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diff --git a/40244-8.txt b/40244-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 57f4d6e..0000000 --- a/40244-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,10735 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The History of the Thirteen Colonies of -North America 1497-1763, by Reginald W. Jeffery - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: The History of the Thirteen Colonies of North America 1497-1763 - -Author: Reginald W. Jeffery - -Release Date: July 15, 2012 [EBook #40244] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF THE 13 COLONIES 1497-1763 *** - - - - -Produced by Barbara Kosker, Steven Gibbs and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - - - - +-----------------------------------------+ - | Transcriber's Note: | - | | - | The ^, used in some abbreviations, has | - | been retained. | - | | - +-----------------------------------------+ - - - - -THE HISTORY OF THE THIRTEEN COLONIES OF NORTH AMERICA - - - - -[Illustration: GEORGE WASHINGTON _From the painting attributed -to Gilbert Stuart in the National Portrait Gallery._] - - - - - THE HISTORY - OF THE THIRTEEN COLONIES - OF NORTH AMERICA - 1497-1763 - - - - - BY - REGINALD W. JEFFERY, M.A. - BRASENOSE COLLEGE, OXFORD - - - - - WITH EIGHT ILLUSTRATIONS AND A MAP - - - - - METHUEN & CO. - 36 ESSEX STREET W.C. - LONDON - -_First Published in 1908_ - - - - -PREFACE - - -It has been my object in this small book to put into a handy form a -short narrative of the History of the Thirteen Colonies. In the limited -space at my command I have endeavoured to give as often as possible the -actual words of contemporaries, hoping that the reader may thereby be -tempted to search further for himself amongst the mass of documentary -evidence which still needs so much careful study. I cannot send this -book into the world without acknowledging my indebtedness to both the -Beit Professor of Colonial History, Mr H. E. Egerton, and the Beit -Lecturer on Colonial History, Mr W. L. Grant, whose kind suggestions -have proved most valuable. At the same time I must thank Mr E. L. S. -Horsburgh, for by his action the writing of this little work was made -possible. - - R. W. J. - - OXFORD, 1908 - - - - -CONTENTS - - - PAGE - CHAPTER I - - INTRODUCTION: EARLY ENGLISH VOYAGES TO NORTH AMERICA - - Spanish, French, and Dutch colonisation--English colonisation - --The Cabotian discoveries--The Cabots' second voyage--The - Bull of Alexander VI.--The voyages of John Rut and Master Hore - --Newfoundland Fishery--Cabot, Willoughby, and Chancellor--The - attraction of the West--The North-West Passage--Martin - Frobisher--Sir Humphrey Gilbert--Sir John Hawkins and Sir - Francis Drake--Sir Walter Raleigh--The Elizabethan Period 1 - - - CHAPTER II - - VIRGINIA: THE FIRST GREAT COLONY OF THE BRITISH - - Character of the men--Raleigh's Virginian colonies--Motives - for colonisation--Gosnold and Pring--Richard Hakluyt--Elizabeth - and James I.--Formation of the London and Plymouth Companies-- - The government of the London Company--The Virginian settlers-- - Foundation of Jamestown--Captain John Smith--The lust for gold - --Smith's good work--English interest in Virginia--Sir George - Somers and Sir Thomas Gates--Lord Delawarr--Improvements in - Virginia--The Princess Pocahontas--Samuel Argall--Sir Thomas - Dale--Yeardley and the first Representative Assembly--The - Company in danger--The abolition of the Company--A change in - the character of Virginian history--Wyatt and Harvey as - Governors--A land of peace and plenty--Sir William Berkeley - --Trouble with the Indians--Virginia and the Civil War-- - Berkeley's dislike of education--Arlington and Culpeper-- - Virginia under Berkeley--Bacon's rising--Sir Herbert Jeffreys - --Virginia and the Revolution--Virginia in the eighteenth - century--Robert Dinwiddie 19 - - - CHAPTER III - - THE COLONISATION OF MARYLAND AND THE CAROLINAS - - The colonisation of Maryland--Lord Baltimore--Leonard Calvert - --Quarrel over the Isle of Kent--The Civil War--The Commonwealth - --Lord Baltimore restored--A spirit of unrest in Maryland-- - Francis Nicholson--Irreligion of the colonists--Industry in - Maryland--The Carolinas--The foundation of the colony--Its - progress--The Fundamental Constitutions--State of anarchy-- - South Carolina--William Sayle--Joseph West--Amalgamation of - the two Carolinas--Danger from French and Spaniards--Queen - Anne's War--Indian troubles--The Treaty of Utrecht--The - Carolinas become a Crown colony--Interest of Carolina history 54 - - - CHAPTER IV - - THE PURITANS IN PLYMOUTH AND MASSACHUSETTS - - Character of New England colonies--The Plymouth Company--The - Puritans--William Bradford--The Pilgrim Fathers--The - foundation of New Plymouth--Life in the colony--Description - of the colony--Development of government--The Civil War-- - Ineffectual attempts to obtain a charter--The foundation of - Massachusetts--Ferdinando Gorges, John White, and John - Endecott--A charter granted--John Winthrop--Government of - Massachusetts--Puritan intolerance--Roger Williams--Harry - Vane, John Wheelwright, and Mrs Anne Hutchinson--Harvard - College--The New England Confederacy--Massachusetts and the - Home Government--Brutality to Quakers--King Philip's War-- - Edward Randolph's complaints--The rule of Sir Edmund Andros - --The Revolution of 1688--A new charter--Sir William Phipps - --The Earl of Bellomont and Governor Fletcher--Advance of - the colony 76 - - - CHAPTER V - - CONNECTICUT; RHODE ISLAND AND PROVIDENCE PLANTATION; NEW - HAVEN; MAINE; NEW HAMPSHIRE - - Quarrelsome provinces--The foundation of Connecticut--The Pequod - War--The Restoration--Sir Edmund Andros--Connecticut's progress - --Foundation of Rhode Island and Providence Plantation--Samuel - Gorton--Government of the colony--The Royal Commissioners in - Rhode Island--James II. and the Revolution--The foundation of - New Haven--The regicides in New Haven--The foundation of Maine - --Sir Ferdinando Gorges--The Restoration in Maine--Descriptions - of Maine--Gorges sells his rights--The foundation of New - Hampshire--The greed of Massachusetts--New Hampshire and the - Revolution--The necessity of union 107 - - - CHAPTER VI - - THE FIGHT WITH THE DUTCH FOR THEIR SETTLEMENT OF NEW NETHERLANDS - - The Dutch Wars--The position of New York--The New Netherlands - --Stuyvesant's attack on New Sweden--Nicolls' attack on the - New Netherlands--Splendid work of Nicolls--The character of - New York--Government of New York and Albany--Francis Lovelace - --The Dutch recapture New York--New Jersey--Thomas Dongan--The - Leisler Rising--Lack of a Constitution--The Earl of Bellomont - and Lord Cornbury--Governors of the early eighteenth century - --Lucrative character of governor's post 128 - - - CHAPTER VII - - THE QUAKER SETTLEMENTS AND GEORGIA - - The Quakers in America--East and West New Jersey--Delaware-- - The Jerseys under one governor--The Jerseys united--William - Penn--The foundation of Pennsylvania--Philadelphia--Penn's - constitution--The Revolution and after--Penn regains - proprietorship--Intercolonial disputes--An asylum of rest-- - John and Thomas Penn--The foundation of Georgia--Oglethorpe's - difficulties--John and Charles Wesley--War with Spain--Attack - on St. Augustine--Oglethorpe's daring--Quarrels concerning - slavery--Oglethorpe's work--Georgia becomes a Crown colony-- - The coming struggle with France 146 - - - CHAPTER VIII - - THE SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC HISTORY OF NEW ENGLAND - - Population of Puritan colonies--Towns--Wooden houses--Industry - and commerce--Minor industries--Shipbuilding--Eighteenth-century - commerce--Agriculture--Want of money--The colonial mint--Paper - money--Wages and prices--The poor-law--Slavery--Missionary - efforts--Religion--Education--Literature--Printing--Means of - travel--Curious laws--The character of the settlers 168 - - - CHAPTER IX - - THE SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC HISTORY OF THE SOUTHERN - AND MIDDLE COLONIES - - Character of the colonies--Classes in colonial society-- - Indentured servants--Slavery--White population--Industry - and commerce--Money--Education--Literature--Religion--Town - life--Conclusion 187 - - - CHAPTER X - - THE FRENCH COLONIES IN NORTH AMERICA - - Early French voyages--Jacques Cartier--The Marquis de la Roche - --Samuel Champlain--A passage to the East--The Franciscans and - Jesuits--The Company of the One Hundred Associates--Character - of Champlain--Colbert and colonisation--The Company of the West - --System of government--Count Frontenac--Western discoveries-- - Joliet and Marquette--La Salle--The Mississippi--La Salle's great - expedition--His failure--His place in history--The Iroquois--The - Treaty of Utrecht 200 - - - CHAPTER XI - - FRENCH AGGRESSION - - The colonies were not united--Dongan and Denonville--King - William's war--The Albany Conference--Expedition against Quebec - --The Abenaki Indians--Incapacity of the colonies--The Treaty - of Ryswick--The War of the Spanish Succession--The horrors of - Indian warfare--Samuel Vetch--Colonial jealousies--English - indifference--The capture of Acadia--Colonial fear of English - interference--The English view of the colonials--The Hill-Walker - expedition--Walker's cowardice--The character of the expedition - --The Treaty of Utrecht--A lost opportunity--Relations between - Indians and Canadian Government--The French scheme--Crown Point - --The War of the Austrian Succession--Louisburg--Character of - forces--The capture of Louisburg--Shirley's plans--The Treaty - of Aix-la-Chapelle 224 - - - CHAPTER XII - - THE CLIMAX: THE STRUGGLE BETWEEN ENGLISH AND FRENCH COLONISTS - - The colonial share in the capture of Canada--The internal - jealousies of the colonies--French aggression in the Ohio - valley--George Washington--Results of the campaign of 1754-- - Character of General Braddock--Schemes for 1755--Braddock's - disaster--The work of Dinwiddie and Johnson--The deportation - of the Acadians--The results of the campaign of 1755--The - Seven Years' War--The character of the Marquis de Montcalm-- - Webb, Abercromby, and Loudoun--Unsuccessful attack upon - Louisburg--Montcalm at Fort William Henry--The rise of William - Pitt--The plan of campaign of 1758--The character of General - Wolfe--The capture of Louisburg--Abercromby's disaster at - Ticonderoga--The character of Lord Howe--Capture of Forts - Frontenac and Duquesne--The campaigns of 1759--Amherst's - delay--The siege of Quebec--English despair--The discovery of - the path--Death of Wolfe--Wolfe and Montcalm--The climax--The - collapse of the French Empire in the West--The rise of a new - nation 254 - - CHRONOLOGY 285 - - BIBLIOGRAPHY 296 - - INDEX 299 - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - - - GEORGE WASHINGTON _Frontispiece_ - - _From the painting attributed to Gilbert Stuart in the - National Portrait Gallery._ - - _To face page_ - - SIR FRANCIS DRAKE 14 - - _From an engraving by J. Honbraken in the British - Museum._ - - - CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH 30 - - _From an engraving in his "Generall Historie of Virginia."_ - - - MAP OF NORTH AMERICA, 1755 144 - - - WILLIAM PITT, LORD CHATHAM 166 - - _From the painting by W. Hoare in the National Portrait - Gallery._ - - - QUEBEC FROM POINT LEVY IN 1761 200 - - _From an engraving by R. Short._ - - - THE MARQUIS DE MONTCALM 246 - - _From a painting by J. B. Massé._ - - - GENERAL JAMES WOLFE 270 - - _From the picture by Schaak in the National Portrait - Gallery._ - - - THE DEATH OF WOLFE 278 - - _After the painting by B. West._ - - - - -THE HISTORY OF THE THIRTEEN COLONIES - - - - -CHAPTER I - -INTRODUCTION: EARLY ENGLISH VOYAGES TO NORTH AMERICA - - -It would be out of place in this small book to give in detail a history -of all the discoveries which were made along the shores of North and -South America at the end of the fifteenth and beginning of the sixteenth -centuries. As the main object is to depict briefly the political history -of the Thirteen English Colonies on the North American seaboard, it will -be unnecessary to say more than a few words about the discoverers whose -enterprise and bravery made colonisation possible. With the Spanish, -French, and Dutch voyagers it is not proposed to deal; their stories are -well known, and affected but little the establishment of our early -settlements in the West. Like the British nation, these three peoples -also strove to create lasting empires in America; but unlike their -rival, they failed. The Spaniards made the fatal error of attempting to -settle during the period of exploration. They based their colonies upon -slavery, and a mistaken commercial policy; and the sparseness of their -colonists made them incapable of contending against the pressure of -surrounding savagery. The result was that they, who were without the -traditions of public morality and who were to a certain extent lacking -in administrative powers, became intermixed with the inferior races with -whom they came in contact. The French were no more successful in their -endeavours to establish a New France beyond the sea; they failed, partly -because of the French temperament, and partly through obvious errors. -The French character was buoyant and cheerful--both excellent natural -gifts for colonists--but they were unable to combine the spirit of -adventure with that patient commercial industry which so wonderfully -distinguished the Puritan emigrants. The Dutch might have proved serious -rivals to the British in the West had they been able to rise from the -position of mere traders, and had they had a sufficiently large -population on which to draw. Their commercial system deteriorated, -becoming uneconomic and non-progressive; while their arduous and gallant -struggle against Philip II. and Alva had necessarily handicapped them in -the race for colonial aggrandisement. - -The English, in strong contrast to these competitors, never drew a -distinct or sharp line between the soldier and the trader. The story of -Great Britain's expansion contains the names of hundreds of gallant -heroes, but they were at the same time sober and industrious men. The -plodding and commercial characteristics possessed by the British -colonial saved him from perpetrating those foolish errors of the -Spaniard which arose from a desire to gain rapid wealth and a tawdry -glory. One fact stands out pre-eminent amongst the reasons of British -success--the English kept their period of exploration almost entirely -separate from their epoch of settlement. The glorious dreams of -Eldorado, the visions of the golden city of Manoa had been dispersed -like a morning mist when the period of colonisation dawned bright and -clear at the beginning of the seventeenth century. - -The period which coincides with the reign of Henry VII. forms one of the -greatest epochs of history; it was indeed the veritable Renaissance, the -birth of the New World. It was at this moment that the history of -America, the modern history of England, and the present history of -Europe practically began. These startling facts were due to the -simultaneous discoveries in the East and the West. The voyages of -Bartholomew Diaz, of Christopher Columbus, and of Vasco de Gama might -well have astonished the world, but seem to have had very little effect -upon the English as a nation. England was not yet ready to take up the -position of Mistress of the Seas; the time was not yet ripe for colonial -advancement. The country, from both political and social points of view, -was still suffering from the confusion and anarchy which had resulted -from the rule of the Lancastrians, and from the chaos left by the Wars -of the Roses. Two men, however, seem to have understood something of the -possibilities that lay open to them in the West. John and his son -Sebastian Cabot, of Genoese stock, but sometime resident in Venice, -sailed, under the patronage of Henry VII., from Bristol, in 1497, to -discover the island of Cathay. John Cabot is described as one who had -"made himself very expert and cunning in knowledge of the circuit of the -world and Ilands of the same, as by a Sea card and other -demonstrations."[1] The royal charter, granted to these men in March -1496, contained a most important clause, "to saile to all parts, -countreys, and seas of the East, of the West, and of the North, under -our banners and ensignes, ... to set up our banners and ensignes in -every village, towne, castle, isle, or maine land of them newly found -... as our vassals, and lieutenants, getting unto us the rule, title, -and jurisdiction of the same."[2] Bacon, in his _History of Henry VII._, -refers to Cabot's now celebrated voyage. "There was one Sebastian -Gabato, a Venetian living in Bristow, a man seen and expert in -cosmography and navigation. This man seeing the success and emulating -perhaps the enterprise of Christopherus Columbus in that fortunate -discovery towards the south-west, which had been by him made some six -years before, conceited with himself that lands might likewise be -discovered towards the north-west. And surely it may be that he had more -firm and pregnant conjectures of it than Columbus had of his at the -first. For the two great islands of the Old and New World, being in the -shape and making of them broad towards the north and pointed towards the -south, it is likely that the discovery just began where the lands did -meet. And there had been before that time a discovery of some lands -which they took to be islands, and were indeed of America towards the -north-west."[3] Bacon is here calling attention to what has since become -the great controversial question of whether or not the Norsemen -discovered the American continent in the eleventh century. It is very -improbable that the Cabots knew anything of this tradition; and this -voyage was solely the outcome of the discoveries of Columbus. Their -object is definitely stated to have been a "great desire to traffique -for the spices as the Portingals did."[4] It is a remarkable fact that -very little is known of this voyage, and there are practically no -English records available in which to find the history of so great an -event. A Bristol book contains this terse mention of the exploring -expedition: "In the year 1497, the 24th of June, on St John's day, was -Newfoundland found by Bristol men in a ship called the _Mathew_."[5] -Carrying out the commands of the charter, John Cabot and his son planted -the English standard upon American soil, but they did little besides: no -explorations were made into the interior; they were completely satisfied -with the all-important fact of discovery. As a proof of their success, -Sebastian Cabot brought back three Indians "in their demeanour like to -bruite beastes," but who seem to have settled down and taken up English -customs, for Robert Fabian says, "of the which upon two yeeres after, I -saw two apparelled after the maner of Englishmen in Westminster pallace, -which that time I could not discerne from Englishmen."[6] - -The restless ambition of the Cabots incited them to a further voyage in -February 1498, the charter on this occasion being granted only to the -father. They again started from Bristol, and sailed along the North -American coasts from the ice-bound shores of Newfoundland[7] to the -sunny Carolinas or Florida. The younger Cabot afterwards wrote that he -sailed "unto the Latitude of 67 degrees and a halfe under the North Pole -... finding still the open Sea without any maner of impediment, he -thought verily by that way to have passed on still the way to Cathaia -which is in the East."[8] This voyage is recorded by Sir Humphrey -Gilbert, and was frequently quoted as a reason for England's claim to -North America. "The countreys lying north of Florida, God hath reserved -the same to be reduced unto Christian civility by the English nation. -For not long after that Christopher Columbus had discovered the Islands -and continent of the West Indies for Spaine, John and Sebastian Cabot -made discovery also of the rest from Florida northwards to the behoofe -of England."[9] The Cabots disappear from English history for a time and -there are no records of the reception of this voyage. It was undoubtedly -of twofold importance; it started that "will o' the wisp" of the -North-West Passage, that led so many men to risk and lose their lives; -and it may also be regarded as the foundation-stone of the English power -in the West. - -The next few years of the history of the exploration of America is -filled with the records of Spaniards, Italians, and Frenchmen. The -voyage of the Bristol merchants by which North America had just been -discovered had no effect, and awakened no enthusiasm in the hearts of -the English during the early portion of the sixteenth century. Henry -VII. and his more adventurous son were both such severe and orthodox -Catholics that they hesitated to trespass upon the limitations laid down -by the bull of Alexander VI., by which everything on the western side of -an imaginary line between the forty-first and forty-fourth meridians -west of Greenwich belonged to Spain; while the Brazil coast, the East -Indies, and Africa south of the Canary Islands fell to Portugal. -Between 1500 and 1550 only two true voyages of discovery have been -chronicled. The first was in 1527, when a canon of St Paul's, -erroneously named Albert de Prado, sailed with two ships in search of -the Indies. It is probable that this was the voyage of John Rut of the -Royal Navy, with whom, there is reason to suppose, a Spaniard, called -Albert de Prado, sailed. They failed to make any real discoveries, but -brought back a cargo of fish from the inhospitable shores of -Newfoundland and Labrador. The second voyage was that of Master Hore, in -1536, who, it is supposed, set out in the spirit of a Crusader, but who -was more probably a briefless barrister accompanied by "many gentlemen -of the Innes of Court and of the Chancery."[10] They were shipwrecked on -the Newfoundland coast, where, as none of them knew how to fish, and -although Hore told them they would go to unquenchable fire, they began -to eat one another. "On the fieldes and deserts here and there, the -fellowe killed his mate, while he stooped to take up a roote for his -reliefe, and cutting out pieces of his bodie whom he had murthered, -broyled the same on the coles and greedily devoured them."[11] Luckily -for the remainder, a French ship was blown into the harbour, and they -seized her with all the food she had on board, sailing home in safety, -leaving the French sailors to a horrible fate, which they seemed to have -escaped; for "certaine moneths after, those Frenchmen came into England -and made complaint to King Henry the 8: the king ... was so mooved with -pitie, that he punished not his subjects, but of his owne purse made -full and royale recompense unto the French."[12] - -The two voyages here set forth are the only ones that are actually -recorded, but there is reason for supposing that English ships were -quite familiar with the coast of what was afterwards called Maine. -Between 1501 and 1510 there are many scattered intimations of English -voyages; and one patent in particular, in the first year of the -sixteenth century, shows that men of some importance were granted leave -to sail and discover in the West. In 1503 a man brought hawks from -Newfoundland to Henry VII.; and in the next year a priest is paid £2 to -go to the same island. In or about the eighth year of Henry VIII., -Sebastian Cabot was again in the employ of the English and in command of -an expedition to Brazil, which only failed owing to "the cowardise and -want of stomack" of his partner, Sir Thomas Pert.[13] It is evident from -the first Act of Parliament relating to America, passed in 1541, that -the Newfoundland fishery was carried on by Devonshire fishermen almost -continuously from the discovery of the island; and the Act of 1548, -prohibiting the exaction of dues, shows "that the trade out of England -to Newfoundland was common."[14] Anthony Parkhurst corroborates this -fact in a letter to Richard Hakluyt in 1578, in which he says, "The -Englishmen, who commonly are lords of the harbors where they fish, and -do use all strangers helpe in fishing if need require, according to an -old custome of the countrey."[15] It may, therefore, be inferred that -the growth of the Newfoundland fisheries, together with the increasing -knowledge of the country and its products, helped to suggest to the -Englishmen of the period the possibilities of future colonisation. - -The great voyager Sebastian Cabot returned to England in 1548 from his -sojourn in Spain. Under the patronage of Charles V. he had made several -voyages, including one of particular importance to the Rio de la Plata. -On his arrival in England he was rewarded by Edward VI. with a pension -of £166, 13s. 4d., as a slight evidence of that king's appreciation of -his manifold services. Old man though he was, his mind still ran on the -discovery of a North-West, or North-East Passage to the Indies, and he -became the governor of a company of merchant adventurers for the -discovery of regions beyond the sea. He did not participate in any of -these discoveries, "because there are nowe many yong and lustie Pilots -and Mariners of good experience, by whose forwardnesse I doe rejoyce in -the fruit of my labours and rest with the charge of this office."[16] -Amongst the young and lusty pilots were Sir Hugh Willoughby and Richard -Chancellor, who turned their attentions to a North-East passage. The -former died on his vessel in the midst of the ice floes in 1553, while -the latter succeeded in reaching Archangel, and so brought about, -through a successor, Anthony Jenkinson, the foundation of the Muscovy -Company. - -It was, however, the discovery of America, and in particular of the -North-West Passage, that offered great inducements to Englishmen. The -American continent had an ever fascinating attraction, for the reports -of its vast wealth drew adventurous spirits as with a magnet. The gold -of Mexico and Peru dazzled their eyes and made them hope to find some -similar hoard on every barren strip of shore from Patagonia to -Newfoundland. "It was thought that in those unknown lands, peopled by -'anthropophagi and men whose heads did grow beneath their shoulders,' -lay all the treasures of the earth. That was an irresistible temptation -to the great merchants of England, citizens of no mean city, pursuing no -ignoble nor sordid trade."[17] Thus early in the reign of Elizabeth -there was an attempt at American plantation; it certainly was only an -attempt, for it in no way furthered the schemes of colonisation. Thomas -Stukeley, a member of a good Devonshire family, planned, with the -sanction of the queen, in 1563, to colonise Florida. He made the fatal -mistake of so many others, of converting a colonising expedition into -one of mere buccaneering. Spanish and French vessels were his real -objects, not the foundation of an English settlement in the New World. -The scheme naturally failed; and Stukeley removed his activities to -Barbary, where he met a glorious death amongst the chivalry of Portugal -upon the classic field of Alcazar. - -The search for the North-West Passage was even more tempting than the -projection of imaginary colonies in the South; it opened before the eyes -of speculative voyagers a promise of all the wealth of the East. A large -proportion of Hakluyt's great prose epic--that marvellous work of -adventure--is filled with the search for Cathay. That mystic land became -the purpose and the goal of hundreds of seamen who, during the -centuries, struggled and toiled through overwhelming perils, ever to be -baffled by the solid and impenetrable ice. Those wild north seas seem -to have caused little terror to the Tudor sea-dogs; Master Thorne, for -example, deserves to live in the memory of Englishmen for all time -simply for one remark with which he is credited. When the objection of -the ice was proposed to him, he waived it on one side with words which -might well be taken as the motto of the British Empire: "There is no -land unhabitable and no sea innavigable."[18] Sir Humphrey Gilbert, in -particular, tried to encourage men to push forward in their adventurous -discoveries, and there is no doubt that his famous work, _A Discourse to -prove a passage by the North West to Cathaya and the East Indies_, did a -great deal to stimulate men in their hopeless task. - -It was largely due to this _Discourse_ that Martin Frobisher sailed to -find the tantalising passage, in June 1576, under the patronage of the -all-powerful Earl of Warwick. He sighted Greenland, and then reached -that inlet on the American coast which he called Frobisher Bay. He -brought back with him samples of a black stone which were supposed to -contain gold, and thus added the temptation of easily acquired wealth to -the sufficiently delusive and dangerous task of discovering the passage. -The possibility of mineral wealth in the Arctic Regions brought about -the formation of the Company of Cathay, under the government of Michael -Lok; and as its Captain-General, Frobisher undertook a second voyage in -May 1577. His object was "the further discovering of the passage to -Cathay, and other Countreys, thereunto adjacent, by West North-West -navigations: which passage or way is supposed to be on the North and -North-West part of America ... where through our Merchants may have -course and recourse with their merchandise."[19] Frobisher took -possession of the barren territory, and on his return Queen Elizabeth -"named it very properly Meta Incognita, as a marke and bound utterly -hitherto unknown."[20] The gold-refiners of London were still deceived -by the black stones; and again Frobisher sailed, in May 1578, to work -this imaginary mine. He took with him on this occasion "a strong fort or -house of timber" for the shelter of "one hundreth persons, whereof 40 -should be mariners for the use of ships, 30 Miners for gathering the -gold Ore together for the next yere, and 30 souldiers for the better -guard of the rest, within which last number are included the Gentlemen, -Gold finers, Bakers, Carpenters & all necessary persons."[21] This might -be regarded as an early attempt to found a colony, for Frobisher seems -to have hoped to establish a thriving industry in this desolate and -ice-bound land; but as a matter of fact these "necessary persons" did -nothing at all except to discover an island which existed only in their -imaginations, and they returned to England in the autumn. Frobisher's -efforts as a discoverer now ceased; for his seamanship and courage were -required in home waters for the protection of his native land. - -[Illustration: SIR FRANCIS DRAKE _From an engraving by J. -Honbraken in the British Museum._] - -Sir Humphrey Gilbert, half-brother of Raleigh, was the "first of our -nation that carried people to erect an habitation and government in -those northerly countreys of America."[22] He was a man bold in action -and chivalrous in character; he was one of those giants of the -Elizabethan period, and if he had any faults they were only those of his -age, while his virtues were all his own. As early as 1563 he was -connected with schemes for colonisation in the formation of a company -for the discovery of new trades. He it is who has the proud position of -being the founder of our premier colony, Newfoundland. In 1578, letters -patent were granted to him by Queen Elizabeth for establishing a colony -in North America. He made his first voyage in that year, sailing from -Dartmouth in September. The expedition was a complete failure, and -fearing lest his patent should expire, he undertook that voyage which -has made him one of the most famous men in history. In 1583 he sailed to -Newfoundland, and took possession in the name of the Virgin Queen, "and -signified unto al men, that from that time forward, they should take the -same land as a territorie appertaining to the Queene of England."[23] -His great action was not allowed to be forgotten; the gallant knight -himself never saw England again, but passed to his grave beneath the -rough waters of the Atlantic. Hakluyt, however, printed the story of an -eye-witness, Edward Hayes, who gave a graphic account of the whole -expedition. Gilbert insisted on returning in the _Squirrel_, a small -crazy craft, rather than in the larger vessel, known as the _Hinde_. The -weather became very foul; and on Monday afternoon, the 9th of September, -Hayes says, "the frigate was neere cast away oppressed by the waves, yet -at that time recovered: and giving foorth signes of joy the Generall, -sitting abaft with a booke in his hand cried out unto us in the Hind (so -oft as we did approach within hearing) We are as neere to heaven by sea -as by land." About twelve that night, the frigate being ahead of the -Hinde, her lights suddenly went out; and after a minute's awful -silence, the men of the Hinde exclaimed, "the General was cast -away."[24] Thus the hero, strong in his belief and fear of God, with -chivalrous and stainless name, found his last resting-place in the sea. -He was a forerunner of the very noblest type, an example to the men of -his own generation, and to those fearless adventurers who have helped to -create the British Empire in all parts of the world. - -The northern portions of America were for the most part more easily -accessible to the English, and the dangers of Spanish and Portuguese -attacks were more remote. The West Indies, however, and even South -America, were not without their fascination, and many Englishmen made -voyages to those parts, not so much for the purposes of discovery as for -trade, buccaneering, and booty. The earliest of these West Indian -trading voyages was that of Thomas Tison, who, it is known, sailed to -the West, some time previous to the year 1526. He dwelt on one of the -West Indian Islands as a secret factor for some English merchants; and -"it is probable that some of our marchants had a kinde of trade to the -West Indies even in those ancient times and before also: neither doe I -see," says Hakluyt, "any reason why the Spaniards should debarre us from -it at this present."[25] As a trader, pirate, and slave-dealer, Sir John -Hawkins made three celebrated voyages in 1562, 1564, and 1568, between -Guinea and the West Indies. On one of these he was accompanied by -Francis Drake, who was destined for far greater things than -slave-dealing. After many adventures off the Spanish main, Drake, in the -spirit of a Crusader, started on his momentous voyage round the world. -In a small vessel called the _Golden Hinde_ or _Pelican_, with a still -smaller ship, the _Elizabeth_, the great seaman sailed from Plymouth in -February 1577. Sailing down the South American coast, he at last arrived -at the Straits of Magellan, where one of his company, Master Thomas -Doughty, mutinied and was executed. After being deserted by the -_Elizabeth_, the voyage proceeded along the shores of Chili and Peru; -and passing still farther north, it is probable that Drake discovered -"that portion of North America now known as Oregon, and anticipated by -centuries the progress of English colonisation: the New Albion, which he -took over from the Indians, being probably the British Columbia of -to-day."[26] Drake's return was made without any very serious mishaps, -and he dropped anchor in Plymouth Sound in November 1580. It was a fine -exploit, and roundly applauded throughout the country. No one, however, -realised at that time, nor indeed for generations to come, that Drake -had discovered and annexed what was afterwards to become so large a -portion of the British dominions beyond the seas. - -One man in particular could not fail to be moved to enthusiasm by these -voyages of discovery. The dream of a great country in the far West, -peopled by the Anglo-Saxon race, was ever before the eyes of Sir Walter -Raleigh. The character of this great man of action was not without many -faults, for it was composed of much fine gold tempered with clay. His -endeavours, however, to extend the limits of Britain's rule excite the -imagination and entrance the mind of the reader. The mantle of Gilbert -fell upon the shoulders of Raleigh, who at once attempted to carry on -the work of colonisation which had been started by his half-brother in -Newfoundland; and the road to which was about to be pointed out by -Richard Hakluyt in his _Discourse of Western Planting_. Raleigh must -have appreciated the appeal made by Sir George Peckham, friend of -Gilbert, when he said, "Behold heere, good countreymen, the manifold -benefits, commodities and pleasures heretofore unknowen, by Gods -especiall blessing not onely reveiled unto us, but also as it were -infused into our bosomes, who though hitherto like dormice have -slumbered in ignorance thereof, being like the cats that are loth for -their prey to wet their feet: yet if now therefore at the last we would -awake, and with willing mindes (setting frivolous imaginations aside) -become industrious instruments to ourselves, questionlesse we should not -only hereby set forth the glory of our heavenly father, but also easily -attaine to the end of all good purposes that may be wished or -desired."[27] Up to this time, by a curious chance, the coastline of the -modern United States, from the St Lawrence to the Savannah River, had -scarcely been visited and was, in fact, very little known. Here then was -an opportunity for Raleigh; and a land, where, if effort was made, the -greatest success might be achieved. The land had been unspoilt and -untouched by the Spaniards; those few hardy seamen who had entered -harbour or creek had found no signs of gold, and had sailed away again. -But it was a land of excellent climate, freed from the ice and fogs of -the more northern latitudes in which the Elizabethan seamen had shown -such pluck and powers of endurance. Captain Carlile, the son-in-law of -Francis Walsingham, had already in 1583 issued his encouraging report -concerning American trade. Raleigh could not fail to be struck by the -sentence, "that whereas one adventureth in the great enterprise, an -hundred for that one will of themselves bee willing and desirous to -adventure in the next."[28] Gilbert's patent for the colonisation of -North America had been transferred to Raleigh, who, with great caution, -in 1584 dispatched two sea-captains, Amidas and Barlow, to spy out this -land of promise. The narrative of these adventurers as given in -_Hakluyt's Voyages_ is extremely picturesque. They steered a more -southerly course than that of any previous British explorer, and finally -reached the island of Roanoke, now within the limits of North Carolina. -They described it as a land flowing with milk and honey. "The second of -July, we found shole water, wher we smelt so sweet and so strong a smel, -as if we had been in the midst of some delicate garden abounding with -all kinde of odoriferous flowers.... We found the people most gentle, -loving, and faithfull, voide of all guile and treason, and such as live -after the maner of the golden age."[29] Amidas and Barlow thus brought -back to their patron Raleigh a story full of hope and wondrous -possibilities. They had found a land worthy of colonisation and well -suited to the English; and this land of promise and of future greatness -was christened by the Virgin Queen--Virginia. - -The days of exploration and discovery by sea in the West had practically -come to an end; the great epoch of colonisation was about to begin. When -Elizabeth came to the throne, English ships had seldom sailed further -than Iceland in the north and the Levant in the south-east, where a -lucrative trade had sprung up as early as 1511. But by the end of the -sixteenth century, owing to the encouragement of the Tudor sovereigns, -the religious persecutions, and the "peculiar" policy of Elizabeth, the -English flag had been proudly borne into all the seas of the world. The -globe had been circumnavigated by Drake and Cavendish; trade through -Archangel had been established with Russia; spices had been brought from -the Indies by the East India Company; "the commodious and gainful voyage -to Brazil"[30] was regularly undertaken by the merchants of Southampton; -while a vast fishing trade had steadily grown up off the coasts of -Newfoundland. Above all the "navigations, voyages, traffiques, and -discoveries of the English nation" had laid the foundation for greater -things. Raleigh's dreams were to be accomplished, though not by himself. -Like so many others he was attracted by gold; his thoughts lay too -readily in the discovery of an El Dorado in South America, of which the -Elizabethan poet wrote:-- - - "Guiana whose rich feet are mines of gold." - -The grain of mustard seed had, however, been planted; the idea had been -put forth to the world; a new nation was to rise in the Western -hemisphere; and, although no definite results were to be seen by the -eyes of the Elizabethans, yet their wild adventures, their acts of -knight-errantry, their perils and their sufferings had paved the way for -the industrious, sober, steady, and more prudent enterprises of Stuart -Cavaliers and of Puritan Pilgrims. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] _Hakluyt's Voyages_ (ed. 1904), vii. p. 154. - -[2] _Hakluyt's Voyages_, vii. p. 143. - -[3] _Bacon's Works_ (ed. 1870), vi. 196. - -[4] _Hakluyt's Voyages_ (ed. 1904), vii. p. 153. - -[5] Barrett, _History and Antiquities of Bristol_ (1789), p. 172. - -[6] _Hakluyt's Voyages_ (ed. 1904), vii. p. 155. - -[7] It is thought by some that Cabot sailed to Greenland. Cf. Biggar, -_Voyages of the Cabots and of the Corte Reals_ (Paris, 1903). - -[8] _Hakluyt's Voyages_, vii. p. 150. - -[9] _Ibid._, viii. p. 37. - -[10] _Hakluyt's Voyages_, viii. p. 3. - -[11] _Ibid._, viii. p. 5. - -[12] _Ibid._, viii. p. 7. - -[13] _Hakluyt's Voyages_, x. p. 2. - -[14] _Ibid._, viii. p. 9. - -[15] _Ibid._, viii. p. 10. - -[16] _Hakluyt's Voyages_, vii. p. 149. - -[17] Fletcher, _Cornhill Magazine_, Dec. 1902. - -[18] _Hakluyt's Voyages_, ii. p. 178. - -[19] _Hakluyt's Voyages_, vii. p. 212. - -[20] _Ibid._, vii. p. 320. - -[21] _Ibid._, vii. p. 321. - -[22] _Ibid._, vii. p. 38. - -[23] _Hakluyt's Voyages_, viii. p. 54. - -[24] _Hakluyt's Voyages_, viii. p. 74. - -[25] _Ibid._, x. pp. 6, 7. - -[26] Egerton, _Origin and Growth of the English Colonies_, p. 65. - -[27] _Hakluyt's Voyages_ (ed. 1904), viii. p. 123. - -[28] _Hakluyt's Voyages_ (ed. 1904), viii. p. 141. - -[29] _Ibid._, viii. pp. 298 and 305. - -[30] _Hakluyt's Voyages_, xi. p. 25. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -VIRGINIA: THE FIRST GREAT COLONY OF THE BRITISH - - -The English settlers in America may be less romantic and less -interesting figures than their Elizabethan predecessors, but they were -undoubtedly fitter instruments for the specific work. The Elizabethan -seamen had played their part, and men now arose who were to fulfil a -greater destiny. The Gilberts and the Drakes were of a race which had -ceased to be, and Fuller justly remarks "how God set up a generation of -military men both by sea and land which began and expired with the reign -of Queen Elizabeth, like a suit of clothes made for her and worn out by -her; for providence so ordered the matter that they almost all attended -their mistress before or after, within some short distance, unto her -grave."[31] Although the adventurous spirit of the Golden Age had passed -away, men were still left who could echo the words of Sir Humphrey -Gilbert and say, "and therefore to give me leave without offence always -to live and die in this mind, that he is not worthy to live at all that -for fear or danger of death shunneth his country's service and his own -honour, seeing death is inevitable and the fame of virtue -immortal."[32] The one great figure who appears to connect the old -period with the new was Sir Walter Raleigh. As has already been -mentioned, he had sent out an expedition in 1584 to see what possibility -there was of establishing a colony in America. The glowing accounts -brought back by his two captains made Raleigh decide upon an undertaking -which, though it proved a failure, must ever be regarded as memorable in -the world's history. - -In 1585 Raleigh sent seven ships and one hundred and eight settlers to -the land which had been granted to him by patent. The territory had -already been named Virginia, in honour of the Queen, and it was here -that he hoped to establish a little colony composed of sturdy -Englishmen. In June the settlers, having landed in Roanoke, were left -under the leadership of Ralph Lane; the other generals, Grenville, -Cavendish, and Amidas, returning to the mother country. From the outset -it was certain that Raleigh's colony must fail. The man chosen as leader -had no special aptitude for the post, being possessed with the mania for -discovery rather than the desire to teach the settlers to form a -self-supporting community. But even worse than this, Lane made the fatal -error of estranging the natives by the severity and brutality of his -punishments. Exactly a year after the settlers had landed, Sir Francis -Drake put in to see how his friend Raleigh's Utopian schemes progressed. -He found the colony in a miserable plight and, yielding to the earnest -entreaties of the settlers, took them on board and sailed to England. -Raleigh, however, had not forgotten his colony, and had dispatched Sir -Richard Grenville with supplies; but when he reached the settlement he -found it deserted. Sir Walter Raleigh's buoyant nature was not depressed -by this first failure, and in 1587 a fresh attempt to settle Virginia -was made. Under the command of White, one hundred and thirty-three men -and seventeen women were sent out. White soon returned to England for -supplies, leaving his daughter Eleanor Dare, who gave birth to the first -white child born in the New World. The unhappy emigrants received but -little assistance from the home authorities. Certainly two expeditions -were sent out to help them, but they failed because their captains found -it more lucrative and exciting to go privateering. The stirring times in -Europe and the coming of the Armada were sufficient to absorb the minds -of such men as Raleigh and Drake, and the colony in Virginia was left to -its fate. What that fate was can only be imagined, for, when White at -last reached Virginia in 1589, not a trace of the colony was to be -found, while another expedition in 1602 proved equally unsuccessful in -the search. Hunger and the Indians had done their cruel work, and the -hand of destiny seemed turned against the foundation of an Anglo-Saxon -colony in the mysterious West. - -There were, however, dominant motives for colonisation at the beginning -of the seventeenth century, and these, together with the intrepidity of -certain of the Elizabethan school, changed the aspect of the whole -question. The previous incentives for discovery and adventure upon the -high seas had been the tricks of imagination, the more glorious scheme -of spreading Christianity and the race for gold. But now there was a -fear amongst the more intellectual thinkers in England that the country -was suffering from a surplus population. This purely imaginary danger -gave birth to the idea that America might provide new homes for this -surplus, and, at the same time, bring new markets into existence which -in the future would very materially help to develop the naval resources -of the English. - -One of the most able and energetic of the new patrons of colonisation -was Shakespere's friend, the Earl of Southampton, who in March 1602 -dispatched to the West, Bartholomew Gosnold with thirty-two companions. -This little band of adventurers landed further north than Raleigh's -ill-fated colonists, probably at a spot where in later years the Puritan -settlers established themselves. The chief feature of Gosnold's venture -was the discovery of a new route to the West by way of the Azores, and -thus a week was saved in future voyages. In the following year the -_Discovery_ and _Speedwell_ were sent out under Martin Pring, the -patrons of the expedition having first obtained formal permission from -Sir Walter Raleigh, whose patent rights were still regarded as valid. It -is interesting to notice that with this concession on Raleigh's part his -connection with Virginia ceased for ever. - -One of Pring's patrons was Richard Hakluyt, to whom all Englishmen are -indebted for his great prose epic and for the stimulus he gave to the -early founders of the British Empire. Hakluyt was born in London about -the year 1552. He was educated at Westminster School and Christ Church, -Oxford, where he took his degree in 1574. His interest in geography and -discovery had been aroused when quite a boy by seeing a map in the -possession of a relative, and from that moment, he writes, "I constantly -resolved, if ever I was preferred to the University, where better time -and more convenient place might be ministred for those studies, I would, -by God's assistance, prosecute that knowledge and kinde of literature, -the doores whereof (after a sort) were so happily opened before me."[33] -Hakluyt's first book was published in 1582, under the title, _Divers -Voyages touching the discoverie of America and the Ilands adjacent unto -the same, made first of all by Englishmen and afterwards by the -Frenchmen and Britons_. This work consisted of a collection of documents -to support England's claim to the prior discovery of America. In the -autumn of 1584 he presented to Queen Elizabeth his _Discourse of Western -Planting_, the writing of which was largely due to the inspiration of -Sir Walter Raleigh. The subject matter had been supplied by the two -voyagers to Virginia, Captains Amidas and Barlow. The first edition of -his great work saw light in the year after the Armada; but Hakluyt was -not satisfied, and for nine more years laboured on, until in 1598 he -produced the second edition in three volumes, and the world was -infinitely the richer for the _Principal Navigations, Voyages, -Traffiques, and Discoveries of the English Nation_. - -The year that Hakluyt sent out Pring to make discoveries is ever famous -for the death of Queen Elizabeth. The great queen, whatever her faults -may have been, had indeed bound her subjects to her by affection and -admiration, and created amongst them a remarkable spirit of both -patriotism and gallantry. It was therefore a fitting and happy -circumstance that associated the last of the Tudors with the first of -our American colonies. Virginia, named from Elizabeth, the child, so to -speak, of a queen, came in time to be the mother of Presidents. It is -not, however, until the accession of the pedantic James that a stern -resolve to accomplish the establishment of a colony seems to have been -taken. The irony of history is better illustrated in this fact than -perhaps elsewhere. The mean mind and timid heart of James I. could never -arouse or inspire enthusiasm as Elizabeth's actions had done. And yet -the appreciation of the importance of a great Empire was reserved for -the reign of the first Stuart rather than during the rule of the -greatest of the Tudors. - -The pressing question of surplus population which had reached a climax -at the accession of James I., together with the prosperity and success -of the newly formed East India Company may have had something to do with -the momentous decision that was taken in 1606. In that year two -companies were formed: the first was the London Company, which was given -permission by the Crown to plant in North America between 45° and 38° -north latitude; the second division was the Plymouth Company, whose -rights of plantation overlapped those of the London Company, their -district being between 41° and 34° north latitude. With the history of -this second company we shall deal later. - -The London Company consisted of various members, such as Richard -Hakluyt, the recorder of voyages; Sir George Somers, "a lamb on shore, a -lion at sea";[34] and Sir Thomas Gates. The Council was nominated by the -King, and included many well-known men of the day; in particular, Sir -Ferdinando Gorges, who played an important part in colonial history for -many years,[35] and Sir Edwin Sandys, who, in the perilous time which -came upon the Company, fought manfully for the right. The system of -administration was of considerable complexity, as the control of affairs -was both divided and qualified. In return for finding the capital for -the proper working of the scheme, the Company was to receive certain -trading privileges. The actual government was vested in two councils, -both of which were nominated by James I., the one to be resident in -England and supreme in all political and legislative affairs, the other -to be established in the colony and liable for the proper administration -of all local matters. The orders given to those in office, when the -first settlement was made, were to a certain extent harsh, but in no way -contrary to the spirit of the times. The Church of England was to be -supported and the supremacy of the King to be acknowledged. All serious -crimes were to be tried by jury and punished with death, but the penalty -for minor offences was left to the discretion of the resident council. -The Company took care that no trade was carried on by private -individuals, and it was insisted that magazines should be erected for -the produce of the colony and for supplying necessities to the -colonists. It may be stated finally that the old ideas of enterprise and -adventure were not lost sight of, and what had stirred Columbus and many -another voyager was now definitely mentioned in the commands. The -settlers were told "to show kindness to the savages and heathen people -in those parts, and use all proper means to draw them to the true -knowledge and service of God."[36] - -By the middle of December 1606, one hundred and forty-three -colonists[37] were on board three ships ready to sail for their new home -in the West. On the morning of New Year's Day, 1607, the little fleet -sailed down the Thames. All praise be to them for showing so brave a -spirit in launching out into an unknown world at the very dawn of -England's expansion. And yet it must be acknowledged that they were the -very worst type of settlers that could have been chosen for such an -undertaking. They were idle, discontented, impatient, and incapable. -Many of them were gentlemen, who had no idea of manual labour; some were -goldsmiths and jewellers, who were without knowledge of agriculture, -building, or even protecting themselves from savages. But even worse -than this was the fact that they had no leader with natural gifts for so -important a position. At their head, to begin with, was Christopher -Newport, famous as a raider off the Spanish main. In council with him -were Gosnold, the intrepid voyager, and Captain John Ratcliffe, a -discontented man, as proved by his later actions, although a -contemporary describes him as "a very valiant, honest, and painful -soldier."[38] From the very outset there were quarrels, and Captain John -Smith, whom we shall meet again, was kept in confinement during the -greater part of the voyage. - -On the 16th April 1607, the storm-tossed adventurers sighted the -southernmost extremity of Chesapeake Bay, and called it Cape Henry in -honour of the Prince of Wales. On the 13th May they selected a place for -settlement, and Jamestown, the first permanent plantation, was -established in Virginia on the James River. Almost immediately Edward -Maria Wingfield was elected president, which proved to be one of the -many mistakes made by the settlers. Nobody can question Wingfield's -bravery, honesty, and desire to act justly, but it is very evident from -the records that he was formal and pompous in manner, and filled with a -too conscious sense of his own dignity. No sooner had the president been -elected than the colony was weakened by a division of their party. -Captain John Smith with a few followers preferred to accompany Newport -on an exploring expedition, and reached a spot where now stands Richmond -City. The Indians, under their leader Powhattan, appeared friendly to -this party, but native friendship could only bear a slight strain, and -trouble was only too likely to arise from the careless conduct of the -settlers who had remained at Jamestown. The time was passed in a series -of petty squabbles, and the infant colony struggled through a period of -the gravest vicissitudes. Gosnold, one of the best of the party, died, -and this was followed by the deposition of Wingfield, Captain Ratcliffe -being made governor in his place. His period of office was marked by -troubles with the Indians, and dire sickness which broke out amongst the -settlers, owing to bad water, want of food, and the unhealthy situation -of Jamestown. - -At last the dominant character of Captain John Smith manifested itself, -and he was chosen chief by common consent. This man's remarkable -adventures read like fiction, but there is little doubt that there is a -great deal of truth in all that he has left on record. Some of the most -romantic episodes that he lays before the reader may perhaps be regarded -as exaggerations or even untrustworthy, but it would be entirely -erroneous to look upon him as a mere Baron Munchausen or a foolish -braggart. He was brave beyond words, robust in person and self-reliant -in mind. In all his actions he was public-spirited, and, at the same -time, for his age and for his training, tolerant, kindly, and humane. He -was one of the most romantic figures of the period, and as such appeals -in his narrative to the sympathy of his readers and captures their -affection. As a soldier in the wars in the Netherlands he had passed -through many a danger. As a traveller in France, Italy, and the near -East he had learnt to understand and command men. As a hardy crusader -and captain in the Turkish wars he had fought manfully against the -infidel in Hungary. He had suffered all the horrors of slavery, from -which he had escaped through the forests of Transylvania. This man of -many adventures may be regarded by posterity as the chief promoter of -the colonisation of Virginia, and, if not her founder, at least her -saviour. - -The early settlers in Virginia would have suffered the fate of Raleigh's -colony of 1587 had it not been for Captain John Smith's perseverance, -steady courage, and determination. He struggled hard to teach the -colonists the necessity of making themselves a self-sufficing community. -Most of the men thought that gold was to be picked up anywhere, failing -to see that if they did not strive manfully they must inevitably starve. -Smith himself says, "our diet is a little meal and water, and not -sufficient of that";[39] and his words are proved by the fact that -within the past six months fifty of the colonists died, and to use the -words of the chronicler, "for the most part they died of famine." Smith -determined that this should not continue, and he took for his motto, -"Nothing is to be expected except by labour." Excellent as was the -motto, the material from which he had to build up a colony was of the -very worst, and it is only natural that he should write home and ask for -"thirty carpenters, blacksmiths, masons, and diggers up of trees' roots, -rather than a thousand of such as we have."[40] His past experiences now -stood him in good stead, and he proved himself a capable leader by -succeeding in forcing the colony into a small, settled community. When -he felt that the colony was for the time being fairly secure he went on -exploring expeditions among the Indians. This was part of the purpose -and duty of the colony, for men were eager to find a short passage to -India, and no one imagined that America was of the gigantic size that -later discovery proved it to be. Whilst on these expeditions the -adventures of Smith were most extraordinary, and may possibly have been -coloured by lapse of time and a brilliant imagination. Once he saved his -life by the marvels of his compass and by the writing of notes to his -friends in Jamestown; and once indeed, according to his own record, he -was saved by the lovely Pocahontas, who pleaded with her father -Powhattan for his life. This latter story is, however, extremely -unlikely, for the Indian princess could have been only a child at the -time, and it is probable that Smith added the account when the fame of -Pocahontas had spread to Europe. - -[Illustration: CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH _From an engraving in his -"Generall Historie of Virginia."_] - -Smith spent the whole of the spring of 1609 in Jamestown endeavouring to -make the settlers industrious by prosecuting the manufacture of tar, -pitch, and soap ashes. Up to this time, with absurd carelessness, the -Jamestown fortification had been left without a well, and Smith now -remedied this obvious defect. With equal energy he turned to building, -and during the months of February, March, and April, he erected twenty -houses, besides a blockhouse, and re-roofed the church. Agriculture and -the fishing industry were no longer neglected, and while some of the -settlers under Smith's guidance brought forty acres under cultivation, -others undertook to supply the colony with fish. Struggle as he did, -Smith continually suffered reverses, and many disasters overtook the -colonists, the most serious being the destruction of their corn by rats. -Starvation stared them in the face, but Smith's firmness and activity -overcame the horrors of famine, and instead of allowing the settlers to -mass together, the men were quartered in different localities where they -had to seek food for themselves. When this remarkable man at last left -the colony, it can scarcely be said to have been in a prosperous state, -but there were four hundred and ninety strong colonists who had been put -on the right road towards progress, partly by Smith's example and partly -by his doctrine "that he who would not work might not eat." - -About the time that Smith was preparing to return to England there was -in that country a reawakening of interest in what Drayton called, -"Virginia, earth's only Paradise." The keener interest that was now -being shown was largely due to a number of pamphlets that had been -published, and also to the enthusiastic sermons of many of the clergy of -the day. In a pamphlet named the _Nova Britannia_ it was pointed out -that Virginia was a valuable opening as a new market for English cloth, -and, in addition, that trade between the two countries would stimulate -the merchant navy. "We shall not still betake ourselves to small and -little shipping as we daily do beginne, but we shall rear againe such -Marchants Shippes, both tall and stout, as no forreine sayle that -swimmes shall make them vayle or stoop; whereby to make this little -northern corner of the world to be in a short time the richest -storehouse and staple for marchandise in all Europe."[41] With this idea -of making England "the richest storehouse," a new charter was granted to -the Company in May 1609. The London Company was now put under a number -of influential men, including Robert Cecil, Earl of Salisbury, and Sir -Francis Bacon, while at the same time the old directors remained upon -the board. Under the new charter the dual control of the two councils -disappeared, and the government was to be in the hands of one council -nominated in the first case by the King, and afterwards, as vacancies -occurred, they were to be filled by men elected by the Company. The -powers of the Company were also extended, for besides the right of -levying duties, it was conceded that defensive war might be waged if it -were thought expedient. By these means the Company practically became an -independent body. - -The outcome of the change was immediately seen in an expedition which -set out under Sir George Somers and Sir Thomas Gates. In July 1609 these -adventurers were wrecked upon the uninhabited Bermudas, but in the -following spring they succeeded in reaching Virginia. The attractive -picture of the settlement as drawn in pamphlet and sermon in England was -scarcely true to life. As a matter of fact no sooner had Smith left the -colony than its inhabitants dropped back into their slothful ways, -which were at once taken advantage of by the cunning Redskins, who, -peaceful while the great captain was present, had now become most -hostile. Thus Sir Thomas Gates in this year records, "the state of the -Colony ... began to find a sensible declyning: which Powhattan (as a -greedy Vulture) obseruing, and boyling with desire of reuenge, he -inuited Captaine Ratclife and about thirty others to trade for Corne, -and vnder the colour of fairest friendship he brought them within the -compasse of his ambush, whereby they were cruelly murthered and -massacred."[42] - -The fate of the colony once more hung in the balance; starvation was -once again at the door. Very fortunately for the settlers, Lord Delawarr -arrived as Captain-General and Governor, with, what was most important, -supplies. The Company, however was becoming disheartened. The colony had -now been in existence for three years and the returns to the -shareholders were meagre indeed. Something had to be done and strong -measures seemed appropriate. In June 1611, Delawarr embarked for -England, but Sir Thomas Dale had already been dispatched with the title -of High Marshal of Virginia. He was armed with a military and civil code -of the greatest severity, for he was confronted with the arduous task of -governing a people made up of "the scourings of London." The military -code was from the first practically a dead letter; but the civil -enactments were so extremely harsh and so peculiar to modern ideas that -they deserve some attention. Daily worship according to the service of -the Church of England was enforced by a penalty of six months in the -galleys. To refrain from attending Sunday service meant death. If any -man "unworthily demean himself unto any preacher or minister of God's -word" he was to be openly whipped three times, and after each whipping -he was to confess his crime. But these laws were almost mild in -comparison with the vague and brutal enactment that "no man shall give -disgraceful words or commit any act to the disgrace of any person in -this colony, or any part thereof, upon pain of being tied head and feet -together upon the ground every night for the space of one month."[43] - -These harsh laws continued, but did not affect the tide of emigration -from England. In August 1611, Sir Thomas Gates returned as Governor with -three hundred fresh settlers.[44] From this moment a much better class -of colonists began to come out, bringing with them their own servants, -and forming the nucleus of a sound colonial population. There were, of -course, other reasons for the improved state of affairs, not the least -important being the fact that Gates worked hard for the benefit of the -colony. An excellent change was carried out when the settlers deserted -unhealthy Jamestown for the more salubrious Henrico. Here a church, a -hospital, and good houses of brick were erected, and a palisade was -raised as a protection from the Indians. Industries, too, began to -thrive, for the records show that both silk and iron were manufactured, -while vines were cultivated with success by some Frenchmen introduced -by Lord Delawarr. Even in England the affairs of the Company had changed -for the better, as in 1612 a fresh charter had been obtained, by which -the Bermudas or Somers Islands were added to its dominions. - -Prosperous as the colony appeared there was ever the menace of the -Indian tribes with whom an intermittent war had been waged for some -time, and during which Powhattan had taken captive several of the -settlers. Peace, however, existed between the English and Japazaus, the -Indian chief of the district along the Potomac, to whom Samuel Argall -was sent by the Governor to trade for corn. This was not Argall's first -visit to Japazaus, and a certain friendship existed between the two, the -Indian chief regarding himself as indebted to the Englishman. With the -King of the Potomac district, as wife of one of his captains, was the -romantic Pocahontas, daughter of Powhattan. To the unscrupulous and -ready-witted Argall this appeared a glorious opportunity of demanding -the Princess as a hostage, and paying off old scores against Powhattan. -Argall broached the subject to Japazaus, who readily accepted the plan. -The story is told with strict truth by Ralph Hamor, the secretary of the -colony, who says, "Capt. Argall, having secretly well rewarded him, with -a small copper kettle, and som other les valuable toies so highly by him -esteemed, that doubtlesse he would have betraied his owne father for -them, permitted both him and his wife to returne,"[45] but Pocahontas -remained a captive. Hearing of his daughter's plight Powhattan -immediately restored some of his prisoners and demanded her surrender, -but the English not being satisfied, asked for more. By this time other -influences were at work, and Pocahontas exhibited no desire to return to -her people. In the spring of 1613, she was baptised by the name of -Rebecca, and married to one of the most influential settlers, John -Rolfe, "a gentleman of approved behaviour and honest cariage."[46] The -marriage was welcomed by the Indian chief, and peace was restored for -the time being. Pocahontas and her husband went to England in 1616, -where she was fêted and presented at court, but the English climate did -not suit the Indian beauty, and she died in the spring of the following -year at Gravesend. - -The year 1614 is memorable in Virginian history for the first hostile -action between the English and their French rivals. Samuel Argall, who -has been classified as "a sea-captain with piratical tastes," attacked a -French settlement on the coast of Maine and sacked Port Royal, the -capital of Acadia or Nova Scotia. These acts were contrary to all the -principles of international law, but France, under the weak rule of -Marie de' Medici, was in no state to avenge her wrongs, and the matter -dropped after a formal complaint by the French ambassador. This and -other weighty questions caused an animated discussion in Parliament -concerning the rights and privileges of Virginia. Martin, the advocate -of the Company, told the House to look to the advantages to be gained in -Virginia, and not to waste their time on the trifles that generally -engaged their attention. In fact, his speech was so heated that he was -forced to confess his errors on bended knee, and with that the House of -Commons was satisfied, and dropped the subject. - -After the retirement of Gates, Sir Thomas Dale continued the government -of Virginia under the merciless code; and yet the colony prospered, -private industry and private property being allowed. Dale's second -period of office was for two years only, and he departed at a time when -a greedy and unprincipled set of men began to administer the affairs of -the Company. In 1617 they selected as their Deputy Governor in Virginia -the most unsuitable Samuel Argall. Certainly he was a man endowed with -ability and resolute courage, but he was one of the few unscrupulous -villains who have disgraced colonial history. Immediately on coming into -power he issued a series of edicts of arbitrary character. Trade with -the Indians was forbidden, but this was not for the advantage of the -shareholders of the Company, but for the benefit of their deputy. The -settlers were made to work as slaves for Argall, for whom the -constitution of the colony afforded splendid opportunities. Such a state -of affairs was not to last for long; the despotic conduct of the -Governor leaked out at identically the moment the Company passed into -the hands of a more honest and capable set of directors.[47] Sir Edwin -Sandys, a leader of that party which was soon to turn boldly against the -King, together with the brilliantly versatile Southampton and the -skilled John Ferrars, were now at the head of Virginian affairs in -England. - -The history of Virginia changed for the better in 1619, when Sir George -Yeardley superseded the piratical Argall. The new Governor was not a -particularly strong man, and in many of his actions he proved himself a -weak successor of the stern Sir Thomas Dale. On the other hand there was -beneath the somewhat too gentle exterior a man of considerable worth, -for he succeeded in governing peaceably a turbulent people without -falling back upon unnecessary severity. Yeardley's first year of -administration is ever famous for the establishment of the earliest -representative assembly in the New World. It is only natural that a -fully developed scheme was not evolved at once. There is some -uncertainty as to what classes actually obtained the franchise, but it -is probable that every freeman possessed a vote. Certain it is, however, -that each plantation and each county returned two members, and it is -equally well-known that the assembly took upon itself both legislative -rights and judicial powers. Thus the year 1619 witnessed the creation of -Virginia as an almost independent power heralding a revolutionary change -in the near future. - -The colony seemed prosperous in every way, but there were dark clouds -overshadowing the Company on all sides. It was rumoured, and with some -truth, that five thousand emigrants had landed in Virginia, and yet only -one thousand were actually resident. Men asked themselves the question, -"had the settlers returned, or had they died in this so-called land of -promise"? The new board of directors, if they had been left to -themselves, would have put the Company upon an assured footing, and -success would most certainly have attended their efforts. But this was -not to be; the Company was attacked from within and without. Lord -Warwick's party, a clique within the Company, showed every sign of -hostility to Southampton and Sandys. The external attacks came from -three sources, not the least important being that of the Crown. James I. -was jealous of the power of that Company which he himself had created. -His fears were increased by the insidious attacks of the Spanish -ambassador, Gondomar, who informed the King that "a seditious Company -was but the seminary to a seditious Parliament."[48] Even the English -people, little realising the work that the Company was painfully -accomplishing for Imperial purposes, now turned against the men whom, -for sentimental reasons, they ought to have supported, and used the -popular cry against monopolies to bring about the downfall of the -founders of a new nation. The dangers of the Company were increased by -the perils of the colony itself. The old Indian hostility had for a few -years slumbered, but after the death of Powhattan and the succession of -Opechancanough in 1618 the horrors of Indian warfare once more -threatened the colony. In the following year the death of a famous -Indian, Jack the Feather, was a sufficient pretext, and Opechancanough -attacked Virginia. The English proved successful in the end, but not -before they had lost three hundred and seventy of their number. It is -not to be wondered at that the Assembly issued a severe order that "the -inhabitants of every plantation should fall upon their adjoining -savages";[49] this the planters readily obeyed; and the steps taken, -though harsh, appear to have been effectual. - -The news of the Indian massacres, the action of Spain and the absurd -desire of a Spanish marriage, worked upon the mind of James I. to such -an extent that he determined to abolish the Company.[50] In 1623 the -King demanded the surrender of the charter, which Sandys and his party -stoutly refused. A writ of _quo warranto_ was then issued to decide -whether the privileges of the Company were purely a monopoly, or whether -they were exercised for the public good. The Law Courts gave a verdict -against the Company, and the charter was declared null and void. The -storm cloud, which had long hung over the Company, had now burst upon -the heads of the devoted directors. They were forced to succumb to the -most pernicious of all influences, for they had been crushed by greed -and covetousness, together with the intrigues of disgraceful courtiers -and disappointed speculators who showed a lack of public spirit that too -often marked the early years of the Stuart period. In reviewing the -actions of the Company it is universally agreed that they had in almost -every case been for good; it is, however, acknowledged with similar -unanimity that for the actual benefit of the colony in the future it was -as well that the Company's powers should pass to the Crown. Had the -actions of the Company been disliked in the colony itself, it is -inexplicable that the colony should have supported the Company at the -time of its trial. The settlers could not foresee what might be the -outcome of a continuance of the Company's rule. At the time they merely -realised with disgust that James had acted as he had done, solely to -gain the fickle and grudging favour of the decadent Spain; but they did -not understand that the Company must inevitably in the future, if it had -not already done so in the past, act as a trammelling influence upon the -progress and prosperity of the little settlement. Unwittingly James, by -his action, had removed the fetters, and had given an opportunity of -free growth to the colony. It was no longer possible for the welfare of -the individual planter to be sacrificed to the merely temporary -advantage of the English trader and shareholder. "Morally and -politically, indeed, the abrogation of the Virginian charter was a -crime"; but "the colony, happily for its future, passed under the -control of the Crown while it was yet plastic, undeveloped and -insignificant."[51] Henceforth the constitution of Virginia was of the -normal type; the administration was carried on by a governor and two -chambers, the one nominated, the other popularly elected. - -The first chapter of Virginian history may be said to have closed when -the Company ceased to exist, and at the same time the romantic and -heroic aspect of the colony was concluded. Although perhaps no -individual connected with the foundation of the colony can be compared -with the glorious figures of the Elizabethan epoch, yet in the -characters of Hakluyt, Southampton, Sandys, and Captain John Smith there -was something of the old order. The heroism of the first actors upon the -Virginian stage was probably as great as that of their predecessors, but -the new order of things did not call upon them to exhibit such feats of -strength or of bravery. By the abrogation of the Company's charter a -revolution had indeed been effected. From this moment the history of -Virginia can only be dealt with in a brief and hasty sketch, for happy -is the country that has no history, and such is the case with regard to -the later years of England's first great colony. The interests of the -settlers are in the future mainly confined to the growth of tobacco, as -will be shown in a later chapter, and from 1623 the chroniclers cease to -record the story of the terrible struggle for bare existence, but tell -rather the tale of a steady but unheroic prosperity amongst a rich class -of planters employing negro labour. - -The first Governor under the Crown was Sir Francis Wyatt, who was of -good character and inspired the colonists with a self-reliant temper. He -was succeeded in 1626 by Sir George Yeardley, who had already won the -affection of many of the settlers in the days of the Company's rule. The -following year, however, Yeardley died; and the Crown appointed a -creature of its own, Governor Harvey, who quarrelled with the Assembly -on every possible occasion. In fact so bitter did these quarrels become -that a settler, Mathews by name, as leader of the popular party, seized -Harvey in 1635, and placed him upon a vessel where he was kept in -honourable confinement until the old country was reached. It is hardly -likely that the colonists imagined that the Crown would take their part -against the Governor, but their action was probably due to a general -desire to impress the Crown with their power. Charles I., who had -previously shown good feeling towards the colony, now behaved foolishly -in sending Harvey back to Virginia, where he remained for four years, -filling up his time by sending numerous petty and querulous complaints -to the home country of the misdoings of the settlers. During Harvey's -administration the old proprietors made several attempts to obtain a -fresh grant of the charter and the reinstitution of the Company. But -with the same ardent spirit as the colonists had supported the Company -in 1623, so now they opposed its re-establishment and for the same -reason. The change that they had imagined must inevitably take place by -the abolition of the Company was a loss of their titles; but having been -firmly settled under the Crown they were frightened that if the Company -should be again created their titles would be again endangered. The -advocate of the colonists was the pliant and pliable Sandys, who, when -he reached England, deserted his constituents, and pleaded for the -restoration of the old rule. The colony immediately on hearing of this -sent word to the King that their representative was acting contrary to -their wishes, and in 1639 they received the satisfactory reply that -Charles had no intention of restoring the Company. - -From this time the settlers appear from contemporary records to have -been contented. The writers point out how nature gave freely, how -beautiful was the land, and how peaceful were the natives. There can be -no doubt that this was the content and boastfulness of a young people, -and that it was unduly exaggerated. On the other hand it must also be -allowed that though Virginia was not quite the paradise represented in -some of the letters written by the settlers, yet it was, when the Civil -War broke out in England, a land of comparative peace and plenty. - -Sir Francis Wyatt was again sent out to succeed Governor Harvey in 1639, -but his period of office was short and uneventful. More stirring times -came when the colony passed under the rule of Sir William Berkeley. He -was a typical cavalier, bluff in speech, hot in temper, brave in danger, -and contemptuous of learning. He may, in later years, have exercised a -merciless tyranny, but it was the hardship of his fortunes together -with something closely akin to lunacy that drove him to such actions. On -his appointment, his instructions were more carefully formulated than -had hitherto been the case. This was only natural as the Court party at -home were beginning to see the dangers that were looming ahead, and so -they trusted that in Virginia trouble might be checked by the exaction -of the strictest oaths of allegiance and supremacy, and by the -insistence on the service of the Church of England. This latter was -hardly necessary as speaking widely the Church of England was the Church -of the Virginians. There were, however, three parishes, the members of -which were almost entirely nonconformists until dispersed and scattered -by a conformity act between the years 1642 and 1644. - -Sir William Berkeley had hardly taken up the reins of government when -the history of the colony was marked by a great calamity. Opechancanough -was now an old man, enfeebled in body and physically incapable of -leading his people; but his mind was still as active as ever, his savage -cunning was in no way dimmed by years, and he had ever nursed the hatred -he had felt for the settlers since the failure of his attack in the days -of the Company. The rumours of the outbreak of the Civil War in England -soon reached the ears of the Indians, some of whom had actually seen two -ships of the white settlers bombarding each other in the Bay. -Opechancanough seized this opportunity of division and strife among the -Virginians, and fell upon the colony. Before the settlers were ready to -resist, three hundred men, women and children had been slain. The local -militia at last made headway against the savages, and after the capture -and death of the old chief in 1646 a treaty was made as to the boundary -between the English and the Indians, under which peace reigned for -thirty years. - -It has been the fashion to regard Virginia as a purely Cavalier colony; -this is probably due to an attempt to accentuate the difference between -the Southern colony and the New England group. It is, however, an -exaggeration to say that Virginia was entirely composed of those -supporting cavalier principles. Certainly there were large landowners -who sympathised with Charles and his party, but there was a very large -and prosperous middle class, composed of small landowners and well-to-do -tradesmen, amongst whom it was only natural to find various opinions and -sympathies. As a whole, however, Virginia may be said to have been -Royalist, not from any rooted objection to the Commonwealth, but rather -because the Royalist party was temporarily predominant in the -settlement. Sir William Berkeley, as a loyal Governor, forbade the -showing of any sympathy to the Parliamentary rebels, and he was -supported in his action by Charles II., who, in 1650, before he left -Breda, despatched a commission empowering Berkeley to act in his name. -The far-reaching power of Cromwell was not to be stayed by any such -commission, for the Commonwealth was determined "to grasp the whole of -the inheritance of the Stuart Kings,"[52] and so Ayscue was sent in 1651 -to reduce the colonies to submission. On March 12 of the following year, -Virginia acknowledged the new power in England, much to the rage and -discontent of the Governor. Berkeley had indeed done his best, and had -issued a stirring declaration which concluded with these words, "But, -gentlemen, by the Grace of God we will not so tamely part with our King -and all those blessings we enjoy under him, and if they oppose us, do -but follow me, I will either lead you to victory or lose a life which I -cannot more gloriously sacrifice than for my loyalty and your -security."[53] The settlers, however, were not stirred, and though a -thousand men had been collected at Jamestown, the Assembly refused their -support, not so much for the love of Cromwell as because they feared -material loss if they resisted him. Had the great Protector lived longer -the history of the American colonies might have been very different. He -was the first Englishman who can really be said to have understood in -its fullest sense the word Empire. But the gods were not generous to -this imperialist, and they did not grant to him the necessary time for -the achievement of a policy which Cromwell himself classed as similar to -that of "Queen Elizabeth of famous memory."[54] As it was, the rule of -the Commonwealth had little definite effect upon Virginia, except that -it necessitated a change in governors. The first was Richard Bennet, who -was elected by the Assembly in 1652, and ruled for three years. His -successor, Edward Digges, was a worthy and sensible man, under whose -administration the colony continued a calm and happy existence for one -year. In 1656 Samuel Mathews was chosen, but during his rule Virginian -history was unimportant, and the only cloud upon the horizon was an -Indian panic which came to nothing. - -The submission of Virginia was for the time only, and at the -restoration of Charles II. once more the royalist party became supreme. -The King was accepted with perfect quiescence, and it is probable that -the Virginians, like the English, rejoiced at the change, looking -forward to the return of more mirthful and joyous days. As England -learnt to repent the return of the Stuarts, so also Virginia found that -she had fallen upon evil times, a fact which is partially shown in -Berkeley's report in 1671. "As for the boundaries of our land, it was -once great, ten degrees in latitude, but now it has pleased his Majesty -to confine us to halfe a degree. Knowingly I speak this. Pray God it may -be for his Majesty's service, but I much fear the contrary.... I thank -God, there are _no free schools, nor printing_, and I hope we shall not -have these hundred years; for _learning_ has brought disobedience, and -heresy, and sects into the world, and _printing_ has divulged them, and -libels against the best government. God keep us from both."[55] - -The greed of the cavaliers under Charles II. is notorious, and it -affected Virginia just as much as it did England. Lord Arlington and -Lord Culpeper obtained in 1672 the most monstrous rights, together with -a grant by which the whole soil of the colony passed into their hands. -An agency was at once sent to England to oppose this discreditable -action, at the same time taking with them a charter for which they hoped -to obtain ratification from the King. Needless to say in this they were -unsuccessful; but the charter is historically important, because it -contained a clause stating that the colonists could not be taxed without -the consent of their own legislature. The work of the agency partly -failed owing to the supineness of Governor Berkeley; chiefly, however, -because the people of Virginia were unable to see that agencies could -not be sent without expenditure. When a poll-tax was enacted to cover -the necessary expenses of their agents, there was a popular outburst. - -The inhabitants of Virginia at this time were much divided, and composed -of distinct classes, the well-to-do planter, the tradesman, the "mean -whites," the negro and the criminal. The last class had been growing -steadily for some years as the colony had been used as a dumping-ground -for gaol-birds, and indeed the criminal section would have increased -still more had it not been for the better class of settlers who -determined to stop it. In April 1670, the General Court held at -Jamestown issued a notice "because by the great numbers of felons and -other desperate villains being sent over from the prisons in England, -the horror yet remaining of the barbarous designs of those villains in -September 1663, who attempted at once the subversion of our religion, -laws, liberties, rights and privileges," we do now prohibit "the landing -of any jail-birds from and after the 20th of January next upon pain of -being forced to carry them to some other country."[56] Although this law -tended to exclude a cheap form of labour, nevertheless between 1669 and -1674 Virginia, commercially, was in a most flourishing condition, -raising a greater revenue for the Crown than any other settlement. Sir -John Knight informed Lord Shaftesbury that £150,000 in customs on -tobacco alone had been paid, "so that Virginia is as of great importance -to his Majesty as the Spanish Indies to Spain, and employs more ships -and breeds more seamen for his Majesty's service than any other -trade."[57] - -Commercial success was not the only thing that went to make up Virginian -history, for there were signs of external danger only too plainly -exhibited by numerous outrages on the part of the Indians. Had Berkeley -shown any skill or energy in suppressing these disorders all might have -gone well; as it was he did nothing, with dire results. The incapacity -of the Governor at last aroused the wrath of a young, honest, -courageous, but indiscreet, member of the Assembly, named Nathaniel -Bacon. He took up arms and was at first pardoned, but when he once again -attempted to seize Jamestown he was taken, and died in so mysterious a -manner as to give rise to rumours of poison and treachery, though it was -also reported, "that, he dyed by inbibing or taking in two _(sic)_ much -Brandy."[58] Bacon's rising had the effect desired in so far as it -brought about the recall of Berkeley. So vindictively and cruelly did -the Governor punish Bacon's followers that in 1677 the Crown sent three -Commissioners, Sir John Berry, Colonel Francis Moryson, and Colonel -Herbert Jeffreys to look into the grievances of either side. They almost -immediately quarrelled with the Governor, who was anxious to carry on -his severe punishments. The King, however, had commanded the -Commissioners to show, if possible, the greatest lenience. As a matter -of fact out of a population of 15,000, only 500 were on the side of the -Governor, and this small party who claimed to be the loyalists, very -naturally advocated confiscations and fines. Berkeley obstructed the -Commissioners as well as he was able, showing himself reckless of all -consequences, and exhibiting gross discourtesy to the King's -representatives. The truth was that Berkeley was growing old, and had -possessed unlimited power far too long, supported as he had been by a -most corrupt Assembly. The end of the quarrel came when the Governor, or -more probably, Lady Berkeley, insulted the officials beyond forgiveness. -After a consultation at the Governor's house the Commissioners were sent -away in his carriage with "the common hangman" for postillion.[59] This -outrage upon the laws of hospitality was too much; and Jeffreys -immediately assumed the reins of government. Sir William Berkeley gave -one more snarl, informing the new Governor that he was "utterly -unacquainted"[60] with the laws, customs, and nature of the people; he -then sailed for England, which he reached just alive, but "so unlikely -to live that it had been very inhuman to have troubled him with any -interrogations; so he died without any account given of his -government."[61] - -Sir Herbert Jeffreys had a difficult task before him in trying to purge -the Assembly. Within a year of taking up office he died, leaving no -lasting memorial of his skill as Governor, but he is "to be remembered -as the first of a long series of officers of the standing army who have -held the governorship of a colony."[62] Jeffreys' successor, Sir Henry -Chicheley, only held office for a few months, and at his departure the -old type of governor disappears. The year 1679 is remarkable for the new -method of administration, a method which proved injurious to the -colony. Thomas, Lord Culpeper, was the first of the new scheme, and -though he resided in the colony for four years he did nothing for its -inhabitants. The appointment of Culpeper was most ill-advised, as he was -already detested owing to the grant of 1672. He took up his office at -identically the same time as the burgesses acquired the right of sitting -as a separate chamber, and he found the council refractory, the colony -unprosperous, and the Company of his Majesty's Guards in "mutinous -humours."[63] His tenure of office expired in 1684, and he was succeeded -by Lord Howard of Effingham. It cannot be said that the new Governor was -idle, but whatever he did was to the disadvantage of Virginia and the -Virginians. By a scandalous system of jobbery he inflicted grievous -financial injury upon individuals, and at the same time retarded the -progress of the colony by a system of new imposts. By his skill he -obtained for the Governor and the Council the right of appointing the -Secretary to the Assembly, which ought not to have been allowed by a -free representative body. From this time the evils of the English -colonial system became apparent, and it is now that absentee governors -enrich themselves at the expense of their settlements, the actual -administration being left to lieutenant governors in the confidence of -their chiefs, who remained at home. - -The great stumbling-block to colonial prosperity was the lack of unity -between the different settlements on the eastern coast of North America. -In 1684 an attempt was made to bring about united action against -Indians, who had desolated the western borders of the English colonies. -A conference was called at Albany, and Virginia, like all the other -colonies, sent delegates to discuss the possibility of creating the -United States under the British Crown. Nothing, however, came of it, for -the jealousies and wranglings of the delegates only too well illustrated -the feelings of the different settlements for each other. The Revolution -of 1688 was accepted with tranquillity in Virginia, and two years later -Francis Nicholson was appointed King William's lieutenant governor. -Nicholson was a man of much colonial experience, of violent temper, and -scandalous private life. He strongly opposed the desire for political -freedom, but at the same time he made an excellent governor, and during -his rule, which lasted until 1704 (except for a period of six years, -1692-1698), the colony prospered. A desire for education evinced itself -at this period, and in 1691 Commissary Blair was sent to England to -obtain a patent for the creation of a college. He returned within two -years, his labours having been crowned with success, and in 1693 the -second university[64] in America was established under the title of -William and Mary College. - -As the seventeenth century drew to a close, Virginian progress was -stimulated by the settlement, on the upper waters of the James River, of -De Richebourg's colony of Huguenots, which is said to have "infused a -stream of pure and rich blood into Virginian society." If the test of a -colony is its population, Virginia at this time must have been most -flourishing. Less than a century had passed since Newport and his one -hundred and forty-three settlers had sailed into the James River; the -colony had suffered privations, had witnessed many a fluctuation of -fortune, but at the dawn of the eighteenth century about one hundred -thousand souls were living there in peace, plenty and happiness. During -the century that had passed, the settlers had won for themselves -political rights, and practically, political freedom. They were to a -certain extent restricted by the Navigation Acts, but the influence of -the Crown or of the English Parliament was hardly felt. Their interest -in English political life was meagre; the importance of getting -trustworthy lieutenant governors was far greater to the Virginian than -whether Whig or Tory was in power at home. Sometimes the colony was -fortunate, sometimes the reverse, but in every case the lieutenant -governor was opposed to any extension of political rights. The -difficulty of united effort on the part of the planters was, to a -certain extent, intensified by a want of towns. Hampton was Virginia's -chief port, and was composed of a hundred poor houses, while -Williamsburg cannot be regarded as a true centre of either economic or -intellectual activity. This lack of town life is pointed out by -Commissary Blair, who informed the Bishop of London, "even when attempts -have been made by the Assembly to erect towns they have been frustrated. -Everyone wants the town near his own house, and the majority of the -burgesses have never seen a town, and have no notion of any but a -country life."[65] The lieutenant governors during the eighteenth -century had not only to contend with the supineness of the settlers, but -also with intercolonial discord. Thus Alexander Spotswood, in 1711, -attempted to assist North Carolina against the Tuscarora Indians, but he -received no support from either the Council or Assembly of Virginia. -Five years later Spotswood was met with similar bickerings and squabbles -when South Carolina was invaded by the Yamassees. In 1741 Oglethorpe -begged assistance to protect the newly established Georgia; instead of -sending their best we are told that his officer brought back "all the -scum of Virginia."[66] - -The worst feature of Virginian life was the omnipresent and omnipotent -slave system, but from the mere commercial aspect this was in favour of -the colony at the time. The planters, however, were never ready to leave -the colony for imperial purposes owing to the fear of a negro rising at -home. This was one of the chief difficulties with which the Governor, -Robert Dinwiddie, had to contend, during that trying period of French -and Indian attack, which prepared the way for the Seven Years' war. With -this period it is not proposed to deal now, but to leave it to a later -chapter concerning the struggle between the French colonists in the -north and west, and the English settlers upon the eastern seaboard -during that period which is peculiarly connected with Britain's imperial -story. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[31] Quoted by Professor Raleigh in Introduction to _Hakluyt's Voyages_ -(ed. 1904), xii. p. 24. - -[32] _Hakluyt's Voyages_ (ed. 1904), vol. vii. p. 190. - -[33] _Hakluyt's Voyages_ (ed. 1904), vol. i. p. xviii. - -[34] Quoted by Doyle, _The English in America_, Virginia (1882), p. 145. - -[35] _American Historical Review_, vol. iv. No. 4, pp. 678-702. - -[36] Quoted by Doyle, _op. cit._, p. 147. - -[37] Doyle says 143 colonists; neither Percy nor Newport mention the -exact number; Bradley, in his life of _Captain John Smith_, says 105. - -[38] _Cf._ footnote, Doyle, _op. cit._, p. 149. - -[39] Smith's Letter to the Virginia Company. - -[40] Quoted by Bradley, _Captain John Smith_ (1905), p. 144. - -[41] Force, _Tracts_ (1836-46), vol. i. - -[42] Gates, _A True Declaration of the Estate of the Colonie in -Virginia_ (1610). - -[43] Force, _Tracts_ (1836-46), vol. iii. - -[44] Sir Thomas Dale was Governor 1611 and 1614 to 1616. Sir Thomas -Gates as Governor organised the colony 1611 to 1614. See _Dictionary of -National Biography_, xxi. p. 64. - -[45] Hamor, _A True Discourse of the Present Estate of Virginia_ (ed. -1860). - -[46] Hamor, _A True Discourse of the Present Estate of Virginia_ (ed. -1860). - -[47] The characters of the two parties is controversial owing to the -scarcity of documentary evidence. - -[48] Doyle, _op. cit._ p. 220. - -[49] _Ibid._, p. 226. - -[50] There was no question of abandoning the colony itself, which was -what Spain desired. - -[51] Doyle, _op. cit._ pp. 242, 244. - -[52] Gardiner, _History of the Commonwealth_, i. 317. - -[53] Neill, _Virginia Carolorum_ (1886), p. 215. - -[54] _Cromwell's Speech V._, Sept. 17, 1656. - -[55] Hening, _Statutes at Large_ (New York, 1823), ii. p. 517. - -[56] _Calendar of State Papers_, Colonial, 1669-1674, p. 64. - -[57] _Calendar of State Papers_, Colonial, 1669-1674, p. 530. - -[58] _Strange News from Virginia_ (1677), p. 8. - -[59] _Calendar of State Papers_, Colonial, 1677-1680, p. 64. - -[60] _Ibid._, p. 67. - -[61] _Ibid._, p. iv. - -[62] Fortescue, _Introduction to Calendar_, 1677-1680, p. v. - -[63] _Calendar of State Papers_, Colonial, 1677-1680, p. 589. - -[64] See p. 93. - -[65] _Calendar of State Papers_, Colonial, 1697, p. 642. - -[66] _Itinerant Observations_, p. 62. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -THE COLONISATION OF MARYLAND AND THE CAROLINAS - - -"Maryland is a province not commonly knowne in England, because the name -of Virginia includes or clouds it, it is a Country wholy belonging to -that honorable Gentleman the Lord Baltamore."[67] Such is the -description of the colony that now comes before us, and at the time it -was penned John Hammond, the writer, told the truth. The colony had -arisen under rather peculiar circumstances, which neither resembled the -foundation of Virginia nor the settlement of the Pilgrim Fathers. In -1632 Charles I. granted to George Calvert, first Lord Baltimore, an -ill-defined tract of territory to the north of Virginia. Baltimore was -an old hand at colonisation, for he had some years previous attempted to -form a settlement in Newfoundland which had not been successful. David -Kirke, who took over the Baltimore lands there, said that Newfoundland -agreed with all God's creatures except Jesuits and schismatics, and that -a great mortality among the former tribe had driven Baltimore away. -Whether this was the true reason, or whether, as it has been proposed, -Baltimore was practically driven out by the Presbyterians, it is hard to -decide. His next trial as a colony founder was made in the more -southern lands of Virginia, but here his Roman Catholicism was sternly -opposed by the English Church party. Under these circumstances his -Maryland colony seemed likely to flourish, for there were neither -schismatics nor churchmen, nor Presbyterians, but only Indians to -contend against. Before the first Lord Baltimore could accomplish -anything he died, but the grant was transferred to his son Cecil. The -charter is an important one, for by it the Proprietors gained both -territorial and political rights; the freemen or representative assembly -were to be consulted, and with their advice the Proprietor could enact -laws. All places of worship were to be consecrated according to the -Church of England, and so the Roman Catholic faith had only a -subordinate position in a colony which owed its foundation to a true -upholder of that belief. From the very first Maryland was better off -than several of the other colonies, as the Crown divested itself of the -right of levying taxes within the province; but in other respects the -constitution was normal, consisting of a governor and two chambers, the -proprietor possessing the privilege of creating councillors. - -Leonard Calvert, brother of the second Lord Baltimore, sailed to take -possession in 1633, accompanied by two Jesuit priests and three hundred -emigrants. These colonists were neither gaol-birds nor religious -fanatics; they had been selected with great care and were well provided. -One of the Jesuits, Father White, has left on record his _Impressions_ -in which he says that the colony was founded with a definite religious -and educational purpose. "We had not come thither for the purpose of -war, but for the sake of benevolence, that we might imbue a rude race -with the precepts of civilisation, and open up a way to heaven, as well -as impart to them the advantages of remote regions."[68] When the -settlers came to the place of landing they "beheld the natives armed. -That night fires were kindled through the whole region, and since so -large a ship had never been seen by them messengers were sent everywhere -to announce 'that a canoe as large as an island had brought as many men -as there was trees in the woods.'"[69] From this moment and onwards the -relations with the natives were always friendly. The small independent -landowners being free from this danger, at first, lived happy and -contented lives, but they were gradually crushed out of existence by -large estate-holders working with gangs of indentured labourers. - -The people of Virginia looked with some scorn upon their modern -neighbours, and it was not long before a quarrel took place. The Isle of -Kent lay in such a position off the coast that under Baltimore's patent -it ought to have been included in the province of Maryland. But in 1625 -the Virginians had settled there for trading purposes, and were -determined not to be brought under the yoke of Baltimore's -proprietorship. Two years after the establishment of Maryland, the Isle -of Kent was under the rule of William Clayborne, a strong Protestant, a -contentious man, who was described by his enemies as "a pestilent enemie -to the wel-faire of that province and the Lord Proprietor."[70] - -Calvert, anxious to establish the rights of his brother, sent two ships -to the Isle of Kent, and these were attacked by the crew of a pinnace -belonging to Clayborne, lives being lost on both sides. The quarrel -continued with so much fervour that it became merged in the greater -struggle of the Civil War. Calvert was granted by the King letters of -marque for privateering purposes, and he took good care to prey upon his -enemy, Clayborne, whose friend Ingle had been furnished with similar -letters from Parliament. Thus having placed the quarrel which was really -personal under the banners of King and Parliament, the two rivals -contended with each other. - -The Parliamentary forces were, at first, successful; Ingle and Clayborne -invaded Maryland, seized St Mary's, and Calvert was obliged to fly. But -with assistance from Governor Berkeley of Virginia, he returned and -drove out the Clayborne faction which had disgusted the people by its -incapacity and greed. The quarrel ceased for a short time, owing to -Calvert's death; but it was not long before it was renewed. Lord -Baltimore appointed as his deputy William Stone, an ardent nonconformist -and Parliamentarian, who repaid the Proprietor's generosity by leaguing -with the people of the Isle of Kent. Traitor though he was, it is to be -remembered that during his period of rule one good act was passed. -Maryland was already celebrated for its toleration, but in 1649 it was -still further enacted that a Christian was not to be "in any ways -molested or discountenanced for or in respect of his or her religion, -nor in the free exercise thereof."[71] - -For the peace of their minds and the preservation of their property -Stone and the settlers acknowledged the Parliamentary commissioners, -including Clayborne, who landed in 1652. They first displaced Stone, but -realising that he was popular, and thinking that it would be -advantageous for them, reinstated him. Stone, however, once more proved -a trimmer, and sided with the Proprietor; his late followers deserted -him and turned to Clayborne. On the establishment of the Protectorate in -1654 Lord Baltimore asserted his rights, claiming that he now held from -the Protector Cromwell, and declaring that the commissioners' privileges -had ceased. Clayborne and his companions were not the men to take such a -rebuff as this. "It was not religion, it was not punctilios they stood -upon, it was that sweete, that rich, that large country they aimed -at."[72] With this desire, according to a contemporary, Clayborne -asserted his authority by disfranchising the Roman Catholics and -forbidding the oath of loyalty to the Proprietor. William Stone, stung -to resistance and filled with importance as the representative of Lord -Baltimore, took up arms and was defeated by the Protestant party at -Providence in 1655. Many of Stone's followers were executed, and their -property confiscated; Stone himself was sentenced to death, but was -reprieved. Clayborne's party now seemed triumphant, but the home -authorities refused to bestow upon him the Isle of Kent, and within two -years the Protector restored to Baltimore his proprietorship of -Maryland. Trouble still continued, and in 1659 Josias Fendall, the -Proprietor's Governor, so worked upon the members of Assembly that they -claimed full legislative rights and complete independence of the -Baltimore family. - -At the Restoration the quarrel came to an end, and Lord Baltimore -re-established his rights with nothing more than a mere show of force. -Philip Carteret was appointed Governor, and during his term of office a -mint was set up in the colony. He was succeeded in 1662 by Charles -Calvert to the alarm of the Protestant inhabitants, who sent an -extraordinary document to the Lord Mayor and London merchants entitled, -"_Complaint from heaven with a hue and cry and a petition out of -Virginia and Maryland, to the King and his Parliament against the -Barklian and Baltimore parties. The platform is Pope Jesuit determined -to overthrow England with fire and sword and destructions, and the -Maryland Papists to drive us Protestants to purgatory._"[73] These, -however, were purely imaginary troubles, and a more real one fell upon -both Virginia and Maryland on August 27, 1667, when a terrific gale -destroyed in two hours four-fifths of their tobacco and corn, and blew -down 15,000 houses. On the whole Virginia suffered perhaps more than -Maryland, but neither colony was really subject to such perils; and -both, during the first fifteen years of Charles II.'s reign, enriched -themselves as well as the Proprietor or the Crown by the fertility of -their soil. This period of prosperity, however, gave way to one of -unrest. - -By the death of Cecil, Lord Baltimore in 1675, Charles Calvert, the late -Governor, succeeded as heir to the family titles, estates and -proprietorship of Maryland, the latter being placed under his deputy, -Thomas Notley. The Proprietor was not at first upon the best of terms -with the home government. He was severely reprimanded by the Privy -Council for the imprisonment and assassination of a collector of -customs. It is not hinted that Baltimore had any actual hand in this -crime, but it is thought that he connived "at least _ex post facto_ in -his murder." No sooner had the Proprietor got over this difficulty, than -he fell out with the settlers, who were caused much uneasiness in 1681 -by the limitation of the franchise to those freeholders of 50 acres or -those owners of other property of the value of £40. A spirit of unrest -was therefore abroad, and there were not wanting those who were ready to -snatch the opportunity and pose as patriots against the aggression of -the Proprietor. Josias Fendall, who had already tried to deprive the -Baltimore family of their rights, and who had now become an unworthy -demagogue, leagued with John Coode, a clergyman, and revolted. The -insurrection, as such, was short-lived. But exciting events were taking -place in England, and Coode again seized his chance when news of the -Revolution of 1688 drifted across the Atlantic. He placed himself at the -head of the Association for the Defence of the Protestant Religion, and -in 1689, pretending that he was serving William III., seized in the -King's name the government of Maryland. The King bestowed some signs of -favour upon this clever rebel, but his designs were soon discovered, and -the government of Maryland was radically changed. In 1691 the colony was -placed under the direct control of the Crown; the political rights of -the Proprietor were annulled; the Church of England was established, and -the Roman Catholics were persecuted. - -The first royal Governor was Francis Nicholson, who had served elsewhere -successfully, but was regarded with suspicion and dislike by many of -the inhabitants of Maryland. Gerald Slye's accusations against -Nicholson, in May 1698, give some idea of this dislike, and are of some -interest as an indication of the means used by an ignorant colonist to -discredit the Governor in England. A few of the accusations will show -how utterly foolish these complaints were. Slye began by asserting that -"all thinking men are amazed that such a man should have twisted himself -into any post in the government, for besides his incapacity and -illiteracy, he is a man who first in New York, then in Virginia, and at -last in Maryland, has always professed himself an enemy to the present -King and government." The next charge was that the Governor "makes his -chaplain walk bareheaded before him from home to church." This is -further extended by the fact that he "usually makes his chaplain wait -ten or twelve hours for service so that often morning prayer is said in -the evening." But there are more charges concerning Nicholson's -treatment of his chaplain, for he, "a pious and good gentleman, the -credit of the clergy in this province, happening one day by the -Governor's means [to be] a little disguised in drink"[74] was suddenly -summoned to conduct Divine Service. And so charge after charge of the -same absurd character were brought against Nicholson not so much because -of his ill-doing, but because he had the misfortune to be Governor. - -The people of Maryland were not content until in 1715 the fourth Lord -Baltimore became a Protestant, and by his conversion it was held that -his full rights had revived. Fourteen years later the Proprietor's -title obtained an everlasting memorial in the foundation of the city of -Baltimore as a port for the planters. The restoration of the Calverts to -their former rights was by no means advantageous to the religious life -of the colony. The fourth lord was a hanger-on of Frederick, Prince of -Wales, while the fifth to hold the title was a notorious profligate. -These men insisted on exercising their right of clerical patronage -without any regard to the welfare of the Church. Thus George Whitefield, -who visited the colony in 1739, failed to arouse religious fervour. His -preaching in Maryland was far less successful than it had been in -Virginia. The former colony he found in "a dead sleep," and to use his -own words, he "spoke home to some ladies concerning the vanity of their -false politeness, but, alas! they are wedded to their quadrille and -ombre."[75] - -If the Marylanders were conspicuous for their irreligion, they were -equally noticeable for their industry. A large number of German -emigrants had come to the colony, and had started a continuous movement -of extension towards the West. To these Germans is entirely due the -improved state of the country, and the better means of communication -even beyond the mountains. But the rolling westward of the Maryland -population brought the colony into close touch with the power of France; -and like the other colonies it was destined, about the middle of the -eighteenth century, to contend against the policy of the French King, by -which, if it had been successful, the seaboard colonies would have been -deprived of the possibility of further expansion towards the Pacific. - -The history of the Carolinas only resembles that of Maryland in the fact -that they were both proprietary colonies. The swampy and low-lying coast -to the south of Virginia had, in the early years of colonisation, -offered little temptation to settlers, and long remained uninhabited by -Englishmen or Spaniards. Certainly in 1564, Laudonnière, a Huguenot -gentleman and naval officer, attempted a plantation at Port Royal in -South Carolina, and named his fortress Caroline, "in honour of our -Prince, King Charles";[76] but it was an absolute failure, and the -history of the fate of these Huguenots at the hands of the brutal -Spaniard, Menendez, is as well-known as the tremendous retribution which -followed his barbarous cruelty. Captains Amidas and Barlow, in 1584, at -the charge and direction of Sir Walter Raleigh, visited this portion of -the North American continent, but nothing came of it, and "Caroline" was -left strictly alone as if a curse were upon the land. Adventurers from -Virginia at last broke down the old prejudices, and by the year 1625 -landseekers and discoverers had penetrated as far south as the Chowan. -By a strange chance the country named by Laudonnière was destined in -1629 to receive much the same name from an Englishman for much the same -reason. In that year Sir Robert Heath obtained from Charles I. a grant -of land to the south of Virginia, which was called after the King "the -province of Carolina." No practical result, however, came from this -grant, and Carolina, as it may now be called, still remained uninhabited -except for the natives. - -The first real charter to the Lords Proprietor of Carolina was dated the -24th March 1663, but owing to the previous grant of Charles I. numerous -legal steps had to be taken before matters were satisfactorily arranged. -The land between Virginia and Florida was now granted to eight -patentees, amongst whom were the Duke of Albemarle, the Earl of -Clarendon, Sir William Berkeley, but above all the Earl of Shaftesbury. -These Proprietors had political and territorial authority, but there was -also to be an assembly of freeholders with legislative powers. Twenty -thousand acres of land were reserved for the original Proprietors, but -at the same time a notice was issued inviting planters to settle in the -colony, promising one hundred acres to each settler within five years, -together with the privilege of residing in a land blest with the -doctrine of freedom of conscience. This notice was published not only in -England, but also in Barbadoes, the Bermudas, Virginia and New England, -so that the colonisation of the Carolinas was not only, nor even mainly, -undertaken by adventurers from the home country. On Albemarle River a -settlement was made from Virginia, which formed the nucleus of North -Carolina. Near Cape Fear the New Englanders also had a little colony -which was absorbed by a more prosperous settlement from Virginia. -Settlers soon came from Barbadoes, for there the news had been welcomed, -and hundreds of experienced planters showed themselves willing to accept -the offer of the Proprietors, and expressed a desire to come with their -negroes and servants. They had, no doubt, been tempted by the extra -inducements published in August 1663, when the Carolinas were advertised -as wonderfully healthy and a land capable of bearing commodities not yet -produced in other plantations as wine, oil, currants, raisins, silks, -etc. Most of the Barbadoes planters were afterwards absorbed in the -colony sent out from England forming the nucleus of South Carolina. - -The history of the first year in the Carolinas is practically unknown, -except that in September the province was divided into two, and the -northern section seems to have been already settled. The growth of the -colony must have been steady, for in June 1665, Thomas Woodward, -surveyor for the Proprietors in Albemarle county, shows that the -population has increased, and that "the bounds of the county of -Albemarle, fortie miles square, will not comprehend the inhabitants -there already seated."[77] He continues to give the Proprietors -excellent advice, and recommends that they should show generosity if -they wish to encourage settlers; "so if your Lordships please to give -large Incouragement for some time till the country be more fully Peopled -your Honore may contract for the future upon what condition you please. -But for the present, To thenke that any men will remove from Virginia -upon harder Conditione then they can live there will prove (I feare) a -vaine Imagination, It bein Land only that they come for."[78] There were -however, others who continued to praise the colony, and one writer in -1670 says of Ashley River, "it is like a bowling alley, full of dainty -brooks and rivers of running water; full of large and stately -timber."[79] The reader can hardly refrain from wondering where the -resemblance to a bowling alley is to be found. Again the panegyrist says -in a somewhat peculiar sentence, "as of the land of Canaan, it may be -said it is a land flowing with milk and honey, and it lies in the same -latitude."[80] The Proprietors were very anxious to preserve this lovely -land for the "better folk," and in December 1671 Lord Ashley wrote to -Captain Holstead not to invite the poorer sort to Carolina, "for we find -ourselves mightily mistaken in endeavouring to get a great number of -poor people there, it being substantial men and their families that must -make the plantation which will stock the country with negroes, cattle, -and other necessaries, whereas others rely and eat upon us."[81] - -Carolina's presiding genius and champion was Lord Shaftesbury's medical -adviser, secretary, and personal friend, John Locke. He is supposed in -1667 to have drawn up the Fundamental Constitutions which contained an -elaborate scheme of feudal government. Whether he did produce this -astounding document has never been conclusively proved, nor is it of -much value, since the principles contained in it were never enforced as -a working system, for they were neither adapted to the times nor the -conditions of a colony of freemen. By the year 1670 the elective -Assembly possessed the definite powers of appointing officers, -establishing law courts, and superintending the military defences of the -colony. These privileges did not prevent them committing a great blunder -by which the colony was converted into a paradise for the bankrupt and -the pauper, but a hell for the honest and willing settler. It was now -enacted that no colonist for the first five years after the true -foundation of the colony should be liable for any exterior debts; that -no newcomer need pay any taxes for his first year; and that marriage -should be regarded as valid if mutual consent should be declared before -the governor. - -The northern section of the colony suffered most, and for fifty years -this part of Carolina was wearied by ever recurring disputes and -insurrections. "The colony indeed seems to have reached that chronic -state of anarchy when the imprisonment and deposition of a governor is a -passing incident which hardly influences the life of the community."[82] -Thus during the government of Thomas Eastchurch, who was sent out by the -Proprietors to Albemarle in 1677, there was much trouble. Eastchurch -appointed as his deputy the immoral Thomas Miller of the King's Customs. -"Now Miller had a failing, not as the Proprietors point out, the common -one of religious bigotry which had bred such dissension in New England, -but a weakness for strong liquor."[83] On his arrival he undertook to -model the Parliament, "no doubt with alcoholic readiness and assurance, -which proceeding we learn without surprise gave the people occasion to -oppose and imprison him."[84] Thereupon certain unscrupulous men took -Miller's place and began at once to collect the Customs and so defrauded -the Crown. For some short time angry words passed between the home -Government and the colony, but the storm was calmed by the restoration -of the King's duties. Eastchurch was succeeded by Culpeper, who -controlled affairs until Seth Sothel came out as governor in 1683. The -new ruler's rapacity and arbitrary conduct caused the Assembly to -depose and banish him, paying no attention to the feeble remonstrance of -the Proprietors. - -Meanwhile the southern portion of Carolina, particularly the settlements -of Yeamans at Cape Fear and Sayle at Charleston, proved themselves more -orderly and promising than the anarchic Albemarle; and probably for this -reason the Proprietors displayed towards them more consideration. The -constitution which was granted to Charleston in 1670 was most liberal in -character, for not only were the freemen allowed to elect the members of -the House of Representatives, but they also possessed the privilege of -nominating ten out of the twenty councillors. As so many of the settlers -had come from Antiqua, "weary of the hurricane,"[85] or from Barbadoes, -they naturally reproduced their old methods of life, and having been -accustomed to slaves, they tried to force the Indians into servility; -but they found the Red Indian very different from the African negro, for -he was possessed of a proud spirit and remarkable cunning that saved him -from serfdom. The community of the South was one of wealthy traders who -generally lived in the capital, partly because of the fine harbour and -the insalubrious swamps inland, and partly because of the scheme of the -Proprietors by which every freeholder had a town lot one-twentieth the -extent of his whole domain. - -The first governor was William Sayle, of Barbadoes, described in 1670 as -"a man of no great sufficiency."[86] It is very difficult at this -distance of time to deduce the character of this governor, for Henry -Brayne wrote, "Sayle is one of the unfittest men in the world for his -place"; and he then proceeded to call him "crazy."[87] On the other -hand, when Sayle died in 1671, being at least eighty years of age, he is -called "the good aged governor";[88] and the Council of Ashley River, on -March 4, 1671, recorded that he was "very much lamented by our people, -whose life was as dear to them as the hopes of their prosperity."[89] -Sayle's chief work during his short period of office was an attempt to -inculcate godly ways amongst the somewhat ungodly colonists. He urged -the Proprietors to send out an orthodox minister, and proposed the man -"which I and many others have lived under as the greatest of our -mercies."[90] He knew very well that some special inducement would have -to be held out to the Proprietors, and so uses the scriptural words, -"for where the Ark of God is, there is peace and tranquillity."[91] - -Sayle was succeeded by Joseph West as governor in 1671, but his -appointment was only temporary, as Lord Shaftesbury in the autumn of -that year sent a commission to Sir John Yeamans. His unpopularity, -however, caused his deposition; and Joseph West was again nominated as -governor in 1674, a post which he filled with conspicuous satisfaction -and success for eleven years. While West was still in office, the Lords -Proprietor issued an order in December 1679 for the proper establishment -of Charlestown. "Wherefore we think fit to let you know that the Oyster -Point is the place we do appoint for the port-town, of which you are to -take notice and call it Charlestown, and order the meetings of the -Council to be there held, and the Secretary's, Registrar's, and -Surveyor's offices to be kept within that town. And you are to take care -to lay out the streets broad and in straight lines, and that in your -grant of town-lots you do bound everyone's land towards the streets in -an even line, and suffer no one to encroach with his buildings upon the -streets, whereby to make them narrower than they were first -designed."[92] Such was the town to which West welcomed the Huguenots -who were excluded from the colonies of their own country. The -Proprietors, too, appreciating the wisdom of their governor, afforded -the unhappy French means of cultivating their native produce of wine, -oil, and silk, so that they soon established new homes for their -distressed brethren, "who return daily into Babylon for want of such a -haven."[93] By the end of West's administration the Clarendon -settlements centering round Charlestown had become extremely well-to-do, -and the town government, which was of excellent character, administered -the affairs of about three thousand people. But the southern territory -fell into the evil ways of North Carolina; and after West's retirement, -which finally took place in 1685, a series of unsatisfactory governors -caused a continual bickering, ill-feeling, and well nigh insurrection. -Sothel, whose bad government in Albemarle was already known in the -south, was appointed governor in 1690; but after a year the southern -settlers, taking example from their northern brethren, drove him out. - -The Proprietors at last found that they had had enough of this -disgusting incompetence and anarchy. The Locke Constitutions had failed -in every way; a change must be made; and it appeared that an -amalgamation of North and South under one governor might have the effect -desired. Their first choice of an administrator was most unsuccessful; -Philip Ludwell of Virginia found he had a hard task before him in -restoring peace out of chaos and anarchy. The task was too much for him, -and having proved himself incapable was succeeded by a Carolina planter, -Thomas Smith, in 1692. Bickering and quarrels continued; Indian attacks -were occasionally met and dealt with; but the southern Spaniards were an -ever present danger that made Smith's rule no sinecure. After three -years Joseph Archdale, a quaker, and one of the Proprietors, came out as -governor, but after a few months in the colony he was succeeded by his -nephew, Joseph Blake. The benign rule of both these governors gave at -last to the Carolinas a peace which they had not known for twenty years. -The Huguenots were once again welcomed by Blake, and although they had -been steadily settling in the Carolinas, particularly since the -Revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, yet they now obtained a more -hearty welcome and complete toleration. So much had Blake's government -done for the Carolinas that the royal special agent in 1699 records, "if -this place were duly encouraged, it would be the most useful to the -Crown of all the Plantations upon the continent of America." - -There were, however, two external dangers to which the Carolinas were -exposed at the very moment they seemed to have obtained internal peace. -The first was the new French settlement on the Mississippi; the second -was the fear of Spanish aggression from Florida. The French danger was -never really very extreme, and the Carolinas escaped many of the horrors -of New England history. But the Spanish peril was true enough, for as -early as 1680 a party of Scotch Presbyterians were routed from their -little settlement at Port Royal, and this was regarded by the Carolina -settlers as a just cause of complaint and an insult to his Majesty King -Charles. To their great disappointment in 1699, when Edward Randolph was -sent out to make investigations concerning Spanish intrusions, he -brought with him no troops for their protection. At the beginning of the -eighteenth century, therefore, it appeared best to the settlers that for -their own defence they should take offensive action. - -The war of the Spanish Succession, or, as it was called in the colonies, -Queen Anne's war, had broken out, and rumours had reached the settlers -of a coming Spanish onslaught. To meet this, James Moore, a political -adventurer, but a very brave and capable man, led 500 English and 800 -Indian allies into Spanish territory and took the unprotected town of St -Augustine; but the fort, which was used as a last stronghold, resisted -him for three months, and as he was unprovided with siege guns, he was -obliged to retire on the appearance of a Spanish man-of-war. Nothing -daunted, but rather elated with their previous success, a larger raid -was made in 1704. Sir Nathaniel Johnstone was now governor, and he -commissioned Colonel Moore to attack Apalachee, eighty miles to the west -of St Augustine. In this action Moore was again successful, as Colonel -Brewton records that "by this conquest of Apalachee the Province was -freed from any danger from that part during the whole war."[94] The -Spaniards, however, did not remain idle, and in 1706, in alliance with -the French from Martinique, with a fleet of ten sail and a force of 800 -men attacked Charlestown. The inhabitants were terrified, and their -anguish was intensified by the horror of a severe outbreak of yellow -fever. Many of them, therefore, fled from the town, but Sir Nathaniel -Johnstone routed the combined forces of France and Spain and captured no -fewer than 230 prisoners. - -Factious quarrels within the Province itself now threatened the safety -of the settlers. Since 1691 North and South Carolina had been united -under one governor, but the custom had been established that the -northern portion of the colony was always under the administration of a -deputy. In 1711 Thomas Cary disputed with Edward Hyde as to which held -the office; it was decided in favour of the latter. The purely personal -quarrel drove Cary to forget his feelings of patriotism, and flying from -Carolina he stirred up the Tuscarora Indians, who, with fiendish -delight, attacked a small settlement of Germans from the Palatinate. -South Carolina, where the supreme governor dwelt, immediately dispatched -an army to the assistance of the North, with the effect that apparent -peace was gained and the army was no longer required. Immediately upon -its withdrawal, however, the Tuscaroras again fell upon the helpless -people; this was too much, vengeance must be taken; and this fierce -Indian tribe was practically decimated and forced to migrate north. - -Although the Treaty of Utrecht was signed in 1713, and the Spanish War -of Succession came to an end, yet there was little hope of peace in the -West as long as either side allied with the Indians. The fate of the -Tuscaroras may have stimulated the Yamassee Indians to revenge in 1716. -In April, headed by Spaniards, they massacred about eighty inhabitants -of Granville County, South Carolina. Charles Craven, the governor, -proved himself a man of vigour, activity, and stern resolve, and by his -efforts within a few months the colony was assured of safety, and there -was apparent peace between the settlers of Carolina and the Spaniards of -Florida. - -In the winter of 1719 that perpetual love of dissension, and dislike of -any federal action, was once more manifested by the Assembly of South -Carolina. The governor was a son of Sir Nathaniel Johnstone, and he had -done his best for the Proprietors, but unlike the northern portions the -South now disowned all proprietary rule and elected a governor under the -Crown. The home authorities immediately sent out Francis Nicholson, a -capable colonial official who had already had experience in New York, -Virginia, and Maryland. Ten years later the Proprietors accepted the -inevitable, and being compensated financially, handed over the Carolinas -to the Crown. They probably never regretted the bargain, as in 1739 the -war against Spain once more jeopardised the existence of the English -settlements in the south, the inhabitants of which were in chronic fear -of murder and rapine. The chief Spanish attack was made in 1742, when an -army of 5000 landed at St Simon's, owing to the failure of Captain Hardy -to intercept the enemy's fleet. The expedition was unsuccessful; the -colonists held their own; eighty prisoners were brought into -Charlestown; and the Spaniards retired. - -The share taken by the two Carolinas in American history during the next -few years was far less than that of other colonies, but will be dealt -with in another chapter. The great interest of the early history of the -Carolinas is that the colony won for itself against very considerable -odds the rights of local government and freedom from the shackles of the -Proprietors. The settlers exhibited from first to last that full -determination which is peculiarly associated with those of English stock -to control their own destiny without the leading-strings of a few, -perhaps benevolent, but generally misguided, human beings, whose powers -have been conferred upon them by chance. The settlers of the Carolinas -were a dogged type of men who faced external dangers with courage and -good sense, distinctly contradictory of their pig-headed, factious, -anarchic spirit in all internal affairs. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[67] Hammond, _Leah and Rachel_ (London, 1656), p. 20. - -[68] White, _A Relation of the Colony of the Lord Baron Baltimore in -Maryland_ (ed. 1847). - -[69] _Ibid._ - -[70] Hammond, _ut supra._ - -[71] Bozman, _History of Maryland, 1633-60_ (1837), vol. ii. p. 661. - -[72] Hammond, _ut supra._ - -[73] _Calendar of State Papers_, Colonial, 1661-1668, p. 119. - -[74] _Calendar of State Papers_, Colonial, 1697-1698, p. 246. - -[75] _Letters_, vol. i. p. 135. - -[76] _Hakluyt's voyages_ (edit. 1904), vol. ix. p. 17. - -[77] Saunders, editor of _Colonial Records of North Carolina_, p. 99. - -[78] _Ibid._, p. 100. - -[79] _Calendar of State Papers_, Colonial, 1669-1674, p. 186. - -[80] _Calendar of State Papers_, Colonial, 1669-1674, p. 187. - -[81] _Ibid._, p. 297. - -[82] Doyle, _Cambridge Modern History_ (1905), vol. vii. p. 35. - -[83] Fortescue, _Calendar of State Papers_, Colonial, 1677-1680, p. ix. - -[84] _Ibid._, p. ix. - -[85] _Calendar of State Papers_, Colonial, 1669-1674, p. 620. - -[86] _Ibid._, p. 130. - -[87] _Calendar of State Papers_, Colonial, 1669-1674, p. 137. - -[88] _Ibid._, p. 187. - -[89] _Ibid._, p. 169. - -[90] _Ibid._, p. 70. - -[91] _Ibid._, p. 86. - -[92] _Calendar of State Papers_, Colonial, 1677-1680, p. 455. - -[93] _Ibid._, p. xi. - -[94] _Historical Collections of South Carolina_ (New York, 1836). - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -THE PURITANS IN PLYMOUTH AND MASSACHUSETTS - - -It has been customary to regard the members of the colony of Virginia as -Cavaliers of the most ardent type, but, as has been shown, this is -scarcely correct, and amongst the Virginians there were many who did not -approve of either the actions of Laud or the dissimulation of Charles. -In much the same way it would be erroneous to ascribe to the New England -group a plebeian origin. The Virginian gentleman found his counterpart -in the New England colonies of Plymouth and Massachusetts. It is, -however, more true to describe these two colonies as the offspring and -embodiment of Puritanism, than to describe Virginia as purely -monarchical. In the northern colonies, congregationalism was the chief -form of religious worship, and this, as was natural, determined their -political form; it was no insurmountable step from a belief in -congregations to a belief in republics. The men who found this step so -easy were a very different pattern to the early ne'er-do-wells of -Virginian colonisation. The northern colonies were founded by the yeoman -and the trader, both of whom were patient, watchful, and ready to assert -with an Englishman's doggedness all political rights. These men formed -small organic communities filled with the very strongest sense of -corporate life. Not that these forms took an absolutely exact line, for -in some cases the community was a pure democracy with limitations and -restrictions; in others there was a very wide and modified oligarchy. -The men were the very best of settlers; they knew what they wanted, and -were ready to work and even sacrifice their lives to gain that object. -It is not surprising that in the New England colonies prosperity raised -its head long before it had come to Virginia, though the soil of the -latter was far more fertile than the sterile lands of the northern -group. - -The Plymouth Company had been formed at the same time as the London -Company, but it had accomplished very little.[95] In 1607 it dispatched -an expedition under George Popham and Raleigh Gilbert to the River -Kennebec, in the territory afterwards called Maine. The climate, -however, did not suit the adventurers, and owing to the mismanagement of -the leaders and the indifference of the Company nothing came of the -undertaking. For thirteen years the Plymouth Company made no further -effort, but in 1620 it was entirely reorganised, placed upon a new -footing, and renamed the New England Company. This may have been caused -by two things. In the first place Captain John Smith had made a voyage -to New England in 1614; it was indeed that resourceful but perhaps -boastful adventurer who either gave the name by which the country was -afterwards known, or gave currency to an already existing though not -generally accepted title. "In the moneth of Aprill, 1614 ... I chanced -to arrive in _New-England_, a parte of _Ameryca_ at the _Ile of -Monahiggin_, in 43-½ of Northerly Latitude."[96] But even this voyage -and the several others that followed would not have been sufficient to -arouse the Plymouth Company. It was in truth a second and deeper cause -that started the reorganisation of a corporation that had so long lain -dormant. A new force had now entered into colonisation that was to do -much for the establishment of the Anglo-Saxon race in America. Religion -had sent men to convert the savages, but now religious persecution sent -men to make homes amongst those barbarians. - -It is unnecessary here to discuss the rise of the Puritans as an -important sect in English history. They were those "whose minds had -derived a peculiar character from the daily contemplation of superior -beings and eternal interests."[97] They differed in nearly every respect -from the ordinary Englishman of the Elizabethan period, and yet they -were in many instances intellectual and well-bred. They saw, however, -that "they could not have the Word freely preached and the sacraments -administered without idolatrous gear," and so they concluded to break -away from the Church. It was this separation that gained for them the -name of Separatists, and brought upon them the punishment of the State. -To avoid this some sought leave from Elizabeth to settle in the land -"which lieth to the west," their object being to "settle in Canada and -greatly annoy the bloody and persecuting Spaniard in the Bay of -Mexico."[98] Such was the knowledge of geography about 1591, and it was -very fortunate for the would-be-colonists that nothing came of the -scheme. Two years later some Independents of London fled to Amsterdam, -where they hoped to exercise their religion unmolested. Soon after the -beginning of the seventeenth century the Nonconformists of Gainsborough -took refuge in the Low Countries, to be followed in 1606 by the -Congregationalists from Scrooby. They first found shelter in Amsterdam, -and later, some, choosing John Robinson as their minister, moved to -Leyden. - -The laws of England had driven these men abroad, but they never forgot -the fact that they were Englishmen. They found their families growing up -around them and naturally imbibing foreign ideas. This fact deeply -pained the parents, who looked back upon their own happy youths in Tudor -England. They determined, therefore, to leave the Netherlands, and -William Bradford, their faithful chronicler, tells in quaint but honest -words why they were driven to this decision. "In y^e agitation of their -thoughts, and much discours of things hear aboute; at length they began -to incline to this new conclusion, of remooual to some other place. Not -out of any new fanglednes, or other such like giddie humor, by which men -are oftentimes transported to their great hurt & danger. But for sundrie -weightie & solid reasons."[99] The most serious of these reasons "and of -all sorowes most heauie to be borne; was that many of their children, by -these occasions (and y^e great licentiousnes of youth in y^t countrie) -and y^e manifold Temptations of the place, were drawne away by euill -examples into extrauagante & dangerous courses, getting y^e raines off -their neks & departing from their parents. Some became souldjers, -others took vpon them farr viages by Sea; and other some worse courses -... so that they saw their posteritie would be in danger to degenerate & -be corrupted."[100] It was for this reason, then, in particular, that -the people of the congregation of Leyden turned their thoughts to the -"countries of America which are frutful & fitt for habitation; being -deuoyed of all ciuill Inhabitants; wher ther are only saluage & brutish -men which range vp and downe, litle otherwise than y^e wild beasts of -the same."[101] And yet though they sought a home for themselves where -they might worship as they pleased, they were at the same time filled -with that missionary spirit which had encouraged Columbus and many -another adventurer to persevere. Their great aim was to lay "some good -foundation or at least make some way thereunto, for y^e propagating & -advancing y^e gospell of y^e Kingdom of Christ in those remote parts of -y^e world; yea, though they should be but even as stepping stones unto -others for y^e performing of so great a work."[102] - -With these intentions the ever famous Pilgrim Fathers came to England, -bringing with them a document admitting the supremacy of the State in -religious matters. The wording of the clauses, however, was so artful -that these Puritans proved that though gentle as doves they were not -without the wisdom of the serpent. They obtained leave from James I. to -set out on their voyage; but they were financed by certain London -traders who were to receive all the profits for the first seven years, -when the partnership was to be dissolved. Until this dissolution the -whole band was to live as a community with joint property, trade, and -labour. A few labourers were sent out by the London partners, but the -group to which the term of Pilgrim Fathers strictly applies was composed -of forty-one Puritan emigrants and their families, who had, as a friend -said, "been instrumental to break the ice for others; the honours shall -be yours to the world's end."[103] The voyage of the _Mayflower_ is now -one of the most familiar events in the history of the British Empire. -The little vessel, accompanied by the _Speedwell_, which had to return, -sailed from Plymouth in August 1620. The original intention of the -emigrants had been to land on part of the shores of Virginia; but owing -to storms, the fragile character of the vessel, and the obstinacy of the -captain, they reached Cape Cod, "which is onely a headland of high hils -of sand ouergrowne with shrubbie pines hurts and such trash."[104] While -lying off this inhospitable promontory the emigrants with forethought -bound themselves together by a social compact, thus forming a true body -politic. - -The Pilgrims landed at a spot "fit for habitation" in Cape Cod Harbour -on the 22nd of December. Exploring expeditions were undertaken by the -more adventurous under Miles Standish, a man after the type of Captain -John Smith, but less boastful and of sterner religious character. No -definite settlement was fixed upon and the people were therefore forced -to remain in the neighbourhood of Cape Cod, where they faced the winter -unprepared. Although their minister, John Robinson, had described them -months before as "well-weaned from the delicate milk of the Mother -country and inurred to the difficulties of a strange land,"[105] yet -their sufferings during those wild and stormy months must have been -terrible. Several of the party died, amongst them their first governor, -William Carver. His successor was the already mentioned chronicler, -William Bradford, who served the colony well and faithfully for twelve -years. He was the first American citizen of English birth who was -selected as governor by free choice. His strength of character, moral -rectitude, and lofty public spirit made him worthy of the high office -conferred upon him. Fortunately his first year of government was freed -from the burden of Indian attacks. The truth was that the Pilgrim -Fathers always preserved friendly relations with the neighbouring -Redskins; partly because they had been so reduced in numbers by -pestilence that they were never a serious danger, and partly owing to -Edward Winslow, one of the ablest and most highly educated of the -settlers, who had saved, by his knowledge of medicine, the Indian -chief's life, thus establishing from the first amicable relations. - -Amidst the most heart-rending adversity the Pilgrim Fathers worked at -the communal industry, and struggled through those months of cold and -semi-starvation, helped no doubt by the fact that they were religious -enthusiasts filled with a sense of a divine mission. In May 1621 -Bradford records the first marriage amongst the settlers, which was -conducted on somewhat novel lines, for "according to y^e laudable -custome of y^e Low-cuntries, in which they had liued was thought most -requisite to be performed, by the magistrate."[106] In November fifty -additional settlers came out from the Leyden congregation, and these not -only increased the difficulty of supplying food for everyone, but also -introduced a feeling of dissatisfaction with what they found. Bradford -had, however, the laugh on his side. On Christmas Day the Governor -called them to work as usual, but "the new company ... said it wente -against their consciences to work on y^t day." They were therefore -allowed to remain at home, the rest of the colony going out to work; but -when the governor came home at noon, "he found them in y^e streete at -play openly; some pitching y^e barr & some at stoole-ball and such like -sports. So he went to them and tooke away their Implements and tould -them that it was against his conscience, that they should play & others -worke."[107] - -The settlers had indeed laboured hard and not in vain, for a definite -grant of their territory was issued by the New England Company, and -there was now no fear of their log-fort, their houses, or their -twenty-six acres of cleared ground being seized by the original members -to whom the land had been granted by James I. The little plot of ground -thus carefully tended seems to have been a real oasis in the wilderness. -An eye-witness, Edward Winslow, has drawn an ideal picture of the -settlement. "Here are grapes, white and red, and very sweet and strong -also; strawberries, gooseberries, raspas, etc.; plums of three sorts, -white, black and red, being almost as good as a damson; abundance of -roses, white, red and damask; single but very sweet indeed. The country -wanted only industrious men to employ."[108] With such a tempting -account it is not surprising that thirty-five new settlers went out in -1622. - -The communal principle gradually began to break down. The younger men -did not care to work so hard and find that they gained no more than the -weak and aged; nor were the married men pleased with the idea of their -wives cooking, washing, and sewing for the bachelors. As early as 1623, -signs of the disappearance of the system were beginning to show -themselves; and by 1627 its break up was completed when the interests of -the London partners were transferred to six of the chief settlers with a -general division of land and live stock. The government of the -settlement was now placed on an assured footing; the laws were passed by -the whole body of freemen, who had also the double right of electing the -governor and a committee of seven assistants. Under the new methods the -colony throve apace, and three years after the change, two new townships -were formed and these sent delegates to an assembly which was primarily -composed of the whole body of freemen, but which, owing to the existence -of these delegates, gradually developed, until in New Plymouth there was -a proper bicameral legislature with a governor at its head. - -The Plymouth colonists set "the example of a compact religious -brotherhood."[109] In 1636 they passed a code of laws which in no way -clashed with those of England, but applied more especially to the style -of life which they had adopted. The brotherhood extended its bounds year -by year, and hardly a score of years had passed since their first -landing before eight prim, clean, and comfortable towns had been built, -containing a population of about 3000 inhabitants. By this time the -Civil War had broken out in England, but the settlers were little -affected by it, for they lived their own quiet lives and went on their -way, filled with religious fervour and working hard to support -themselves. - -After the Restoration, however, they felt bound to bestir themselves in -political affairs, and in June 1661 their general court sent a petition -to Charles II., asking him to confirm their liberties, explaining to him -that they were his faithful subjects "who did hither transport ourselves -to serve our God with a pure conscience, according to His will revealed, -not a three days' journey as Moses, but near three thousand miles into a -vast howling wilderness, inhabited only by barbarians." They concluded -their petition in the quaintest words, saying that if only the King will -grant their wishes, "we say with him, it is enough, our Joseph (or -rather) our Charles is yet alive."[110] The poverty of the Plymouth -brethren about this time is evidenced by their lack of funds necessary -for the renewal of their charter in 1665; and also in the fact that the -people were not able to maintain scholars for their ministers, "but are -necessitated to make use of a gifted brother in some places."[111] -Nevertheless in this same year they are computed to have had a fighting -force of 2500 men; and on two later occasions (1676 and 1690) they were -strong enough to make strenuous but ineffectual attempts to obtain a -charter from the Crown. The little colony that has perhaps the proudest -of all positions in American history was finally, in 1691, merged in its -more arrogant and pushing neighbour Massachusetts, and the land of the -Pilgrim Fathers lost its identity. - -Just as Puritanism had been the cause of the foundation of New Plymouth, -so it was in the case of Massachusetts. Lord Macaulay has pointed out -that "the Puritan was made up of two different men, the one all -self-abasement, penitent gratitude, passion; the other proud, calm, -inflexible, sagacious."[112] The first type represented New Plymouth, -where Puritanism was distressed, and where its followers struggled -manfully but were self-abased. Massachusetts, on the other hand, -resembled the second type; here Puritanism was vigorous; the upholders -of the belief were aggressive, strong, determined, and pushing. Thus the -two colonies were not only different in character, but for that very -reason were destined to differ in prosperity. - -As early as 1620, Sir Ferdinando Gorges and others had been interested -in the colonisation of New England; and in a document issued in the -following year, strict injunctions were laid down for the carrying out -of material fit for the foundation of a settlement. Thus, every "shipp -of three score tons shall carry w^{th} them twoe Piggs, two Calves, twoe -couple of tame Rabbetts, two couple of Hens and a cocke."[113] Nothing, -however, seems to have been permanently established, and within two -years this New England Company is said to have been "in a moribund -condition."[114] In 1623 some Dorchester traders started a fishing -station at Cape Ann, Massachusetts Bay. The manager was Roger Conant, -who had disagreed with his brethren in New Plymouth and had separated -from them. Three years later the scheme was abandoned; most of the -settlers returned except Conant and a small band who "squatted" at -Naumkeag, better known in later years as Salem. The failure of the -merchants did not discourage John White, incumbent of Dorchester, and he -determined to form a settlement for Puritans, from which there sprang -the colony of Massachusetts. Matters were at once hurried on, and in -1629 six Puritan partners obtained a grant of land from the New England -Company, which was to extend westward as far as the Pacific Ocean, then -believed to be but a short distance. One of the partners, John Endecott, -was selected to occupy the land. On his arrival he had some trouble with -an earlier but somewhat disreputable squatter called Morton, who had -formed a little colony, Merry Mount, where, apparently, his perfectly -innocent sports, such as dancing round the Maypole, annoyed the stern -New Englanders, and made them class such diversions as "beastly -practices." Endecott took strong measures, and as the Maypole was -particularly disgusting to the Puritan mind, he settled the matter by -hewing "down the _infelix arbor_."[115] - -A royal charter was readily granted in March 1629, establishing the -Governor and Company of Massachusetts Bay, but omitting to insist on the -Company's meetings being held in England. It was not a very great step, -therefore, to transfer the schemes of a mere trading company to the -principles of a self-sufficing colony; and before the end of the year -the interests of the traders passed into the hands of ten persons who -were particularly concerned in the prosperity of the colony, which in -the future was regarded as perfectly distinct from the Company. The -necessary preliminaries having been satisfactorily concluded, emigration -began at once. The character of the colonists was very superior to that -of the "riff-raff" that had been sent to Virginia. Some of the most -intellectual clergymen of the day took a deep interest in the -undertaking, a few indeed actually accompanied the three hundred and -fifty settlers who embarked for their new homes. - -"The first beginning of this worke seemed very dolorous," writes the -chronicler, but the people were most fortunate in their choice of -governor, John Winthrop. He was a man of forty-three years of age, who -had received a good education at Cambridge and had some knowledge of the -law; he had passed the latter years of his life, before emigration, as a -Suffolk squire, and had been moulded in the school of Hampden. His -character was of the best, and he is revered as one of the strongest and -certainly one of the most lovable of the early settlers in America. He -was a thorough Puritan, but of that type of which Charles Kingsley wrote -and made so attractive. Like his brethren the governor showed humility, -but unlike so many he was sweet-tempered and moderate; not that he was -too gentle, for his decisive mind and sound constructive statesmanship -saved him from any appearance of weakness. It may be said, in short, -that Winthrop, as a man of wealth, of good birth, and of great -abilities, was the most remarkable Puritan statesman in colonial -history. He was assisted in his work by "the worthy Thomus Dudly, -Esq.,"[116] as Deputy Governor, and Mr Simon Brodstreet as Secretary. -Endecott's original settlement had been at Charlestown, where the -colonists had pitched some tents of cloth and built a few small huts; -but in 1630 Winthrop moved to Boston, which became the capital, and -within a few months eight small settlements were established along -Boston Bay. - -A regular representative assembly with governor and assistants soon -became necessary, its importance being brought forward by the Watertown -protest. The freemen of this settlement refused to pay a tax of £60 to -fortify the new town of Cambridge, "and delivered their opinions, that -it was not safe to pay moneys after that sort for fear of bringing -themselves and posterity into bondage."[117] Thus it was seen that a -representative assembly was indispensable; it was not, however, until a -lost pig in 1644 had caused a petty civil suit which led to a quarrel -between the deputies and assistants that the Massachusetts parliament -became bicameral. Long before this the colony had been regarded with -disfavour in England. Archbishop Laud was only too ready to listen to -any stories against the Puritans; the colony was therefore solemnly -arraigned before the Privy Council and the three chief members were -questioned as to the conduct of the rest; and as an immediate -consequence the intending settlers of the year 1634 were not allowed to -sail without taking the oath of allegiance and promising to conform to -the Book of Common Prayer. The emigrants were willing enough to -subscribe to these as England was becoming unbearable. Laud with his -Arminian theories, Pym with his revolutionary ideas, and Charles with -his irresolution, were gradually causing a distinct emigration to what -the newcomers imagined was a land of peace. They arrived to find it in a -bellicose state, for the fact that a royal Commission of twelve, with -Laud at the head, had been appointed to administer the affairs of the -colonies, had so alarmed them that the colonists had started to fortify -Dorchester, Charlestown, and Castle Island. - -Nothing perhaps is more astonishing than the bitter intolerance of those -who had fled to find toleration; but to the Puritan toleration was only -significant of indifference, and was therefore an abhorrent principle at -the very time he so sorely needed it. The religious dissensions during -the early years of the colony of Massachusetts illustrate the fanatical -and bigoted character of the Puritan quite as clearly as any particular -event or series of events in English history. It is painful to find even -in the first few months of the settlement, when Endecott was still in -command, many evidences of intolerance. John and Samuel Browne collected -a congregation and conducted the service according to the Book of Common -Prayer; but so horrible did this appear to Endecott that these luckless -men were expelled from the colony. Two years later political and social -rights were intimately connected with religious privileges by an -ordinance that no one was to be a freeman unless he belonged to a -church; and this was still further extended in 1635, so that no man -could vote at a town meeting unless he possessed the ecclesiastical -qualification. - -Religious troubles were fomented, after 1631, by the able but bigoted -Roger Williams. He was a man of very considerable gifts, being both an -energetic and attractive preacher, but at the same time filled with an -intense hatred of Erastianism. As soon as he arrived he was chosen -minister of Salem, where he exhibited his imperfect sense of proportion -and gained for himself the title of "a haberdasher of small -questions."[118] His energy and impulsiveness led him astray, and the -more intellectual could hardly fail to see that his mind was incapable -of distinguishing the vital from the trifle. His political doctrines -forced him into extraordinary actions, such as that of persuading -Endecott to cut the cross out of the royal ensign; while at the same -time he not only denied the English sovereign's right to grant territory -in North America, but also with equal vehemence repudiated all secular -control in religious affairs. For four years the freemen of -Massachusetts quietly suffered Roger Williams' whimsicalities, but in -October 1635 their patience had come to an end, and the General Court of -the Colony banished him with twenty of his disciples, as his sympathetic -chronicler says, "and that in the extremity of winter, forcing him to -betake himselfe into the vast wilderness to sit down amongst the -Indians."[119] The kindly governor, John Winthrop, does not seem to have -approved of the verdict, for many years afterwards Roger Williams wrote -"that ever honoured Governour Mr Winthrop privately wrote to me to steer -my course to Nahigonset Bay.... I took his prudent motion as an hint and -voice from God, and waving all other thoughts and motions, I steered my -course from Salem (though in winter snow which I feel yet) unto these -parts, wherein I may say Peniel, that is, I have seene the face of -God."[120] - -During the year 1635 three notable personages came to the colony. The -first was Henry Vane, the younger, "who," wrote Winthrop, "being a young -gentleman of excellent parts, and had been employed by his father (when -he was ambassador) in foreign affairs; yet, being called to the -obedience of the gospel, forsook the honors and preferments of the -court, to enjoy the ordinances of Christ in their purity here."[121] The -other two recruits were, John Wheelwright, a clergyman, and his sister -Mrs Anne Hutchinson, who was a woman of great learning and brilliance, -but by instinct an agitator of a most indiscreet and impetuous -character; although both acute and resolute, she allowed herself to be -carried away by her passion for theological controversy. Her religious -views were Antinomian and were strongly opposed to the doctrines of the -Puritans, who believed in justification by faith, strengthened by -sanctified works. To Governor Winthrop the distinction between the two -doctrines appeared to be a mere jargon of words, and he was not very far -wrong when he said "no man could tell, except some few who knew the -bottom of the matter, where any difference was."[122] Mrs Hutchinson -soon had a large following, including Wheelwright, Thomas Hooker, and -John Cotton, but the latter deserted her and refused to follow her in -all her heresies. In 1636 she was strongly supported by Harry Vane, who -was for a short time the governor; but in the following year both she -and her brother were tried before the General Court and were banished -as heretics. - -Meantime the education of Massachusetts was not neglected, as is proved -by the foundation in 1636 of Harvard College at Cambridge, for "it -pleased God to stir up the heart of one Mr Harvard (a godly gentleman -and a lover of learning, then living amongst us) to give the one halfe -of his Estate (it being in all about 1700 _l._) towards the erecting of a -Colledge, and all his Library."[123] The building was erected rapidly -and was "very faire and comely within and without,"[124] says an -anonymous writer in 1641; but Charles II.'s commissioners do not seem to -have been so much impressed, as twenty years later they speak of it as a -wooden college. The great days of Harvard had not as yet arrived; nor -indeed was the learning more advanced even as late as 1680, for the -whole place is described by two Dutch visitors as smelling like a -tavern. "We inquired," they say, "how many professors there were, and -they replied not one, that there was no money to support one."[125] But -out of such small beginnings a great educational establishment rose -which has won for itself a famous name and added lustre to the annals of -the colony. - -It seemed extremely likely that the war-clouds that had arisen in the -Old Country might drift across the Atlantic to New England. It was for -this reason that some sort of confederation between the colonies was -proposed; and in 1643 Massachusetts, New Haven, Plymouth, and -Connecticut formed the first New England Confederacy. A distinct desire -for religious and political unity had been in the air for some time, -not only because of the dread of Dutch and Indian attack, but also -because it was hoped that intercolonial quarrels might be checked, and a -firm and united attitude might be shown towards any encroachments on the -part of the British Government. There were, however, in this -confederation two essential weaknesses which sooner or later would -inevitably wreck the whole scheme. In the first place Massachusetts was -by far the largest, richest, and most prosperous of the colonies; it was -therefore called upon to contribute the largest share, but received no -more than the weaker and poorer members of the Union. Secondly, although -the federal government was exactly what was wanted, it could exercise no -direct control over the citizens of any particular colony. This latter -was probably the chief cause of the non-success of the confederation. -Maine and the settlements along the Narragansett Bay in vain pleaded to -be enrolled in the first United States; but they were refused as being -neither sufficiently settled nor possessing political order. The four -confederate colonies bound themselves by written conditions and were -denominated "The United Colonies of New England." It was obvious from -the very beginning that disagreement would come, if for no other reason -because of the struggle that was taking place in England. Massachusetts -was no more for the Parliament than for the King, while the other New -England colonies were as a whole sturdy supporters of Pym and his party. -Disagreement bred disagreement, as is seen in the proposal to fight the -Dutch in America, while Blake was winning fame in European waters. This, -however, was prevented by the commissioners of one colony standing out -against the opinions of the others. A similar lack of unity was only -too apparent in 1654, when Massachusetts consented to make war against -the Nyantic Indians, but the indifference and incapacity of their -captain caused general dissatisfaction among the rest of the -confederation. - -The attitude of Massachusetts toward England during the Civil Wars was a -most unsatisfactory one; it was as it were prophetic of what was to -come. The contemptuous and haughty indifference shown by the colony to -Cromwell was not because of any deep-seated loyalty to Charles I.; it -was rather the exhibition of an independent spirit and a desire to leave -England and English affairs strictly alone, if they were allowed, in -turn, to live under the government of a governor and magistrates of -their own choosing and under laws of their own making. This feeling does -not seem to have been understood in England, and at the time of the -Restoration the colony was regarded as having been Parliamentarian in -its sympathies, whereas indeed it had been separatist. The Royal -Commissioners in 1661 found that Massachusetts "was the last and hardest -persuaded to use his Majesty's name in their forms of justice";[126] and -yet in February the King was petitioned to look upon the colonists -kindly and "let not the Kinge heare men's wordes: your servants are true -men, fearers of God and the Kinge, not given to change, zealous of -government and peaceable in Israel, we are not seditious as to the -interest of Cæsar nor schismaticks as to the matters of religion."[127] - -The religion of Massachusetts was, at this time, of the narrowest and -most bigoted type. The colonists were intolerant of any opinion save -their own, and their cruel fanaticism was excited particularly against -the humble and law-abiding sect of Quakers. The General Court at Boston -regarded the Quakers as a positive danger to the State, and as people -"who besides their absurd and blasphemous doctrines, do like rogues and -vagabonds come in upon us."[128] In 1656 two Quaker women landed at -Boston; they were immediately treated with extreme brutality and finally -banished to the Barbadoes. This led to further definite enactments, and -at the instigation of some of the most intolerant clergy of Boston, an -act was passed imposing the penalty of death in cases of extreme -obstinacy. So brutal were the punishments inflicted even where no -extreme obstinacy was shown that it is probable that death was -preferable and welcomed by the ill-treated wretches who had fallen into -the hands of these fanatics. At the Restoration, Edward Burrough, an -English Quaker, took up the case of his brethren in Massachusetts, and -laid before Charles II. a list of brutalities that were only equalled by -the horrors of the Inquisition. We read of men being whipped -twenty-three times, receiving 370 stripes from a whip with three knotted -cords; two unhappy wretches were cut to bits by 139 blows from pitched -ropes, one being "brought near unto death, much of his body being beat -like unto a jelly."[129] Others were put neck and heels in irons, or -burnt deeply in the hand; some had their ears cut off by the hangman; -while many other free-born subjects of the King were "sold for bondmen -and bondwomen to Barbadoes, Virginia, or any of the English -Plantations."[130] Burrough succeeded in persuading the King to take -some action, and the Massachusetts Council was severely reprimanded for -the treatment it had meted out to the Quakers. As a result of the King's -interference the General Court at Boston determined in 1661 to act with -as much lenity as possible to the Quakers, but to prevent their -intrusion it was recognised that "a sharp law" against them was a -necessity. - -During the last quarter of the seventeenth century the New England -Confederacy, including Massachusetts, was disturbed by all the horrors -of Indian warfare. In the year 1670 the Pokanoket Indians under their -chief Metacam, or as he was generally known, King Philip, became -unfriendly. For some time the warfare was not of a very serious -character, but at last in 1674 an Indian convert brought news of a -general attack, and paid the penalty of his fidelity to the English by -being murdered by Philip or one of his braves. The Indian chief now fell -upon the extreme south of New Plymouth, and fire, murder, and rapine -were common throughout the land. The Puritans of Boston, under their -Governor Leverett, saw in this terrible slaughter the hand of the Lord, -and in November the whole city passed a day of humiliation. Within the -chapels and homes their sins were openly acknowledged, but the people -showed more of the spirit of the Pharisee than of the Publican in this -humiliation before God. They penitently confessed that they had -neglected divine service, but what was to them still worse, they had -shown sinful lenity to the heretical sect of Quakers, and had indeed -invited the Almighty's wrath by an extravagance in apparel and in -wearing long hair. Pharisaical as this day of humiliation sounds, the -greater number of the people were probably genuine in their attitude -towards what they regarded as sin; and certainly when the time came they -were ready to prove themselves sturdy fighters. It was only natural that -the settlers should be successful in the end, for as a civilised people -they were better armed and better organised, but their victory was -delayed in the coming, and when the war was really over they found that -it had cost them dear. Edward Randolph writing at the time sums up the -English losses at a high figure. "The losse to the English in the -severall colonies in their habitations and stock, is reckoned to amount -to 150,000 l., there having been about 1200 houses burned, 8000 head of -cattle great and small, killed, and many thousand bushels of wheat, -pease and other grain burned ... and upward of 3000 Indians, men, women -and children destroyed."[131] King Philip, who had caused all this -destruction, was in 1676 hunted down and shot "with a brace of bullets -... this seasonable prey was soon divided, they cut off his Head and -Hands and conveyed them to Rhode Island, and quartered his Body and hung -it upon four trees."[132] With this last act of unnecessary barbarity -the Indian power was broken, and Philip's war was at an end. - -Meantime the administration of New England had been vested in the hands -of special commissioners, whose powers were transferred to the Privy -Council. Under this system, revenue officers appointed in England were -sent out in 1675 to enforce the Navigation Acts, which were excellent as -a stimulus to English shipping, but were nevertheless retrograde with -regard to the colonies. Edward Randolph was despatched to America to -report upon the working of the colonial system under these famous laws, -and he showed, even as early as this, that the revenue acts were openly -violated by the people, who, a century later, were to be notorious for -their smuggling proclivities. Massachusetts was looked upon by the home -authorities with the strongest suspicion, which was still further -intensified by Edward Randolph's eight specific charges against the -settlers. (1) That they have no right to the land or government in any -part of New England, and that they have always been regarded as -usurpers; (2) that they have formed themselves into a commonwealth, -denying appeals to England, and refusing to take the oath of allegiance; -(3) that they have protected the regicides; (4) that they coin their own -money with their own impress; (5) that in 1665 they opposed the King's -commissioners with armed force; (6) that they have put men to death for -matters of religion; (7) that they impose an oath of fidelity to their -government; (8) that they have violated all the acts of Trade and -Navigation to the annual loss of £100,000 to the King's Customs. After -these charges had reached England, the agents of the Massachusetts -government, William Stoughton and Peter Bulkeley, were called upon to -answer the serious indictment. They pleaded that they were unable to -answer any other questions but those concerning the business on which -they had come; but they agreed that as private individuals they would -make some kind of defence, and at the same time promised, on behalf of -the settlers, amendment in the future. This submission only acted as an -incentive for further attack, and Randolph now charged the "Bostoners" -with denying the right of baptism to those not born in church -fellowship; and also with fining certain persons for absenting -themselves from the meeting-houses. The Committee of Trade and -Plantations next turned to the Charter of the colony, and this was -severely criticised; then the Laws of the colony were discussed, and -many illegal imposts were discovered. Amongst other things it was seen -that three shillings and fourpence was the fine levied for galloping in -the streets of Boston; that five shillings was demanded from those who -dared to observe Christmas Day, and that no less than £5 was the fine -for importing playing cards; with all of which they now found serious -fault, though it must be allowed that they tended to create "an ideally -holy and unhappy community."[133] All this time Stoughton and Bulkeley -were most anxious to return to America, but they were obliged to stay -all through 1678, and it was only in 1679 that they were able to leave, -because England was too busy with the Popish Plot to worry about the -affairs of the far distant Massachusetts. The matter, however, was by no -means finished. Randolph was determined to bring the colony to book; and -when he was again sent out in 1680 to supervise the customs he at once -renewed his charges. "The Bostoners, after all the protestations by -their agents, are acting as high as ever, and the merchants trading as -freely; no ship having been seized for irregular trading, although they -did in 1677 make a second law to prevent it."[134] He then says that -his life was threatened by these smugglers, and that as he has only life -and hope left, he is unwilling to expose himself to the rage of a -bewildered multitude. He concludes by beseeching for strong measures, -which he considers are essential, and "for his Majesty to write more -letters will signify no more than the London Gazette."[135] This appeal -had its effect, and the King practically threatened to land redcoats in -Boston "a century before their time, when there should be no Washington -to organise resistance, no European coalition to distract their -operations, and no French fleet and army to drive them from the -Continent."[136] - -Even after this thundering declaration the actions of the settlers were -not always in accordance with strict loyalty, and in 1684, though their -agents loudly protested, the Court of Chancery decreed the Massachusetts -Charter to be null and void. James II.'s well-intentioned efforts -carried out in the wrong way by the wrong methods, and generally by the -wrong men, deprived him of popularity both in his home dominions and in -his growing Empire in the West. His great scheme for the colonies was -one of union; but his action was far more destructive than anything that -George III. ever proposed or imagined. The representative principle was -snatched from the youthful colonies; and they were deprived of their -legislative, executive and financial rights, which were given to a royal -Governor and Council, ruling an united province entitled New England, -and bearing a special flag of its own. The Governor appointed by the -King was Colonel Sir Edmund Andros, a very active and most capable -administrator, but an ardent churchman, and therefore particularly -unacceptable to the Puritan colonies of the New England group. He was by -no means a young man when he arrived to take over the administration in -December 1686, but with surprising energy he set about doing what he -could by extending the frontier against the Indians, and establishing a -line of garrisoned forts to keep them in awe. Discontent, however, was -visible on every side; Connecticut refused to give up its charter, -which, according to tradition, was hidden in an oak; while the town of -Ipswich, Mass. refused like Watertown many years earlier to pay taxes -without representation. When James issued his Declaration of Indulgence -some of the best of the Massachusetts colonists imagined that it meant -real toleration; Increase Mather was one of these. He had conducted the -diplomatic relations of the colony during the struggle over the charter; -he was well-beloved as the minister of the old North Church of Boston, -and as President of Harvard College. For these reasons he was once again -selected as mediator, and was deputed to plead with James on behalf of -his colony, but like so many in England he found that he had come on a -fruitless errand, and that genuine toleration was very far from the -thoughts of the Papist King. - -The news of the Revolution in England in November 1688 aroused the -people of Massachusetts. Sir Edmund Andros, instead of accepting the -inevitable, arrested John Winslow, the bearer of the good tidings. The -discontent which had long been simmering beneath the surface now broke -out. The covetousness of the rulers, the ruination of trade, the -oppression of the people, and that "base drudgerie" to which they had -been put stirred them to a state of frenzy. Boston and Charlestown -armed; Andros was unable to quell the fury, and he was captured by his -subordinates, who claimed that "the exercise of Sir Edmund's commission, -so contrarie to the Magna Charta, is surely enough to call him to -account by his superiors."[137] In this the people of New England made a -mistake, for although Andros was sent over to England with a party of -his accusers, he was only examined by the Lords of the Committee for -Trade and Plantations, and was almost immediately released without being -finally tried. - -The rule of William and Mary in England was acknowledged willingly in -Massachusetts. A new charter was granted to the colony, in which it was -stated that the Governor, Lieutenant-Governor and Secretary were to be -appointed by the Crown. The franchise was now based upon a property -qualification, and the religious oligarchy was swept away. The first -Council was nominated by the Crown, but in the future the members were -to be selected by the General Court. The little colony that owed its -origin to the Pilgrim Fathers was incorporated within the prosperous -bounds of Massachusetts, which from this date to the great schism -remained a Crown colony with distinct tendencies towards, and sometimes -clearly expressed desires of, emancipation and independence. "It was not -as though the colony complained of grievances which could be enquired -into and put right; it simply adopted towards England now openly and -now by equivocation an attitude of 'hands off.'"[138] - -The first Governor of the new Crown colony was that romantic character, -Sir William Phipps. He was born in 1650 on a small plantation on the -banks of the Kennebec; he was one of twenty-six children, and until -eighteen years of age kept "sheep in the wilderness." There is little -doubt that from early times he was determined to succeed, and he always -prophesied that one day he would be the owner of a fair brick house in -Green Lane, North Boston. According to his earliest biographer he was -one of the most remarkable men of his day, being "of an Enterprising -Genius and naturally disclaimed Littleness: But in his Disposition for -Business was of the Dutch Mould, where with a little show of Wit, there -is much Wisdom demonstrated, as can be shewn by any Nation. His Talent -lay not in the Airs that serve chiefly for the pleasant and sudden Turns -of Conversation; but he might say as Themistocles, Though he could not -play the Fiddle, yet he knew how to make a little City become a great -One. He would prudently contrive a weighty Undertaking, and then -patiently pursue it unto the End. He was of an Inclination, cutting -rather like a Hatchet than like a Razor."[139] Such was the character of -this man, who, in 1683, found himself the Captain of a King's ship. In -1687 he was fortunate enough to discover a wrecked vessel filled with -treasure, and after being entertained and knighted by James II. he -returned to New England to build the "fair brick house" of which he had -foretold. After the resettlement of Massachusetts, which now -practically extended from Rhode Island to New Brunswick, excluding New -Hampshire, Phipps was appointed Governor. He owed his appointment to the -favour of Increase Mather, but it seems to have been welcomed generally, -for Phipps was at first popular, generous, and well-meaning. At the -outset he was confronted by difficulties that would have baffled a man -of far greater capacity. The taxation of the colony had not been -specifically mentioned in the charter, and the colonists seized upon the -opportunity to enact that no taxes were to be levied without the consent -of the Assembly. The home government immediately rejected this, and so -opened the door for the squabbles and recriminations eighty years -afterwards, which led to the separation of the American colonies from -the mother country. Gradually Phipps lost his popularity, which had to a -certain extent been founded upon his romantic history. He became brutal, -covetous and violent, and so in 1694 the Bostonians turned against him. -His temper had never been calm, and it is said that by the end of his -period of office he was engaged in violent quarrels with every man of -importance in the province. - -The governorship of the colony between 1698 and 1701 was amalgamated -with those of New York, New Jersey, and New Hampshire. The Earl of -Bellomont was given supreme control, and won the goodwill of the people -by favouring the democratic party and recommending many reforms. His -special title to Fame is his suppression of the pirates along the -coasts, who according to Bellomont's complaint in 1698 had been -protected and encouraged by Benjamin Fletcher, Governor of New York. "I -have likewise discovered that protections were publickly exposed to sale -at the said rates to Pyrats that were of other companies ... and made -discovery of the bonds the Pyrates entered into to Coll: Fletcher when -he granted them Commissions."[140] Bellomont was determined to save the -colonies from these sea-wolves, and in 1701 he had the satisfaction, -just before he died, of bringing the infamous Captain Kidd to the -gallows. - -The later history of Massachusetts must be left to the chapter on French -Aggression. The colony founded first as a trading Company by a few -adventurous Puritans had in seventy years become not only one of the -most prosperous, but also one of the largest of the thirteen States. It -had embraced several of the smaller and weaker settlements, the history -of one of which has already been traced; the story of the others has yet -to be told. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[95] See p. 24. - -[96] Smith, _A Description of New England_ (1616), p. 1. - -[97] Macaulay, _Essays_ (ed. 1891), p. 23. - -[98] _Calendar of Domestic State Papers_, 1591-1594, p. 400. - -[99] Bradford, _History of the Plimoth Plantation_, p. 15. - -[100] Bradford, _History of the Plimoth Plantation_, p. 16. - -[101] _Ibid._, p. 17. - -[102] _Ibid._ - -[103] Quoted by J. R. Green, _Short History of the English People_ -(1893), iii. p. 1051. - -[104] Smith, _A Description of New England_ (1616), p. 27. - -[105] Quoted by J. R. Green, _op. cit._, p. 1049. - -[106] Bradford, _op. cit._, May 12. - -[107] Bradford, _op. cit._ - -[108] Young, _Chronicles of the Pilgrim Fathers_ (ed. 1841). - -[109] Thwaites, _The Colonies, 1492-1750_ (1891), p. 123. - -[110] _Calendar of State Papers_, Colonial, 1661-1668, p. 36. - -[111] _Ibid._, p. 344. - -[112] Macaulay, _Essays_ (ed. 1891), p. 23. - -[113] _American Historical Review_, vol. iv. No. 4, p. 689. - -[114] _Ibid._, p. 702. - -[115] Doyle, _The English in America_ (1887), vol. i. p. 119. - -[116] _A History of New England_ (1654), p. 38. - -[117] Winthrop, _The History of New England from 1630 to 1649_. [1633, -Feb. 17.] - -[118] Doyle, _Cambridge Modern History_ (1905), vol. vii. p. 17. - -[119] _Simplicities Defence against Seven-Headed Policy_ (1646), p. 2. - -[120] Massachusetts Historical Society, _Collections_, i. - -[121] Winthrop, _The History of New England from 1630 to 1649_ (1853), -vol. i. p. 170. - -[122] _Ibid._, vol. i. p. 213. - -[123] _New England's First Fruits_ (1643), p. 12. - -[124] _Ibid._ - -[125] _Journal of a Voyage to New York in 1679-80._ - -[126] _Calendar of State Papers_, Colonial, 1661-1668, p. 344. - -[127] _Ibid._, p. 9. - -[128] _Calendar of State Papers_, Colonial, 1661-1668, p. 32. - -[129] Burrough, _A Declaration of the Sad and Great Persecution and -Martyrdom of the ... Quakers, etc._ (1660). - -[130] Burrough, _A Declaration of the Sad and Great Persecution, and -Martyrdom of the ... Quakers_, etc. (1660). - -[131] Hutchinson, _A Collection of Original Papers_, etc. (1769). - -[132] _The Warr in New-England Visibly Ended_ (1677). - -[133] Fortescue, Introd.: _Calendar of State Papers_, Colonial, -1677-1680, p. xiv. - -[134] _Calendar of State Papers_, Colonial, 1677-1680, p. xviii. - -[135] _Ibid._, p. 545. - -[136] Fortescue, _Calendar of State Papers_, Colonial, 1677-1680, p. -xxi. - -[137] Hutchinson, _A Collection of Original Papers relative to the -History of the Colony of Massachusetts Bay_ (1769). - -[138] Egerton, _A Short History of British Colonial Policy_, p. 62. - -[139] Mather, _Magnalia Christi Americana, II._ (1702). - -[140] O'Callaghan, editor, _Documents relative to the Colonial History -of the State of New York_ (1854). - - - - -CHAPTER V - -CONNECTICUT; RHODE ISLAND AND PROVIDENCE PLANTATION; NEW HAVEN; MAINE; -NEW HAMPSHIRE - - -The early history of the group of colonies which is now to engage the -attention is less interesting than that of either Virginia or -Massachusetts. There is not the glamour of a first colony as in the case -of Virginia; the men were not Pilgrim Fathers in the true sense as in -Plymouth; the prosperity of Massachusetts, the rivalries of Maryland, -and the Spanish danger in the Carolinas, are all wanting in this portion -of New England. There is therefore not only a lack of romance, but there -is too a pettiness in the quarrels which continually occurred in these -colonies. - -The New England Company, when once it had started an active existence, -made every effort to extract some advantage from the land which had been -granted to it. In 1631 Lord Saye and Sele, Lord Brooke and others -obtained from the Company a tract of land in the rich valley of the -Connecticut River. Very little, however, came of this scheme; and the -first true settlement was made against the strenuous opposition of the -Dutch, by a party from New Plymouth. A fresh influx of settlers came -from the already rising colony of Massachusetts, for they had found -that the land was somewhat sterile, at any rate not sufficiently fertile -to support them all. The settlers on the Connecticut came from the town -of Dorchester, and planted themselves at Windsor, to the disgust of the -New Plymouth settlers, who were at last forced to retire. This proved, -as often enough in future years, that the unscrupulous and overbearing -temper of the men of Massachusetts earned for them a reward which they -did not deserve. The patentees, seeing their rights invaded by these -Dorchester filibusters, sent out a small party to establish their -privileges, but these in turn were routed, and the men of Massachusetts -were left in possession, though contrary to the wishes of their -mother-settlement. When, however, the versatile John Winthrop, son of -the more statesmanlike Governor, arrived with a commission as Governor -of the new colony on behalf of the patentees, Massachusetts ceased to -complain, and allowed the secession to become complete. Within two years -the new colony of Connecticut had a population of eight hundred men, -women and children, grouped in three towns, Hartford, Wethersfield, and -Windsor. The freemen of these towns declared in 1638 that their -constitution was the same as that of Massachusetts; but there was one -great dissimilarity, for no religious test was imposed. This -constitution occupies a famous place in the world's history, for not -only was it the first written constitution that actually created a -government, but it has also been characterised as "the oldest political -constitution in America."[141] By means of this important document, -issued in January 1639, all possible claims to sovereignty on the part -of Massachusetts were placed on one side for ever; or was there any -reference to the sovereignty of Charles I. or the home parliament. The -document was merely an agreement amongst the colonists themselves, and -by abstaining from any religious tests, or intolerance, they earned the -gratitude and admiration of mankind, and throughout the whole colonial -period bravely sustained this liberal spirit which had distinguished -them so early in their history. - -Before accomplishing this great work the colonists had a hard fight for -existence against the Pequod Indians. As early as 1633 a Virginian -ship's captain, Stone, was killed by this tribe near the mouth of the -Connecticut River; two years later John Oldham, a trader, was also -murdered by a party of Narragansetts inhabiting Block Island. It was -evident that the redskins must be taught a severe lesson if Englishmen -were to live in peace. Endecott, with a small force from Massachusetts, -was despatched to punish the Narragansetts, but he utterly failed in his -attack upon the island tribe. In retaliation the settlers in Connecticut -were surrounded by the murderous Pequods, and cut off from the sea; -fortunately, Roger Williams, having the confidence and goodwill of the -redskins, managed, at this time of trial, to obtain the neutrality of -the Narragansetts. This was a great advantage, as Massachusetts deserted -the new settlement, leaving it to fight its own battles. Leaders with -plenty of courage were not wanting, and Captains Mason and Underhill, -with ninety men, marched against the Pequods. Two hundred of these -tribesmen had attacked Wethersfield, and "having put poles in their -Conoos, as we put Masts in our boats, and upon them hung our English -mens and womens shirts and smocks in stead of sayles, and in way of -bravado came along in sight of us as we stood upon Seybrooke Fort."[142] -Captain John Mason was not the man to be discouraged by such warlike -displays, and with considerable strategy attacked them on the flank and -assaulted their chief stronghold. The action was a hot one, for although -only two Englishmen were slain, many were wounded, and six hundred -Pequods are reported to have fallen. The men of Connecticut were -desperate, and fighting for their lives. They were determined to -annihilate the Pequod tribe once for all, and to establish peace by -means of a sanguinary slaughter. Their actions may appear brutal, but -they were necessary as Captain John Underhill took care to explain. -"Great and dolefull was the bloudy sight to the view of young souldiers -that never had beene in Warre, to see so many soules lie gasping on the -ground so thicke in some places, that you could hardly passe along. It -may be demanded, Why should you be so furious (as some have said), -should not christians have more mercy and compassion? But I would refer -you to David's warre, when a people is growne to such a height of bloud -and sinne against God and man, and all confederates in the action, there -hee hath no respect to persons, but harrowes them and sawes them and -puts them to the sword."[143] This massacre and total destruction of the -Pequods had the important effect of reversing the territorial relations -between the English and the Indians; direct communication between the -mouth of the Connecticut and Boston was now made possible, and some form -of union could only be a matter of time. - -As has already been shown Connecticut did join in such an union when it -entered into the Confederation of New England in 1643, and it was as a -member of that group that it passed through the period of the civil -wars. With the Restoration the ambitions of the settlers increased, and -in 1661 John Winthrop went to England to obtain a charter which would -define the boundaries of the colony, and include within it the smaller -settlement of New Haven, the members of which protested in vain. The -patent of incorporation was granted in 1662, and the document concludes -with the words which illustrate the interesting but absurd legal fiction -under which the King granted land in America. The Governor and Company -of the English colonists of Connecticut are to hold "the same of his -Majesty, his heirs and successors as of the manor of East Greenwich in -free and common soccage, yielding the fifth part of all gold or silver -ore."[144] So ridiculous was this fiction that the colonists were -actually supposed to be represented in the home parliament by the member -of the borough containing the manor of East Greenwich. It is not -surprising that even as early as this period these rigid Presbyterians -felt that if the actions of the home government endangered their welfare -they would be justified in ignoring that authority, and relying only -upon the common weal as supreme law in the colony. But though they -regarded with jealousy any attempt to limit their rights, they were too -weak, owing to internal dissension, to throw off the yoke of the home -authorities. They had in no way added to their strength by the -incorporation of New Haven, but rather increased their weakness. This -unstable condition is illustrated in particular, first by the -emigration of the people of the town of Branford, who, armed with their -civil and ecclesiastical records, preferred to occupy lands near the -Delaware rather than stay under the jurisdiction of Connecticut; and -secondly by the description of Connecticut itself, as recorded by the -Governor, William Leete, in 1680. He shows that for the last seven years -the popularity of the colony had evidently declined in England, for only -one or two settlers had come from the home country each year. The -population had certainly increased by about five hundred in eight years; -from 2050 in 1671 to 2507 in 1679; but there was very little unity of -feeling or purpose owing to the religious sects being peculiarly mixed, -some being Presbyterians, some "strict congregational men," some "more -large congregational men," some Quakers, and four or five are classified -by the Governor as "seven-day men."[145] - -For twenty-three years the people of Connecticut imagined that they -enjoyed the benefits of the charter gained by Winthrop in 1662, "ye -advantages and priviledges whereof made us indeed a very happy people; -and by ye blessing of God upon our endeavours we have made a -considerable improvement of your dominions here, which with ye defense -of ourselves from ye force of both forraign and intestine enemies has -cost us much expence of treasure & blood."[146] James II., however, -cared for none of these things; the charter was forfeited in 1685; and -like Massachusetts, Connecticut felt the heavy hand of the too zealous -Sir Edmund Andros. Being "commissionated by his Majesty,"[147] Andros -appeared with sixty grenadiers in 1687 at Hartford, and took over the -government. On his capture, as already recorded, the people of -Connecticut in May 1689 joyfully fell back upon their old form of -government under the late charter, the forfeiture of which had been -declared illegal in England. - -Owing to King William's War, Connecticut was within an ace of losing its -government, and for purposes of defence being united, in 1690, with its -stronger neighbour New York; the proposals fell through, and the fears -of the citizens were set at rest by a legal confirmation of their -constitution. The colony from this time undoubtedly advanced. Its system -of government was active and vigorous; each township controlled its own -affairs, and in the early years of the eighteenth century local -government lay entirely in the hands of the Select-men, to the exclusion -of English officials. At the same time education was encouraged; a -college was established by the clergy in 1698, which found its final -home at Newhaven in 1717. Before this printing had been undertaken, the -first press being erected in 1709 at New London; the immediate work done -was not of a first-rate character, but it was the beginning of better -things. At the same time it is only fair to point out that the colony -was cursed by the presence of turbulent and quarrelsome negro and -mulatto slaves; it was regarded with suspicion by the English governors -as a protector of pirates; and it certainly must be blamed for its -niggardly contributions of both men and money in the great expeditions -against the French. - -Connecticut was not the only settlement that was partly formed by a -secession from the parent colony of Massachusetts; nor was it an -isolated example of colonial establishments, for during the same period -several other colonies grew up along the Eastern seaboard. The Reverend -Roger Williams, after his banishment from Massachusetts in October 1635, -purchased land from the Indians, and with twelve other householders -settled at Providence, by the advice of Mr Winslow, the Governor of New -Plymouth. Thus Williams was able to describe himself many years later as -"by God's mercy the first beginner of the mother town of Providence and -of the Colony of Rhode Island."[148] Williams' settlers immediately -started a simple form of government, by which all freemen were to hold -quarterly meetings and settle judicial questions, while five Select-men -were to transact all executive business. Following Williams' example, -Mrs Anne Hutchinson, as another refugee from the intolerance of -Massachusetts, came to much the same district in 1637. She purchased -from the Indians the island of Aquedneck, or, as it was afterwards -known, Rhode Island. Her heretical followers soon founded the town of -Portsmouth, and here the government was carried on by William Coddington -as judge. Mrs Hutchinson, having now time for inventing new heresies, -almost immediately caused a fresh secession, and some of her hitherto -ardent admirers, finding her new doctrines intolerable, left Portsmouth, -and under Coddington established themselves at Newport. The colonies -were reunited in 1640, with Coddington as Governor, and a regular -government was instituted composed of two "assistants" from each -township. - -Providence and Rhode Island were regarded with dislike and suspicion by -all the other colonies, being classified as the asylum for sectaries, -the hot-bed of anarchy, and the true home of extreme democracy. This -attitude is not surprising when it is remembered that both colonies owed -their existence to parties of religious outcasts. Rhode Island -nevertheless prospered, although throughout the first few years of its -existence it was the centre of disorder, bickerings, and factious -quarrels. At the bottom of most of the trouble was Samuel Gorton, a -contentious and troublesome man, leader of a band of fanatics, who had -forced themselves upon a party of Williams' settlers at Pawtuxet. The -settlers appealed to Massachusetts to remove him as "a proud and -pestilent seducer";[149] and had indeed placed themselves under the -jurisdiction of that colony for this very purpose. In 1643, Gorton, of -"insolent and riotous carriage," with nine of his followers, was -imprisoned for some months at Boston, for blasphemy. The quarrel, -however, did not end here. It was carried by Gorton to England, where he -appealed to the Parliamentary Commissioners, who commanded the General -Court to allow Gorton and his band to dwell in peace. This, at last, the -Massachusetts' government consented to do with contemptuous -indifference, but when Gorton pleaded for their protection against the -Indians he pleaded in vain. - -In the same year as the conclusion of the Gorton controversy, -Providence, Portsmouth and Newport, combined into a properly constituted -community. This was the outcome of a visit paid to England in 1643 by -Roger Williams, who asked for a definite charter of incorporation. In -1647, therefore, a general assembly of freemen, governor and assistants, -with a court of commissioners, was established for the "Colony of Rhode -Island and Providence Plantation." At first the assembly met in the -different towns by rotation, and the method of voting was most -complicated and non-progressive; every matter had to be voted on in each -town, and was to be considered as lost unless it was carried by a -majority in every town. So complex a system proved inadequate, and in -1664 an ordinary representative assembly was created. What was equally -important and showed Rhode Island to be more enlightened than most of -the other colonies, was the clear announcement of the doctrine of -freedom of conscience to all who "live civilly." To the annoyance of -Massachusetts the Rhode Island authorities consistently adhered to this -doctrine, and refused to join in the barbarous persecutions of the -Quakers. - -The settlers expressly thanked Charles II. for sending Commissioners, -and made great demonstration of their loyalty and obedience in 1665. -Such actions are rather surprising in a Puritan colony, but they may -have been due to the King's grant of a charter, two years before, in -which they obtained a definition of their boundaries. The colony of this -period was described with some minuteness by the Commissioners, who -called attention to the fact that Quakers and Generalists were admitted, -and that owing to the variety of sects there were no places for the -worship of God, "but they sometimes associate in one house, and -sometimes in another."[150] The colony certainly did not advance with -the strides that had been made by Massachusetts, and the people were -still extremely unpopular with the other colonists, being denounced on -one occasion as "scum and dregs." Nevertheless under the government of -Peleg Sandford in 1680, Rhode Island was a small, happy, self-sufficing -colony. The chief town was Newport, built almost entirely of timber. As -to exterior commerce it seems to have been non-existent; "wee have no -shippinge belonginge to our Colloney, but only a few sloopes," and "as -for Merchants wee have none, but the most of our Colloney live -comfortably by improvinge the wildernesse."[151] - -This happy state of affairs was somewhat rudely disturbed by James II.'s -action in depriving Rhode Island and Providence Plantation of that -charter of which they were so proud, and which gave "full liberty of -conscience provided that the pretence of liberty extend not to -licentiousnesse."[152] James' harsh treatment did not last for long, and -to the joy of the inhabitants after the Revolution the action of the -Papist King was declared illegal. A time of peace and prosperity now -followed. From 1696 to 1726 Rhode Island increased in wealth and -population, under the annually elected Governor, Samuel Cranston, who, -during these thirty years of office, proved himself a firm, popular, and -successful administrator. - -During the year in which Rhode Island was established, another colony, -New Haven, was founded to the South. In 1637 Theophilus Eaton, a leader -in the Baltic Company, and "of great esteem for religion,"[153] -together with a party of settlers who were wealthier men than most -colonists, settled at the mouth of the Quinipiac River, facing Long -Island. The religious beliefs of the settlers were of the most bigoted -kind; their freemen were strictly limited to Church members; and their -minister, "the reverend, judicious and godly Mr John Davenport,"[154] -asserted that the scripture was sufficient guide for all civil affairs. -They soon found "a fit place to erect a Toune, which they built in very -little time, and with very faire houses and compleat streets; but in a -little time they over-stockt it with Chattell, although many of them did -follow merchandizing and Maritime affairs, but their remoteness from -Mattachusets Bay, where the chiefe traffique lay, hindered them -much."[155] Ten years after its foundation, the colony was seen to be -commercially on the decline, although other towns had grown up such as -Guildford, Milford, and Stamford. They were all governed as one town -without representation, and the executive was placed in the hands of an -elected Governor and four assistants. The commercial depression did not -last for long; trade began to increase again, and Newhaven became a -flourishing state, the inhabitants of which were noted for the -magnificence of their buildings and their astonishing opulence. - -After the Restoration the colony fell under the displeasure of the -Crown. Two of the regicides, William Goffe and Edward Whalley had, -first, come to Boston, then to Connecticut, and finally to New Haven. -The home government ordered their arrest, and Winthrop was very active -in sending these orders to the Governors of the different colonies, -including the Governor of New Haven, who knew that these men had come -within his rights of jurisdiction but took no steps to effect their -arrest. For some time the King had had strong doubts as to the loyalty -of New England as a whole; here, in any case, was a colony that needed -watching; and so, in 1662, as has already been shown, New Haven was -absorbed by Connecticut. There can be no doubt that Charles had now -struck two hearty blows against the much vaunted New England -Confederation. His refusal to allow the ill-treatment of the Quakers, -and his punishment of New Haven, were sufficient to make the -Confederation nothing more important than a triennial meeting of federal -commissioners, who sat till 1684, but whose powers were nil, whose -mutual beliefs were non-existent, and who were only in complete concord -in resistance to the Indian raids. - -Maine was yet another colony of New England, which had a purely -independent foundation, but which was destined to be absorbed by its -more prosperous neighbour. As early as 1623, Levitt established a -settlement on Casco Bay;[156] while at the same time, Sir Ferdinando -Gorges, "the Father of English Colonisation in North America,"[157] made -a plantation at Saco. He followed this up by the formation of a company -in 1631, but four years later the whole territory then called New -Somersetshire was granted to Gorges. Five years later he received from -Charles I. a charter granting to him "all that part and portion of New -England lying and between the River Pascataway ... to Kenebeck even as -far as the head thereof."[158] Sir Ferdinando very soon drew up a most -grotesque constitution for his colony, creating almost more officials -than there were citizens, and whose titles were very magnificent, but -quite meaningless. In exactly the same district the New England Company -claimed to have proprietary rights, and it was not long before many -semi-independent settlements were made in the neighbourhood of Gorges -Colony. - -The Civil War having broken out in 1642 Sir Ferdinando Gorges was too -much engaged at home to pay any attention to Maine, "for when he was -between three and four score years of age did personally engage in our -Royal Martyr's service; and particularly in the siege of Bristow, and -was plundered and imprisoned several times, by reason whereof he was -discountenanced by the pretended Commissioners for foreign -plantations."[159] Soon after his exploits at Bristol, Gorges died after -proving himself a man of resolute purpose, but endowed with narrow -ideas. He had certainly taken an active part in the struggle for gain -and position amongst a large number of the most worthless and servile -courtiers, but still around him and his memory there is a halo of -grandeur, borrowed perhaps from the generation to which he really -belonged, nevertheless reflecting upon his person something of that -glory that ought to belong to him who was the last figure of that grand -procession of giants which numbered amongst its train, Gilbert and -Drake, Smith and Raleigh. - -No sooner had Gorges passed away than Edward Rigby claimed the whole of -Maine under a grant from the New England Company. Against this the -heirs of Sir Ferdinando put in a strong counter-claim; the decision -between the disputants was left to the authorities in Massachusetts, who -divided the towns into equal halves, three being allotted to Rigby, and -three to the Gorges claimant. The inhabitants of the colony were not -consulted, and in 1649 they took the matter into their own hands and -declared themselves a body politic with an elective governor and -council. But this was not to last. In the early days of the settlement -the colonists showed no signs of religious bigotry or of any religious -views at all, but gradually they came to sympathise with both the -religion and the political opinions of Massachusetts, so that between -1651 and 1658 the townships of Maine readily accepted the authority of -the greater colony. - -Soon after the Restoration, Ferdinando Gorges, the grandson of the -original patentee, sought to assert his authority over Maine, but his -exertions were not supported by the Crown, and he was unsuccessful. In -1665 the home authorities set up a provisional government in the colony, -but concerning its history very little is known. According to the -Commissioners of that year the inhabitants themselves petitioned that -they might continue under his Majesty's immediate government. They -expressed their gratitude to Charles II. for his "fatherly care of them -after so long a death inflicted on their minds and fortunes by the -usurpation of the Massachusetts power,"[160] and they ask that the -insults of others towards them may be prevented for the future by the -appointment of Sir Robert Carr as their governor. But this statement -seems very improbable and can hardly have expressed the general wishes -of the people. - -It is not surprising that Sir Robert Carr was anxious to obtain the -government of the colony, as from contemporary descriptions it appears -to have been a fertile and productive territory. "In these Provinces are -great store of wild ducks, geese, and deer, strawberries, raspberries, -gooseberries, barberries, bilberries, several sorts of oaks and pines, -chestnuts and walnuts, sometimes four or five miles together; the more -northerly the country, the better the timber is accounted."[161] The -true value of Maine was realised by William Dyre, who pointed out to -Charles II. the manifold advantages that he would gain if he purchased -Maine for himself. By such an action the King would have absolute -dominion over those seas and might settle a duty on all fisheries there; -at the same time he might very easily reduce the turbulent spirits in -Massachusetts "to a ready subjection," while enriching himself with -masts, tar, timber, etc., and thus "conduce to the safety of his -maritime affairs."[162] There were, however, other very different views -on Maine, and John Josselyn, an Englishman of good family, does not -speak well of either the country or its inhabitants, but there are -reasons for supposing that he may have been maliciously inclined. The -people of Maine in 1675 "may be divided," he writes, "into Magistrates, -Husbandmen or Planters, and fishermen; of the magistrates some be -Royalists, the rest perverse Spirits, the like are the planters and -fishers.... The planters are or should be restless pains takers, -providing for their Cattle, planting and sowing of Corn ... but if they -be of a droanish disposition as some are, they become wretchedly poor -and miserable.... They have a custom of taking Tobacco, sleeping at -noon, sitting long at meals sometimes four times in a day, and now and -then drinking a dram of the bottle extraordinarily."[163] - -The people of Maine may have been all that Josselyn said, but it is far -from likely. They were sufficiently alert to resent the government of -the Crown, and in 1668 the majority of the settlers acquiesced in the -reassertion of authority by Massachusetts. For ten years the quarrel -between Ferdinando Gorges and Massachusetts continued, but in 1678, -although his grandfather is reported to have spent £20,000 on the -colony, the grandson's claims were extinguished by the purchase of his -rights for £1250. From this moment Maine ceased to exist as a separate -colony, and continued incorporated with Massachusetts for many years. - -The last of this early group of colonies was New Hampshire, which, in -turn, like its weaker brethren, became amalgamated with the colony of -Massachusetts. Early in the reign of Charles I., Captain John Mason, -with Sir Ferdinando Gorges and others, formed for colonial purposes the -Laconia Company. When Gorges was granted rights in Maine in 1635, -Captain John Mason also received a grant of territory to the south, -where a settlement was formed, and though by no means a true political -community, was called New Hampshire. Mason died soon after the naming of -his colony and received no benefits from his grant, which had embraced -two earlier settlements: the first founded by David Thompson near the -Piscataqua; the second fifteen miles up the Cocheco, founded by Bristol -and Shrewsbury merchants, who had transferred their rights to Lord Saye -and Sele and Lord Brooke. It was in this latter stretch of territory -that purely independent settlements were made, such as Dover, Exeter, -and Hampton. The latter town, realising its weakness as an independent -community, soon chose to be regarded as within the jurisdiction of -Massachusetts. - -The authorities of Massachusetts undoubtedly suffered from "earth -hunger," and the transfer of Hampton was merely the first of a series of -aggressions, for between 1642 and 1643 the other towns of New Hampshire -were swallowed within the greedy maw of the stronger colony. No -remonstrance came from England, for the people of the home country had -enough difficulties to contend with; while the Mason family appear to -have made no serious attempts to recover their rights. After the -Restoration, however, following the example of Ferdinando Gorges, the -heirs of Mason petitioned the Privy Council to restore to them the -rights and privileges contained in the grant of 1635. The law officers -of the Crown took the matter into serious consideration, and although -their verdict was against the Mason family, they declared at the same -time that the colony of New Hampshire was outside the jurisdiction of -Massachusetts, which had annexed it and wrongfully renamed it Norfolk. -This was one more blow for the New England Confederation and for -Massachusetts in particular. The King and his ministers were only too -pleased to have had such an opportunity, for the Royal Commissioners had -but recently accused Massachusetts of disloyalty. They had, in fact, -declared that unless the King punished the authorities, the -well-affected inhabitants would never dare to own themselves loyal -subjects. To better effect the total subjugation of the colony, one of -the Commissioners, Sir Robert Carr, proposed that he should be made -governor of New Hampshire, a proposal which shows only too clearly the -selfish aims of the Crown officials. The actual state of New Hampshire -did not seem to trouble the Commissioners, and whilst the bickering -between the home country and Massachusetts continued, the unfortunate -inhabitants of New Hampshire were suffering all the horrors of the -already mentioned King Philip's Indian war. For this reason the settlers -took the matter into their own hands and turned to the more powerful -colony of Massachusetts for assistance and protection. In 1678 the -inhabitants of Portsmouth and Dover supplicated the Crown to be kept -under the jurisdiction of the stronger colony. The petition from Dover -is particularly noteworthy because of its tawdry character. The -petitioners speak of the favour of his Majesty, "which like the sweet -influences of superior or heavenly bodies to the tender plants have -cherished us in our weaker beginnings, having been continued through -your special grace, under your Majesty's protection and government of -the Massachusetts, to which we voluntarily subjected ourselves many -years ago, yet not without some necessity in part felt for want of -government and in part feared upon the account of protection."[164] In -spite of this petition the Crown created New Hampshire a separate -province, with a council and representative assembly. The first governor -selected was John Cutts, "a very just and honest but ancient and infirm -man,"[165] and with his appointment the people of Massachusetts revoked -all former commissions. - -The colony did not forget its old guardian, and looked upon it always -with loyal affection, a feeling which was intensified during the -tyrannical governorship of Edward Cranfield. From 1682 to 1685 this -man's disgraceful conduct was tolerated, but at last the men of New -Hampshire could bear his despotism no longer, broke into open rebellion, -and Cranfield fled for refuge to the West Indies. The desired result was -immediately obtained, for New Hampshire was reunited to Massachusetts. -This, however, was not to last for long, for after the Revolution in -England the proprietorship of New Hampshire was again debated. Samuel -Allen had purchased from the heirs of Captain Mason any rights which -they continued to imagine they possessed; and by the corrupt connivance -of an English official, Allen succeeded in obtaining a proprietary -governorship with a council partly nominated by the Crown and partly by -himself. It is a remarkable fact that, unlike the other colonies at this -time, New Hampshire obtained no charter. The only freedom allowed to its -inhabitants was the exercise of a few independent rights by means of the -representative assembly elected by the freeholders. - -The acceptance of the Revolution in America marks an epoch of American -history. All the New England colonies had been established, and had -either proved themselves sturdy enough to stand alone, or had been -forced to find shelter beneath the wing of the more powerful Connecticut -or Massachusetts. The New England Confederation had been tried and -found wanting. The time for union was evidently not ripe, but this -embryo of the United States ceased to exist at identically the hour it -was most wanted. A union of all the colonies was what might have been -expected when French aggression and Canadian pluck taxed all the -resources of the colonists; the scheme of union, however, failed, and -the French had to be met in that haphazard and unprepared way in which, -it would appear from history, Englishmen are accustomed not only to meet -supreme danger, but to come through it with success. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[141] Bryce, _American Commonwealth_. - -[142] Underhill, _Newes from America_ (1638). - -[143] _Ibid._ - -[144] _Calendar of State Papers_, Colonial, 1661-1668, p. 88. - -[145] _Calendar of State Papers_, Colonial, 1677-1680, p. 577. - -[146] _Ibid._ - -[147] _Calendar of State Papers_, Colonial, 1685-1688, p. 472. - -[148] _Calendar of State Papers_, Colonial, 1677-1680, p. 398. - -[149] Quoted by Doyle, _Puritan Colonies_ (1887), vol. i. p. 249. - -[150] _Calendar of State Papers_, Colonial, 1661-1668, p. 343. - -[151] Arnold, _History of the State of Rhode Island and Providence -Plantations_ (1859). - -[152] _Ibid._ - -[153] Winthrop, _History of New England_ (1853), vol. i. p. 226. - -[154] Johnson, _A History of New England_, etc. (1654). - -[155] _Ibid._ - -[156] _Mass. Hist. Col._, Series iii., vol. viii. p. 171. - -[157] _American Historical Review_, vol. iv, No. 4, p. 683. - -[158] Josselyn, _An Account of Two Voyages to New England_ (1675). - -[159] _Ibid._ - -[160] _Calendar of State Papers_, Colonial, 1661-1668, p. 315. - -[161] _Calendar of State Papers_, Colonial, 1661-1668, p. 348. - -[162] _Ibid._, 1669-1674, p. 579. - -[163] Josselyn, _ut supra._ - -[164] _Calendar of State Papers_, 1677-1680, p. 211. - -[165] _Calendar of State Papers_, 1677-1680, p. 488. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -THE FIGHT WITH THE DUTCH FOR THEIR SETTLEMENT OF NEW NETHERLAND - - -A new epoch in colonial history was reached when England adopted a -warlike policy to obtain mastery in the West. During the Protectorate, -England and Holland were for the first time engaged in desperate -warfare. The numerous common interests that existed in the two -countries, such as religion and republicanism, were of no avail to keep -the peace. The war that brought such honour to Admiral Blake was not a -war against a "natural enemy," but rather a contest between trade rivals -using the same methods and having the same opinions. The spirit which -animated Cromwell in naval affairs was not Puritanic; it was rather that -of the Elizabethan epoch. The old naval enthusiasm which had so long -slept in the stagnant days of the first Stuarts had now awakened with -renewed vigour, as if its long years of drowsiness had afforded true -refreshment. The celebrated Navigation Act, "the legislative monument of -the Commonwealth,"[166] was the outward and visible sign of this change -in 1651. "It was the first manifestation of the newly awakened -consciousness of the community, the act which laid the foundation of the -English commercial empire.... It consummated the work which had been -commenced by Drake, discussed and expounded by Raleigh, continued by -Roe, Smith, Winthrop, and Calvert."[167] The Dutch, "the Phoenicians -of the modern world, the waggoners of all seas,"[168] were severely -injured by the new law, for goods were no longer to be imported into -England save in English vessels or those vessels belonging to the -country of which the goods were the natural product or manufacture. This -important protective enactment was reissued in the reign of Charles II., -and, as on the former occasion, it was one of the main causes of -embroiling England and Holland. - -For the proper enforcement of the Navigation Act, the English colonies -in the West required a geographical compactness which in the central -period of the seventeenth century they did not possess. A formidable -foreign rival held a valuable commercial settlement between the northern -and southern colonies, for the Dutch possessed in New Amsterdam the very -best harbour along the coast. By the reign of Charles II. the hatred of -the Dutch had become a passion amongst Englishmen, and it had not only -been fostered by the Cromwellian war, but by trade-jealousy both in the -East and in the West. In America the rising colonies of New England, in -particular, looked with greedy eyes upon the splendid waterway of the -River Hudson, which was the finest route for Indian trade. They had, -too, suffered at the hands of their rivals; both the settlements in -Connecticut and Long Island had for many years engaged in innumerable -land disputes with the Dutch, nor did the people of New Haven forget -that some of their brethren had been driven out of New Sweden, which the -Dutch now held. - -The Dutch had made their first settlement in 1626 as an outcome of the -foundation of the Dutch West India Company five years before. In its -functions this corporation very closely resembled the English East India -Company, for it made a special combination of naval and commercial -affairs, and almost its first work was the establishment of the New -Netherland settlement on Long Island and along the River Hudson. Their -chief town was planted on Manhattan Island and called New Amsterdam, the -population of which soon after its foundation was 270 souls. A -contemporary narrative speaks cheerfully of the probable success of the -colony, and states that they had a prosperous beginning and that "the -natives of New Netherland are very well disposed so long as no injury is -done them."[169] But from the very first the governors were bad; it was -in fact irregularities in administration and want of enterprise and -courage that caused the recall of Van Twiller in 1637. His successor -Kieft proved himself equally incapable, for he was arbitrary and -ill-advised, earning the detestation of both Dutch patroons and English -settlers. The colonists themselves were few and poor, and the methods -employed by the Company lacked any trace of liberality or real knowledge -of colonial affairs. Peter Stuyvesant, "that resolute soldier," came -into office in 1647; he was the best governor who up to that time had -been sent out, but he was nothing more than a martinet, without either -sympathy or flexibility. Van der Douch in 1650 described the colony as -sadly decayed, and gave as the reasons that "the Managers of the Company -adopted a wrong course at first, and as we think had more regard for -their own interests than for the welfare of the country.... It seems as -if from the first the Company have sought to stock this land with their -own _employés_, which was a great mistake, for when their time was out, -they returned home.... Trade, without which, when it is legitimate, no -country is prosperous, is by their acts so decayed that the like is -nowhere else. It is more suited for slaves than freemen in consequence -of the restrictions upon it ... we would speak well of the government -... under Director Stuyvesant, which still stands, if indeed that may be -called standing, which lies completely under foot."[170] - -It may have been this complaint or feelings similar to those stated -therein that forced Stuyvesant to do something that would show that his -rule over the colony had a stimulating effect. He had regarded for some -time with jealousy the little settlement of New Sweden, or as it was -known in later years, Delaware. This colony had been established by one -Minuit, who had been formerly employed by the Dutch West India Company. -He was a friend of William Usselinx or Ussling, who had as early as 1624 -obtained a charter from Gustavus Adolphus for a trading company "to -Asia, Africa, America, and Magellanica."[171] But it was not until 1638 -that Minuit's Swedish following arrived in America and erected Fort -Christina, named after that extraordinary royal tomboy, the Queen of -Sweden. They soon had so far settled themselves as to be strong enough -to drive out a party from New Haven, but they had not calculated on the -hostility of the Dutch. Stuyvesant was determined to seize New Sweden, -and set out in 1651 to exert Dutch rights, and for their protection -established Fort Casimir on the site of what is now Newcastle, Del. This -was merely the beginning of a larger policy of annexation, which was -accomplished in 1655 when the Swedish settlement passed into the hands -of the Dutch without bloodshed on the appearance of the Governor with an -army of 700 men. The conquered territory was immediately sold to the -city of Amsterdam and a colony was established there under the name of -New Amstel. On the surface this energetic policy had much to recommend -it from the Dutch point of view; but in reality the people of the New -Netherlands gained but little, as in that colony there were no popular -institutions, no true self-government, and not even the advantage of a -really efficient despotism to give interior strength or possibilities of -exterior advance. The fact was that Stuyvesant's action resulted only in -harm to his colony, for in carrying out the extirpation of the Swedish -settlement in Delaware he absolutely drained his own resources and left -himself unprepared and incapable of resisting the onslaught of the -English. - -The crushing blow fell in August 1664. In the March of that year Charles -II. granted to his brother James, Duke of York, all the territory then -held by the Dutch, on the plea that it was really British soil by right -of discovery. This was the mere reassertion of an old claim, for James -I. had demanded the territory by right of "occupancy" as early as 1621, -and Charles I. did the same by "first discovery, occupation, and -possession"; Cromwell too had attempted to make possession a real thing -in 1654, but the first Dutch War ended too soon. The action of Charles -II. may well be regarded as a very practical declaration of war. Colonel -Richard Nicolls was appointed to seize the New Netherlands. He was the -most important of the Commissioners sent out to report on the state of -the colonies, and was a good soldier, a man of great courage, but at the -same time forbearing and lenient. The colony which he was ordered to -attack contained a population of about 1500 souls, 600 of whom were of -English stock, dwelling for the most part on Long Island, which was -partially Anglicised by an influx of settlers from Connecticut and New -Haven. At the end of August Nicolls arrived off New Amsterdam with four -ships, and 450 soldiers and Connecticut volunteers. On September 4 he -sent terms to Stuyvesant, stating that "His Majesty, being tender of the -effusion of Christian blood, confirms and secures estates, life and -liberty to every Dutch inhabitant who shall readily submit to his -Government, but those who shall oppose his Majesty's gracious intention -must expect all the miseries of a war which they bring on -themselves."[172] Stuyvesant offered very little resistance, and Nicolls -soon found himself in possession of New Amsterdam. The Dutch West India -Company failed to see that they had been largely to blame for leaving -their colony inadequately defended, and preferred to pour out the vials -of their wrath upon the unfortunate Stuyvesant, who, according to the -Company, "first following the example of heedless interested parties, -gave himself no other concern than about the prosperity of his -bouweries, and, when the pinch came, allowed himself to be rode over by -Clergymen, women and cowards, in order to surrender to the English what -he could defend with reputation, for the sake of thus saving their -private properties."[173] - -The conquest of the main city did not leave Colonel Nicolls idle. The -rest of the province had to be subdued, and by his commands the -Assistant Commissioner, Cartwright, went forward, took Fort Orange, -better known as Albany, and above all laid the foundations of that -friendship between the English and the Iroquois which was to prove of -such importance in future years. Sir Robert Carr was also sent to take -the settlements along the Delaware; but his violence and rapacity in -this work contrasted very strongly with the calm and firm rule of -Nicolls, and Carr earned for himself unenviable notoriety for his -severity, which, it has been said, was "the one exception to the -humanity and moderation shown by the English."[174] There were other -difficulties which presented themselves to the Governor of New York, not -the least being the foundation of New Jersey. James, Duke of York, -immediately after the capture of the Dutch settlements, granted all the -territory from the Hudson to the Delaware to Sir George Carteret and -Lord Berkeley. The district was named New Jersey, and Philip Carteret -was sent out by his kinsman to supervise his interests. Nicolls strongly -disapproved of this measure; he was a man with a keen political insight, -and he saw in this mangling of the province the seed of much commercial -and political dispute. His warning was, of course, unheeded, but that -he was right was amply proved by the later history of New Jersey. -Nicolls had also to undo the ill done in Albany by his second in -command, Brodhead, who had shown an extraordinary lack of administrative -ability, treating the Dutch colonists as an inferior and conquered -people, and making numerous arbitrary arrests upon the most trifling -charges. Fortunately for the safety of the colony, news of Brodhead's -action reached Nicolls and the despotic deputy was suspended. - -The government of New York was no sinecure. It was probably the most -cosmopolitan town in North America, and though perhaps it is an -exaggeration, it has been asserted that eighteen languages could be -heard in the streets of the late Dutch capital. Before its capture it -had become more Anglicised, as Stuyvesant had not feared but favoured -the English. The first thing done by Nicolls was to put the town in a -state of defence so as to resist any attempt on the part of the Dutch to -regain possession, which was essayed by De Ruyter in 1665, but without -success. A far more oppressive burden to a man who really had his heart -in his work was the difficulty of obtaining supplies for the soldiers. -The English Governor wrote a most pathetic appeal to the Duke of York, -telling him how he was paying what he could out of his own pocket, but -that the people were starving. He describes how the inhabitants of Long -Island were in terrible poverty, and how New York was in "a mean -condition ... not one soldier has lain in a pair of sheets or on any bed -but canvas and straw" since the capture of the town. He said very -pluckily that he did not mind the ruin of his own fortune, but that he -could not bear the loss of his reputation; and then, probably to gain -his way, he concluded with a delightful sentence of praise that ought to -have won the Duke's heart, and which Nicolls no doubt intended that it -should. The colony, he writes, exhibited general joy and thanksgiving -for the signal victory of the Duke over the Dutch off Lowestoft in June, -and for the preservation of His Royal Highness's person, "the very news -whereof has revived their spirits and is antidote both against hunger -and cold."[175] - -Meantime representatives from the English-speaking towns met in February -1665 on Long Island; here, acting in accordance with the wishes of the -Governor, a scheme of administration was drawn up; a code of laws was -promulgated, and no attempt was made to interfere with the Dutch -language. Every town was granted powers of assessment, and the right of -choosing a church was given to the freemen who were to declare its -denomination. In the cases of the two main Dutch towns of New York and -Albany, Nicolls was careful not to arouse ill-feeling, and he allowed -them to keep their own mayors. When the first governor retired in 1668, -a tribute to his excellent work was paid him by his fellow commissioner -Maverick; "he has done his Majesty very considerable service in these -parts," he says, "having kept persons of different judgments and divers -nations in peace, when a great part of the world was in wars: and as to -the Indians, they were never brought into such a peaceable posture and -fair correspondence as by his means they now are."[176] - -Richard Nicolls was succeeded by Francis Lovelace, who had already acted -for three years as deputy governor of Long Island. He had before him as -governor of New York a far harder task. He followed a man of wonderful -power, and it was now his duty to carry on Nicolls' policy and bring the -preponderant Dutch population surely but quietly under the but recently -established British authority. To accomplish this he adopted a paternal -rule; he granted toleration to all religions; he attempted to gain the -goodwill of the Indians by purchasing their lands and refraining from -any action which might be regarded as aggressive. At the same time he -helped the colony very considerably by opening up intercourse between -New York and Massachusetts, and by the establishment of a regular post -between the two capitals. On the other hand, however, Lovelace was not -really suited to his post. He was a courtier of the conventional type, -and regarded his stay in New York as a form of exile. He speaks of being -in "Egyptian darkness," and asks in one of his letters what is stirring -on the stage in "Brittang." In writing to Sir Joseph Williamson he tries -to arouse his sympathy and says, "we had as well crossed Lethal as the -Athlantiq Ocean." The news from home came to him far too seldom, for the -conveyance of letters was as slow "as the production of _ellephats_, -once almost in two years."[177] - -Lovelace's rule soon became unpopular for he was determined to carry out -his plan of paternal despotism and resisted very firmly every attempt to -create popular representation, which was continually demanded. He -angered the settlers by what they regarded a severe tax for defensive -purposes, and he showed his contempt for the freeholders of Long Island -by ordering their protest against his actions to be burnt. It was -unfortunate that this man should have so alienated both Dutch and -English alike, for his period of government coincided with a most -critical epoch in the world's history. In 1670 Charles had allied with -Louis XIV. against the Dutch, and one of the first acts of retaliation -on the part of the authorities in Holland was to retake their colony of -the New Netherlands. In July 1673 the Dutch Admiral Cornelius Eversen -appeared off Fort James when Francis Lovelace was away at New Haven. The -settlers, instead of resisting the Dutch, remembered their hatred of the -Governor, and Captain Manning, second in command, having fired one gun, -surrendered, an action which was called at the time "a shame and -derision to their English nation as hath not been heard of."[178] -Lovelace on his return found the Dutch flag flying over the settlement, -and, having no supporters, fled to Long Island, where the English towns -had refused to give way, not because of goodwill towards the Governor, -but because of patriotism. Here Lovelace met with a scanty welcome and -within a few days was arrested, ostensibly on account of a debt owing to -the Duke of York, and was sent back to England on the 30th July 1673, -where he died soon after. - -Weary of a war which was solely for the advantage of the French, Charles -II. came to terms with the Dutch at the Treaty of Westminster, 1674. The -New Netherlands once more became New York, but the English ministers -made a great error in also restoring to Carteret and Berkeley their -rights in New Jersey. The advice of Nicolls was again neglected, and -instead of making New York a compact province, the chance of unity was -lost by severing from its jurisdiction the territory of New Jersey. Sir -Edmund Andros, who was now appointed governor, did his best to -neutralise the effect of this by contending that New Jersey was still -tributary to New York, asserting his rights with considerable vigour. -But the partners in New Jersey were too great favourites at court to -suffer any loss, and before the question was settled Andros was recalled -in 1680. His rule was particularly wise and moderate, and during his -governorship New York experienced a healthy expansion. One thing, -however, he would never grant, though the settlers were always -clamouring for it, and that was a clearly defined constitution with -political rights and privileges similar to those in the New England -colonies. - -The exceptionally able Thomas Dongan succeeded Andros, but did not -arrive until 1683. He was forced to contend, as will be shown later, -with French aggression in the valley of the Hudson; his method being a -firm alliance with the Five Nations or Iroquois. They were a wild and -dangerous people, and as such have been described by one who knew them -well. "They likewise paint their Faces, red, blue, &c., and then they -look like the Devil himself ... they treat their Enemies with great -Cruelty in Time of War, for they first bite off the Nails of the Fingers -of their Captives, and cut off some Joints, and sometimes the whole of -the Fingers; after that the Captives are obliged to sing and dance -before them ... and finally they roast them before a slow Fire for some -Days, and eat them." It is interesting to note that the writer records -what must have been a great relief to his readers in the colonies, that -"they are very friendly to us."[179] This amicable relationship between -the English and the Five Nations was largely due to Dongan's good sense -and administrative genius. He persuaded them to become so much subjects -of Great Britain as to set up the arms of James II. upon their wigwams. -The English king, when he heard of his governor's action, informed Louis -XIV. that, as the Iroquois were now true British subjects, he expected -them to be treated as such. Dongan's work did not stop here. He was well -aware that the Iroquois' friendship was an uncertain prop on which to -depend, and therefore palisaded the towns of Albany and Schenectady, -thus beginning the famous system of frontier forts. By his actions he -gained the goodwill of the New Yorkers, to whom, on behalf of the -Proprietors, he granted a charter of incorporation in 1685. But this -acceptance of the views of the people was only very temporary, as it was -reversed in the next year, while at the same time all rights of -legislation were vested in a Council appointed by the Crown. - -As has already been shown, James II. amalgamated the colonies in 1685 -under Sir Edmund Andros and New York became part of New England. The -Governor was kept far too busy in Massachusetts to pay any attention to -New York, which was placed under a deputy-governor, Colonel Francis -Nicholson, with three Dutch councillors. Nicholson was a clearheaded, -observant man, who had had colonial experience, and would have been a -success except for the fact that he lacked moral force. His position -soon became a very awkward one, for in 1689 he heard that William III. -was all-powerful in England, while he held his commission from Andros, -the Stuart governor, who was in captivity at Boston. At the same time -France had declared war and the Canadians might invade the colony at any -moment. Unfortunately for Nicholson, although he summoned the -authorities, he quarrelled with his subordinate Cuyler, and things were -at a deadlock. At this point the people, seething under the restraints -and burdens which had been placed upon them during the reign of James -II., rose in open revolt, led by a German brewer, Jacob Leisler. -Nicholson was immediately deposed; a convention met, and ten out of the -eighteen representatives invested Leisler with dictatorial authority. He -was a man of some cunning, and under the pretence of possessing a -commission, by intercepting letters and by maltreating their writers, he -succeeded in keeping himself in office for very nearly three years. His -period of government was distinguished by the first Colonial Congress at -Albany, to which he summoned representatives from all the colonies to -discuss definite and united action against the French. Leisler himself -proposed a joint invasion of Canada, and it is probable that it was only -his own arrogance that prevented it. His followers soon came to be as -much hated as their leader, and one indignant citizen wrote in January -1690, "never was such a pack of ignorant, scandalous, malicious, false, -imprudent, impertinent rascals herded together, out of hell."[180] -Careful though Leisler had been to search letters and prevent the news -of his usurpation reaching England, he was unsuccessful. In 1690 the -English Government dispatched Colonel Slaughter to take Leisler's -place. The usurper was first met by a force under Major Ralph Ingoldsby, -second in command to the new Governor; a slight resistance was offered, -and Leisler "fired a vast number of great and small shot in the City, -whereby several of his Majesty's subjects were killed and wounded as -they passed in the streets upon their Lawful Occasions."[181] But -Leisler had lost his former following and he was captured and hanged, -together with his chief supporter Jacob Millborne. - -As James II. had left New York without a constitution, a representative -assembly was called in May 1691, and a declaratory act was passed which -annulled Leisler's proceedings. It required that all elections in the -future should be annual, that the franchise should belong to the 40s. -freeholders only, and that the colony itself should be apportioned into -constituencies. At the same time it laid down liberty of conscience -except for Papists, allowing a declaration instead of an oath to please -the Quakers. But above all it declared that no tax was to be imposed -unless it was voted by the colony. The act seemed satisfactory enough, -except the important reservation with regard to taxation; a reservation -which was sufficient to cause the Crown to veto the whole document, and -New York was again without a true and defined constitution. Such a state -of affairs was particularly bad when the colony in 1692 passed under the -rule of the notoriously corrupt Benjamin Fletcher. There are, however, -two things to be said for this man, whose work has been spoken of as -full of deceit, fraud, and subterfuge. In the first place it has been -proved that in military matters he showed considerable skill and -activity; while in the second he undoubtedly realised before many men of -his day the danger of disunion. In May 1696 he wrote, "The Indians, -though monsters, want not sense, but plainly see we are not united, and -it is apparent that the stronger these colonies grow in parts, the -weaker we are on the whole, every little government setting up for -despotic power and allowing no appeal to the Crown, but valuing -themselves on their own strength and on a little juggling in defeating -all commands and injunctions of the King."[182] On the other hand it -must be allowed that Fletcher's methods were particularly scandalous, -for not only did he practically license smuggling and piracy by levying -blackmail upon those who carried on these lucrative trades, but he made -personal friends of them, as for example Captain Tew, "a most notorious -pirate," with whom, to the scandal of the inhabitants, he occasionally -dined. - -As has been shown in another chapter, the Earl of Bellomont was made -governor in 1698 to prevent these nefarious undertakings, and as ruler -of New York, New Jersey, New Hampshire, and Massachusetts he did such -good work that he was universally and sincerely regretted when he died -in 1701. He was succeeded by Lord Cornbury, who was a profligate in -character and overbearing in manner. His rule was one of petty spite and -conflict, and having won the especial hatred of the dissenters and -generally alienated popular support, his recall in 1708 was as much a -cause of rejoicing as Bellomont's death had been of lamentation. - -The first sixty years of the eighteenth century were to the inhabitants -of New York years of anxiety and peril, for there was the ever present -danger of the French to the north and west. The story of these years -will be told elsewhere, and here only a rapid sketch can be given of the -domestic history of the colony. Four governors or deputy-governors -attract particular attention during this period. The first was Governor -Burnet,[183] son of the celebrated Bishop, who made himself conspicuous -in 1724 by writing a pamphlet in defence of paper money. The -governorship of William Cosby was not without a constitutional interest, -ten years later, in the prosecution of John Peter Zengler, publisher of -the _New York Weekly Journal_, for criticising the government. He was -described as a "seditious Person, and a frequent Printer and Publisher -of false News and seditious Libels."[184] The same Governor had also a -hard struggle with his people, which caused him to write to the home -Government for more power and patronage, for "ye example and spirit of -the Boston people begins to spread amongst these Colonys In a most -prodigious maner, I have had more trouble to manige these people then I -could have imagined, however for this time I have done pritty well with -them; I wish I may come off as well with them of ye Jarsys."[185] - -[Illustration: MAP OF NORTH AMERICA, 1755] - -It is evident that as late as 1740 the position of governor was one of -lucrative importance; in that year George Clarke, junior, offered the -Duke of Newcastle £1000 if he would appoint Mr Clarke, senior, -governor, instead of lieutenant-governor as he then was. But this must -have been almost the last case that the post was financially desirable, -for it was clearly the reverse between 1743 and 1753, when George -Clinton was governor. He himself writes, "The Govern^t of New York will -not be near so valuable to Gov^r Clinton as it has been to his -predecessors.--The Province of New Jersey having always till now been -united with New York, and under the same government, and the salary paid -by New Jersey has always been £1000 besides other considerable -advantages, so that the making New Jersey a separate and distinct -govern^t makes New York at least £1000 a year less in value to Gov^r -Clinton than it was to his predecessors."[186] There were, however, -other reasons which in the near future would make the financial position -of the Governor still more precarious, and Clinton could hardly be -expected to foresee that the advantages gained over the French during -his lifetime would in later years be one of the main causes of entire -independence of official governors sent from England. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[166] Seeley, _Growth of British Policy_ (1897), vol. ii. p. 25. - -[167] Seeley, _Growth of British Policy_ (1897), vol. ii. p. 25. - -[168] Quoted by Fitchett, _Fights for the Flag_ (1900), p. 3. - -[169] _Description and First Settlement of New Netherland_ (_1888_). - -[170] _The Representation of New Netherland_ (ed. 1849). - -[171] _Documents relative to the Colonial History of the State of New -York_ (1877). - -[172] _Calendar of State Papers_, Colonial, 1661-1668, p. 227. - -[173] _Documents relative to the Colonial History of the State of New -York_ (1858). - -[174] Doyle, _Cambridge Modern History_ (1905), vii. p. 41. - -[175] _Calendar of State Papers_, Colonial, 1661-1668, p. 337. - -[176] _Ibid._, p. 606. - -[177] _Calendar of State Papers_, Colonial, 1669-1674, p. 111. - -[178] _Calendar of State Papers_, Colonial, 1669-1674, p. 525. - -[179] Hazard, _Historical Collections_ (1792). - -[180] _Calendar of State Papers_, Colonial, 1689-1692, p. 209. - -[181] _A Letter from a Gentleman of the City of New York_ (1698). - -[182] _Calendar of State Papers_, Colonial, 1696-1697, p. 5. - -[183] He was also governor of Massachusetts, and died in 1729. - -[184] _A Brief Narrative of the Case and Tryal of John Peter Zengler_, -etc. (1738). - -[185] _Document relative to the Colonial History of the State of New -York_ (1855). - -[186] _Documents relative to the Colonial History of the State of New -York_ (1855). - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -THE QUAKER SETTLEMENTS AND GEORGIA - - -There are few examples in history of the possessions of an ardent Roman -Catholic passing quietly and amicably into the hands of members of the -Society of Friends, but the Quaker colonies stand pre-eminent as one -instance of this exceptional circumstance. The Quakers were probably the -most persecuted of all religious sects in North America, and yet by the -irony of fate, one of the most thriving settlements owed its origin to -them; its capital Philadelphia became the most important town of the -Thirteen Colonies, and for one hundred and seventeen years was regarded -as the commercial, political, and social capital of the bickering and -jarring states. In the history of these Quaker settlements the disunited -character of the colonies is peculiarly apparent, and in no colony or -group of colonies is it better exemplified than in those of New Jersey -and Pennsylvania. - -The high-handed action of Charles II. in claiming Dutch territory and -granting it to his brother James, Duke of York, has already been -noticed. As soon as his claim had been authenticated by the victory of -Richard Nicolls, the Duke lavishly granted to Sir George Carteret and -Lord Berkeley the land from the Hudson to the Delaware, and it was -renamed East and West New Jersey. From the very first the settlers -hated the Proprietors for being pronounced absentees endeavouring to -exercise control over those who had already purchased the titles to -their lands, and demanding an unearned increment in a most repellent -form. For three years Philip Carteret, the Governor, did not call a -representative assembly, and at last when he did so, imagining the -spirit of the colonists to be broken, he met with a point-blank refusal -from two of the towns. The colony was, in fact, in a state of mutiny. It -was all very well for those in authority to refrain from claiming quit -rents for five years, but this was only a sop to the settlers, who were -angered by the demand that all patents of lands must be obtained from -the Proprietors. The colonists therefore broke into open revolt; set up -their own representative and deposed Carteret. The rebellion was soon -crushed by the Proprietors, but with this state of affairs within, New -Jersey was not in a condition to resist the attack of the Dutch from -without, and in 1673 the old owners took possession. - -The Treaty of Westminster in 1674 restored English rule, and the Duke of -York claimed that all previous titles were annulled by the Conquest. The -new arrangement now made was, that the Duke reserved to himself the left -bank of the Delaware; Carteret was granted a tract of land on the -southern bank of the Hudson; while Berkeley's share was no longer -existent, for he had sold his rights to two Quakers, John Fenwick and -"Edward Byllinge, of Westminster, gent, in whom the title thereunto then -was."[187] Fenwick appears to have been a man of energy, for he -endeavoured to form a settlement on the right bank of the Delaware, -which was strenuously opposed by Sir Edmund Andros, as representative -for the Duke of York. Fenwick, however, won in the end, and established -the colony of Salem. About the same time Edward Byllinge transferred any -rights he might possess to William Penn, the world-famed Quaker. He with -others of the Society of Friends began to colonise on the Delaware, and -their plans were still further encouraged in 1680 by a grant from the -Duke of York including the new colony of Salem. As a balance to this -gift to the Quakers, James, in the following year, increased the -territories of the Carteret family and restored the government to Philip -Carteret, who found, on his return, that his old methods were no longer -possible; the proprietary power had already been considerably weakened, -and the settlers had learnt to manage their own affairs. Sir George -Carteret, recognising that his rights, privileges, and perquisites were -practically nil, very sensibly sold this valueless property to William -Penn, Gawen Laurie, and other Quakers. With that extraordinary desire -for the construction of fantastic constitutions, the new Proprietors at -first attempted to foist upon the settlers a scheme of government which -was so elaborate that it was useless and unworkable. In a very short -time they found that they were obliged to fall back upon the more simple -system of a governor, council, and representative assembly. - -The results of this action on the part of Carteret and Penn were on the -whole satisfactory. It so happened that some of the new Proprietors were -Scotsmen, and they stimulated emigration from the North, and New Jersey -was all the better for a strong infusion of the vigorous Scottish race. -The action, too, had the effect of bringing East and West New Jersey -into closer contact, and so paved the way for union. In 1692 another -step was taken in this direction, for the Proprietors of both colonies -appointed Andrew Hamilton as joint-governor. There were, however, many -difficulties to be overcome before union was possible. In the first -place there were unending disputes with New York about the levying of -duties; while secondly, the Proprietors' rights had now become so -complicated by frequent sale and transfer that matters were in dire -confusion; besides these very rights appeared to the settlers themselves -as injurious to the welfare of the colony. They looked for political -privileges for themselves, which would, according to the Proprietors, -clash with their interests. To grant to the settlers rights which were -on the surface merely political, appeared, and indeed would be, the -abnegation of all proprietary territorial claims. The man who might have -done so much for the union of the New Jerseys had unfortunately -transferred his affections elsewhere. Penn, filled with schemes of pure -philanthropy, had left his first settlement to look after itself and had -brought all his energies to bear upon his new venture in Pennsylvania. - -Even without Penn's assistance the union of the two Jerseys was bound to -come. In 1701 it was pointed out by the Colonial Office of that day, -that "by several letters, memorials, and other papers, as well from the -inhabitants as Proprietors of both these provinces, that they are at -present in confusion and anarchy; and that it is much to be apprehended -lest by the heats of the parties that are amongst them, they should -fall into such violences as may endanger the lives of many persons and -destroy the colony."[188] It seemed obvious to those in London that some -form of union was necessary to save the colony from this fate, and so -New Jersey from the River Hudson to the River Delaware became a united -province when the Proprietors surrendered all their political and -territorial rights in 1702. For a short time New Jersey with New York -suffered under the scandalous administration of the brainless and -profligate Lord Cornbury, but his evil work was to a certain extent -remedied by Governor Robert Hunter, who proved himself an able colonial -administrator. - -The tract of land to which Penn had transferred his philanthropic -schemes lay to the south of the river Delaware. It had been taken from -the Swedes and at one time had been granted to Maryland, but up to the -year 1681 it had remained unoccupied. The Quaker Penn, a man of high -social position, friend and favourite of James II., readily accepted -this piece of territory in liquidation of a debt of £16,000 owed to him -by the Crown. The agreement now drawn up between Penn and the Duke of -York was remarkable for its utter indifference to all constitutional -forms. Penn was appointed Proprietor, but his powers were to a certain -extent limited; on all legislative matters the Crown reserved the right -of veto, and in all financial affairs the newly formed colony was to be -regarded as an integral portion of the realm; while, as a further hold -over revenue, an accredited agent of the colony was to reside in England -and was to explain any infraction of the revenue laws. - -Pennsylvania, as first conceived by the Proprietor, was not a colony for -one sect only. He offered no particular inducements to Quakers rather -than to others. The early emigrants were a veritable olla podrida, and -consisted of English Quakers, Scottish and Irish Presbyterians, German -Mennonites, and French Huguenots. It was not long, however, before the -Quaker element distinctly preponderated, with two obvious results. In -the first place one of the strongest tenets of Quakerism was a horror of -war and bloodshed, which belief was steadily upheld by the -Pennsylvanians and proved in later years most baneful to the colony when -the French began their aggressions. The second result was just as good -as the first had been bad. The Quakers taught and believed the equality -of all men before God; to them there was no distinction between settler -and savage, and unlike some of the colonists in the Puritan group, -offered the best of treatment to the Red Indians. - -In the autumn of 1681, William Penn dispatched four commissioners to -found the colony that was in later years to become so famous. William -Crispen, Nathaniel Allen, John Bezar and William Heage were chosen by -the Proprietor to select a site on the Delaware; Crispen, Penn's -kinsman, died on the voyage, but the other three faithfully carried out -their orders and selected a spot where the river "is most navigable, -high dry and healthy; that is where most ships can ride, of deepest -draught of water, if possible to load or unload at the bank or key -(_sic_) side without boating or lightering of it."[189] Thomas Howe had -been appointed surveyor-general and at once proceeded to lay out the -city of Philadelphia upon a modification of the plans of Penn and -covering a surface area of about 1200 to 1300 acres. William Penn stands -alone as the founder of a great city of which he was justly proud, and -in 1683 he was able to write, "Philadelphia: the expectation of those -who are concerned in this province is at last laid out, to the great -content of those here who are anyways interested therein. The situation -is a neck of land and lieth between two navigable rivers, Delaware and -Sculkill, whereby it hath two fronts upon the water, each a mile, and -two from river to river."[190] - -Penn was quick to foresee a prosperous future for his colony, but he -nearly ruined it at the outset by drawing up a well-intentioned but -somewhat cumbersome constitution. There were to be two elective -chambers: the Upper or council, consisting of 72 members, and the Lower, -which was at first to contain 200, and later 500 members. This -constitution, however, was impossible to manage; the Lower assembly was -obviously far too large and proved superfluous; while the Upper was -found to be too bulky for a Cabinet or executive government; for these -reasons a few months after its conception it was radically altered. The -pruning-knife was called into use and the 72 of the Upper chamber were -cut down to 18; at the same time the absurd number of 200 was reduced to -26, and the right of initiating legislation was taken from the -representatives. But Penn was not yet satisfied and undertook still -further alterations in 1686, when he appointed five Commissioners of -State, three of whom were to be a quorum, and to whom the right of veto -in all legislative affairs was granted. This scheme was almost as bad as -his first constitution, for it gave excessive powers to three or four -men; fortunately for the colony it was not perpetuated. - -Early in its history troubles came upon Pennsylvania, which had been -founded "with the pious wish and desire that its inhabitants might dwell -together in brotherly love and unity."[191] The flight of James II. was -the first serious blow to Penn's colonial prosperity; it may be that he -was one of the few men who sincerely and deeply regretted the fall of -the last male Stuart ruler of England, for in James' misfortune Penn -also suffered for a time, and his plans as a colony promoter received a -severe check. At the same time Pennsylvania was torn by internal -quarrels concerning what were called the "Territories" or Delaware. This -district, on the south bank of the Delaware River, had been transferred -from the administration of New York and placed under that of -Pennsylvania. The dispute that arose had for its cause the appointment -of magistrates, and it was only settled by a compromise in which -Delaware was for the future to have its own executive, but there was -only to be one elective chamber for the whole province. Still worse days -came to Pennsylvania when the colony was included in the commission to -the pirate-loving Benjamin Fletcher. As in New York, so in the Quaker -settlement he proved himself arbitrary in conduct, brutal and unwise in -action, immoral and corrupt in his private life. The only comfort to the -Pennsylvanian settlers during his rule was that they won their right to -initiate legislation. - -A promise of the renewal of the good days of the past appeared when Penn -succeeded in 1694 in regaining his proprietary rights, now somewhat -shorn of their former privileges. The Proprietor immediately set about -the restoration of his colony's prosperity, but excellent as his work -was, Pennsylvania was still more fortunate in having amongst its members -Gabriel Thomas, one of the brightest colonial authors of that period. He -has not only left some writings of particular merit, but his name has -been handed down to posterity as one who laboured hard for seventeen -years to build up, firmly and strongly, the Quaker settlements in the -West. Such work was necessarily slow, and Penn, when he again visited -his colony, must have been much grieved with its moral condition if -Lewis Morris, Governor of New Jersey, wrote the truth. "Pennsylvania is -settled by People of all Languages and Religions in Europe, but the -people called Quakers are the most numerous of anyone persuasion ... the -Church of England gains ground in that Country, and most of the Quakers -that came off with Mr Keith are come over to it: the Youth of that -country are like those in the neighbouring Provinces very Debaucht and -ignorant."[192] - -A long series of disputes with the other colonies began in 1701, which -intensified the danger already only too obvious, caused by the disunion -of the American states and left them the more open to French attack. In -addition to their antipathy to war, the Pennsylvanians now pleaded -poverty as an excuse for refusing to assist in contributing funds -towards the restoration of the fortifications of New York. Penn's common -sense forced him to advocate the contribution, but all his eloquence was -wasted upon his settlers, and he pleaded and remonstrated in vain. A -fresh dispute followed, again arising from the government of Delaware. -Since the last quarrel the Assembly had met alternately at Newcastle and -Philadelphia. The people of Pennsylvania, as members of the more -important state, demanded that in the future any legislation passed at -Newcastle should be ratified and confirmed at Philadelphia. This was -naturally intolerable to the weaker side, and the outcome of the dispute -was the granting of a new charter and the complete separation of -Delaware in 1703. - -The last official act of William Penn was the incorporation of his -beloved city of Philadelphia, which had steadily increased in size and -population. A contemporary in 1710, possibly Daniel Defoe, has left on -record a description of the town which gives some idea of its character -and importance. Philadelphia "is a noble, large and populous city, -standing on as much ground as our English City of Bristol.... It is -built square in Form of a Chess-Board with each Front facing one of the -Rivers. There are several Streets near two Mile long, as wide as -Holborn, and better built, after the English Manner. The chief are Broad -Street, King-street, High-street, tho' there are several other handsome -Streets that take their Names from the Productions of the Country: as -Mulberry, Walnut, Beech, Sassafras, Cedar, Vine, Ash and Chestnut -Streets.... The Number of the Inhabitants is generally suppos'd to be -upwards of 15,000 besides Slaves.... And if I were oblig'd to live out -of my native Country, I should not be long puzzled in finding a Place of -Retirement, which should be Philadelphia. There the oppress'd in Fortune -or Principles may find a happy Asylum, and drop quietly to their Graves -without Fear or Want."[193] Such was the happy city within thirty years -of its foundation, and as a political centre it remained supreme until -after the American War of Independence. - -Penn retired from the colony in 1701, but continued to take the keenest -interest in all that went on. At one time he remonstrated with the -assembly for attacking his secretary and staunch supporter, James Logan, -who acted as the Proprietor's agent during his long years of absence. As -long as Penn lived he was able to exercise some control, but when he -died in 1718 he left to his heirs a proprietary claim over a colony torn -in pieces by disputes and factions. The brothers John and Thomas Penn -were never popular, and up to the resignation of their claims in 1759 -there were continual quarrels, sometimes over the Governor's salary, and -sometimes because the Proprietors, who possessed three-fourths of the -province, refused to allow the taxation of their lands for military -operations against the French. - -It is a noticeable fact that the two last colonies of the famous -Thirteen were founded on philanthropic bases. The excellent William Penn -established Pennsylvania as a home of toleration and peace; and the last -of the original states, Georgia, was founded, upon motives that were -highly creditable to their originator. The colony of Georgia owed its -existence to James Oglethorpe, who, after serving a short time in the -army, became a Member of Parliament and was placed upon a Parliamentary -Committee to inquire into the state of the prisons, at that time -conducted on barbarous lines. What he then learnt led Oglethorpe to -propose the formation of a colony where men might honestly work and -better their position instead of pining away in the horrible debtors' -gaols. In addition to this, as he said, "Christianity will be extended -by the execution of this design; since the good discipline established -by the Society will reform the manners of these miserable objects."[194] -There is, too, in his account of the advantages of the colony, a hint as -to the possible pecuniary gain of the individual and of the nation, for -"when hereafter it shall be well-peopled and rightly cultivated, England -may be supplied from thence with raw Silk, Wine, Oil, Dyes, Drugs, and -many other materials for manufactures, which she is obliged to purchase -from Southern countries."[195] Tempted by these proposals, the -Government readily fell in with his scheme and granted to Oglethorpe and -his associates, including the famous Thomas Coram, a tract of land to -the south of the Savannah River and north of the Spanish settlements in -Florida, and here the debtors' colony was to serve as a barrier and -rampart against Spanish aggression. The Corporation was called "The -Trustees for the colonisation of Georgia," and was given full powers of -administration for twenty-six years, at the expiration of which all -privileges were to pass to the Crown. - -In the autumn of 1732, James Oglethorpe embarked with 114 settlers; they -were unsatisfactory colonists, for the men who had so hopelessly failed -in England had not that grit and sturdy endurance necessary for founders -of new homes in the West. The colony, however, started well, for -Oglethorpe immediately won the goodwill of the natives, and made a wise -selection of a site for the first settlement about twenty miles from -the mouth of the Savannah River. The town itself was guarded on the -water side by high banks, while impenetrable swamps on the land side -served as sufficient barrier to any warlike incursions that might be -attempted. Besides these advantages, Oglethorpe had also made friendly -overtures to the neighbouring colonies, and in 1733 was able to say with -satisfaction that "if the colony is attacked it may be relieved by sea -from Port Royal, or the Bahamas; and the militia of South Carolina is -ready to support it, by land."[196] Oglethorpe's satisfaction must have -been very short-lived. From the very first the colonists grumbled, -quarrelled, and disputed, and their resident minister, the Reverend -Samuel Quincy, gives a horrible but exaggerated account of the colony in -1735. "Affairs here are but in an ill-condition, through the -discouragements attending the settlement.... The magistrate, to whom the -government of the colony was left, proves a most insolent and tyrannical -fellow. Several just complaints have been sent home against him, which -do not meet with a proper regard, and this has made people very -uneasie.... In short, Georgia, which was seemingly intended to be the -asylum of the distressed, unless things are greatly altered, is likely -to be itself a mere scene of distress.... Notwithstanding the place has -been settled nigh three years, I believe, I may venture to say there is -not one family which can subsist without further assistance."[197] -Affairs though gloomy were scarcely as black as Quincy depicted them, -for in the next few years there was every sign of progress. Already in -1734 there had been a large increase of population by the immigration -of Salzburg Germans under their pastor Martin Bolzius, who had fled from -the persecution of their Prince Bishop. Two years later the colony had -grown sufficiently to found a second settlement, Frederica, seventy -miles south of the Savannah, at the mouth of the Alatamaha River; and a -party of Highlanders about the same time founded New Inverness. Trade -also began to increase and a definite commercial station was established -at Augusta. - -In the same year as the foundation of Frederica, John Wesley, -accompanied by his brother Charles, came out as chaplain to the Georgian -flock. He was in residence for a year and nine months, during which -period he seems to have quarrelled with many of the inhabitants and -particularly with the Moravians, and proved himself both indiscreet and -ill-tempered. He himself records in his _Journal_ that he was told by -one man, "I will never hear you any more. And all the people are of my -mind. For we won't hear ourselves abused. Besides, they say, they are -Protestants. But as for you, they can't tell what Religion you are of. -They never heard of such a religion before. They do not know what to -make of it. And then, your private behaviour--all the quarrels that have -been here since you came, have been long of you. Indeed there is neither -man nor woman in the Town, who minds a word you say. And so you may -preach long enough; but nobody will come to hear you."[198] Wesley seems -to have allowed his own personal feelings to enter into his religious -life. He desired to marry a young woman of his congregation, Sophia -Hankey by name, but she preferred to marry a Mr Williamson. Thereupon, -apparently without any other reason than his own personal feelings, -Wesley excluded Mrs Williamson from communion. Her husband very -naturally regarded this as a slur upon his wife's character and brought -an action against Wesley, who was forbidden to leave the colony while -the question was pending. He records in his _Journal_ for December 2nd -what then took place. "In the Afternoon the Magistrates publish'd an -Order requiring all the Officers and Centinels, to prevent my going out -of the Province; and forbidding any person to assist me so to do. Being -now only a Prisoner at large, in a Place, where I knew by experience -every Day would give fresh opportunity, to procure Evidence of words I -never said, and actions I never did; I saw clearly the Hour was come for -leaving the Place: And as soon as Evening Prayers were over, about Eight -o'clock, the tide then serving, I shook off the dust of my Feet, and -left Georgia, after having preach'd the Gospel there (not as I ought but -as I was able) one Year and nearly Nine Months."[199] In regarding -Wesley's action at this time, it is to be remembered that he was a -self-confident, impulsive young enthusiast, lacking knowledge of human -nature, and also that he had not passed through those years of struggle -and earnest work which in later times made him a man of tact and -forbearance. - -Meantime a serious danger threatened the colony. In 1736, the Spaniards, -who had long viewed Georgia with suspicion, made an armed -reconnaissance, but nothing could be done, for there was at that time no -war between the two countries in Europe. It was not until 1739 that -Walpole was forced by popular demand to declare war against Spain, an -act which he regarded with disgust as contrary to all his principles and -desires. Georgia was in a particularly exposed position with regard to -Spanish aggression, and Oglethorpe decided to take the offensive as a -defensive measure and carry the war into the enemy's country. Reading -the signs of the times and knowing what was hatching in Europe, the -English Governor collected a force of about 600 volunteers and boldly -marched for Florida in October 1738. He had been partly led to this -action by the fact that news had been brought that the Spanish troops -had been increased in St Augustine, and that the civil inhabitants had -been turned out of their houses to give quarters to the royal forces. -Oglethorpe's move was an unsatisfactory one, not through want of bravery -on his part, but rather because he was a poor judge of men and his -soldiers were wanting in the spirit of loyalty; some had even concerted -a plot with the Spanish, while others had actually deserted to the -enemy. Nothing daunted, Oglethorpe spent the summer of 1739 securing the -alliance of most of the neighbouring Indian tribes, and when war was -formally declared against Spain the Georgian Governor was in a better -position for whatever fate might have in store. - -The home authorities ordered Oglethorpe to attack St Augustine, but -before he could do so the Spaniards struck the first blow. Some fifty -miles south of the town of Frederica, the Governor had thought it -advisable to erect a military station on Amelia Island. This was the -first natural object of Spanish attack, but their success was limited to -the murder of two invalids. Oglethorpe, on the other hand, was more -fortunate in capturing a Spanish outpost, which tempted him to risk an -attack on St Augustine itself. He set out in March 1740, with a land -force of about 2000 men, composed of Georgian militia and Indian allies; -being supported at sea by four King's ships and a small schooner from -South Carolina. This latter was practically the only help from the -members of the richer colony, the generosity of which was of a very -limited character; they ought really to have assisted Oglethorpe as well -as they were able, for their danger from the Spaniards was almost as -extreme as that of Georgia. Ill-supported as he was, the Governor -captured three small fortresses, but soon found that the seizure of the -capital of Florida was beyond his slender resources. The few Carolina -troops deserted; his own men were struck down by fever; and his Indian -allies left him in disgust because he tried to restrain their natural -ferocity. In June, having realised that his attempt was hopeless, he -retreated. His work, however, was not entirely unsuccessful, for -although he had failed to do what he had intended, he succeeded in -staving off from Georgia any serious Spanish attack for the next two -years. - -The year 1742 marks the crisis of Oglethorpe's career, for it was then -that he won for himself a reputation for daring and strategy. The -Spaniards attacked the colony and, knowing of their approach by means of -his Indian allies, Oglethorpe concentrated all his forces upon the town -of Frederica. The Spanish vanguard made an impetuous onslaught against -which the Governor led with considerable daring his own ill-organised -men. He showed that spirit of courage and prowess that fascinated even -his wretched followers, who gave him willingly what support they could. -He himself captured single-handed two of the Spaniards. But his strategy -was yet to be displayed. As the fight continued, he sent through the -wood a flank force which fell upon the Spaniards so suddenly and -unexpectedly that they were routed with heavy loss, and the panic was -sustained by an expedient of Oglethorpe's invention. By means of a -deserter he succeeded in hoodwinking the enemy, declaring that he was -ready for a second assault, which would be welcomed with the same hearty -spirit that had been accorded to the first; at the same time he informed -them, in mere bravado, that he was expecting an English fleet. As a -matter of fact the desire for a second attack and the arrival of English -vessels were mere figments of Oglethorpe's imagination. But as the gods -fight on the side of the brave, so Oglethorpe was rewarded by the almost -miraculous appearance of a few men-of-war. From that moment Georgia may -be said to have earned her safety. She owed her existence to Oglethorpe, -and to him and his cunning she owed her salvation. It may be truly said -that at last the colony had thoroughly justified its existence and had -fulfilled one of the main functions for which it had been created. The -aforetime debtors of England had not shown particular courage, but their -leader had fulfilled the promise of ten years before, and Georgia had -stood firm and strong as a bulwark defending its more prosperous -neighbours who lay upon the northern frontier. Those neighbours had much -for which to thank the weakly colony, to whom in time of stress they had -given little or no assistance. It was only one more example of the lack -of unity, and one more instance of that failure to secure really -effective co-operation which, had it existed, would have made so great a -difference to the advance of the colonies. Georgia's position was, -however, all the more exalted, for under Oglethorpe she had stood alone -and had not been found wanting. - -The colony was now safe from invasion, but there were many internal -difficulties that had to be confronted. The debtors of England were not -like the hardy and cheerful Salzburgers who managed to flourish and -enjoy life. The climate itself was one of the most serious drawbacks to -white labour, and an influential party saw that the colony could hardly -compete against the other southern states where slave labour was -employed. This party was supported in its views by George Whitefield, -who had come, to Georgia in 1738 and who strongly advocated negro -slavery. When it is remembered that one of the most permanent triumphs -of the Evangelical party was the abolition of slavery, it is curious -that one of the earliest and greatest of its leaders should have -defended and encouraged the slave owners. But his advocacy had no effect -upon the Trustees, who were firm in their determination to prevent negro -slave traffic. The settlers sent a strong protest to England in 1739, -stating that "Timber is the only thing we have here ... yet we cannot -manufacture it for a Foreign Market but at double the Expense of other -Colonies; as for Instance, the River of May, which is but twenty miles -from us, with the Allowance of negroes, load Vessels with that Commodity -at one Half of the Price that we can do.... We are very sensible of the -Inconveniences and Mischiefs that have already, and do daily arise from -an unlimited Use of Negroes; but we are as sensible, that these may be -prevented by a due Limitation."[200] The Trustees replied that the -introduction of negroes would be the introduction of a "baneful -Commodity, which, it is well known by sad Experience, has brought our -Neighbour Colonies to the Brink of Ruin, by driving out their White -Inhabitants, who were their Glory and Strength, to make room for Black, -who are now become the Terror of their unadvised Masters."[201] -Excellent as the answer of the Trustees was, there can be little doubt -that for lack of proper executive both the restrictions on liquor and on -slavery were systematically evaded and after 1752 were allowed to lapse. - -[Illustration: WILLIAM PITT, LORD CHATHAM _From the painting by -W. Hoare in the National Portrait Gallery._] - -Oglethorpe, promoted to the rank of General, left Georgia in 1743, never -to return. The colony cannot be called an entire success; the very -philanthropy upon which it was founded deprived it to a certain extent -of those enduring qualities which had made the New England colonies -strong and healthy provinces. But though Oglethorpe had not accomplished -all that he had wanted to do, a modern writer has paid him a high -tribute when he says that he "had attained a far larger measure of -success than most men could have won with such material."[202] That the -colony was prospering is shown by Edmund Burke in 1759, when he said, -"At present Georgia is beginning to emerge, though slowly, out of the -difficulties that attended its first establishment: It is still but -indifferently peopled, though it is now twenty-six years since its first -settlement. Not one of our colonies was of so slow a growth, though none -had so much of the attention of the Government, or of the people in -general, or raised so great expectations in the beginning. They export -some corn and lumber to the West Indies; they raise some rice, and of -late are going with success into indigo. It is not to be doubted but in -time, when their internal divisions are a little better composed, the -remaining errors in the government corrected, and the people begin to -multiply, that they will become a useful province."[203] - -Some of the "errors in the government" had come up for discussion as -early as 1751, when for the first time a representative assembly was -called, but it was only granted deliberative functions. The whole -character of the government of Georgia was radically altered when, -according to the original agreement, the colony passed into the hands of -the Crown. The population now consisted of 2380 whites and 1060 negroes, -and these came to be governed under a constitution of normal type -consisting of a governor, council, and executive officers nominated by -the Crown, and a representative assembly elected by the freeholders. - -Such, then, was the history of the last colony to be founded, completing -the unlucky number thirteen, and it remained the weakest and least -efficient of all. From small beginnings the English colonies came into -being along the Eastern seaboard of America. Puritans and cavaliers, -profligates and mechanics, all helped to create what might have been -except for sad misunderstandings part of the British empire of to-day. -Behind the Alleghany slopes another great power was attempting to form a -colonial empire. North of the St Lawrence, New France had already been -established; by the waters of the Gulf of Mexico, Louisiana had already -been named. In some places not inaccessible hills, in others not -unnavigable rivers divided the Briton from the Gaul. It was inevitable -that sooner or later the struggle between the two great powers must -come. It might be fought in Europe upon battlefields which are familiar -to all, but it was also fought out upon the far distant border line, and -the struggles of the colonial militia with the French Canadian -backwoodsman presents a story of endurance, courage, and determination -equal if not superior to the annals of those English regiments which -fought in the Netherlands or on "the plains of Germany." - -FOOTNOTES: - -[187] _Calendar of State Papers_, Colonial, 1677-1680, p. 587. - -[188] Compare the _N.J. Archives_, ii., p. 420. - -[189] Quoted in the _Enc. Britannica_. - -[190] Janney, _Life of William Penn_ (1852). - -[191] Pastorius, _Geographical Description of Pennsylvania_ (1850). - -[192] New Jersey Historical Society, _Proceedings_ (1849-1850). - -[193] _The Voyages and Adventures of Captain Robert Boyle_, etc. (1726). - -[194] Force, _Tracts_ (1836). - -[195] _Ibid._ - -[196] Force, _Tracts_ (1836). - -[197] Massachusetts Historical Society, _Collections_ (1814). - -[198] Wesley, _Journal_, June 22, 1736. - -[199] Wesley, _Journal_, December 2, 1737. - -[200] Force, _Tracts_ (1836). - -[201] _Ibid._ - -[202] Doyle, _Cambridge Modern History_ (1905), vol. vii. p. 63. - -[203] _An Account of the European Settlements in America_ (1760). - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -THE SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC HISTORY OF NEW ENGLAND - - -"God sifted a whole nation that he might send choice grain over into -this wilderness."[204] With regard to New England this statement was in -part true, for the people of those northern colonies exhibited a -remarkable homogeneity, and their leaders were men of a peculiarly lofty -character. That this population grew with leaps and bounds during the -first century of settlement is well attested by records. As early as -1643, Massachusetts had a population of 20,000; while Plymouth, -Connecticut, and Newhaven, taken together, must have numbered between -eleven and twelve thousand. At the Restoration the total population is -placed at 80,000, of which two-thirds dwelt in Massachusetts. The -eighteenth century statistics show a steady increase, 100,000 whites and -4000 negroes being a rough computation for the year 1714. - -The people dwelt for the most part in little towns, each one of which -was a separate commonwealth possessing representative government. The -corporations were the chief landholders and watched with the greatest -jealousy any increase of individual possession which might trespass upon -their rights. The system was one of antiquity and carries our thoughts -back to mediæval methods where police, finance, justice, and agriculture -were all concentrated in one manorial district. Just as in England in -Plantagenet days there were the division of the land into strips, the -rights of common pasture, and the tilling on a communal principle, so in -the New England of the seventeenth century these systems were employed -with partial success. The houses in which the settlers dwelt were for -the most part built of wood, and stretched in orderly rows along trim -streets. Each homestead was detached, and like the houses of our -Teutonic forefathers, "was surrounded with a clearing," which in America -was usually allotted to fruit trees. - -The comfort of the houses was of a very doubtful character, log huts -were extremely draughty, so that houses of brick and stone were most -coveted, but only obtainable by the rich. Although in Plymouth as early -as 1645 glass seems to have been common in the windows, yet the houses -were mainly of wood, which was also the case at Newport as late as 1686. -Governor Bradstreet six years before this had recorded that Boston had -suffered severely by fire and that the houses were therefore to be -rebuilt with brick or stone, "yet hardily to be obtained by reason of -the inhabitants' poverty."[205] Wooden houses continued to be built, and -in fact in a few instances exist to this day. In Boston they were still -common in 1750, if we are to believe Captain Francis Goelet. "Boston," -he writes, "the Metropolis of North America, Is Accounted The Largest -Town upon the Continent, Haveing about Three Thousand Houses in it, -about two Thirds them Wooden Framed Clap Boarded, &c."[206] - -The men of Boston, and of New England in general, were, owing to natural -circumstances, traders. They had found themselves in a land of splendid -harbours, and so they went down to the sea in ships and trafficked upon -its waters. It has of course been urged that this trade of the colonies -was sadly restricted by the English people, who as a nation of -shopkeepers were determined that "the cultivators of America might be -confined to their shop."[207] For this reason the Navigation Act of -1660, on the lines of the famous Act of 1651, insisted on certain -enumerated articles being landed in British ports only; and this was -still further extended by two later enactments. But even Adam Smith -allows that "though the policy of Great Britain with regard to the trade -of her colonies has been dictated by the same mercantile spirit as that -of other nations, it has, however, upon the whole, been less illiberal -and oppressive than that of any of them."[208] The colonial system was -in truth a mistake, but it never undermined the trade of the British -settlements, as was the case in French Canada, owing to the corrupt and -negligent methods of Bigot and his gang. The result was that the New -England trader flourished. The trade had of course small beginnings; at -first merely fish and fur were exported to Virginia. Then corn, cattle, -and butter were sent to the West Indies, and exchanged for cotton and -fruits. More distant voyages followed, and in 1643, wine, iron, and -wool were imported from Spain. In the meantime iron had been discovered -in Massachusetts by the younger Winthrop at Lynn and Braintree; and the -Commissioners in 1665 certified that there was "good store of iron made -in this province."[209] The Commissioners were, however, too optimistic, -for the iron raised proved to be of inferior quality; partly because of -this inferiority, but chiefly owing to trade regulations, scarcity of -labour, and high wages, all cutlery and farm implements were imported -from England well into the eighteenth century. The reported discovery of -silver in Rhode Island in 1648 caused a nine days' wonder, and then the -excitement subsided for nothing came of it. Lead was also found as early -as 1650 in Lynn, but these mineral industries never rose to great -importance under British rule. - -Minor commercial industries seem to have flourished, as there are -frequent references to masons, bricklayers, ropemakers, powder and -pitch-makers, and in 1650 Boston had its own goldsmith. Clothmaking was -not altogether unknown, as certain clothiers from Yorkshire settled at -Rowley in 1639 and established weaving and spinning. The venture was, -however, unsatisfactory, and although New England encouraged by bounties -the textile industry, yet it took long to mature, and as late as 1700 -there was only one small cloth mill in Connecticut. At the same time it -is evident that the different colonies varied very much in their -prosperity. Plymouth is reported to the Committee of Trade and -Plantations to have no trade beyond the sea. About the same time -Governor Bradstreet complains of the poverty of Boston, and says "the -country in general is very poor, and it is hard for the people to clothe -themselves and families."[210] The general trade of New England, -however, in the eighteenth century seems to have been good. Daniel -Neale, a very careful writer of the day, records in 1720 that the -imports from England were "all sorts of Woollen Drapery, Silks, Stuffs, -and Hats; all Sorts of Linnen and printed Callicoes, all sorts of Iron -Manufacture ... to the value of 100,000 _l._ annually and upwards. In -Return for these Goods, our Merchants export from thence about 100,000 -Quintals of dried Cod-fish Yearly, which they send to Portugal, Spain, -and several Ports of Italy, the returns for which are made to London out -of the Products of those Countries, and may amount to the value of about -80,000 _l._ annually."[211] - -Governor Wentworth reports in 1730 that New Hampshire manufactured -timber "into beams, planks, knees, boards ... and sometimes into -house-frames."[212] But long before this it had been exported to England -for naval purposes, and on two occasions at least the Massachusetts -Government bought the goodwill of the home authorities by a timely -present of masts. In particular, however, this timber was used by the -colonies for shipbuilding, which became an industry of importance, and -in later years those employed in it actually excelled the English -shipwrights. In 1631 Winthrop built a thirty-ton vessel, soon to be -followed by others of a hundred and even three hundred tons; and seven -years later the first New England vessel sailed safely across the -Atlantic into the Thames. Although in 1643 Massachusetts could only -boast five ships ranging from one hundred to five hundred tons, yet in -1665 the colony had one hundred and ninety-two ships of all sizes; and -in 1708 possessed two hundred, twenty of which were over one hundred -tons burthen. Rhode Island ran Massachusetts very close in this -shipbuilding race. Between 1690 and 1710 her vessels are said to have -increased six-fold, and in 1740 the inhabitants could proudly boast that -they owned no fewer than one hundred and twenty ships. Connecticut never -competed in this form of industry, and in 1708 she is reported to have -had only thirty vessels. New Hampshire too carried on her over-sea -traffic by means of strange vessels, possessing only five ships of her -own. In 1748, although trade was supposed to be in a very depressed -state, five hundred and forty ships sailed from Boston, a fact which -showed a considerable export and import commerce. - -It would be erroneous to imagine that the colonies in the eighteenth -century were in any way struggling, poverty-stricken communities. Their -trade had grown with leaps and bounds, and they carried on a profitable -commerce with England which Sir Robert Walpole had encouraged on the -grounds that "the greater the prosperity of the colonies, the greater -would be their demand for English goods."[213] That this proved true is -shown by William Pitt saying in 1766, "the profits to Great Britain from -the trade of the colonies are two millions a year. That was the fund -that carried you triumphantly through the last war.... And shall a -miserable financier come with a boast that he can filch a peppercorn -into the exchequer to the loss of millions to the nation?"[214] For the -same reason Adam Smith has given a conspicuous place to colonial trade -in his _Wealth of Nations_. "Though the wealth of Great Britain," he -writes, "has increased very much since the establishment of the Act of -Navigation, it certainly has not increased in the same proportion as -that of the colonies.... The industry of Great Britain, instead of being -accommodated to a great number of small markets, has been principally -suited to one great market.... The expectation of a rupture with the -colonies accordingly has struck the people of Great Britain with more -terror than they ever felt for a Spanish Armada or a French -invasion."[215] - -The colonists did not, however, simply depend upon trade for their means -of livelihood; many of them engaged in agriculture. During the winter -months their beasts suffered as much as those in England, for until the -eighteenth century there were no winter roots. In the same way the -rotation of crops was much restricted, as the settlers were totally -ignorant of artificial grasses. They had still to wait for Lord -Townshend to make his agricultural experiments at home before they could -grow turnips, cereals, and grasses on scientific principles. On the -other hand they seem to have anticipated the discoveries of Mr Jethro -Tull of Mount Prosperous, and some years previous to his work on -husbandry they had inaugurated deep tillage. Tobacco, the principal -commodity of the southern colonies, was not introduced into New England -until 1660, but its place as a staple was taken by the cultivation of -large quantities of rape, hemp, and flax. The colonists also, after many -disappointments, came to be enthusiastic breeders of sheep, horses, -goats, and cattle. At first the sheep fared very badly; the wool crop -was short, and the climate proved unsuitable to the English stock. By -1642, however, there were one thousand sheep in Massachusetts, and these -increased very rapidly. The authorities were most anxious to encourage -sheep-farming, and in 1654 the exportation of sheep was forbidden. In -Rhode Island and Connecticut they flourished upon the public lands, and -by 1670 the latter colony was able to export a fairly large quantity of -wool. - -During the whole period there was a great lack of specie, which in the -early years had not been a very serious drawback, as barter was the -ordinary method of exchange, but as the colonies advanced in importance -it was a decided check upon foreign commerce. In 1631, Massachusetts -declared corn to be legal tender, and four years later it was ordained -that public dues were to be paid in this commodity at the rate of 6s. -per bushel. This system was employed in the next decade by both -Connecticut and Newhaven, with decidedly disadvantageous results, for it -brought about the inconvenience of a double price; the monetary payment -being about half the actual value of the payment in kind. For many years -in the Indian trade the settlers had used Indian shell money or wampum. -This medium of exchange was first applied in New Plymouth in 1627, and -was afterwards employed by Coddington when he bought Aquedneck. In 1641, -wampum was declared legal tender under £10, but within eight years the -Massachusetts Assembly refused to accept it for taxes. The fact was that -it depended solely upon Indian trade, and when this began to decline, -wampum was valueless. Rhode Island was the last colony to discontinue -its use for taxes, which it did in 1662; though it acted as small change -in Newhaven well into the eighteenth century. - -As early as 1642, Massachusetts, by means of its foreign trade, began to -obtain coined money in the shape of Dutch ducats and rix-dollars. But -the extraordinary mixture of coins was very awkward, so that in 1652 a -mint was established in the colony. John Hall, the goldsmith of Boston, -was made its master. The coins had stamped upon them the word -Massachusetts encircling a tree, which was in early years a willow, -later an oak, and finally a pine. Charles II. was furious at this attack -upon his coinage, and the story goes that to appease his wrath he was -told that the emblem of the oak was in grateful memory of his glorious -escape at Boscobel. - -Towards the end of the seventeenth century the amount of coin in the -country had very largely increased, but in the commercially backward -Connecticut, barter was still common. As late as 1698, gold was very -scarce, and taxes continued to be paid entirely in silver. The colonists -firmly believed in the enriching powers of paper money, which in New -England was issued in particularly large quantities by Rhode Island. The -real disadvantage was intercolonial, and not internal, so that most of -the colonists failed to understand the interference of the home -authorities, either in 1740, when the Lords Commissioners for Trade and -Plantations forbade the governors to sanction the issue of bills of -credit, or again in 1744, when an Act of Parliament was passed -forbidding paper money altogether. The fact was that the settlers -believed, like Governor Burnet, "that this manner of compulsive credit -does in fact keep up its value here, and that it occasions much more -trade and business than would be without it, and that more specie is -exported to England by reason of these Paper Bills than could be if -there was no circulation but of specie."[216] - -It is not surprising that the colonists should also labour under the -economic delusion that it was necessary to regulate wages and prices. At -first Massachusetts left them both free, but after three years, wages -were found to have risen to what was then regarded as the monstrous rate -of 3s. a day for carpenters and 2s. 6d. a day for common workmen. In -1633, therefore, a scale of wages was proposed by the General Court, and -"they made an order that carpenters, masons, etc., should take but two -shillings the day, and labourers but eighteenpence, and that no -commodity should be sold at above fourpence in the shilling more than it -cost for ready money in England."[217] The enactment, however, proved -fruitless, and was repealed two years later. The enormous rise in wages -and the extortionate prices still exercised the minds of those in -authority, and a committee was appointed in 1637. The outcome of their -deliberations was that about 1643 the wages of farm labourers were fixed -at 1s. 6d. a day. This remuneration appears to have been ample, and it -has been calculated that a careful man could save enough in five years -to become the tenant of a small farm. This was not so difficult as it -might seem, for small holdings were common, and as succession was by -gavelkind and not through primogeniture, holdings tended to be kept -limited in extent. The accumulation of land was rather the exception -than the rule, though there are occasional examples, as in Newhaven, -where some estates contained as many as three thousand acres. - -The thriftless man could not, of course, save very much out of such a -wage, and there were therefore many paupers. The burden of their support -fell upon the towns, and in the case of New Plymouth, it was not long -before the township became "the poor law unit."[218] The decision as to -a man's settlement caused as much difficulty in the Puritan colonies as -it was doing in England at the time. In 1639, Massachusetts ordained -that two magistrates should decide this momentous question. Six years -later the power of decision was put in the hands of a committee; while -immediately before the Restoration a three months' residence was -selected as the period of settlement necessary to denote a man's parish. - -The richer inhabitants of the Puritan colonies no doubt had slaves, but -throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries negro slavery in New -England was never a very flourishing institution. The tenets of -Calvinism naturally warred against such a practice, while "the main -influence ... was no doubt the unfitness of the climate and soil for -servile industry."[219] The Rhode Island authorities were from the first -against perpetual bondage, and in 1646, Massachusetts also raised its -voice against slavery. As late as 1680 there were, according to Governor -Brodstreet, only one hundred and twenty negro slaves in the colony, and -they sold for £10, £15, and £20 apiece. The methods of employment do not -seem to have been harsh, and according to Mrs Knight in 1704, the slaves -and masters in Connecticut had their meals together: "into the dish goes -the black hoof as freely as the white hand."[220] Towards the end of the -seventeenth century slavery slightly increased in New England, and it -was found necessary to pass several laws for the better regulation of -the negro. In 1703, in Massachusetts, slaves were not to be set free -unless their masters guaranteed that they would not become a burden on -the poor rate. Two years later the marriage between slaves and whites -was forbidden, and a £4 duty was placed upon every imported negro. In -1708 the blacks in Rhode Island numbered only four hundred and -twenty-six, but within twelve years they had risen to one thousand, -three hundred. At the same time Connecticut had eight hundred, while -Massachusetts was the worst offender with three thousand. - -The actions and protestations of the New Englanders were somewhat -contradictory. Although negro slavery was preached against, it was -nevertheless practised. So too with regard to the Indians. The New -Englander treated the savage with contempt, yet several efforts were -made, not without some success, to convert the Redskin to the Christian -faith. Thomas Mayhew has earned for himself historic fame by being the -first who really made definite attempts to bring the natives into touch -with the doctrines of Christianity. In 1643, with the ready assistance -of his Indian colleague Hiacoomes, he did what he could, and at least -succeeded in founding schools in some of the Indian villages. -Massachusetts made state efforts in 1646, but they were surpassed by the -individual enterprise of John Eliot of Roxbury, who had laboriously -learnt the Indian tongue to accomplish this great work. Excellent as the -work was, it compares but feebly with the self-denial of the Jesuits in -Canada, whose missionary labours far surpassed in deeds of heroism and -suffering anything that was ever undertaken by the English settlers. A -progressive move was made in 1649, when Parliament incorporated the -Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in New England. The work then -spread more rapidly, so that in two years a convert settlement of four -hundred "praying Indians" was established at Natich. The Society for the -Propagation of the Gospel was encouraged to still further action when in -1662 it was granted a Royal Charter. For this reason it may be said that -the Restoration stimulated missionary effort, the partial success of -which is to be found in the issue of an Indian Bible and the creation of -converted Indian villages in Massachusetts, New Plymouth, Martha's -Vineyard, and Nantucket. - -In New England the church and township were inseparable, their members -being for the most part Congregationalists. In the early days a body of -believers simply entered into a Church covenant and that was all. The -methods of worship were somewhat peculiar, and it is asserted that for -sixty years these Puritans had no marriage or funeral ceremonies. -Throughout all the colonies there was the principle that the members of -the church must support their minister, and in 1637 Massachusetts issued -an order to that effect. In 1650 Connecticut and in 1657 Plymouth did -the same. The Churches were separate in their governance, and the synods -of United Churches held at Boston in 1646, 1657, and 1662 were not -viewed with entire favour by all the congregations. At first, as has -already been shown, the Puritans were the most intolerant of people, and -tried to enforce the law that a freeman must be a member of the Church. -Gradually, however, this fanatic flame burnt itself out, and by the end -of the seventeenth century the intensity of feeling on matters of Church -and toleration began to relax. Fifty years later there were men in -Massachusetts and elsewhere who blushed for shame at the harsh bigotry -of their grand-parents, and one writer is able to say "at present the -Congregationalists of New England may be esteemed among the most -moderate and charitable of Christian professions."[221] Nevertheless -even in that eighteenth century there was no lack of factions and -parties, and this was intensified by the preaching of George Whitefield -in 1739. He certainly created a religious revival amongst the -dissenters, but at the same time his words drove many of the -Independents into the arms of the Church of England, which, though by no -means welcomed in Massachusetts, had long been tolerated in Connecticut. -Even after this event, however, the Established Church never really -succeeded in the colonies, for there was no colonial episcopate, and it -was regarded as doing little or nothing for spiritual life. In 1758, -Archbishop Thomas Seeker urged manfully "the establishment of Bishops -of our Church in America,"[222] but it was too late, and the fear of -such an establishment was a main cause of uneasiness in New England at -the outbreak of the War of Independence. - -The lack of unanimity in the religious question does not seem to have -existed with regard to education. Unlike the southern and middle -colonies, the Puritans from the outset encouraged the education of the -young with praiseworthy enthusiasm. This owed its origin to several -circumstances, not the least being the fact that so many men from the -two ancient Universities emigrated during the period 1630 to 1640. The -foundation of Harvard, as already mentioned,[223] did something to -encourage teaching. In 1640, Rhode Island, with extraordinary -promptitude, established public education, but without any definite -system. Seven years later, Massachusetts went further still by creating -elementary schools in small villages of fifty householders, and grammar -schools in the larger and more populous towns. The same was done in -Connecticut; but curiously enough New Plymouth seems to have done -nothing for education until the end of the seventeenth century. -Providence had its own school three years after the Restoration; and by -1693 Hartford, Newhaven, New London, and Fairfield were all in -possession of state-supported schools. Connecticut's energy did not stop -here; for Yale College was founded, and in 1717 was permanently -established at Newhaven, where a house had been built "for the -entertainment of the scholars belonging to the Collegiate School."[224] -Thus the clergy of Connecticut were freed from their dependence upon -Harvard. For nothing does New England deserve more unstinted praise than -for these early efforts in the cause of education, the results of which -have proved so eminently satisfactory. - -Whether University education had much effect upon the literature of New -England it would perhaps be a little difficult to say. Connecticut, for -example, even with Yale College as a starting-point, produced no great -literary achievements. Nevertheless throughout the first century of New -England's story there was a well-defined and living school of -literature. The school naturally divided into two parts: that of -theology, which to the ordinary modern critic is somewhat meaningless; -and that of history. The historical section was composed for the most -part of chronicles, glowing with patriotism, alive with the picture of -the daily life, and filled with "a dignity of diction belonging to those -who have assimilated the English Bible till their speech instinctively -adopts its form."[225] There was the work of Winthrop; the impulsive, -triumphal hymn of Edward Johnson; "The Simple Cobbler of Agawam" of -Nathaniel Ward, and the writings of many others. But this period of -history and theology died away as the century neared its close. At the -beginning of the eighteenth century Cotton Mather may be regarded as one -of the best known of Boston authors. But the curious thing about the New -England literature is the total absence of anything that might be called -secular. The colonies, however, were not without their poets, for they -had Anne Bradstreet and Michael Gigglesworth, the works of both of whom -were recognised in the seventeenth century as being of real poetical -merit. - -This outburst of literature could never have been accomplished had it -not been for the introduction of the printing-press. As early as 1638 a -press was brought by Day to Boston and set up at Cambridge. A second -press was introduced in 1655 by the Society for the Propagation of the -Gospel. Rhode Island had its press in 1708; while Short of Boston -established printing in New London, Connecticut, in 1709. By the end of -the seventeenth century newspapers began to be printed, such as _The -Public Occurance both Foreign and Domestic_ at Boston in 1690, to be -followed fourteen years later by John Campbell's _Boston Letter_. - -The increase of newspapers was the natural outcome of better means of -travel and circulation of news. At first the different townships had -been divided by vast forests; gradually, however, roads were built and -communication between the different settlements was established. As -early as 1638, three bridges were ordered to be built in Plymouth, and -in 1652 we read of bridges that were strong enough for horsemen. -Travelling, however, was generally on foot, for coaches were very rare -and were only possessed by the more wealthy citizens of Boston. A postal -service was established in the reign of Charles II. between Boston and -New York; but it was not until 1710 that a General Post Office, with -several sub-offices, was erected by Act of Parliament. The inns were not -of any particular comfort, though they were fairly numerous. The Puritan -was not hospitable like his southern brother, so that throughout New -England taverns were insisted upon by law. - -This was probably an excellent enactment and far better than many of the -extraordinary laws that stained the pages of the New England records. -Numerous sumptuary laws were passed against the wearing of gold or -silver girdles, ruffs, or slashed sleeves. Drunkards had to proclaim -their fault by wearing a red D; while Hawthorne's _Scarlet Letter_ has -familiarised all with the cruel punishment meted out to the fallen -woman. In 1658, lying, drinking, and swearing could be punished by -flogging; dancing and kissing also fell under severe penalties, though -Cotton does say he only condemns "lascivious dancing to wanton ditties -and in amorous gestures and wanton dalliances, especially after great -feasts."[226] The attempt to prevent immorality was carried to the most -absurd lengths, and even in the eighteenth century stage plays and rope -dancing were forbidden as "likely to promote idleness and a great -mispence of time."[227] - -The laws may have been foolish, but it is perhaps uncharitable to judge -them too sternly at this period. The men who passed them were -undoubtedly conscientious; harsh they may have been, cruel in their -punishments, but their hearts were in what they conceived to be the work -of the Lord. They were bold men in a "howling wilderness"; they were the -pioneers of a great nation. The American spirit to-day is compounded of -much that once animated these first Americans on the eastern sea-coast. -Their industry, their untiring energy, their honesty, their masculine -character have been handed down through many generations to descendants -not unworthy of such an ancestry as that of the Pilgrim Fathers. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[204] Words of Stoughton, Lieutenant-Governor of Massachusetts. - -[205] _Calendar of State Papers_, Colonial, 1677-1680, p. 529. - -[206] _New England Historical and Genealogical Register_ (1870), xxiv. -p. 62. - -[207] Adam Smith, _Wealth of Nations_ (ed. 1845), p. 254. - -[208] _Ibid._, p. 240. - -[209] _Calendar of State Papers_, Colonial, 1661-1668, No. 50. - -[210] _Calendar of State Papers_, Colonial, 1677-1680, p. 529. - -[211] _History of New England_, II. (1720) ch. xiv. - -[212] New Hampshire Historical Society, _Collections_, i. p. 228. - -[213] Morley, J., Walpole, _Twelve English Statesmen_ (1896), p. 168. - -[214] 1 Green, W., William Pitt, _Heroes of the Nations_ (1901), p. 258. - -[215] Smith, A., _Wealth of Nations_ (ed. 1845), pp. 245 and 249. - -[216] O'Callaghan, _Documents relative to Colonial History of State of -New York_ (1855), v. p. 738. - -[217] Winthrop, _History of New England_ (ed. 1853), i., Nov. 1633. - -[218] Doyle, _The English in America_, vol. ii. p. 64. - -[219] _Ibid._, p. 506. - -[220] Knight, _Journal_ (1825), p. 40. - -[221] Quoted by Thwaites, _The Colonies_, 1492-1750 (1891), p. 189. - -[222] O'Callaghan, _ut supra_, vii. 348. - -[223] See p. 93. - -[224] Clap, _The Annals or History of Yale College_ (1766), p. 22. - -[225] Doyle, _Cambridge Modern History_ (1905), vol. vii. p. 60. - -[226] _Mass. Hist. Coll._, Series II. vol. x. p. 183. - -[227] Quoted by Doyle, _Colonies under the House of Hanover_ (1907), p. -13. - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -THE SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC HISTORY OF THE SOUTHERN AND MIDDLE COLONIES - - -The southern colonies in their geographical formation, their soil and -climate, were of a uniform character; nor were there any decidedly -marked religious differences. In the middle colonies this was by no -means the case, but even here the style of life in such states as -Pennsylvania, Delaware, and New Jersey had many points of resemblance. -In all the colonies except Maryland and Virginia there was a -heterogeneous population of English, Irish, Scots, Dutch, Huguenots, and -Germans, but in New York State mixed nationalities were most apparent. - -The distinction between the grades of society was well-marked in both -the southern and middle colonies. In South Carolina in early times there -was practically no middle class, but at the end of the seventeenth -century a few Ulster Protestants settled in the colony as small farmers -and remained in spite of economic conditions. In Maryland there were -yeomen farmers and tradesmen, who were for the most part rude and -uneducated. A professional middle class was unknown until the eighteenth -century; doctors, for example, were not licensed in New York till 1760. -In New Jersey there was a tendency to insist on democratic principles, -though there is every reason to think that the gentleman farmer was -treated with the same respect accorded to the Quaker squire of -Pennsylvania, or the Dutch patroon of New York. In the South the upper -classes resembled their contemporaries in England. Some were indolent, -haughty, and vain, showing the greatest contempt for honest toil; many -were confirmed gamblers and horse-racers. The bottle and the dice were -the household deities of not a few; but they were nevertheless -bountiful, generous, and patriotic, and proved themselves good specimens -of England's manhood in time of peril. - -Below these classes were the indentured servants and negro slaves. The -former were composed of paupers and criminals sent out from England, the -earliest instance being in 1618, when Ambrose Smythe, a felon, was -transported to America, as a servant bound for a limited period. The -life in Virginia on the tobacco plantations must have been of the -hardest, but it was evidently preferable to that in the West Indian -islands, as Penruddock, the conspirator against Cromwell, petitioned in -1656 to be sent to Virginia rather than to the Barbadoes. The evil of -the system of indentured servants lay for the most part in the ease with -which _inconvenient_ people were got rid of, and in the kidnapping of -harmless children. Fugitives from justice, guilty husbands or wives, the -felon and the innocent were all to be found on those ships that sailed -from Bristol. The scandal increased from year to year, so that in 1661 -the new Colonial Board was obliged to make an effort to regulate -indentured servants, while three years later a commission under the Duke -of York was appointed to look into the whole matter. The outcome of this -was a most salutary enactment by which kidnapping was made a capital -offence. The inquisitorial system necessary for the proper enforcement -of this Act soon came to be burdensome, as proved by a complaint of the -merchants in 1682, concerning vexatious prosecutions; but that it was -absolutely essential is shown by a fresh Order in Council, four years -later, against kidnappers. The one great advantage possessed by the -indentured servant over the negro slave was that no hereditary -disqualification attached to the children of such servants, whereas in -the case of the blacks the stigma of slavery passed from the parents to -their offspring. - -The system of binding servants for so many years tended to check the -growth of slavery; but there is little doubt that during the first -hundred years of American colonisation the influx of negro slaves -reached alarming proportions. In 1620 a Dutch ship landed twenty negroes -from the Guinea coast at the recently established Jamestown. From this -small beginning the cursed traffic grew, and so rapidly that in 1637, -and on many later occasions, enactments were passed to check all -intercourse between whites and blacks. Within twenty years of the -introduction of slavery there were in Virginia about three hundred -blacks, while twelve years later the number had reached one thousand. It -is not to be wondered at that the growth was so rapid, for the trade was -a lucrative one,[228] and it was difficult to check when the first in -the land participated in its spoils. Thus in 1662 the Royal African -Company was founded with James, Duke of York, at its head, and with his -brother Charles II. as a large shareholder. The negroes were in theory -regarded as mere chattels, and to check risings such as those of 1678, -1712, and 1741, barbarous laws were passed against them. On the other -hand, as individuals they were as a general rule comfortably clothed, -fed, and housed; they had many amusements, and their work was not as -arduous as has so often been described. At one time it was an understood -thing in the colonies that the lord had the _jus vitae necisque_ over -his slaves, but at the beginning of the eighteenth century the Crown -made the murder of a negro a capital offence, a decision vigorously -upheld by Governor Spotswood. The number of slaves on each plantation -varied very much; the average may, perhaps, be placed at thirty. But the -largest owner in Virginia possessed 900; while in Maryland this was -easily beaten by an owner with 1300. In the eighteenth century the -negroes far outnumbered the whites in South Carolina; but in New York -they only formed about one-sixth the total population. In Maryland and -Virginia they were as one to three, while in the middle colonies it is -calculated that a ratio of one to seven would give a rough estimate of -their numbers. - -Figures and statistics with regard to the white population can only be -surmised. In 1650, Virginia, as the oldest of the colonies, may -possibly have had 15,000 inhabitants. Stuyvesant's calculation for New -York fourteen years later was probably exaggerated when he placed that -cosmopolitan people at 10,000. At the time of the Revolution the total -population of Maryland, Virginia, and the Carolinas was about 90,000; -but the two first colonies had by far the largest proportion, for -although Shaftesbury and Locke had worked so hard, the Carolinas had -only 4000 settlers all told. The population of East Jersey at the -beginning of the eighteenth century was, according to Governor Lewis -Morris, "about eight thousand souls";[229] while that of Pennsylvania -and Delaware may have been 20,000, at least one-half of whom were -English Quakers. Later in the century more exact figures are -ascertainable. Virginia in 1724 was still the largest with 65,000; -Maryland ran it close with 53,000. Pennsylvania and Delaware had -steadily increased owing to immigration to 32,000; and New York, which -in 1705 had had 25,000 people, had by 1724 increased to 30,000. New -Jersey came next with 26,000, while North and South Carolina lagged -behind with 14,000 and 9000 respectively. - -With so large a population it is only natural that there were various -kinds of trade. Tobacco was the staple of Virginia and of Maryland; but -by 1701 Virginia tobacco was acknowledged as far superior to that from -the Baltimore plantations. South Carolina for the first ninety years of -its history relied mainly upon rice, the export of which was encouraged -by Sir Robert Walpole in 1730. The colony was now allowed to export rice -to any port in Europe, south of Finisterre, provided it was sent in -British ships, manned by British seamen. "The result was that the rice -of the American plantations beat the rice of Egypt and Northern Italy -out of the markets of Europe."[230] After 1741 or 1742, indigo planting -became an important industry in the colony, for the seed which was then -introduced was found to flourish in the swamps of the South. Iron was -worked in Virginia to a small extent. Its value was pointed out by the -Company in defence of their charter in 1623: "during these 4 last years -that hath been expended in setting up of iron works (the oar whereof is -there in great plenty and excellent) above five thousand pounds, which -work being brought in a manner to perfection was greatly interrupted by -the late massacre."[231] The industry continued throughout the century, -but never on a large scale. In Philadelphia a more profitable iron -industry existed, while in Maryland in 1749 seventeen iron furnaces were -regularly employed. New Jersey made some slight profit from working her -minerals, such as iron and copper, but her chief exports were cattle and -tanned hides. The exports of Pennsylvania were even more varied, -consisting of horses, pipe staves, salted pork and beef, bread-flour, -peas, beans, tobacco, potashes and wax; while from Germantown in -particular there was paper, glass, and coarse cloth. New York carried on -a small linen and woollen manufacture, but the chief industry, until -checked by the policy of Andros, was tanning. After the revolution New -York was famous for its fur trade, particularly that in beaver. Busy as -most of the settlers were, yet almost every necessary of life was -brought from England, including such common articles as wooden bowls. In -a list of the imports of Pennsylvania at the end of the seventeenth -century we find rum, sugar, molasses, silver, salt, wine, linen, -household goods, and negroes. In 1733, to the annoyance of the -colonists, a heavy duty was imposed on all molasses imported from -foreign countries. Tobacco, at the same time, was not allowed to be -exported to any European ports, save those of Great Britain. This, -however, was easily evaded, for the numerous rivers and private -landing-stages in the southern colonies made effective supervision -impossible. - -As in the case of the New England colonies, the main check to commerce -lay in the serious want of money. The steady influx of coin was -prevented by the lack of retail trade, and also by the fact that the -planter was nearly always in debt to the merchant. In Virginia and -Maryland the scarcity of specie was overcome by the use of tobacco, -which, "as the staple product of the country, established itself as the -accepted medium of exchange."[232] But even in these colonies a desire -for good money was shown on various occasions. The Virginia Assembly, in -1645, tried to fix the legal value of the Spanish coins which were in -common use, and also proposed a copper coinage of their own. Cecil -Calvert, as a careful proprietor, attempted to assist his Maryland -settlers by establishing a coinage, but nothing came of it. In the -eighteenth century, therefore, most of the southern and middle colonies -fell under the fascinating influence of paper money; New York and -Virginia being the only two to escape this economic evil. - -Brief reference has been made to the educational indifference of the -southern settlers. As has already been shown, Governor Berkeley thanked -God that there were no schools in Virginia.[233] To the rich planter -this was not so disastrous, as his sons were either provided with a -tutor or sent to England. But this absence of schools for the small -freeholders presented a great difficulty. Certainly in the Carolinas the -lack of education was not so marked, for there, as society was more -urban, the opportunities of a school training were more numerous. "Their -cohabiting in a town has drawn to them ingenious people of most -sciences, whereby they have tutors amongst them that educate their youth -_à la mode_."[234] South Carolina was particularly famous for its -educational advantages, and in one year there were no fewer than four -hundred educational advertisements in the _South Carolina Gazette_. -Although William and Mary College in Virginia was founded by Blair at -the end of the seventeenth century, it remained for many years nothing -more than a rather superior boarding school. In Philadelphia there was -some attempt to instruct the young, not only in several German and -Moravian seminaries, but also, after 1698, in the Penn Charter School. -New York had its first Church of England School in 1704, but it was not -until fifty years later that King's College, afterwards Columbia -College, was established. A college was founded in New Jersey in 1746, -but two years later Governor Belcher complained that "they are a very -rustical people and deficient in learning."[235] Owing to the energies -of the indefatigable Benjamin Franklin an academy was built in -Philadelphia in 1750 in which the Quaker youth of the colony had the -greater part of their training. - -There can be no doubt that the lack of education in the southern and -middle colonies was reflected in the absence of any vigorous literary -development. Virginia is easily first in its possession of three writers -of repute: Robert Beverley, who wrote the history of his own colony; or -the Rev. William Stith, whose work though fragmentary is never dull, and -"might have been produced by a learned, leisurely, and somewhat pompous -English clergyman";[236] or finally, Colonel William Byrd, a man of -education and wealth, who has left on record a witty and interesting -account of his travels. New York was not without two famous names, those -of William Smith, author of _The History of New York_, and Cadwallader -Colden, who has left to posterity a chronicle of the Five Nations, -filled with picturesque descriptions. Pennsylvania, unlike the other -colonies, has to revere the name, not of an historian, but a poet and -tragedian, in Thomas Godfrey, whose short life lasted only from 1736 to -1763. - -The religion of the southern and middle colonies was not of the harsh -character of the northerners. The Church of England had more power than -in the Puritan settlements, though its position was a peculiar one. In -New York and New Jersey up to 1693 it was supported owing to orders -from the Crown. From that date its preponderance over other sects was -due to the habit of the governors to appoint Church of England -clergymen. In Maryland and Virginia the Church was established by acts -of the colonial legislature; while in the Carolinas it owed its position -to the Proprietary Charter. In the southern colonies the clergy for the -most part shared the vices of the planters, and "drunkenness is the -common vice"[237] is not an unusual complaint. In North Carolina the -people seem to have been at first utterly indifferent; they were a -lawless population and cared for none of these things. In 1703 there was -no episcopalian minister, nor was there a church until 1705. Six years -later Governor Spotswood reported that there was only one clergyman in -the whole colony. Nor did South Carolina evince a more ardent religious -spirit, for at the beginning of the eighteenth century there were only -two Episcopalian churches, the one at Charlestown, the other at Goose -Creek. Virginia and Maryland seem to have been better than this, for -from quite early times the clergy were readily supported and paid in so -many pounds of tobacco. In Virginia George Whitefield's preaching had -some little effect, but on the whole he failed to arouse any great -religious enthusiasm in the other southern colonies. Maryland and -Pennsylvania were the most tolerant of all the colonies. In the first -Roman Catholics and Protestants had lived together, though not always -peaceably, since its foundation; while in the latter colony there were -Quakers, Lutherans, and Presbyterians tolerating each other. After the -capture of New York by Nicolls, everyone was supposed to conform to the -Church of England; each township was commanded to maintain its own -church and minister. At first the New York authorities were strongly -against Jesuits and Popish priests, but as the eighteenth century grew -in years, there is every reason to believe that within this state there -were Episcopalians, Roman Catholics, Presbyterians, and Lutherans living -happy lives and seeing much that was good in their religious -antagonists. - -Church life was in no way connected with town life as in New England, -for the simple reason that towns were very uncommon, having "no place in -the social and industrial economy of the south."[238] They consisted for -the most part of scattered houses, an inn, a gaol, and a court-house. -They were visited by the planters nominally for business, but mostly for -pleasure, and the tavern, which was in some cases enforced by law, -became the meeting-place for gossip. Jamestown and Williamsburg in -Virginia, St Mary's and Annapolis in Maryland, are not worth considering -as busy centres of trade. They were rather the meeting-places of -pleasure parties who came for balls and horse races, and when these -gaieties were over they slumbered until again roused for the next joyous -gathering. Charlestown in South Carolina had always been somewhat -different; from its foundation it had taken upon itself the position of -the most important town in the south, and it proved that it was ready to -progress with the times by being the first town to possess a theatre, -which was built in 1735. In the middle colonies the towns played a very -considerable part in the social and economic life of the settlers, and -in this way resembled the northern corporate communities. New York and -Philadelphia were both good towns with wide streets lined with trees; -along the edge were the orchards and gardens surrounding stone or brick -houses with overhanging gables. The two other towns of importance were -Germantown which was very busy, and Newport which is described as -ill-built. - -Such in brief were the towns, industries, and style of living of the -southern and middle colonists. The English-born planter depended upon -slave labour or indentured servants; he lived upon a large estate in a -magnificent and often too lavish manner. But they were men of as much -grit as the New Englanders; certainly they were descended from a -different stock, and they looked upon the present life and the future -with very different eyes, but that was all. The settlers of the middle -colonies plunged with readiness into the intricacies of trade, and the -merchant and tradesman were far more conspicuous figures in daily life -than in either Virginia or Maryland. The colonists were, too, far more -cosmopolitan than in the north. In the Carolinas there were a few -Huguenots, Swiss, and German Palatines, but in Virginia and Maryland -there was little trace of any foreign element. But in the middle -colonies there were regular waves of aliens from Germany and Switzerland -intermixed with the earlier Dutch and English settlers. They all helped -to play their little parts in the world's history, and they all came to -look upon England as the home country. Then by the middle of the -eighteenth century they were called upon to resist the aggressions of -France; and during those years of struggle they partly learnt their -power. United at last, English settler and foreigner, Northern Puritan -and Southern planter, they made the one supreme effort, throwing off the -yoke of England, and became no longer colonists, but Americans. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[228] So lucrative did the slave trade become that, even after the -Abolition Act of 1807, slave dealers realised an enormous profit if one -ship out of three with its living cargo reached an American port. - -[229] New Jersey Historical Society, _Proceedings_ (1850), iv. p. 118. - -[230] Morley, Walpole, _Twelve English Statesmen_ (1896), p. 168. - -[231] _A Declaration of the Present State of Virginia_, etc. - -[232] Doyle, _The English in America, Virginia, etc._ (1882), p. 525. - -[233] See p. 46. - -[234] Lawson, p. 3. - -[235] Quoted by Thwaites, _op. cit._, p. 221. - -[236] Doyle, _Colonies under the House of Hanover_ (1907), p. 289. - -[237] Meade, _Old Churches of Virginia_ (1861), i. p. 385. - -[238] Doyle, _The Colonies under the House of Hanover_ (1907), pp. -42-43. - - - - -CHAPTER X - -THE FRENCH COLONIES IN NORTH AMERICA - - -"The French empire in the New World has vanished, leaving behind it -ineffaceable monuments of the grand political conception of which it -formed part."[239] Frenchmen were amongst the earliest to be roused by -the discoveries of Columbus, Cabot, and Vasco da Gama; but it was not -until the sixth year of the sixteenth century that any real attempt at -discovery was made. In that year, 1506, Denys of Harfleur sailed across -the Atlantic, hoping to reach the East, but finding instead the great -Gulf of St Lawrence. He was not the only adventurer, for Aubert of -Dieppe followed two years later and astonished his countrymen by -bringing to France some natives of North America. Baron de Léry was the -first to see the advantages of colonisation, and long before Sir Walter -Raleigh was born the quick-witted Frenchman had planned within his -fertile brain a new France beyond the sea. He attempted to carry out his -purpose in 1518, but it was bound to fail, for the time was not yet ripe -for a French colony, since France itself was still unsettled and -imperfectly concentrated. Francis I., realising the advantages gained by -his rival Charles V. from the rich mines of Peru, employed Verrazano, a -Venetian, to "discover new lands by the ocean." He sailed in January -1524, and first reached that part of America now known as the Carolinas, -and then coasted as far north as Newfoundland. "Sayling northeast for -the space of 150 leagues," Verrazano writes, "we approached to the land -that in times past was discovered by the Britons, which is in fiftie -degrees. Having now spent all our provision and victuals, and having -discovered about 700 leagues and more of new countries, and being -furnished with water and wood, we concluded to return into France."[240] - -[Illustration: QUEBEC FROM POINT LEVY IN 1761 _From an -engraving by R. Short._] - -The year 1534 is the most memorable of all concerning those early French -voyages; it is a year of the very greatest importance in the history of -both France and North America; from this time may be dated the beginning -of New France, for now Jacques Cartier made his first voyage to the St -Lawrence. He found that the people had "great store of Mushe-milions, -Pompions, Gourds, Cucumbers, Peasen and Beanes of every colour.... There -groweth also a certaine kind of herbe, whereof in Sommer they make great -provision for all the yeere, ... and onely men use it, and first they -cause it to be dried in the sunne, then weare it about their neckes -wrapped in a little beast's skinne made like a little bagge, with a -hollow peece of stone or wood like a pipe: then when they please they -make pouder of it, and then put it in one of the ends of the said Cornet -or pipe, and laying a cole of fire upon it, at the other ende sucke so -long, that they fill their bodies full of Smoke, till that it commeth -out of their mouth and nostrils, even as out of the Tonnell of a -chimney.... We our selves have tryed the same smoke and having put it in -our mouthes, it seemed almost as hot as Pepper."[241] On his return to -St Malo, Cartier brought with him some Indian children as a proof of the -success of his enterprise. He was not content with this voyage, and in -the following year sailed again to this land of promise. On this -occasion he penetrated still further up the St Lawrence, bringing his -ship to anchor beneath the cliffs where now stands the city of Quebec. -"It is called," he writes, "Stadacona, ... & beyond, is as faire and -plaine as ever was seen."[242] This second voyage was marked by the -naming of his discoveries, and it is recorded that the new found lands -were by him called New France. Six years later Cartier sailed again to -the West, associated with a royal officer of the name of De Roberval. -Cartier started first and was met by his superior when returning in -disgust. De Roberval, with the title of Lord of Norumbega, proceeded as -he was bound to establish a colony, but by 1542 he proved unsuccessful -owing to the insufficiency of supplies and his own brutal despotism. -There can be little doubt that all concerned in De Roberval's venture -were deeply disappointed with its disastrous failure; its chief interest -lies in the fact that it marks the end of the prologue of this drama of -discovery, and the curtain was rung down not to rise again for half a -century. - -In the year celebrated for the Edict of Nantes, the Treaty of Vervins -and the death of Philip II., the French once again started their -attempts to colonise Canada. In that year, 1598, the Marquis de la Roche -established a small settlement of convicts on Sable Island, which lies -off the coast of Nova Scotia. The settlers, however, were incapable, -the callous nobleman sailed away to sunny France, and the unhappy -survivors were left to quarrel among themselves, till eleven only of the -original forty remained alive to be rescued after five long years of -misery and starvation. The spirit of adventure was not crushed, and in -1599 Chauvin, a sea captain, and Pontgravé, a St Malo merchant, obtained -a patent to colonise Canada, and so established a settlement at -Tadoussac. Their object was to monopolise the lucrative fur trade, -rather than to establish any permanent colony. Four years later De -Chastes, a grey-haired veteran of the civil wars, associated himself -with Pontgravé, and they were fortunate in obtaining the services of -Samuel Champlain, whose name is the greatest in the history of French -colonisation. Almost immediately the small association of Chastes was -amalgamated with another under De Monts, a Huguenot nobleman of the -King's household, and together in 1604 they entered the Bay of Fundy. In -the next year Port Royal was established in Nova Scotia on Annapolis -Basin, and the fur traders passed the winter there under the leadership -of Champlain. Supplies were brought out in 1606 by an expedition, which -was accompanied by Lescarbot the historian, but, as De Monts' patent was -cancelled in 1607, Port Royal was abandoned. - -The French colonies differed in many respects from the British, but in -one particular most essentially. The story of the British settlements -which has already been told is the story of the progress of communities; -in the case of the French colonies the history is really composed of a -long series of entrancing biographies. The record of Canada from 1608 to -1635 is in fact the biography of Samuel Champlain. His first exploit -was the erection of a _habitation_ at Quebec in 1608, his two main -objects being to support exploration and encourage missionary work. He -thus established the French nation in Canada less than twelve months -after the settlement of the British in Virginia; the two rival nations, -therefore, started their great work of colonisation at practically the -same moment. The progress and results of their settlements resembled -each other in no single item. Not content with founding Quebec, the -adventurous Frenchmen left Pontgravé to encourage commerce and pushed up -the St Lawrence. In 1609 he discovered the Lake that still bears his -name; and for the first time came into direct hostile contact with the -warriors of the Five Nations, whom he defeated at Ticonderoga. In the -same year he returned to France, but re-sailed to Canada in 1610, -leaving a few months afterwards for his native country. On landing in -France he was dismayed to find that his patron, Henry of Navarre, had -been assassinated by the fanatic Ravaillac in the streets of Paris. The -year 1611 found the intrepid voyager once again in Canada preparing the -way for a French settlement at Montreal. - -The great change in France, and indeed throughout Europe, caused by -Henry IV.'s untimely end, was felt with almost equal intensity in the -far-distant region of Canada. A new system was immediately inaugurated, -and that most unsatisfactory Regent, Marie de Medici, appointed the -Count de Soissons as supreme Governor of New France. Before the Count -could take over his unaccustomed duties, he died, and the Prince de -Condé was nominated in his place. Champlain was at once created his -deputy, with the main work of regulating the fur-trade and keeping some -semblance of order amongst the turbulent French backwoodsmen. -Champlain's objects, however, were neither commercial nor pecuniary. His -ambition soared above the merely lucrative, and he looked to the -increase of French possessions, and if possible by means of the great -waterways to the discovery of a short route to China and the East. It -was for this latter reason that he was persuaded by Nicholas Vignau, one -of his companions who had passed the previous winter among the northern -Indians, to explore toilfully the waters of the upper Ottawa in 1613; -Vignau having concocted a story about an outlet to the east, a -fabrication which, when discovered after many hardships, nearly cost him -his life. - -It is an interesting fact that behind all these adventurous expeditions -undertaken by either the English or the French, there was always -something of the missionary spirit. The first French attempt to convert -the Indians was in 1615, when the Recollet branch of the Franciscan -Order sent out a few brethren to undertake the hazardous task of -instructing the savages in the doctrines of the Christian faith. The -chief of this worthy band was Le Caron, who, taking his life in his -hands, penetrated far into the dangerous Huron country. Ten years had -still to elapse before the Jesuits embarked on a duty which, though in -many ways erroneously carried out, has rightly received the admiration -of the world. It so happened, in 1625, that the Viceroy of Canada, the -Duc de Ventadour, was closely connected with the Jesuit order; and he -celebrated the beginning of his term of office by introducing Jesuit -priests and supporting them from his private purse. The difference -between the newcomers and the Franciscans, who had already bought their -experience, was very marked. The Franciscans, although devoted -missionaries, were not bigots, and they claimed no religious monopoly; -the Jesuits, on the contrary, imported religious despotism. The coming -of the Jesuit fathers had two effects which may perhaps seem -contradictory. They stimulated in many ways the progress of Canada and -did much for her advance; but equally they retarded the true evolution -of the young nation. They were brave men who were ready to sacrifice -themselves for the cause; no body of men have ever shown to the savages -such tactfulness and diplomacy as these members of the Society of Jesus. -As map-makers and discoverers they were pre-eminent. On the other hand -they were the upholders of exclusiveness and the bitterest enemies of -freedom; they formulated a rigid system which was necessarily inimical -to the expansion of a youthful community. Above all, deeming the -Huguenots to be heretics, they excluded from Canada the very people who -might have made the French in Canada a great nation. In supporting the -Jesuits in this action the French Government did itself a double injury, -for by debarring the best artizans of France from French colonies, it -turned them in after years to the British settlements, and they thus -helped to advance those very colonies which were the inveterate foes of -their native land. - -Between the years 1620 and 1627 the government of Canada passed through -numerous hands, including those of the Duc de Montmorenci and the -already mentioned Duc de Ventadour; but had it not been for the striking -qualities of Champlain, all must have failed. These years were troubled -by continuous squabbles, and it was only Champlain's steadfastness that -saved the colony. At last in 1627 affairs began to improve. Richelieu -had now become a power in France, and for the better regulation of -Canada he formed the "Company of the One Hundred Associates." Even now -the difficulties of Champlain appeared overwhelming, not the least being -the war between England and France. Richelieu had successfully defeated -the Huguenots and their English allies, and the "weathercock fancy" of -Buckingham had been incapable of devising any further scheme for the -protection of La Rochelle. The war, however, lingered on, and although -it was extremely languid in Europe, it was waged with more smartness in -the New World. David Kirke, nominally a captain in the British service, -but really little more than a pirate, with his three sons entered the St -Lawrence in July 1628; they attacked the French trading station of -Tadoussac, and in the following year starved Champlain into surrender at -Quebec. The victory proved a barren one, for before it had actually been -accomplished, Richelieu had brought about a treaty with Charles I. at St -Germain-en-Laye, by which the newly conquered Canada was restored to the -French in 1632. - -Champlain returned to his adopted country in May 1633, and for the next -two years he controlled the affairs of the French Company until his -death on Christmas Day, 1635. New France then lost the man to whom she -owed her all, and the French nation was deprived of one who has been -fitly called "the Father of French Colonisation." From thirty-six years -of age to the time of his death, Champlain had given up the whole of -his energies to increase the power of his native country and to -encourage the welfare and prosperity of New France. He was a hardy -explorer, an excellent administrator, and one of the most trustworthy -writers of his time. His ambitions were lofty, his foresight keen and -intelligent, while the whole of his life was pure and resolute. His -biography is one of the most interesting among the many entrancing -stories of colonial founders, and his memory receives the lasting -respect and honour which his great works naturally demand, not only from -the Frenchman or French Canadian, but from posterity throughout the -civilised world. - -Champlain was succeeded by Monsieur de Montmagny, who arrived at Quebec -in 1636. Six years later the first permanent settlement was established -at Montreal, which was at first entirely of a religious character; this -was soon to be followed by another at Fort Richelieu at the point where -the Richelieu River joins the St Lawrence. These new settlements may be -taken as an indication of the progress and general advance of the French -Empire in the West. But as a matter of fact up to the year 1663 the -government of Canada was far from being satisfactory, for the "Company -of One Hundred Associates" had been continually checked by Indian wars, -and was by no means capable of creating a great nation. Colbert, the -successor of Mazarin, and chief minister of Louis XIV., realised the -incapacity of the Company, and in 1663 deprived it of all rights. It is -not surprising that the minister should take this action if a colony's -prosperity is to be judged by its population. It has already been shown -how remarkably the English settlements increased in number; but the -French colony starting at practically the same time had in 1663 a meagre -population of 2500. Father Christian le Clercq, writing at that time, -says, "The colony far from increasing began to diminish. Some returned -to France, others were taken and killed by the Indians. Many died of -misery; the clearing and cultivation of lands advanced but little, and -they were obliged to expect all from France."[243] The Jesuits were to a -certain extent to be blamed for this lack of population; they had for -some years been expending their energies upon the spiritual needs of -Canada, but what Canada wanted, as a new colony, was what the English -settlements had got, married men and women who willingly found new -homes, whose children grew up around them, and whose aims were to create -no temporary but permanent abiding-places. The Jesuits supplied rather -both by teaching and example martyrs and virgins, whose history is -filled with heroic records, but whose actual value to a new colony was -extremely slight. The mission of Le Moyne to the Iroquois in 1653 and -the establishment of those from St Sulpice under Maisonneuve at -Montreal, are both fine examples of reckless devotion and -self-sacrifice, but the outlook on life of these religious enthusiasts -was an erroneous one. - -The clear-sighted judgment and the financial genius of Colbert was -needed to remedy the mistakes in the work which had been started so -rashly by Richelieu. As Le Clercq recorded, the progress of New France -required "a more powerful arm than that of the gentlemen of the -Company."[244] Colbert, in 1663, supplied the "more powerful arm" by -making Canada a royal province, and in the following year creating the -"Company of the West." The members of the Company claimed to be the -Seigniors of New France, with the right of nominating the Council for -the government of Canada. The Crown, however, insisted on retaining the -privileges of appointing the Governor and the Intendant. As soon as -Canada became a Crown Colony with such a splendid guide as Colbert the -progress and prosperity of the settlers were assured. - -The government of Canada was purely despotic under the all-powerful -Governor, Intendant, and Supreme Council, and the settlers were never -allowed the political freedom exercised by the English colonists in New -England or the Southern States. The law was the customary law of Paris, -added to which were certain ordinances and, on occasions, royal edicts -which received the ratification of the Council. This body had both -legislative and judicial functions, and for the better maintenance of -peace and order minor law-courts were established at Quebec, Three -Rivers, and Montreal. In addition to these courts the seigniors had in -some cases the right to try crimes that were committed on their estates, -and nominally to pass the extreme penalty of death upon their vassals. -The Governor controlled the armed forces, and was in continual conflict -with the Intendant, for each was jealous of the other. The latter was -the King's steward, a civilian, and usually a member of the legal -profession; he was President of the Council, and by controlling the -sinews of war was often more powerful than the Governor. The Bishop sat -in Council with these two, and was spiritually supreme in name and fact. -The great defects of Canada's political system were over-centralisation -and lack of popular representation. The feudal system had been -transferred to Canadian territory, and by its means the seigniors -attempted to tie the peasant to the soil. The whole scheme was that of a -benevolent despot exercising power over a closely restricted people; and -yet the system itself, which was purely artificial, proved the skill of -its originators, for under it the peasants of Canada lived happy and -contented lives for almost a hundred years after they had passed under -British rule. - -This scheme of government as devised by Colbert and Louis XIV. was put -into execution by the Marquis de Tracy, who arrived at Quebec in 1665 as -Lieutenant-General of all the French forces in America. His coadjutors -were Courcelles, the Governor, and Talon, the Intendant. These men made -numerous expeditions against the Indians, and in particular against the -Iroquois; but their work was completely overshadowed by that of the next -Governor. The name of Count Frontenac has been ever dear to the French -Canadian from the moment that he came to administer New France in 1672. -He is one of those great figures in history who are perhaps particularly -human; he was not a cold image, but composed of warm flesh and blood; he -was neither a villain nor a saint. His great merits are to a certain -extent balanced by his great defects; his temper was most violent, his -manner haughty, pretentious, and arrogant. It is said with some truth -that he was not altogether clean-handed in the methods he employed in -repairing his fortunes; but grave as his faults were, they were weighed -down on the other side not so much by his kindness, his firm alliance -with those he regarded as his friends, but because his heart warmed to -the land and the people of the land to whom he had been sent as a guide -and governor. Frontenac's memory remains a happy one, because, like -Champlain, he believed in the great future of the Daughter of the Snows. -Canada was unknown to him when he was fifty years of age; when he was -appointed Governor for the second time he was twenty years older; but -this long roll of years did not prevent him from adapting himself to his -surroundings, and with such excellent effect that at the time of his -death in 1698 he left Canada on the highroad to prosperity and -greatness. In particular he must be praised for ridding Canada of -murdering savages, as a means towards which he established, in 1673, an -outpost at Fort Frontenac.[245] His return to France, however, -emboldened the Seneca Indians, the most numerous of the Five Nations, to -make frequent raids until his restoration to office in 1689. Five years -later Frontenac began his great work of suppression, which was marked by -an act of ferocious brutality in 1695, which has deeply stained the old -man's reputation. In the same year he retook Fort Frontenac, which had -been lost, and twelve months later was so successful against the -Iroquois that he not only humbled their pride but actually won their -respect. Ruthless he may have been; brutal in a time when brutality was -common; but whatever his faults, he came to Canada when Canada cried -aloud for such a man, and had the future governors been of the -character and possessed the daring spirit of Frontenac, the Great -Dominion might still have been the New France in the West. - -Meantime, brave, devoted adventurers and Jesuits had been endeavouring -to extend the French dominions west and south-west. It has already been -mentioned that Champlain, in 1613, had been tempted to make an arduous -journey to discover by means of the numerous waterways some route to -China. The Great Lakes were first explored; but it was found that none -of these vast sheets of water contained the tantalising secret that was -interesting and engaging the attention of so many European seamen. From -Lake Michigan, then called the Lake of Illinois, the discoverers moved -to the narrows of Lake Huron and onward to the Fox River, following the -course of which they came to Lake Winnebago. Moving still farther south, -they found that a narrow strip of land divided them from another -waterway, the Wisconsin, and that in turn they were destined to discover -was a tributary of the mighty Mississippi. But some adventurers were -more daring than their brethren, and instead of clinging to their canoes -and following the course of streams, boldly skirted the territory of the -dreaded Five Nations and found the "Beautiful" River, or Ohio. - -As early as 1635 Jean Nicollet had reached Lake Michigan, and so -successful was he in his explorations of the rivers and lakes that it -has been supposed that he was the original white discoverer of the -Mississippi. Plausible as this would seem, historians have conclusively -disproved his claims; and that honour must be divided between the two -famous explorers Joliet and Marquette.[246] Louis Joliet was a layman, -though connected by early training with the Jesuits; he was a Canadian -born, and had been employed by the Intendant Talon to discover copper in -the neighbourhood of Lake Superior. His companion, Jacques Marquette, -was a Jesuit in priest's orders; he was a man of pure and saintly life, -and within his delicate body there burnt a fiery spirit of endeavour to -convert, a spirit which consumed him, as it were, so that his life was -but a brief one in labouring for his faith. He landed in Canada in 1666; -two years later he was sent forward into the almost unknown wilds and -established himself on Lake Superior, teaching both the Hurons and the -Illinois. It was indeed from the latter that he first heard of the -Mississippi. Being forced by the savages to retire from this outpost, he -and his little following took refuge in 1670 at the mission station of -St Ignace, now known as Mackinaw. It was here that Marquette determined -to make an expedition for the discovery of the great river of which he -had heard. He has left an account of his journeyings written from -memory, as unfortunately he lost his papers on his return. "I embarked -with M. Joliet, who had been chosen to conduct this enterprise, on the -13th May 1673, with five other Frenchmen, in two bark canoes. We laid in -some Indian corn and smoked beef for our voyage. We first took care, -however, to draw from the Indians all the information we could -concerning the countries through which we had designed to travel, and -drew up a map, on which we marked down the rivers, nations, and points -of the compass to guide us in our journey."[247] The discoverers -followed the route laid down by others as far as Lake Winnebago, but no -white man had up to that time crossed over to the river Wisconsin. -Canoeing down that stream, hardly realising where fortune was leading -them, the plucky Jesuit and his companions were carried out on the face -of the broad waters of the Mississippi on 17th June 1673. "We met from -time to time monstrous fish, which struck so violently against our -canoes that at first we took them to be large trees, which threatened to -upset us. We saw also a hideous monster; his head was like that of a -tiger, his nose was sharp and somewhat resembled a wild cat; his beard -was long; his ears stood upright; the colour of his head was grey, and -his neck black."[248] But even this terrible apparition did not -discourage them, and they still pushed on, hoping at first that the -great river would bear them into the Gulf of California. They passed the -mouths of the Illinois, the Missouri, and the Ohio, and came to the -Arkansas; here they learnt their mistake. "We judged by the compass that -the Mississippi discharged itself into the Gulf of Mexico. It would, -however, have been more agreeable if it had discharged into the South -Sea or Gulf of California."[249] They turned back, therefore, having -found out what they wanted to know, and "we considered that the -advantage of our travels would be altogether lost to our nation if we -fell into the hands of the Spaniards, from whom we could expect no other -treatment than death or slavery."[250] Neither Marquette nor Joliet -reaped any great advantage during their lifetime for their plucky -endeavour, but they have had and will have the respect of those who -come after them. Marquette made one more voyage on the stream that was -his own. His burning zeal for the faith made him set out in the winter -of 1674-5 to carry the Christian religion to the Indians of the Illinois -River. He returned to Lake Michigan in the May of 1675, but he was a -dying man. Death came suddenly, and his companions rapidly interred him -far away from his friends; but so great was the love inspired by this -faithful priest amongst the savages that they fetched his bones and laid -them, with every sign of affection, respect, and grief, in the little -mission-chapel where he had laboured for the faith. - -Marquette was followed by a man whose name is even better known, but who -was cast in a different mould. Réné Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, -was born at Rouen and had landed in Canada in the same year as -Marquette. His object was to discover a route to the East, and the name -that he gave to his seignory, La Chine, testifies to this desire. He -began his work of discovery in 1669, and in the next two years he passed -from Lakes Ontario and Erie right through the Illinois country, finally -discovering the Ohio. In 1675 he took up his seignory on the Cataraqui -River at Fort Frontenac. He was only thirty-two years of age, but he had -already made himself famous. He was a man of strong character, and as -such had many enemies amongst his fellow French Canadians; his want of -sympathy turned men against him, and his want of tact wounded their -feelings. To the Jesuits he was most unwelcome, for they recognised in -him a rival discoverer; with the merchants and traders he was no less -unpopular, a fact which was possibly intensified by his seignory being -one of the best positions in New France for pecuniary gain. He was in -every way an austere man, solitary and self-communing; and as his mind -was filled with ambitions and even statesmanlike conceptions for New -France, it is not surprising that the trading element and even his own -followers failed to understand him. From 1675 to 1677 this man of -extraordinary energy employed himself in commerce with the Indians by -means of vessels of his own construction on Lake Ontario; but such work -was too petty for La Salle. He therefore, in 1678, obtained from Louis -XIV. permission "to labour at the discovery of the Western parts of New -France through which to all appearance a way may be found to -Mexico,"[251] in addition to which La Salle was strengthened in his -possession of Fort Frontenac and was granted the privilege of -constructing forts if necessary on his expeditions. On his enterprises -he was accompanied by Henri de Tonty, an Italian officer and ever -faithful to La Salle, and by Father Hennepin, a brave Flemish friar, -whose overwhelming vanity tempted him in later years to try to rob his -leader of the honour of first reaching the sea by the Mississippi River. - -The early efforts of La Salle were unsatisfactory. He built a fort at -Niagara and constructed a vessel called the _Griffin_, which foundered -on Lake Michigan and left him in a hostile country swarming with -savages, without supplies, and with mutinous followers. Nevertheless he -kept on and descended the Illinois River, determined to reach the Gulf -of Mexico. In 1680 his men began to desert, but Tonty and a faithful few -assisted him to construct Fort Crèvecoeur on the Illinois. Here the -discoverer left his lieutenant for a time while he returned to Canada -for supplies. The men mutinied, abandoned the fort, and followed La -Salle with the intention of murdering him. Meantime he had sent out an -expedition under Father Hennepin which had been captured by the Sioux -Indians on the Upper Mississippi in what is now Minnesota. The Flemish -friar and his followers were rescued by a Canadian backwoodsman, Du -Luth, and Hennepin returned to France to write his account of the -Mississippi. - -Father Membré has left a record of La Salle's great expedition. "M. La -Salle having arrived safely at Miamies on the 3rd of November 1681, -began with his ordinary activity and vast mind to make all preparations -for his departure.... The whole party consisted of about fifty-four -persons, including the Sieur de Tonty and the Sieur Dautray, the son of -the late Sieur Bourdon."[252] The expedition safely passed the mouths of -the Missouri and Ohio; after building a fort, the adventurers reached -the Arkansas, where they were welcomed by the Indians, who knew nothing -of white men. "The Sieur de la Salle took possession of this country -with great ceremony. He planted a cross and set up the king's arms, at -which the Indians showed a great joy.... On our return from the sea we -found that they had surrounded the cross with a palisade."[253] Passing -still farther south, "we arrived on the 6th of April at a point where -the river divides into three channels. The Sieur de la Salle divided his -party the next day into three bands, to go and explore them. He took the -western, the Sieur Dautray the southern, the Sieur Tonty ... the middle -one."[254] On the 9th of April the three parties met on the shores of -the Gulf of Mexico. This success was marked by the ceremony of planting -the cross and raising the arms of France. La Salle took possession of -the river and all the country round in the name of the king, and amidst -a volley of muskets a leaden plate inscribed with the action and the -names of the discoverers was deposited in the ground. Such was the -foundation of the French in Louisiana. La Salle and his party returned -to the North, but he was not the man to rest upon his laurels, for in -the autumn of 1682 and the spring of 1683 he is to be found busily -establishing a French colony on the Illinois. Fort Louis was built on a -rocky summit and promised to be a most important station in the future, -always on the one condition that the connection with Canada was in no -way broken, or even threatened. - -Perpetual envy and jealousy tended to keep Canada weak and the French in -the West powerless. When La Salle returned he found himself surrounded -by enemies, and without his friend and supporter, Count Frontenac, who -had retired to France. Seeing no chance of accomplishing anything in -Canada, La Salle sailed to Europe to put his version of the story before -King Louis. He reached Versailles at exactly the right moment for his -fortunes. France and Spain in 1683 were again on the verge of war; and -even before La Salle's arrival, Seignelay, the son of the late grim -Colbert, had proposed to Louis a scheme for the seizure of some port on -the Gulf of Mexico so as to discomfit Spain. La Salle was heard with -respect and attention, and was, in fact, welcomed as the very man -required to carry out the prearranged plans of the king and his -minister. All La Salle's possessions in Canada were restored, and he was -commissioned to conduct a party for the purpose of colonising some strip -of territory upon the Mexican Gulf. The scheme was from the outset -hopeless. La Salle may have seen that it was the last toss of the dice, -fortune or ruin. He may have been blinded by his successful discovery; -but it is impossible to imagine that a man who had always kept his ends -clearly in view, and who had accurately measured the means to attain -them, should now have embarked blindly upon so hazardous a task. -Whatever his private opinions were, he readily undertook the leadership -in conjunction with Admiral Beaujeu. The party embarked in four vessels, -and sailed from La Rochelle on July 24, 1684. At the very outset their -troubles began. One of the most important of the vessels carrying their -supplies was captured by a Spanish buccaneer. The other three ships -managed to reach San Domingo, where the little band of soldiers, -artizans, and women were kept in idleness for two months owing to their -leaders being stricken with fever. At last on January 1, 1685, La Salle -brought the expedition to the shores of Texas, where the colony was -settled within a palisade at a point called Fort St Louis. The distress -of the settlement was terrible, and still further intensified by the -realisation of their distance from Canada. In October, La Salle, driven -to despair, set out to discover a way to the outposts of the northern -colony. In March 1686 he was back again, but unsuccessful. Having rested -for a month, he once more started for Canada, but after wandering until -October he returned to the settlement utterly baffled. What was worse -still was that he found a heavy mortality amongst the colonists; out of -one hundred and eighty who had originally started he now had but -forty-five followers, and very few of these he could really trust. All -his ships were lost, escape to France was impossible, starvation stared -them in the face. The only thing to do was to try to cut a way through -to Canada. On January 7, 1687, La Salle, his brother, two of his -nephews, and half his party set out; mutiny was evident from the -beginning, and on March 19th, ambushed by his own men, the daring -explorer was murdered. His brother, one of his nephews, and Jontel, who -told the tale, escaped, and succeeded after terrible suffering in -reaching Canada. - -Louis XIV. and his ministers were far too busy at home to care about the -death of one who had dared so much for France. The insane idea of Louis' -European policy blinded him to the prospects of an empire in the West, -which La Salle might, had he been properly supported, have made so -great. The people in authority in Canada were equally oblivious to the -loss of one of Canada's greatest sons. They were too envious of this -remarkable man who had done so much. One man, however, remembered his -old master. Henri de Tonty, the faithful friend, had set out in 1686 to -find this man whom he regarded with such affection. When he discovered -that La Salle had been murdered, he did what he knew his great leader -would have done and turned his attention to the rescue of the remnant at -Fort St Louis. His efforts were unavailing, for the Spaniards had -learnt, and from them Tonty heard, that the few who had remained on the -shores of Texas had been annihilated by the Indians. Thus the grandiose -schemes of La Salle appeared to end in failure, mystery, and death; but -like his forerunner Marquette, his name still lives in Canada, where the -names of his detractors have long since been forgotten. La Salle will be -remembered as one of the boldest explorers, as a man who, even above any -Englishman of his day, really grasped the imperial idea of a New France -beyond the sea. He was the first to realise the great conception of -uniting the French settlement from the snow-clad plains of Canada to the -sunny shores of Mexico; and he it was who saw that should this dream be -turned to reality, the Anglo-Saxon people would be confined to the -narrow strip along the coast, and the illimitable expanses of the North -American continent, with the enormous wealth of the West, would be the -inheritance of the Gallic race. - -There were, however, a few Frenchmen who had glimmerings of the dream of -La Salle. As early as 1686 a party under Du Luth established a French -outpost between Lakes Huron and Erie. Eight years later La Mothe -Cadillac urged upon the French government the importance of holding this -post, which in fact controlled the outlet of the two lakes. The consent -of those in authority having been obtained, the French began in 1701 the -erection of the city of Detroit. The Iroquois at last realised what was -happening; they saw that, just as Fort Frontenac some years before had -very seriously curtailed their rights of hunting and had indeed -endangered their power, so now that they might again be trapped. To -prevent this, on July 19, 1701, they ceded their hunting grounds to the -King of England, retaining the right of free hunting. They were not -versed in European politics; nor did they know that the magnificent -Louis was gradually being ruined by William III. and Marlborough. The -war of the Spanish Succession, fought for the most part in the -Netherlands and Spain, had a vital effect upon those Iroquois nations of -the Western prairies. The victories of Marlborough brought to England -many possessions, and amongst them those lands which had been so -trustingly conceded in 1701. - -The Treaty of Utrecht, although it brought peace after a long and -expensive war, may be said to mark a new epoch in the stories of both -British and French colonial expansion. This epoch is not one of peace in -the true sense; the actual fighting, when it occurred, was not always -sanctioned by the home government; but the period was one of aggression -on the part of the French in Canada and resistance on the part of the -British colonists along the Eastern seaboard. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[239] Bateson, _Cambridge Modern History_ (1905), vol. vii. p. 70. - -[240] _Hakluyt's Voyages_ (1904), viii. 438. - -[241] _Hakluyt's Voyages_ (1904), viii. p. 242. - -[242] _Ibid._, p. 244. - -[243] Le Clercq, _First Establishment of the Faith in New France_ -(1881), p. 52. - -[244] Le Clercq, _First Establishment of the Faith in New France_ -(1881), p. 52. - -[245] The modern Kingston. - -[246] These men were the first to explore the river, but it was -undoubtedly reached in 1659 by two fur traders, Radisson and Des -Grosseilliers. - -[247] _French, Historical Collections of Louisiana_ (1850), Part II. - -[248] _Ibid._ - -[249] _Ibid._ - -[250] _Ibid._ - -[251] Parkman, _La Salle_ (edition eleven), p. 112. - -[252] French, _Historical Collections of Louisiana_ (1850), Part IV. - -[253] _Ibid._ - -[254] French, _Historical Collections of Louisiana_ (1850), Part IV. - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -FRENCH AGGRESSION - - -In a previous chapter reference has already been made to the fatality of -having no form of union among the Thirteen Colonies. Every chance of -concentration existed towards the end of the seventeenth century, for -the colonies were contiguous, they lay in compact and continuous -territory along the eastern seaboard, backed by the boundary of the -Alleghanies. They were too, for the most part, inhabited by Englishmen, -who may originally have been driven to emigrate for very different -reasons, but who were in reality of the same stock and blood. But though -everything pointed to union, the necessary concomitants were comparative -only, and union was impossible. The colonies were squabbling, jarring -communities, without any constitutional links; they were surrounded and -separated by vast tracts of impenetrable forest; their traditions, -religions, and beliefs were entirely opposed; and each colony was as -much divided in thought and feeling from its neighbours as from the home -country. This lack of concentration was one of the main differences -between the English on the American coast and the French in Canada. This -want of union was unknown in New France, where centralisation, perhaps -over-centralisation, was the predominating feature. One governor at the -head of all, a semi-feudal system, and an absolute reliance upon each -other and upon support from home made the numerically inferior Canada in -some respects superior to the Thirteen Colonies. At the end of the -seventeenth and the beginning of the eighteenth centuries, therefore, -the French possessed great advantages over their southern rivals; and -the English, disunited and internally jealous, were likely to prove -impotent against the Government of Quebec. - -From the very first the relations between the colonies and Canada had -been unfriendly, but the feelings of antagonism increased as the -seventeenth century grew in years; and by the time that Frontenac ruled -Canada and Thomas Dongan was English Governor at New York, this feeling -had reached a climax. So pressing had the question become that the -colonies, in 1684, held a general conference at Albany, the outcome of -which, to the alarm of the French, was a firm alliance with the Five -Nations or Iroquois. No greater struggle, however, resulted than an -acrimonious literary warfare between the energetic Dongan and the -capable Denonville concerning numerous attacks upon English and Dutch -traders. - -The English Revolution, the recall of Dongan, and the reappointment of -Count Frontenac as governor of Canada were contemporaneous and were -sufficient reasons for more trouble. The acceptance of William and Mary -in England meant war in Europe; and Frontenac, seeing his opportunity, -began what was called by the English settlers King William's war. The -French governor made elaborate plans to attack New York, but having -failed, found on his return that the Iroquois had disastrously raided -Canada and massacred the people of Lachine. A fresh expedition was -planned at a most unfortunate moment for the English colonists, who were -suffering from the effects of the Revolution; and New York, in -particular, was in the throes of the already mentioned Leisler rising. -For Frontenac it was the ideal chance; now if ever he felt that he was -bound to succeed against the English. His plans were well laid: his -force was divided into three parties, which were to strike their blows -at the same time and paralyse the settlers with terror. The first party -with a band of Indians, under the famous rangers the brothers -D'Iberville, started along the familiar waterway of the Richelieu River, -Lake Champlain, and the Hudson, to attack Albany. By mischance they -turned to the west and fell upon the little Dutch settlement of -Schenectady, which was unguarded except for a few militiamen from -Connecticut. The scene can only be described as one of helpless and -hideous massacre; all who resisted were butchered and the place was -deliberately and ruthlessly burnt. The second expedition was no less -successful in carrying out their horrible task. It was mere murder. For -three months they worked their way down to the settlement of Salmon -Falls on the borders of New Hampshire and Maine. Here the settlers, -little expecting such a terrible visit, were murdered while sleeping. -Elated with these horrors, the French and Indians moved on to join their -other comrades, and together, between four and five hundred strong, -attacked Fort Loyal in the settlement of Falmouth, where now stands the -town of Portland. Sylvanus Davies, the commander of the fort, -surrendered on the promise of quarter and freedom; the promise was so -much waste paper, and some of the English suffered the fate of the -inhabitants of Schenectady, while others were led captive to Quebec. - -The lesson learnt by the English colonists was a salutary one, and the -immediate result of Frontenac's three successes was a tendency on the -part of the settlers to unite. At a solemn conference held in 1690 at -Albany, the colonies came to the conclusion that a combined naval and -military force must attack the French at once. The authorities in -Massachusetts took the lead; the "Bostonnais," as the French called -them, were seamen to the backbone. They had come, as has been shown, of -a sturdy Puritan stock, and as dwellers by the sea and traders on its -waters, they possessed those very characteristics which the Canadians so -sadly lacked. It was therefore the people of Boston who did all they -could to further the attack by sea, by which the main effort was to be -made; the land forces were not supported with the same enthusiasm and -were thereby insufficient for the work in hand, as events afterwards -proved, and instead of a magnificent military exhibition against Canada, -the soldiers did little more than raid a French settlement at La -Prairie. - -The memory of David Kirke's attack upon Quebec was still green, although -sixty years had passed since that event. The aforetime ship's carpenter -and sea-rover, Sir William Phipps, governor of Massachusetts, was now -burning to renew the old glories of the colonial navy at the expense of -France. He had already, at the time of the French attack upon Falmouth, -taken possession of their one stronghold in Acadia, Port Royal, and -returned with much booty, some prisoners, and an increased reputation as -a brave, patriotic man. In August 1690, with 34 ships and 2200 men, -Phipps sailed from Nantucket to attack Quebec, the headquarters of the -French Government. The inhabitants had been lulled by continuous peace -into a sense of security, which was neither justified by past experience -not by daily occurring events. The expedition, however, landed too late -in the year. What happened to it was what Wolfe dreaded nearly seventy -years later. It was late in October before the men had disembarked and -the wet and cold season had already set in. The food supplies ran short; -sickness broke out and the little party was easily outnumbered. Phipps -bombarded the lower town to his heart's content, but he made the fatal -mistake of trying to attack from Beauport, instead of by means of the -path, which was afterwards discovered by Wolfe, and which had already -been shown to the "Bostonnais" general. The failure of the gallant band -from Massachusetts was complete; but there was something truly -magnificent about the whole affair. The man who had once tended sheep, -who had been a common seaman, and worked his way up the rungs of the -ladder of fame and prosperity, now pitted himself against the Count de -Frontenac, noble of France; the humble citizens of Boston, who, up to -that moment, had shown more interest in religious intolerance and the -rejection of any unnecessary pressure from England, had dared to attack -the ancient fortress of New France, garrisoned by trained forces and -skilled backwoodsmen warriors; practically one humble Puritanic colony -strove against the pomp and might of his Catholic Majesty, Louis -Quatorze. - -The New England colonies, headed by Massachusetts, were bound to -struggle against the French with more determination than any of their -colonial brethren. New York did occasionally suffer severe attacks such -as that which had been intended for Albany; but the French realised very -clearly that their raids in this direction were always liable to be -repulsed, not by the settlers themselves, but by the warlike Iroquois, -who were in every way bound to the English and antagonistic to France. -The Puritan colonies, on the other hand, were threatened by Indian foes -just as friendly to the Canadians as the Iroquois were towards the New -Yorkers. The Abenaki Indians were an ever constant danger along the New -England borders, and their hostile attitude was intensified by the -Jesuits, who had acquired over them an influence even greater than that -which they had gained over other tribes. It was, in fact, the priests' -main task, particularly during the latter years of the seventeenth -century, to incite the Indians in their attacks upon the English. Wild, -looting, scalping, murdering bands poured in upon the unhappy settlers -who dwelt along the borders of New Hampshire and Maine. The French -feared, and with reason, that unless they kept this blood-lust at fever -heat, the Abenaki like the Iroquois would be won over by the English -owing to the fascination of a lucrative commerce. - -The onslaughts that had to be resisted were not only from the Indians. -The success of Phipps at Port Royal, and his daring attack upon Quebec, -forced the Canadians to cry aloud for some form of retaliation, which -swiftly came. No sooner had Villebon recaptured Port Royal in Acadia, -than, in 1692, a definite series of massacres were organised along the -colonial sea-coast, and for years the English frontiers were swept with -desolating raids. York in Maine was the first to suffer the horrors of -this combined Indian and French warfare. Wells, further north, was more -successful in its resistance; for here Convers and thirty militiamen -drove back a party of Indians and French who had hoped to perpetrate the -usual butchery. The terror began again in 1694, and the settlers at -Oyster River were either immediately killed or carried into captivity. -That such things were tolerated by the New Englanders, and especially by -the people of Massachusetts, who had been so energetic in their naval -expeditions, is extremely surprising; there can be little doubt that the -settlers in the larger towns exhibited extraordinary indifference to -these raids upon their more isolated brethren. Massachusetts, with a -population of 50,000, was quite capable of building a strong line of -forts and organising a well-equipped border police. A few forts they -certainly had, but these were ill-protected and worse cared for. The -only one of any importance was that of Pemaquid, which lay as a rampart -in the path of any Abenaki attack on New England; but so dilatory was -the conduct of the settlers that, at the very moment when they might -have expected serious trouble with the French, they withdrew most of -their troops and in 1689 allowed the fort to be taken by the Indians. -The energetic Phipps had done his best, and in 1692 Pemaquid was rebuilt -and regarrisoned. The later story of this fort is one that causes -Englishmen to blush for the scandalous and dastardly action of one of -their countrymen. In 1696, acting under the orders of Stoughton, -lieutenant-governor of Massachusetts, Chubb tempted a party of Abenaki -to come to the fort, and there killed some and kidnapped others. The -French immediately seized the opportunity to revenge this cowardly -treatment of the savages, and on August 14, Iberville, after making a -triumphal progress from Quebec, capturing English vessels as he sailed -along the coast, appeared before Fort Pemaquid. Chubb scornfully refused -to surrender, and supported his vainglorious words by capitulating the -very next day. - -So delighted were the French by their success that in the following year -they determined to capture Boston. The Marquis de Nesmond was to command -the fleet, while Frontenac was to lead the land forces. Delay for one -reason or another, contrary winds and stormy weather, kept the -expedition back until the summer was passed, when it was found to be too -late in the season to proceed. By the time that any fresh expedition -could be undertaken King William's War was over, and the Treaty of -Ryswick had been signed and was proclaimed in America in 1698. The -importance of the treaty with regard to the American colonies is to be -found only in the fact that it gave breathing-space to the combatants. -Both parties regarded it as a truce more than a treaty, and both looked -forward to a not far distant date when their differences might once -again be decided by the arbitrament of war. - -The long-looked-for day came in 1701 when James II. died, and Louis -XIV., with that spirit, half-bravado half-chivalrous, declared the Old -Pretender James III. of England. The real fighting that now ensued took -place not in the forests of North America but in the lowlands of Europe. -The Netherlands, the cockpit of Europe, were once again to be drenched -with blood. The battles of Blenheim, Ramillies, Oudenarde, and -Malplaquet played an important part in the history of North American -colonies. Fighting, however, was not unknown in the West, and on May 4, -1702, war was openly declared. The old raiding expeditions began again, -and the French led the way by an attack on Wells, situated on Casco Bay. -The little town was terribly beset by the marauding Abenaki Indians, and -was almost at its last gasp when succoured by an armed force by sea from -Massachusetts. Then followed the historic attack upon Deerfield in 1704. -It was a small town of 300 inhabitants on the north-west border of -Massachusetts. The French and their Indian allies burst upon it in -February. Fifty of the people were butchered and one hundred were -carried into a captivity made famous by John Williams, one of the -prisoners, in _The Redeemed Captive returning to Sion_. "The direct and -simple narrative of Williams is plainly the work of an honest and -courageous man."[255] He tells of his own and his fellow-captives' -sufferings; and, in particular, of how the Jesuits promised him untold -wealth if he would be converted, to which he replied, "the offer of the -whole world would tempt him no more than a blackberry."[256] As years -went by the captives were either exchanged or, having been converted, -married Canadians and settled at Quebec or Montreal. - -The disgrace of these murdering expeditions falls upon the French -Government, for they were planned by French officials and were carried -out for the most part by savage Indians. It must be allowed, however, -that the havoc on the border settlements of Canada had been caused by -the Five Nations, the friends of the English. Thus retaliation was the -feeling that grew up on both sides. The Canadians cared nothing for the -horrors that they perpetrated in the New England colonies; while the -English settlers naturally vented their wrath upon the nearest object of -attack, Acadia, for their indignation had been fanned to white heat by -the unspeakable horrors of Indian war. In revenge for the massacre at -Deerfield, Major Benjamin Church with a force from New England appeared -before Port Royal in 1704, and burnt the French settlement at Grand Pré. -Three years later Colonel John March, supported by a company of -volunteers from Massachusetts, made an attack upon Acadia, which proved -abortive. This expedition, together with a French raid upon Haverfield -on the Merrimac, had the effect of stirring Massachusetts to more -grandiose schemes, and in 1708 Samuel Vetch was sent to England to ask -for the assistance of regular troops. - -The emissary selected by the "Bostonnais" had been well-chosen, for in -the colonies he was one of the most notable men of his day. He had lived -in the tropical heats of Darien; he had sojourned amongst the French -Canadians; and he had mixed with the cosmopolitan population of New -York. His adventurous life had given him an intimate knowledge of the -affairs and methods of the English and French colonial systems. He was a -shrewd, self-made man; very impetuous and sanguine, but at the same time -astute and wary. Above all he was filled with determination and -ambition, and if he had his own advance at heart, it was only in -conjunction with the true welfare of his country and her colonies. His -great ambition was, that "Her Majesty shall be sole empress of the vast -North American Continent." Vetch had the common sense to see that this -glorious object could only be accomplished by a united and aggressive -action against France. The first-hand knowledge that Vetch possessed -seems to have had considerable influence at the English Court; and as -Marlborough's victories had been so decisive in Europe, it was thought -that something might be done in America. In fact, the agent was granted -all that he had asked, and he returned to Massachusetts with a promise -of a fleet and five regiments, amounting in all to about 3000 men. - -The prospect of conquering Canada now appeared less visionary than ever -before; the settlers ought to have felt that they were entering on the -last great struggle, had it not been for the fact that, as always, -colony was divided against colony. Pennsylvania, the home of the Quaker, -disapproved of war on principle; it was a safe theory for the -Pennsylvanians, for they were out of reach of French attack, and they -knew that they were well protected by those colonies which lay in the -zone of danger. Then, too, instead of acting like true men, the people -of New Jersey refused any actual help in the way of a force, though they -were not so mean as the Pennsylvanians, for they did send a contribution -of money. The New Yorkers exhibited a more magnanimous spirit; they -threw in their lot with the people of New England and roused the Five -Nations against the French. The chief expedition by land was under the -command of Colonel Francis Nicholson, who wrote to Lord Sunderland in -July, and said that if "I had not accepted the command, there would have -been insuperable difficulties."[257] This sentence tells its own story, -for the writer knew that any other commander would have been without -support owing to the shameful provincial jealousies which were the -everlasting reproach and curse of the American states. Nicholson was a -man of robust strength, a clear, practical brain, though ambitious, -vehement, and bold. He had already proved himself a fairly capable -colonial governor in Virginia, New York, Maryland, and Carolina, where, -though his private life may not have been a pattern of strict morality, -his conduct in official affairs was unimpeachable. With 1500 men he -entrenched himself at Wood Creek, near Lake Champlain, where he was -besieged by Ramesay, governor of Montreal. The settlers were able to -drive back the French, but were forced to wait anxiously for news of the -grand naval expedition that was to do so much; they waited in vain, day -by day being struck down by disease and pestilence; and Nicholson was -finally compelled to retreat, leaving behind him innumerable graves as -proofs of the patience and courage of his little force. - -The British squadron with the promised regiments was long overdue. The -forces of Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Rhode Island were encamped -at Boston ready, on the appearance of the fleet, to sail to Quebec. From -May to July they were diligently drilled, and Vetch wrote in August, -"The bodies of men are in general better than in Europe and I hope their -courage will prove so too; so that nothing in human probability can -prevent the success of this glorious enterprise but the too late arrival -of the fleet."[258] If it should not come, "it would be the last -disappointment to her Majesty's colonies, who have so heartily complied -with her royal order, and would render them much more miserable than if -such a thing had never been undertaken."[259] The fleet never came! To -the grief and despair of the colonies, it had been sent to Portugal to -meet the exigencies of the European war. Although the hearts of the -English settlers had been made sick by hope deferred, yet a tenacious -energy had always been one of their strongest characteristics; and the -representatives of Massachusetts still urged the home Government to make -a supreme effort against New France. They asked Nicholson, who sailed -for Europe, to point out how much assistance was needed, how -advantageous the undertaking would be to the Crown, and how impoverished -and enfeebled the colony was by the long and expensive war. The last -plea was true enough, for Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Rhode Island -had spent on the disastrous military schemes of 1709 no less than -£46,000. Like Massachusetts, the colony of New York was equally anxious -to impress the English Crown with the importance of the question at -stake, and in 1710 sent five Mohawk chiefs under the guidance of Peter -Schuyler to interest the English in colonial affairs, and at the same -time to so impress the chiefs with England's power as to dispose them to -hold fast to their alliance. - -The resolution and tenacity shown by the colonies had some effect in the -home country. An English force of over three thousand men was at last -dispatched to Boston; and though timed to arrive in March, it did not -reach that port until July. Meantime the people of Massachusetts had -once again stirred themselves; raised their own militia; tempted the -soldiers of 1709 to rejoin by a promise of the Queen's musket; and -actually quartered troops on private houses, "any law or usage to the -contrary notwithstanding."[260] This fresh outburst of energy culminated -in Nicholson again taking command and sailing for Port Royal. On -September 24, 1710, he reached his object of attack; and on October 1 -the French, finding themselves outnumbered, readily surrendered; the -town became Annapolis, and Acadia or Nova Scotia passed permanently into -the possession of Great Britain, owing to the bravery of her American -colonists. - -The capture of Acadia was to Nicholson merely a stepping-stone towards -the greater defeat of the French and the final subjugation of New -France. He returned to England to further his schemes and was there ably -supported by Jeremiah Dummer, who was at that time in the service of -Henry St John, Viscount Bolingbroke. The Sacheverell trial of 1710 had, -amongst other things, caused the fall of the Whigs and concluded -Marlborough's warlike schemes. The Tories, champions of peace, were left -in power with St John and Harley as their leaders; but so ably did the -two colonials plead the cause of their brethren, that in April 1711 -fifteen men-of-war and forty-six transports, containing five thousand -regular troops, sailed for America. To their intense surprise the -officers of this great armament found on their arrival that they were -regarded by the colonists with the strongest suspicion. The ships had -only been provisioned to reach America; definite orders as to their -further destination had not been issued; and the French had attempted to -poison the minds of the Bostonians by the idea that the British forces -were to subvert colonial liberties and reduce Massachusetts, Rhode -Island, and New Hampshire to the position of Crown colonies. One -Frenchman wrote, "There is an antipathy between the English of Europe -and those of America, who will not endure troops from England even to -guard their forts."[261] Another, Costobelle, had said as early as -December 1709, "I do not think that they are so blind as not to see that -they will insensibly be brought under the yoke of the Parliament of Old -England; but by the cruelties that the Canadians and Indians exercise in -continual incursions upon their lands, I judge that they would rather be -delivered from the inhumanity of such neighbours than preserve all the -former powers of their little republic."[262] For the reasons stated in -this report the New England colonists were on the horns of a dilemma; -they feared the British troops, but they were equally afraid of their -French neighbours. - -There were, however, other difficulties. The presence of the British -regulars acted as an incentive to ill-feeling, which showed itself in -the deliberate lack of provisions and pilots, and in the willing shelter -offered to deserters from the army. The English officers, too, failed -entirely to understand now, as again in later years, the character of -the colonists; they were often arrogant or at least patronising; and to -the republican New Englander they appeared bumptious aristocrats. The -colonist was a brave and experienced man, and it was irksome to him to -find himself in an inferior position to men who really knew less than he -did about Indian warfare and forest fighting. On the other hand, the -English troops felt quite as bitterly as the colonists, and Colonel King -wrote to St John in July 1711, "You'll find in my Journal what -Difficultyes we mett with through the Misfortune that the Coloneys were -not inform'd of our Coming two Months sooner, and through the -Interestedness, ill Nature, and Sowerness of these People, whose -Government, Doctrine and Manners, whose Hypocracy and canting, are -insupportable; and no man living but one of Gen'l Hill's good sense and -good nature could have managed them. But if such a Man mett with nothing -he could depend on, altho' vested with the Queen's Royal Power and -Authority, and Supported by a Number of Troops sufficient to reduce by -force all the Coloneys, 'tis easy to determine the Respect and Obedience -Her Majesty may reasonably expect from them ... they will grow more -stiff and disobedient every day unless they are brought under our -government and deprived of their charters."[263] - -The inhabitants of Boston may have shown many signs of coolness, but the -authorities of Massachusetts loyally supported the expedition which was -supposed to be about to accomplish so much. On the 30th July the fleet -sailed from Boston to the St Lawrence under the command of Sir Hovenden -Walker, of whom little is known, and who in no way added lustre to his -name. The colonial contingent that went by sea consisted of about -fifteen hundred men, led by the experienced and buoyant Samuel Vetch. -Another colonial force was commanded by Francis Nicholson, whose object -was to move north by way of Lake Champlain and attack the Canadian -strongholds. At the head of all was General Hill, or Jack Hill, the man -about town, who was no soldier, and owed his position to his sister -Abigail Hill, the famous supplanter of the Duchess of Marlborough. -General Hill made no attempt to gain laurels for himself or his country, -and his troops struggled back to Boston disgraced, not by their own -actions, but by the want of action on the part of their leader. - -Walker's fleet entered the St Lawrence on the 22nd of August. The -Admiral, totally ignorant of the navigation of the gulf, steered his -vessels in misty weather straight for the northern shore. His own ship -was saved just in time, but not so those which followed, and eight of -the transports were dashed to pieces on the rocks, with a loss of almost -a thousand lives. Walker, as proved by his own writings, never possessed -any true ability; and he was only too ready, like Jack Hill, to look for -some pretext for retreat. This horrible disaster was sufficient for the -Admiral's purpose, and three days later the mighty armament turned away -from Quebec, and New France was for the time saved. Walker looked upon -the wreck as providential, and that the army had been saved from worse -disasters. It was indeed a strange action for a British sailor to pen -words of sincere gratitude for the loss of half his fleet. "Had we -arrived safe at Quebec," he writes, "our provisions would have been -reduced to a very small proportion, not exceeding eight or nine weeks at -short allowance, so that between ten and twelve thousand men must have -been left to perish with the extremity of cold and hunger. I must -confess the melancholy contemplation of this (had it happened) strikes -me with horror; for how dismal must it have been to have beheld the seas -and earth locked up by adamantine frosts, and swoln with high mountains -of snow in a barren and uncultivated region."[264] Walker sailed back to -Boston and then with his fleet returned to England, where as a final -completion to the horrible fiasco, the Admiral's ship was blown up. -Swift records this event as taking place in the Thames, but it more -probably occurred at Spithead, owing "to an accident and carelessness of -some rogue, who was going as they think to steal some gunpowder: five -hundred men are lost."[265] - -Every disgraceful plot deserved to come to a bad end. The ignominious -conclusion of the Walker and Hill expedition was only to be expected, -since its true object had been to eclipse the victories of Marlborough -and bring about his entire downfall. St John and Harley had not been -animated by patriotic or imperial sentiments when Mrs Masham had agreed -to assist them in the backstairs attack upon the Churchill family. The -price of her assistance was a high military command for her incapable -brother Jack Hill. The two Tory ministers cared nothing for the success -or failure of the colonies; all they required at the time was the fall -of the Whigs with Marlborough at their head. The blame therefore must to -a certain extent rest upon the English Crown ministers; but the -incompetence of the two commanders, though not unparalleled in English -history, was worse than most instances, because it bordered very closely -upon cowardice. Muddle-headed as some British generals have proved -themselves, it is almost impossible to find another case where the more -serious charge can be brought or sustained. Marlborough had certainly -fallen; but his unpatriotic enemies had not succeeded in effacing the -glories of the four battles which still stand out as the chief features -of the War of the Spanish Succession. Although St John's plot was -disgraceful and deserved the failure that it earned, yet the disaster -fell very hardly upon New England. It has been hinted that the colonials -were themselves to blame, and that they were so afraid of the presence -of an English force that they preferred failure to success. They feared, -according to Colonel King's _Journal_, that "the conquest of Canada will -naturally lead the Queen into changing their present disorderly -government."[266] The New Englanders could not, however, be so -indifferent as is supposed, for the people of Massachusetts at any rate -did their utmost to make the attack a success; and it was afterwards -found that one in five of her male population was on active service in -1711; while many years had to elapse before the colony recovered from -the effects of her financial exhaustion.[267] - -The War of the Spanish Succession in Europe had for all practical -purposes ceased, and the echo of it in America was dying away. The -belligerents were weary; the English began to feel the burden of their -National Debt; while the French were utterly exhausted, for in 1709 even -nature had turned against the omnipotent Louis, and the country was -impoverished by a winter which killed the fruits and vines. In 1713 -terms were at last agreed to; and the Treaty of Utrecht, the first -really great colonial treaty, was the result. It is idle to speculate on -what enormous gains might have fallen to the English if party spirit and -spite had not cut short the remarkable career of England's great -captain. Had Marlborough been allowed to continue his unbroken series of -triumphant victories, and had he been permitted to select a -commander-in-chief in the West, it is most probable that the Treaty of -Utrecht would have contained those clauses which made the Treaty of -Paris so famous half a century later. As it was, the gains to England in -the colonial world were not to be despised. Acadia was surrendered to -Great Britain, with Hudson Bay and Newfoundland; on the other hand, Cape -Breton Island was restored to France. The great faults of the treaty, as -far as it concerned the Western Hemisphere, lay first in allowing the -French certain fishing rights off the shores of Newfoundland, which -remained until recently "a dangerous cause of quarrel between two great -nations, a perpetual irritating sore, a bar to the progress and -prosperity of the Colony;"[268] and, secondly, it was unwise to restore -Cape Breton to the French, as it was the key to the St Lawrence. A -Frenchman pointed this out in 1745, when he said that "it was necessary -that we should retain a position that would make us at all times masters -of the entrance to the river which leads to New France";[269] and even -in 1713 the French Government realised something of the island's -importance, and reared upon its desolate, fog-bound shore the mighty -fortress of Louisburg, a stronghold that came to be regarded as -impregnable, and second only in importance to that of Quebec. - -"An avalanche of defeat and disaster had fallen upon the old age of -Louis XIV.,"[270] and he was forced into a treaty which contained many -humiliations. He must, however, have realised that England had once more -lost her opportunity, and that it was still possible for France to -assert her supremacy in the West. Canada, the goal of the New Englander, -was still New France, and for the next thirty years chronic warfare, -sometimes only flickering, but never extinct, smouldered along the -frontier line of the English and French settlers. The Canadians had the -distinct advantage of knowing what their great object was. It was far -more magnificent than that which filled the minds of the English; it was -perhaps too widely extended, but it was undoubtedly grand--North America -for the Gaul. To the governors of Massachusetts and New York the dream -of the total defeat of the French and their banishment from Canada may -have occasionally appeared; but their general outlook upon the question -was as circumscribed as that of the French was diffuse; and to them the -safety of their colonies, the friendship of the Five Nations, and sound, -steady trade were sufficiently difficult problems for solution. - -From the moment of the Treaty of Utrecht Acadia was the source of -quarrels and intrigues which were entirely due to the interference of -French Canadian priests. With these difficulties, however, the Thirteen -Colonies had little or nothing to do, but found ample scope for their -energies in resisting priestly plots elsewhere. The Canadian Government, -owing to the preaching of the Jesuit priest Sebastian Rasle, succeeded -in renewing their alliance with the Abenaki Indians on the New England -frontier, although the chiefs of that tribe had made terms with the -people of Massachusetts in 1717. Rasle was a man of zeal, of sturdy -independent spirit, and fired with intense hatred of the English. The -Massachusetts Government realised the danger of allowing this man, from -his mission-station on the Kennebec River, to urge the Indians to acts -of violence and cruelty. Letters are still preserved which prove that he -was the agent of the Canadian Government, and exciting the Indians for -French purposes. It seems a somewhat cowardly action, but it is evident -that New France, concealing itself beneath the banner of ostensible -peace, was fighting the New Englanders by means of savage allies. To -crush this underhand scheme, in August 1724 a body of men under Captains -Harmon, Moulton, and Brown, rowed up the Kennebec, took the Indian -village, killed the Jesuit Rasle, and burnt the Indian wigwams. This -blow, which was both daring and statesmanlike, had an excellent effect, -and was hailed with joy by the border settlers, who saw in it the end of -their troubles; and after a similar raid by Captain Heath on the tribes -of the Penobscot in 1726, the Indians readily made terms of peace which -lasted for many years. - -[Illustration: THE MARQUIS DE MONTCALM. _From a painting by J. B. -Massé._] - -The main object of the French in the West, during the first half of the -eighteenth century, was to shut the English settlers in behind the -Alleghanies by means of a series of forts. In spite of the strong -opposition of the Five Nations,[271] the French erected one of the -earliest of these permanent blockhouses at the mouth of the Niagara -River in 1720. The English Colonists saw the danger, but the Legislature -of New York was so mean in matters of finance that it refused any -pecuniary assistance in creating a similar erection at Oswego in 1727. -Governor William Burnet had therefore to find the requisite funds out of -his own pocket; and although the fort proved of vital importance to New -York, he was never fully repaid. In May 1727, Burnet wrote to the Board -of Trade and Plantations, "I have this spring sent up workmen to build a -stone house of strength at a place called Oswego, at the mouth of the -Onondaga River, where our principal trade with the far Nations is -carried on. I have obtained the consent of the Six Nations to build -it."[272] The establishment of this fort was a great blow to the French, -who encouraged the Indians to drive out the English, but only received -the reply, "Chassez-les toi-même."[273] As a counterpoise they built -Fort Rouillé at Toronto, but Oswego remained as a bastion against French -aggression and as a lucrative trading station with the Indians until -captured by Montcalm.[274] - -Even earlier than the foundation of Oswego the French had tried to -establish themselves, in 1726, opposite Crown Point, where Lake -Champlain contracts to the width of a river; but for the moment they -were deterred by the strong opposition of Massachusetts. New Hampshire -also claimed this territory, and while, with their usual jealousy, the -two colonies "were quarrelling for the bone, the French ran away with -it."[275] French aggression continued, and in 1731 they seized Crown -Point itself, at the instigation of the celebrated Chevalier Saint Luc -de la Corne, and named it Fort St Frederic. The point was claimed by the -colony of New York, but here again the settlers were too much engrossed -in their chronic dispute with New Jersey to take any effective measures -to prevent the loss. It was utterly futile for the New Yorkers and New -Englanders to protest that the fort was a menace to British territory, -for they had neither the will nor the common-sense to place petty -domestic jealousies on one side and unite in driving back the French. -The English found, by the year 1750, that owing to their supineness, -France had succeeded in building forts at Niagara, Detroit, -Michillimackinac, La Baye, Maumee, on the Wabash, St Joseph and Fort -Chartres. These may have been loose and uncertain links, but they had -great possibilities, and they at least connected Canada and Louisiana, -and gave some appearance of the possibility of a French North America. - -It seems strange that the aggressive conduct of one of the newest -kingdoms in Europe should have a dire effect upon the New World; but so -it was. The determination of Frederic of Prussia to aggrandise himself -at the expense of Austria, caused, in 1744, the torch to be rekindled in -North America, and packs of howling savages carried rapine and murder -along the borderland of New France and New England. The war actually -began in America in May 1744 when Duquesnel, the Governor of Louisburg, -overpowered the small outpost of Canso in Acadia. The people of -Massachusetts realised that to them the transference of Acadia to the -French would mean a serious loss, and so planned "an enterprise second -to none in colonial history."[276] - -Louisburg was a menace to all the northern British colonies, and the New -Englanders had been both exasperated and alarmed by the action of its -governor. The fortification itself was built upon the famous system of -Vauban; it had cost 30,000,000 livres, and had taken twenty-five years -to complete. Strong as this fortification was from without, owing to -mutinous spirits it contained all the elements of weakness within. The -honour of proposing an attack upon this scourge and curse of New England -probably rests on William Vaughan, who at that period was interested in -the fishing industry and dwelt at Damariscotta, Maine. Governor Shirley -lent a willing ear to the daring proposal. He had, as a young barrister, -come to Massachusetts in 1731, and within ten years had by his tact and -cleverness been appointed chief magistrate of his colony. He laboured -under the delusion that he was a military genius, and thought to prove -his powers by engaging in this scheme. The Massachusetts Assembly, -however, composed for the most part of grave merchants and stolid -rustics, refused to undertake anything so risky and expensive. Boston -and other coast towns, knowing well what a harbour of refuge Louisburg -had proved to all hunters on the ocean, petitioned ardently that -Vaughan's plan should be executed; and at length, after many -difficulties, it was agreed that the settlers should make this one -supreme effort. History immediately repeated itself, and the colonies -showed their habitual want of union; and although Shirley appealed to -them as far south as Pennsylvania, all with one accord made excuse, -except Connecticut, New Hampshire, and Rhode Island. Once again, -therefore, the burden of defeating France fell upon the New England -settlements. William Pepperell, a merchant of Maine, was placed in -command of the colonial land force. He came of Devonshire stock, was a -colonel of militia, and fortunately possessed of good sound -common-sense, for he had practically no military experience. The naval -commander was Admiral Warren, who was well disposed to the American -colonists, as he had married an American lady and owned property on both -Manhattan Island and the banks of the Mohawk River. He was a good -sailor, and in later years won for himself some renown in an engagement -against the French in European waters. - -Colonel Pepperell was willingly followed by colonists of sturdy -character, still replete with Puritan ideas, and still further -encouraged by the motto given to them by the Evangelical preacher, -George Whitefield, "Nil desperandum, Christo duce."[277] On April 30, -1745, the New England force arrived within striking distance of -Louisburg. The town itself was oblong in shape, built upon a tongue of -land upon which the fortifications were erected with a due east aspect. -The troops of France were composed for the most part of brave men, but -they were in a state of disaffection, and their new commander, -Duchambon, was pusillanimous in his decisions. The whole garrison, -consisting of regulars and militia, was well under two thousand men; -while the colonial army comprised four thousand in all. This -superiority of force was immediately discounted by the privations -undergone by the besiegers; and it has been computed that only half the -army was really fit for action. The mutinous state of the French was but -a poor match for the peculiar mixture of youthful impetuosity and -religious fervour which stirred the colonials. A force under Vaughan -occupied the Grand Battery, and still further encouragement was given by -Admiral Warren's capture, on May 18, of the _Vigilant_, a French -man-of-war of 64 guns, bringing supplies. One who took part in the siege -writes, "Providence has signally smiled, and I doubt not the campaign -will be crowned with success. I am willing to undergo anything for the -good of our cause."[278] The chief danger which threatened the settlers -was relief from New France, but this came too late to be of any service -to the garrison. - -After an unsuccessful attempt against the battery on the little island -at the mouth of the harbour, both Pepperell and Warren agreed that their -best move would be a final assault upon the fortification. The French -dreaded the effects of such an action; they were already worn out by -fatigue and anxiety; the town was shattered in every direction by shot -and shell. "Never," Pepperell wrote to Shirley, "was a place more mal'd -with cannon and shell."[279] Rather than sustain the horrors of a wild -attack which might lead to ruthless massacre, Duchambon thought it -better to accept the generous terms offered, and, on June 17th, -capitulated. The town was taken over by Warren and Pepperell, and all -praise must be given to the latter for the splendid way in which he -preserved discipline amongst his colonials, who were forbidden to reward -themselves, for their weary weeks of hardship, by loot and plunder. The -capture of Louisburg was one of the greatest events of the War of the -Austrian Succession; and historians are agreed that the success of the -enterprise was almost entirely due to the courage and perseverance of -the New Englanders, though they are ready to give all praise to Warren -and his seamen. It was a remarkable feat, and it must ever be regarded -as one of the most illustrious actions in American history. The -Bostonians welcomed the news with joy; their brethren, they believed, -had gone forth against the enemies of the Lord, and, like the Israelites -of old, returned victorious. The grim Puritan had shown that though a -man of peace, he was still able, when called upon, to smite the -idolaters hip and thigh. - -Governor Shirley's schemes did not stop short at the capture of the key -of the St Lawrence. After Louisburg had been garrisoned by regular -troops, he intended to attack Canada. This plan failed, and he therefore -turned his attention to the more feasible scheme of capturing Crown -Point; but this also proved abortive. In the meantime the French made a -counter-expedition from La Rochelle under the Duc d'Auville. From the -outset the scheme was doomed: D'Auville died; his second in command, -D'Estournel, committed suicide; while his successor, the Marquis de la -Jonquière, was thoroughly defeated by Admirals Anson and Warren off Cape -Finisterre. - -The struggle in which the colonists had shown such gallantry slowly -dragged to a close. Neither to Great Britain, nor to France had there -been much gain in those six years of warfare: the glory belonged to the -men of New England, who, in particular, realised the danger of the -French Empire in the West. They had learnt by experience the peril that -menaced them, and Shirley and Pepperell had done their best to remove -that danger by direct attack. In England the enormous value of Cape -Breton Island and Louisburg was not fully understood. George II. is -traditionally reported to have said that Cape Breton was not his to -return to France for it belonged to the people of Boston. This in a -sense was true; it had been won by the men of New England and it would -appear on the surface that it was for them to keep or restore that -frowning outpost in the Atlantic. Peace, however, was most necessary at -the moment, though it was only a breathing space in the colossal -struggle of the eighteenth century; and it was realised that this peace -could only be obtained by the cession of this fortification in exchange -for our East Indian territory at Madras. The possibility of the growth -of an Indian Empire never dawned upon the settlers in the West. They -felt that this small speck in an Eastern land was nothing in comparison -with the Dunkirk of North America. The New England colonies had done -their best; they had given their men and their money to accomplish a -great task. Their lack of unity had often stood in their way, but on the -occasion of the capture of Louisburg the Puritan brotherhood had -succeeded without the help of either Quaker or southern confederates; -they had earned for themselves the respect of their contemporaries and -the admiration of their descendants. Unfortunately, however, the -abandonment of Louisburg "under the pressure of diplomatic necessity -was in the eyes of the colonists an unscrupulous betrayal, and a -manifest proof of total indifference to colonial interests. It gave a -sting to the words of colonial demagogues and cut the sinews of colonial -loyalty."[280] - -FOOTNOTES: - -[255] Parkman, _Half a Century of Conflict_, vol. i. p. 79. - -[256] _Ibid._ - -[257] Parkman, _Half a Century of Conflict_, i. p. 139. - -[258] Parkman, _Half a Century of Conflict_, i. p. 144. - -[259] _Ibid._ - -[260] Parkman, _Half a Century of Conflict_, i. p. 144. - -[261] Parkman, _Half a Century of Conflict_, vol. i. p. 161. - -[262] _Ibid._, p. 157. - -[263] Parkman, _Half a Century of Conflict_, vol. i. pp. 166, 167. - -[264] Walker, _Journal_, Introduction. - -[265] Swift, _Journal to Stella_, October 16, 1711. - -[266] Parkman, _Half a Century of Conflict_, vol. i. p. 169. - -[267] _Ibid._, p. 182. - -[268] Prowse, _History of Newfoundland_ (1896), p. 258. - -[269] Wrong, translator and editor of _Lettre d'un habitant de -Louisburg_, p. 26. - -[270] Parkman, _Half a Century of Conflict_, vol. i. p. 183. - -[271] The Five Nations were sometimes called the Six Nations after being -joined by the Tuscaroras. - -[272] O'Callaghan, _Doc. Hist. of New York_, vol. i. p. 447. - -[273] Parkman, _Half a Century of Conflict_, vol. ii. p. 54. - -[274] See p. 266. - -[275] Mitchell, _Contest in America_, p. 22. - -[276] Lucas, _Hist. Geo. of Brit. Colonies, Canada_, part i. p. 198. - -[277] _Belknap_, vol. ii. p. 160. - -[278] Samuel Curwen, _Journal and Letters_, p. 13. - -[279] Doyle, _The Colonies under the House of Hanover_ (1907), p. 532. - -[280] Doyle, _The Colonies under the House of Hanover_ (1907), p. 534. - - - - -CHAPTER XII - -THE CLIMAX: THE STRUGGLE BETWEEN ENGLISH AND FRENCH COLONISTS - - -"If we can remove the turbulent Gallics the seat of Empire might be -transferred to America."[281] Such were the characteristically pompous -words of John Adams, which nevertheless contained something of the -spirit that animated a few of the thinking colonists in their final -struggle with the power of France. The Conquest of Canada liberated the -settlers of the Thirteen Colonies from a state of continuous and -watchful alarm; but it also increased their attitude of resistance to -interference on the part of England, and was an undoubted cause of the -American War of Independence. The actual conquest was, however, due to -British commanders, and more than half the troops employed consisted of -British regulars. It is not intended to belittle the work of the -colonials, for without them many of the stirring scenes which took place -between 1750 and 1763 could never have been enacted; but without the -discipline and experience of English leaders the great task could never -have been accomplished, because of the hopeless internal jealousies of -these quarrelsome communities. In the last chapter it has been shown -that the burden of the war with the French fell upon the New England -group, and in the period now under discussion the men of Massachusetts -also played an active part; but, whereas the rapine and murder had been -confined to the northern border, the stress of warfare now fell upon the -western frontiers of the more southern States, and New York, -Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia were called upon to take a serious -share in the great struggle. It had long been seen that these provinces -as they grew in size must necessarily extend their borders, and the men -from Pennsylvania and Virginia must come into hostile contact with the -Canadian backwoodsmen who had pushed into the valley of the Ohio. - -It is during this period that the want of unity between the Thirteen -Colonies is more clearly evidenced than even in previous years. New York -was torn by internal factions, and the history of that colony would have -been infinitely more sad had it not been that its fighting contingent -was led by the redoubtable William Johnson. The state of Pennsylvania -was actually worse than that of New York; it was "a sanctuary for sloth, -cowardice, and sordid self-interest. The humanity of Penn, the peace -principles of the early Quakers, were a cloak behind which the factious -and indolent citizen with no sense of public responsibility could always -screen himself."[282] The Pennsylvanians were as callous, during this -colossal epoch, as if the war had been on the plains of Germany, and -were not only inert themselves but endeavoured to neutralise the action -of the other Colonies, so that they have earned the reputation of -selfishness and disloyalty. Maryland was not like Pennsylvania in its -open refusal to help; its attitude was one of indifference, which was -partly due to niggardliness, and partly to the fact that it was safely -screened by the colonies of Pennsylvania and Virginia. The latter colony -has been severely blamed for the ineffective assistance rendered during -the war. It is urged with truth that the inhabitants consisted of the -very men who should have composed a fine fighting force, but that the -Virginian youth exhibited an astounding supineness in following the -gallant Washington. There are, however, two reasons that may be found as -partial excuses for the unpatriotic attitude of the Virginian settlers. -The first was an ever-present dread of a slave insurrection if the -militia left the colony; while the second is to be found in the -irascible temper of the governor, Robert Dinwiddie. - -The year after the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, the French governor of -Canada, La Galissonière, had sent Celeron de Bienville to register the -claims of France to the Ohio valley, and thus carry on the great scheme -of shutting in the English settlers behind the Alleghany Mountains. The -demonstration was purely peaceful, and for the next three years nothing -serious came of it. Galissonière resigned his government to De la -Jonquière, who, in turn, was succeeded by the Marquis Duquesne. In the -meantime, in 1750, the Virginian traders, for the most part, had formed -the Ohio Company for the exploiting of that rich valley. The work of -this corporation was not of a successful character, owing to the -jealousies between Virginia and Pennsylvania, both colonies trying to -shift the burden of fort building on to the shoulders of the other. The -French, seeing their opportunity, began to teach these bickering -colonials those bitter lessons which were at last to be an indirect -cause of their union. In June of 1752, the Miami Indians, a confederacy -friendly towards the English, were attacked; their town was burnt, and -their chief killed. This was not a mere raid upon an insignificant group -of Redskins' wigwams, but was the outward and visible sign of the -aggressive policy of Duquesne towards the advanced English traders in -the Ohio valley. In the spring of the next year, a veteran French -officer, Marin, established, by means of two forts, communication -between the Great Lakes and the sources of the Ohio. This, indeed, was a -direct act of trespass upon that debatable land lying on the borders of -Virginia, Pennsylvania, and Maryland, and was a heavy blow at the Ohio -Company and their trading station at Fort Cumberland. The French -intrusion aroused the wrath of William Shirley of Massachusetts, and -also of the cross-grained Governor Dinwiddie, of Virginia. Ill-tempered -though the latter was, he possessed clear judgment and tenacity of -purpose, and from this moment worked strenuously for the welfare of the -colonies against the French. - -In November 1753, George Washington, then a young land-surveyor, but -already fairly prominent among the Virginians, was despatched to warn -off the French trespassers. He found that what had formerly been an -English trading station at Venango had been converted into a French -Canadian outpost. Resistance was obviously necessary; and Dinwiddie -embarked upon a zealous military policy, calling upon the Governors of -Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and the -Carolinas to assist in preventing the Governor of Canada becoming the -master of the valley of the Ohio. Virginia responded cheerfully to the -Governor's appeal, and subscribed £10,000; North Carolina gave a small -sum and sent a few soldiers; South Carolina and New York also sent a -contingent of militiamen; but Pennsylvania refused both men and money. -Dinwiddie did what he could by despatching, in February 1754, a small -force to build a blockhouse at the junction of the Monongahela and the -Alleghany Rivers. The settlers were overpowered by the Canadians in -April, and the fort which was erected was the work of French hands, and -was called after the Canadian Governor, Fort Duquesne. With a party of -Virginians, Washington was ordered to take this fresh example of -Canadian insolence, then under the command of Contrecoeur. His -lieutenant, Jumonville, was killed in a sortie or scouting expedition, -but even with this advantage Washington's little army was outnumbered. -He was forced to retreat, first to Fort Necessity, and after a nine -hours' fight, across the Alleghany Mountains. - -The campaign of 1754 had been utterly disastrous for the English -settlers, but it only encouraged the indefatigable Robert Dinwiddie to -further efforts. He saw that "if the misfortune attending our forces has -aroused the spirit of our neighbouring colonies, it has done more than -probably a victory could have effected."[283] He now did his best to -still further arouse the united enthusiasm of the Middle and Southern -colonies, and so stirred the Assembly of Virginia that it voted £20,000. -The defeat of Washington also gave a stimulus to a movement towards -unity that had already been made in the autumn of 1753. The delegates -of the seven colonies of Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, New -Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, and Maryland, had met in friendly -conference at Albany, and had listened to Benjamin Franklin's great -scheme of union, under which a colonial Council of forty-eight members -was to be formed, each colony supplying members according to its -population. This Council was to have very important powers and -privileges, including those of declaring peace or war. Had Franklin's -statesmanlike proposals met with the general acceptance of the colonies, -North America would have become one great self-governing community, -having more independent powers than any of the present-day colonies of -Great Britain. The time, however, was not yet ripe; the colonies were -still too jealous of their own petty rights and privileges; and those -who were acting for the welfare of the English in America did not at the -moment wish to rush into some great revolutionary change in the -constitution, but desired rather a firm attitude of resistance to the -French aggressions in the Ohio valley. Dinwiddie found the task -difficult enough. He wrote to the Governor of Pennsylvania that the -colonies "seemed satisfied to leave the French at full liberty to -perpetrate their utmost designs to their ruin."[284] But he did not -despair, and asked help from New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and the -Carolinas, and received encouraging replies from all the governors, -except Glen of South Carolina. In his excellent work he was ably -supported by William Shirley of Massachusetts, who, at this time, was -working strenuously to stir the home government to realise the danger -that threatened the Thirteen Colonies. - -The combined efforts of these two men were not in vain; and although -there was peace in Europe, two regiments were sent out under -Major-General Braddock in January 1755. Edward Braddock has been the -subject of much controversy; his character has been torn to pieces by -different historians, and certainly the records point to a man of a -curious combination of magnanimity and brutality. When in command at -Gibraltar, he was adored by his men; whereas in America, Horace Walpole -speaks of him as "a very Iroquois."[285] William Shirley, son of the -Governor of Massachusetts, said "We have a general most judiciously -chosen for being disqualified for the service he is employed in, in -almost every respect."[286] This view is upheld by Burke, who wrote of -him as "abounding too much in his own sense for the degree of military -knowledge he possessed."[287] It is, however, extremely doubtful if the -terrible disaster associated with his name can be entirely attributed to -the general's own personal character, and recent writers have shown that -the charge of utter incompetence cannot be satisfactorily -sustained.[288] - -Braddock's forces landed at Hampton, Virginia, in February 1755; and a -colonial conference was at once held at Alexandria. This important -meeting was attended by six of the colonial governors, including the -most patriotic and energetic, Dinwiddie, Shirley, and Sharpe. They -concluded that four practically simultaneous expeditions should be made -against the French. The English general was to march against Fort -Duquesne; two forces were to converge on Crown Point from a base of -operations at Albany; while the fourth effort, under Shirley, was to be -made against the French conspirators in Acadia. - -The English regiments, the 44th and 48th, were reinforced by two hundred -and fifty Virginian rangers, and by small detachments from New York, -Maryland, and the Carolinas. The force supplied by the wealthy colony of -Virginia was utterly inadequate; while Pennsylvania, as usual, sent no -aid in the way of troops, and only voted a sum of money to be collected -with such difficulty that it was practically valueless. George -Washington, at that time recovering from a severe illness, was requested -by Braddock to accompany him as one of his aide-de-camps. After a series -of delays, on July 3rd Braddock unexpectedly fell in with a French force -under Beaujeu on the right bank of the river Monongahela, about eight -miles from Fort Duquesne. The majority of the enemy were Indians trained -to forest fighting, while the English, accustomed to European methods, -fought in a solid mass, their red coats affording an excellent target -for their invisible foes. Braddock fought with heroic perseverance; four -horses were shot under him, and it was only when he saw the approaching -failure of the ammunition, and that his men were exhibiting distinct -signs of panic, that he gave the order to retreat. At that moment he was -mortally wounded. "I cannot describe the horror of that scene," wrote -Lieutenant Leslie of the 44th, three weeks after the battle: "no pen -could do it. The yell of the Indians is fresh on my ear, and the -terrific sound will haunt me to the hour of my dissolution."[289] The -disaster was immediately attributed to the incompetence of Braddock. The -colonials naturally praised the conduct of the Virginian detachment, the -members of which had had the common-sense to conceal themselves behind -trees, and fought the Indians after their own methods. Thus Washington -wrote: "The Virginia companies behaved like men and died like -soldiers";[290] but there can be no doubt that Washington and other -settlers were prejudiced against the English general and were filled -with contempt for his scheme of fighting. They never took into -consideration that Braddock's failure was partly due to the delay caused -by the quarrels between Pennsylvania and Virginia, and partly owing to -the utterly worthless horses supplied to him by the colonial authorities -for his transports. Where Braddock's great mistake lay was in the belief -that "it was better to be defeated in conformity with orthodox methods -than to win by conduct which seemed lacking in courage, and by imitating -the hitherto unknown tactics of colonials and barbarians."[291] - -Dinwiddie, with that same wonderful energy which he had displayed during -the whole of this anxious epoch, did his best to mitigate the harm done -by the terrible disaster. He realised clearly what Washington pointed -out to him, "the consequences that this defeat may have upon our back -settlers."[292] He again sent frantic appeals to the Governors of -Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and North -Carolina. The apathy, at this time, of the Middle and Southern colonies -was extraordinary; and "while sleek Quakers and garrulous Assembly men -prated of peace and local liberties, the outlying settlements were given -over to fire and sword."[293] The New England States were, however, more -energetic; and on the northern frontier an attempt was being made by -Shirley and William Johnson to put into execution the other schemes -arranged by the colonial conference. William Johnson was a man who had -lived a semi-savage life and who had gained remarkable influence over -the Iroquois, particularly the Mohawks. Governor Shirley had recognised -this man's gifts, and had appointed him commander of the Massachusetts, -New England, and New York levies, consisting of about 6000 men. In the -early summer of 1755 Johnson rapidly constructed Fort Lyman, and in -August moved slowly forward to the southern extremity of Lake George, -with the intention of taking Crown Point. The French, hearing of these -warlike preparations, despatched Baron Dieskau to Ticonderoga; he -marched still farther south and cut off Johnson's communications with -his recently constructed fort. At first the French cleverly ambuscaded a -party of the English, but in an assault upon Johnson's camp they were -defeated, Dieskau being wounded and taken prisoner. The results of the -fight were of some slight importance, as the capture of the leader and -the repulse of his men were regarded in England and the colonies as some -compensation for the disaster of General Braddock. Johnson was rewarded -with a baronetcy and £5000; the little camp was converted into Fort -William Henry; and the lake, hitherto known as the Lac du Sacrament, was -rechristened, in honour of the King, Lake George. On the other hand, the -object of the expedition, Crown Point, remained in the hands of the -French, and their possibilities of aggrandisement in the West were still -as illimitable as they ever had been. - -The two other campaigns of 1755 were under the superintendence of -Governor Shirley. In June he sent two thousand men of Massachusetts to -Acadia. Their commander was the much-respected John Winslow; and by his -assistance the English at last defeated the machinations of the French -under De Loutre. Governor Laurence, however, was forced to take strong -measures to preserve peace, and deported the intriguing and disloyal -Acadians to Massachusetts, Virginia, South Carolina, and elsewhere. His -action has been severely criticised and the story has been depicted in -words of horror by the poet Longfellow. The expulsion of these "men -whose lives glided on like rivers" was, as a matter of fact, absolutely -essential for the welfare of the English nation in Nova Scotia. Winslow, -who assisted in the work of deportation, recognised the necessity -although he disliked the action; but he carried out his orders with the -greatest humanity that could be shown under exceptionally difficult -circumstances. Meantime, Shirley's second expedition, though commanded -by himself, was not so successful. His troops were composed for the most -part of colonials paid by the British Government. His object of attack -was Fort Niagara, a place of considerable danger to the trading station -at Oswego, and one of the main connecting links between Canada and the -south-west. The season grew late; the troops were delayed by unexpected -obstructions; and towards the end of October, having reinforced Oswego, -Shirley found it better to retire. - -The campaigns of 1755 had proved most unsatisfactory for the colonists. -The southern confines of Virginia continued to be harried, although -Washington and his little band, for the most part composed of Ulster -Protestants, did what they could to preserve peace along the -border-line. In much the same way the frontiers of New England were open -to attack, and French animosity was by no means decreased by the skilled -scouting expeditions of Robert Rogers and his bold New England rangers. -The only great achievement was in Acadia, a province of more value to -Great Britain than to the settlers of any particular colony. The French -had not only succeeded in remaining in the coveted valley of the Ohio, -but had also repulsed with enormous loss a general of some repute, which -brought with it the much-desired Indian alliance. Along the shores of -the Great Lakes no practical advantages had been gained; and Johnson's -victory at Lake George brought rewards to the individual rather than to -the New Englanders as a community. The Puritan colonists, however, came -out of these campaigns with an enhanced reputation; they were -distinguished from their southern brethren by a readiness to sacrifice -both men and money in a great imperial cause. - -In the early spring of 1756, war in Europe had not yet been declared, -but border skirmishes still continued unabated in the distant West. The -main effect on the colonies of the declaration of the Seven Years' War, -on May 11th, was an increase in the number of regular troops sent to -America. These were largely supplemented by the colonial militia and by -colonial royal regiments in the pay of the Crown. Before the arrival of -the regulars, the French again began their raids, and, under De Lery, -captured Fort Bull, thus threatening the more important neighbouring -station of Oswego. Shirley at once despatched Colonel Brodstreet with -supplies and reinforcements to the traders at that fort, and for the -moment baulked the Canadians. But by this time, a greater than De Lery -had been sent to America, in the person of the Marquis de Montcalm, who -immediately undertook the capture of Oswego. For this purpose, in July, -he started from Ticonderoga, and by August 10th was in close proximity -to the doomed blockhouse. The powerful artillery of the French, together -with the cunning tactics of their native allies, forced Oswego to -surrender after its commander, Colonel Mercer, had been killed. This -success was invaluable to the French, for as Braddock's defeat had given -to New France the Ohio valley, so now Montcalm's victory made her -undisputed mistress of the Great Lakes. - -The man who had done this great work may be regarded as the French hero -of the Seven Years' War. The Marquis de Montcalm was by this time -forty-four years of age, and had gained his military experience on many -European battlefields. He owed his command to his own intrinsic merits -and not, like so many French generals, to the influences of Court -mistresses. He was a gentleman of France; a man of impetuous spirit, but -possessed of many lovable characteristics; he was kind, tolerant, and -gentle, and yet one of the sternest of soldiers. Owing to his ability -and energy, his chivalrous courage and kindliness of manner, he was a -leader who not only had his men under perfect discipline, but was also -endeared to them by those very sterling qualities which they fully -recognised. He hated corruption, cheating, and lying; he detested the -brutality of many of his companions; and although Wolfe said that -"Montcalm has changed the very nature of war, and has forced us ... to a -deterring and dreadful vengeance,"[294] yet in reality he did his best -to lift the war from mere butchery and murder on to the higher plane of -civilised methods. Montcalm, Marquis of the Château de Candiac, gave his -life to an ungrateful country, which repaid him for his sacrifice by -cruel and unjust charges. - -To oppose so good an officer the English Government selected the -unsatisfactory leaders, Colonel Daniel Webb, dilatory in taking action, -General Abercromby, in Wolfe's opinion "a heavy man," and the Earl of -Loudoun, who lacked tact in his treatment of the settlers, and quickness -in his command of troops. To add to the English errors, the home -authorities recalled Shirley, who had given up the best of his life to -sturdily resisting French aggrandisement. Fortunately the colonial -forces were not without their own leaders, in many instances men of -merit, such as William Johnson, friend of the Mohawks, John Winslow, -famous for his Acadian experiences, Colonel Brodstreet, a good and -dashing soldier, and, above all, that daring and clearheaded Prince of -Rangers, Robert Rogers of New Hampshire. - -The individual settlers were brave and true, but the year 1757 opened -with the same petty and local quarrels in the colonial Assemblies, -chiefly in Pennsylvania and New York, in the former concerning the -everlasting squabble about taxing the proprietors' land, in the latter -on the question of billeting. The Earl of Loudoun, though his position -had given him some weight and authority in the factious Assembly of New -York, failed to win the respect or goodwill of the colonial forces. They -doubted his capacity, and blamed him in particular for his mismanagement -of what ought to have been the crisis of the war. Ever since the -restoration of Louisburg by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, the settlers -had been anxious to again seize that key of the St Lawrence. Loudoun -recognised the importance of such an action, and, in conjunction with -Admiral Holborne, in August and September endeavoured either to take the -fortification, or at least to tempt the French fleet into a pitched -battle. That Loudoun was unsuccessful in both schemes was partly due to -those delays that have left deep stains upon colonial history, and -partly because the elements warred against the British, and Admiral -Holborne's fleet being shattered by storms, the expedition had -necessarily to be abandoned. - -Meantime Montcalm had again displayed his activity; and while Loudoun -was engaged in his abortive attempts on Louisburg, the colonies received -a severe blow by the loss of Fort William Henry. Towards the end of -1756, the French had made an attack upon this fort, but had been -repulsed. Throughout the following July, Montcalm massed his troops at -Ticonderoga, and with Lévis, his second in command, and La Corne, a -noted Canadian irregular, arrived before Fort William Henry on the 4th -August. General Webb ought to have pushed forward to its relief, but he -felt himself too weak to cope with Montcalm's army of regulars and -Indian allies. For four days the defenders made a gallant struggle; and -on August 9th only capitulated on the terms of safe-conduct to Fort -Edward. The Indians refused to recognise those terms, and fell upon the -English. A massacre ensued, horrible in character and of revolting -details, though possibly these may have been exaggerated by lapse of -years. It is thought that Montcalm and Lévis did what they could to -preserve order, but were unable to prevent the many coldblooded murders -because of the utter indifference of the French Canadian officers, who -had been hardened in the terrible school of border and Indian warfare. - -The French had now reached the high-water mark of their triumph in the -West; but in Europe the dawn of better things for the English people had -already come, for the king had been forced to place William Pitt in -office. An end was now to be put to all the dilatory conduct either of -the home authorities or of the colonial Assemblies. A man had been found -to save England and the Empire. Pitt's plans were not original; they had -been tried before; but they were at last to succeed because proper -effort was made, and able generals instead of incompetents were sent -out, and chiefly because behind all was the man who inspired with his -own glorious spirit every one with whom he came in contact. On December -30, 1757, Pitt addressed a letter to the Governors of the Thirteen -Colonies, who cheerfully responded by raising a substantial force. - -The first expedition--in which the colonials were not employed--was the -capture of Louisburg. The possession of this fortress on Cape Breton -Island by the English would ensure the starvation of the Canadians, who -were at this time, practically without food. The men chosen for the work -were Admiral Boscawen, a hard fighter and typical English seaman; -General Jeffrey Amherst, a good but cautious soldier; and three others, -Whitmore, Laurence, and General James Wolfe, of "whom the youngest was -the most noteworthy,"[295] and whose name is so famously connected with -the story of the British in North America. - -[Illustration: GENERAL JAMES WOLFE. _From the picture by Schaak -in the National Portrait Gallery._] - -James Wolfe was born in Kent in 1727. When most modern boys are still at -school, he was adjutant of his regiment, and took part in the Battle of -Dettingen. He then went through the arduous campaign necessitated by the -Jacobite Rising of 1745. At twenty-five years of age he found himself a -full colonel. There can be little doubt that he was possessed of many -ennobling qualities, but his appearance was much against him, as his -face, with its pointed nose and receding forehead and chin, resembled -very closely the flap of an envelope. His figure was loose and ungainly, -and though over six feet in height, he lacked the smart appearance of -the military man. As a soldier he showed the greatest enthusiasm in -everything connected with his profession; he worked hard at mathematics, -tactics, and strategy, and did his best to perfect himself in the French -language. The records of this man's life go to prove that he won the -affection and regard of every one, and that he was almost worshipped in -the different places in which he was quartered. He never, however, lost -his good sense, never became puffed up with pride, never thought himself -greater than others. His gallantry in the unfortunate enterprise against -Rochefort in January 1758 had come to the notice of the great Pitt, and -it was for this reason that he was chosen to accompany Amherst in the -attempt to capture the "Dunkirk of America." - -Boscawen's fleet with the transports containing the army came in sight -of Louisburg in June. Since the capture of the fort by the Massachusetts -militia in 1745, something had been done to strengthen its walls, and it -was now regarded in Europe as impregnable, though it was probably not so -formidable as it looked, since Drucour afterwards referred to it as -"crumbling down in every flank, face, and courtine, except the right -flank of the king's bastion, which was remounted the first year after my -arrival."[296] A town of about four thousand inhabitants nestled in -false security beneath the apparently[297] massive walls; but it was of -little good for them to imagine that assistance could reach them from -France, for the British navy made it impossible for her to send soldiers -or supplies. The English force was at last landed, and batteries were at -once erected under the distinguished guidance of Wolfe. These fortified -entrenchments were moved day by day nearer the doomed stronghold. The -guns never ceased to bombard the wretched town that had once considered -itself so secure. Within the harbour were eleven French men-of-war, but -soon four of these were deliberately sunk at the mouth of the harbour -by Drucour, while the rest were driven on shore or captured by a -cutting-out expedition. On the 20th of July, Wolfe had erected his last -battery; an enormous shell was sent into the chapel of the town, and a -fearful explosion occurred. On the 27th the French, under their -Governor, Drucour, were forced to capitulate, and Amherst and Wolfe -entered the fortress in triumph. Shortly afterwards the vast -fortifications were razed to the ground, and to this day there remains -nothing save some few ruined casements and huge, grass-grown stones, -lying in dismantled heaps upon the edge of the restless Atlantic, to -mark the spot where once stood one of the great triumphs of Vauban's -engineering art. - -The news that Louisburg had fallen was received with every expression of -joy in all the colonies, and even the Quakers, who could not fight -themselves, gave way to the general outburst and showed suitable signs -of rapture at the victory of British arms. The news came at a moment -when such glad tidings were sadly needed, for only three weeks before -the colonies had been plunged into despair by the horrors of a great -tragedy. General Abercromby, with a large force of regulars and -colonials, had set out from Albany in May, and after tedious delays had -come on July 5th to within striking distance of Ticonderoga. In a -skirmish, two days before the great fight, Lord Howe, the most beloved -of the British officers, was killed. On July 7th Montcalm with Lévis -hurriedly erected a palisade of pines with their branches outward about -half a mile from the actual fort. The English general most foolishly did -not bring up his guns, fearing lest they should impede his progress. On -the morning of July 8 the assault began upon this palisade manned by the -trained marksmen of Canada; regiment after regiment of the English were -ordered to their annihilation. The Black Watch, for example, went into -action about a thousand strong; they straggled out of that awful Gehenna -with only half their numbers. At last, having thrown away the lives of -two thousand men, Abercromby ordered the retreat, and left Montcalm for -the third time the victor. - -Amongst the men who fell in that disastrous expedition, no one was so -honestly mourned as Lord Howe. Pitt spoke of him as "a complete model of -military virtue in all its branches,"[298] but these words in no way -summed up the character of one who was not only beloved by the English -Army, but also by every man in the colonial contingent. Wolfe himself -wrote, "if the report of Howe's death be true, there is an end of the -expedition, for he was the spirit of that army, and the very best -officer in the King's service."[299] It was in winning the goodwill, -respect, and admiration of the settlers that Howe differed so remarkably -from his fellow officers. Burke writes of him, "from the moment he -landed in America he had wisely conformed and made his regiment conform -to the kind of service which the country required."[300] In other words, -he acted in a manner which would have caused Braddock to shudder; but it -was the right thing to do. The long-tailed tunic of the British regular, -his wonderful pig-tail, his buttons and smart points were ruthlessly cut -off because they were in the way. He dressed his men as nearly as -possible like the colonials, for he it was who for the first time -recognised that from them the English might gain experience in this new -and strange warfare. He learnt much from men like Rogers the Ranger; and -he taught much. Had Lord Howe and James Wolfe been spared to give more -of their short lives to the American people, the later history of the -Thirteen Colonies must have been very different. - -As a set-off to the Ticonderoga disaster, two great victories marked the -last six months of 1758. Colonel Bradstreet, in August, with a small -portion of Abercromby's army, took Fort Frontenac, thus temporarily -cutting off the communication between the French in the Ohio forts with -those on the upper lakes. Besides this, Bradstreet was able to destroy -the presents collected for the Western Indians and all the winter -provisions for Fort Duquesne. These facts considerably assisted General -Forbes, who was no less successful in his undertaking. He had to contend -against the squabbles of Virginia and Pennsylvania, but he managed to -get both men and money. With a force of about six thousand, for the most -part settlers from the southern states, but also including a Highland -regiment, he set out for Fort Duquesne. His first attack was repulsed; -but in November on again advancing he found that the French commander De -Ligneries had been obliged, owing to Indian desertions, to evacuate and -destroy the fort. A stockade was at once erected by the English to take -the place of the once formidable French fortress, and was now christened -by the old general, in honour of his master, Pittsburg. - -The year 1759 is called "the year of victories," and one of the chief of -these was the capture of Quebec. With the actual struggle for the -possession of the capital of New France, the colonials had little or -nothing to do; the work was entirely that of the British sailors and -soldiers. The expedition against Quebec, however, was only a part of a -general plan of attack upon Canada, and in this the settlers showed some -activity under the leadership of the Commander-in-Chief General Amherst. -In May, acting under Amherst's orders, General Prideaux, with two -regiments and a small body of colonials, joined Sir William Johnson and -his Mohawks at Schenectady. The plan of campaign was that this force -should move forward to Fort Niagara, then commanded by Pouchot, and if -possible drive out the French. Prideaux's force was quite sufficient for -this, but his lack of skill seems to have delayed the surrender of the -fort. On July 20 Prideaux was killed and the command devolved upon the -more fiery Johnson, who first marched out and defeated a large French -reinforcement, and then returned to receive Pouchet's surrender. The -capitulation of Niagara was of considerable importance, as from that -moment the French were debarred from exercising any influence on the -lower lakes. Burke says that it "broke off effectually that -communication so much talked of and so much dreaded between Canada and -Louisiana."[301] - -Meanwhile Amherst advanced north with a large force composed for the -most part of regulars. In July he reached the deserted fort of -Ticonderoga; on August 1 he found Crown Point abandoned. From this -position Amherst ought to have hurried forward to the assistance of -Wolfe at Quebec, but he suddenly directed his energies into wrong -channels, and instead of pushing forward, employed his army in cutting -paths and roads during the whole of August and September. The exertions -of Robert Rogers and his New England Rangers has alone saved the -expedition from contempt. Amherst lost his opportunity, and instead of -being the Conqueror of Canada, by sheer sloth and lack of energy he -allowed another man to do the work and win immortal glory on the Heights -of Abraham. - -James Wolfe had returned to England after the capture of Louisburg, but -Pitt had other work for him to do, and he was dispatched to undertake -the siege of Quebec. His immediate subordinates were Townshend, -Monckton, Murray, and Carleton. The men who were to oppose him in this -great undertaking were Montcalm and the incapable Vaudreuil, with -Bougainville, upon whom his senior maliciously placed all the blame. In -June 1759, Wolfe, supported by a strong naval contingent, sailed up the -St Lawrence to the attack of Quebec. The town, steep and precipitous, -frowned defiance upon the English; all along the Beauport shore was one -vast camp, any path being strongly guarded, and the whole ridge being -one long extended earthwork. Montcalm knew his business. If he could but -keep Wolfe out until the winter months had come, he felt convinced that -the expedition must fail. The English general, on the other hand, longed -to tempt the French regulars and Canadian militia out of their snug -position and beat them in open ground. In vain Wolfe established a -battery upon the Ile d'Orleans, opposite to Quebec, and shattered the -lower part of the town. Night after night the countryside was lighted -by the fires of farmsteads and barns which were answered back by the -flashing fires of Lower Quebec in flames. Nothing would tempt Montcalm -to come out. His position was enormously strong, for his flank was -protected by the rushing falls of Montmorency. It was at the foot of -these that Wolfe made his first serious attempt on July 31, which proved -a failure, not for want of bravery, but because of the rash behaviour of -the grenadiers. To the astonishment of the general and his officers, the -grenadiers had no sooner landed than without orders they tried to rush -the hill. They clambered over the rocks, fought their way through bushes -and thickets, and were then suddenly met with a withering fire from the -French above them. A rain-storm came on at the moment and the army below -stood petrified. The rain ceased almost as quickly as it had begun, and -the cliffside was seen to be strewn with the redcoats; and worse, the -Indians had rushed out and were wreaking their vengeance by their awful -custom of scalping. - -This success of Montcalm did not tempt him to leave his position and -make an attack upon the English. The latter were now for a short time to -lose all hope, for the news passed rapidly through the army that their -beloved general was at the point of death owing to an incurable -complaint from which he had long suffered. His indomitable spirit, -however, overcame his sufferings, and rousing himself he once more spent -his time gazing carefully at the beetling cliffs. On the 2nd of -September he had found what he wanted and determined to start upon what -seemed to him somewhat of a forlorn hope, but which was destined to -form one of the most glorious pages in British history. - -A path had been discovered up the cliffside--the path disclosed seventy -years before to Phipps--at the top there was a small guard and nothing -more. On the night of the great venture the boats slipped quietly down -the river, and as the French were expecting a convoy of provisions two -sentries let them go by after a first challenge. Wolfe, sitting in the -stem of one of the boats, was murmuring in a solemn whisper the -beautiful lines of Grey's Elegy:-- - - "The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power, - And all that beauty, all that wealth e'er gave, - Await alike th' inevitable hour; - The paths of glory lead but to the grave."[302] - -"Gentlemen," said he, "I would sooner have written that poem than take -Quebec." - -[Illustration: THE DEATH OF WOLFE. _After the painting by B. -West._] - -The landing was successfully accomplished, the guard at the top was -overpowered, and before Montcalm knew that the English had left their -camp, four thousand five hundred men were standing in that "thin red -line" upon the Heights of Abraham. The gallant Montcalm did what he -could, and with surprising energy collected his troops and led them -against the English. The French fired time and again upon Wolfe's men, -but they stolidly awaited their advance until they could see the whites -of their eyes and then let loose upon them a withering fire. The white -coats of the French regulars and the gay costumes of the French Canadian -trappers were ready targets and they reeled and fell. Wolfe then -ordered the assault, and with a second volley the whole army charged, -Wolfe leading his grenadiers. After receiving a slight wound, a fatal -bullet singled out that gallant man, and he fell, unnoticed for the -moment save by four of his officers, who tenderly carried him to the -rear of the advancing host. "They run! They run!" cried one of the -officers. "Who run?" said Wolfe. "The French," they replied. "God be -praised, I die in peace." - -Montcalm was also mortally wounded, and just before the city actually -capitulated he passed away, happy that he should not witness the -surrender. Montcalm, like Wolfe, was a hero and a patriot, but whereas -Wolfe gained the love and everlasting memory of a grateful country and -Empire, Montcalm's name was dragged down by unworthy men who never -understood his burning zeal, who had none of his ambition for a glorious -French Empire in the West. Wolfe's "star had only just arisen. For a -moment something like a cloud seemed to have obscured its very dawn; -when suddenly bursting like a meteor across the whole horizon of war and -politics, it vanished amid a blaze of glory as splendid in a sense and -as lasting as that of Nelson himself. It seemed, in truth, as if a great -leader had been found and lost in a single moon."[303] - -General Murray was left in command of Quebec to pass one of the most -trying winters ever undergone by a garrison which was without proper -clothing or supplies. At no great distance was a very capable leader, -Lévis, plotting to recover the city, which he very nearly succeeded in -doing, by defeating Murray outside the walls at the battle of St Foy, on -April 28, 1760. The French general, however, lost his opportunity by -not striking at the city itself when the garrison was confused by the -defeat. Murray was saved by the timely appearance of the British fleet -on May 15, and Lévis retreated. All that was now left to be done to -complete the conquest of Canada and the salvation of the Thirteen -Colonies from French attack was a final advance upon Montreal. Murray -was the first to make a move in July; while Haviland advanced down the -Richelieu River with three thousand five hundred men, including Rogers -and his New Englanders. Amherst's army had already collected at -Schenectady, but its progress was retarded by the slow arrival of the -colonial contingent of about five thousand men. The forces at last -combined before Montreal; and on September 8, just a year after Wolfe's -splendid victory, the last stronghold of New France capitulated to the -combined forces of England and the Thirteen Colonies. - -According to Lord Chesterfield the acquisition of Canada cost the -English nation four score millions. No one at the present day can think -that the possession of the great Dominion, then regarded as "a few acres -of snow," was not worth twenty times the sum. By the Treaty of Paris, -1763, Louis XV. ceded "in full right Canada with all its dependencies, -as well as the island of Cape Breton and all other islands and coasts in -the gulf and river of St Lawrence." The French had done their best, ever -since the great voyage of Jacques Cartier in 1534, to build up a new -French Empire in the West. They had failed, partly because of the -fallacious principles of the French colonial system, but particularly -for two reasons. The first was the absolute exclusion of the Huguenots, -whereby the Canadians shut out the very people who would have made the -Empire rich and strong; and the second reason was because their dreams -were too diffuse, too magnificent, beyond the physical capacity of so -small a nation. They proposed to shut within narrow limits a nation -twenty times as large in population, far more energetic and industrious, -and one which would by the laws of nature overflow into those very -valleys and happy hunting-grounds that they had marked out for -themselves. - -What, then, was the effect of the capture of Canada upon the settlers of -the Thirteen Colonies? We stand at the parting of the ways. The Treaty -of Paris not only marked the increase of the British dominions beyond -the seas, but also carried within it the germ of the future schism -within the British Empire. Several of the Thirteen Colonies had for many -years been filled with "a spirit of independence, puritan in religion, -and republican in politics."[304] Ever since the seventeenth century the -people of Massachusetts had kicked against the pricks of the Navigation -Act. The danger from the north and the west had undoubtedly had a -repressive influence upon the colonists, and had kept them subservient -to the English colonial system, which they hated and which was in -reality at the root of their disaffection. The Peace of Paris removed -all danger from Spain in the south, while the French danger was removed -by the victory of Wolfe; and the rising colonies felt themselves as a -new race about to start some great venture. They were (they knew it -themselves, and the French recognised it most clearly) absolutely free -to choose their future. The sagacious Vergennes predicted events that -actually occurred. "England," he said, "will soon repent of having -removed the only check that could keep her colonies in awe. They stand -no longer in need of her protection. She will call on them to contribute -towards supporting the burdens they have helped to bring on her, and -they will answer by striking off all dependence."[305] The defeat of New -France meant the possibilities of a new nation in the Western -hemisphere; and Old France revenged herself for the loss of her would-be -Empire by throwing in her lot with those aforetime jealous and jarring -Thirteen States. Old France, therefore, though she knew her own Empire -was gone, largely assisted to create the new nation, the new people, the -United States of America. The Thirteen Colonies had scarcely been taught -the lessons of unity by the horrors of Indian barbarities and the French -border war; but so much as they had learnt they tried to put into -practice at the first Philadelphian Congress, and at the time of the -Declaration of Independence. The Treaty of Paris, one of the most -important of all colonial treaties, was merely the forerunner of that -other great Treaty of Versailles; the former gave to us the vast area -now known as the Dominion of Canada; the latter marked the disappearance -of England's Thirteen Colonies, and the creation of the United States of -America. It would not have been any very great or wonderful prophecy for -a statesman, after the Treaty of Paris, to have foretold the rise of -that new nation which has grown with such marvellous strides; and it -would not have been inappropriate for him to have used the words of the -poet in which to describe this great evolution, and say, "Methinks, I -see in my mind a noble and puissant nation, rousing herself as a strong -man after sleep, and shaking her invincible locks. Methinks I see her -like an _eagle_ viewing her mighty youth and kindling her undazzled eyes -at the full midday beam." - -FOOTNOTES: - -[281] Adams's _Works_ (ed. 1856), vol. i. p. 23. - -[282] Doyle, _The Colonies under the House of Hanover_ (1907), pp. 544, -545. - -[283] _Dinwiddie Papers_, vol. i. p. 258. - -[284] _Dinwiddie Papers_, vol. i. p. 306. - -[285] _Letters of Horace Walpole_ (Ed. 1861), vol. ii. p. 459. - -[286] Parkman, _Wolfe and Montcalm_ (1901), vol. i. p. 188. - -[287] _Annual Register_, 1758, p. 4. - -[288] Bradley, _The Fight with France for North America_ (1905), pp. -81-99. - -[289] Quoted by J. A. Harrison, _Washington_ (1906), p. 95. - -[290] Letter of Washington to Dinwiddie, July 18, 1755. - -[291] Doyle, _The Colonies under the House of Hanover_ (1907), p. 575. - -[292] Letter of Washington to Dinwiddie, July 18, 1755. - -[293] Lucas, _Hist. Geo. of British Colonies, Canada_, part i. (1901), -p. 240. - -[294] Wright, _Life of Wolfe_ (1864), pp. 440, 441. - -[295] Parkman, _Wolfe and Montcalm_, vol. ii. p. 48. - -[296] Drucour's letter, _Annual Register_, 1758, pp. 179-81. - -[297] Bradley, _The Fight with France for North America_ (1905), p. 217, -says a million sterling had been spent on the fortifications since 1745. - -[298] _Grenville Correspondence_, vol. i. 262. - -[299] Quoted by Bradley, _ut supra_, p. 245. - -[300] _Annual Register_, 1758, pp. 72, 73. - -[301] Burke, _Annual Register_, 1759, p. 34. - -[302] Major W. Wood, in _The Siege of Quebec_ (1904), doubts the truth -of this picturesque story. - -[303] Bradley, _Life of Wolfe_ (1895), p. 208. - -[304] Hunt, _Political History of England_, 1760-1801 (1905), p. 141. - -[305] Bancroft, _History of the United States_ (1891), i. p. 525. - - - - -CHRONOLOGY OF COLONIAL HISTORY - - - 1492. First voyage of Columbus. - 1496. Charter to John and Sebastian Cabot. - 1497. John and Sebastian Cabot discover Newfoundland. - 1498. The second voyage of the Cabots. - 1500. Gaspar Corte Real sailed to Newfoundland. - 1501. Gaspar Corte Real wrecked in Chesapeake Bay. - 1502. Miguel Corte Real sailed to search for his brother. - 1506. Denys of Harfleur reached the Gulf of St Lawrence. - 1508. Aubert of Dieppe brought American Indians to France - 1523. Verrazano sent out by Francis I. - 1524. Verrazano sailed along the coast of North America. - 1527. John Rut and Albert de Prado sailed to Newfoundland. - 1534. Jacques Cartier of St Malo sailed to the St Lawrence. - 1535. Jacques Cartier's second voyage. He reached Stadacona. - 1536. Master Hore was wrecked on Newfoundland. - 1541-42. Cartier's third voyage, joined by De Roberval. - 1553. Voyages of Sir Hugh Willoughby and Richard Chancellor. - 1562. Jean Ribault's expedition to Florida. - 1564-65. René de Laudonniere sailed to the Carolinas. - 1565. The French settlement destroyed by the Spaniard Menendez. - 1576. Martin Frobisher's first voyage. - 1577. Martin Frobisher's second voyage, and discovery of Meta - Incognita. - 1577-80. Drake's voyage round the world. - 1578. Martin Frobisher's third voyage. - Grant of a patent for colonisation to Sir Humphrey Gilbert. - 1583. Newfoundland claimed as an English colony. - 1584. Sir Walter Raleigh sends out Captains Amidas and Barlow. - 1585. Raleigh's first Virginian colony. - 1586. The colonists brought back by Drake. - 1587. Raleigh's second attempt. - 1589. First edition of _Hakluyt's Voyages_ published. - 1598. Second and complete edition of _Hakluyt's Voyages_. - Marquis de la Roche attempts to found a convict settlement. - 1599. Chauvin and Pontgravé attempt a settlement at Tadoussac. - 1602. De Chastes obtains the services of Samuel Champlain. - Bartholomew Gosnold makes a voyage to the West. - 1603. The voyage of the _Discovery_ and the _Speedwell_ to - America. - De la Roche's settlers rescued from Sable Island. - Samuel Champlain sailed up the St Lawrence. - De Monts obtained a patent to colonise Acadia. - 1604. De Chastes joined to De Monts and established Port Royal. - 1605. Samuel Champlain remained the winter in Acadia. - 1606. Relief arrived. The expedition included Lescarbot, the - historian. - The formation of the London and Plymouth Companies. - 1607. The foundation of Jamestown, Virginia. - Popham and Gilbert's expedition to the Kennebec. - 1608. Champlain founded Quebec. - 1609. Champlain discovered Lake Champlain. - Claude Etienne and Charles de la Tour settled on the - Penobscot. - Sir George Somers and Sir Thomas Gates sail for Virginia. - 1610. Lord Delawarr governor of Virginia. - 1611. Sir Thomas Gates governor of Virginia. - 1613. Marriage of Pocahontas to John Rolfe. - Champlain and de Vignau follow the course of the Ottawa. - 1614. Samuel Argall sacked Port Royal in Acadia. - Captain John Smith made a voyage to New England. - 1615. Champlain and Le Caron came to Lake Huron. - 1616. The Recollet missionaries settled in Canada. - 1619. Sir George Yeardley governor of Virginia. - 1620. Reorganisation of the New England Company. - The voyage of the _Mayflower_ and establishment of New - Plymouth. - 1621. Sir William Alexander obtained a patent to colonise Acadia. - 1622. Sir Robert Gordon attempted to settle Cape Breton Island. - 1623. James I. demanded the surrender of the charter of the - London Company. - A fishing station at Cape Ann, Massachusetts. - Levitt established a settlement on Casco Bay, Maine. - 1625. Jesuit missionaries first came to Canada. - 1626. Definite settlement of the Dutch on Manhattan Island. - 1627. Death of Sir George Yeardley. Harvey governor of Virginia. - Richelieu establishes the Company of the One Hundred - Associates. - 1628. David Kirke destroyed the French fleet in the St Lawrence. - 1629. David Kirke captured Quebec. - Sir Robert Heath received a grant of land south of - Virginia. - The establishment of Massachusetts. - 1630. Winthrop established Boston. - La Tour made governor of Acadia. - 1631. Arrival of Roger Williams in Massachusetts. - Lord Saye and Sele and Lord Brooke obtain land on the - Connecticut. - Sir Ferdinando Gorges formed a company for colonising - Maine. - 1632. Grant of Maryland to Lord Baltimore. - Treaty of St Germain-en-Laye, by which Quebec was - restored to the French. - 1634. Champlain built a fort at Three Rivers. - 1635. Champlain died. - Maine granted to Sir Ferdinando Gorges. - Captain John Mason established New Hampshire. - Foundation of Providence by Roger Williams. - Winthrop, the younger, governor of Connecticut. - Harry Vane, Mrs Anne Hutchinson, and John Wheelwright come - to Massachusetts. - The Pequod War. - 1636. The foundation of Harvard College. - De Montmagny succeeded Champlain. - 1637. The foundation of Rhode Island. - Theophilus Eaton founded New Haven. - 1638. Minuit's Swedish settlement. - 1640. Union of Rhode Island and Providence. - 1642. Conformity Act in Virginia. - Fort Richelieu (Sorel) founded. - 1643. The New England Confederacy. - 1647. Peter Stuyvesant made governor of the New Netherlands. - 1649. Toleration Act in Maryland. - 1650. Sir William Berkeley commissioned by Charles II. - 1651. Sir George Ayscue sent to subdue the West. - 1651-58. The towns of Maine under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts. - 1652. Richard Bennet governor of Virginia. - 1653. Le Moyne, the Jesuit, sent as an envoy to the Iroquois. - 1654. War with the Nyantic Indians. - 1654. Stephenson took Acadia. - 1655. Peter Stuyvesant captured the Swedish settlements. - Edward Digges, Governor of Virginia. - Victory of the Protestants at Providence, Maryland. - 1657. Lord Baltimore restored in Maryland. - 1659. Josias Fendall, Governor of Maryland. - 1661. Royal Commissioners sent to the colonies. - 1662. Charles Calvert made Governor of Maryland. - Charter granted to Connecticut. - 1663. Charter granted to the Lords Proprietors of the Carolinas. - Canada became a Royal Province. - 1664. Colbert created the Company of the West. - Richard Nicolls captured New Amsterdam. - 1665. Attempt of De Ruyter to retake New Amsterdam. - Marquis de Tracy made Lieutenant-General of Canada. - 1666. Courcelles attacked the Iroquois. - The Treaty of Breda. - La Salle arrived in Canada. - 1667. Locke's Fundamental Constitutions for the Carolinas. - Terrific gale in Maryland and Virginia. - 1668. Francis Lovelace made Governor of New York. - Jacques Marquette, a missioner on Lake Superior. - 1669. La Salle supposed to have discovered the Ohio. - 1670. Incorporation of the Hudson Bay Company. - William Sayle came from the Barbadoes to South Carolina. - 1671. Sir John Yeamans, Governor of South Carolina. - 1672. Count Frontenac made Governor of Canada. - Grants in Virginia to Lords Arlington and Culpeper. - 1673. Cornelius Eversen retook New York. - The establishment of Fort Frontenac. - Joliet and Marquette reach the Mississippi. - 1674. Death of Marquette. - The Treaty of Westminster restored New York to the English. - Carteret and Berkeley given rights in New Jersey. - Joseph West made Governor of South Carolina. - 1674-1676. King Philip's War. - 1675. Death of Cecil, Lord Baltimore. - 1677. The end of Berkeley's rule in Virginia. - Thomas Eastchurch, Governor of Carolina. - 1678. Massachusetts purchased all rights over Maine. - La Salle given leave to discover the western parts of New - France. - La Salle, De Tonty, and Father Hennepin allied as - discoverers. - Fort Niagara built. - 1679. La Salle sailed up Lakes Erie and Michigan. - 1680. La Salle built Fort Crèvecoeur on the lower Illinois. - Father Hennepin travelled on the upper Mississippi. - Edward Byllinge and certain Quakers encouraged to colonise - Delaware. - 1681. William Penn founded Pennsylvania. - Limitation of the franchise in Maryland. - 1681-1682. La Salle descended the Mississippi to the Gulf of Mexico. - 1682. End of Frontenac's first government of Canada. - Formation of the "Compagni du Nord." - 1682-1683. La Salle established a French colony on the Illinois. - 1682-1684. New Hampshire governed by Edward Cranfield. - 1683. Seth Sothel, Governor of North Carolina. - Thomas Dongan, Governor of New York. - 1684. La Vallière, Governor of Acadia, succeeded by Perrot. - Lord Howard of Effingham, Governor of Virginia. - The Five Nations allied with the English at Albany. - 1684-1685. La Salle's expedition to Texas. - 1684-1687. The Mississippi Scheme. - 1685. The Marquis de Denonville, Governor of Canada. - The English colonies lose their charters. - Francis Nicholson, Deputy-Governor of New York. - Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. - 1686. Sir Edmund Andros in Massachusetts. - 1687. Death of La Salle. - The Marquis de Denonville defeated the Iroquois. - 1688. The Revolution in England. - Sir Edmund Andros plundered Pentegost. - 1689. Denonville destroyed Fort Frontenac. - Count Frontenac appointed Governor of Canada for the second - time. - Count Frontenac sent three raiding parties into New - England. - Du Luth defeated the Iroquois on the Ottawa. - William Penn lost his proprietary rights. - Leisler's rising in New York. - 1690. Congress of the colonies at Albany. - Colonel Sloughter suppressed Leisler's rising. - Port Royal taken by Sir William Phipps. - Sir William Phipps led an expedition against Quebec. - 1691. Successful attack of the English on La Prairie. - New Plymouth incorporated within Massachusetts. - Maryland placed under the direct control of the Crown. - 1692. Benjamin Fletcher, Governor of New York. - Andrew Hamilton, Governor of New Jersey. - Villebon re-occupied Port Royal. - French attacks on the coast of Maine. - 1693. Canadians and Indians attacked the Mohawk towns. - D'Iberville reconnoitred Fort Pemaquid. - English expedition to recover the forts on James Bay. - Establishment of William and Mary College, Virginia. - 1694. Proprietary rights restored to William Penn. - End of the rule of Sir William Phipps in Massachusetts. - La Mothe Cadillac sent to command Michillimackinac. - 1695. Fort Frontenac was re-occupied. - Sir William Phipps died. - 1696. Frontenac, Callières, and Vaudreuil attacked the Iroquois. - D'Iberville took Fort Pemaquid from Chubb. - 1696-1726. Rhode Island governed by Samuel Cranston. - 1697. Abortive French expedition under the Marquis de Nesmond - against Boston. - D'Iberville took Fort Nelson. - The Treaty of Ryswick. - 1698. Establishment of a college in Connecticut. - Frontenac died at Quebec. - 1698-1701. Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey, New - Hampshire governed by Lord Bellomont. - 1699. First colonisation of Louisiana by Le Moyne d'Iberville. - 1701. La Mothe Cadillac founded Detroit. - Penn left Pennsylvania. - Execution of the pirate Captain Kidd. - Lord Cornbury succeeded Lord Bellomont. - 1702. The Proprietors resigned their rights over New Jersey. - 1702-1713. Queen Anne's War. - 1703. Separation of Delaware from Pennsylvania. - Colonel Moore's attack upon St Augustine. - 1704. Colonel Moore's attack upon Apalachee. - The French attacked Deerfield. - Major Church threatened Port Royal. - 1706. The French and Spanish attacked Charleston. - 1707. Colonel March threatened Port Royal. - 1708. The French attacked Haverfield on the Merrimac. - Lord Cornbury recalled. - 1709. Samuel Vetch advocated combined attack on New France. - Colonel Francis Nicholson attacked near Lake Champlain the - forces of Ramesay, Governor of Montreal. - 1710. Colonel Francis Nicholson took Port Royal. - 1711. The Walker-Hill expedition against Canada. - North Carolina attacked by the Tuscarora Indians. - 1712. Birth of Montcalm at Nîmes. - 1713. The Treaty of Utrecht. - 1715. Proprietary rights over Maryland restored to the fourth - Lord Baltimore. - 1716. North Carolina attacked by the Yamassee Indians. - 1718. Death of William Penn. - Bienville, brother of D'Iberville, founded New Orleans. - 1720. Settlement of German Palatines in New York. - Louisburg on Cape Breton Island began to be important. - The French built a permanent fort at Niagara. - 1723. The Jesuit Charlevoix recommended a mission among the - Sioux. - 1724. Sebastian Rasle, a Jesuit priest, killed on the Kennebec. - 1726. Peace between the Indians and New Englanders. - 1727. Birth of James Wolfe at Westerham, in Kent. - The English established a trading centre at Oswego. - Fort Beauharnois built in the Sioux country. - 1729. Death of Governor Burnet. - 1731-1740. De la Verendrye built forts from Rainy Lake westward. - 1731. Saint Luc de la Corne built Fort St Frederic (Crown Point). - 1732. General Oglethorpe established Georgia. - 1734. Salzburg Germans came to Georgia. - 1736. John Wesley in Georgia. - 1738. George Whitefield in Georgia. - 1739-1742. War in Georgia with the Spaniards. - 1742. The Spaniards attacked St Simons, Carolina. - 1743. General Oglethorpe left Georgia. - 1743-1753. George Clinton, Governor of New York. - 1744. War between England and France. - Canso taken by the French. - 1745. Shirley, Pepperell, and Warren take Louisburg. - 1747. Warren and Anson defeated the French off Cape Finisterre. - 1748. Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. - 1749. Celeron de Bienville registered the claims of France to the - Ohio valley. - Establishment of Fort Rouillé (Toronto). - Establishment of Halifax. - 1750. Le Loutre burnt Beaubassin. - 1752. The Marquis Duquesne became Governor of Canada. - Georgia passed into the hands of the Crown. - 1753. Proposal to unite the Thirteen Colonies. - Duquesne sent Marin to build forts between the Lakes and - the Ohio. Washington sent on a counter expedition. - 1754. The French built Fort Duquesne. - Death of Jumonville. - Washington built Fort Necessity, but obliged to retreat. - 1755. Braddock's disaster on the Monongahela. - William Johnson's expedition against Crown Point. - Shirley's advance on Lake Ontario. - Beausejour taken and renamed Fort Cumberland. - Transportation of the Acadians. - Vaudreuil appointed Governor-General of Canada. - 1756. Outbreak of the Seven Years' War. - Oswego, under Bradstreet, taken by Montcalm. - Recall of William Shirley. - 1757. Loudoun and Holborne made an abortive attempt on Louisburg. - Fort William Henry taken by Montcalm and Levis. - William Pitt joined Newcastle. - 1758. Louisburg under Drucour taken by Boscawen, Amherst, and - Wolfe. - Abercromby defeated at Ticonderoga. Death of Lord Howe. - 1758. Fort Frontenac taken by Bradstreet. - Amherst appointed Commander-in-chief in North America. - Fort Duquesne taken by Forbes and renamed Pittsburg. - 1759. Stanwix sent to Duquesne and Prideaux to Oswego. - Fort Niagara taken by Johnson. - Ticonderoga and Crown Point taken by Amherst. - The capture of Quebec. Deaths of Wolfe and Montcalm. - 1760. The Battle of St Foy. Levis forced the English into Quebec. - Relief of Quebec. - Surrender of Montreal to the forces of Amherst, Haviland, - and Murray. - 1763. The Peace of Paris. - - - - -A SHORT BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THOSE WORKS WHICH CAN BE OBTAINED EASILY - - -_Large Bibliographies_ - - Larned, J. N. (editor). The Literature of American History, - Boston, 1902. - - Harrisse, H. Notes pour servir à l'histoire, à la bibliographie, - et à la cartographie de la Nouvelle France, etc., Paris, 1872. - - Cambridge Modern History, vol. vii., Cambridge, 1905. - -_General_ - - Calendars of Colonial State Papers in the English Record Office. - - Bancroft, G. History of the United States, 6 vols., New York, - 1883-85. - - Doyle, J. A. The English in America, 3 vols., London, 1882-87; - The Middle Colonies, London, 1907; The Colonies under the - House of Hanover, London, 1907. - - Egerton, H. L. Short History of British Colonial Policy, New - York, 1898; Origin and Growth of English Colonies, Oxford, - 1903. - - Hart, A. B. (editor). American History told by Contemporaries, 4 - vols., New York, 1897-1902. - - Winsor, J. (editor). The Narrative and Critical History of - America, 8 vols., Boston, 1886-89. - - -_Discoveries_ - - Fiske, J. The Discovery of America, 2 vols., Boston, 1892. - - Hakluyt, R. Principal Navigations, voiages, etc. (1598), 12 - vols., Glasgow, 1904-5. - - Payne, L. J. Voyages of Elizabethan Seamen to America, 2 - vols., London, 1893. - - Prowse, D. W. History of Newfoundland, London, 1895. - - -_The Thirteen Colonies_ - - Bradley, A. G. Captain John Smith (English Men of Action), - London, 1905. - - Brown, J. The Pilgrim Fathers of New England, New York, 1895. - - Browne, W. H. Maryland: the History of a Palatinate, Boston, - 1884. - - Bruce, H. Life of Oglethorpe, New York, 1890. - - Bruce, P. A. Economic History of Virginia in the Seventeenth - Century, 2 vols., New York, 1896. - - Clarkson, T. Memoirs of William Penn, 2 vols., London, 1813. - - Fiske, J. The Beginnings of New England, Boston, 1889; Old - Virginia and her Neighbours, 2 vols., New York, 1897; Dutch - and Quaker Colonies in America, 2 vols., Boston, 1899. - - Johnston, A. Connecticut, Boston, 1887. - - Jones, C. C. History of Georgia, 2 vols., Boston, 1883. - - M'Clintock, J. History of New Hampshire, Boston, 1889. - - M'Crady, E. History of South Carolina, 4 vols., New York, - 1897-1903. - - Neill, E. D. History of the Virginia Company of London, Albany, - 1869. - - Rickman, J. Rhode Island, its Making and Meaning, 2 vols., New - York, 1902. - - Roberts, E. H. History of New York, 2 vols., Boston, 1887. - - Saunders, W. L. (editor). Colonial Records of North Carolina, 16 - vols., Raleigh, 1886. - - Shurtlegg, N. B. Records of Massachusetts Bay, 1628-86, 5 vols., - Boston, 1853-54. - - Weeden, W. B. Economic and Social History of New England, 2 - vols., Boston, 1890. - - Williamson, W. D. History of Maine, 2 vols., Hallowell, 1832. - - Wenson, J. Memorial History of Boston, 1630-1880, 4 vols., - Boston, 1880-82. - - -_Canada_ - - Bourinot, Sir J. G. Historical and Descriptive Account of the - Island of Cape Breton, Trans. Roy. Soc. Can., Montreal; 1892, - Canada under British Rule, Camb., 1900. - - Bradley, A. G. Wolfe (English Men of Action), London, 1889; The - Fight with France for North America, London, 1900. - - Green, W. William Pitt (Heroes of the Nation), New York, 1901. - - Kingsford, W. The History of Canada, London, 1888. - - Lucas, C. P. Historical Geography of the British Colonies, vol. - v., Oxford, 1901. - - Parkman, F. Collected Works, edited by W. Kingsford, London, - 1900-1. - - Wright, R. Life of Major-General J. Wolfe, London, 1864. - - - - -INDEX - - - A - - Abenaki Indians, 229, 230, 232, 245 - - Abercromby, General, 267, 272-74 - - Abolition of slave trade (1807), 190 - - Abraham, Heights of, 276, 278 - - Acadia, 35, 227, 233, 237, 243, 244, 248, 261, 264, 265 - - Adams, John, 254 - - Africa, 6 - - Agriculture, 174 - - Aix-la-Chapelle, Treaty of, 256, 268 - - Alatamaha River, 159 - - Albany, 134, 135, 136, 140, 141, 225, 226, 227, 229, 259, 261, 272 - - Albemarle (district), 65, 67, 68, 70 - - Albemarle, Duke of, 64 - - Albemarle river, 64 - - Alcazar, Battle of, 10 - - Alexander VI., rule of, 6 - - Alexandria (America), 260 - - Alleghany Mountains, 166, 245, 256 - - Alleghany River, 258 - - Allen, Nathaniel, 151 - - Allen, Samuel, 126 - - Alva, Duke of, 2 - - Amelia Island, 161 - - Amherst, Jeffrey, 270-72, 275, 276 - - Amidas, Captain, 17, 20, 23, 63 - - Amsterdam, 79, 132 - - Andros, Sir Edmund, 102, 103, 112, 139, 140, 141, 148, 192 - - Annapolis, 197, 203, 237 - - Anson, Admiral, 251 - - Antigua, 68 - - Apalachee, 72 - - Aquedneck, 114, 175 - - Archangel, 9, 18 - - Archdale, Joseph, 71 - - Argall, Samuel, 34-37 - - Arkansas River, 215-18 - - Arlington, Lord, 46 - - Arnold, _History of the State of Rhode Island, etc._, 117 _n._ - - Ashley River, 65, 69 - - _Association for the Defence of the Protestant Religion_, 60 - - Aubert (French voyager), 200 - - Augusta, 159 - - Austrian Succession, War of, 251 - - Ayscue, Sir George, 44 - - Azores, the, 22 - - - B - - Bacon, Sir Francis, 4, 31 - - Bacon, Nathaniel, 48 - - Bahamas, the, 158 - - Baltic Company, 118 - - Baltimore City, 62, 191 - - Baltimore, first Lord, 54, 55 - - Baltimore, second Lord, 55-59 - - Baltimore, fourth Lord, 61 - - Barbadoes, the, 64, 68, 96, 97, 188 - - Barbary, 10 - - Barlow, Captain, 17, 23, 63 - - Barrett, _History and Antiquities of Bristol_, 5 _n._ - - Bateson, _Cambridge Modern History_, 200 _n._ - - Beaujeu, Admiral, 220, 261 - - Beauport, 228, 276 - - Belcher, Governor, 194 - - Belknap, 249 _n._ - - Bellomont, Earl of, 105, 106, 143 - - Bennet, Richard, 45 - - Berkeley, Lady, 49 - - Berkeley, Lord, 134, 139, 146, 147 - - Berkeley, Sir William, 42-49, 57, 64, 194 - - Bermudas, 31, 34, 64 - - Berry, Sir John, 48, 49 - - Beverley, Robert, 195 - - Beza, John, 151 - - Bienville, C. de, 256 - - Biggar, _Voyages of the Cabots, etc._, 5 _n._ - - Bigot, 170 - - Black Watch, 273 - - Blair, Commissary, 51, 52, 194 - - Blake, Joseph, 71 - - Blenheim, Battle of, 232 - - Block Island, 101 - - Bolingbroke, Viscount, 237 - - Bolzius, Martin, 159 - - Boscawen, Admiral, 270, 271 - - Boston, 89, 96, 97, 100-104, 110, 115 118, 141, 144, 169, 170, 171, - 173, 176, 181, 183, 184, 227, 228, 231, 235, 237-39, 241, 252 - - "Bostonnais," 227, 228, 233 - - Bougainville, 276 - - Bozman, _History of Maryland_, 57 _n._ - - Braddock, General, 260-63, 266, 273 - - Bradford, William, 79, 82, 83 - - Bradley, _Captain John Smith_, 29 _n._ - - Bradley, _Fight with France for North America_, 260 _n._, 271 _n._, - 273 _n._ - - Bradley, _Life of Wolfe_, 279 _n._ - - Bradstreet, Anne, 183 - - Bradstreet, Colonel, 266, 267, 274 - - Bradstreet, Simon, 89, 169, 171, 179 - - Braintree (America), 171 - - Branford, 112 - - Brayne, Henry, 68 - - Brazil, 6, 8, 18 - - Breda, 44 - - Brewton, Colonel, 72 - - Bristol, 3-6 - - British Columbia, 15 - - Brodhead, 135 - - Brooke, Lord, 107, 124 - - Brown, Captain, 245 - - Browne, John, 90 - - Browne, Samuel, 90 - - Bryce, _American Commonwealth_, 108 _n._ - - Bulkeley, Peter, 99, 100 - - Burke, Edmund, 165, 273 - - Burnet, Governor, 144, 177, 246 - - Burrough, Edward, 96, 97 - - Byllinge, Edward, 147, 148 - - Byrd, Colonel, 195 - - - C - - Cabot, John, 3, 5, 6 - - Cabot, Sebastian, 3-6, 8, 9 - - Cadillac, La Mothe, 222 - - California, Gulf of, 215 - - Calvert, Cecil, 193 - - Calvert, Chas., 59, 60 - - Calvert, George, 54 - - Calvert, Leonard, 55-57 - - Cambridge (America), 89, 93, 184 - - Campbell, John, 184 - - Canada, 78, 141, 170, 180, 202-24, 225, 226, 227, 229, 232-34, 242, - 244, 247, 251, 254, 257, 264, 273-82 - - Canary Islands, 6 - - Canso, 248 - - Cape Ann, 87 - - Cape Breton Island, 243, 252, 270, 280 - - Cape Cod, 81 - - Cape Fear, 64, 68 - - Cape Finisterre, 251 - - Cape Henry, 26 - - Carleton, Sir Guy, 276 - - Carlile, Captain, 16 - - Carolina, North, 17, 52, 63-75, 191, 196, 198 - - Carolina, South, 53, 63-75, 158, 162, 187, 190, 191, 194, 196-98, - 264 - - Carolinas, The, 5, 107, 201, 235, 257, 258, 259, 261 - - Carr, Sir Robert, 121, 122, 125, 134 - - Carteret, Philip, 59, 134, 147,148 - - Carteret, Sir George, 134, 139, 146, 147, 148 - - Cartier, Jacques, 201, 202, 280 - - Cartwright, 134 - - Carver, William, 82 - - Cary, Thomas, 73 - - Casco Bay, 119, 232 - - Castle Island, 90 - - Cataraqui River, 216 - - Cathay, 3, 6, 10 - - Cathay, Company of, 11 - - Cavendish, 18, 20 - - Cecil, Robert, 31 - - Champlain, Samuel, 203-208, 212, 213 - - Chancellor, Richard, 9 - - Charles I., 41, 42, 44, 54, 63, 64, 76, 90, 94, 95, 109, 119, 123, - 132 - - Charles II., 44, 46, 48, 59, 72, 85, 93, 96, 97, 116, 119, 121, 122, - 129, 132, 133, 138, 146, 176, 184, 196 - - Charles V., 9, 200 - - Charlestown, 68, 69, 70, 73, 74, 89, 90, 103, 196 - - Chauvin, 203 - - Chesapeake Bay, 26 - - Chesterfield, Lord, 280 - - Chicheley, Sir Henry, 49 - - Chowan River, 63 - - Chubb, 230, 231 - - Church, Major, 233 - - Clap, _The Annals or History of Yale College_, 182 _n._ - - Clarendon, Earl of, 64 - - Clarendon Settlements, 70 - - Clarke, George (Junior), 144 - - Clarke, George (Senior), 145 - - Clayborne, William, 56-58 - - Clinton, George, 145 - - Clothmaking, 171 - - Cocheco River, 124 - - Coddington, William, 114, 175 - - Colbert, 208-11, 219 - - Colonial Congress, First, 141 - - Columbus, Christopher, 3, 4, 6, 25, 80, 200 - - Company of the One Hundred Associates, 207, 208 - - Company of the West, 210 - - Conant, Roger, 87 - - Condé, Prince de, 204 - - Connecticut, 93, 102, 107-14, 118, 119, 126, 129, 133, 168, 171, - 173, 175, 176, 179, 181-84, 226, 249 - - Connecticut River, 107, 109 - - Contrecoeur, 258 - - Convers, 230 - - Coode, John, 60 - - Coram, Thomas, 157 - - Cornbury, Lord, 143, 150 - - Cosby, William, 144 - - Costobelle, 238 - - Cotton, John, 92, 185 - - Courcelles, Governor, 211 - - Cranfield, Edward, 126 - - Cranston, Samuel, 117 - - Crispen, William, 151 - - Cromwell, Oliver, 44, 45, 58 - - Crownpoint, 246, 247, 251, 261, 263, 264 - - Culpeper, Lord, 46, 50, 67 - - Curwen, Samuel, 250 - - Cutts, John, 125 - - Cuyler, 141 - - - D - - Dale, Sir Thomas, 32, 33 _n._, 36, 37 - - Damariscotta, 248 - - Dare, Eleanor, 21 - - Darien, 233 - - Dautray, Sieur, 218, 219 - - Davenport, John, 118 - - Davies, Sylvanus, 226 - - D'Auville, Duc, 251 - - De Chastes, 203 - - D'Estournel, 251 - - De Lery, 266 - - De Ligueries, 274 - - De Loutre, 264 - - De Monts, 203 - - De Roberval, 202 - - De Ruyter, 135 - - Declaration of Indulgence, 162 - - Deerfield, 232, 233 - - Defoe, Daniel, 155 - - Delaware, 112, 153, 155, 187, 191 - - Delaware River, 134, 146, 147, 148, 150, 151-53 - - Delawarr, Lord, 32, 34 - - Denonville, 225 - - Denys, the voyager, 200 - - Detroit, 222-47 - - Diaz, Bartholomew, 3 - - Dieskau, Baron, 263 - - Digges, Edward, 45 - - Dinwiddie, Governor, 53, 256-62 - - Dongan, Thomas, 139, 140, 225 - - Dorchester (America), 86, 90, 108 - - Doughty, Thomas, 15 - - Dover (America), 124, 125 - - Doyle, _Cambridge Modern History_, 67 _n._, 91 _n._, 134 _n._, - 165 _n._, 183 _n._ - - Doyle, _Colonies under the House of Hanover_, 185 _n._, 195 _n._, - 197 _n._, 250 _n._, 252 _n._, 255 _n._, 262 _n._ - - Doyle, _The English in America_, 24 _n._, 38 _n._, 40 _n._, 87 _n._, - 178 _n._, 193 _n._ - - Drake, Sir Francis, 14, 15, 18, 20, 21 - - Drucour, Governor, 271, 272 - - Du Luth, 218, 222 - - Duchambon, 249, 250 - - Dudley, Thomas, 89 - - Dummer, Jeremiah, 237 - - Duquesne, Marquis, 256, 257 - - Duquesnel, 247 - - Dutch West India Company, 130-33 - - Dyre, William, 122 - - - E - - East Greenwich, manor of, 111 - - East India Company, 18, 24, 130 - - Eastchurch, Thomas, 67 - - Eaton, Theophilus, 117 - - Education, 182, 183, 194 - - Edward VI., 9 - - Egerton, _A Short History of British Colonial Policy_, 104 _n._ - - Egerton, _Origin and Growth of the English Colonies_, 15 _n._ - - Eldorado, 2, 18 - - Eliot, John, 180 - - Elizabeth, Queen, 10, 12, 13, 17, 18, 19, 23, 24, 45, 78 - - Endecott, John, 87-91, 109 - - Eversen, Cornelius, 138 - - Exeter (America), 124 - - - F - - Fabian, Robert, 5 - - Fairfield, 182 - - Falmouth, 226, 227 - - Fendall, Josias, 58, 60 - - Fenwick, John, 147, 148 - - Ferrars, John, 36 - - Fish trade, 170, 172 - - Fitchett, _Fights for the Flag_, 229 _n._ - - Five Nations (see also Iroquois), 139, 140, 204, 212, 213, 246 - - Flax, 175 - - Fletcher, Benjamin, 106, 142, 143, 153 - - Fletcher, _Cornhill Magazine_, 10 _n._ - - Florida, 5, 6, 10, 64, 72, 74, 157, 161, 162 - - Forbes, General, 274 - - Force, _Tracts_, 33 _n._, 157 _n._, 158 _n._, 165 _n._ - - Fort Bull, 266 - - Fort Casimir, 132 - - Fort Chartres, 247 - - Fort Christina, 131 - - Fort Crèvecoeur, 217 - - Fort Cumberland, 257 - - Fort Duquesne, 258, 261, 274 - - Fort Edward, 269 - - Fort Frontenac, 212, 216, 217, 222, 274 - - Fort James, 138 - - Fort Loyal, 226 - - Fort Lyman, 263 - - Fort Necessity, 258 - - Fort Niagara, 217, 246, 247, 264, 275 - - Fort Orange, 134 - - Fort Pemaquid, 230, 231 - - Fort Richelieu, 208 - - Fort Rouillé, 246 - - Fort St Frederic, 247 - - Fort St Louis, 219-21 - - Fort William Henry, 264, 268, 269 - - Fortescue, _Calendar of State Papers, Colonial_, 49 _n._, 50 _n._, - 67 _n._, 100 _n._, 101 _n._ - - Fox River, 213 - - Francis I., 200 - - Franciscans, the, 205, 206 - - Franklin, Benjamin, 195, 259 - - Frederic the Great, 247 - - Frederica, 159, 161, 162 - - French, _Historical Collections of Louisiana_, 218 _n._, 219 _n._ - - Frobisher Bay, 11 - - Frobisher Sir Martin, 11, 12 - - Frontenac, Count, 211-13, 219, 225-28 - - Fuller, Thomas, 19 - - Fundy, Bay of, 203 - - Fur trade, 170, 203, 205 - - - G - - Gainsborough, 79 - - Gardiner, _History of the Commonwealth_, 44 _n._ - - Gates, Sir Thomas, 24, 31-33, 36 - - George II., 252 - - George III., 101 - - Georgia, 156-67 - - Germantown, 192, 198 - - Gigglesworth, Michael, 183 - - Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 6, 11, 12, 15, 16, 19 - - Gilbert, Raleigh, 77 - - Glen, Governor, 259 - - Godfrey, Thomas, 195 - - Goelet, Captain Francis, 169 - - Goffe, William, 118 - - Gondomar, 38 - - Goose Creek, 196 - - Gorges, Ferdinando, 121-24 - - Gorges, Sir Ferdinando, 24, 86, 119, 120, 121, 123 - - Gorton, Samuel, 115 - - Gosnold, Bartholomew, 22, 26, 27 - - Grand Pré, 233 - - Granville County, 74 - - Green, J., _Short History of the English People_, 81 _n._, 82 _n._ - - Green, W., _William Pitt_, 174 _n._ - - Greenland, 11 - - Greenwich, 6 - - Grenville, Sir R., 20 - - _Grenville Correspondence_, 273 _n._ - - Guildford (America), 118 - - Guinea, 14, 18 - - - H - - Hakluyt, Richd., 8, 14, 16, 22, 23, 24, 40 - - Hakluyt, _Discourse of Western Planting_, 23 - - Hakluyt, _Voyages_, 6 _n._, 20 _n._, 23 _n._, 63 _n._, 201 _n._, - 203 _n._ - - Hall, John, 176 - - Hamilton, Andrew, 149 - - Hammond, John, 54, 56 _n._, 58 _n._ - - Hamor, Ralph, 34, 35 _n._ - - Hampton, 52, 124, 260 - - Hankey, Sophia, 159, 160 - - Hardy, Captn., 74 - - Harley, 241 - - Harmon, Captn., 245 - - Harrison, _Washington_, 262 _n._ - - Hartford, 108, 113, 182 - - Harvard, 93, 102, 182, 183 - - Harvard, Mr, 93 - - Harvey, Governor, 41, 42 - - Haverfield, 233 - - Haviland, General, 280 - - Hawkins, Sir John, 14 - - Hayes, Edward, 13 - - Hazard, _Historical Collection_, 140 _n._ - - Heage, Wm., 151 - - Heath, Captn., 245 - - Heath, Sir Robert, 63 - - Henning, _Statutes at Large_, 46 _n._ - - Hennepin, Father, 217, 218 - - Henrico, 33 - - Henry VII., 3, 6, 8 - - Henry VIII., 7, 8 - - Henry of Navarre, 204 - - Hiacoomes, 180 - - Hill, Abigail, 240 - - Hill, General, 240, 241 - - Holborne, Admiral, 268 - - Holstead, Captn., 66 - - Hooker, Thos., 92 - - Hore, Master, 7 - - Howard of Effingham, Lord, 50 - - Howe, Lord, 272-74 - - Howe, Thos., 151 - - Hudson Bay, 243 - - Hudson River, 129, 130, 134, 139, 146, 147, 150, 226 - - Hunt, _Political History of England, etc._, 281 _n._ - - Huron Indians, 205, 214 - - Hutchinson, _A Collection of Original Papers_, 98 _n._, 103 _n._ - - Hutchinson, Mrs Anne, 92, 114 - - Hyde, Edward, 73 - - - I - - Iberville, 226-31 - - Iceland, 18 - - Ile d'Orléans, 276 - - Illinois Indians, 214 - - Illinois River, 215-19 - - Indian Bible, 180 - - Indigo, 192 - - Ingle, 57 - - Ingoldsby, Major Ralph, 142 - - Ipswich (America), 102 - - Iron, 171, 192 - - Iroquois (see also Five Nations), 209, 211, 212, 222, 223, 225, 226, - 229, 263 - - - J - - Jack the Feather, 38 - - James I., 24, 25, 38, 39, 40, 80, 83, 132 - - James II., 101, 102, 104, 112, 113, 117, 140, 141, 142, 150, 153, - 231 - - James as Duke of York, 132, 134-38, 146-48, 189, 190 - - James III. (the Old Pretender), 231 - - James River, 27, 51 - - Jamestown, 26-33, 45, 47, 48, 189, 197 - - Janney, _Life of W. Penn_, 152 _n._ - - Japazaus, 34 - - Jeffreys, Sir Herbert, 48, 49 - - Jenkinson, Anthony, 9 - - Jesuits, the, 180, 205, 206, 209, 213, 216, 229, 232 - - Johnson, _A History of New England_, 118 _n._ - - Johnson, Edward, 183 - - Johnson, William, 255, 262, 265, 267 - - Johnstone, Sir Nathaniel, 72, 73, 74 - - Joliet, Louis, 213-15 - - Jonquière, Marquis de la, 251, 256 - - Josselyn, _An Account of Two Voyages to New England_, 120 _n._, - 123 _n._ - - Josselyn, John, 122, 123 - - Jumonville, Lieutenant, 258 - - - K - - Keith, Mr, 154 - - Kennebec River, 77, 104, 120, 245 - - Kent, Isle of, 56-58 - - Kidd, Captain, 106 - - Kieft, Governor, 130 - - King, Colonel, 239, 242 - - King Philip's War, 125 - - King William's War, 113 - - King's College (Columbia), 194 - - Kirke, David, 54, 207, 227 - - Knight, Mrs, 179 - - Knight, Sir John, 47 - - - L - - La Baye, 247 - - La Chine, 216, 226 - - La Corne, 269 - - La Galissonière, 256 - - La Prairie, 227 - - La Rochelle, 207, 220, 251 - - La Salle, Sieur de, 216-22 - - Labrador, 7 - - Laconia Company, 123 - - Lake Champlain, 226, 235, 246 - - Lake Erie, 216, 222 - - Lake George, 264, 265 - - Lake Huron, 213, 222 - - Lake Michigan, 213, 216, 217 - - Lake Ontario, 216, 217 - - Lake Superior, 214 - - Lake Winnebago, 213, 215 - - Lane, Ralph, 20 - - Laud, Archbishop, 76, 89, 90 - - Laudonnière, 63 - - Laurence, Governor, 264, 270 - - Laurie, Gawen, 148 - - Laws, Peculiar, 185 - - Le Caron, 205 - - Le Clercq, Father, 209 - - Le Clercq, _First Establishment of the Faith in New France_, - 210 _n._ - - Le Moyne, 209 - - Lead, 171 - - Leete, William, 112 - - Leisler, Jacob, 141, 142, 226 - - Léry, Baron de, 200 - - Lescarbot, 204 - - Leslie, Lieutenant, 261 - - Levant, The, 18 - - Leverett, Governor, 97 - - Lévis, French General, 268, 269, 272, 279 - - Levitt, 119 - - Leyden, 79, 80, 83 - - Literature, 183, 184 - - Locke, John, 66 - - Locke's _Fundamental Constitution_, 66, 71 - - Logan, James, 156 - - Lok, Michael, 11 - - London Company, 24, 25, 31, 34-42 - - Long Island, 118, 129, 130, 133, 135-38 - - Loudoun, Earl of, 267, 268 - - Louis XIV., 138, 140, 208, 211, 217, 219, 221, 223, 228, 231, 243, - 244 - - Louis XV., 280 - - Louisburg, 244, 247-52, 268, 270, 272, 276 - - Louisiana, 167, 219, 247, 275 - - Lovelace, Francis, 137, 138 - - Lucas, _Historical Geography of the British Colonies--Canada_, - 248 _n._, 263 _n._ - - Ludwell, Philip, 71 - - Lynn (America), 171 - - - M - - Macaulay, Essays, 78 _n._ - - Macaulay, Lord, 86 - - Magellan, Straits of, 15 - - Maine, 8, 35, 77, 94, 119-23, 126, 229, 230, 248, 249 - - Maisonneuve, 209 - - Malplaquet, 232 - - Manhattan Island, 130, 249 - - Manning, Captain, 138 - - Manoa, city of, 3 - - March, Colonel, 233 - - Marie de Medici, 35, 204 - - Marin, 257 - - Marlborough, Duke of, 223, 234, 237, 241-43 - - Marquette, Jacques, 214-16, 222 - - Martha's Vineyard, 180 - - Martin, Advocate of the London Company, 35 - - Martinique, 73 - - Mary, Queen, 225 - - Maryland, 54-62, 74, 107, 150, 187, 190-93, 196, 197, 198, 235, 255, - 257, 259, 261, 262 - - Masham, Mrs, 241 - - Mason, Captain John, 109, 110, 123, 126 - - Mason, family of, 124 - - Massachusetts, 76, 86-100, 112, 114-17, 121-26, 137, 140, 143, 168, - 171-82, 227, 228, 230, 232-38, 242, 244-46, 248, 254, 257, 259, - 260, 263, 264, 271, 281 - - Mather, Cotton, 183 - - Mather, Increase, 102, 105 - - Mathews, Samuel, 45 - - Mathews, Virginian settler, 41 - - Maumee, 247 - - Maverick, 136 - - Mayhew, Thomas, 179 - - Mazarin, Cardinal, 208 - - Meade, _Old Churches of Virginia_, 196 _n._ - - Mellborne, Jacob, 142 - - Membré, Father, 218 - - Menendez, 63 - - Mercer, Colonel, 266 - - Merrimac River, 233 - - Merry Mount, 87 - - Meta Incognita, 12 - - Metacam, 97, 98 - - Mexico, 9 - - Mexico, Bay of, 78, 167, 215, 217, 219 - - Miami Indians, 257 - - Michillimackinac, 247 - - Milford (America), 118 - - Miller, Thomas, 67 - - Minnesota River, 218 - - Minuit, 131 - - Missionaries, 179, 180 - - Mississippi River, 72, 213-15, 217 - - Missouri River, 215, 218 - - Mitchell, _Contest in America_, 247 _n._ - - Mohawk River, 249 - - Mohawks, 236, 262, 267, 275 - - Monckton, General, 276 - - Monongahela River, 258, 261 - - Montcalm, Marquis de, 246, 266-69, 272, 273, 277-79 - - Montmagny, 208 - - Montmorenci, Duc de, 206 - - Montmorency, Falls of, 277 - - Montreal, 204, 208-10, 232, 235, 280 - - Moore, Colonel, 72 - - Moore, James, 72 - - Morley, _Walpole_, 173 _n._, 192 _n._ - - Morris, Lewis, 154, 191 - - Morton, 87 - - Moryson, Colonel Francis, 48, 49 - - Motley, Thomas, 59 - - Moulton, Captain, 245 - - Murray, General, 276, 279, 280 - - Muscovy Company, 9 - - - N - - Nantes, Revocation of Edict of, 202 - - Nantucket, 180, 228 - - Narragansett Bay, 91, 94 - - Narragansett Indians, 109 - - Naumkeag, 87 - - Navigation Acts, 52, 99, 128, 129, 170, 174, 281 - - Neale, Daniel, 172 - - Negro slavery, 178, 179 - - Nelson, Lord, 279 - - Nesmond, Marquis de, 231 - - New Albion, 15 - - New Amstel, 132 - - New Amsterdam, 130-33 - - New Brunswick, 135 - - New England Company, 77, 83, 86, 87, 107, 120 - - New England Confederacy, 93, 94, 97, 111, 119, 124, 126 - - New Hampshire, 105, 123-27, 143, 172, 173, 226, 229, 235, 236, 238, - 246, 249, 259, 267 - - New Haven, 93, 111, 113, 117, 118, 119, 132, 133, 138, 168, 175, - 182, 230 - - New Inverness, 159 - - New Jersey, 105, 134, 135, 139, 145-50, 154, 187-95, 234, 247, 257, - 259, 263 - - New London, 113, 182, 184 - - New Netherlands, 128-45 - - New Plymouth, 97, 178, 180-84 - - New Somersetshire, 119 - - New Sweden, 130-32 - - New York, 74, 105, 106, 113, 136-54, 184, 187, 188, 190-98, 225, - 226, 229, 233-36, 244, 246, 247, 254, 257, 258, 261, 263, 268 - - _New York Weekly Journal_, 144 - - Newcastle, Duke of, 145 - - Newcastle (America), 132, 155 - - Newfoundland, 5, 7, 8, 10, 13, 16, 18, 54, 201, 243 - - Newport, Christopher, 26, 27, 51 - - Newport (America), 114, 115, 169, 198 - - Newspapers, 184 - - Nicollet, Jean, 213 - - Nicholls, Colonel R., 133-37, 146, 197 - - Nicholson, Francis, 51, 60, 74, 140, 141, 234-37, 240 - - North-East Passage, 9, 11 - - North-West Passage, 6, 9, 10, 11 - - Nova Scotia (see also Acadia), 35, 202, 264 - - Nyantic Indians, 95 - - - O - - O'Callaghan, _Documents relative to Colonial History, etc._, - 106 _n._, 177 _n._, 182 _n._, 246 _n._ - - Oglethorpe, James, 156-65 - - Ohio Company, 256, 257. - - Ohio River, 215-18, 255-58, 265, 266 - - Oldham, John, 109 - - Onondaga River, 246 - - Opechancanough, 38-43 - - Oregon, 15 - - Oswego, 246, 264-66 - - Ottawa, 205 - - Oudenarde, Battle of, 232 - - Oxford, Earl of, 237 - - Oyster Point, 69 - - Oyster River, 230 - - - P - - Paper bills, 177 - - Paris, Treaty of, 243, 280-82 - - Parkhurst, Anthony, 8 - - Parkman, _Half a Century of Conflict_, 232 _n._, 235 _n._, 239 _n._, - 242 _n._, 244, _n._ 246 _n._ - - Parkman, _La Salle_, 217 _n._ - - Parkman, _Wolfe and Montcalm_, 260 _n._, 270 _n._ - - Pastorius, _Geographical Description of Pennsylvania_, 153 _n._ - - Patagonia, 10 - - Pawtuxet, 115 - - Peckham, Sir George, 16 - - Penn, John, 156 - - Penn, Thomas, 156 - - Penn, William, 148-56, 255 - - Pennsylvania, 146, 149-56, 187-96, 234, 249, 255-59, 261, 263, 268, - 274 - - Penobscot, Indians of the, 245 - - Penruddock, Colonel, 188 - - Pepperell, William, 249, 250, 252 - - Pert, Sir Thomas, 8 - - Peru, 9, 15, 200 - - Philadelphia, 192, 194, 195, 198 - - Philip II., 2, 202 - - Phipps, Sir William, 104, 105, 227-30, 278 - - Pilgrim Fathers, 54, 80-82, 103 - - Piscataqua River, 123 - - Pitt, William, 173, 269, 271, 273, 276 - - Pittsburg, 274 - - Plymouth, 76-87, 93, 107, 108, 168, 169, 171, 175 - - Plymouth Company, 24, 77, 78 - - Pocahontas, 29, 34, 35 - - Pokanoket Indians, 97 - - Pontgravé, 203, 204 - - Popham, George, 77 - - Popish Plot, the, 100 - - Port Royal, 35, 63, 72, 158, 203, 227, 229, 233, 237 - - Portland, 226 - - Portsmouth (America), 114, 115, 125 - - Portugal, 236 - - Postal service, 184 - - Potomac, the, 34 - - Pouchot (French commander), 275 - - Powhattan, 27, 29, 32, 34, 38 - - Prado, Albert de, 7 - - Prices, 177 - - Prideaux, General, 275 - - Pring, Martin, 22, 23 - - Printing, 184 - - Providence, 114-19, 182 - - Prowse, _History of Newfoundland_, 243 _n._ - - Puritans, the, 181,182 - - Pym, John, 90, 94 - - - Q - - Quaker settlements, 146-56 - - Quakers, the, 96, 97, 98, 116, 272 - - Quebec, 202, 204, 207, 210, 211, 225, 227, 228, 231, 232, 244, - 275-80 - - Quincy, Samuel, 158 - - Quinipiac River, 118 - - - R - - Raleigh, Sir Walter, 12, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 28, 63, 200 - - Raleigh, Professor, 19 _n._ - - Ramesay, French governor, 235 - - Ramillies, Battle of, 232 - - Randolph, Edward, 72, 98, 99, 100 - - Rasle, Sebastian, 245 - - Ratcliffe, Captain John, 26, 27, 32 - - Religion, 195-97 - - Rhode Island, 98, 105, 114-19, 171, 173, 175, 176, 178, 179, 182, - 184, 235, 236, 238, 249, 259 - - Rice, 191, 192 - - Richebourg, 51 - - Richelieu, 207, 209 - - Richelieu River, 208, 226, 280 - - Richmond, 27 - - Rigby, Edward, 120, 121 - - Rio de la Plata, 9 - - Roanoke, 20 - - Robinson, John, 79, 82 - - Roche, Marquis de la, 202 - - Rogers, Robert, 265, 267, 274, 276, 280 - - Rolfe, John, 35 - - Rowley, 171 - - Roxbury, 180 - - Royal African Company, 190 - - Rut, John, 7 - - Ryswick, Treaty of, 231 - - - S - - Sable Island, 202 - - Sacheverell, Dr, 237 - - Saco, 119 - - St Augustine, 72, 161, 162 - - St Foy, Battle of, 279 - - St Ignace, 214 - - St John, 241, 242 - - St Joseph, 247 - - St Luc de la Corne, Chevalier, 247 - - St Lawrence River, 16, 166, 201, 202, 204, 207, 208, 239, 240, 251, - 268, 276, 280 - - St Lawrence, Gulf of, 200 - - St Mary's, 57, 197 - - St Simon's, 74 - - St Sulpice, 209 - - Salem, 87, 91, 148 - - Salmon Falls, 226 - - Salzburgers, 159, 164 - - San Domingo, 220 - - Sandford, Peleg, 117 - - Sandys, colonist, 42 - - Sandys, Sir Edwin, 25, 36, 38, 39, 40 - - Savannah River, 16, 157-59 - - Saye and Sele, Lord, 107, 124 - - Sayle, William, 68, 69 - - Schenectady, 140, 226, 227, 275 - - Schuyler, Peter, 236 - - Scrooby, 79 - - Sculkill River, 152 - - Secker, Archbishop, 181 - - Seeley, _Growth of British Policy_, 128 _n._, 129 _n._ - - Seignelay, 219 - - Seneca Indians, 212 - - Seven Years' War, 265, 266 - - Shaftesbury, Earl of, 47, 64, 66, 69, 191 - - Sharpe, Governor, 260 - - Sheep, 175 - - Shipbuilding, 173 - - Shirley, Governor, 248-52, 257, 259-61, 263-67 - - Silver, 171 - - Sioux Indians, 218 - - Slaughter, Colonel, 142 - - Slavery, 188, 189, 190 - - Slye, Gerald, 61 - - Smith, Adam, 170, 174 - - Smith, Adam, _Wealth of Nations_, 174 _n._ - - Smith, _A Description of New England_, 78 _n._, 81 _n._ - - Smith, Captain John, 26-31, 40, 77, 81 - - Smith, Thomas, 71 - - Smythe, Ambrose, 188 - - Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, 180, 184 - - Somers, Sir George, 24, 31 - - Somers Islands, 34 - - Sothel, Seth, 67, 70 - - Southampton, Earl of, 22, 36, 38, 40 - - Spanish Succession, War of, 223, 242 - - Specie, 175-77, 193 - - Spithead, 241 - - Spotswood, Alexander, 52, 53, 190, 196 - - Stamford (America), 118 - - Standish, Miles, 81 - - Stith, Rev. William, 195 - - Stone, Captain, 109 - - Stone, William, 57, 58 - - Stoughton, William, 99, 100, 168 _n._, 230 - - Stukeley, Thomas, 10 - - Stuyvesant, Peter, 131-33, 135, 191 - - Sunderland, Earl of, 234 - - Swift, Dean, 241 - - - T - - Tadoussac, 203, 217 - - Talon, the Intendant, 211, 214 - - Tew, Captain, 143 - - Texas, 220, 221 - - Thomas, Gabriel, 154 - - Thompson, David, 123 - - Thorne, Master, 11 - - Three Rivers, 210 - - Thwaites, _The Colonies_, 1492-1750, 84 _n._, 181 _n._ - - Ticonderoga, 204, 263, 266, 268, 272, 274, 275 - - Timber trade, 172 - - Tison, Thomas, 14 - - Tobacco, 41, 174, 188, 191, 192, 193 - - Tonty, Henri de, 217-21 - - Toronto, 246 - - Townshend, General, 276 - - Townshend, Lord, 174 - - Tracey, Marquis de, 211 - - Trade and Plantations, Committee of, 100, 103, 171, 189, 246 - - Tull, Jethro, 174 - - Tuscarora Indians, 52, 73, 74 - - - U - - Ulster Protestants, 187, 265 - - Underhill, Captain, 109, 110 - - Underhill, _Newes from America_, 110 _n._ - - Usselinx, William, 131 - - Utrecht, Treaty of, 73, 223, 243, 244 - - - V - - Van der Douch, 130 - - Van Twiller, 130 - - Vane, Henry, 92 - - Vasco de Gama, 3, 200 - - Vauban, 248, 272 - - Vaudreuil, Governor, 276 - - Vaughan, 248, 250 - - Venango, 257 - - Venice, 3 - - Ventadour, Duc de, 205, 206 - - Vergennes, 281 - - Verrazano, 200, 201 - - Vervins, Treaty of, 202 - - Vetch, Samuel, 233, 234, 235, 240 - - Vignau, Nicholas, 205 - - Villebon, 229 - - Virginia, 17, 19-59, 61-65, 71, 74, 76, 77, 81, 88, 97, 107, 170, - 187-98, 204, 235, 255-57, 260-62, 264, 265, 274 - - Virginia Company, 28 _n._, 193 - - - W - - Wabash River, 247 - - Wages, 177, 178 - - Walker, Sir H., 239, 240, 241 - - Walker, _Journal_, 241 _n._ - - Walpole, Horace, 260 - - Walpole, Sir Robert, 160, 173, 191 - - Walsingham, Francis, 17 - - _Wampum_, 175 - - Ward, Nathaniel, 183 - - Warren, Admiral, 249-51 - - Warwick, Earl of, 11, 37 - - Washington, George, 256-62, 265 - - Watertown, 89, 102 - - Webb, General, 267 - - Wells, 232 - - Wentworth, Governor, 172 - - Wesley, Charles, 159 - - Wesley, John, 159, 160 - - Wesley, _Journal_, 159 _n._, 160 _n._ - - West Indies, 6, 14, 170, 188 - - West Joseph, 69, 70 - - Westminster, Treaty of, 138, 147 - - Wethersfield, 108, 109 - - Whalley, Edward, 118 - - Wheelwright, John, 92 - - White, Father, 55 - - White, John, 87 - - Whitefield, George, 62, 164, 181, 196, 249 - - Whitmore, 270 - - William III., 49, 60, 103, 141, 223, 225 - - William and Mary College, 51, 194 - - Williams, John, 232 - - Williams, Roger, 91, 109, 114, 115, 116 - - Williamsburg, 52, 197 - - Williamson, Mr, 160 - - Williamson, Sir Joseph, 137 - - Willoughby, Sir Hugh, 9 - - Windsor, 108 - - Wine, 171 - - Wingfield, Edward, 27 - - Winslow, Edward, 82, 83 - - Winslow, John, 102, 114 - - Winslow, John (Junior), 264, 267 - - Winthrop, John, 88-92 - - Winthrop, John (Junior), 108, 111, 112, 119, 171, 172 - - Winthrop, _History of New England, etc._, 89 _n._, 92 _n._, - 118 _n._, 177 _n._ - - Wisconsin River, 213, 215 - - Wolfe, General James, 228, 267, 270, 272, 274, 276-79, 280 - - Wood, _Siege of Quebec_, 278 _n._ - - Wood Creek, 235 - - Woodward, Thomas, 65 - - Wool, 171-75 - - Wright, _Life of Wolfe_, 267 _n._ - - Wyatt, Sir Francis, 41, 42 - - - Y - - Yale College, 182, 183 - - Yamassee Indians, 53, 74 - - Yeamans, Sir John, 68, 69 - - Yeardley, Sir George, 36, 37, 41 - - York (Paine), 230 - - Young, _Chronicles of the Pilgrim Fathers_, 84 _n._ - - - Z - - Zengler, John P., 144 - - - -TURNBULL AND SPEARS, PRINTERS, EDINBURGH - - - - +------------------------------------------------------+ - | Transcriber's Note: | - | | - | Inconsistent hyphenation and spelling in the | - | original document have been preserved. | - | | - | Typographical errors corrected in the text: | - | | - | Page 11 bee changed to be | - | Page 38 Opechaucanough changed to Opechancanough | - | Page 39 similiar changed to similar | - | Page 42 Governer changed to Governor | - | Page 59 Calender changed to Calendar | - | Page 67 Culpepper changed to Culpeper | - | Page 89 Brodestreet changed to Brodstreet | - | Page 93 gentlemad changed to gentleman | - | Page 119 there changed to their | - | Page 122 Englishmen changed to Englishman | - | Page 136 accordanee changed to accordance | - | Page 148 Willian changed to William | - | Page 218 mutined changed to mutinied | - | Page 244 circumcried changed to circumscribed | - | Page 246 Onnondaga changed to Onondaga | - | Page 247 Michilmackinad changed to Michillimackinad | - | Page 255 backswoodsmen changed to backwoodsmen | - | Page 257 Dusquesne changed to Duquesne | - | Page 264 Massachuetts changed to Massachusetts | - | Page 301 D'Anville changed to D'Auville | - | Page 305 Michilmackinad changed to Michillimackinad | - | Page 305 Onnondaga changed to Onondaga | - | Page 305 Opechaucanough changed to Opechancanough | - +------------------------------------------------------+ - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The History of the Thirteen Colonies -of North America 1497-1763, by Reginald W. 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