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diff --git a/40240-h/40240-h.htm b/40240-h/40240-h.htm index 3be5f51..20a4067 100644 --- a/40240-h/40240-h.htm +++ b/40240-h/40240-h.htm @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ <html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> <head> - <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=UTF-8" /> <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> <title> The Project Gutenberg eBook of Letters on Astronomy, by Denison Olmsted. @@ -145,46 +145,7 @@ p.quotsig { text-align:right; margin-top:0;} </style> </head> <body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Letters on Astronomy, by Denison Olmsted - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: Letters on Astronomy - in which the Elements of the Science are Familiarly - Explained in Connection with Biographical Sketches of the - Most Eminent Astronomers - -Author: Denison Olmsted - -Release Date: July 15, 2012 [EBook #40240] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LETTERS ON ASTRONOMY *** - - - - -Produced by David Starner, Mark Young and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - -</pre> - +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 40240 ***</div> <div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> <img src="images/i001.jpg" width="600" height="800" alt="PATH OF BIELA'S COMET." title="PATH OF BIELA'S COMET." /> @@ -984,7 +945,7 @@ the following order:</p> degrees, minutes, and seconds. The sign is denoted either by its name or its number. Thus, one hundred degrees may be expressed either as the tenth degree of -Cancer, or as 3s 10°. It will be found an advantage +Cancer, or as 3s 10°. It will be found an advantage to repeat the signs in their proper order, until they are well fixed in the memory, and to be able to recognise each sign by its appropriate character.</p> @@ -1508,7 +1469,7 @@ finest views of the heavenly bodies.</p> <span class="i1">——"the broad circumference</span> <span class="i1">Hung on his shoulders like the moon, whose orb</span> <span class="i1">Through <i>optic glass</i> the Tuscan artist views</span> -<span class="i1">vening, from the top of Fesolé</span> +<span class="i1">vening, from the top of Fesolé</span> <span class="i1">Or in Valdarno, to descry new lands,</span> <span class="i1">Rivers or mountains, in her spotted globe."—<i>Milton.</i></span> </div></div> @@ -2525,7 +2486,7 @@ solstice would fall on the twenty-third; and in process of time, it would fall successively on every day of the year. The same would be true of any other fixed date.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span></p> -<p>Julius Cæsar, who was distinguished alike for the +<p>Julius Cæsar, who was distinguished alike for the variety and extent of his knowledge, and his skill in arms, first attempted to make the calendar conform to the motions of the sun.</p> @@ -3108,7 +3069,7 @@ of the results actually obtained, they are as follows:</p> <table border="0" width="60%" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> <tr><td align="left">Places of observation.</td><td align="left">Latitude.</td><td align="left"><span style="margin-left:-3em;">Length of a deg. in miles.</span></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Peru,</td><td align="left">00° 00' 00"</td><td align="left">68.732</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Peru,</td><td align="left">00° 00' 00"</td><td align="left">68.732</td></tr> <tr><td align="left">Pennsylvania,</td><td align="left">39 12 00</td><td align="left">68.896</td></tr> <tr><td align="left">France,</td><td align="left">46 12 00</td><td align="left">69.054</td></tr> <tr><td align="left">England,</td><td align="left">51 29 54½</td><td align="left">69.146</td></tr> @@ -3425,7 +3386,7 @@ Hence, <i>the circle of perpetual occultation is the boun<span class="pagenum">< of that space around the depressed pole, within which the stars never rise.</i></p> -<p>Thus <i>m´ m´</i>, Fig. 15, is the circle of perpetual occultation, +<p>Thus <i>m´ m´</i>, Fig. 15, is the circle of perpetual occultation, between which and the south pole, the stars never rise.</p> @@ -3593,8 +3554,8 @@ extremities of the body, to meet the imaginary concave sphere. Thus, to a spectator at O, Fig 16, the several lines A B, C D, and E F, would all be projected into arches on the face of the sky, and be seen as parts of -the sky itself, as represented by the lines A´ B´, C´ D´, -and E´ F´. And were a body actually to move in the +the sky itself, as represented by the lines A´ B´, C´ D´, +and E´ F´. And were a body actually to move in the several directions indicated by these lines, they would appear to the spectator to describe portions of the celestial vault. Thus, even when moving through the @@ -3849,7 +3810,7 @@ change its direction into the line <i>a b</i>, and again into object always appears in the direction in which the light finally strikes the eye, the star would be seen in the direction O <i>c</i>, and, consequently, the star would<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span> -apparently change its place, by refraction, from S to S´, +apparently change its place, by refraction, from S to S´, being elevated out of its true position. Moreover, since, on account of the continual increase of density in descending through the atmosphere, the light would be @@ -7664,8 +7625,8 @@ moon to another is 29.5305887 days. Now, nineteen of the former periods are almost exactly equal to two hundred and twenty-three of the latter:</p> -<p>For 346.619851 × 19=6585.78 days=18 y. 10 d.</p> -<p>And 29.5305887 × 223=6585.32 " = " " " "</p> +<p>For 346.619851 × 19=6585.78 days=18 y. 10 d.</p> +<p>And 29.5305887 × 223=6585.32 " = " " " "</p> <p>Hence, if the sun and moon were to leave the moon's node together, after the sun had been round to @@ -8425,7 +8386,7 @@ at New York, for example, and compare it with the time there. We find it is five hours in advance of the New-York time, indicating five o'clock, P.M., when it is noon at New York. Hence we find that the longitude -of New York is 5×15=75 degrees.<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> The +of New York is 5×15=75 degrees.<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> The time at New York, or any individual place, can be known by observations with the transit-instrument, which gives us the precise moment when the sun is @@ -9245,7 +9206,7 @@ Mercury come into inferior conjunction with the earth at C, Fig. 51. In about eighty-eight days, the planet will come round to the same point again; but, mean-while, the earth has moved forward through the arc -E E´, and will continue to move while the planet is +E E´, and will continue to move while the planet is moving more rapidly to overtake her; the case being analogous to that of the hour and minute hand of a clock.</p> @@ -9278,7 +9239,7 @@ to east, and retrograde when it is contrary to the order of the signs, or from east to west. Now Venus, while going from B through D to A, (Fig. 51,) moves from west to east, and would appear to traverse the celestial -vault B´ S´ A´, from right to left; but in passing +vault B´ S´ A´, from right to left; but in passing from A through C to B, her course would be retrograde, returning on the same arc from left to right. If the earth were at rest, therefore, (and the sun, of course, @@ -9290,16 +9251,16 @@ a slower motion. This modifies the motions of the planet, accelerating it in the superior, and retarding it in the inferior, conjunction. Thus, in Fig. 51, Venus, while moving through B D A, would seem to -move in the heavens from B´ to A´, were the earth at +move in the heavens from B´ to A´, were the earth at rest; but, mean-while, the earth changes its position -from E to E´, on which account the planet is not seen -at A´, but at A´´, being accelerated by the arc A´ A´´, in +from E to E´, on which account the planet is not seen +at A´, but at A´´, being accelerated by the arc A´ A´´, in consequence of the earth's motion. On the other hand, when the planet is passing through its inferior conjunction A C B, it appears to move backwards in the heavens -from A´ to B´, if the earth is at rest, but from A´ to B´´, if -the earth has in the mean time moved from E to E´, -being retarded by the arc B´ B´´. Although the motions +from A´ to B´, if the earth is at rest, but from A´ to B´´, if +the earth has in the mean time moved from E to E´, +being retarded by the arc B´ B´´. Although the motions of the earth have the effect to accelerate the planet in the superior conjunction, and to retard it in the inferior, yet, on account of the greater distance, the appa<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span>rent @@ -9314,11 +9275,11 @@ through the greatest elongations, the inferior planets are <i>stationary</i>. Thus, (Fig. 51,) when the planet is at A, the earth being at E, as the planet's motion is directly towards the spectator, he would constantly -project it at the same point in the heavens, namely, A´; +project it at the same point in the heavens, namely, A´; consequently, it would appear to stand still. Or, when at its greatest elongation on the other side, at B, as its motion would be directly from the spectator, it would -be seen constantly at B´. If the earth were at rest, the +be seen constantly at B´. If the earth were at rest, the stationary points would be at the greatest elongations, as at A and B; but the earth itself is moving nearly at right angles to the planet's motion, which makes the @@ -9736,8 +9697,8 @@ the following representation. Let E, Fig. 58, page 244, be the earth, and M, one of the superior planets, Mars, for example, each body being seen in its path around the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span> sun. At M, the planet would be in opposition to the -sun, like the moon at the full; at Q and Q´, it would be -seen ninety degrees off, or in quadrature; and at M´, in +sun, like the moon at the full; at Q and Q´, it would be +seen ninety degrees off, or in quadrature; and at M´, in conjunction. We know, however, that this must be a superior and not an inferior conjunction, for the illuminated disk is still turned towards us; whereas, if it came @@ -9788,7 +9749,7 @@ and splendor; but when he passes to the other side of the sun, to his superior conjunction, he dwindles to the appearance of a small star, being then two hundred and thirty-seven millions of miles from us. Thus, -let M, Fig, 58, represent Mars in opposition, and M´, in +let M, Fig, 58, represent Mars in opposition, and M´, in the superior conjunction, while E represents the earth. It is obvious that, in the former situation, the planet must be nearer to the earth than in the latter, by the @@ -12632,7 +12593,7 @@ to the view of astronomers.</p> diversity. History informs us of comets so bright, as to be distinctly visible in the day-time, even at noon, and in the brightest sunshine. Such was the comet seen at -Rome a little before the assassination of Julius Cæsar. +Rome a little before the assassination of Julius Cæsar. The comet of 1680 covered an arc of the heavens of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[316]</a></span> ninety-seven degrees, and its length was estimated at one hundred and twenty-three millions of miles. That @@ -12650,7 +12611,7 @@ of comets can be seen only by the aid of the telescope. Indeed, the same comet has very different aspects, at its different returns. Halley's comet, in 1305, was described by the historians of that age as the comet -of terrific magnitude; (<i>cometa horrendæ magnitudinis</i>;) +of terrific magnitude; (<i>cometa horrendæ magnitudinis</i>;) in 1456 its tail reached from the horizon to the zenith, and inspired such terror, that, by a decree of the Pope of Rome, public prayers were offered up at noonday @@ -13106,7 +13067,7 @@ how nearly they correspond at these regular intervals.</p> <table border="3" width="80%" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> <tr><td align="left">Time.</td><td align="left">Inclination of</td><td align="left">Long. of the</td><td align="left">Long. Per.</td><td align="left">Per. Dist.</td><td align="left">Course.</td></tr> <tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left">the orbit.</td><td align="left">node.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">1456</td><td align="left">17°56´</td><td align="left">48°30´</td><td align="left">301°00´</td><td align="left">0°58´</td><td align="left">Retrograde.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">1456</td><td align="left">17°56´</td><td align="left">48°30´</td><td align="left">301°00´</td><td align="left">0°58´</td><td align="left">Retrograde.</td></tr> <tr><td align="left">1531</td><td align="left">17 56</td><td align="left">49 25</td><td align="left">301 39</td><td align="left">0 57</td><td align="left">"</td></tr> <tr><td align="left">1607</td><td align="left">17 02</td><td align="left">50 21</td><td align="left">302 16</td><td align="left">0 58</td><td align="left">"</td></tr> <tr><td align="left">1682</td><td align="left">17 42</td><td align="left">50 48</td><td align="left">301 36</td><td align="left">0 58</td><td align="left">"</td></tr> @@ -14177,18 +14138,18 @@ Let A B C, Fig. 69, represent the vault of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pag sky, the centre of which, D, being the place of the spectator. Let 1, 2, 3, &c., represent parallel lines directed towards the earth. A luminous body descending -through 1´ 1, coinciding with the line D E, coincident +through 1´ 1, coinciding with the line D E, coincident with the axis of vision, (or the line drawn from the meteoric body to the eye,) would appear stationary all -the while at 1´, because distant bodies always appear +the while at 1´, because distant bodies always appear stationary when they are moving either directly towards us or directly from us. A body descending through -2 2, would seem to describe the short arc 2´ 2´, appearing +2 2, would seem to describe the short arc 2´ 2´, appearing to move on the concave of the sky between the lines drawn from the eye to the two extremities of its line of motion; and, for a similar reason, a body descending through 3 3, would appear to describe the -larger arc 3´ 3´. Hence, those meteors which fell nearer +larger arc 3´ 3´. Hence, those meteors which fell nearer to the axis of vision, would describe shorter arcs, and move slower, while those which were further from the axis and nearer the horizon would appear to describe @@ -14488,7 +14449,7 @@ not reach from the sun to the earth; and consequently, a body revolving in it could never come near to the earth. On making trial of six months, we obtain an orbit which satisfies the conditions, being such as is represented -by the diagram on page 362, Fig. 69´, where +by the diagram on page 362, Fig. 69´, where the outer circle denotes the earth's orbit, the sun being in the centre, and the inner ellipse denotes the path of the meteoric body. The two bodies are together at @@ -14500,8 +14461,8 @@ of six months, in which time the body would have returned to its aphelion.</p> <div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/i371.jpg" width="400" height="500" alt="Fig. 69´." title="" /> -<span class="caption">Fig. 69´.</span> +<img src="images/i371.jpg" width="400" height="500" alt="Fig. 69´." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 69´.</span> </div> <p>Such would be the relation of the body that affords @@ -14674,7 +14635,7 @@ to its position; but the stars belonging to any constellation are distinguished according to their apparent magnitudes, as follows: First, by the Greek letters, Alpha, Beta, Gamma, &c. Thus, <i>Alpha Orionis</i> denotes -the largest star in Orion; <i>Beta Andromedæ</i> the second +the largest star in Orion; <i>Beta Andromedæ</i> the second star in Andromeda; and <i>Gamma Leonis</i>, the third brightest star in the Lion. When the number of the Greek letters is insufficient to include all the stars in a @@ -14800,7 +14761,7 @@ magnitude.</p> <p><i>Cancer</i> (<i>the Crab</i>.) There are no large stars in this constellation, and it is regarded as less remarkable than any other in the zodiac. It contains, however, an interesting -group of small stars, called <i>Præsepe</i>, or the +group of small stars, called <i>Præsepe</i>, or the nebula of Cancer, which resembles a comet, and is often mistaken for one, by persons unacquainted with the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[370]</a></span> stars. With a telescope of very moderate powers this @@ -14960,7 +14921,7 @@ same magnitude, five degrees south, makes the tail.</p> <p><i>Pegasus</i> lies between Aquarius on the southwest and Andromeda on the northeast. It contains but few large stars. A very regular square of bright stars is composed -of <i>Alpha Andromedæ</i> and the three largest stars in +of <i>Alpha Andromedæ</i> and the three largest stars in Pegasus; namely, <i>Scheat</i>, <i>Markab</i>, and <i>Algenib</i>. The sides composing this square are each about fifteen degrees. Algenib is situated in the equinoctial colure.</p> @@ -15018,7 +14979,7 @@ to the animals whose names they bear.</p> <p><i>Lyra</i> (<i>the Lyre</i>) is directly west of the Swan, and is easily distinguished by a beautiful white star of the -first magnitude, <i>Alpha Lyræ</i>.</p> +first magnitude, <i>Alpha Lyræ</i>.</p> <p>The <i>Southern Constellations</i> are comparatively few in number. I shall notice only the Whale, Orion, the @@ -15056,7 +15017,7 @@ first magnitude.</p> <p><i>Hydra</i> has its head near Procyon, consisting of a number of stars of ordinary brightness. About fifteen degrees southeast of the head is a star of the second -magnitude, forming the heart, (<i>Cor Hydræ</i>;) and +magnitude, forming the heart, (<i>Cor Hydræ</i>;) and eastward of this is a long succession of stars of the fourth and fifth magnitudes, composing the body and tail, and reaching a few degrees south of Spica Virginis.</p> @@ -15085,7 +15046,7 @@ order of stars, composing <span class="smcap">Clusters</span>.</p> large groups which, either by the naked eye, or by the aid of the smallest telescope, are perceived to consist of a great number of small stars. Such are the Pleiades, -Coma Berenices, and Præsepe, or the Bee-hive, +Coma Berenices, and Præsepe, or the Bee-hive, in Cancer. The <i>Pleiades</i>, or Seven Stars, as they are called, in the neck of Taurus, is the most conspicuous cluster. When we look <i>directly</i> at this group, we @@ -15115,16 +15076,16 @@ pass, now, to the third order of stars, which present themselves much more obscurely to the gaze of the as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">[377]</a></span>tronomer, and require large instruments for the full developement of their wonderful organization. These -are the <span class="smcap">Nebulæ</span>.</p> +are the <span class="smcap">Nebulæ</span>.</p> <div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> <img src="images/i387.jpg" width="500" height="600" alt="Figures 70, 71, 72, 73. -CLUSTERS OF STARS AND NEBULÆ." title="" /> +CLUSTERS OF STARS AND NEBULÆ." title="" /> <span class="caption">Figures 70, 71, 72, 73. -CLUSTERS OF STARS AND NEBULÆ.</span> +CLUSTERS OF STARS AND NEBULÆ.</span> </div> -<p>Nebulæ are faint misty appearances which are dimly +<p>Nebulæ are faint misty appearances which are dimly seen among the stars, resembling comets, or a speck of fog. They are usually resolved by the telescope into myriads of small stars; though in some instances, no @@ -15133,12 +15094,12 @@ to resolve them. The <i>Galaxy</i> or Milky Way, presents a continued succession of large nebulas. The telescope reveals to us innumerable objects of this kind. Sir William Herschel has given catalogues of two thousand -nebulæ, and has shown that the nebulous matter is distributed +nebulæ, and has shown that the nebulous matter is distributed through the immensity of space in quantities inconceivably great, and in separate parcels, of all shapes and sizes, and of all degrees of brightness between a mere milky appearance and the condensed -light of a fixed star. In fact, more distinct nebulæ +light of a fixed star. In fact, more distinct nebulæ have been hunted out by the aid of telescopes than the whole number of stars visible to the naked eye in a clear Winter's night. Their appearances are extremely @@ -15158,11 +15119,11 @@ and a firmament would expand itself over your head like that of our evening sky, only a thousand times more rich and splendid.</p> -<p>Many of the nebulæ exhibit a tendency towards +<p>Many of the nebulæ exhibit a tendency towards a globular form, and indicate a rapid condensation towards the centre. This characteristic is exhibited in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">[378]</a></span> the forms represented in Figs. 70 and 71. We have -here two specimens of nebulæ of the nearer class, +here two specimens of nebulæ of the nearer class, where the stars are easily discriminated. In Figs. 72 and 73 we have examples of two others of the remoter kind, one of which is of the variety called <i>star-dust</i>. @@ -15179,7 +15140,7 @@ papers of Herschel, in the 'Philosophical Transactions.'</p> <p>Sir John Herschel has recently returned from a residence of five years at the Cape of Good Hope, with the express view of exploring the hidden treasures of -the southern hemisphere. The kinds of nebulæ are in +the southern hemisphere. The kinds of nebulæ are in general similar to those of the northern hemisphere, and the forms are equally various and singular. The <i>Magellan Clouds</i>, two remarkable objects seen among @@ -15190,7 +15151,7 @@ as simple milky spots, or permanent light flocculi of cloud, as they appear to the unassisted eye, but shone with inconceivable splendor. The <i>Nubecula Major</i>, as the larger object is called, is a congeries of clusters of -stars, of irregular form, globular clusters and nebulæ +stars, of irregular form, globular clusters and nebulæ of various magnitudes and degrees of condensation, among which is interspersed a large portion of irresolvable nebulous matter, which may be, and probably is, @@ -15203,9 +15164,9 @@ degree.</p> <div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> <img src="images/i390.jpg" width="400" height="600" alt="Figure 74. -VARIOUS FORMS OF NEBULÆ." title="" /> +VARIOUS FORMS OF NEBULÆ." title="" /> <span class="caption">Figure 74. -VARIOUS FORMS OF NEBULÆ.</span> +VARIOUS FORMS OF NEBULÆ.</span> </div> <div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> @@ -15224,7 +15185,7 @@ According to this view, our sun, with his attendant planets and comets, constitutes but a single star of the Galaxy, and our firmament of stars, or visible heavens, is composed of the stars of <i>our</i> nebula alone. -An inhabitant of any of the other nebulæ would see +An inhabitant of any of the other nebulæ would see spreading over him a firmament equally spacious, and in some cases inconceivably more brilliant.</p> @@ -15427,7 +15388,7 @@ case of those already ascertained, from forty-three years<span class="pagenum">< to one thousand. Their orbits are very small ellipses, only a few seconds in the longest direction, and more eccentric than those of the planets. A double star in -the Northern Crown (<i>Eta Coronæ</i>) has made a complete +the Northern Crown (<i>Eta Coronæ</i>) has made a complete revolution since its first discovery, and is now far advanced in its second period; while a star in the Lion (<i>Gamma Leonis</i>) requires twelve hundred years to @@ -15549,7 +15510,7 @@ stars than of any other indicate proper motions, espec<span class="pagenum"><a n the binary stars, or those which have a revolution around each other. Among stars not double, and no way differing from the rest in any other obvious particular, -a star in the constellation Cassiopeia, (<i>Mu Cassiopeiæ</i>) +a star in the constellation Cassiopeia, (<i>Mu Cassiopeiæ</i>) has the greatest proper motion of any yet ascertained, amounting to nearly four seconds annually.</p> @@ -15594,7 +15555,7 @@ be insensible; the spider-line of the telescope would more than cover it. Taking, however, the annual parallax of a fixed star at one second, it can be demonstrated, that the distance of the nearest fixed star <i>must -exceed</i> 95000000 × 200000 = 190000000 × 100000, or +exceed</i> 95000000 × 200000 = 190000000 × 100000, or one hundred thousand times one hundred and ninety millions of miles. Of a distance so vast we can form no adequate conceptions, and even seek to measure it @@ -15624,8 +15585,8 @@ recently, to have no annual parallax; yet it may be observed that astronomers were not exactly agreed on this point. Dr. Brinkley, a late eminent Irish astronomer, supposed that he had detected an annual parallax in -Alpha Lyræ, amounting to one second and thirteen hundreths, -and in Alpha Aquilæ, of one second and forty-two +Alpha Lyræ, amounting to one second and thirteen hundreths, +and in Alpha Aquilæ, of one second and forty-two hundreths. These results were controverted by Mr. Pond, of the Royal Observatory of Greenwich; and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_389" id="Page_389">[389]</a></span> Mr. Struve, of Dorpat, has shown that, in a number of @@ -15639,7 +15600,7 @@ of observation.</p> the long sought for parallax among the fixed stars has at length been found, and consequently the distance of some of these bodies, at least, is no longer veiled in -mystery. In the year 1838, Professor Bessel, of Köningsberg, +mystery. In the year 1838, Professor Bessel, of Köningsberg, announced the discovery of a parallax in one of the stars of the Swan, (61 <i>Cygni</i>,) amounting to about <i>one third of a second</i>. This seems, indeed, so @@ -15917,7 +15878,7 @@ wisdom.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_396" id="Page_396">[396]</a></span></ <p>Pythagoras was the founder of the celebrated school of Crotona. He was a native of Samos, an island in -the Ægean sea, and flourished about five hundred years +the Ægean sea, and flourished about five hundred years before the Christian era. After travelling more than thirty years in Egypt and Chaldea, and spending several years more at Sparta, to learn the laws and institutions @@ -16291,7 +16252,7 @@ telescopes of far greater reach than any ever used before, employed them to sound new and untried depths in the profundities of space. We have already seen what interesting and amazing discoveries he made of -double stars, clusters, and nebulæ.</p> +double stars, clusters, and nebulæ.</p> <p>The English have done most for astronomy in observation and discovery; but the French and Germans, in @@ -16307,13 +16268,13 @@ themselves.</p> <p>The revolutions of the <i>binary stars</i> afford conclusive evidence of at least subordinate systems of suns, governed by the same laws as those which regulate the -motions of the solar system. The <i>nebulæ</i> also compose +motions of the solar system. The <i>nebulæ</i> also compose peculiar systems, in which the members are evidently bound together by some common relation.</p> <p>In these marks of organization,—of stars associated together in clusters; of sun revolving around sun; and -of nebulæ disposed in regular figures,—we recognise +of nebulæ disposed in regular figures,—we recognise different members of some grand system, links in one great chain that binds together all parts of the universe; as we see Jupiter and his satellites combined in one @@ -16428,7 +16389,7 @@ same law among the other systems as that which rules in ours.</p> <p>The marks of a still higher organization in the structure -of clusters and nebulæ, all bearing that same characteristic +of clusters and nebulæ, all bearing that same characteristic union of resemblance and variety which belongs to all the other works of creation that fall under our notice, speak loudly of one, and only one, grand design. @@ -16450,7 +16411,7 @@ ideas of these qualities, that we can scarcely avoid looking with incredulity at the numerical results to which the unerring principles of mathematics have conducted us. And when we attempt to apply our measures to -the fixed stars, and especially to the nebulæ, the result +the fixed stars, and especially to the nebulæ, the result is absolutely overwhelming: the mind refuses its aid in our attempts to grasp the great ideas. Nor less conspicuous, among the phenomena of the heavenly bodies, is @@ -16689,7 +16650,7 @@ been determined; a large planet, composing in itself a magnificent world, has been added to the solar system, at such a distance from the central luminary as nearly to double the supposed dimensions of that system; various -nebulæ, before held to be irresolvable, have been +nebulæ, before held to be irresolvable, have been resolved into stars; and a new satellite has been added to Saturn.</p> @@ -16707,7 +16668,7 @@ surface is nearly twice as great as the great Herschelian, and consequently it greatly exceeds all instruments hitherto constructed in the <i>amount of light</i> which it collects and transmits to the eye; and this -adapts it peculiarly to viewing those objects, as nebulæ, +adapts it peculiarly to viewing those objects, as nebulæ, whose light is exceedingly faint. Accordingly, it has revealed to us new wonders in this curious department of astronomy. Some idea of the great dimensions of @@ -16738,7 +16699,7 @@ the astronomer, the Pulkova and Cambridge instruments are more useful than such great reflectors as those of Herschel and Rosse. If there is any particular in which these are more effective, it is in observations -on the faintest nebulæ, where it is necessary to +on the faintest nebulæ, where it is necessary to collect and convey to the eye the greatest possible beam of light.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_416" id="Page_416">[416]</a></span></p> @@ -16801,7 +16762,7 @@ be visible in the southwest after sunset, throwing upward a long train, which increased in length from night to night until it covered a space of 40 degrees. Its position may be seen on a celestial globe adjusted to the -latitude of New Haven (41° 18´) for the 20th of March, +latitude of New Haven (41° 18´) for the 20th of March, by tracing a line, or, rather, a broad band proceeding from the place of the sun towards the bright star Sirius, in the south, between the ears of the Hare and the @@ -16866,7 +16827,7 @@ whose parallax has been determined are at a much greater distance than 61 Cygni. The pole star is five times as far off; and the greater part of the stars are at distances inconceivably more remote. Such, especially, -are those which compose the faintest nebulæ. +are those which compose the faintest nebulæ. <span class="smcap"> Discovery of the Planet Neptune.</span>—From the earliest ages down to the year 1781, the solar system was @@ -16943,8 +16904,8 @@ to the Cambridge instrument, making the entire number of moons that adorn the nocturnal sky of that remarkable planet no less than eight. Still more wonderful things have been disclosed among the remotest -<i>Nebulæ</i>. A number of these objects before placed among -the irresolvable nebulæ, and supposed to consist not of +<i>Nebulæ</i>. A number of these objects before placed among +the irresolvable nebulæ, and supposed to consist not of stars, but of mere nebulous matter, have been resolved into stars; others, of which we before saw only a part, have revealed themselves under new and strange forms, @@ -16958,21 +16919,21 @@ of stars.</p> <p>In the year 1833, Sir John Herschel left England for the Cape of Good Hope, furnished with powerful -instruments for observing the stars and nebulæ of the +instruments for observing the stars and nebulæ of the southern hemisphere, which had never been examined in a manner suited to disclose their full glories. This great astronomer and benefactor to science devoted five years of the most assiduous toil in observing and delineating the astronomical objects of that portion of the heavens. He had before extended the catalogue of -nebulæ begun by his illustrious father, Sir William +nebulæ begun by his illustrious father, Sir William Herschel, to the number of 2307; and beginning at that point, he swelled the number, by his labors at the Cape of Good Hope, to 4015. He extended also the list of double stars from 3346 to 5449, and showed that the luminous spots near the South Pole, known to sailors by the name of the "Magellan Clouds," consist -of an assemblage of several hundred brilliant nebulæ.</p> +of an assemblage of several hundred brilliant nebulæ.</p> <p>The United States have contributed their full share to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_422" id="Page_422">[422]</a></span> the recent progress of astronomy. Powerful telescopes @@ -17096,7 +17057,7 @@ of science.</p> <li class="lindent"><b>C</b>.</li> -<li> Cæsar, Julius, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> +<li> Cæsar, Julius, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> <li> Calendar, Grecian, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> <li> <span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gregorian, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></span></li> @@ -17169,7 +17130,7 @@ of science.</p> <li> Cor Caroli, <a href="#Page_372">372</a></li> -<li> Cor Hydræ, <a href="#Page_375">375</a></li> +<li> Cor Hydræ, <a href="#Page_375">375</a></li> <li> Corona Borealis, <a href="#Page_372">372</a></li> @@ -17425,7 +17386,7 @@ of science.</p> <li> Nature of the stars, <a href="#Page_390">390</a></li> -<li> Nebulæ, <a href="#Page_377">377</a></li> +<li> Nebulæ, <a href="#Page_377">377</a></li> <li> New planets, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li> <li> <span style="margin-left: 1em;">distances of, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></span></li> @@ -17512,7 +17473,7 @@ of science.</p> <li> Power of the Deity, <a href="#Page_408">408</a></li> -<li> Præsepe, <a href="#Page_369">369</a></li> +<li> Præsepe, <a href="#Page_369">369</a></li> <li> Precession, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li> @@ -17815,7 +17776,7 @@ Smaismrmilme poeta leumi bvne nugttaviras.</p></div> form: a a a a a a a c c c c c d e e e e e g h i i i i i i i l l l l m m n n n n n n n n n o o o o p p q r r s t t t t t u u u u u; which he afterwards recomposed into this sentence: <i>Annulo cingitur, tenui, plano, nusquam -cohærente, ad eclipticam inclinato.</i></p></div> +cohærente, ad eclipticam inclinato.</i></p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> Dick's 'Celestial Scenery.'</p></div> @@ -17829,7 +17790,7 @@ cohærente, ad eclipticam inclinato.</i></p></div> <tr><td align="left">2. Pallas.</td><td align="left">10. Hygeia.</td><td align="left">18. Melpomene.</td></tr> <tr><td align="left">3. Juno.</td><td align="left">11. Parthenope.</td><td align="left">19. Fortuna.</td></tr> <tr><td align="left">4. Vesta.</td><td align="left">12. Victoria.</td><td align="left">20. Massalia.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">5. Astræa.</td><td align="left">13. Egeria.</td><td align="left">21. Lutetia.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">5. Astræa.</td><td align="left">13. Egeria.</td><td align="left">21. Lutetia.</td></tr> <tr><td align="left">6. Hebe.</td><td align="left">14. Irene.</td><td align="left">22. Calliope.</td></tr> <tr><td align="left">7. Iris.</td><td align="left">15. Eunomia.</td><td align="left">23. Un-named.</td></tr> <tr><td align="left">8. Flora.</td><td align="left">16. Thetis.</td></tr> @@ -17859,385 +17820,6 @@ correction. 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