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diff --git a/40215-0.txt b/40215-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..1170f1c --- /dev/null +++ b/40215-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2430 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 40215 *** + +[Illustration] + +DESCRIPTIVE + +ZOOPRAXOGRAPHY + +OR THE SCIENCE OF ANIMAL LOCOMOTION +MADE POPULAR + +BY + +EADWEARD MUYBRIDGE + +WITH SELECTED OUTLINE TRACINGS REDUCED FROM SOME OF +THE ILLUSTRATIONS OF + +"ANIMAL LOCOMOTION" + +AN ELECTRO-PHOTOGRAPHIC INVESTIGATION OF CONSECUTIVE +PHASES OF ANIMAL MOVEMENTS, COMMENCED 1872, +COMPLETED 1885, AND PUBLISHED 1887, +UNDER THE AUSPICES OF THE + +UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA + + * * * * * + +PUBLISHED AS A MEMENTO OF A SERIES OF LECTURES GIVEN BY THE AUTHOR +UNDER THE AUSPICES OF THE UNITED STATES +GOVERNMENT + +BUREAU OF EDUCATION + +AT THE + +WORLD'S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, IN ZOOPRAXOGRAPHICAL HALL + +1893 + + * * * * * + +UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA +1893 + + * * * * * + +COPYRIGHTED, 1893, +BY +EADWEARD MUYBRIDGE + +The Lakeside Press +R. R. DONNELLEY & SONS CO., CHICAGO + + * * * * * + +SOME OF THE SUBSCRIBERS +TO +"ANIMAL LOCOMOTION." +THE ORIGINAL AUTOGRAPHS ARE ON THE SUBSCRIPTION BOOK +IN THE POSSESSION OF THE AUTHOR. + +[Illustration] + + * * * * * + + +[Illustration] + +PREFACE. + +In the summer of 1892 while the Author was in California, preparing for a +Lecturing tour through Australia and India, he received an invitation from +the Fine Arts Commission of the World's Columbian Exposition to give a +series of Lectures on ZOOPRAXOGRAPHY in association with the Exposition now +being held in Chicago. + +As these Lectures under the more familiar title of "The Science of Animal +Locomotion in Its Relation to Design in Art" had already been given at +nearly all the principal Institutions of Art, Science and Education in +Europe and in the United States, (see appendix A) the Author was induced to +believe that they might be repeated in a popular manner at the Exposition, +with some appreciation of the importance of the facts which his +investigation has revealed, not merely by the student of Nature or of Art, +but by that large and important class of students, known as the general +public. + +Under this impression he delayed his far Occidental expedition and returned +to Chicago to find a commodious theater erected for this special purpose on +the grounds of the Exposition, to which the name of Zoöpraxographical Hall +had been given; the Science of Zoöpraxography having had its origin in the +Author's first experiments in 1872. It is not intended in this monograph to +give more than a synopsis of the usual course of Lectures on the subject, +nor to reproduce any of the pictured or sculptured representations which +are necessary for its proper elucidation, but merely to describe the common +methods of limb action adopted by quadrupeds--especially by the horse--in +their various acts of progressive motion, and to illustrate the most +important phases of these movements by tracings from the original +photogravures of the Author's work. + +In the presentation of a Lecture on Zoöpraxography the course usually +adopted is to project, much larger than the size of life upon a screen, a +series of the most important phases of some act of animal motion--the +stride of a horse, while galloping for example--which are analytically +described. These successive phases are then combined in the Zoöpraxiscope, +which is set in motion, and a reproduction of the original movements of +life is distinctly visible to the audience. + +With this apparatus, horse-races are reproduced with such fidelity that the +individual characteristics of the motion of every animal can readily be +seen; flocks of birds fly across the screen with every movement of their +wings clearly perceptible; two gladiators contend for victory with an +energy which would cause the arena to resound with wild applause, athletes +turn somersaults, and other actions by men, women and children, horses, +dogs, cats and wild animals, such as running, dancing, jumping, trotting +and kicking, are illustrated in the same manner. By this method of analysis +and synthesis the eye is taught how to observe and to distinguish the +differences between a true and a false impression of animal movements. The +Zoöpraxiscopical exhibition is followed by illuminated copies of paintings +and sculptures, demonstrating how the movement has been interpreted by the +Artists of all ages; from the primitive engravers of the cave dwelling +period, to the most eminent painters and sculptors of the present day. + + * * * * * + +INTRODUCTION. + +In the year 1872, while the Author was engaged in his official duties as +Photographer of the United States Government for the Pacific coast, there +arose in the city of San Francisco one of those controversies upon Animal +Locomotion, which has engaged the attention of mankind from the dawn of +symbolical design, to the present era of reformation in the artistic +expression of animal movements. + +The subject of this particular dispute was the possibility of a horse +having all of his feet free of contact with the ground at the same instant, +while trotting, even at a high rate of speed, and the disputants were Mr. +Frederick MacCrellish and the Hon. Leland Stanford. + +The attention of the Author was directed to this controversy and he +immediately sought the means for its settlement. + +At this time the rapid dry plate had not yet been evolved from the +laboratory of the chemist, and the problem before him was to develop a +sufficiently intense and contrasted image upon a wet collodion plate, after +an exposure of so brief a duration that a horse's foot moving with a +velocity of more than a hundred lineal feet in a second of time, should be +photographed practically "sharp." + +A few days' experimenting and about a dozen negatives, with a celebrated +fast trotter--"Occident"--as a model, while trotting at the rate of a mile +in two minutes and sixteen seconds, laterally in front of the camera, +decided the argument for once and for all time in favor of those disputants +who held the opinion that a horse while trotting was for a portion of his +stride entirely free from contact with the ground. With a knowledge of the +fact that some horses while trotting will make a stride of twenty feet or +more in length, it is difficult to understand why there should ever have +been any difference of opinion on the subject. + +These first experiments of Zoöpraxography were made at Sacramento, +California, in May, 1872. A few impressions were printed from the selected +negative for private distribution, and were commented upon by the "Alta +California," a newspaper published in San Francisco. + +Thus far the photographs had been made with a single camera, requiring a +separate trotting for each exposure. The horse being of a dark color and +the background white, the pictures were little better than silhouettes, and +it was difficult to distinguish, except by inference, the right feet from +the left. + +Several phases of as many different movements had been photographed, which +the Author endeavored with little success to arrange in consecutive order +for the construction of a complete stride. + +It then occurred to him that if a number of cameras were placed in a line, +and exposures effected successively in each, with regulated intervals of +time or of distance, an analysis of one single step or stride could be +obtained which would be of value both to the Scientist and the Artist. + +The practical application of this system of photographing required +considerable time for its development, and much experimenting with +chemicals and apparatus. + +It being desirable that the horses used as models should be representatives +of their various breeds, and the Author not being the owner of any that +could be fairly classed as such, obtained the coöperation of Mr. Stanford, +who owned a fine stud of horses at his farm at Palo Alto, and there +continued his labors. + +The apparatus used at this stage of the investigation was essentially the +same as that subsequently constructed for the University of Pennsylvania, +the arrangement of which will be described further on. + +Some of the results of these early experiments which illustrated successive +phases of the action of horses while walking, trotting, galloping, &c., +were published in 1878, with the title of "The Horse in Motion." Copies of +these photographs were deposited the same year in the Library of Congress +at Washington, and some of them found their way to Berlin, London, Paris, +Vienna, &c., where they were criticized by the journals of the day. + +In 1882 the Author visited Europe and at a reception given him by Monsieur +Meissonier was invited by that great painter to exhibit the results of his +labors to his brother Artists who had assembled in his studios for that +purpose. M. Meissonier was the first among Artists to acknowledge the value +to Art design of the Author's researches; and upon this occasion, alluding +to a full knowledge of the details of a subject being necessary for its +truthful and satisfactory translation by the Artist, he declared how much +his own impression of a horse's motion had been changed after a careful +study of its consecutive phases. + +It is scarcely necessary to point out, in confirmation of M. Meissonier's +assertions, the modifications in the expression of animal movements now +progressing in the works of the Painter and the Sculptor, or to the fact of +their being the result of studious attention to the science of +Zoöpraxography. + +In the same year, during a lecture on "The Science of Animal Locomotion in +Its Relation to Design in Art," given at the Royal Institution (see +_Proceedings_ of the Royal Institution of Great Britain, March 13, 1882), +the author exhibited the results of his experiments at Palo Alto, when he, +with the Zoöpraxiscope and an oxy-hydrogen lantern, projected on the wall a +synthesis of many of the actions he had photographed. + +It may not be considered irrelevant if he repeats what he on that occasion +said in his analysis of the quadrupedal walk:-- + +"So far as the camera has revealed, these successive foot fallings are +invariable, and _are probably common to all quadrupeds_.... + +"It is also probable that these photographic investigations--which were +executed with wet collodion plates, with exposures not exceeding in some +instances the one five-thousandth part of a second--will dispel many +popular illusions as to the gaits of a horse, and future and more +exhaustive experiments, with the advantages of recent chemical discoveries, +will completely unveil all the visible muscular action of men and animals +even during their most rapid movements.... + +"The employment of automatic apparatus for the purpose of obtaining a +regulated succession of photographic exposures is too recent for it to be +generally used for scientific experiment or for its advantages to be +properly appreciated. At some future time the philosopher will find it +indispensable for many of his investigations." + +The great interest manifested in the results of his preliminary labors +convinced the Author that a comprehensive and systematic investigation with +improved mechanical appliances, and newly-discovered chemical +manipulations, would demonstrate many novel facts, not only interesting to +the casual observer, but of indisputable value to the Artist and to the +Scientist. This investigation and the subsequent publication in the +elaborate manner determined upon, assumed such imposing proportions, and +necessarily demanded so large an expenditure, that all publishers, not +unnaturally, shrank from entering the unexplored field. + +In this emergency, through the influence of its Provost, Dr. William +Pepper, the University of Pennsylvania with an enlightened exercise of its +functions as a contributor to human knowledge, instructed the Author to +make, under its auspices, a comprehensive investigation of "Animal +Locomotion" in the broadest significance of the words, (see appendix B) and +some of the Trustees and friends of the University constituted themselves a +committee for the purpose of promoting the execution of the work. These +gentlemen were Dr. William Pepper, Chas. C. Harrison, J. B. Lippincott, +Edw. H. Coates, Samuel Dickson and Thomas Hockley. + +The Author acknowledges his obligations to these gentlemen for the interest +they took in his labors; for without their generous assistance the work +would probably never have been completed; the total amount expended--nearly +forty thousand dollars--being entirely beyond his own resources. To Drs. F. +X. Dercum, Geo. F. Barker and Horace Jayne, of the University, the Author +is also indebted for much valuable assistance. + +[Illustration: Diagram of the Studio at The University of Pennsylvania, and +Arrangement of the Apparatus for Investigating Animal Locomotion.] + +STUDIO, APPARATUS, AND METHOD OF WORKING. + +For a proper appreciation of the care taken in the Investigation of Animal +Locomotion at the University of Pennsylvania to ensure accurate record of +the consecutive phases of the various movements, attention to the system +adopted is necessary. + +In the diagram, B is the _Lateral_ background; consisting of a shed 37 +metres or about 120 feet, long, the front of which is open, and divided by +vertical and horizontal threads into spaces 5 centimetres, or about 2 +inches, square, and by broader threads into larger spaces 50 centimetres, +or about 19¾ inches, square. + +At C and C, 37 metres, or about 120 feet, apart are "_fixed_" backgrounds, +with vertical threads 5 centimetres, or about two inches, from their +centres, with broader threads 30 centimetres, or about 12 inches, from +their centres. + +For some investigations, readily distinguishable in the plates, +"_portable_" backgrounds are used, consisting of frames 3 metres wide by 4 +metres high,--about 10 feet by 13 feet 4 inches,--over some of which black +cloth and over others white cloth is stretched, all being divided by +vertical and horizontal lines into square spaces of the same description as +those of the lateral background. + +These portable backgrounds are used when photographing birds and horses, +and also wild animals when possible to do so. + +L. A lateral battery of 24 automatic electro-photographic cameras, arranged +parallel with the line of progressive motion, and usually placed therefrom +about 15 metres or 49 feet. + +Slow movements are usually photographed with lenses of 3 inches diameter +and 15 inches equivalent focus; the centres of the lenses being 15 +centimetres, or about 6 inches, apart. + +Rapid movements are usually photographed with a _portable_ battery of +cameras and smaller lenses. + +The centre, between lenses 6 and 7, is opposite the centre of the track T. + +For illustrations comprising both "Laterals" and "Foreshortenings," cameras +1 to 12 only are used. + +When "Laterals" alone are required, cameras 13 to 24 are connected with the +system and used in their regular sequence. + +R. A portable battery of 12 automatic electro-photographic cameras, the +lenses of which are 1¼ inches diameter and 5 inches equivalent focus; the +lenses are arranged 7½ centimetres, or about 3 inches, from their centres. +When the battery is used vertically, lens 6 is usually on the same +horizontal plane as the lenses of the lateral battery. + +In the diagram this battery is arranged _vertically_ for a series of "Rear +Foreshortenings," the points of view being at an angle of 90 degrees from +the lateral battery. + +F. A battery of 12 automatic electro-photographic cameras, similar to that +placed at R, arranged horizontally for "Front Foreshortenings," the points +of view averaging an angle of 60 degrees from the lateral battery. + +O. The position of the operator; the electric batteries; the chronograph +for recording the intervals of time between each successive exposure; the +motor for completing the successive electric circuits, and other apparatus +connected with the investigation. + +T T. The track parallel with the lateral battery and covered with +corrugated rubber flooring. + +M. The model, approaching the point number "1" on the track where the +series of photographic illustrations will commence. + +An estimate having been made of the interval of time which will be +required, between each photographic exposure, to illustrate the complete +movement, or that portion of the complete movement desired, the apparatus +is adjusted to complete a succession of electric circuits at each required +interval of time, and the motor is set in operation. When the series is to +illustrate _progressive_ motion; upon the arrival of the model at the point +marked "1" on the track, the operator, by pressing a button, completes an +electric circuit, which immediately throws into gearing a portion of the +apparatus hitherto at rest. By means of suitably arranged connections, an +electric current is transmitted to each of the 3 cameras marked "1" in the +various batteries, and an exposure is simultaneously made on each of the +photographic plates, respectively, contained therein. At the end of the +predetermined interval of time, a similar current is transmitted to each of +the cameras marked "2," and another exposure made on each of the 3 next +plates, and so forth until each series of exposures in each of the three +batteries is completed. Assuming the operator to have exercised good +judgment in regulating the speed of the apparatus, and in making the first +electric contact at the proper time, and that the figures 1 to 12 represent +the distance traversed by the model in executing the movement desired, the +first three photographic exposures--that is, one exposure in each +battery--will have been synchronously made when the model was passing the +position marked "1" on the track T; the second three exposures will have +been made when the model was passing the position marked "2," and so on +until twelve successive exposures were simultaneously made in each of the +three batteries. This perfect uniformity of time, speed, and distance, +however, was not always obtained. + +When this monograph was commenced it was not intended by the author to give +any more than a general idea of the method adopted for obtaining the +results of his investigation; it has, however, been considered that a few +illustrations and brief description of the apparatus devised and used by +him may not be without interest to other students. + +For the use of these illustrations he is indebted to the courtesy of Rev. +Jesse Y. Burk, the Secretary of the University, and to J. B. Lippincott +Company, the publishers of "The Muybridge Work at the University of +Pennsylvania," a book which contains, among other essays upon the subject, +"Materials for a Memoir on Animal Locomotion, by Harrison Allen, M. D.," +and "A Study of Some Normal and Abnormal Movements, by Francis X. Dercum, +M.D., Ph.D." + +Figure 1 is a view of the building containing the lateral battery of +twenty-four photographic cameras, all of which were used when as many +consecutive phases of an act of motion were required. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1.] + +Immediately in front of each of these cameras, and detached therefrom, was +placed an electro-photographic exposor, a side section of which is +represented by Figure 2, in which A is a continuous band of thin rubber +cloth impervious to light; the edges of which are bound with strong tape, +and arranged to run in a groove, and over two rollers RR which are attached +to a frame. + +In this endless band are two apertures OO of suitable size, and so arranged +that their full openings as they pass each other shall simultaneously take +place in front of the center of the lens L. + +The upper and lower edges of these apertures are kept taut by light steel +rods attached to the tape binding. + +To the lower rod of the front aperture is fastened a ring C and a cleat, to +which some elastic rubber bands B are attached; these bands are easily +removable and their number increased at discretion; in some instances of +rapid exposures a tension of twenty-five pounds or more was required. On a +shelf of the frame is a magnet M, over the top of which is arranged a steel +lever G pivoted near the end D which terminates with a slightly indented +projection. + +[Illustration: Fig. 2.] + +The armature of the magnet is pivoted at H; its upper arm terminates with a +shoulder I. S is a spring to prevent the accidental shifting of the +shoulder from its contact with the lever when the exposor is ready for its +function. N is a set screw to adjust the distance of the armature from the +magnet. To prepare for a series of photographic exposures--the plates +having been already placed in the cameras--the end of the lever G is placed +under the shoulder I; the endless curtain is revolved until the front +aperture O is raised to its proper position, when the ring C is hooked upon +the projecting point D. A cord attached to the rubber bands B is drawn +around the pulley P, and a ring at its end is slipped over a pin, which +keeps the spring at a proper state of tension. Upon the completion of an +electric circuit the armature is drawn towards the magnet; the end of the +lever is released from its contact with the shoulder; the ring C is +released from the projecting point D; the front of the endless curtain is +drawn rapidly downward; the apertures meet in the center of the lens, form +a gradually expanding and then contracting diaphragm, and the exposure is +made. A front view of three electro-photographic exposors is seen in Figure +3. The first of these represents the exposor set and ready for an exposure; +the second shows the meeting of the apertures at the commencement of an +exposure; the third, their position near the completion of the exposure, +they having in the meanwhile uncovered the lens to their full capacity. + +[Illustration: Fig. 3.] + +Figure 4 illustrates a portable battery of twelve electro-photographic +exposors; it consists of a rectangular box divided into compartments, open +at the front and rear. + +[Illustration: Fig. 4.] + +In twelve of these compartments are arranged rollers, curtains, magnets, +etc., as previously described, and a compartment through which a focusing +lens is used. The two end compartments provide for the adjustment of the +camera, which is supported in the box to the rear of the exposing +arrangements. A cable of insulated wires for connecting the twelve magnets +with the exposing motor, contains a wire for the return current. As seen in +the engraving, seven of the magnets by the passage of their respective +currents have completed their releasing operations. In the eighth +compartment the two apertures in the exposing band are in the act of +effecting an exposure. The remaining four magnets are awaiting their turn +for action. + +Figure 5 is a photographic camera divided into thirteen compartments, each +having a lens of the same construction, and the same focal length; these +are arranged to correspond with the compartments in the electro-exposors. + +One of the lenses is provided with a focusing screen, and with it the other +twelve lenses are adjusted to a proper focus without removing the plate +holder behind them from its position in the camera. + +The plate holder is constructed to hold three dry plates, each three inches +by twelve inches; the front is divided into twelve compartments, each three +inches square. + +[Illustration: Fig. 5.] + +Light is excluded from the front by a roller blind, strengthened by thin +narrow slats of hard wood; the blind works in grooves, is drawn over a +concealed roller, and covers the back of the holder when the plates are +being exposed. + +Figure 6 is a rear and side view of the circuit maker, conventionally +called the exposing motor. + +The motive power is an adjustable weight attached to a cord which is wound +around a drum. Twenty-four binding posts are attached to the table at the +back of the exposing motor; other binding posts are arranged for return or +other currents. + +Figure 7 illustrates a front and side view of the upper part of the +exposing motor. Fastened to the frame is a ring of hard rubber, in which +are inserted twenty-four insulated segments of platinum-coated brass; these +segments are connected by insulated wires to the twenty-four binding posts +on the back of the motor table, figure 6. + +[Illustration: Fig. 6.] + +A shaft, connected by an arrangement of geared wheels to the drum, passes +through the center of the segmented ring and carries a loose collar; a +stout metal rod is firmly attached near its longitudinal center to this +loose collar. One arm of the rod carries a laminated metal scraper, or +contact brush, arranged to travel around the periphery of the ring, and in +its revolution to make contact with each segment in succession. The contact +brush is connected through the arm with one pole of the battery; and each +segment--through its independent wire and magnet of the +electro-exposors--with the other pole. + +[Illustration: Fig. 7.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 7.] + +When twenty-four consecutive phases of an act of motion are to be +photographed from one point of view, all of the insulated segments in the +ring are put in circuit. When twelve consecutive phases are to be +photographed synchronously from each of three points of view, each +alternate segment is placed in circuit with the electric battery. + +The manner in which the series of synchronous exposures is effected will be +readily understood by reference to the diagram, 8. + +[Illustration: Fig. 8.] + +All being in readiness, and the weights and fan wheel adjusted to cause the +contact brush to sweep over the periphery of the ring at the required rate +of speed, the drum, and with it the shaft is set in motion. + +At the proper time, pressure on a button completes an independent circuit +through the magnet seen below the segmented ring, figure 7, and in the side +diagram of figure 8. + +The action of the armature releases the lower end of the rod on the loose +collar, which, by means of a coiled spring, is immediately thrown into +gearing with the already revolving shaft; the contact brush sweeps around +the segmented ring and effects the consecutive series of exposures at the +pre-arranged intervals of time. + +At the University the intervals varied from the one-sixtieth part of a +second to several seconds. + +A record of these time intervals was kept by a chronograph, a well known +instrument; it comprises a revolving drum carrying a cylinder of +smoke-blackened paper, on which, by means of successive electric contacts, +a pencil is caused to record the vibrations of a tuning fork, while a +second pencil marks the commencement of each photographic exposure. The +number of vibrations occurring between any two successive exposures marks +the time. The tuning fork used made one hundred single vibrations in a +second of time. To ensure greater minuteness and accuracy in the record, +the vibrations were divided into tenths, and the intervals calculated in +thousandths of a second. + +For the purpose of determining the synchronous action of the +electro-exposors while making a double series of exposures, the accuracy of +the time intervals as recorded by the chronograph, and the duration of the +shortest photographic exposures used in the investigation, the two +batteries of portable cameras were placed side by side, and the exposors +were each connected with the exposing motor by separate lengths of a +hundred feet of cable. The two series of cameras were pointed to a rapidly +revolving disc of five feet diameter. The surface of the disc was black, +with narrow white lines radiating from the center to the edge like the +spokes of a wheel. A microscopic examination of the two series of resulting +negatives proved that no variation could be discovered in the synchronous +action of ten of the duplicated series of exposures, and that in the +remaining two a variation existed in the simultaneity of a few +ten-thousandths of a second--a result sufficiently near to simultaneity for +all ordinary photographic work. + +[Illustration: Fig. 9.] + +A reproduction of the chronographic record of one of these experiments is +seen in figure 9. + +The first line records the revolution of the disc; the second the vibration +of the tuning fork; and each group of three long double markings in the +third line indicates a photographic exposure. + +The shortest exposures made at the University were--approximately--the one +six-thousandth part of a second; such brief exposures are however for this +class of investigation very rarely needed. + +Some horses galloping at full speed will, for a short distance, cover about +fifty-six or fifty-eight feet of ground in a second of time; a full mile +averaging perhaps a hundred seconds. At this speed, a foot recovering its +loss of motion will be thrust forward with an occasional velocity of at +least 120 lineal feet in a second of time. + +During the one one-thousandth part of a second the body of the horse will +at this rate move forward about seven one-tenths of an inch, and a moving +foot perhaps one and a half inches, not a very serious matter for the usual +requirements of the amateur photographer. + +A knowledge of the duration of the exposures, however, was in this +investigation of no value, and scarcely a matter of curiosity, the aim +always being to give as long an exposure as the rapidity of the action +would permit, with a due regard to the necessary sharpness of outline, and +essential distinctness of detail. + +The power used for operating the magnets, through the exposing motor, was +given from a lé Clanché battery of fifty-four cells, arranged in multiple +arc of three series, each of eighteen cells. + +During the investigation at the University of Pennsylvania, more than a +hundred thousand photographic exposures were made. + +The negative plates were supplied by the Cramer Dry Plate Company of St. +Louis, and the positive plates by the Carbutt Company of Philadelphia. On a +favorable day five hundred or six hundred negatives were sometimes exposed; +on one day the number of exposures reached seven hundred and fifty. + +The electrical manipulations were directed by Lino F. Rondinella; the +development room was in charge of Henry Bell. The author takes pleasure in +acknowledging the skill, patience and energy which these gentlemen +exhibited in their respective fields of labor. + +Although the one six-thousandth part of a second was the duration of the +most rapid exposure made in this investigation, it is by no means the limit +of mechanically effected photographic exposures, nor does the one-sixtieth +part of a second approach the limit of time intervals. Marey, in his +remarkable physiological investigations, has recently made successive +exposures with far less intervals of time; and the author has devised, and +when a relaxation of the demands upon his time permit, will use an +apparatus which will photograph twenty consecutive phases of a single +vibration of the wing of an insect; even assuming as correct a quotation +from _Nicholson's Journal_ by Pettigrew in his work on Animal Locomotion +that a common house fly will make during flight seven hundred and fifty +vibrations of its wings in a second of time, a number probably far in +excess of the reality. + +The ingenious gentlemen who are persistently endeavoring to overcome the +obstacles in the construction of an apparatus for aerial navigation, will +perhaps some day be awakened by the fact that the only successful method of +propulsion will be found in the action of the wing of an insect. + +We will now resume the subject proper of this monograph. + +It is impossible within its limits to trace the history of the art of +delineating animals in motion, or to illustrate it with examples of the +truthful impressions of the primitive Artists, or of the imaginative and +erroneous conceptions of many of those of modern times. Certain phases of +the facts of Animal Locomotion will alone be treated upon, as demonstrated +by photographic research. + +The illustrations and condensed definitions of the various gaits were +prepared by the Author for the "Standard Dictionary." Before studying these +it is essential that the meaning of the terms _step_ and _stride_ should be +distinctly understood. + +A STEP is an act of progressive animal motion, in which one of the +supporting members of the body is thrust in the direction of the motion and +the support transferred, wholly, or in part, from one member to another. + +A STRIDE is an act of progressive animal motion, which, for its completion, +requires all of the supporting members of the body, in the exercise of +their proper functions, to be consecutively and regularly thrust in the +direction of the movement until they hold the same relative positions in +respect to each other as they did at the commencement of the notation. In +the bipedal walk or run a step is one-half of a stride or full round +movement. With all quadrupeds, except the kangaroo and other jumpers, +_four_ steps are necessary to complete the stride. + +THE WALK. + +The WALK is a method of progressive motion with a regular individual +succession of limb movements. In the evolution of the terrestrial +vertebrates the walk was probably the first adopted method of locomotion, +and its execution is regulated by the law that the movement of the +_superior_ limb precedes the movement of its lateral _inferior_ limb. This +is proved not merely by the _ordinary_ quadrupedal walk, but by the +suspended motion of the sloth; the crawling of the child upon the ground, +the erect walk of man; and the inverse limb movements of the ape tribe. + +The relative time intervals of the foot-fallings vary greatly with many +species of animals, and even with the same animal under different +conditions. + +Selecting the horse for the purpose of illustration we find that during the +walk--his slowest progressive movement--he has always two, and for a +varying period of time, or distance, three feet on the ground at once, +while during a very slow walk the support will devolve alternately upon +three feet and upon four feet. + +[Illustration: SOME CONSECUTIVE PHASES OF THE WALK.] + +If the notation of the foot-fallings commences with the landing of the +right hind foot, the order in which the other feet are placed upon the +ground will be: the right fore, the left hind, and the left fore, +commencing again with the right hind. + +Assuming that our observation of the stride of a horse during an ordinary +walk commences with the landing of the right hind foot, the body will then +be supported by both hind and the left fore feet. The left hind is now +lifted, the support of the body devolves upon the diagonals--the right hind +and left fore--and continues so supported until the left hind is in the act +of passing to the front of the right; when the right fore is next placed on +the ground. The left fore is now raised, and the body is supported by the +right laterals, until the landing of the left hind foot relieves its fellow +hind of a portion of its weight. Two steps or one-half of a stride have now +been made, and with the substitution of the right feet for the left, two +other steps will be executed in practically the same manner, and a full +stride will have been completed. We thus see that during the walk a +quadruped is supported by eight different methods, the supporting limbs +being consecutively: + +Both hind and left fore. + +Right hind and left fore _diagonals_. + +Right hind and both fore. + +Right hind and right fore _laterals_. + +Both hind and right fore. + +Left hind and right fore _diagonals_. + +Left hind and both fore. + +Left hind and left fore _laterals_. + +Followed as at the commencement with both hind and left fore. + +When, therefore, during a walk, a horse is supported on two legs, with two +feet suspended between them, each pair are laterals. On the other hand, +when the suspended feet are respectively in advance of, and behind the +supporting legs, each pair are diagonals. + +These invariable rules have been unknown or ignored by many distinguished +artists of modern times. + +THE AMBLE. + +The amble is a method of progressive motion with the same sequence of foot +fallings as the walk, but in which a hind foot or a fore foot is lifted +from the ground in advance of its fellow hind foot or its fellow fore foot +being placed thereon. The support of the body therefore devolves +alternately upon a single foot and upon two feet; the single foot being +alternately a hind foot and a fore foot, and the two feet being alternately +laterals and diagonals. At no time is the body entirely unsupported. + +The following series of illustrations will clearly demonstrate the +consecutive foot fallings and some characteristic phases of an ambling +stride: + +[Illustration: SOME CONSECUTIVE PHASES OF THE AMBLE.] + +The amble has various local names, such as the "single foot," the "fox +trot," etc. It has sometimes been erroneously confused with the rack or the +so-called "pace;" it is the most gentle and agreeable to the rider of all +methods of locomotion of the horse, while the rack is the most ungraceful +and disagreeable. + +In Scott's romances are many allusions to the "ambling palfry." Ben Jonson +in "Every Man in His Humor" speaks of going "out of the old hackney-pace to +a fine, easy amble," and Dickens in "Barnaby Rudge" refers to "the gray +mare breaking from her sober amble into a gentle trot." + +The ambling gait is natural to the elephant, and to the horse, the mule and +the ass; but in many countries these latter animals are not encouraged in +its use. + +THE TROT. + +The trot is a more or less rapid progressive motion of a quadruped in which +the diagonal limbs act nearly simultaneously in being alternately lifted +from and placed on the ground, and in which the body of the animal is +entirely unsupported twice during each stride. + +Selecting for the purpose of illustration the phases occurring during two +steps or one-half of a stride of 18 feet in length by a horse trotting at +the rate of a mile in two minutes and twelve seconds, we find that at the +instant his right fore foot strikes the ground, the left hind foot is a few +inches behind the point where it will presently strike. As the feet +approach the ground, the right hind leg is drawn forward with the pastern +nearly horizontal, while the left fore leg is flexed under the body. After +the feet strike the ground and the legs approach a vertical position the +pasterns are gradually lowered, and act as springs to break the force of +the concussion until they are sometimes bent to a right angle with the +legs. + +At this period the fore foot is raised so high as to frequently strike the +elbow, while the diagonal hind foot is comparatively but little above the +ground, and is about to pass to the front of the left hind. + +The pasterns gradually rise as the legs pass the vertical until the right +fore foot has left the ground and the last propelling force is being +exercised by the left hind foot; which accomplished, the animal is in mid +air. + +The right hind foot continues its onward motion until it is sometimes much +in advance of its lateral fore foot, the former, however, being gradually +lowered, while the latter is being raised. The right hind and both fore +legs are now much flexed, while the left hind is stretched backwards to its +greatest extent with the bottom of the foot turned upwards, the left fore +leg is being thrust forwards and gradually straightened, with the toe +raised as the foot approaches the ground; which accomplished, with a +substitution of the left limbs for the right, we find them in the same +relative positions as when we commenced our examination, and one-half of +the stride is completed. + +[Illustration: SOME CONSECUTIVE PHASES OF THE TROT.] + +With slight and immaterial differences, such as might be caused by +irregularities of the ground, these movements are repeated by the other +pair of diagonals, and the stride is then complete. + +If the stride of a trotting horse is divided into two portions, +representing the comparative distances traversed by the aggregate of the +body while the feet are in contact with, and while they are entirely clear +of, the ground, the relative measurements will be found to vary very +greatly, they being contingent upon length of limb, weight, speed, and +other circumstances. + +Heavily built horses will sometimes merely drag the feet just above the +surface, but, in every instance of a trot, the _weight_ of the body is +really unsupported twice during each stride. It sometimes happens that a +fast trotter, during the four steps of a stride, will have all his feet +clear of the ground for a distance exceeding one-half of the length of the +entire stride. Upon landing, a fore foot almost always precedes its +diagonal hind. + +It will be observed in the illustrations that while during the fast trot +the fore feet are lifted so high that they frequently strike the breast, +the hind feet are raised but little above the surface of the ground. The +trot is common to all the single-toed and to nearly all the cloven-footed +and soft-footed animals. It has, however, not been recorded as being +adopted by the elephant, the camel, or the giraffe. + +THE RACK. + +The rack, sometimes miscalled the "pace," is a method of quadrupedal +locomotion in which two lateral feet with nearly synchronous action are +placed upon and lifted from the ground alternately with the other laterals, +the body of the animal being in the intervals entirely without support. The +distance which the propelling feet hurl the animal through the air depends, +as with other movements, upon a variety of circumstances; at a high rate of +speed the distance will be about one-half the total length of the stride. +Upon landing, a hind foot usually precedes its lateral fore. + +[Illustration: SOME CONSECUTIVE PHASES OF THE RACK.] + +The rack is an ungraceful gait of the horse, and disagreeable to those who +seek comfort in riding. + +The movements hitherto described are regular in their action, and a stride +may be divided into two parts, each of which--with a change of limbs--is +practically similar to the other; we now come to methods of progression +which cannot be so divided, and each stride must be considered as a unit of +motion. + +THE CANTER. + +In the canter we discover the same sequence of foot fallings as in the +walk, but not with the same harmonious intervals of time. The gait +resembles the gallop in respect to its leaving the horse entirely +unsupported for a varying period of time, and in the fact that the spring +into the air is always effected from a fore foot, and the landing upon the +diagonal hind foot; in other respects it materially differs from that +method of progression. + +Assuming that during a stride of the canter a horse springs into the air +from a left fore foot, the right hind foot will first reach the ground; the +two fore legs will at this time be flexed under the body, the right being +the first landed, and for a brief period of time the support will devolve +upon the laterals. The right fore foot is rapidly followed by the left +hind. During a very slow canter the other fore foot will sometimes be +landed in advance of the lifting of its diagonal, and the curious phase +presented of all of the feet being in contact with the ground at the same +instant. Usually, however, the first hind foot to touch the ground will be +lifted, and the support thrown upon the diagonals. + +The left fore is now brought down, and is followed by the lifting of the +right fore; when the left laterals assume the duty of support. The left +hind is now raised, and with a final thrust of the left fore foot the +animal is projected into the air, to land again upon its diagonal, and +repeat the same sequence of movements. + +The above phases are selected from a single complete stride, in which the +landing occurs on the _right_ hind foot. Had the horse sprung from a +_right_ fore foot, the right and left feet would have been reversed through +the entire series. + +[Illustration: SOME CONSECUTIVE PHASES OF THE CANTER.] + +THE GALLOP. + +The gallop is the most rapid method of quadrupedal motion; in its action +the feet are independently brought to the ground; the spring into the air +as in the canter is effected from a fore foot, and the landing upon the +diagonal hind foot. + +The phases illustrated are selected from the stride of a thorough-bred +Kentucky horse, galloping at the rate of a mile in a hundred seconds, with +a stride of about twenty-one lineal feet. + +The length of stride and the distance which the body is carried forward +without support depend upon many circumstances, such as the breed, build +and condition of the horse, speed, track, etc. + +The phases illustrated and the measurement given apply to one stride of one +horse, but may be considered as fairly representing the stride of a +first-class horse in prime racing condition at the height of his speed, +upon a good track. + +Assuming--as in this instance--the springing into the air to have been +effected from the right fore foot, the landing will take place in advance +of the centre of gravity, upon the diagonal, or left hind foot; above, will +be suspended the right hind foot, and at a higher elevation, several inches +to the rear, will be the right fore foot, with the sole turned upward. The +left fore leg will be in advance of the right, and also flexed. The force +of the impact and the weight of the horse causes the pastern to form a +right angle with the leg, and the heel is impressed into the ground. + +[Illustration: SOME CONSECUTIVE PHASES OF THE GALLOP.] + +The right hind foot strikes the ground and shares the weight of the body. +The left hind foot leaves the ground while the right hind pastern is in its +horizontal phase, supporting all the weight. At this period the left fore +leg is perfectly straight, with the toe much higher than the heel, and is +thrust forward until the pastern joint is vertical with the nose, the right +fore knee is bent at a right angle. The left fore foot now strikes and +these diagonals are for a brief period upon the ground together. The left +fore leg, however, immediately assumes the entire responsibility of support +and attains a vertical position, with the pastern at a right angle. The +right fore leg becomes perfectly rigid, and is thrust forward to its +fullest extent. The right fore foot now strikes the ground, the two fore +legs form a right angle, and the hind feet are found thrust backward, the +right to its fullest extent. The left fore leg having completed its +functions of support, is now lifted, and the weight transferred to the +right fore foot alone, which is soon found behind the centre of gravity; +the left hind foot passes to the front of the right fore leg, which, +exercising its final act of propulsion, thrusts the horse through the air; +the left hind foot descends; the stride is completed, and the consecutive +phases are renewed. From this analysis we learn that if the spring is made +from the right fore foot during the rapid gallop of a thoroughbred horse, +it is supported consecutively by + +The left hind foot. + +Both hind feet. + +The right hind foot. + +The right hind and the left fore feet. + +The left fore foot. + +Both fore feet. + +The right fore foot. + +From which he springs into the air to re-commence the phases with the left +hind foot, while the only phase in which he has been discovered without +support is one when the legs are flexed under the body. All of the feet at +this time are nearly close together and have comparatively little +independent motion; this phase, therefore, more persistently than any +other, forces itself upon the attention of the careful observer, and +conveys to him the impression of a horse's rapid motion in singular +contradiction to the conventional interpretation, until quite recently, +usually adopted by the Artist. + +It should not be understood that the term "spring" implies that the body of +the horse is greatly elevated by that action; were it so, much force would +be unnecessarily expended with the result of loss of speed. The center of +gravity of a horse trotting or galloping at a high rate of speed will +preserve an almost strictly horizontal line, the undulations being very +slight. + +In the gallop of the horse it is probable there may be sometimes a period +of suspension between the lifting of one fore foot and the descent of the +other, but it has not yet been demonstrated. + +The method of galloping described applies to the horse and its allies, and +to most of the cloven and soft-footed animals. + +In the gallop of the dog the sequence of foot falling and the action of the +body is materially different, and the animal is free from support twice in +each stride. + +[Illustration: THE GALLOP OF THE DOG.] + +Assuming that a racing hound after a flight through the air with elongated +body and extended legs (like the conventional galloping horse), lands upon +the left fore foot, the right fore will next touch the ground; from this he +will again spring into the air, and with curved body and flexed legs land +upon the right hind foot, while the right fore feet will be half the length +of the body to the rear. The left hind now descends, another flight is +effected, and again the left fore repeats its functions of support and +propulsion. + +These successive foot fallings are common to all dogs when galloping, and +it is worthy of note that the same rotary action in the use of the limbs is +adopted in the gallop of the elk, the deer and the antelope, all of which +animals, like the dog, can for a time excel the horse in speed. + +A search through all the dictionaries published at the time of writing, and +accessible to the Author, fails to discover a correct definition of "the +gallop." This motion is in America frequently miscalled the "run," and its +execution "running," but no corresponding explanation of the word is given +by any lexicographer. + +In Scott's "Lady of the Lake" occurs "Then faint afar are heard the feet of +rushing steeds in _gallop_ fleet," many other distinguished Authors refer +to the same action by the same name, by which, or its equivalents, it is +universally known in Europe. + +THE LEAP. + +There is little essential difference in general characteristics of either +of the several movements that have been described, but with a number of +experiments made with horses while leaping, no two were found to agree in +the manner of execution. The leap of the same horse at the same rate of +speed, with the same rider, over the same hurdle, disclosed much variation +in the rise, clearance, and descent of the animal. A few phases were, +however, invariable. While the horse was raising his body to clear the +hurdle, one hind foot was always in advance of the other, which exercised +its last energy alone. + +On the descent, the concussion was always first received by one fore foot, +followed more or less rapidly by the other, sometimes as much as 30 inches +in advance of where the first one struck; the hind feet were also landed +with intervals of time and distance. + +No attempt will be made to analyze the consecutive phases of various other +acts of Animal Locomotion, such as rearing, bucking, kicking, tossing, +etc., on account of the irregularity which characterizes their execution, +and the difficulty of obtaining reliable data. + +The Author has vainly sought for the rules which govern the hind feet of a +playfully disposed mule; but the inquiry has usually been unsatisfactory, +and upon some occasions disastrous. Should these movements be controlled by +any general law, it is of such a complex nature that all attempts to +expound it have hitherto been fruitless. + +The figures in the series of circles (see appendix A) were selected from + + "ANIMAL LOCOMOTION" + +and arranged by the Author for his less ambitious work, + + "POPULAR ZOOPRAXOGRAPHY." + +(See Appendix C). + +They were traced by the well known artist, Erwin Faber, and are reproduced +one-third the diameter of the circles arranged for the zoöpraxiscope. Many +of the original phases of movement are omitted on account of the optical +law which in the construction of a zoöpraxiscope requires that the number +of illustrations must bear a certain relationship to the number of +perforations through which they are viewed. + +The popular number of thirteen having been selected for the latter, the +same number of figures illustrate actions without lateral progressive +motion. + +When the number of illustrated phases is less than the number of +perforations, the succession of phases is in the direction of the motion, +and the disc is necessarily revolved in a reverse direction. + +When the number of phases is greater than the number of perforations, the +phases succeed each other in a direction contrary to that of the motion, +and the disc is revolved in the direction of the motion. + +An increased or diminished number of figures will respectively result in an +increased or diminished apparent speed of the object. + +For further information on the subject, the reader is referred to the + + ZOOPRAXISCOPE. + + * * * * * + + +_APPENDIX A._ + +SYLLABUS OF A COURSE OF TWO LECTURES + +ON + +ZOOPRAXOGRAPHY + +OR + +THE SCIENCE OF ANIMAL LOCOMOTION IN ITS RELATION +TO DESIGN IN ART. + +Origin of the Author's Investigations--Diagram of the Studio at the +University of Pennsylvania where the Investigation was conducted--Batteries +of Cameras, Electro-exposers, Contact-motor, Chronograph, and other +apparatus used for photographing consecutive phases of animal +movements--Method of obtaining successive exposures of moving objects +synchronously from several different points of view--Normal Locomotion of +Animals--Twelve consecutive phases of a single step of the Horse while +walking; also of the Ox, Elk, Goat, Buffalo, and other cloven-footed +animals; the Lion, Elephant, Camel, Dog, and other soft-footed animals; of +the Sloth while suspended by its claws, and of the Child while crawling on +the ground; of man walking erect--The Normal Method of Locomotion by all +animals essentially the same--The Quadrupedal Walk as interpreted by +Prehistoric Man, by the Egyptians, Assyrians, Phoenicians, Etruscans, +Greeks, Romans, Byzantines, and by eminent artists of mediæval and of +modern times--The Statue of Marcus Aurelius the great source of modern +errors; Marcus Aurelius in London, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Dublin, Paris, +Berlin, Amsterdam, New York, Boston, and many other cities--Albert Durer, +Verrocchio, Meissonier, Paul Delaroche, Landseer, Rosa Bonheur, Elizabeth +Thompson Butler, &c.--Other Quadrupedal movements, the Amble, Rack, Trot +and Canter--Twelve phases in the Gallop of a Horse--Origin of the modern +representation of the Gallop--Gallop as depicted by the Hittites, North +American Indians, Egyptians, Assyrians, Greeks, the mediæval artists--The +modern conventional gallop; evidences of its absurdity; acknowledgment by +the Artist of the necessity of reformation--Leap of the Horse, Kick of the +Mule, &c., all illustrated by photographs the size of life, from nature, +and comparisons made with the interpretation of the same movements by +artists of pre-historic, ancient, mediæval and modern times--Demonstration +of the action of the primary feathers in the wing of a Bird while Flying, +and a solution of the complex problem of Soaring. + +AFTER THE VARIOUS METHODS OF LOCOMOTION HAVE BEEN DEMONSTRATED BY ANALYSIS, +THEY WILL BE REPRESENTED SYNTHETICALLY BY THE ZOOPRAXISCOPE. + +_Among the many Institutions where Mr. Muybridge has had the honor of +Lecturing on_ + +ZOOPRAXOGRAPHY + +_are the following_:-- + +Royal Academy of Arts, London. +Royal Society of London. +Royal College of Surgeons, London. +Royal Institution of Great Britain. +Royal Dublin Society. +Royal Geographical Society. +Royal Institution, Hull. +British Association for the Advancement of Science. +Linnean Society, Zoological Society. +Art and Science Schools, South Kensington Museum. +London Institution, Glasgow Philosophical Society. +Newcastle Literary and Philosophical Society. +Birmingham Natural History and Microscopical Society. +Town Hall, Birmingham; Nottingham Arts Society. +Manchester Athenæum. +University of Oxford. +Eton College, Clifton College. +Wellington College, Yorkshire College, +Rugby School, Charterhouse. +Leeds Mechanics' Institute. +Sheffield Literary and Philosophical Society. +Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society. +Warrington Literary and Philosophical Society. +Yorkshire Philosophical Society, Bristol Naturalists' Society. +Bath Associated Scientific and Art Societies. +Ipswich Scientific Society, Photographic Society of Ireland. +Liverpool Associated Literary, Scientific and Art Societies. +St. George's Hall, Liverpool. +School of Military Engineering, Chatham. +The School of Fine Arts; Hall of the Hemicycle, Paris. +The Society of Artists, Berlin. +The Society of Artists, Vienna. +The Society of Artists, Munich. +The Urania Scientific Society, Berlin. +The Polytechnic High School, Vienna. +The Polytechnic High School, Munich. +The University of Turin. +The "Cercle de L'Union Artistique," +The Studio of M. Meissonier in Paris, Etc., Etc., Etc. + +_And at all the principal Institutions of Art, Science, Education and +Learning in the United States of America._ + +[Illustration: 1. ATHLETE, HORSE-BACK SOMERSAULT.] + +ABBREVIATED CRITICISMS. + +"On Monday last, in the theatre of the ROYAL INSTITUTION, a select and +representative audience assembled to witness a series of the most +interesting demonstrations of Animal Locomotion given by Mr. Muybridge. + +"The Prince and Princess of Wales, Princess Victoria, Louise, and Maud, and +the Duke of Edinburgh honored the occasion by their presence; likewise did +I note among the brilliant company Earl Stanhope, Sir Frederick Leighton, +P.R.A.; Professors Huxley, Gladstone, and Tyndall; and last, not least, +Lord Tennyson, poet laureate. + +[Illustration: 2. ATHLETES BOXING.] + +"Mr. Muybridge exhibited a large number of photographs of horses galloping, +leaping, etc.... By the aid of an astonishing apparatus called a +ZOOPRAXISCOPE, which may be briefly described as a magic lantern run mad +(with method in the madness), the animals walked, cantered, ambled, +galloped, and leaped over hurdles in a perfectly natural and lifelike +manner. I am afraid that, had Muybridge exhibited his ZOOPRAXISCOPE three +hundred years ago, he would have been burned as a wizard.... After the +horses came dogs, deer, and wild bulls. Finally man appeared (in +instantaneous photography) on the scene, and ran, leaped, and turned back +somersaults to admiration."--GEORGE AUGUSTUS SALA in _Illustrated London +News_. + +[Illustration: 3. ATHLETES RUNNING.] + +"Both scientific and artistic circles in London are at present greatly +interested in the triumphs of Mr. Eadweard Muybridge in photographing the +successive phases of animal movements. Our leading biologists and artists +have at once perceived and acknowledged the vast importance of the results +of his work."--_The Times, London._ + +[Illustration: 5. ATHLETE, RUNNING HIGH JUMP.] + +"The Archbishop of York occupied the chair.... His Grace congratulated the +crowded and distinguished audience on the opportunity afforded them of +hearing Mr. Muybridge, and said that to everybody who felt an interest in +the phenomena of motion, the magnificent results of the investigation +carried on by Mr. Muybridge and the University of Pennsylvania were +wonderfully instructive."--_York Herald._ + +"His audiences have been drawn from the very first ranks of art, science, +and fashion."--_British Journal of Photography._ + +[Illustration: 6. ATHLETE, STANDING LONG JUMP.] + +"These demonstrations are marvellously complete, ... exceedingly abundant +and rich in suggestion and instruction, and appeal to almost every class or +condition of humanity."--_Saturday Review, London._ + +"Mr. Muybridge delighted his audience with his wonderful +photographs."--_The Times, London._ + +"... Last night Mr. Muybridge gave his final lecture in Newcastle on 'The +Science of Animal Locomotion,' with the whole of the wonderful +illustrations; the Art Gallery being again crowded to excess."--_Newcastle +Chronicle._ + +[Illustration: 11. ATHLETES. BASE BALL; BATTING.] + +"A photographic achievement which seemed to me at the time scarce credible, +and which I was presently assured by one of our ablest English +photographers was absolutely outside the bounds of possibility."--PROFESSOR +R. A. PROCTOR in the _Gentleman's Magazine_. + +"At the conversazione of the Royal Society much interest was excited by Mr. +Eadweard Muybridge's lecture. The ZOOPRAXISCOPE afforded the spectator an +opportunity of studying by synthesis, the facts of motion which are also +demonstrated by analysis."--_Illustrated London News._ + +[Illustration: 14. BOYS PLAYING LEAP-FROG.] + +"A really marvellous series of plates."--_Nature, London._ + +"Artistic people are all talking about Mr. Muybridge, who has come hither +with that rare desideratum--_something new_."--London CORRESPONDENCE, +_Philadelphia Times._ + +"It is impossible to do justice in this short time to the extraordinary +exhibition given by Mr. Muybridge at the Institute of Technology.... The +interest they excite in the mind of the spectator is +indescribable."--_Sunday Gazette, Boston._ + +[Illustration: 16. CHILDREN RUNNING.] + +"The photographs have solved many complicated questions as to animal +locomotion."--_Art Journal, London._ + +"The effect was weird, yet fascinating. Plaudit followed plaudit. A better +pleased assemblage of people it would be difficult to find."--_Boston +Journal._ + +"... Mr. Muybridge then gave his famous lecture and demonstration on Animal +Locomotion. The hall (St. James') was crowded, and many were unable to +obtain seats."--Report of the Photographic Convention, _British Journal of +Photography_. + +[Illustration: 17. ELEPHANT AMBLING.] + +"A demonstration that vividly interests all the world."--_L'Illustration, +Paris._ + +"Many of these pictures have great--indeed, astonishing--beauty. The +interest which they present from the scientific point of view is +three-fold:--(_a_) They are important as examples of a very nearly perfect +method of investigation by photographic and electrical appliances. (_b_) +They have also a great value on account of the actual facts of natural +history and physiology which they record. (_c_) They have, thirdly, a quite +distinct, and perhaps their most definite, interest in their relation to +psychology."--PROF. E. RAY LANKESTER, F. R. S., in _Nature_. + +[Illustration: 18. LION WALKING.] + +"Mr. Meissonier's critical guests were evidently sceptical as to the +accuracy of many of the positions; but when the photographs were turned +rapidly, and made to pass before the lantern, their truthfulness was +demonstrated most successfully."--_Standard, London._ + +"Meissonier, devoting himself to his friends, evidently cared little for +personal compliments; he was anxious for the well-deserved distinction of +his _protégé_ Muybridge.... 'C'est merveilleusement arrangé!' said +Alexandre Dumas. 'C'est que la nature _compose_ crânement bien!' replied +Meissonier."--_Le Temps_, Paris. + +[Illustration: 20. EGYPTIAN CAMEL RACKING.] + +"The sensation of the day, and the topic of popular conversation."--_Boston +Daily Advertiser._ + +"The rapid movements by different animals were most interesting: and +hurdle-racing by horses--the very whipping process being visible--brought +down the house."--_Boston Herald._ + +"On revolving the instrument, the figures that have been derided by so many +as impossible absurdities, started into life, and such a perfect +representation of a racehorse at full speed as was never before witnessed +was immediately visible."--_The Field, London._ + +[Illustration: 21. BABOON WALKING.] + +"Mr. Muybridge showed that many of our best artists have been in the habit +of depicting animals in positions which they never assume in +nature."--_Chambers' Edinburgh Journal._ + +"The large school-room (Clifton College) was crowded. The head master +presided. Loud applause and frequent laughter greeted the life-sized +photographs from nature, which by a rapid revolution of the ZOOPRAXISCOPE, +showed among other actions, the ambling of an elephant, the gallop of a +race-horse, the somersault of a gymnast and the flight of a +bird."--_Bristol Mercury._ + +[Illustration: 22. KANGAROO JUMPING.] + +"The lecture theatre of the ROYAL ACADEMY OF ARTS was filled to +overflowing."--_Athenæum, London._ + +"The Royal Dublin Society's Theatre was filled to its utmost capacity +yesterday afternoon, when Mr. Muybridge resumed his course of Lectures. The +demonstration is simply marvellous."--_Daily Express, Dublin._ + +"The result of years of labor, and of large expenditure of money is at last +laid before the public in this magnificent work, and the result is one of +which Mr. Muybridge and the University of Pennsylvania may well be +proud."--_Evening Post_, New York. + +[Illustration: 23. BUFFALO GALLOPING.] + +"A Lecture of an exceptionally interesting character."--_Nottingham +Guardian._ + +"There was a crowded attendance. Throughout the lecture Mr. Muybridge +retained the close interest of his audience, and drew from them frequent +and warm applause."--_The Scotsman, Edinburgh._ + +"In all my long experience of London life I cannot recall a single instance +where such warm tributes of admiration have been so unsparingly given by +the greatest in the land, as in the case of Mr. Muybridge's +lectures."--OLIVE LOGAN in the _Morning Call, San Francisco_. + +[Illustration: 24. ELK GALLOPING.] + +"Mr. Muybridge illustrated his lecture with a series of most valuable +photographs, as well as that most fascinating of scientific toys--the +ZOOPRAXISCOPE."--_Magazine of Art, London._ + +"His labors attracted considerable attention in the world of science, while +among artists and art critics a pretty controversy set in on the subject of +the horse and his representation in art, which is likely to be revived and +extended to other fields.... With Mr. Muybridge, 'Instantaneous +Photography' has acquired a new significance, ..."--_Saturday Review, +London._ + +[Illustration: 25. MONKEYS CLIMBING A COCOA PALM.] + +"No parallel in the history of photography."--_Photographic Times, New +York._ + +"An exhibition which Raphael, Tintoretto, Michael Angelo, and other great +masters of the Renaissance would have travelled all over Europe to +see."--_Evening Transcript, Boston._ + +"The audience was astonished and delighted at the marvellous demonstrations +of Animal Locomotion that were brought before them.... The most remarkable +feature of the British Association meeting this year."--_Newcastle +Journal._ + +[Illustration: 28. GREYHOUND GALLOPING.] + +"The effects of the ZOOPRAXISCOPE made up one of the most unique and +instructive entertainments imaginable."--_Boston Daily Globe._ + +"A more curious, entertaining, and suggestive exhibition it has not been +our good fortune for a long time to attend."--_Sacramento Record-Union._ + +"Everybody has heard something of the wonderful success which Mr. Muybridge +has achieved; and in no country in the world is greater interest felt in +his work, particularly as regards horses, than in England."--_Engineering, +London._ + +[Illustration: 29. MULE, BUCKING AND KICKING.] + +"Simply marvels of the photographer's art."--_Mercury_, Leeds. + +"Not the least instructive part of the Lecture was the contrast between the +positions of animals as shown in ancient and modern art, with their true +positions as shown by themselves in the camera."--_New York Tribune._ + +"Professor Marey invited to his residence a large number of the most +eminent men in Europe for the purpose of meeting Mr. Muybridge, and +witnessing an exhibition that should be placed before the whole Parisian +public."--_Le Globe, Paris._ + +[Illustration: 32. PIGEONS FLYING.] + +"The art critic and the connoisseur will find a study of Mr. Muybridge's +work of inestimable value in aiding them to criticize +intelligently."--_Pennsylvanian, Philadelphia._ + +"The applause which greeted these wonderful pictures from the brilliant +company was hearty in the extreme; and all predicted a new era was open to +art, and new resources made available for the use of +artists."--_Galignani's Messenger, Paris._ + +"Of immense interest and value."--_Lippincott's Magazine, Philadelphia._ + +[Illustration: 34. GRECIAN DANCING GIRLS.] + +"The ZOOPRAXISCOPE is the latest, most unique, and instructive form of +amusement possible."--_Commercial Gazette_, Cincinnati. + +"His work at once attracted the attention of the world."--_Scientific +American_, New York. + +"Of much interest and value, as well as a source of great +amusement."--_Observer, London._ + +"The realism of the motions of the various animals was intense, and the +audience was very enthusiastic."--_Boston Post._ + +[Illustration: 39. HORSE TROTTING (fast).] + +"The Lecturer proceeded to show enlarged photographs of various animals in +motion, as the horse, dog, lion, mule, cat, etc.... These were followed by +some very striking pictures of the flight of birds, which from a scientific +standpoint were by far the most interesting and valuable of the photographs +shown during the evening."--_Lancet_, London. + +"Of extreme interest, not only to the artists and scientists, but to the +greater part of his audience, who were neither the one or the +other."--_Birmingham Daily Gazette._ + +[Illustration: 41. HORSE CANTERING.] + +"A host of well-known scientists and artists are greatly interested in this +remarkable work."--_Pall Mall Gazette._ + +"The lecture on Tuesday night more than fulfilled the expectations which +the audience had formed of Mr. Muybridge's researches."--_Belfast News +Letter._ + +"Mr. Muybridge might well be proud of the reception accorded him by his +distinguished audience; it would have been difficult to add to the _éclat_ +of his appearance, and his lecture was welcomed by a warmth as hearty as it +was spontaneous."--_The Photographic News, London._ + +[Illustration: 42. HORSE GALLOPING.] + +"The illustrations are truly wonderful, and the rapid changing positions +were most instructive."--_Nottingham Express._ + +"The concert room was crowded.... A vote of thanks to the Lecturer was +proposed by his Grace the Archbishop."--_Yorkshire Chronicle._ + +"A very brilliant audience was assembled at the Royal Institution.... The +photographs properly studied should be most valuable in affording truer and +more exact data for the painter to base his work upon...."--_The Builder, +London._ + +[Illustration: 43. HORSE JUMPING.] + +"A very important subject to all those interested in art."--_Belfast News +Letter._ + +"It is now nine years since the photographs of Mr. Eadweard Muybridge +surprised the world by challenging all received conceptions of animal +motion."--_Century Magazine, New York._ + +"The interest excited by the novelty, both of the demonstrations and the +results, was so great, that Mr. Muybridge has been invited by the +Photographic Society of Ireland to repeat them to-night in a public +lecture."--_The Freeman's Journal, Dublin._ + +[Illustration: 44. HORSE HAULING.] + +"The audience filled the large hall, and by their frequent and hearty +applause, expressed their appreciation of the lecture."--_Irish Times, +Dublin._ + +"A very large audience again assembled in the Town Hall last evening, on +the occasion of the second Lecture by Mr. Muybridge. The Mayor, who +presided, referred to the first Lecture as perhaps the most unique ever +delivered in Birmingham."--_Birmingham Daily Gazette._ + +"The attendance was exceedingly large, and the Lecture and admirable +illustrations were loudly applauded."--_The Irish Times, Dublin._ + +[Illustration: 45. COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION HORSE RACE, GALLOPING.] + +"There was a very large attendance, and seldom have we seen so much genuine +admiration and enthusiasm displayed as were evoked by Mr. Muybridge's +illustrations, which were really wonderful."--_The Daily Express, Dublin._ + +"There was a crowded audience, and the Lecture, which was listened to with +the greatest interest, was warmly applauded."--_The Freeman's Journal, +Dublin._ + +"No description can do justice to the extent and variety of the subjects +presented in this thorough study of animal movements."--_Ledger_, +Philadelphia. + +[Illustration: 46. COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION HORSE RACE, TROTTING.] + +"Wonderful and interesting demonstration; its influence will become more +and more potent and universal as the years go on."--_Argus, Albany._ + +"Will necessarily revolutionize the treatment of the action of the horse in +painting and sculpture. For the physiological study of animal movements +these pictures are a veritable treasure."--_Landwirthschaftliche-Zeitung, +Vienna._ + +"I am lost with admiration of these photographs of Mr. +Muybridge."--PROFESSOR MAREY, in _La Nature, Paris._ + +[Illustration: 47. COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION SPEEDWAY.] + +"Interesting and instructive to all."--_New York Herald._ + +"Highly interesting and valuable for every lover of horses."--_Illustrirte +Zeitung, Berlin._ + +"We cannot more fittingly conclude our review than by repeating our +recommendation of the work to all artistic and scientific bodies."--_The +Nation, New York._ + +"So perfect was the synthesis that a dog in the lecture room barked and +endeavored to chase the phantom horses as they galloped across the +screen."--_Berkeley Weekly News._ + +[Illustration: 48. VILLAGE BLACKSMITHS.] + +"Noted artists, such as Menzel, Knaus, Begas; eminent scientists, such as +von Helmholtz, Siemens and Förster and even the imperturbable +field-marshal, Count von Moltke, were enthusiastic in their +applause."--_Illustrirte Zeitung._ + +"A very large number could not obtain admission, so great was the desire to +hear the lecture.... A wonderful surprise even to the careful observer of +Nature."--_Die Press_, Vienna. + +"The lecture was received with stormy applause."--_Berliner Post_, Berlin. + +"The lecture was given in a popular manner, with scientific accuracy and +artistic taste.... The room was filled to the last corner; nearly all the +Royal Family and the Ministers were present."--_Münchener Neueste +Nachrichten_, Munich. + +[Illustration: 49. A FAN FLIRTATION.] + +"After attending Mr. Muybridge's demonstrations, we felt no surprise at his +having been received so enthusiastically in Paris."--_Berliner Tageblatt_, +Berlin. + +"The lectures of Mr. Muybridge are unquestionably the most intensely +interesting we ever listened to. No one in Berlin should fail to attend +them."--_Norddeutsch Allgem Zeitung_, Berlin. + +"Some lectures are too technical for the general public. Here is one in +which everybody is interested. The Lecture Theatre was crammed to +repletion; we thought a few vacant places might have been reserved for +those whose pleasant duty it is to record the brilliant success of Mr. +Muybridge."--_Pall Mall Budget_, London. + +[Illustration: 50. ATHLETE, RUNNING LONG JUMP.] + +"So great an interest did the demonstrations excite that Mr. Muybridge was +unanimously requested to repeat them. Two days afterward this distinguished +company, including the venerable Field-Marshal (Count von Moltke) himself, +attended a repetition of the lecture."--_Illustrirte Zeitung._ + + * * * * * + + +_APPENDIX B._ + +ANIMAL LOCOMOTION. + +DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES. + +The results of the investigation executed for the University of +Pennsylvania are + +SEVEN HUNDRED AND EIGHTY-ONE SHEETS OF ILLUSTRATIONS, + +containing more than 20,000 figures of men, women, and children, animals +and birds, actively engaged in walking, galloping, flying, working, +jumping, fighting, dancing, playing at base-ball, cricket, and other +athletic games, or other actions incidental to every-day life, which +illustrate motion or the play of muscles. + +These sheets of illustrations are conventionally called "plates." + +EACH PLATE IS COMPLETE IN ITSELF WITHOUT REFERENCE TO ANY OTHER PLATE, + +and illustrates the successive phases of a single action, photographed with +automatic electro-photographic apparatus at regulated and accurately +recorded intervals of time, _consecutively_ from one point of view; or, +_consecutively_ AND _synchronously_ from _two_, or from _three_ points of +view. + +A series of twelve consecutive exposures, from each of the three points of +view, are represented by an outline tracing on a small scale of plate 579, +a complete stride of a horse walking; the intervals of exposures are +recorded as being one hundred and twenty-six one-thousandths of a second. + +[Illustration: REDUCED OUTLINE TRACING OF PLATE 579.--"ANIMAL LOCOMOTION."] + + + +[Illustration: REDUCED TRACING OF SOME PHASES FROM PLATE 758.] + + + +[Illustration: REDUCED TRACINGS OF PLATE 347.] + + + +When one of the series of foreshortenings is made at a right angle with the +lateral series the arrangement of the phases is usually thus: + + 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Laterals. + + 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Rear Foreshortenings + from points of view on + the same vertical line, + at an angle of 90 deg. + from the Laterals. + + 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Front Foreshortenings + from points of view on + the same horizontal + plane, at suitable angles + from the Laterals. + + +The plates are not _photographs_ in the common acceptation of the word, but +are printed in PERMANENT INK, from gelatinised copper-plates, by the New +York Photo-Gravure Company, on thick linen plate-paper. + +The size of the paper is 45 × 60 centimetres--(19 × 24 inches), and the +printed surface varies from 15 × 45 to 20 × 30 centimetres--(6 × 18 to 9 × +12 inches). + +The number of figures on each plate varies from 12 to 36. + +To publish so great a number of plates as one undivided work was considered +unnecessary, for each subject tells its own story; and inexpedient, for it +would defeat the object which the University had in view, and limit its +acquisition to wealthy individuals, large Libraries, or Institutions where +it would be beyond the reach of many who might desire to study it. + +It has, therefore, been decided to issue a series of One Hundred Plates, +which number, for the purposes of publication, will be considered as a +"COPY" of the work. These one hundred plates will probably meet the +requirements of the greater number of the subscribers. + +In accordance with this view is re-issued the following prospectus. + +PROSPECTUS + +ANIMAL LOCOMOTION, + +AN ELECTRO-PHOTOGRAPHIC INVESTIGATION OF CONSECUTIVE +PHASES OF ANIMAL MOVEMENTS, + +BY + +EADWEARD MUYBRIDGE. + +Commenced, 1872--Completed, 1885. + +PUBLISHED 1887, UNDER THE AUSPICES OF THE + +UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. + +_Exclusively by Subscription_. + +CONSISTING OF A SERIES OF + +ONE HUNDRED PLATES, + +AT A SUBSCRIPTION PRICE OF + +ONE HUNDRED DOLLARS For the United States, or TWENTY GUINEAS For Great +Britain; + +Or the equivalent of Twenty Guineas in the gold currency +of other countries in Central or Western Europe. + +The Plates are enclosed in a strong, canvas-lined, full AMERICAN-RUSSIA +LEATHER PORTFOLIO. + +Additional Plates in any required number will be supplied to the subscriber +at the same proportionate rate; these, however, must be ordered at the same +time as the subscription Plates. + +It was considered inadvisable to make an _arbitrary_ selection of the one +hundred Plates offered to subscribers, and with the object of meeting, as +far as possible, their diverse requirements, they are invited to make their +own selection, either from the subjoined list of subjects, or from a +detailed catalogue, which will be forwarded free of expense to every +subscriber. + +The following are the numbers of Plates published of each class of +subjects, from which the subscriber's selection can be made:-- + + Class. Plates Published. + 1. Men, draped 6 + 2. " pelvis cloth 72 + 3. " nude 133 + 4. Women, draped 60 + 5. " transparent drapery and semi-nude 63 + 6. " nude 180 + 7. Children, draped 1 + 8. " nude 15 + 9. Movements of a man's hand 5 + 10. Abnormal movements, men and women, nude + and semi-nude 27 + 11. Horses walking, trotting, galloping, jumping, &c. 95 + 12. Mules, oxen, dogs, cats, goats, and other domestic + animals 40 + 13. Lions, elephants, buffaloes, camels, deer, and + other wild animals 57 + 14. Pigeons, vultures, ostriches, eagles, cranes and + other birds 27 + --- + Total number of Plates 781 + Containing more than 20,000 Figures. + +Should the selection be made from the Catalogue, it will be advisable to +give the Author permission to change any one of the selected Plates for any +other illustrating the same action, if, in his judgment, the substituted +Plate illustrates that action with a better model, or in a more perfect +manner than the one selected. + +With regard to the selection of Plates, however, it has been found by +experience that unless any special subject or plate is required it will be +more satisfactory to the subscriber if he gives the Author GENERAL +INSTRUCTIONS as to the CLASS of subjects desired and to leave the SPECIFIC +selection to him. + +Many of the large Libraries and Art or Science Institutions in America and +in Europe have subscribed for, and have now in their possession, a complete +series of the seven hundred and eighty-one Plates, the subscription price +for which is + +FIVE HUNDRED DOLLARS + +in the United States, + +ONE HUNDRED GUINEAS + +in Great Britain for the complete series, in eight full AMERICAN-RUSSIA +LEATHER PORTFOLIOS, or if bound in eleven volumes, each plate _hinged_, +full American-Russia leather, + +FIVE HUNDRED AND FIFTY DOLLARS + +in the United States, + +ONE HUNDRED AND TEN GUINEAS + +in Great Britain; or its equivalent for any city in Central or Western +Europe. + +Subscribers who wish to make use of these Plates for the promotion or +diffusion of knowledge, or for artistic or scientific purposes, will be +afforded facilities for acquiring working copies by special arrangement +with the Author. + +The investigations of the Author are so well known; and so generally +recognized as affording the only basis of truthful interpretation or +accurate criticism of Animal Movement, that it is perhaps scarcely +necessary to quote from the many elaborate reviews of "Animal Locomotion," +which have been published in the American, English, French, and German +Scientific, Artistic, and other Journals. A few extracts therefrom are +however given in Appendix A. + +For the value of the present work to the general student of Nature and the +lover of Art, no less than to the Artist and the Archæologist, the +Physiologist and the Anatomist, it is with much pride and gratitude that he +refers to the annexed list of some of his subscribers. + +SUBSCRIBERS. + +The general or departmental Libraries of the following + +UNIVERSITIES. + + Amsterdam + Andrews, St. + Basel + Berlin + Bern + Bologna + Bonn + Breslau + Bruxelles + Edinburgh + Erlangen + Freiburg + Genève + Genova + Glasgow + Göttingen + Griefswald + Hallé + Heidelberg + Innsbrück + Jena + Kiel + Königsberg + Leiden + Leipzig + Liège + Louvain + München + Napoli + Oxford + Padova + Pisa + Prag + Roma + Rostock + Strassburg + Torino + Tübingen + Utrecht + Wien + Würzberg + Zürich + +IMPERIAL, NATIONAL, OR ROYAL ACADEMIES OF FINE ARTS. + + Amsterdam + Antwerpen + Berlin + Bern + Birmingham + Bologna + Breslau + Bruxelles + Budapest + Dresden + Düsseldorf + Firenze + Frankfurt + Genova + Gent + Leipzig + Liège + London + Manchester + Milano + München + Napoli + Paris + Praha + Roma (_de France_) + Sheffield + Torino + Venezia + Wien + Zürich + Architectural Institute, München + Herkomer School of Art, Bushey + +ART MUSEUMS. + + Amsterdam + Berlin + Budapest + +ARCHÆOLOGICAL INSTITUTES AND MUSEUMS. + + Dresden + Griefswald + Heidelberg + Königsberg + Leipzig + Prag + Rostock + Strassburg + Wien + Würzburg + Zürich + +INDUSTRIAL ART AND SCIENCE MUSEUMS. + + Berlin + Dublin + Edinburgh + Kensington + Paris + Wien + +INDUSTRIAL ART SCHOOLS. + + Amsterdam + Breslau + Budapest + Frankfurt + Nürnberg + Zürich + +LIBRARIES. + + The Royal Library, Windsor Castle. + Imperial Library, Berlin. + Birmingham, Free Public + Edinburgh, Advocates' + Glasgow, Mitchell Free + Liverpool, Free Public + London, British Museum + Manchester, Free Public + Nottingham, Free Public + Paris, National Library + +ANATOMICAL INSTITUTES. + + Bern + Breslau + Freiburg + Hallé + Innsbrück + Kiel + Königsberg + Leipzig + München + Pisa + Prag + Rostock + Tübingen + Würzburg + Zürich + +ROYAL COLLEGES OF SURGEONS. + + Edinburgh + London + +PHYSIOLOGICAL INSTITUTES. + + Basel + Berlin + Bern + Bologna + Bonn + Breslau + Bruxelles + Erlangen + Freiburg + Genova + Göttingen + Griefswald + Hallé + Heidelberg + Innsbrück + Jena + Kiel + Königsberg + Leipzig + Louvain + München + Napoli + Prag + Rostock + Strassburg + Torino + Tübingen + Wien + Würzburg + Zürich + +VETERINARY INSTITUTES. + + Alfort + Bern + Berlin + Dresden + London + +ANTHROPOLOGICAL MUSEUMS. + + Dresden + Firenze + +ETHNOLOGICAL, NATURAL HISTORY, AND ZOÖLOGICAL +INSTITUTES AND MUSEUMS. + + Amsterdam + Bruxelles + Freiburg + Kiel + Leiden + Liège + Napoli + Paris + Rostock + +PHYSICAL INSTITUTES. + + Basel + Bologna + Bruxelles + Genève + Heidelberg + Padova + Prag + Roma + Rostock + Utrecht + +POLYTECHNIC HIGH SCHOOLS. + + Berlin + Firenze + Wien + Zürich + +COLLEGES. + + Charterhouse + Clifton + Dublin (Trin.) + Eton + Owens + Wellington + +ROYAL PORCELAIN MANUFACTORIES. + + Berlin + Dresden + +ARTISTIC, LITERARY OR SCIENTIFIC CLUBS. + + Düsseldorf, _Malkesten_ + Glasgow, _Western_ + London, _Athenæum_ + Rome, _Internazionale_ + +------ + + Agricultural High School of Berlin + Faculty of Medicine of Paris + Faculty of Physicians and Surgeons of Glasgow + Psychological Institute of Leipzig + Royal College of Physicians, Edinburgh + Royal Institution, Edinburgh + Royal Dublin Society + Royal Society of London + +DEPARTMENTS OF THE U. S. GOVERNMENT. + + Bureau of Education + Bureau of Engraving + Bureau of Ethnology + Department of War + Library of Congress + National Museum + Patent Office + Smithsonian Institution + Surgeon General's Office. + +INSTITUTIONS OF ART AND OF ART TRAINING. + + Baltimore, Maryland Institute. + Boston, Museum of Fine Arts. + Chicago, Art Institute. + Cincinnati, Art Museum. + Milwaukee, School of Design. + Minneapolis, School of Design. + New Bedford, Swain School. + New York, Cooper Union. + New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art. + New York, National Academy of Design. + Philadelphia, Academy of Fine Arts. + Philadelphia, School of Industrial Art. + Philadelphia, School of Design for Women. + St. Louis, Museum of Fine Arts. + Washington, Corcoran Gallery of Art. + +INSTITUTIONS OF SCIENCE. + + Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia. + American Institute, New York. + American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia. + College of Physicians, Philadelphia. + Essex Institute, Salem. + Franklin Institute, Philadelphia. + Museum of Comparative Zoölogy, Cambridge. + Museum of Natural History, New York. + Peabody Museum of Yale College. + +UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES. + + Brown + Columbia + Cornell + Harvard + Johns Hopkins + Kansas + Lehigh + Minnesota + Nebraska + New York + Pennsylvania + Princeton + Vassar + Vermont + Wellesley + Yale + +LIBRARIES. + + Baltimore--Peabody + Boston--Athenæum + Boston--Public + Brooklyn--L. I. Historical + Brooklyn Library + Chicago--Historical + Chicago--Public + Cincinnati--Public + Denver--Mercantile + Harlem Library + Massachusetts--State + Minneapolis--Public + New Bedford--Public + New York--Mercantile + New York--State + Pennsylvania--State + Philadelphia Library + St. Paul--Public + San Francisco--Public + Springfield (Mass.)--Public + Wisconsin--State Historical + Worcester (Mass.)--Public + +It is impossible within the limits of this appendix to record the names of +the many well-known _Dilettanti_, Art Connoisseurs, Manufacturers, etc., +who have acquired copies of Animal Locomotion, and it is difficult, without +unjust discrimination, to select a few from among the many Eminent Men +whose names and works are known all over the world and who are subscribers. +Among those, however, who have honored the Author by placing their names on +his subscription book--all academical and university distinctions being +omitted--are the following: + +ARCHITECTS, PAINTERS OR SCULPTORS. + + Alma-Tadema + Armitage + Becker + Begas + Bonnat + Boughton + Bouguereau + Bridgman + Burnham + Carolus-Duran + Cavelier + Conti, Tito + Dalou + von Defregger + Detaille + Dubois + Eisenmenger + Ende + Faed + Falguière + Fildes + Fremiet + Frith + Garnier + Gérôme + Gilbert + Gordigiani + Gow + Herkomer + Hunt, Holman + von Kaulbach + Knaus + Knight + Kopf + Leighton, Sir F. + von Lenbach + von Löfftz + Marks + du Maurier + Meissonier + von Menzel + Millais, Sir J.E. + Morot + Munkacsy + Orchardson + Ouless + Parsons + Passini + Poynter + Puvis, de Ch + Richardson + Richmond + Rivière-Briton + Robert-Fleury + Rodin + Roll + Roth + Rümann + Schilling + Siemering + St. Gaudens + Story + Thornycroft + Tiffany + Vibert + Villefroy + Vinea + Wagner + Ward + Watts + Weeks + Wells + von Werner + Whistler + Zügel. + +ARCHÆOLOGISTS, AUTHORS OF ART WORKS, ETC. + + von Berlepsch + Bullen + von Duhn + Ewald + Falke + Furness, H. H. + von Kekule + Klein + Muntz + Overbeck + Pietsch + Preuner + Pulszky + Ruskin + di Sambuy, Conte + Smith, Gen. Sir R.M. + Treu + Wolff, Albert. + +ANATOMISTS, ANTHROPOLOGISTS, BIOLOGISTS, ETHNOLOGISTS, PALÆONTOLOGISTS, +PATHOLOGISTS, PHYSIOLOGISTS, PSYCHOLOGISTS, ZOOLOGISTS, ETC. + + Acland, Sir H. W. + Agassiz, A. + Barrier + du Bois Reymond + Bowditch + Bowman, Sir W. + Braune, W. + Brown-Sequard + Burdon-Sanderson + Cleland + Darwin, F. + Exner, S. + Fick + Flower + Foster + Galton, F. + Gill + Goode, Brown + Hasse + Haughton + Heidenhain + Hering + Humphry + Huxley + Jensink + von Kölliker + von Kries + Lankester + Leidy + Lubbock, Sir J. + Ludwig + Mantegazza + Marey + Marshall + Meyer + Milne-Edwards + Mivart + Moleschott + Mosso + Munk + Müller, Max + Owen, Sir R. + Pasteur + Pepper W. + Pettigrew + Rabl + Romanes + Rückert + Schiff + Schütz + Virchow, R. + von Voit + Wear-Mitchell + Wood + Wundt + von Zittell. + +PHYSICISTS, ETC. + + Abney + Blake + Blazerna + Bramwell, Sir F. + Bunsen + Ditscheiner + Edison + Glaisher + von Helmholtz + Huggins + Langley + Mach + Matthiessen + Quincke + Spottiswoode + Thomson, Sir W. + Vogel + Weber. + +MILITARY SCIENTISTS. + + Field Marshal Count von Moltke + General U. S. Grant + General W. T. Sherman + General P. H. Sheridan + General R. B. Hayes. + + * * * * * + +THE SCIENCE OF ZOOPRAXOGRAPHY. + +Made Popular by Suggestive Tracings from "Animal Locomotion." + +------ + +A series of FIFTY ENGRAVINGS, each of which illustrates from 12 to 15 +consecutive phases of some complete movement, photographed from life. + +The successive phases of each action are arranged in a circle NINE INCHES +IN DIAMETER; for reduced copies of some of which see appendix A. + +Printed on six-ply Bristol-board and enclosed in + +A STRONG CLOTH PORTFOLIO, + +size 10×12 inches; price, Five Dollars in the United States; or One Guinea +in Great Britain. + +Sent free of postage upon receipt of price, to any country within the +Universal Postal Union. + + EADWEARD MUYBRIDGE, + University of Pennsylvania, + Philadelphia, U.S.A. + Or, at 10 Henrietta Street, + Covent Garden, London. + + * * * * * + +To convert the circles of figures into a + + ZOOPRAXISCOPE, + +cut out the disc, and, radiating from the centre thereof, about midway from +the margin, cut or stamp thirteen equidistant perforations; each an inch +long, and about the sixteenth of an inch wide. + +Pin the centre of the disc to a handle and revolve it in the direction of +the arrow, at a distance of about twenty-four inches, in front of a mirror. + +By looking through the _upper_ series of perforations at the reflection of +the _lower_ series of figures, a semblance of the original movements of +life will be seen. + +The figures may be appropriately colored, and the back of the cardboard +disc should be painted a dark color, or covered with a piece of dark +surfaced paper before cutting the perforations. + + * * * * * + +DESCRIPTIVE ZOOPRAXOGRAPHY. + +An Elementary Treatise on Animal Locomotion, + +BY + +EADWEARD MUYBRIDGE. + +------ + +Illustrated with twelve consecutive phases--occurring during a single +stride--of each of the six regular progressive movements of the horse, +traced from the results of an investigation made by the Author for the +University of Pennsylvania. + +12 mo. bound in cloth. Price in the United States, One Dollar; in Great +Britain Four Shillings and Three Pence. + +Sent upon receipt of price, free of postage to any country within the +Universal Postal Union. + + EADWEARD MUYBRIDGE, + University of Pennsylvania, + Philadelphia, U. S. A. + Or 10 Henrietta Street, + Covent Garden, London. + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Descriptive Zoopraxography, by Eadweard Muybridge + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 40215 *** |