. We know -that the phenomena of vitality are not something apart from other -physical phenomena, but one with them; and matter and force are the two -names of the one artist who fashions the living as well as the lifeless. -Hence living bodies should obey the same great laws as other -matter--nor, throughout nature, is there a law of wider application than -this, that a body impelled by two forces takes the direction of their -resultant. But living bodies may be regarded as nothing but extremely -complex bundles of forces held in a mass of matter, as the complex -forces of a magnet are held in the steel by its coercive force; and -since the differences of sex are comparatively slight, or, in other -words, the sum of the forces in each has a very similar tendency, their -resultant, the offspring, may reasonably be expected to deviate but -little from a course parallel to either, or to both. - -Represent the reason of the law to ourselves by what physical metaphor -or analogy we will, however, the great matter is to apprehend its -existence and the importance of the consequences deducible from it. For -things which are like to the same are like to one another, and if, in a -great series of generations, every offspring is like its parent, it -follows that all the offspring and all the parents must be like one -another; and that, given an original parental stock with the opportunity -of undisturbed multiplication, the law in question necessitates the -production, in course of time, of an indefinitely large group, the whole -of whose members are at once very similar and are blood relations, -having descended from the same parent, or pair of parents. The proof -that all the members of any given group of animals, or plants, had thus -descended, would be ordinarily considered sufficient to entitle them to -the rank of physiological species, for most physiologists consider -species to be definable as "the offspring of a single primitive stock." - -But though it is quite true that all those groups we call species _may_, -according to the known laws of reproduction, have descended from a -single stock, and though it is very likely they really have done so, yet -this conclusion rests on deduction and can hardly hope to establish -itself upon a basis of observation. And the primitiveness of the -supposed single stock, which, after all, is the essential part of the -matter, is not only a hypothesis, but one which has not a shadow of -foundation, if by "primitive" be meant "independent of any other living -being." A scientific definition, of which an unwarrantable hypothesis -forms an essential part, carries its condemnation within itself; but -even supposing such a definition were, in form, tenable, the -physiologist who should attempt to apply it in nature would soon find -himself involved in great, if not inextricable difficulties. As we have -said, it is indubitable that offspring _tend_ to resemble the parental -organism, but it is equally true that the similarity attained never -amounts to identity, either in form or in structure. There is always a -certain amount of deviation, not only from the precise characters of a -single parent, but when, as in most animals and many plants, the sexes -are lodged in distinct individuals, from an exact mean between the two -parents. And, indeed, on general principles, this slight deviation seems -as intelligible as the general similarity, if we reflect how complex the -co-operating "bundles of forces" are, and how improbable it is that, in -any case, their true resultant shall coincide with any mean between the -more obvious characters of the two parents. Whatever be its cause, -however, the co-existence of this tendency to minor variation with the -tendency to general similarity, is of vast importance in its bearing on -the question of the origin of species. - -As a general rule, the extent to which an offspring differs from its -parent is slight enough; but, occasionally, the amount of difference is -much more strongly marked, and then the divergent offspring receives the -name of a Variety. Multitudes, of what there is every reason to believe -are such varieties, are known, but the origin of very few has been -accurately recorded, and of these we will select two as more especially -illustrative of the main features of variation. The first of them is -that of the "Ancon," or "Otter" sheep, of which a careful account is -given by Colonel David Humphreys, F.R.S., in a letter to Sir Joseph -Banks, published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1813. It appears -that one Seth Wright, the proprietor of a farm on the banks of the -Charles River, in Massachusetts, possessed a flock of fifteen ewes and a -ram of the ordinary kind. In the year 1791, one of the ewes presented -her owner with a male lamb, differing, for no assignable reason, from -its parents by a proportionally long body and short bandy legs, whence -it was unable to emulate its relatives in those sportive leaps over the -neighbours' fences, in which they were in the habit of indulging, much -to the good farmer's vexation. - -The second case is that detailed by a no less unexceptionable authority -than Réaumur, in his "Art de faire éclorre les poulets." A Maltese -couple, named Kelleia, whose hands and feet were constructed upon the -ordinary human model, had born to them a son, Gratio, who possessed six -perfectly moveable fingers on each hand and six toes, not quite so well -formed, on each foot. No cause could be assigned for the appearance of -this unusual variety of the human species. - -Two circumstances are well worthy of remark in both these cases. In -each, the variety appears to have arisen in full force, and, as it were, -_per saltum_; a wide and definite difference appearing, at once, -between the Ancon ram and the ordinary sheep; between the six-fingered -and six-toed Gratio Kelleia and ordinary men. In neither case is it -possible to point out any obvious reason for the appearance of the -variety. Doubtless there were determining causes for these as for all -other phenomena; but they do not appear, and we can be tolerably certain -that what are ordinarily understood as changes in physical conditions, -as in climate, in food, or the like, did not take place and had nothing -to do with the matter. It was no case of what is commonly called -adaptation to circumstances; but, to use a conveniently erroneous -phrase, the variations arose spontaneously. The fruitless search after -final causes leads their pursuers a long way; but even those hardy -teleologists, who are ready to break through all the laws of physics in -chase of their favourite will-o'-the-wisp, may be puzzled to discover -what purpose could be attained by the stunted legs of Seth Wright's ram -or the hexadactyle members of Gratio Kelleia. - -Varieties then arise we know not why; and it is more than probable that -the majority of varieties have arisen in the spontaneous manner, though -we are, of course, far from denying that they may be traced, in some -cases, to distinct external influences, which are assuredly competent to -alter the character of the tegumentary covering, to change colour, to -increase or diminish the size of muscles, to modify constitution, and, -among plants, to give rise to the metamorphosis of stamens into petals, -and so forth. But however they may have arisen, what especially -interests us at present is, to remark that, once in existence, varieties -obey the fundamental law of reproduction that like tends to produce -like, and their offspring exemplify it by tending to exhibit the same -deviation from the parental stock as themselves. Indeed, there seems to -be, in many instances, a pre-potent influence about a newly-arisen -variety which gives it what one may call an unfair advantage over the -normal descendants from the same stock. This is strikingly exemplified -by the case of Gratio Kelleia, who married a woman with the ordinary -pentadactyle extremities, and had by her four children, Salvator, -George, André, and Marie. Of these children Salvator, the eldest boy, -had six fingers and six toes, like his father; the second and third, -also boys, had five fingers and toes, like their mother, though the -hands and feet of George were slightly deformed; the last, a girl, had -five fingers and toes, but the thumbs were slightly deformed. The -variety thus reproduced itself purely in the eldest, while the normal -type reproduced itself purely in the third, and almost purely in the -second and last: so that it would seem, at first, as if the normal type -were more powerful than the variety. But all these children grew up and -intermarried with normal wives and husbands, and then, note what took -place: Salvator had four children, three of whom exhibited the -hexadactyle members of their grandfather and father, while the youngest -had the pentadactyle limbs of the mother and grandmother; so that here, -notwithstanding a double pentadactyle dilution of the blood, the -hexadactyle variety had the best of it. The same pre-potency of the -variety was still more markedly exemplified in the progeny of two of the -other children, Marie and George. Marie (whose thumbs only were -deformed) gave birth to a boy with six toes, and three other normally -formed children; but George, who was not quite so pure a pentadactyle, -begot, first, two girls, each of whom had six fingers and toes; then a -girl with six fingers on each hand and six toes on the right foot, but -only five toes on the left; and lastly, a boy with only five fingers and -toes. In these instances, therefore, the variety, as it were, leaped -over one generation to reproduce itself in full force in the next. -Finally, the purely pentadactyle André was the father of many children, -not one of whom departed from the normal parental type. - -If a variation which approaches the nature of a monstrosity can strive -thus forcibly to reproduce itself, it is not wonderful that less -aberrant modifications should tend to be preserved even more strongly; -and the history of the Ancon sheep is, in this respect, particularly -instructive. With the "'cuteness" characteristic of their nation, the -neighbours of the Massachusetts farmer imagined it would be an excellent -thing if all his sheep were imbued with the stay-at-home tendencies -enforced by nature upon the newly-arrived ram; and they advised Wright -to kill the old patriarch of his fold, and instal the Ancon ram in his -place. The result justified their sagacious anticipations, and coincided -very nearly with what occurred to the progeny of Gratio Kelleia. The -young lambs were almost always either pure Ancons, or pure ordinary -sheep.[63] But when sufficient Ancon sheep were obtained to interbreed -with one another, it was found that the offspring was always pure Ancon. -Colonel Humphreys, in fact, states that he was acquainted with only "one -questionable case of a contrary nature." Here, then, is a remarkable and -well-established instance, not only of a very distinct race being -established _per saltum_, but of that race breeding "true" at once, and -showing no mixed forms, even when crossed with another breed. - -By taking care to select Ancons of both sexes, for breeding from, it -thus became easy to establish an extremely well-marked race, so peculiar -that even when herded with other sheep, it was noted that the Ancons -kept together, and there is every reason to believe that the existence -of this breed might have been indefinitely protracted; but the -introduction of the Merino sheep, which were not only very superior to -the Ancons in wool and meat, but quite as quiet and orderly, led to the -complete neglect of the new breed, so that, in 1813, Colonel Humphreys -found it difficult to obtain the specimen whose skeleton was presented -to Sir Joseph Banks. We believe that, for many years, no remnant of it -has existed in the United States. - -Gratio Kelleia was not the progenitor of a race of six-fingered men, as -Seth Wright's ram became a nation of Ancon sheep, though the tendency -of the variety to perpetuate itself appears to have been fully as strong -in the one case as in the other. And the reason of the difference is not -far to seek. Seth Wright took care not to weaken the Ancon blood by -matching his Ancon ewes with any but males of the same variety, while -Gratio Kelleia's sons were too far removed from the patriarchal times to -intermarry with their sisters; and his grandchildren seem not to have -been attracted by their six-fingered cousins. In other words, in the one -example a race was produced, because, for several generations, care was -taken to _select_ both parents of the breeding stock, from animals -exhibiting a tendency to vary in the same direction, while in the other -no race was evolved, because no such selection was exercised. A race is -a propagated variety, and as, by the laws of reproduction, offspring -tend to assume the parental form, they will be more likely to propagate -a variation exhibited by both parents than that possessed by only one. - -There is no organ of the body of an animal which may not, and does not, -occasionally, vary more or less from the normal type; and there is no -variation which may not be transmitted, and which, if selectively -transmitted, may not become the foundation of a race. This great truth, -sometimes forgotten by philosophers, has long been familiar to practical -agriculturists and breeders: and upon it rest all the methods of -improving the breeds of domestic animals, which for the last century -have been followed with so much success in England. Colour, form, size, -texture of hair or wool, proportions of various parts, strength or -weakness of constitution, tendency to fatten or to remain lean, to give -much or little milk, speed, strength, temper, intelligence, special -instincts; there is not one of these characters whose transmission is -not an every-day occurrence within the experience of cattle-breeders, -stock-farmers, horse-dealers, and dog and poultry fanciers. Nay, it is -only the other day that an eminent physiologist, Dr. Brown Sequard, -communicated to the Royal Society his discovery that epilepsy, -artificially produced in guinea-pigs, by a means which he has -discovered, is transmitted to their offspring. - -But a race, once produced, is no more a fixed and immutable entity than -the stock whence it sprang; variations arise among its members, and as -these variations are transmitted like any others, new races may be -developed out of the pre-existing ones _ad infinitum_, or, at least, -within any limit at present determined. Given sufficient time and -sufficiently careful selection, and the multitude of races which may -arise from a common stock is as astonishing as are the extreme -structural differences which they may present. A remarkable example of -this is to be found in the rock-pigeon, which Mr. Darwin has, in our -opinion, satisfactorily demonstrated to be the progenitor of all our -domestic pigeons, of which there are certainly more than a hundred -well-marked races. The most noteworthy of these races are, the four -great stocks known to the "fancy" as tumblers, pouters, carriers, and -fantails; birds which not only differ most singularly in size, colour, -and habits, but in the form of the beak and of the skull; in the -proportions of the beak to the skull; in the number of tail-feathers; in -the absolute and relative size of the feet; in the presence or absence -of the uropygial gland; in the number of vertebræ in the back; in short, -in precisely those characters in which the genera and species of birds -differ from one another. - -And it is most remarkable and instructive to observe, that none of these -races can be shown to have been originated by the action of changes in -what are commonly called external circumstances, upon the wild -rock-pigeon. On the contrary, from time immemorial, pigeon fanciers have -had essentially similar methods of treating their pets, which have been -housed, fed, protected and cared for in much the same way in all -pigeonries. In fact, there is no case better adapted than that of the -pigeons, to refute the doctrine which one sees put forth on high -authority, that "no other characters than those founded on the -development of bone for the attachment of muscles" are capable of -variation. In precise contradiction of this hasty assertion, Mr. -Darwin's researches prove that the skeleton of the wings in domestic -pigeons has hardly varied at all from that of the wild type; while, on -the other hand, it is in exactly those respects, such as the relative -length of the beak and skull, the number of the vertebræ, and the number -of the tail-feathers, in which muscular exertion can have no important -influence, that the utmost amount of variation has taken place. - - * * * * * - -We have said that the following out of the properties exhibited by -physiological species would lead us into difficulties, and at this point -they begin to be obvious; for, if, as a result of spontaneous variation -and of selective breeding, the progeny of a common stock may become -separated into groups distinguished from one another by constant, not -sexual, morphological characters, it is clear that the physiological -definition of species is likely to clash with the morphological -definition. No one would hesitate to describe the pouter and the tumbler -as distinct species, if they were found fossil, or if their skins and -skeletons were imported, as those of exotic wild birds commonly -are--and, without doubt, if considered alone, they are good and distinct -morphological species. On the other hand, they are not physiological -species, for they are descended from a common stock, the rock-pigeon. - -Under these circumstances, as it is admitted on all sides that races -occur in nature, how are we to know whether any apparently distinct -animals are really of different physiological species, or not, seeing -that the amount of morphological difference is no safe guide? Is there -any test of a physiological species? The usual answer of physiologists -is in the affirmative. It is said that such a test is to be found in the -phenomena of hybridization--in the results of crossing races as compared -with the results of crossing species. - -So far as the evidence goes at present, individuals, of what are -certainly known to be mere races produced by selection, however distinct -they may appear to be, not only breed freely together, but the offspring -of such crossed races are also perfectly fertile with one another. Thus, -the spaniel and the greyhound, the dray-horse and the Arab, the pouter -and the tumbler, breed together with perfect freedom, and their -mongrels, if matched with other mongrels of the same kind, are equally -fertile. - -On the other hand, there can be no doubt that the individuals of many -natural species are either absolutely infertile, if crossed with -individuals of other species, or, if they give rise to hybrid offspring, -the hybrids so produced are infertile when paired together. The horse -and the ass, for instance, if so crossed, give rise to the mule, and -there is no certain evidence of offspring ever having been produced by a -male and female mule. The unions of the rock-pigeon and the ring-pigeon -appear to be equally barren of result. Here, then, says the -physiologist, we have a means of distinguishing any two true species -from any two varieties. If a male and a female, selected from each -group, produce offspring, and that offspring is fertile with others -produced in the same way, the groups are races and not species. If, on -the other hand, no result ensues, or if the offspring are infertile with -others produced in the same way, they are true physiological species. -The test would be an admirable one, if, in the first place, it were -always practicable to apply it, and if, in the second, it always yielded -results susceptible of a definite interpretation. Unfortunately, in the -great majority of cases, this touchstone for species is wholly -inapplicable. - -The constitution of many wild animals is so altered by confinement that -they will not even breed with their own females, so that the negative -results obtained from crosses are of no value, and the antipathy of wild -animals of different species for one another, or even of wild and tame -members of the same species, is ordinarily so great, that it is hopeless -to look for such unions in nature. The hermaphrodism of most plants, the -difficulty in the way of ensuring the absence of their own, or the -proper working of other pollen, are obstacles of no less magnitude in -applying the test to them. And in both animals and plants is superadded -the further difficulty, that experiments must be continued over a long -time for the purpose of ascertaining the fertility of the mongrel or -hybrid progeny, as well as of the first crosses from which they spring. - -Not only do these great practical difficulties lie in the way of -applying the hybridization test, but even when this oracle can be -questioned, its replies are sometimes as doubtful as those of Delphi. -For example, cases are cited by Mr. Darwin, of plants which are more -fertile with the pollen of another species than with their own; and -there are others, such as certain _fuci_, whose male element will -fertilize the ovule of a plant of distinct species, while the males of -the latter species are ineffective with the females of the first. So -that, in the last-named instance, a physiologist, who should cross the -two species in one way, would decide that they were true species; while -another, who should cross them in the reverse way, would, with equal -justice, according to the rule, pronounce them to be mere races. Several -plants, which there is great reason to believe are mere varieties, are -almost sterile when crossed; while both animals and plants, which have -always been regarded by naturalists as of distinct species, turn out, -when the test is applied, to be perfectly fertile. Again, the sterility -or fertility of crosses seems to bear no relation to the structural -resemblances or differences of the members of any two groups. Mr. Darwin -has discussed this question with singular ability and circumspection, -and his conclusions are summed up as follows at page 276 of his work:-- - - "First crosses between forms sufficiently distinct to be - ranked as species, and their hybrids, are very generally, - but not universally, sterile. The sterility is of all - degrees, and is often so slight that the two most careful - experimentalists who have ever lived have come to - diametrically opposite conclusions in ranking forms by - this test. The sterility is innately variable in - individuals of the same species, and is eminently - susceptible of favourable and unfavourable conditions. - The degree of sterility does not strictly follow - systematic affinity, but is governed by several curious - and complex laws. It is generally different, and - sometimes widely different, in reciprocal crosses between - the same two species. It is not always equal in degree in - a first cross, and in the hybrid produced from this - cross. - - "In the same manner as in grafting trees, the capacity of - one species or variety to take on another is incidental - on generally unknown differences in their vegetative - systems, so in crossing, the greater or less facility of - one species to unite with another is incidental on - unknown differences in their reproductive systems. There - is no more reason to think that species have been - specially endowed with various degrees of sterility to - prevent them crossing and breeding in nature, than to - think that trees have been specially endowed with various - and somewhat analogous degrees of difficulty in being - grafted together, in order to prevent them becoming - inarched in our forests. - - "The sterility of first crosses between pure species, - which have their reproductive systems perfect, seems to - depend on several circumstances; in some cases largely on - the early death of the embryo. The sterility of hybrids - which have their reproductive systems imperfect, and - which have had this system and their whole organization - disturbed by being compounded of two distinct species, - seems closely allied to that sterility which so - frequently affects pure species when their natural - conditions of life have been disturbed. This view is - supported by a parallelism of another kind; namely, that - the crossing of forms only slightly different is - favourable to the vigour and fertility of the offspring; - and that slight changes in the conditions of life are - apparently favourable to the vigour and fertility of all - organic beings. It is not surprising that the degree of - difficulty in uniting two species, and the degree of - sterility of their hybrid offspring should generally - correspond, though due to distinct causes; for both - depend on the amount of difference of some kind between - the species which are crossed. Nor is it surprising that - the facility of effecting a first cross, the fertility of - hybrids produced from it, and the capacity of being - grafted together--though this latter capacity evidently - depends on widely different circumstances--should all run - to a certain extent parallel with the systematic affinity - of the forms which are subjected to experiment; for - systematic affinity attempts to express all kinds of - resemblance between all species. - - "First crosses between forms known to be varieties, or - sufficiently alike to be considered as varieties, and - their mongrel offspring, are very generally, but not - quite universally, fertile. Nor is this nearly general - and perfect fertility surprising, when we remember how - liable we are to argue in a circle with respect to - varieties in a state of nature; and when we remember that - the greater number of varieties have been produced under - domestication by the selection of mere external - differences, and not of differences in the reproductive - system. In all other respects, excluding fertility, there - is a close general resemblance between hybrids and - mongrels" (pp. 276-8). - -We fully agree with the general tenor of this weighty passage, but -forcible as are these arguments, and little as the value of fertility or -infertility as a test of species may be, it must not be forgotten that -the really important fact, so far as the inquiry into the origin of -species goes, is, that there are such things in nature as groups of -animals and of plants, whose members are incapable of fertile union with -those of other groups; and that there are such things as hybrids, which -are absolutely sterile when crossed with other hybrids. For if such -phenomena as these were exhibited by only two of those assemblages of -living objects, to which the name of species (whether it be used in its -physiological or in its morphological sense) is given, it would have to -be accounted for by any theory of the origin of species, and every -theory which could not account for it would be, so far, imperfect. - -Up to this point we have been dealing with matters of fact, and the -statements which we have laid before the reader would, to the best of -our knowledge, be admitted to contain a fair exposition of what is at -present known respecting the essential properties of species, by all who -have studied the question. And whatever may be his theoretical views, no -naturalist will probably be disposed to demur to the following summary -of that exposition:-- - -Living beings, whether animals or plants, are divisible into multitudes -of distinctly definable kinds, which are morphological species. They are -also divisible into groups of individuals, which breed freely together, -tending to reproduce their like, and are physiological species. -Normally, resembling their parents, the offspring of members of these -species are still liable to vary, and the variation may be perpetuated -by selection, as a race, which race, in many cases, presents all the -characteristics of a morphological species. But it is not as yet proved -that a race ever exhibits, when crossed with another race of the same -species, those phenomena of hybridization which are exhibited by many -species when crossed with other species. On the other hand, not only is -it not proved that all species give rise to hybrids infertile _inter -se_, but there is much reason to believe that, in crossing, species -exhibit every gradation from perfect sterility to perfect fertility. - -Such are the most essential characteristics of species. Even were man -not one of them--a member of the same system and subject to the same -laws--the question of their origin, their causal connexion, that is, -with the other phenomena of the universe, must have attracted his -attention, as soon as his intelligence had raised itself above the level -of his daily wants. - -Indeed history relates that such was the case, and has embalmed for us -the speculations upon the origin of living beings, which were among the -earliest products of the dawning intellectual activity of man. In those -early days positive knowledge was not to be had, but the craving after -it needed, at all hazards, to be satisfied, and according to the -country, or the turn of thought of the speculator, the suggestion that -all living things arose from the mud of the Nile, from a primeval egg, -or from some more anthropomorphic agency, afforded a sufficient -resting-place for his curiosity. The myths of Paganism are as dead as -Osiris or Zeus, and the man who should revive them, in opposition to the -knowledge of our time, would be justly laughed to scorn; but the coeval -imaginations current among the rude inhabitants of Palestine, recorded -by writers whose very name and age are admitted by every scholar to be -unknown, have unfortunately not yet shared their fate, but, even at this -day, are regarded by nine-tenths of the civilized world as the -authoritative standard of fact and the criterion of the justice of -scientific conclusions, in all that relates to the origin of things, -and, among them, of species. In this nineteenth century, as at the dawn -of modern physical science, the cosmogony of the semi-barbarous Hebrew -is the incubus of the philosopher and the opprobrium of the orthodox. -Who shall number the patient and earnest seekers after truth from the -days of Galileo until now, whose lives have been embittered and their -good name blasted by the mistaken zeal of Bibliolaters? Who shall count -the host of weaker men whose sense of truth has been destroyed in the -effort to harmonize impossibilities--whose life has been wasted in the -attempt to force the generous new wine of science into the old bottles -of Judaism, compelled by the outcry of the same strong party? - -It is true that if philosophers have suffered, their cause has been -amply avenged. Extinguished theologians lie about the cradle of every -science as the strangled snakes beside that of Hercules, and history -records that whenever science and dogmatism have been fairly opposed, -the latter has been forced to retire from the lists, bleeding and -crushed, if not annihilated; scotched, if not slain. But orthodoxy is -the Bourbon of the world of thought. It learns not, neither can it -forget; and though at present bewildered and afraid to move, it is as -willing as ever to insist that the first chapter of Genesis contains the -beginning and the end of sound science, and to visit with such petty -thunderbolts as its half-paralysed hands can hurl, those who refuse to -degrade nature to the level of primitive Judaism. - -Philosophers, on the other hand, have no such aggressive tendencies. -With eyes fixed on the noble goal to which "per aspera et ardua" they -tend, they may, now and then, be stirred to momentary wrath by the -unnecessary obstacles with which the ignorant, or the malicious, -encumber, if they cannot bar, the difficult path; but why should their -souls be deeply vexed? The majesty of Fact is on their side, and the -elemental forms of matter are working for them. Not a star comes to the -meridian at its calculated time but testifies to the justice of their -methods--their beliefs are "one with the falling rain and with the -growing corn." By doubt they are established, and open inquiry is their -bosom friend. Such men have no fear of traditions however venerable, and -no respect for them when they become mischievous and obstructive; but -they have better than mere antiquarian business in hand, and if dogmas, -which ought to be fossil but are not, are not forced upon their notice, -they are too happy to treat them as non-existent. - - * * * * * - -The hypotheses respecting the origin of species, which profess to stand -upon a scientific basis, and, as such, alone demand serious attention, -are of two kinds. The one, the "special creation" hypothesis, presumes -every species to have originated from one or more stocks, these not -being the result of the modification of any other form of living -matter--or arising by natural agencies--but being produced, as such, by -a supernatural creative act. - -The other, the so-called "transmutation" hypothesis, considers that all -existing species are the result of the modification of pre-existing -species and those of their predecessors, by agencies similar to those -which at the present day produce varieties and races, and therefore in -an altogether natural way; and it is a probable, though not a necessary -consequence of this hypothesis, that all living beings have arisen from -a single stock. With respect to the origin of this primitive stock or -stocks, the doctrine of the origin of species is obviously not -necessarily concerned. The transmutation hypothesis, for example, is -perfectly consistent either with the conception of a special creation of -the primitive germ, or with the supposition of its having arisen, as a -modification of inorganic matter, by natural causes. - -The doctrine of special creation owes its existence very largely to the -supposed necessity of making science accord with the Hebrew cosmogony; -but it is curious to observe that, as the doctrine is at present -maintained by men of science, it is as hopelessly inconsistent with the -Hebrew view as any other hypothesis. - -If there be any result which has come more clearly out of geological -investigation than another, it is, that the vast series of extinct -animals and plants is not divisible, as it was once supposed to be, into -distinct groups, separated by sharply marked boundaries. There are no -great gulfs between epochs and formations--no successive periods marked -by the appearance of plants, of water animals, and of land animals, _en -masse_. Every year adds to the list of links between what the older -geologists supposed to be widely separated epochs; witness the crags -linking the drift with the older tertiaries; the Maestricht beds linking -the tertiaries with the chalk; the St. Cassian beds exhibiting an -abundant fauna of mixed mesozoic and paleozoic types, in rocks of an -epoch once supposed to be eminently poor in life; witness, lastly, the -incessant disputes as to whether a given stratum shall be reckoned -devonian or carboniferous, silurian or devonian, cambrian or silurian. - -This truth is further illustrated in a most interesting manner by the -impartial and highly competent testimony of M. Pictet, from whose -calculations of what percentage of the genera of animals existing in any -formation lived during the preceding formation, it results that in no -case is the proportion less than _one-third_, or 33 per cent. It is the -triassic formation, or the commencement of the mesozoic epoch, which has -received this smallest inheritance from preceding ages. The other -formations not uncommonly exhibit 60, 80, or even 94 per cent. of genera -in common with those whose remains are imbedded in their predecessor. -Not only is this true, but the subdivisions of each formation exhibit -new species characteristic of, and found only in, them, and in many -cases, as in the lias for example, the separate beds of these -subdivisions are distinguished by well marked and peculiar forms of -life. A section, a hundred feet thick, will exhibit at different heights -a dozen species of ammonite, none of which passes beyond its particular -zone of limestone or clay into the zone below it or into that above it; -so that those who adopt the doctrine of special creation must be -prepared to admit, that at intervals of time, corresponding with the -thickness of these beds, the Creator thought fit to interfere with the -natural course of events for the purpose of making a new ammonite. It is -not easy to transplant oneself into the frame of mind of those who can -accept such a conclusion as this, on any evidence, short of absolute -demonstration; and it is difficult to see what is to be gained by so -doing, since, as we have said, it is obvious that such a view of the -origin of living beings is utterly opposed to the Hebrew cosmogony. -Deserving no aid from the powerful arm of bibliolatry, then, does the -received form of the hypothesis of special creation derive any support -from science or sound logic? Assuredly not much. The arguments brought -forward in its favour all take one form: If species were not -supernaturally created, we cannot understand the facts _x_, or _y_, or -_z_; we cannot understand the structure of animals or plants, unless we -suppose they were contrived for special ends; we cannot understand the -structure of the eye, except by supposing it to have been made to see -with; we cannot understand instincts, unless we suppose animals to have -been miraculously endowed with them. - -As a question of dialectics, it must be admitted that this sort of -reasoning is not very formidable to those who are not to be frightened -by consequences. It is an argumentum ad ignorantiam--take this -explanation or be ignorant. But suppose we prefer to admit our ignorance -rather than adopt a hypothesis at variance with all the teachings of -nature? Or suppose for a moment we admit the explanation, and then -seriously ask ourselves how much the wiser are we? what does the -explanation explain? Is it any more than a grandiloquent way of -announcing the fact, that we really know nothing about the matter? A -phenomenon is explained, when it is shown to be a case of some general -law of nature; but the supernatural interposition of the Creator can by -the nature of the case exemplify no law, and if species have really -arisen in this way, it is absurd to attempt to discuss their origin. - -Or, lastly, let us ask ourselves whether any amount of evidence which -the nature of our faculties permits us to attain, can justify us in -asserting that any phenomenon is out of the reach of natural causation. -To this end it is obviously necessary that we should know all the -consequences to which all possible combinations, continued through -unlimited time, can give rise. If we knew these, and found none -competent to originate species, we should have good ground for denying -their origin by natural causation. Till we know them, any hypothesis is -better than one which involves us in such miserable presumption. - -But the hypothesis of special creation is not only a mere specious mask -for our ignorance; its existence in Biology marks the youth and -imperfection of the science. For what is the history of every science -but the history of the elimination of the notion of creative, or other -interferences, with the natural order of the phenomena which are the -subject-matter of that science? When Astronomy was young "the morning -stars sang together for joy," and the planets were guided in their -courses by celestial hands. Now, the harmony of the stars has resolved -itself into gravitation according to the inverse squares of the -distances, and the orbits of the planets are deducible from the laws of -the forces which allow a schoolboy's stone to break a window. The -lightning was the angel of the Lord; but it has pleased Providence, in -these modern times, that science should make it the humble messenger of -man, and we know that every flash that skimmers about the horizon on a -summer's evening is determined by ascertainable conditions, and that its -direction and brightness might, if our knowledge of these were great -enough, have been calculated. - -The solvency of great mercantile companies rests on the validity of the -laws, which have been ascertained to govern the seeming irregularity of -that human life which the moralist bewails as the most uncertain of -things; plague, pestilence, and famine are admitted, by all but fools, -to be the natural result of causes for the most part fully within human -control, and not the unavoidable tortures inflicted by wrathful -Omnipotence upon his helpless handiwork. - -Harmonious order governing eternally continuous progress--the web and -woof of matter and force interweaving by slow degrees, without a broken -thread, that veil which lies between us and the Infinite--that universe -which alone we know, or can know;--such is the picture which science -draws of the world, and in proportion as any part of that picture is in -unison with the rest, so may we feel sure that it is rightly painted. -Shall Biology alone remain out of harmony with her sister sciences? - -Such arguments against the hypothesis of the direct creation of species -as these are plainly enough deducible from general considerations, but -there are, in addition, phenomena exhibited by species themselves, and -yet not so much a part of their very essence as to have required earlier -mention, which are in the highest degree perplexing, if we adopt the -popularly accepted hypothesis. Such are the facts of distribution in -space and in time; the singular phenomena brought to light by the study -of development; the structural relations of species upon which our -systems of classification are founded; the great doctrines of -philosophical anatomy, such as that of homology, or of the community of -structural plan exhibited by large groups of species differing very -widely in their habits and functions. - -The species of animals which inhabit the sea on opposite sides of the -isthmus of Panama are wholly distinct; the animals and plants which -inhabit islands are commonly distinct from those of the neighbouring -mainlands, and yet have a similarity of aspect. The mammals of the -latest tertiary epoch in the Old and New Worlds belong to the same -genera, or family groups, as those which now inhabit the same great -geographical area. The crocodilian reptiles which existed in the -earliest secondary epoch were similar in general structure to those now -living, but exhibit slight differences in their vertebræ, nasal -passages, and one or two other points. The guinea-pig has teeth which -are shed before it is born, and hence can never subserve the masticatory -purpose for which they seem contrived, and, in like manner, the female -dugong has tusks which never cut the gum. All the members of the same -great group run through similar conditions in their development, and all -their parts, in the adult state, are arranged according to the same -plan. Man is more like a gorilla than a gorilla is like a lemur. Such -are a few, taken at random, among the multitudes of similar facts which -modern research has established; but when the student seeks for an -explanation of them from the supporters of the received hypothesis of -the origin of species, the reply he receives is, in substance, of -oriental simplicity and brevity--"Mashallah! it so pleases God!" There -are different species on opposite sides of the isthmus of Panama, -because they were created different on the two sides. The pliocene -mammals are like the existing ones, because such was the plan of -creation; and we find rudimental organs and similarity of plan, because -it has pleased the Creator to set before himself a "divine exemplar or -archetype," and to copy it in his works; and somewhat ill, those who -hold this view imply, in some of them. That such verbal hocus-pocus -should be received as science will one day be regarded as evidence of -the low state of intelligence in the nineteenth century, just as we -amuse ourselves with the phraseology about Nature's abhorrence of a -vacuum, wherewith Torricelli's compatriots were satisfied to explain the -rise of water in a pump. And be it recollected that this sort of -satisfaction works not only negative but positive ill, by discouraging -inquiry, and so depriving man of the usufruct of one of the most fertile -fields of his great patrimony, Nature. - -The objections to the doctrine of origin of species by special creation -which have been detailed, must have occurred with more or less force to -the mind of every one who has seriously and independently considered the -subject. It is therefore no wonder that, from time to time, this -hypothesis should have been met by counter hypotheses, all as well, and -some better, founded than itself; and it is curious to remark that the -inventors of the opposing views seem to have been led into them as much -by their knowledge of geology as by their acquaintance with biology. In -fact, when the mind has once admitted the conception of the gradual -production of the present physical state of our globe, by natural causes -operating through long ages of time, it will be little disposed to allow -that living beings have made their appearance in another way, and the -speculations of De Maillet and his successors are the natural complement -of Scilla's demonstration of the true nature of fossils. - -A contemporary of Newton and of Leibnitz, sharing therefore in the -intellectual activity of the remarkable age which witnessed the birth of -modern physical science, Benoît de Maillet spent a long life as a -consular agent of the French Government in various Mediterranean ports. -For sixteen years, in fact, he held the office of Consul-General in -Egypt, and the wonderful phenomena offered by the valley of the Nile -appear to have strongly impressed his mind, to have directed his -attention to all facts of a similar order which came within his -observation, and to have led him to speculate on the origin of the -present condition of our globe and of its inhabitants. But, with all his -ardour for science, De Maillet seems to have hesitated to publish views -which, notwithstanding the ingenious attempts to reconcile them with the -Hebrew hypothesis contained in the preface to "Telliamed" (and which we -recommend for Mr. MacCausland's perusal), were hardly likely to be -received with favour by his contemporaries. - -But a short time had elapsed since more than one of the great anatomists -and physicists of the Italian school had paid dearly for their -endeavours to dissipate some of the prevalent errors; and their -illustrious pupil, Harvey, the founder of modern physiology, had not -fared so well, in a country less oppressed by the benumbing influences -of theology, as to tempt any man to follow his example. Probably not -uninfluenced by these considerations, his Catholic majesty's -Consul-General for Egypt kept his theories to himself throughout a long -life, for "Telliamed," the only scientific work which is known to have -proceeded from his pen, was not printed till 1735, when its author had -reached the ripe age of seventy-nine; and though De Maillet lived three -years longer, his book was not given to the world before 1748. Even then -it was anonymous to those who were not in the secret of the anagrammatic -character of its title, and the preface and dedication are so worded as, -in case of necessity, to give the printer a fair chance of falling back -on the excuse that the work was intended for a mere jeu d'esprit. - -The speculations of the supposititious Indian sage, though quite as -sound as those of many a "Mosaic Geology" which sells exceedingly well, -have no great value if we consider them by the light of modern science. -The waters are supposed to have originally covered up the whole globe; -to have deposited the rocky masses which compose its mountains by -processes comparable to those which are now forming mud, sand, and -shingle; and then to have gradually lowered their level, leaving the -spoils of the animal and vegetable inhabitants embedded in the strata. -As the dry land appeared, certain of the aquatic animals are supposed to -have taken to it, and to have become gradually adapted to terrestrial -and aerial modes of existence. But if we regard the general tenor and -style of the reasoning in relation to the state of knowledge of the day, -two circumstances appear very well worthy of remark. The first, that De -Maillet had a notion of the modifiability of living forms (though -without any precise information on the subject), and how such -modifiability might account for the origin of species; the second, that -he very clearly apprehended the great modern geological doctrine, so -strongly insisted upon by Hutton, and so ably and comprehensively -expounded by Lyell, that we must look to existing causes for the -explanation of past geological events. The following passage of the -preface indeed, in which De Maillet is supposed to speak of the Indian -philosopher Telliamed, his _alter ego_, might have been written by the -most philosophical uniformitarian of the present day. - - "Ce qu'il y a d'étonnant, est que pour arriver à ces - connoissances il semble avoir perverti l'ordre naturel, - puisqu'au lieu de s'attacher d'abord à rechercher - l'origine de notre globe il a commencé par travailler à - s'instruire de la nature. Mais à l'entendre, ce - renversement de l'ordre a été pour lui l'effet d'un génie - favorable qui l'a conduit pas à pas et comme par la main - aux découvertes les plus sublimes. C'est en décomposant - la substance de ce globe par une anatomie exacte de - toutes ses parties qu'il a premièrement appris de quelles - matières il était composé et quels arrangemens ces mêmes - matières observaient entre elles. Ces lumières jointes à - l'esprit de comparaison toujours nécessaire à quiconque - entreprend de percer les voiles dont la nature aime à se - cacher, ont servi de guide à notre philosophe pour - parvenir à des connoissances plus intéressantes. Par la - matière et l'arrangement de ces compositions il prétend - avoir reconnu quelle est la véritable origine de ce globe - que nous habitons, comment et par qui il a été - formé."--(Pp. xix. xx.) - -But De Maillet was before his age, and as could hardly fail to happen to -one who speculated on a zoological and botanical question before -Linnæus, and on a physiological problem before Haller, he fell into -great errors here and there; and hence, perhaps, the general neglect of -his work. Robinet's speculations are rather behind than in advance of -those of De Maillet, and though Linnæus may have played with the -hypothesis of transmutation, it obtained no serious support until -Lamarck adopted it, and advocated it with great ability in his -"Philosophie Zoologique." - -Impelled towards the hypothesis of the transmutation of species, partly -by his general cosmological and geological views; partly by the -conception of a graduated, though irregularly branching scale of being, -which had arisen out of his profound study of plants and of the lower -forms of animal life, Lamarck, whose general line of thought often -closely resembles that of De Maillet, made a great advance upon the -crude and merely speculative manner in which that writer deals with the -question of the origin of living beings, by endeavouring to find -physical causes competent to effect that change of one species into -another which De Maillet had only supposed to occur. And Lamarck -conceived that he had found in nature such causes, amply sufficient for -the purpose in view. It is a physiological fact, he says, that organs -are increased in size by action, atrophied by inaction; it is another -physiological fact that modifications produced are transmissible to -offspring. Change the actions of an animal, therefore, and you will -change its structure, by increasing the development of the parts newly -brought into use and by the diminution of those less used; but by -altering the circumstances which surround it you will alter its actions, -and hence, in the long run, change of circumstance must produce change -of organization. All the species of animals, therefore, are in Lamarck's -view the result of the indirect action of changes of circumstance upon -those primitive germs which he considered to have originally arisen, by -spontaneous generation, within the waters of the globe. It is curious, -however, that Lamarck should insist so strongly[64] as he has done, -that circumstances never in any degree directly modify the form or the -organization of animals, but only operate by changing their wants, and -consequently their actions; for he thereby brings upon himself the -obvious question, how, then, do plants, which cannot be said to have -wants or actions, become modified? To this he replies, that they are -modified by the changes in their nutritive processes, which are effected -by changing circumstances; and it does not seem to have occurred to him -that such changes might be as well supposed to take place among animals. - -When we have said that Lamarck felt that mere speculation was not the -way to arrive at the origin of species, but that it was necessary in -order to the establishment of any sound theory on the subject, to -discover by observation or otherwise, some _vera causa_, competent to -give rise to them; that he affirmed the true order of classification to -coincide with the order of their development one from another; that he -insisted on the necessity of allowing sufficient time, very strongly; -and that all the varieties of instinct and reason were traced back by -him to the same cause as that which has given rise to species, we have -enumerated his chief contributions to the advance of the question. On -the other hand, from his ignorance of any power in nature competent to -modify the structure of animals, except the development of parts, or -atrophy of them, in consequence of a change of needs, Lamarck was led to -attach infinitely greater weight than it deserves to this agency, and -the absurdities into which he was led have met with deserved -condemnation. Of the struggle for existence, on which as we shall see -Mr. Darwin lays such great stress, he had no conception; indeed, he -doubts whether there really are such things as extinct species, unless -they be such large animals as may have met their death at the hands of -man; and so little does he dream of there being any other destructive -causes at work, that, in discussing the possible existence of fossil -shells, he asks, "Pourquoi d'ailleurs seroient-ils perdues dès que -l'homme n'a pu opérer leur destruction?" ("Phil. Zool.," vol. i. p. 77). -Of the influence of selection Lamarck has as little notion, and he makes -no use of the wonderful phenomena which are exhibited by domesticated -animals, and illustrate its powers. The vast influence of Cuvier was -employed against the Lamarckian views, and as the untenability of some -of his conclusions was easily shown, his doctrines sank under the -opprobrium of scientific as well as of theological heterodoxy. Nor have -the efforts made of late years to revive them, tended to re-establish -their credit in the minds of sound thinkers acquainted with the facts of -the case; indeed it may be doubted whether Lamarck has not suffered more -from his friends than from his foes. - -Two years ago, in fact, though we venture to question if even the -strongest supporters of the special creation hypothesis had not, now and -then, an uneasy consciousness that all was not right, their position -seemed more impregnable than ever, if not by its own inherent strength, -at any rate by the obvious failure of all the attempts which had been -made to carry it. On the other hand, however much the few, who thought -deeply on the question of species, might be repelled by the generally -received dogmas, they saw no way of escaping from them, save by the -adoption of suppositions, so little justified by experiment or by -observation, as to be at least equally distasteful; The choice lay -between two absurdities and a middle condition of uneasy scepticism; -which last, however unpleasant and unsatisfactory, was obviously the -only justifiable state of mind under the circumstances. - -Such being the general ferment in the minds of naturalists, it is no -wonder that they mustered strong in the rooms of the Linnæan Society, on -the first of July of the year 1858, to hear two papers by authors living -on opposite sides of the globe, working out their results independently, -and yet professing to have discovered one and the same solution of all -the problems connected with species. The one of these authors was an -able naturalist, Mr. Wallace, who had been employed for some years in -studying the productions of the islands of the Indian Archipelago, and -who had forwarded a memoir embodying his views to Mr. Darwin for -communication to the Linnæan Society. On perusing the essay Mr. Darwin -was not a little surprised to find that it embodied some of the leading -ideas of a great work which he had been preparing for twenty years, and -parts of which, containing a development of the very same views, had -been perused by his private friends fifteen or sixteen years before. -Perplexed in what manner to do full justice both to his friend and to -himself, Mr. Darwin placed the matter in the hands of Dr. Hooker and Sir -Charles Lyell, by whose advice he communicated a brief abstract of his -own views to the Linnæan Society, at the same time that Mr. Wallace's -paper was read. Of that abstract, the work on the "Origin of Species" is -an enlargement, but a complete statement of Mr. Darwin's doctrine is -looked for in the large and well-illustrated work which he is said to be -preparing for publication.[65] - - * * * * * - -The Darwinian hypothesis has the merit of being eminently simple and -comprehensible in principle, and its essential positions may be stated -in a very few words: all species have been produced by the development -of varieties from common stocks, by the conversion of these, first into -permanent races and then into new species, by the process of _natural -selection_, which process is essentially identical with that artificial -selection by which man has originated the races of domestic animals--the -_struggle for existence_ taking the place of man, and exerting, in the -case of natural selection, that selective action which he performs in -artificial selection. - -The evidence brought forward by Mr. Darwin in support of his hypothesis -is of three kinds. First, he endeavours to prove that species may be -originated by selection; secondly, he attempts to show that natural -causes are competent to exert selection; and thirdly, he tries to prove -that the most remarkable and apparently anomalous phenomena exhibited by -the distribution, development, and mutual relations of species, can be -shown to be deducible from the general doctrine of their origin, which -he propounds, combined with the known facts of geological change; and -that, even if not all these phenomena are at present explicable by it, -none are necessarily inconsistent with it. - -There cannot be a doubt that the method of inquiry which Mr. Darwin has -adopted is not only rigorously in accordance with the canons of -scientific logic, but that it is the only adequate method. Critics -exclusively trained in classics or in mathematics, who have never -determined a scientific fact in their lives by induction from experiment -or observation, prate learnedly about Mr. Darwin's method, which is not -inductive enough, not Baconian enough, forsooth, for them. But even if -practical acquaintance with the process of scientific investigation is -denied them, they may learn, by the perusal of Mr. Mill's admirable -chapter "On the Deductive Method," that there are multitudes of -scientific inquiries, in which the method of pure induction helps the -investigator but a very little way. - -"The mode of investigation" (says Mr. Mill) "which from the proved -inapplicability of direct methods of observation and experiment remains -to us as the main source of the knowledge we possess, or can acquire, -respecting the conditions and laws of recurrence of the more complex -phenomena, is called, in its most general expression, the deductive -method, and consists of three operations: the first, one of direct -induction; the second, of ratiocination; and the third, of -verification." - -Now, the conditions which have determined the existence of species are -not only exceedingly complex, but, so far as the great majority of them -are concerned, are necessarily beyond our cognisance. But what Mr. -Darwin has attempted to do is in exact accordance with the rule laid -down by Mr. Mill; he has endeavoured to determine certain great facts -inductively, by observation and experiment; he has then reasoned from -the data thus furnished; and lastly, he has tested the validity of his -ratiocination by comparing his deductions with the observed facts of -nature. Inductively, Mr. Darwin endeavours to prove that species arise -in a given way. Deductively, he desires to show that, if they arise in -that way, the facts of distribution, development, classification, &c., -may be accounted for, _i.e._ may be deduced from their mode of origin, -combined with admitted changes in physical geography and climate, during -an indefinite period. And this explanation, or coincidence of observed -with deduced facts, is, so far as it extends, a verification of the -Darwinian view. - -There is no fault to be found with Mr. Darwin's method, then; but it is -another question whether he has fulfilled all the conditions imposed by -that method. Is it satisfactorily proved, in fact, that species may be -originated by selection? that there is such a thing as natural -selection? that none of the phenomena exhibited by species are -inconsistent with the origin of species in this way? If these questions -can be answered in the affirmative, Mr. Darwin's view steps out of the -ranks of hypotheses into those of proved theories; but so long as the -evidence at present adduced falls short of enforcing that affirmation, -so long, to our minds, must the new doctrine be content to remain among -the former--an extremely valuable, and in the highest degree probable, -doctrine, indeed the only extant hypothesis which is worth anything in a -scientific point of view; but still a hypothesis, and not yet the theory -of species. - -After much consideration, and with assuredly no bias against Mr. -Darwin's views, it is our clear conviction that, as the evidence stands, -it is not absolutely proven that a group of animals, having all the -characters exhibited by species in nature, has ever been originated by -selection, whether artificial or natural. Groups having the -morphological character of species, distinct and permanent races in -fact, have been so produced over and over again; but there is no -positive evidence at present that any group of animals has, by variation -and selective breeding, given rise to another group which was even in -the least degree infertile with the first. Mr. Darwin is perfectly aware -of this weak point, and brings forward a multitude of ingenious and -important arguments to diminish the force of the objection. We admit the -value of these arguments to their fullest extent; nay, we will go so far -as to express our belief that experiments, conducted by a skilful -physiologist, would very probably obtain the desired production of -mutually more or less infertile breeds from a common stock, in a -comparatively few years; but still, as the case stands at present, this -"little rift within the lute" is not to be disguised nor overlooked. - -In the remainder of Mr. Darwin's argument our own private ingenuity has -not hitherto enabled us to pick holes of any great importance; and -judging by what we hear and read, other adventurers in the same field do -not seem to have been much more fortunate. It has been urged, for -instance, that in his chapters on the struggle for existence and on -natural selection, Mr. Darwin does not so much prove that natural -selection does occur, as that it must occur; but, in fact, no other sort -of demonstration is attainable. A race does not attract our attention in -nature until it has, in all probability, existed for a considerable -time, and then it is too late to inquire into the conditions of its -origin. Again, it is said that there is no real analogy between the -selection which takes place under domestication, by human influence, and -any operation which can be effected by nature, for man interferes -intelligently. Reduced to its elements, this argument implies that an -effect produced with trouble by an intelligent agent must, _à fortiori_ -be more troublesome, if not impossible, to an unintelligent agent. Even -putting aside the question whether nature, acting as she does according -to definite and invariable laws, can be rightly called an unintelligent -agent, such a position as this is wholly untenable. Mix salt and sand, -and it shall puzzle the wisest of men with his mere natural appliances -to separate all the grains of sand from all the grains of salt; but a -shower of rain will effect the same object in ten minutes. And so while -man may find it tax all his intelligence to separate any variety which -arises, and to breed selectively from it, the destructive agencies -incessantly at work in nature, if they find one variety to be more -soluble in circumstances than the other, will inevitably in the long run -eliminate it. - -A frequent and a just objection to the Lamarckian hypothesis of the -transmutation of species is based upon the absence of transitional forms -between many species. But against the Darwinian hypothesis this argument -has no force. Indeed, one of the most valuable and suggestive parts of -Mr. Darwin's work is that in which he proves, that the frequent absence -of transitions is a necessary consequence of his doctrine, and that the -stock whence two or more species have sprung, need in no respect be -intermediate between these species. If any two species have arisen from -a common stock in the same way as the carrier and the pouter, say, have -arisen from the rock-pigeon, then the common stock of these two species -need be no more intermediate between the two than the rock-pigeon is -between the carrier and pouter. Clearly appreciate the force of this -analogy, and all the arguments against the origin of species by -selection, based on the absence of transitional forms, fall to the -ground. And Mr. Darwin's position might, we think, have been even -stronger than it is if he had not embarrassed himself with the aphorism, -"_Natura non facit saltum_," which turns up so often in his pages. We -believe, as we have said above, that nature does make jumps now and -then, and a recognition of the fact is of no small importance in -disposing of many minor objections to the doctrine of transmutation. - -But we must pause. The discussion of Mr. Darwin's arguments in detail -would lead us far beyond the limits within which we proposed, at -starting, to confine this article. Our object has been attained if we -have given an intelligible, however brief, account of the established -facts connected with species, and of the relation of the explanation of -those facts offered by Mr. Darwin to the theoretical views held by his -predecessors and his contemporaries, and, above all, to the requirements -of scientific logic. We have ventured to point out that it does not, as -yet, satisfy all those requirements; but we do not hesitate to assert -that it is as superior to any preceding or contemporary hypothesis, in -the extent of observational and experimental basis on which it rests, in -its rigorously scientific method, and in its power of explaining -biological phenomena, as was the hypothesis of Copernicus to the -speculations of Ptolemy. But the planetary orbits turned out to be not -quite circular after all, and grand as was the service Copernicus -rendered to science, Kepler and Newton had to come after him. What if -the orbit of Darwinism should be a little too circular? what if species -should offer residual phenomena here and there, not explicable by -natural selection? Twenty years hence naturalists may be in a position -to say whether this is, or is not, the case; but in either event they -will owe the author of "The Origin of Species" an immense debt of -gratitude. We should leave a very wrong impression on the reader's mind -if we permitted him to suppose that the value of that work depends -wholly on the ultimate justification of the theoretical views which it -contains. On the contrary, if they were disproved to-morrow, the book -would still be the best of its kind--the most compendious statement of -well-sifted facts bearing on the doctrine of species that has ever -appeared. The chapters on Variation, on the Struggle for Existence, on -Instinct, on Hybridism, on the Imperfection of the Geological Record, on -Geographical Distribution, have not only no equals, but, so far as our -knowledge goes, no competitors, within the range of biological -literature. And viewed as a whole, we do not believe that, since the -publication of Von Baer's Researches on Development, thirty years ago, -any work has appeared calculated to exert so large an influence, not -only on the future of Biology, but in extending the domination of -Science over regions of thought into which she has, as yet, hardly -penetrated. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[62] "On the Osteology of the Chimpanzees and Orangs." Transactions of -the Zoological Society, 1858. - -[63] Colonel Humphreys' statements are exceedingly explicit on this -point:--"When an Ancon ewe is impregnated by a common ram the increase -resembles wholly either the ewe or the ram. The increase of the common -ewe impregnated by an Ancon ram follows entirely the one or the other, -without blending any of the distinguishing and essential peculiarities -of both. Frequent instances have happened where common ewes have had -twins by Ancon rams, when one exhibited the complete marks and features -of the ewe, the other of the ram. The contrast has been rendered -singularly striking, when one short-legged and one long-legged lamb, -produced at a birth, have been seen sucking the dam at the same -time."--Philosophical Transactions, 1813, Pt. I. pp. 89, 90. - -[64] See Phil. Zoologique, vol. i. p. 222, _et seq._ - -[65] The reader will remember that Huxley was writing in 1860. - - - - -XIV - - THE DARWINIAN HYPOTHESIS. - - DARWIN ON THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES - - -There is a growing immensity in the speculations of science to which no -human thing or thought at this day is comparable. Apart from the results -which science brings us home and securely harvests, there is an -expansive force and latitude in its tentative efforts, which lifts us -out of ourselves and transfigures our mortality. We may have a -preference for moral themes, like the Homeric sage, who had seen and -known much:-- - - "Cities of men - And manners, climates, councils, governments;" - -yet we must end by confessing that - - "The windy ways of men - Are but dust which rises up - And is lightly laid again," - -in comparison with the work of nature, to which science testifies, but -which has no boundaries in time or space to which science can -approximate. - -There is something altogether out of the reach of science, and yet the -compass of science is practically illimitable. Hence it is that from -time to time we are startled and perplexed by theories which have no -parallel in the contracted moral world; for the generalizations of -science sweep on in ever-widening circles, and more aspiring flights, -though a limitless creation. While astronomy, with its telescope, ranges -beyond the known stars, and physiology, with its microscope, is -subdividing infinite minutiæ, we may expect that our historic centuries -may be treated as inadequate counters in the history of the planet on -which we are placed. We must expect new conceptions of the nature and -relations of its denizens, as science acquires the materials for fresh -generalizations; nor have we occasion for alarms if a highly advanced -knowledge, like that of the eminent Naturalist before us, confronts us -with an hypothesis as vast as it is novel. This hypothesis may or may -not be sustainable hereafter; it may give way to something else, and -higher science may reverse what science has here built up with so much -skill and patience, but its sufficiency must be tried by the tests of -science _alone_, if we are to maintain our position as the heirs of -Bacon and the acquitters of Galileo. We must weigh this hypothesis -strictly in the controversy which is coming, by the only tests which are -appropriate, and by no others whatsoever. - -The hypothesis to which we point, and of which the present work of Mr. -Darwin is but the preliminary outline, may be stated in his own language -as follows:--"_Species originated by means of natural selection, or -through the preservation of the favoured races in the struggle for -life_." To render this thesis intelligible, it is necessary to interpret -its terms. In the first place, what is a species? The question is a -simple one, but the right answer to it is hard to find, even if we -appeal to those who should know most about it. It is all those animals -or plants which have descended from a single pair of parents; it is the -smallest distinctly definable group of living organisms; it is an -eternal and immutable entity; it is a mere abstraction of the human -intellect having no existence in nature. Such are a few of the -significations attached to this simple word which may be culled from -authoritative sources; and if, leaving terms and theoretical subtleties -aside, we turn to facts and endeavour to gather a meaning for ourselves, -by studying the things to which, in practice, the name of species is -applied, it profits us little. For practice varies as much as theory. -Let the botanist or the zoologist examine and describe the productions -of a country, and one will pretty certainly disagree with the other as -to the number, limits, and definitions of the species into which he -groups the very same things. In these islands we are in the habit of -regarding mankind as of one species, but a fortnight's steam will land -us in a country where divines and savans, for once in agreement, vie -with one another in loudness of assertion, if not in cogency of proof, -that men are of different species; and, more particularly, that the -species negro is so distinct from our own that the Ten Commandments have -actually no reference to him. Even in the calm region of entomology, -where, if anywhere in this sinful world, passion and prejudice should -fail to stir the mind, one learned coleopterist will fill ten attractive -volumes with descriptions of species of beetles, nine-tenths of which -are immediately declared by his brother beetle-mongers to be no species -at all. - -The truth is that the number of distinguishable living creatures almost -surpasses imagination. At least a hundred thousand such kinds of insects -alone have been described and may be identified in collections, and the -number of separable kinds of living things is under estimated at half a -million. Seeing that most of these obvious kinds have their accidental -varieties, and that they often shade into others by imperceptible -degrees, it may well be imagined that the task of distinguishing between -what is permanent and what fleeting, what is a species and what a mere -variety, is sufficiently formidable. - -But is it not possible to apply a test whereby a true species may be -known from a mere variety? Is there no criterion of species? Great -authorities affirm that there is--that the unions of members of the same -species are always fertile, while those of distinct species are either -sterile, or their offspring, called hybrids, are so. It is affirmed not -only that this is an experimental fact, but that it is a provision for -the preservation of the purity of species. Such a criterion as this -would be invaluable; but, unfortunately, not only is it not obvious how -to apply it in the great majority of cases in which its aid is needed, -but its general validity is stoutly denied. The Hon. and Rev. Mr. -Herbert, a most trustworthy authority, not only asserts as the result of -his own observations and experiments that many hybrids are quite as -fertile as the parent species, but he goes so far as to assert that the -particular plant _Crinum capense_ is much more fertile when crossed by a -distinct species than when fertilised by its proper pollen! On the other -hand the famous Gaertner, though he took the greatest pains to cross the -primrose and cowslip, succeeded only once or twice in several years; and -yet it is a well-established fact that the primrose and the cowslip are -only varieties of the same kind of plant. Again, such cases as the -following are well established. The female of species A if crossed with -the male of species B is fertile, but if the female of B is crossed with -the male of A, she remains barren. Facts of this kind destroy the value -of the supposed criterion. - -If, weary of the endless difficulties involved in the determination of -species, the investigator, contenting himself with the rough practical -distinction of separable kinds, endeavours to study them as they occur -in nature--to ascertain their relations to the conditions which surround -them, their mutual harmonies and discordances of structure, the bond of -union of their parts and their past history, he finds himself, according -to the received notions, in a mighty maze, and with, at most, the -dimmest adumbration of a plan. If he starts with any one clear -conviction, it is that every part of a living creature is cunningly -adapted to some special use in its life. Has not his Paley told him that -that seemingly useless organ, the spleen, is beautifully adjusted as so -much packing between the other organs? And yet, at the outset of his -studies, he finds that no adaptive reason whatsoever can be given for -one-half of the peculiarities of vegetable structure; he also discovers -rudimentary teeth, which are never used, in the gums of the young calf -and in those of the foetal whale; insects which never bite have -rudimental jaws, and others which never fly have rudimental wings; -naturally blind creatures have rudimental eyes; and the halt have -rudimentary limbs. So, again, no animal or plant puts on its perfect -form at once, but all have to start from the same point, however various -the course which each has to pursue. Not only men and horses, and cats -and dogs, lobsters and beetles, periwinkles and mussels, but even the -very sponges and animalcules commence their existence under forms which -are essentially undistinguishable; and this is true of all the infinite -variety of plants. Nay, more, all living beings march side by side along -the high road of development, and separate the later the more like they -are; like people leaving church, who all go down the aisle, but having -reached the door some turn into the parsonage, others go down the -village, and others part only in the next parish. A man in his -development runs for a little while parallel with, though never passing -through, the form of the meanest worm, then travels for a space beside -the fish, then journeys along with the bird and the reptile for his -fellow travellers; and only at last, after a brief companionship with -the highest of the four-footed and four-handed world, rises into the -dignity of pure manhood. No competent thinker of the present day dreams -of explaining these indubitable facts by the notion of the existence of -unknown and undiscoverable adaptations to purpose. And we would remind -those who, ignorant of the facts, must be moved by authority, that no -one has asserted the incompetence of the doctrine of final causes, in -its application to physiology and anatomy, more strongly than our own -eminent anatomist, Professor Owen, who, speaking of such cases, says -(_On the Nature of Limbs_, pp. 39, 40): "I think it will be obvious that -the principle of final adaptations fails to satisfy all the conditions -of the problem." - -But, if the doctrine of final causes will not help us to comprehend the -anomalies of living structure, the principle of adaptation must surely -lead us to understand why certain living beings are found in certain -regions of the world and not in others. The palm, as we know, will not -grow in our climate, nor the oak in Greenland. The white bear cannot -live where the tiger thrives, nor _vice versâ_, and the more the natural -habits of animal and vegetable species are examined, the more do they -seem, on the whole, limited to particular provinces. But when we look -into the facts established by the study of the geographical distribution -of animals and plants it seems utterly hopeless to attempt to -understand the strange and apparently capricious relations which they -exhibit. One would be inclined to suppose _à priori_ that every country -must be naturally peopled by those animals that are fittest to live and -thrive in it. And yet how, on this hypothesis, are we to account for the -absence of cattle in the Pampas of South America when those parts of the -New World were discovered? It is not that they were unfit for cattle, -for millions of cattle now run wild there; and the like holds good of -Australia and New Zealand. It is a curious circumstance, in fact, that -the animals and plants of the Northern Hemisphere are not only as well -adapted to live in the Southern Hemisphere as its own autochthones, but -are in many cases absolutely better adapted, and so overrun and -extirpate the aborigines. Clearly, therefore, the species which -naturally inhabit a country are not necessarily the best adapted to its -climate and other conditions. The inhabitants of islands are often -distinct from any other known species of animal or plants (witness our -recent examples from the work of Sir Emerson Tennent, on Ceylon), and -yet they have almost always a sort of general family resemblance to the -animals and plants of the nearest mainland. On the other hand, there is -hardly a species of fish, shell, or crab common to the opposite sides of -the narrow isthmus of Panama. Wherever we look, then, living nature -offers us riddles of difficult solution, if we suppose that what we see -is all that can be known of it. - -But our knowledge of life is not confined to the existing world. -Whatever their minor differences, geologists are agreed as to the vast -thickness of the accumulated strata which compose the visible part of -our earth, and the inconceivable immensity of the time of whose lapse -they are the imperfect, but the only accessible witnesses. Now, -throughout the greater part of this long series of stratified rocks are -scattered, sometimes very abundantly, multitudes of organic remains, the -fossilised exuviæ of animals and plants which lived and died while the -mud of which the rocks are formed was yet soft ooze, and could receive -and bury them. It would be a great error to suppose that these organic -remains were fragmentary relics. Our museums exhibit fossil shells of -immeasurable antiquity, as perfect as the day they were formed, whole -skeletons without a limb disturbed--nay, the changed flesh, the -developing embryos, and even the very footsteps of primæval organisms. -Thus the naturalist finds in the bowels of the earth species as well -defined as, and in some groups of animals more numerous than, those that -breathe the upper air. But, singularly enough, the majority of these -entombed species are wholly distinct from those that now live. Nor is -this unlikeness without its rule and order. As a broad fact, the further -we go back in time the less the buried species are like existing forms; -and the further apart the sets of extinct creatures are the less they -are like one another. In other words, there has been a regular -succession of living beings, each younger set being in a very broad and -general sense somewhat more like those which now live. - -It was once supposed that this succession had been the result of vast -successive catastrophes, destructions, and re-creations _en masse_; but -catastrophes are now almost eliminated from geological, or at least -paleontological speculation; and it is admitted on all hands that the -seeming breaks in the chain of being are not absolute, but only relative -to our imperfect knowledge; that species have replaced species, not in -assemblages, but one by one; and that, if it were possible to have all -the phenomena of the past presented to us, the convenient epochs and -formations of the geologist, though having a certain distinctness, would -fade into one another with limits as undefinable as those of the -distinct and yet separable colours of the solar spectrum. - -Such is a brief summary of the main truths which have been established -concerning species. Are these truths ultimate and irresolvable facts, or -are their complexities and perplexities the mere expressions of a higher -law? - -A large number of persons practically assume the former position to be -correct. They believe that the writer of the Pentateuch was empowered -and commissioned to teach us scientific as well as other truth, that the -account we find there of the creation of living things is simply and -literally correct, and that anything which seems to contradict it is, by -the nature of the case, false. All the phenomena which have been -detailed are, on this view, the immediate product of a creative fiat and -consequently are out of the domain of science altogether. - -Whether this view prove ultimately to be true or false, it is, at any -rate, not at present supported by what is commonly regarded as logical -proof, even if it be capable of discussion by reason; and hence we -consider ourselves at liberty to pass it by, and to turn to those views -which profess to rest on a scientific basis only, and therefore admit of -being argued to their consequences. And we do this with the less -hesitation as it so happens that those persons who are practically -conversant with the facts of the case (plainly a considerable advantage) -have always thought fit to range themselves under the latter category. - -The majority of these competent persons have up to the present time -maintained two positions,--the first, that every species is, within -certain defined or definable limits, fixed and incapable of -modification; the second, that every species was originally produced by -a distinct creative act. The second position is obviously incapable of -proof or disproof, the direct operations of the Creator not being -subjects of science; and it must therefore be regarded as a corollary -from the first, the truth or falsehood of which is a matter of evidence. -Most persons imagine that the arguments in favour of it are -overwhelming; but to some few minds, and these, it must be confessed, -intellects of no small power and grasp of knowledge, they have not -brought conviction. Among these minds that of the famous naturalist -Lamarck, who possessed a greater acquaintance with the lower forms of -life than any man of his day, Cuvier not excepted, and was a good -botanist to boot, occupies a prominent place. - -Two facts appear to have strongly affected the course of thought of this -remarkable man--the one, that finer or stronger links of affinity -connect all living beings with one another, and that thus the highest -creature grades by multitudinous steps into the lowest; the other, that -an organ may be developed in particular directions by exerting itself -in particular ways, and that modifications once induced may be -transmitted and become hereditary. Putting these facts together, Lamarck -endeavoured to account for the first by the operation of the second. -Place an animal in new circumstances, says he, and its needs will be -altered; the new needs will create new desires, and the attempt to -gratify such desires will result in an appropriate modification of the -organs exerted. Make a man a blacksmith, and his brachial muscles will -develope in accordance with the demands made upon them, and in like -manner, says Lamarck, "the efforts of some shortnecked bird to catch -fish without wetting himself have, with time and perseverance, given -rise to all our herons and long-necked waders." - -The Lamarckian hypothesis has long since been justly condemned, and it -is the established practice for every tyro to raise his heel against the -carcass of the dead lion. But it is rarely either wise or instructive to -treat even the errors of a really great man with mere ridicule, and in -the present case the logical form of the doctrine stands on a very -different footing from its substance. - -If species have really arisen by the operation of natural conditions, we -ought to be able to find those conditions now at work; we ought to be -able to discover in nature some power adequate to modify any given kind -of animal or plant in such a manner as to give rise to another kind, -which would be admitted by naturalists as a distinct species. Lamarck -imagined that he had discovered this _vera causa_ in the admitted facts -that some organs may be modified by exercise; and that modifications, -once produced, are capable of hereditary transmission. It does not seem -to have occurred to him to inquire whether there is any reason to -believe that there are any limits to the amount of modification -producible, or to ask how long an animal is likely to endeavour to -gratify an impossible desire. The bird, in our example, would surely -have renounced fish dinners long before it had produced the least effect -on leg or neck. - -Since Lamarck's time almost all competent naturalists have left -speculations on the origin of species to such dreamers as the author of -the _Vestiges_, by whose well-intentioned efforts the Lamarckian theory -received its final condemnation in the minds of all sound thinkers. -Notwithstanding this silence, however, the transmutation theory, as it -has been called, has been a "skeleton in the closet" to many an honest -zoologist and botanist who had a soul above the mere naming of dried -plants and skins. Surely, has such an one thought, nature is a mighty -and consistent whole, and the providential order established in the -world of life must, if we could only see it rightly, be consistent with -that dominant over the multiform shapes of brute matter. But what is the -history of astronomy, of all the branches of physics, of chemistry, of -medicine, but a narration of the steps by which the human mind has been -compelled, often sorely against its will, to recognize the operation of -secondary causes in events where ignorance beheld an immediate -intervention of a higher power? And when we know that living things are -formed of the same elements as the inorganic world, that they act and -react upon it, bound by a thousand ties of natural piety, is it -probable, nay is it possible, that they, and they alone, should have no -order in their seeming disorder, no unity in their seeming multiplicity, -should suffer no explanation by the discovery of some central and -sublime law of mutual connexion? - -Questions of this kind have assuredly often arisen, but it might have -been long before they received such expression as would have commanded -the respect and attention of the scientific world, had it not been for -the publication of the work which prompted this article. Its author, Mr. -Darwin, inheritor of a once celebrated name, won his spurs in science -when most of those now distinguished were young men, and has for the -last 20 years held a place in the front ranks of British philosophers. -After a circumnavigatory voyage, undertaken solely for the love of his -science, Mr. Darwin published a series of researches which at once -arrested the attention of naturalists and geologists; his -generalizations have since received ample confirmation, and now command -universal assent, nor is it questionable that they have had the most -important influence on the progress of science. More recently Mr. -Darwin, with a versatility which is among the rarest of gifts, turned -his attention to a most difficult question of zoology and minute -anatomy; and no living naturalist and anatomist has published a better -monograph than that which resulted from his labours. Such a man, at all -events, has not entered the sanctuary with unwashed hands, and when he -lays before us the results of 20 years' investigation and reflection we -must listen even though we be disposed to strike. But, in reading his -work it must be confessed that the attention which might at first be -dutifully, soon becomes willingly, given, so clear is the author's -thought, so outspoken his conviction, so honest and fair the candid -expression of his doubts. Those who would judge the book must read it; -we shall endeavour only to make its line of argument and its -philosophical position intelligible to the general reader in our own -way. - -The Baker-street Bazaar has just been exhibiting its familiar annual -spectacle. Straight-backed, small-headed, big-barrelled oxen, as -dissimilar from any wild species as can well be imagined, contended for -attention and praise with sheep of half-a-dozen different breeds and -styes of bloated preposterous pigs, no more like a wild boar or sow than -a city alderman is like an ourang-outang. The cattle show has been, and -perhaps may again be, succeeded by a poultry show, of whose crowing and -clucking prodigies it can only be certainly predicated that they will be -very unlike the aboriginal _Phasianus Gallus_. If the seeker after -animal anomalies is not satisfied, a turn or two in Seven Dials will -convince him that the breeds of pigeons are quite as extraordinary and -unlike one another and their parent stock, while the Horticultural -Society will provide him with any number of corresponding vegetable -aberrations from nature's types. He will learn with no little surprise, -too, in the course of his travels, that the proprietors and producers of -these animal and vegetable anomalies regard them as distinct species, -with a firm belief, the strength of which is exactly proportioned to -their ignorance of scientific biology, and which is the more remarkable -as they are all proud of their skill in _originating_ such "species." - -On careful inquiry it is found that all these, and the many other -artificial breeds or races of animals and plants, have been produced by -one method. The breeder--and a skilful one must be a person of much -sagacity and natural or acquired perceptive faculty--notes some slight -difference, arising he knows not how, in some individuals of his stock. -If he wish to perpetuate the difference, to form a breed with the -peculiarity in question strongly marked, he selects such male and female -individuals as exhibit the desired character, and breeds from them. -Their offspring are then carefully examined, and those which exhibit the -peculiarity the most distinctly are selected for breeding, and this -operation is repeated until the desired amount of divergence from the -primitive stock is reached. It is then found that by continuing the -process of selection--always breeding, that is, from well-marked forms, -and allowing no impure crosses to interfere,--a race may be formed, the -tendency of which to reproduce itself is exceedingly strong; nor is the -limit to the amount of divergence which may be thus produced known, but -one thing is certain, that, if certain breeds of dogs, or of pigeons, or -of horses, were known only in a fossil state, no naturalist would -hesitate in regarding them as distinct species. - -But, in all these cases we have _human interference_. Without the -breeder there would be no selection, and without the selection no race. -Before admitting the possibility of natural species having originated in -any similar way, it must be proved that there is in nature some power -which takes the place of man, and performs a selection _suâ sponte_. It -is the claim of Mr. Darwin that he professes to have discovered the -existence and the _modus operandi_ of this natural selection, as he -terms it; and, if he be right, the process is perfectly simple and -comprehensible, and irresistibly deducible from very familiar but well -nigh forgotten facts. - -Who, for instance, has duly reflected upon all the consequences of the -marvellous struggle for existence which is daily and hourly going on -among living beings? Not only does every animal live at the expense of -some other animal or plant, but the very plants are at war. The ground -is full of seeds that cannot rise into seedlings; the seedlings rob one -another of air and light and water, the strongest robber winning the -day, and extinguishing his competitors. Year after year, the wild -animals with which man never interferes are, on the average, neither -more nor less numerous than they were; and yet we know that the annual -produce of every pair is from one to perhaps a million young,--so that -it is mathematically certain that, on the average, as many are killed by -natural causes as are born every year, and those only escape which -happen to be a little better fitted to resist destruction than those -which die. The individuals of a species are like the crew of a foundered -ship, and none but good swimmers have a chance of reaching the land. - -Such being unquestionably the necessary conditions under which living -creatures exist, Mr. Darwin discovers in them the instrument of natural -selection. Suppose that in the midst of this incessant competition some -individuals of a species (A) present accidental variations which happen -to fit them a little better than their fellows for the struggle in which -they are engaged, then the chances are in favour, not only of these -individuals being better nourished than the others, but of their -predominating over their fellows in other ways, and of having a better -chance of leaving offspring, which will of course tend to reproduce the -peculiarities of their parents. Their offspring will, by a parity of -reasoning, tend to predominate over their contemporaries, and there -being (suppose) no room for more than one species such as A, the weaker -variety will eventually be destroyed by the new destructive influence -which is thrown into the scale, and the stronger will take its place. -Surrounding conditions remaining unchanged, the new variety (which we -may call B)--supposed, for argument's sake, to be the best adapted for -these conditions which can be got out of the original stock--will remain -unchanged, all accidental deviations from the type becoming at once -extinguished, as less fit for their post than B itself. The tendency of -B to persist will grow with its persistence through successive -generations, and it will acquire all the characters of a new species. - -But, on the other hand, if the conditions of life change in any degree, -however slight, B may no longer be that form which is best adapted to -withstand their destructive, and profit by their sustaining, influence; -in which case if it should give rise to a more competent variety (C), -this will take its place and become a new species; and thus, by _natural -selection_, the species B and C will be successively derived from A. - -That this most ingenious hypothesis enables us to give a reason for many -apparent anomalies in the distribution of living beings in time and -space, and that it is not contradicted by the main phenomena of life and -organization appear to us to be unquestionable, and so far it must be -admitted to have an immense advantage over any of its predecessors. But -it is quite another matter to affirm absolutely either the truth or -falsehood of Mr. Darwin's views at the present stage of the inquiry. -Goethe has an excellent aphorism defining that state of mind which he -calls _Thätige Skepsis_--active doubt. It is doubt which so loves truth -that it neither dares rest in doubting, nor extinguish itself by -unjustified belief; and we commend this state of mind to students of -species, with respect to Mr. Darwin's or any other hypothesis, as to -their origin. The combined investigations of another 20 years may, -perhaps, enable naturalists to say whether the modifying causes and the -selective power, which Mr. Darwin has satisfactorily shown to exist in -nature, are competent to produce all the effects he ascribes to them, or -whether, on the other hand, he has been led to over-estimate the value -of his principle of natural selection, as greatly as Lamarck -over-estimated his _vera causa_ of modification by exercise. - -But there is, at all events, one advantage possessed by the more recent -writer over his predecessor. Mr. Darwin abhors mere speculation as -nature abhors a vacuum. He is as greedy of cases and precedents as any -constitutional lawyer, and all the principles he lays down are capable -of being brought to the test of observation and experiment. The path he -bids us follow professes to be not a mere airy track, fabricated of -ideal cobwebs, but a solid and broad bridge of facts. If it be so, it -will carry us safely over many a chasm in our knowledge, and lead us to -a region free from the snares of those fascinating but barren Virgins, -the Final Causes, against whom a high authority has so justly warned us. -"My sons, dig in the vineyard," were the last words of the old man in -the fable; and, though the sons found no treasure, they made their -fortunes by the grapes. - - - - -XV - - A LOBSTER; OR, THE STUDY OF - ZOOLOGY - - -Natural History is the name familiarly applied to the study of the -properties of such natural bodies as minerals, plants, and animals; the -sciences which embody the knowledge man has acquired upon these subjects -are commonly termed Natural Sciences, in contradistinction to other, -so-called "physical," sciences; and those who devote themselves -especially to the pursuit of such sciences have been, and are, commonly -termed "Naturalists." - -Linnæus was a naturalist in this wide sense, and his "Systema Naturæ" -was a work upon natural history in the broadest acceptation of the term; -in it, that great methodizing spirit embodied all that was known in his -time of the distinctive characters of minerals, animals, and plants. But -the enormous stimulus which Linnæus gave to the investigation of nature -soon rendered it impossible that any one man should write another -"Systema Naturæ," and extremely difficult for any one to become a -naturalist such as Linnæus was. - -Great as have been the advances made by all the three branches of -science, of old included under the title of natural history, there can -be no doubt that zoology and botany have grown in an enormously greater -ratio than mineralogy, and hence, as I suppose, the name of "natural -history" has gradually become more and more definitely attached to these -prominent divisions of the subject, and by "naturalist" people have -meant more and more distinctly to imply a student of the structure and -functions of living beings. - -However this may be, it is certain that the advance of knowledge has -gradually widened the distance between mineralogy and its old -associates, while it has drawn zoology and botany closer together; so -that of late years it has been found convenient (and indeed necessary) -to associate the sciences which deal with vitality and all its phenomena -under the common head of "biology"; and the biologists have come to -repudiate any blood-relationship with their foster-brothers, the -mineralogists. - -Certain broad laws have a general application throughout both the animal -and the vegetable worlds, but the ground common to these kingdoms of -nature is not of very wide extent, and the multiplicity of details is so -great, that the student of living beings finds himself obliged to devote -his attention exclusively either to the one or the other. If he elects -to study plants, under any aspect, we know at once what to call him; he -is a botanist and his science is botany. But if the investigation of -animal life be his choice, the name generally applied to him will vary, -according to the kind of animals he studies, or the particular phenomena -of animal life to which he confines his attention. If the study of man -is his object, he is called an anatomist, or a physiologist, or an -ethnologist; but if he dissects animals, or examines into the mode in -which their functions are performed, he is a comparative anatomist or -comparative physiologist. If he turns his attention to fossil animals he -is a palæontologist. If his mind is more particularly directed to the -description, specific discrimination, classification, and distribution -of animals he is termed a zoologist. - -For the purposes of the present discourse, however, I shall recognise -none of these titles save the last, which I shall employ as the -equivalent of botanist, and I shall use the term zoology as denoting the -whole doctrine of animal life, in contradistinction from botany, which -signifies the whole doctrine of vegetable life. - -Employed in this sense, zoology, like botany, is divisible into three -great but subordinate sciences, morphology, physiology, and -distribution, each of which may, to a very great extent, be studied -independently of the other. - -Zoological morphology is the doctrine of animal form or structure. -Anatomy is one of its branches, development is another; while -classification is the expression of the relations which different -animals bear to one another, in respect of their anatomy and their -development. - -Zoological distribution is the study of animals in relation to the -terrestrial conditions which obtain now, or have obtained at any -previous epoch of the earth's history. - -Zoological physiology, lastly, is the doctrine of the functions or -actions of animals. It regards animal bodies as machines impelled by -certain forces, and performing an amount of work, which can be expressed -in terms of the ordinary forces of nature. The final object of -physiology is to deduce the facts of morphology on the one hand, and -those of distribution on the other, from the laws of the molecular -forces of matter. - -Such is the scope of zoology. But if I were to content myself with the -enunciation of these dry definitions, I should ill exemplify that method -of teaching this branch of physical science, which it is my chief -business to-night to recommend. Let us turn away then from abstract -definitions. Let us take some concrete living thing, some animal, the -commoner the better, and let us see how the application of common sense -and common logic to the obvious facts it presents, inevitably leads us -into all these branches of zoological science. - -I have before me a lobster. When I examine it, what appears to be the -most striking character it presents? Why, I observe that this part which -we call the tail of the lobster, is made up of six distinct hard rings -and a seventh terminal piece. If I separate one of the middle rings, say -the third, I find it carries upon its under surface a pair of limbs or -appendages, each of which consists of a stalk and two terminal pieces. -So that I can represent a transverse section of the ring and its -appendages upon the diagram board in this way. - -If I now take the fourth ring, I find it has the same structure, and so -have the fifth and the second; so that in each of these divisions of -the tail I find parts which correspond with one another, a ring and two -appendages; and in each appendage a stalk and two end pieces. These -corresponding parts are called in the technical language of anatomy -"homologous parts." The ring of the third division is the "homologue" of -the ring of the fifth, the appendage of the former is the homologue of -the appendage of the latter. And as each division exhibits corresponding -parts in corresponding places, we say that all the divisions are -constructed upon the same plan. But now let us consider the sixth -division. It is similar to, and yet different from, the others. The ring -is essentially the same as in the other divisions; but the appendages -look at first as if they were very different; and yet when we regard -them closely, what do we find? A stalk and two terminal divisions -exactly as in the others, but the stalk is very short and very thick, -the terminal divisions are very broad and flat, and one of them is -divided into two pieces. - -I may say, therefore, that the sixth segment is like the others in plan, -but that it is modified in its details. - -The first segment is like the others, so far as its ring is concerned, -and though its appendages differ from any of those yet examined in the -simplicity of their structure, parts corresponding with the stem and one -of the divisions of the appendages of the other segments can be readily -discerned in them. - -Thus it appears that the lobster's tail is composed of a series of -segments which are fundamentally similar, though each presents peculiar -modifications of the plan common to all. But when I turn to the forepart -of the body I see, at first, nothing but a great shield-like shell, -called technically the "carapace," ending in front in a sharp spine, on -either side of which are the curious compound eyes, set upon the ends of -stout moveable stalks. Behind these, on the under side of the body, are -two pairs of long feelers or antennæ, followed by six pairs of jaws, -folded against one another over the mouth, and five pairs of legs, the -foremost of these being the great pinchers, or claws, of the lobster. - -It looks, at first, a little hopeless to attempt to find in this -complex mass a series of rings, each with its pair of appendages, such -as I have shown you in the abdomen, and yet it is not difficult to -demonstrate their existence. Strip off the legs, and you will find that -each pair is attached to a very definite segment of the under wall of -the body; but these segments, instead of being the lower parts of free -rings, as in the tail, are such parts of rings which are all solidly -united and bound together; and the like is true of the jaws, the -feelers, and the eye-stalks, every pair of which is borne upon its own -special segment. Thus the conclusion is gradually forced upon us that -the body of the lobster is composed of as many rings as there are pairs -of appendages, namely, twenty in all, but that the six hindmost rings -remain free and moveable, while the fourteen front rings become firmly -soldered together, their backs forming one continuous shield--the -carapace. - -Unity of plan, diversity in execution, is the lesson taught by the study -of the rings of the body, and the same instruction is given still more -emphatically by the appendages. If I examine the outermost jaw I find it -consists of three distinct portions, an inner, a middle, and an outer, -mounted upon a common stem; and if I compare this jaw with the legs -behind it, or the jaws in front of it, I find it quite easy to see, -that, in the legs, it is the part of the appendage which corresponds -with the inner division, which becomes modified into what we know -familiarly as the "leg," while the middle division disappears, and the -outer division is hidden under the carapace. Nor is it more difficult to -discern that, in the appendages of the tail, the middle division appears -again and the outer vanishes; while on the other hand, in the foremost -jaw, the so-called mandible, the inner division only is left; and, in -the same way, the parts of the feelers and of the eye-stalks, can be -identified with those of the legs and jaws. - -But whither does all this tend? To the very remarkable conclusion that a -unity of plan, of the same kind as that discoverable in the tail or -abdomen of the lobster, pervades the whole organization of its skeleton, -so that I can return to the diagram representing any one of the rings -of the tail, which I drew upon the board, and by adding a third division -to each appendage, I can use it as a sort of scheme or plan of any ring -of the body. I can give names to all the parts of that figure, and then -if I take any segment of the body of the lobster, I can point out to you -exactly, what modification the general plan has undergone in that -particular segment; what part has remained moveable, and what has become -fixed to another; what has been excessively developed and metamorphosed, -and what has been suppressed. - -But I imagine I hear the question, how is all this to be tested? No -doubt it is a pretty and ingenious way of looking at the structure of -any animal, but is it anything more? Does Nature acknowledge in any -deeper way this unity of plan we seem to trace? - -The objection suggested by these questions is a very valid and important -one, and morphology was in an unsound state, so long as it rested upon -the mere perception of the analogies which obtain between fully formed -parts. The unchecked ingenuity of speculative anatomists proved itself -fully competent to spin any number of contradictory hypotheses out of -the same facts, and endless morphological dreams threatened to supplant -scientific theory. - -Happily, however, there is a criterion of morphological truth, and a -sure test of all homologies. Our lobster has not always been what we see -it; it was once an egg, a semi-fluid mass of yolk, not so big as a pin's -head, contained in a transparent membrane, and exhibiting not the least -trace of any one of those organs, whose multiplicity and complexity, in -the adult, are so surprising. After a time a delicate patch of cellular -membrane appeared upon one face of this yolk, and that patch was the -foundation of the whole creature, the clay out of which it would be -moulded. Gradually investing the yolk, it became subdivided by -transverse constrictions into segments, the forerunners of the rings of -the body. Upon the ventral surface of each of the rings thus sketched -out, a pair of bud-like prominences made their appearance--the rudiments -of the appendages of the ring. At first, all the appendages were alike, -but, as they grew, most of them became distinguished with a stem and -two terminal divisions, to which in the middle part of the body was -added a third outer division; and it was only at a later period, that by -the modification, or abortion, of certain of these primitive -constituents, the limbs acquired their perfect form. - -Thus the study of development proves that the doctrine of unity of plan -is not merely a fancy, that it is not merely one way of looking at the -matter, but that it is the expression of deep-seated natural facts. The -legs and jaws of the lobster may not merely be regarded as modifications -of a common type,--in fact and in nature they are so,--the leg and the -jaw of the young animal being, at first, indistinguishable. - -These are wonderful truths, the more so because the zoologist finds them -to be of universal application. The investigation of a polype, of a -snail, of a fish, of a horse, or of a man would have led us, though by a -less easy path, perhaps, to exactly the same point. Unity of plan -everywhere lies hidden under the mask of diversity of structure--the -complex is everywhere evolved out of the simple. Every animal has at -first the form of an egg, and every animal and every organic part, in -reaching its adult state, passes through conditions common to other -animals and other adult parts; and this leads me to another point. I -have hitherto spoken as if the lobster were alone in the world, but, as -I need hardly remind you, there are myriads of other animal organisms. -Of these some, such as men, horses, birds, fishes, snails, slugs, -oysters, corals, and sponges, are not in the least like the lobster. But -other animals, though they may differ a good deal from the lobster, are -yet either very like it, or are like something that is like it. The cray -fish, the rock lobster, and the prawn, and the shrimp, for example, -however different, are yet so like lobsters, that a child would group -them as of the lobster kind, in contradistinction to snails and slugs; -and these last again would form a kind by themselves, in -contradistinction to cows, horses, and sheep, the cattle kind. - -But this spontaneous grouping into "kinds" is the first essay of the -human mind at classification, or the calling by a common name of those -things that are alike, and the arranging them in such a manner as best -to suggest the sum of their likenesses and unlikenesses to other things. - -Those kinds which include no other subdivisions than the sexes, or -various breeds, are called, in technical language, species. The English -lobster is a species, our cray fish is another, our prawn is another. In -other countries, however, there are lobsters, cray fish, and prawns, -very like ours, and yet presenting sufficient differences to deserve -distinction. Naturalists, therefore, express this resemblance and this -diversity by grouping them as distinct species of the same "genus." But -the lobster and the cray fish, though belonging to distinct genera, have -many features in common, and hence are grouped together in an assemblage -which is called a family. More distant resemblances connect the lobster -with the prawn and the crab, which are expressed by putting all these -into the same order. Again, more remote, but still very definite, -resemblances unite the lobster with the woodlouse, the king crab, the -water flea, and the barnacle, and separate them from all other animals; -whence they collectively constitute the larger group, or class, -_Crustacea_. But the _Crustacea_ exhibit many peculiar features in -common with insects, spiders, and centipedes, so that these are grouped -into the still larger assemblage or "province" _Articulata_, and, -finally, the relations which these have to worms and other lower -animals, are expressed by combining the whole vast aggregate into the -sub-kingdom _Annulosa_. - -If I had worked my way from a sponge instead of a lobster, I should have -found it associated, by like ties, with a great number of other animals -into the sub-kingdom _Protozoa_; if I had selected a fresh-water polype -or a coral, the members of what naturalists term the sub-kingdom -_Coelenterata_, would have grouped themselves around my type; had a -snail been chosen, the inhabitants of all univalve and bivalve, land and -water shells, the lamp shells, the squids, and the sea-mat would have -gradually linked themselves on to it as members of the same sub-kingdom -of _Mollusca_; and finally starting from man, I should have been -compelled to admit first, the ape, the rat, the horse, the dog, into -the same class, and then the bird, the crocodile, the turtle, the frog, -and the fish, into the same sub-kingdom of _Vertebrata_. - -And if I had followed out all these various lines of classification -fully, I should discover in the end that there was no animal, either -recent or fossil, which did not at once fall into one or other of these -sub-kingdoms. In other words, every animal is organised upon one or -other of the five, or more, plans, whose existence renders our -classification possible. And so definitely and precisely marked is the -structure of each animal that, in the present state of our knowledge, -there is not the least evidence to prove that a form, in the slightest -degree transitional between any two of the groups _Vertebrata_, -_Annulosa_, _Mollusca_, and _Coelenterata_, either exists, or has -existed, during that period of the earth's history which is recorded by -the geologist. Nevertheless, you must not for a moment suppose, because -no such transitional forms are known, that the members of the -sub-kingdoms are disconnected from, or independent of, one another. On -the contrary, in their earliest condition they are all alike, and the -primordial germs of a man, a dog, a bird, a fish, a beetle, a snail, and -a polype are in no essential structural respects, distinguishable. - -In this broad sense, it may with truth be said, that all living animals, -and all those dead creations which geology reveals, are bound together -by an all-pervading unity of organisation, of the same character, though -not equal in degree, to that which enables us to discern one and the -same plan amidst the twenty different segments of a lobster's body. -Truly it has been said, that to a clear eye the smallest fact is a -window through which the Infinite may be seen. - -Turning from these purely morphological considerations, let us now -examine into the manner in which the attentive study of the lobster -impels us into other lines of research. - -Lobsters are found in all the European seas; but on the opposite shores -of the Atlantic and in the seas of the southern hemisphere they do not -exist. They are, however, represented in these regions by very closely -allied, but distinct forms--the _Homarus Americanus_ and the _Homarus -Capensis_, so that we may say that the European has one species of -_Homarus_; the American, another; the African, another; and thus the -remarkable facts of geographical distribution begin to dawn upon us. - -Again, if we examine the contents of the earth's crust, we shall find in -the later of those deposits, which have served as the great burying -grounds of past ages, numberless lobster-like animals, but none so -similar to our living lobster as to make zoologists sure that they -belonged even to the same genus. If we go still further back in time, we -discover in the oldest rocks of all, the remains of animals, constructed -on the same general plan as the lobster, and belonging to the same great -group of _Crustacea_; but for the most part totally different from the -lobster, and indeed from any other living form of crustacean; and thus -we gain a notion of that successive change of the animal population of -the globe, in past ages, which is the most striking fact revealed by -geology. - -Consider, now, where our inquiries have led us. We studied our type -morphologically, when we determined its anatomy and its development, and -when comparing it, in these respects, with other animals, we made out -its place in a system of classification. If we were to examine every -animal in a similar manner we should establish a complete body of -zoological morphology. - -Again, we investigated the distribution of our type in space and in -time, and, if the like had been done with every animal, the sciences of -geographical and geological distribution would have attained their -limit. - -But you will observe one remarkable circumstance, that, up to this -point, the question of the life of these organisms has not come under -consideration. Morphology and distribution might be studied almost as -well, if animals and plants were a peculiar kind of crystals and -possessed none of those functions which distinguish living beings so -remarkably. But the facts of morphology and distribution have to be -accounted for, and the science, whose aim it is to account for them, is -physiology. - -Let us return to our lobster once more. If we watched the creature in -its native element, we should see it climbing actively the submerged -rocks, among which it delights to live, by means of its strong legs; or -swimming by powerful strokes of its great tail, the appendages of whose -sixth joint are spread out into a broad fan-like propeller; seize it and -it will show you that its great claws are no mean weapons of offence; -suspend a piece of carrion among its haunts, and it will greedily devour -it, tearing and crushing the flesh by means of its multitudinous jaws. - -Suppose that we had known nothing of the lobster but as an inert mass, -an organic crystal, if I may use the phrase, and that we could suddenly -see it exerting all these powers, what wonderful new ideas and new -questions would arise in our minds! The great new question would be "How -does all this take place?" the chief new idea would be the idea of -adaptation to purpose,--the notion that the constituents of animal -bodies are not mere unconnected parts, but organs working together to an -end. Let us consider the tail of the lobster again from this point of -view. Morphology has taught us that it is a series of segments composed -of homologous parts, which undergo various modifications--beneath and -through which a common plan of formation is discernible. But if I look -at the same part physiologically, I see that it is a most beautifully -constructed organ of locomotion, by means of which the animal can -swiftly propel itself either backwards or forwards. - -But how is this remarkable propulsive machine made to perform its -functions? If I were suddenly to kill one of these animals and to take -out all the soft parts, I should find the shell to be perfectly inert, -to have no more power of moving itself than is possessed by the -machinery of a mill, when disconnected from its steam-engine or -water-wheel. But if I were to open it, and take out the viscera only, -leaving the white flesh, I should perceive that the lobster could bend -and extend its tail as well as before. If I were to cut off the tail I -should cease to find any spontaneous motion in it--but on pinching any -portion of the flesh, I should observe that it underwent a very curious -change--each fibre becoming shorter and thicker. By this act of -contraction, as it is termed, the parts to which the ends of the fibre -are attached are, of course, approximated--and according to the -relations of their points of attachment to the centres of motions of the -different rings, the bending or the extension of the tail results. Close -observation of the newly-opened lobster would soon show that all its -movements are due to the same cause--the shortening and thickening of -these fleshy fibres, which are technically called muscles. - -Here, then, is a capital fact. The movements of the lobster are due to -muscular contractility. But why does a muscle contract at one time and -not at another? Why does one whole group of muscles contract when the -lobster wishes to extend his tail, and another group, when he desires to -bend it? What is it originates, directs and controls, the motive power? - -Experiment, the great instrument for the ascertainment of truth in -physical science, answers this question for us. In the head of the -lobster there lies a small mass of that peculiar tissue which is known -as nervous substance. Cords of similar matter connect this brain of the -lobster, directly or indirectly, with the muscles. Now, if these -communicating cords are cut, the brain remaining entire, the power of -exerting what we call voluntary motion in the parts below the section is -destroyed, and on the other hand, if, the cords remaining entire, the -brain mass be destroyed, the same voluntary mobility is equally lost. -Whence the inevitable conclusion is, that the power of originating these -motions resides in the brain, and is propagated along the nervous cords. - -In the higher animals the phenomena which attend this transmission have -been investigated, and the exertion of the peculiar energy which resides -in the nerves, has been found to be accompanied by a disturbance of the -electrical state of their molecules. - -If we could exactly estimate the signification of this disturbance; if -we could obtain the value of a given exertion of nerve force by -determining the quantity of electricity or of heat of which it is the -equivalent; if we could ascertain upon what arrangement, or other -condition of the molecules of matter, the manifestation of the nervous -and muscular energies depends, (and doubtless science will some day or -other ascertain these points,) physiologists would have attained their -ultimate goal in this direction; they would have determined the relation -of the motive force of animals to the other forms of force found in -nature; and if the same process had been successfully performed for all -the operations which are carried on, in and by, the animal frame, -physiology would be perfect, and the facts of morphology and -distribution would be deducible from the laws which physiologists had -established, combined with those determining the condition of the -surrounding universe. - -There is not a fragment of the organism of this humble animal, whose -study would not lead us into regions of thought as large as those which -I have briefly opened up to you; but what I have been saying, I trust, -has not only enabled you to form a conception of the scope and purport -of zoology, but has given you an imperfect example of the manner in -which, in my opinion, that science, or indeed any physical science, may -be best taught. The great matter is to make teaching real and practical, -by fixing the attention of the student on particular facts, but at the -same time it should be rendered broad and comprehensive by constant -reference to the generalizations of which all particular facts are -illustrations. The lobster has served as a type of the whole animal -kingdom, and its anatomy and physiology have illustrated for us some of -the greatest truths of biology. The student who has once seen for -himself the facts which I have described, has had their relations -explained to him, and has clearly comprehended them, has so far a -knowledge of zoology, which is real and genuine, however limited it may -be, and which is worth more than all the mere reading knowledge of the -science he could ever acquire. His zoological information is, so far, -knowledge and not mere hearsay. - -And if it were my business to fit you for the certificate in zoological -science granted by this department, I should pursue a course precisely -similar in principle to that which I have taken to-night. I should -select a fresh-water sponge, a fresh-water polype or a _Cyanæa_, a -fresh-water mussel, a lobster, a fowl, as types of the five primary -divisions of the animal kingdom. I should explain their structure very -fully, and show how each illustrated the great principles of zoology. -Having gone very carefully and fully over this ground, I should feel -that you had a safe foundation, and I should then take you in the same -way, but less minutely, over similarly selected illustrative types of -the classes; and then I should direct your attention to the special -forms enumerated under the head of types, in this syllabus, and to the -other facts there mentioned. - -That would, speaking generally, be my plan. But I have undertaken to -explain to you the best mode of acquiring and communicating a knowledge -of zoology, and you may therefore fairly ask me for a more detailed and -precise account of the manner in which I should propose to furnish you -with the information I refer to. - -My own impression is that the best model for all kinds of training in -physical science is that afforded by the method of teaching anatomy, in -use in the medical schools. This method consists of three -elements--lectures, demonstrations, and examinations. - -The object of lectures is, in the first place, to awaken the attention -and excite the enthusiasm of the student; and this, I am sure, may be -effected to a far greater extent by the oral discourse and by the -personal influence of a respected teacher, than in any other way. -Secondly, lectures have the double use of guiding the student to the -salient points of a subject, and at the same time forcing him to attend -to the whole of it, and not merely to that part which takes his fancy. -And lastly, lectures afford the student the opportunity of seeking -explanations of those difficulties which will, and indeed ought to, -arise in the course of his studies. - -But for a student to derive the utmost possible value from lectures, -several precautions are needful. - -I have a strong impression that the better the discourse is, as an -oration, the worse it is as a lecture. The flow of the discourse carries -you on without proper attention to its sense; you drop a word or a -phrase, you lose the exact meaning for a moment, and while you strive to -recover yourself, the speaker had passed on to something else. - -The practice I have adopted in late years in lecturing to students, is -to condense the substance of the hour's discourse into a few dry -propositions, which are read slowly and taken down from dictation; the -reading of each being followed by a free commentary, expanding and -illustrating the proposition, explaining terms, and removing any -difficulties that may be attackable in that way, by diagrams made -roughly, and seen to grow under the lecturer's hand. In this manner you, -at any rate, insure the co-operation of the student to a certain extent. -He cannot leave the lecture-room entirely empty if the taking of notes -is enforced, and a student must be preternaturally dull and mechanical -if he can take notes and hear them properly explained, and yet learn -nothing. - -What books shall I read? is a question constantly put by the student to -the teacher. My reply usually is, "None; write your notes out carefully -and fully; strive to understand them thoroughly; come to me for the -explanation of anything you cannot understand, and I would rather you -did not distract your mind by reading." A properly composed course of -lectures ought to contain fully as much matter as a student can -assimilate in the time occupied by its delivery; and the teacher should -always recollect that his business is to feed, and not to cram, the -intellect. Indeed, I believe that a student who gains from a course of -lectures the simple habit of concentrating his attention upon a -definitely limited series of facts, until they are thoroughly mastered, -has made a step of immeasurable importance. - -But however good lectures may be, and however extensive the course of -reading by which they are followed up, they are but accessories to the -great instrument of scientific teaching--demonstration. If I insist -unweariedly, nay fanatically, upon the importance of physical science as -an educational agent, it is because the study of any branch of science, -if properly conducted, appears to me to fill up a void left by all other -means of education. I have the greatest respect and love for literature; -nothing would grieve me more than to see literary training other than a -very prominent branch of education; indeed, I wish that real literary -discipline were far more attended to than it is; but I cannot shut my -eyes to the fact that there is a vast difference between men who have -had a purely literary, and those who have had a sound scientific, -training. - -Seeking for the cause of this difference, I imagine I can find it in the -fact, that, in the world of letters, learning and knowledge are one, and -books are the source of both; whereas in science, as in life, learning -and knowledge are distinct, and the study of things, and not of books, -is the source of the latter. - -All that literature has to bestow may be obtained by reading and by -practical exercise in writing and in speaking; but I do not exaggerate -when I say, that none of the best gifts of science are to be won by -these means. On the contrary, the great benefit which a scientific -education bestows, whether as training or as knowledge, is dependent -upon the extent to which the mind of the student is brought into -immediate contact with facts--upon the degree to which he learns the -habit of appealing directly to nature, and of acquiring through his -senses concrete images of those properties of things, which are and -always will be, but approximately expressed in human language. Our way -of looking at nature, and of speaking about her, varies from year to -year; but a fact once seen, a relation of cause and effect, once -demonstratively apprehended, are possessions which neither change nor -pass away, but, on the contrary, form fixed centres, about which other -truths aggregate by natural affinity. - -Therefore, the great business of the scientific teacher is, to imprint -the fundamental, irrefragable, facts of his science, not only by words -upon the mind, but by sensible impressions upon the eye and ear and -touch, of the student, in so complete a manner that every term used, or -law enunciated, should afterwards call up vivid images of the particular -structural, or other, facts which furnished the demonstration of the -law, or the illustration of the term. - -Now this important operation can only be achieved by constant -demonstration, which may take place to a certain imperfect extent during -a lecture, but which ought also to be carried on independently, and -which should be addressed to each individual student, the teacher -endeavouring, not so much to show a thing to the learner, as to make him -see it for himself. - -I am well aware that there are great practical difficulties in the way -of effectual zoological demonstrations. The dissection of animals is not -altogether pleasant, and requires much time; nor is it easy to secure an -adequate supply of the needful specimens. The botanist has here a great -advantage; his specimens are easily obtained, are clean and wholesome, -and can be dissected in a private house as well as anywhere else; and -hence, I believe, the fact, that botany is so much more readily and -better taught than its sister science. But, be it difficult or be it -easy, if zoological science is to be properly studied, demonstration, -and, consequently, dissection, must be had. Without it, no man can have -a really sound knowledge of animal organization. - -A good deal may be done, however, without actual dissection on the -student's part, by demonstrating upon specimens and preparations, and in -all probability it would not be very difficult, were the demand -sufficient, to organise collections of such objects, sufficient for all -the purposes of elementary teaching, at a comparatively cheap rate. Even -without these, much might be effected, if the zoological collections, -which are open to the public, were arranged according to what has been -termed the "typical principle"; that is to say, if the specimens exposed -to public view were so selected, that the public could learn something -from them, instead of being, as at present, merely confused by their -multiplicity. For example, the grand ornithological gallery at the -British Museum contains between two and three thousand species of birds, -and sometimes five or six specimens of a species. They are very pretty -to look at and some of the cases are, indeed, splendid; but I will -undertake to say, that no man but a professed ornithologist has ever -gathered much information from the collection. Certainly, no one of the -tens of thousands of the general public who have walked through that -gallery ever knew more about the essential peculiarities of birds when -he left the gallery, than when he entered it. But if, somewhere in that -vast hall, there were a few preparations, exemplifying the leading -structural peculiarities and the mode of development of a common fowl; -if the types of the genera, the leading modifications in the skeleton, -in the plumage at various ages, in the mode of nidification, and the -like, among birds, were displayed; and if the other specimens were put -away in a place where the men of science, to whom they are alone useful, -could have free access to them, I can conceive that this collection -might become a great instrument of scientific education.[66] - -The last implement of the teacher to which I have adverted is -examination--a means of education now so thoroughly understood that I -need hardly enlarge upon it. I hold that both written and oral -examinations are indispensable, and, by requiring the description of -specimens, they may be made to supplement demonstration. - - * * * * * - -Such is the fullest reply the time at my disposal will allow me to give -to the question--how may a knowledge of zoology be best acquired and -communicated? - -But there is a previous question which may be moved, and which, in fact, -I know many are inclined to move. It is the question why should training -masters be encouraged to acquire a knowledge of this, or any other -branch, of physical science? What is the use, it is said, of attempting -to make physical science a branch of primary education? Is it not -probable that teachers, in pursuing such studies, will be led astray -from the acquirement of more important but less attractive knowledge? -And, even if they can learn something of science without prejudice to -their usefulness, what is the good of their attempting to instil that -knowledge into boys whose real business is the acquisition of reading, -writing, and arithmetic? - -These questions are, and will be, very commonly asked, for they arise -from that profound ignorance of the value and true position of physical -science, which infests the minds of the most highly educated and -intelligent classes of the community. But if I did not feel well -assured that they are capable of being easily and satisfactorily -answered; that they have been answered over and over again; and that the -time will come when men of liberal education will blush to raise such -questions,--I should be ashamed of my position here to-night. Without -doubt, it is your great and very important function to carry out -elementary education; without question, anything that should interfere -with the faithful fulfilment of that duty on your part would be a great -evil; and if I thought that your acquirement of the elements of physical -science and your communication of those elements to your pupils, -involved, any sort of interference with your proper duties, I should be -the first person to protest against your being encouraged to do anything -of the kind. - -But is it true that the acquisition of such a knowledge of science as is -proposed, and the communication of that knowledge, are calculated to -weaken your usefulness? or may I not rather ask is it possible for you -to discharge your functions properly, without these aids? - -What is the purpose of primary intellectual education? I apprehend that -its first object is to train the young in the use of those tools -wherewith men extract knowledge from the ever-shifting succession of -phenomena which pass before their eyes; and that its second object is to -inform them of the fundamental laws which have been found by experience -to govern the course of things, so that they may not be turned out into -the world naked, defenceless, and a prey to the events they might -control. - -A boy is taught to read his own and other languages, in order that he -may have access to infinitely wider stores of knowledge than could ever -be opened to him by oral intercourse with his fellow men; he learns to -write, that his means of communication with the rest of mankind may be -indefinitely enlarged, and that he may record and store up the knowledge -he acquires. He is taught elementary mathematics that he may understand -all those relations of number and form, upon which the transactions of -men, associated in complicated societies, are built, and that he may -have some practice in deductive reasoning. - -All these operations of reading, writing, and ciphering, are -intellectual tools whose use should, before all things, be learned, and -learned thoroughly; so that the youth may be enabled to make his life -that which it ought to be, a continual progress in learning and in -wisdom. - -But, in addition, primary education endeavours to fit a boy out with a -certain equipment of positive knowledge. He is taught the great laws of -morality; the religion of his sect; so much history and geography as -will tell him where the great countries of the world are, what they are, -and how they have become what they are. - -Without doubt all these are most fitting and excellent things to teach a -boy; I should be very sorry to omit any of them from any scheme of -primary intellectual education. The system is excellent so far as it -goes. - -But if I regard it closely a curious reflection arises. I suppose that -fifteen hundred years ago, the child of any well-to-do Roman citizen was -taught just these same things; reading and writing in his own and, -perhaps, the Greek tongue; the elements of mathematics; and the -religion, morality, history, and geography current in his time. -Furthermore, I do not think I err in affirming, that, if such a -Christian Roman boy, who had finished his education, could be -transplanted into one of our public schools, and pass through its course -of instruction, he would not meet with a single unfamiliar line of -thought; amidst all the new facts he would have to learn, not one would -suggest a different mode of regarding the universe from that current in -his own time. - -And yet surely there is some great difference between the civilization -of the fourth century and that of the nineteenth, and still more between -the intellectual habits and tone of thought of that day and of this? - -And what has made this difference? I answer fearlessly: The prodigious -development of physical science within the last two centuries. - -Modern civilisation rests upon physical science; take away her gifts to -our own country, and our position among the leading nations of the world -is gone to-morrow; for it is physical science only, that makes -intelligence and moral energy stronger than brute force. - -The whole of modern thought is steeped in science; it has made its way -into the works of our best poets, and even the mere man of letters, who -affects to ignore and despise science, is unconsciously impregnated with -her spirit and indebted for his best products to her methods. I believe -that the greatest intellectual revolution mankind has yet seen is now -slowly taking place by her agency. She is teaching the world that the -ultimate court of appeal is observation and experiment, and not -authority; she is teaching it to estimate the value of evidence; she is -creating a firm and living faith in the existence of immutable moral and -physical laws, perfect obedience to which is the highest possible aim of -an intelligent being. - -But of all this your old stereotyped system of education takes no note. -Physical science, its methods, its problems and its difficulties will -meet the poorest boy at every turn, and yet we educate him in such a -manner that he shall enter the world, as ignorant of the existence of -the methods and facts of science, as the day he was born. The modern -world is full of artillery; and we turn out our children to do battle in -it, equipped with the shield and sword of an ancient gladiator. - -Posterity will cry shame on us if we do not remedy this deplorable state -of things. Nay, if we live twenty years longer, our own consciences will -cry shame on us. - -It is my firm conviction that the only way to remedy it is to make the -elements of physical science an integral part of primary education. I -have endeavoured to show you how that may be done for that branch of -science which it is my business to pursue; and I can but add, that I -should look upon the day when every schoolmaster throughout this land -was a centre of genuine, however rudimentary, scientific knowledge, as -an epoch in the history of the country. - -But let me entreat you to remember my last words. Mere book learning in -physical science, is a sham and a delusion--what you teach, unless you -wish to be impostors, that you must first know; and real knowledge in -science, means personal acquaintance with the facts, be they few or -many. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[66] Since these remarks were made the Natural History Collection of the -British Museum has been removed to South Kensington, and Huxley himself -wrote later on: "The visitor to the Natural History Museum in 1894 need -go no further than the Great Hall to see the realisation of my hopes by -the present Director." - - - Printed by BALLANTYNE, HANSON & CO. - Edinburgh & London - - * * * * * - - TRANSCRIBER NOTES: - - Punctuation has been normalized without note. - - Inconsistent and archaic spelling in the original document - have been preserved. Obvious typographical errors have - been corrected. - - Page 3: "adioning" changed to "adjoining" (and in the adjoining - regions). - - Page 52, Footnote 3: "dergees" changed to "degrees" (Cape Negro is - in 16 degrees). - - Page 67: "11/18" changed to "11/18ths" (not more than 11/18ths of - its length). - - Page 151, Footnote 41: "pp." changed to "p." (From Müller's Archiv., - 1858, p. 453.) - - Page 166: "kindgom" changed to "kingdom" (of the animal kingdom - which has been guessed at) and (with that of the animal kingdom). - - Page 184: "order" changed to "orders" (Summing up all the orders of - animals). - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Man's Place in Nature and Other Essays, by -Thomas Henry Huxley - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MAN'S PLACE IN NATURE *** - -***** This file should be named 40257-8.txt or 40257-8.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/0/2/5/40257/ - -Produced by Pat McCoy, Adrian Mastronardi and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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