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diff --git a/40156-h/40156-h.htm b/40156-h/40156-h.htm index b44fc5c..3c02d85 100644 --- a/40156-h/40156-h.htm +++ b/40156-h/40156-h.htm @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ <head> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content= - "text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" /> + "text/html; charset=UTF-8" /> <title> The Project Gutenberg eBook of Encyclopædia Britannica, Volume XIV Slice III - Ichthyology to Independence. @@ -149,46 +149,7 @@ </style> </head> <body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, -Volume 14, Slice 3, by Various - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 14, Slice 3 - "Ichthyology" to "Independence" - -Author: Various - -Release Date: July 7, 2012 [EBook #40156] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 14 SL 3 *** - - - - -Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - -</pre> - - +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 40156 ***</div> <table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> <tr> @@ -275,7 +236,7 @@ Ichthyology to Independence</h3> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">IKI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">INCE-IN-MAKERFIELD</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">ILAGAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">INCENDIARISM</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">ILCHESTER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">INCENSE</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">ÎLE-DE-FRANCE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">INCEST</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">ÃŽLE-DE-FRANCE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">INCEST</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">ILETSK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">INCH</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">ILFELD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">INCHBALD, MRS ELIZABETH</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">ILFORD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">INCHIQUIN, MURROUGH O’BRIEN</a></td></tr> @@ -559,7 +520,7 @@ properly described and classified by Artedi. His classification of the genera appears in the 12th edition of the Systema thus:—</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>A. <i>Amphibia nantia.</i>—<i>Spiraculis compositis.</i>—Petromyzon, Raía, +<p>A. <i>Amphibia nantia.</i>—<i>Spiraculis compositis.</i>—Petromyzon, RaÃa, Squalus, Chimaera. <i>Spiraculis solitariis.</i>—Lophius, Acipenser, Cyclopterus, Balistes, Ostracion, Tetrodon, Diodon, Centriscus, Syngnathus, Pegasus.</p> @@ -591,17 +552,17 @@ of their native countries, others proceeded on voyages of discovery to foreign and distant lands. Of these latter the following may be especially mentioned: O. Fabricius worked out the fauna of Greenland; Peter Kalm collected in North America, -F. Hasselquist in Egypt and Palestine, M. T. Brünnich in the +F. Hasselquist in Egypt and Palestine, M. T. Brünnich in the Mediterranean, Osbeck in Java and China, K. P. Thunberg in -Japan; Forskål examined and described the fishes of the Red +Japan; ForskÃ¥l examined and described the fishes of the Red Sea; G. W. Steller, P. S. Pallas, S. G. Gmelin, and A. J. -Güldenstädt traversed nearly the whole of the Russian empire +Güldenstädt traversed nearly the whole of the Russian empire in Europe and Asia. Others attached themselves as naturalists to celebrated navigators, such as the two Forsters (father and son) and Solander, who accompanied Cook; P. Commerson, who travelled with Bougainville; and Pierre Sonnerat. Of those who studied the fishes of their native countries, the most -celebrated were Pennant (Great Britain), O. F. Müller (Denmark), +celebrated were Pennant (Great Britain), O. F. Müller (Denmark), Duhamel du Monceau (France), C. von Meidinger (Austria), J. Cornide (Spain), and A. Parra (Cuba).</p> @@ -612,15 +573,15 @@ undertook this task; they embodied the recent discoveries in new editions of the classical works of Artedi and Linnaeus, but, they only succeeded in burying those noble monuments under a chaotic mass of rubbish. For ichthyology it was fortunate -that two men at least, Bloch and Lacepède, made it a subject +that two men at least, Bloch and Lacepède, made it a subject of prolonged original research.</p> <p>Mark Eliezer Bloch (1723-1799), a physician of Berlin, had reached the age of fifty-six when he began to write on ichthyological subjects. His work consists of two divisions:— -(1) <i>Öconomische Naturgeschichte der Fische Deutschlands</i> +(1) <i>Öconomische Naturgeschichte der Fische Deutschlands</i> <span class="sidenote">Bloch.</span> -(Berl., 1782-1784); (2) <i>Naturgeschichte der ausländischen +(Berl., 1782-1784); (2) <i>Naturgeschichte der ausländischen Fische</i> (Berl., 1785-1795). The first division, which is devoted to a description of the fishes of Germany, is entirely original. His descriptions as well as figures were made from nature, and @@ -649,28 +610,28 @@ combinations and distinctions.</p> <p>Bloch’s <i>Naturgeschichte</i> remained for many years the standard work. But as regards originality of thought Bloch was far -surpassed by his contemporary, B. G. E. de Lacepède, born at +surpassed by his contemporary, B. G. E. de Lacepède, born at Agen, in France, in 1756, who became professor at the museum of natural history in Paris, where he died in 1825.</p> -<p>Lacepède had to contend with great difficulties in the preparations +<p>Lacepède had to contend with great difficulties in the preparations of his <i>Histoire des poissons</i> (Paris, 1798-1803, 5 vols.), which was written during the most disturbed period of the French Revolution. A great part of it was -<span class="sidenote">Lacepède.</span> +<span class="sidenote">Lacepède.</span> composed whilst the author was separated from collections and books, and had to rely on his notes and manuscripts only. Even the works of Bloch and other contemporaneous authors remained unknown or inaccessible to him for a long time. His work, therefore, abounds in the kind of errors into which a compiler -is liable to fall. Thus the influence of Lacepède on the progress +is liable to fall. Thus the influence of Lacepède on the progress of ichthyology was vastly less than that of his fellow-labourer; and the labour laid on his successors in correcting numerous errors probably outweighed the assistance which they derived from his work.</p> <p>The work of the principal students of ichthyology in the period -between Ray and Lacepède was chiefly systematizing and +between Ray and Lacepède was chiefly systematizing and describing; but the internal organization of fishes also received attention from more than one great anatomist. Albrecht von Haller, Peter Camper and John Hunter examined the nervous @@ -678,13 +639,13 @@ system and the organs of sense; and Alexander Monro, <i>secundus</i>, published a classical work, <i>The Structure and Physiology of Fishes Explained and Compared with those of Man and other Animals</i> (Edin., 1785). The electric organs of fishes (<i>Torpedo</i> -and <i>Gymnotus</i>) were examined by Réaumur, J. N. S. Allamand, +and <i>Gymnotus</i>) were examined by Réaumur, J. N. S. Allamand, E. Bancroft, John Walsh, and still more exactly by J. Hunter. The mystery of the propagation of the eel called forth a large number of essays, and even the artificial propagation of <i>Salmonidae</i> was known and practised by J. G. Gleditsch (1764).</p> -<p>Bloch and Lacepède’s works were almost immediately succeeded +<p>Bloch and Lacepède’s works were almost immediately succeeded by the labours of Cuvier, but his early publications were tentative, preliminary and fragmentary, so that some little time elapsed before the spirit infused into ichthyology by this @@ -703,7 +664,7 @@ of the drawings (especially the latter) than was ever attained before. A <i>Natural History of British Fishes</i> was published by E. Donovan (Lond., 1802-1808); and the Mediterranean fauna formed the study of the lifetime of A. Risso, <i>Ichthyologie de Nice</i> (Paris, 1810); and -<i>Histoire naturelle de l’Europe méridionale</i> (Paris, 1827). A slight +<i>Histoire naturelle de l’Europe méridionale</i> (Paris, 1827). A slight beginning in the description of the fishes of the United States was made by Samuel Latham Mitchell (1764-1831), who published, besides various papers, a <i>Memoir on the Ichthyology of New York</i>, @@ -720,7 +681,7 @@ successors required only to fill up those details for which their master had had no leisure. He ascertained the natural affinities of the infinite variety of forms, and accurately defined the divisions, orders, families and genera of the class, as they -appear in the various editions of the <i>Règne Animal</i>. His +appear in the various editions of the <i>Règne Animal</i>. His industry equalled his genius; he formed connections with almost every accessible part of the globe; and for many years the museum of the Jardin des Plantes was the centre where @@ -747,39 +708,39 @@ student.</p> <span class="sc">I. A Branchies en Peignes ou en Lames.</span><br /> -1. <i>A Mâchoire Supérieure Libre.</i></p> +1. <i>A Mâchoire Supérieure Libre.</i></p> <table class="ws" summary="Contents"> -<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="3"><i>a.</i> Acanthoptérygiens.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="3"><i>a.</i> Acanthoptérygiens.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">Percoïdes.</td> <td class="tcl">Sparoïdes.</td> <td class="tcl">Branchies labyrinthiques.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">Polynèmes.</td> <td class="tcl">Chétodonoïdes.</td> <td class="tcl">Lophioïdes.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">Mulles.</td> <td class="tcl">Scombéroïdes.</td> <td class="tcl">Gobioïdes.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">Joues cuirassées.</td> <td class="tcl">Muges.</td> <td class="tcl">Labroïdes.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="3">Sciénoïdes.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Percoïdes.</td> <td class="tcl">Sparoïdes.</td> <td class="tcl">Branchies labyrinthiques.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Polynèmes.</td> <td class="tcl">Chétodonoïdes.</td> <td class="tcl">Lophioïdes.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Mulles.</td> <td class="tcl">Scombéroïdes.</td> <td class="tcl">Gobioïdes.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Joues cuirassées.</td> <td class="tcl">Muges.</td> <td class="tcl">Labroïdes.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="3">Sciénoïdes.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="3"><i>b.</i> Malacoptérygiens.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="3"><i>b.</i> Malacoptérygiens.</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><i>Abdominaux.</i></td> <td class="tcl"><i>Subbrachiens.</i></td> <td class="tcl"><i>Apodes.</i></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl">  ——</td> <td class="tcl">  ——</td> <td class="tcl">  ——</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">Cyprinoïdes</td> <td class="tcl">Gadoïdes.</td> <td class="tcl">Murénoïdes.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">Siluroïdes.</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">Pleuronectes.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">Salmonoïdes.</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">Discoboles.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="3">Clupéoïdes.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="3">Lucioïdes.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Cyprinoïdes</td> <td class="tcl">Gadoïdes.</td> <td class="tcl">Murénoïdes.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Siluroïdes.</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">Pleuronectes.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Salmonoïdes.</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">Discoboles.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="3">Clupéoïdes.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="3">Lucioïdes.</td></tr> </table> -<p class="center">2. <i>A Mâchoire Supérieure Fixée.</i></p> +<p class="center">2. <i>A Mâchoire Supérieure Fixée.</i></p> <table class="ws" summary="Contents"> -<tr><td class="tcl">Selérodermes.</td> <td class="tcl">Gymnodontes.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Selérodermes.</td> <td class="tcl">Gymnodontes.</td></tr> </table> <p class="center"><span class="sc">II. A Branchies en Forme de Houppes.</span><br /> Lophobranches.</p> -<p class="center"><i>B.</i> CARTILAGINEUX OU CHONDROPTÉRYGIENS.</p> +<p class="center"><i>B.</i> CARTILAGINEUX OU CHONDROPTÉRYGIENS.</p> <table class="ws" summary="Contents"> <tr><td class="tcl">Sturioniens.</td> <td class="tcl">Plagiostomes.</td> <td class="tcl">Cyclostomes.</td></tr> @@ -850,7 +811,7 @@ of his predecessor, and finally shared the fate of every classification based on the modifications of one organ only. But Agassiz opened an immense new field of research by his study of the infinite variety of fossil forms. In his principal work, <i>Recherches -sur les poissons fossiles</i>, Neuchâtel, 1833-1843, 4to, atlas in +sur les poissons fossiles</i>, Neuchâtel, 1833-1843, 4to, atlas in fol., he placed them before the world arranged in a methodical manner, with excellent descriptions and illustrations. His power of discernment and penetration in determining even the @@ -860,7 +821,7 @@ is now understood by that term, he was the first who recognized that such an order of fishes exists.</p> <p>The discoverer of the <i>Ganoidei</i> was succeeded by their explorer -Johannes Müller (1801-1858). In his classical memoir <i>Über +Johannes Müller (1801-1858). In his classical memoir <i>Ãœber den Bau und die Grenzen der Ganoiden</i> (Berl., 1846) he showed that the Ganoids differ from all the other osseous fishes, and agree with the Plagiostomes, in the structure of the heart. By @@ -874,7 +835,7 @@ and <i>Amphioxus</i>, their typical distinctness from other cartilaginous fishes was proved; they became the types of two other subclasses, <i>Cyclostomi</i> and <i>Leptocardii</i>.</p> -<p>Müller proposed several other modifications of the Cuvierian +<p>Müller proposed several other modifications of the Cuvierian system; and, although all cannot be maintained as the most natural arrangements, yet his researches have given us a much more complete knowledge of the organization of the Teleostean @@ -912,7 +873,7 @@ l’Uranie et la Physicienne, sous le commandement de M. Freycinet</i>, <i>Voyage de la Coquille</i>, “Zoologie,” par Lesson (Paris, 1826-1830). 3. <i>Voyage de l’Astrolabe, sous le commandement de M. J. Dumont d’Urville</i>, “Poissons,” par Quoy et Gaimard (Paris, 1834). 4. -<i>Voyage au Pôle Sud par M. J. Dumont d’Urville</i>, “Poissons,” par +<i>Voyage au Pôle Sud par M. J. Dumont d’Urville</i>, “Poissons,” par Hombron et Jacquinot (Paris, 1853-1854).</p> <p>B. <i>English.</i>—1. <i>Voyage of H.M.S. Sulphur</i>, “Fishes,” by J. @@ -920,7 +881,7 @@ Richardson (Lond., 1844-1845). 2. <i>Voyage of H.M.SS. Erebus and Terror</i>, “Fishes,” by J. Richardson (Lond., 1846). 3. <i>Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle</i>, “Fishes,” by L. Jenyns (Lond., 1842).</p> -<p><i>C. German.</i>—1. <i>Reise der österreichischen Fregatte Novara</i>, +<p><i>C. German.</i>—1. <i>Reise der österreichischen Fregatte Novara</i>, “Fische,” von R. Kner (Vienna, 1865).</p> <p class="pt2 center sc">II. Faunae</p> @@ -930,17 +891,17 @@ of the Firth of Forth</i> (Edin., 1838). 2. W. Yarrell, <i>A History of British Fishes</i> (3rd ed., Lond., 1859). 3. J. Couch, <i>History of the Fishes of the British Islands</i> (Lond., 1862-1865).</p> -<p>B. <i>Denmark and Scandinavia.</i>—1. H. Kröyer, <i>Danmark’s Fiske</i> +<p>B. <i>Denmark and Scandinavia.</i>—1. H. Kröyer, <i>Danmark’s Fiske</i> (Copenhagen, 1838-1853). 2. S. Nilsson, <i>Skandinavisk Fauna</i>, -vol. iv. “Fiskarna” (Lund, 1855). 3. Fries och Ekström, <i>Skandinaviens +vol. iv. “Fiskarna” (Lund, 1855). 3. Fries och Ekström, <i>Skandinaviens Fiskar</i> (Stockh., 1836).</p> <p>C. <i>Russia.</i>—1. Nordmann, “Ichthyologie pontique,” in Demidoff’s -<i>Voyage dans la Russie méridionale</i>, tome iii. (Paris, 1840).</p> +<i>Voyage dans la Russie méridionale</i>, tome iii. (Paris, 1840).</p> -<p>D. <i>Germany.</i>—1. Heckel und Kner, <i>Die Süsswasserfische der -österreichischen Monarchie</i> (Leipz., 1858). 2. C. T. E. Siebold, <i>Die -Süsswasserfische von Mitteleuropa</i> (Leipz., 1863).</p> +<p>D. <i>Germany.</i>—1. Heckel und Kner, <i>Die Süsswasserfische der +österreichischen Monarchie</i> (Leipz., 1858). 2. C. T. E. Siebold, <i>Die +Süsswasserfische von Mitteleuropa</i> (Leipz., 1863).</p> <p>E. <i>Italy and Mediterranean.</i>—1. Bonaparte, <i>Iconografia della fauna italica</i>, tom iii., “Pesci” (Rome, 1832-1841). 2. Costa, @@ -973,13 +934,13 @@ W. O. Ayres, E. D. Cope, D. S. Jordan, G. Brown Goode, &c.</p> (Leiden, 1850).</p> <p>J. <i>East Indies; Tropical parts of the Indian and Pacific Oceans.</i>—1. -E. Rüppell, <i>Atlas zu der Reise im nördlichen Afrika</i> (Frankf., 1828). -2. E. Rüppell, <i>Neue Wirbelthiere</i>, “Fische” (Frankf., 1837). 3. -R. L. Playfair and A. Günther, <i>The Fishes of Zanzibar</i> (Lond., +E. Rüppell, <i>Atlas zu der Reise im nördlichen Afrika</i> (Frankf., 1828). +2. E. Rüppell, <i>Neue Wirbelthiere</i>, “Fische” (Frankf., 1837). 3. +R. L. Playfair and A. Günther, <i>The Fishes of Zanzibar</i> (Lond., 1876). 4. C. B. Klunzinger, <i>Synopsis der Fische des Rothen Meers</i> (Vienna, 1870-1871). 5. F. Day, <i>The Fishes of India</i> (Lond., 1865, 4to) contains an account of the fresh-water and marine -species. 6. A. Günther, <i>Die Fische der Südsee</i> (Hamburg, 4to), from +species. 6. A. Günther, <i>Die Fische der Südsee</i> (Hamburg, 4to), from 1873 (in progress). 7. Unsurpassed in activity, as regards the exploration of the fish fauna of the East Indian archipelago, is P. Bleeker (1819-1878), a surgeon in the service of the Dutch East @@ -989,11 +950,11 @@ and described them in extremely numerous papers, published chiefly in the journals of the Batavian Society. Soon after his return to Europe (1860) Bleeker commenced to collect the final results of his labours in a grand work, illustrated by coloured plates, <i>Atlas ichthyologique -des Indes Orientales Néerlandaises</i> (Amsterd., fol., +des Indes Orientales Néerlandaises</i> (Amsterd., fol., 1862), the publication of which was interrupted by the author’s death in 1878.</p> -<p>K. <i>Africa.</i>—1. A. Günther, “The Fishes of the Nile,” in Petherick’s +<p>K. <i>Africa.</i>—1. A. Günther, “The Fishes of the Nile,” in Petherick’s <i>Travels in Central Africa</i> (Lond., 1869). 2. W. Peters, <i>Naturwissenschaftliche Reise nach Mossambique</i>, iv., “Flussfische” (Berl., 1868, 4to).</p> @@ -1001,23 +962,23 @@ death in 1878.</p> <p>L. <i>West Indies and South America.</i>—1. L. Agassiz, <i>Selecta genera et species piscium, quae in itinere per Brasiliam, collegit J. B. de Spix</i> (Munich, 1829, fol.). 2. F. de Castelnau, <i>Animaux nouveaux ou rares, -recueillis pendant l’expédition dans les parties centrales de l’Amérique +recueillis pendant l’expédition dans les parties centrales de l’Amérique du Sud</i>, “Poissons” (Paris, 1855). 3. L. Vaillant and F. Bocourt, -<i>Mission scientifique au Mexique et dans l’Amérique centrale</i>, +<i>Mission scientifique au Mexique et dans l’Amérique centrale</i>, “Poissons” (Paris, 1874). 4. F. Poey, the celebrated naturalist of Havana, devoted many years of study to the fishes of Cuba. His papers and memoirs are published partly in two periodicals, issued by himself, under the title of <i>Memorias sobre la historia natural de la isla de Cuba</i> (from 1851), and <i>Repertorio fisico-natural de la isla de Cuba</i> (from 1865), partly in North American scientific -journals. And, finally, F. Steindachner and A. Günther have published +journals. And, finally, F. Steindachner and A. Günther have published many contributions, accompanied by excellent figures, to our knowledge of the fishes of Central and South America.</p> <p>M. <i>New Zealand.</i>—1. F. W. Hutton and J. Hector, <i>Fishes of New Zealand</i> (Wellington, 1872).</p> -<p>N. <i>Arctic Regions.</i>—1. C. Lütken, “A Revised Catalogue of the +<p>N. <i>Arctic Regions.</i>—1. C. Lütken, “A Revised Catalogue of the Fishes of Greenland,” in <i>Manual of the Natural History, Geology and Physics of Greenland</i> (Lond., 1875, 8vo). 2. The fishes of Spitzbergen were examined by A. J. Malmgren (1865).</p> @@ -1030,7 +991,7 @@ Spitzbergen were examined by A. J. Malmgren (1865).</p> in the 9th edition of the <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i>, the following classification, which is the same as that given in the author’s <i>Introduction to the Study of Fishes</i> (London, 1880) was adopted -by Albert Günther:—</p> +by Albert Günther:—</p> <table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> <p>Subclass I. : <span class="sc">Palaeichthyes.</span></p> @@ -1073,13 +1034,13 @@ that there are no two large groups of animals for which the evidence of a direct genetic connexion is better than in the case of the Ganoids and the Teleosteans; and secondly, that the proposal to separate the Elasmobranchii (Chondropterygii -of Günther), Ganoidei and Dipnoi of Müller into a group apart +of Günther), Ganoidei and Dipnoi of Müller into a group apart from, and equivalent to, the Teleostei appears to be inconsistent with the plainest relations of these fishes.” This verdict has been endorsed by all subsequent workers at the classification of fishes.</p> -<p>Günther’s classification would have been vastly improved +<p>Günther’s classification would have been vastly improved <span class="pagenum"><a name="page248" id="page248"></a>248</span> had he made use of a contribution published as early as 1871, but not referred to by him. As not even a passing allusion @@ -1150,7 +1111,7 @@ showed, on the whole, a correct appreciation of their relationships, the Chondrostei being well separated from the other Ganoids with which they were generally associated. In the groupings of the minor divisions, which Cope termed orders, -we had a decided improvement on the Cuvierian-Müllerian +we had a decided improvement on the Cuvierian-Müllerian classification, the author having utilized many suggestions of his fellow countrymen Theodore Gill, who has done much towards a better understanding of their relationships. In the @@ -1193,7 +1154,7 @@ of Vertebrata,” <i>Amer. Natur.</i>, 1889, p. 849):—</p> by A. S. Woodward in his epoch-making <i>Catalogue of Fossil Fishes</i> (4 vols., London, 1889-1901), and in his most useful <i>Outlines of Vertebrate Paleontology</i> (Cambridge, 1898), and was -adopted by Günther in the 10th edition of the <i>Encyclopaedia +adopted by Günther in the 10th edition of the <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i>:—</p> <table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> @@ -1245,7 +1206,7 @@ has conclusively shown that the importance of the autostyly on which the definition of the Holocephali from the Elasmobranchii or Selachii and of the Dipneusti from the Teleostomi rested, had been exaggerated, and that therefore the position -assigned to these two groups in Günther’s classification of 1880 +assigned to these two groups in Günther’s classification of 1880 still commended itself. Recent work on <i>Palaeospondylus</i>, on the Ostracoderms, and on the Arthrodira, throws great doubt on the propriety of the positions given to them in the above @@ -1272,7 +1233,7 @@ those proposed in Theo. Gill’s classification of the recent fishes classes.</p> <p>The period dealt with in this chapter, ushered in by the publication -of Günther’s <i>Introduction to the Study of Fishes</i>, has been +of Günther’s <i>Introduction to the Study of Fishes</i>, has been one of extraordinary activity in every branch of ichthyology, recent and fossil. A glance at the <i>Zoological Record</i>, published by the Zoological Society of London, will show the ever-increasing @@ -1289,14 +1250,14 @@ modern systematic work on fishes. The most important treatises, the 7th volume of the <i>Cambridge Natural History</i>, by T. W. Bridge and G. A. Boulenger, and D. S. Jordan’s <i>Guide to the Study of Fishes</i>, only profess to give definitions of the families -with enumerations of the principal genera. Günther’s <i>Catalogue +with enumerations of the principal genera. Günther’s <i>Catalogue of the Fishes in the British Museum</i> therefore remains the only general descriptive treatise, but its last volume dates from 1870, and the work is practically obsolete. A second edition of it was begun in 1894, but only one volume, by Boulenger, has appeared, and the subject is so vast that it seems doubtful now whether any one will ever have the time and energy to -repeat Günther’s achievement. The fish fauna of the different +repeat Günther’s achievement. The fish fauna of the different parts of the world will have to be dealt with separately, and it is in this direction that descriptive ichthyology is most likely to progress.</p> @@ -1313,8 +1274,8 @@ and his pupils.</p> <p>The fishes of the deep sea have been the subject of extensive monographs by L. Vaillant (<i>Travailleur</i> and <i>Talisman</i>), A. -Günther (<i>Challenger</i>), A. Alcock (<i>Investigator</i>), R. Collett -(<i>Hirondelle</i>), S. Garman (<i>Albatross</i>) and a general résumé up +Günther (<i>Challenger</i>), A. Alcock (<i>Investigator</i>), R. Collett +(<i>Hirondelle</i>), S. Garman (<i>Albatross</i>) and a general résumé up to 1895 was provided in G. B. Goode’s and T. H. Bean’s <i>Oceanic Ichthyology</i>. More than 600 true bathybial fishes are known from depths of 1000 fathoms and more, and a great deal of @@ -1355,35 +1316,35 @@ much discussed.</p> <p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—The following selection from the extremely extensive ichthyological literature which has appeared during the period 1880-1906 will supplement the bibliographical notice appended to -section I. I. <b>The General Subject</b>: A. Günther, <i>Introduction to +section I. I. <b>The General Subject</b>: A. Günther, <i>Introduction to the Study of Fishes</i> (Edinburgh, 1880); B. Dean, <i>Fishes Living and Fossil</i> (New York, 1895); T. W. Bridge and G. A. Boulenger, “Fishes,” <i>Cambridge Natural History</i>, vii. (1904); D. S. Jordan, <i>Guide to the Study of Fishes</i> (2 vols., New York, 1905). II. <b>Palaeontological</b>: A. Fritsch, <i>Fauna der Gaskohle und der Kalksteine der Permformation -Böhmens</i> (vols, i.-iii., Prague, 1879-1894); K. A. von -Zittel, <i>Handbuch der Paläontologie</i>, vol. iii. (Munich, 1887); A. +Böhmens</i> (vols, i.-iii., Prague, 1879-1894); K. A. von +Zittel, <i>Handbuch der Paläontologie</i>, vol. iii. (Munich, 1887); A. Smith Woodward, <i>Catalogue of Fossil Fishes in the British Museum</i>, vols. i.-iii. (London, 1889-1895); A. Smith Woodward, <i>Outlines of Vertebrate Palaeontology for Students of Zoology</i> (Cambridge, 1898); J. S. Newberry, “The Palaeozoic Fishes of North America,” <i>Mon. U.S. Geol. Surv.</i> vol. xvi. (1889); J. V. Rohon, “Die obersilurischen -Fische von Ösel, Thyestidae und Tremataspidae,” <i>Mém. Ac. Imp. -Sc. St-Pétersb.</i> xxxviii. (1892); O. Jaekel, <i>Die Selachier von Bolca, +Fische von Ösel, Thyestidae und Tremataspidae,” <i>Mém. Ac. Imp. +Sc. St-Pétersb.</i> xxxviii. (1892); O. Jaekel, <i>Die Selachier von Bolca, ein Beitrag zur Morphogenie der Wirbeltiere</i> (Berlin, 1894); B. Dean, “Contributions to the Morphology of Cladoselache,” <i>Journ. Morphol.</i> ix. (1894); R. H. Traquair, “The Asterolepidae,” <i>Mon. Palaeont. Soc.</i> (1894-1904, in progress); “Report on Fossil Fishes collected by the Geological Survey of Scotland in the Silurian Rocks of the South of Scotland,” <i>Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin.</i> xxxix. (1899); L. Dollo, -“Sur la phylogénie des Dipneustes,” <i>Bull. Soc. Belge Géol.</i> vol. ix. +“Sur la phylogénie des Dipneustes,” <i>Bull. Soc. Belge Géol.</i> vol. ix. (1895); E. W. Claypole, “The Ancestry of the Upper Devonian Placoderms of Ohio,” <i>Amer. Geol.</i> xvii. (1896); B. Dean, “Palaeontlogical Notes,” <i>Mem. N.Y. Ac.</i> ii. (1901); A. Stewart and S. W. Williston, “Cretaceous Fishes of Kansas,” <i>Univ. Geol. Surv. Kansas</i>, vi. (Topeka, 1901); A. S. Woodward, “Fossil Fishes of the English Chalk,” <i>Palaeontogr. Soc.</i> (1902-1903, etc.); R. H. Traquair, -“The Lower Devonian Fishes of Gemünden.,” <i>Roy. Soc. +“The Lower Devonian Fishes of Gemünden.,” <i>Roy. Soc. Edin. Trans.</i> 40 (1903); W. J. and I. B. J. Sollas, “Account of the Devonian Fish Palaeospondylus,” <i>Phil. Trans.</i> 196 (1903); C. T. Regan, “Phylogeny of the Teleostomi,” <i>Ann. & Mag. N.H.</i> @@ -1392,7 +1353,7 @@ Mus. C.Z.</i> 46 (1904); “Structure and Relations of Mylostoma,” <i>Op. cit.</i> 2 (1906); O. Abel, “Fossile Flugfische,” <i>Jahrb. Geol. Reichsanst.</i> 56 (Wien, 1906); L. Hussakof. “Studies on the Arthrodira,” <i>Mem. Amer. Mus. N.H.</i> ix. (1906). III. <b>Faunistic</b> (recent -fishes): (A) <span class="sc">Europe</span>: E. Bade, <i>Die mitteleuropäischen Süsswasserfische</i> +fishes): (A) <span class="sc">Europe</span>: E. Bade, <i>Die mitteleuropäischen Süsswasserfische</i> (2 vols., Berlin, 1901-1902). <span class="sc">Great Britain</span>: F. Day, <i>The Fishes of Great Britain and Ireland</i> (2 vols., London, 1880-1884); J. T. Cunningham, <i>The Natural History of the Marketable Marine @@ -1410,55 +1371,55 @@ Reports of the Fishery Board of Scotland</i>, <i>Scient. Trans. R. Dublin Soc.</ and other periodicals. (B) <span class="sc">Denmark and Scandinavia</span>: W. Lilljeborg, <i>Sveriges och Norges Fiskar</i> (3 vols., Upsala, 1881-1891); F. A. Smith, <i>A History of Scandinavian Fishes by B. Fries, C. U. -Ekström and C. Sundevall, with Plates by W. von Wright</i> (second edition, +Ekström and C. Sundevall, with Plates by W. von Wright</i> (second edition, revised and completed by F. A. S., Stockholm, 1892); A. Stuxberg, -<i>Sveriges och Norges Fiskar</i> (Göteborg, 1895); C. G. J. Petersen, +<i>Sveriges och Norges Fiskar</i> (Göteborg, 1895); C. G. J. Petersen, <i>Report of the Danish Biological Station</i> (Copenhagen, 1802-1900) (annual reports containing much information on fishes of and fishing in the Danish seas). (C) <span class="sc">Finland</span>: G. Sundman and A. J. Mela, <i>Finland’s Fiskar</i> (Helsingfors, 1883-1891). (D) <span class="sc">Germany</span>: K. -Möbius and F. Heincke, “Die Fische der Ostsee,” <i>Bericht Commiss. +Möbius and F. Heincke, “Die Fische der Ostsee,” <i>Bericht Commiss. Untersuch. deutsch. Meere</i> (Kiel, 1883); F. Heincke, E. Ehrenbaum and G. Duncker have published their investigations into the life-history and development of the fishes of Heligoland in <i>Wissenschaftl. Meeresuntersuchungen</i> (Kiel and Leipzig, 1894-1899); (E) <span class="sc">Switzerland</span>: -V. Fatio, <i>Faune des vertébrés de la Suisse: Poissons</i> (2 vols., +V. Fatio, <i>Faune des vertébrés de la Suisse: Poissons</i> (2 vols., Geneva and Basel, 1882-1890). (F) <span class="sc">France</span>: E. Moreau, <i>Histoire -naturelle des poissons de la France</i> (3 vols., Paris, 1881); <i>Supplément</i> -(Paris, 1891). (G) <span class="sc">Pyrenean Peninsula</span>: D. Carlos de Bragança, -<i>Resultados das investigações scientificas feitas a bordo do yacht +naturelle des poissons de la France</i> (3 vols., Paris, 1881); <i>Supplément</i> +(Paris, 1891). (G) <span class="sc">Pyrenean Peninsula</span>: D. Carlos de Bragança, +<i>Resultados das investigações scientificas feitas a bordo do yacht “Amelia.” Pescas maritimas</i>, i. and ii. (Lisbon, 1899-1904). (H) -<span class="sc">Italy and Mediterranean</span>: P. Döderlein, <i>Manuale ittiologico del +<span class="sc">Italy and Mediterranean</span>: P. Döderlein, <i>Manuale ittiologico del Mediterraneo</i> (Palermo, 1881-1891, not completed; interrupted <span class="pagenum"><a name="page250" id="page250"></a>250</span> by the death of the author); E. W. L. Holt, “Recherches sur la reproduction des poissons osseux, principalement dans le golfe de Marseille,” <i>Ann. Mus. Mars.</i> v. (Marseilles, 1899); (I) <span class="sc">Western and Central Asia</span>: L. Lortet, “Poissons et reptiles du lac de -Tibériade,” <i>Arch. Mus. d’Hist. Nat. Lyon</i>, iii. (1883); S. Herzenstein, +Tibériade,” <i>Arch. Mus. d’Hist. Nat. Lyon</i>, iii. (1883); S. Herzenstein, <i>Wissenschaftliche Resultate der von N. M. Przewalski nach Central Asien unternommenen Reisen: Fische</i> (St Petersburg, 1888-1891); L. Berg, <i>Fishes of Turkestan</i> (Russian text, St Petersburg, 1905); G. Radde, S. Kamensky and F. F. Kawraisky have worked out the Cyprinids and Salmonids of the Caucasus (Tiflis, -1896-1899). (J) <span class="sc">Japan</span>: F. Steindachner and L. Döderlein, -“Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Fische Japans,” <i>Denkschr. Ak. Wien</i>, +1896-1899). (J) <span class="sc">Japan</span>: F. Steindachner and L. Döderlein, +“Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Fische Japans,” <i>Denkschr. Ak. Wien</i>, (vols. 67 and 68, 1883); K. Otaki, T. Fujita and T. Higurashi, <i>Fishes of Japan</i> (in Japanese) (Tokyo, 1903, in progress). Numerous papers by D. S. Jordan, in collaboration with J. O. Snyder, E. C. Starks, H. W. Fowler and N. Sindo. (K) <span class="sc">East Indies</span>: F. Day, <i>The Fauna of British India: Fishes</i> (2 vols., London, 1889) (chiefly an abridgment of the author’s <i>Fishes of India</i>); M. Weber, “Die -Süsswasserfische des Indischen Archipels,” <i>Zool. Ergebnisse e. Reise +Süsswasserfische des Indischen Archipels,” <i>Zool. Ergebnisse e. Reise in Niederl. Ostind.</i> iii. (Leiden, 1894). Numerous contributions to the fauna of the Malay Peninsula and Archipelago by G. A. Boulenger, L. Vaillant, F. Steindachner, G. Duncker, W. Volz -and C. L. Popta. (L) <span class="sc">Africa</span>: G. A. Boulenger, <i>Matériaux pour +and C. L. Popta. (L) <span class="sc">Africa</span>: G. A. Boulenger, <i>Matériaux pour la faune du Congo: poissons nouveaux</i> (Brussels, 1898-1902, in progress); and <i>Poissons du bassin du Congo</i> (Brussels, 1901); G. -Pfeffer, <i>Die Thierwelt Ostafrikas: Fische</i> (Berlin, 1896); A. Günther, +Pfeffer, <i>Die Thierwelt Ostafrikas: Fische</i> (Berlin, 1896); A. Günther, G. A. Boulenger, G. Pfeffer, F. Steindachner, D. Vinciguerra, J. -Pellegrin and E. Lönnberg have published numerous contributions +Pellegrin and E. Lönnberg have published numerous contributions to the fish-fauna of tropical Africa in various periodicals. The marine fishes of South Africa have received special attention on the part of J. D. F. Gilchrist, <i>Marine Investigations in South Africa</i>, @@ -1488,12 +1449,12 @@ the Hawaiian Islands,” <i>Bull. U.S. Fish. Comm.</i> 23 (1905). (Q) <span class="sc">Madagascar</span>: H. E. Sauvage, <i>Histoire physique, naturelle et politique de Madagascar</i>, par A. Grandidier. xvi.; <i>Poissons</i> (Paris, 1891). (R) <span class="sc">Oceanic Fishes</span>: G. B. Goode and T. H. Bean, <i>Oceanic Ichthyology</i> -(Washington, 1895); A. Günther, <i>Deep-sea Fishes of the +(Washington, 1895); A. Günther, <i>Deep-sea Fishes of the “Challenger” Expedition</i> (London, 1887); C. H. Gilbert, “Deep-sea Fishes of the Hawaiian Islands,” <i>Bull. U.S. Fish. Comm.</i> 23 (1905); R. Collett, <i>Norske Nordhavs Expedition: Fiske</i> (Christiania, 1880); -C. F. Lütken, <i>Dijmphna-Togtets Zoologisk-botaniske Udbytte: Kara-Havets -Fiske</i> (Copenhagen, 1886); L. Vaillant, <i>Expéditions scientifiques +C. F. Lütken, <i>Dijmphna-Togtets Zoologisk-botaniske Udbytte: Kara-Havets +Fiske</i> (Copenhagen, 1886); L. Vaillant, <i>Expéditions scientifiques du “Travailleur” et du “Talisman”: Poissons</i> (Paris, 1888); A. Agassiz, <i>Three Cruises of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Steamer “Blake”</i> (Boston and New York, 1888); A. Alcock, <i>Illustrations @@ -1501,14 +1462,14 @@ of the Zoology of H.M.S. “Investigator”: Fishes</i> (Calcutta, 1892- in progress); A. Alcock, <i>Descriptive Catalogue of the Indian Deep-sea Fishes in the Indian Museum</i> (Calcutta, 1899, contains references to all the previous papers of the author on the subject); -R. Collett, <i>Résultats des campagnes scientifiques accomplies par +R. Collett, <i>Résultats des campagnes scientifiques accomplies par Albert I<span class="sp">er</span> prince de Monaco: poissons provenant des campagnes du -yacht “l’Hirondelle,”</i> (Monaco, 1896); R. Koehler, <i>Résultats scientifiques +yacht “l’Hirondelle,”</i> (Monaco, 1896); R. Koehler, <i>Résultats scientifiques de la campagne du “Caudan,”</i> (Paris, 1896); C. H. Gilbert and F. Cramer, “Report on the Fishes dredged in Deep Water near the Hawaiian Islands,” <i>Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus.</i> xix. (Washington, -1896); C. Lütken, “Spolia Atlantica,” <i>Vidensk. Selsk. Skr.</i> vii. -and ix. (Copenhagen, 1892-1898); C. Lütken, <i>Danish Ingolf Expedition</i>, +1896); C. Lütken, “Spolia Atlantica,” <i>Vidensk. Selsk. Skr.</i> vii. +and ix. (Copenhagen, 1892-1898); C. Lütken, <i>Danish Ingolf Expedition</i>, ii.: <i>Ichthyological Results</i> (Copenhagen, 1898); S. Garman, “Reports on an Exploration off the West Coast of Mexico, Central and South America, and off the Galapagos Islands in charge of @@ -1516,8 +1477,8 @@ Alexander Agassiz, by the U.S. Fish Commission Steamer “Albatross,” during 1891,” <i>Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool.</i> vol. xxiv. (Cambridge, U.S.A., 1899). (S) <span class="sc">Antarctic Fishes</span>: G. A. Boulenger, <i>Report on the Collections made during the voyage of the “Southern Cross”: Fishes</i> -(London, 1902); L. Dollo, <i>Expédition Antarctique Belge</i> (S.Y. “Belgica”). -<i>Poissons</i> (Antwerp, 1904); E. Lönnberg, <i>Swedish South +(London, 1902); L. Dollo, <i>Expédition Antarctique Belge</i> (S.Y. “Belgica”). +<i>Poissons</i> (Antwerp, 1904); E. Lönnberg, <i>Swedish South Polar Expedition: Fishes</i> (Stockholm, 1905); G. A. Boulenger, <i>Fishes of the “Discovery” Antarctic Expedition</i> (London, 1906).</p> </div> @@ -1651,7 +1612,7 @@ Macmillan & Co., Ltd.</td></tr> <tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:318px; height:102px" src="images/img251c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="caption80">From “<i>Challenger</i>” <i>Reports Zool.</i>, published by H.M. Stationery Office.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>—<i>Chlamydoselachus</i>. (After Günther.)</td></tr></table> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>—<i>Chlamydoselachus</i>. (After Günther.)</td></tr></table> <p>The median fins are to be regarded as the more primitive. The fundamental structure of the vertebrate, with its median @@ -2519,8 +2480,8 @@ region of the testis of <i>Polypterus</i> and the Dipneusti.</p> <table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 370px;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:312px; height:527px" src="images/img256.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="caption80">From <i>Arch. zool, expérimentale</i>, by permission of -Schleicher Frères.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">From <i>Arch. zool, expérimentale</i>, by permission of +Schleicher Frères.</td></tr> <tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span>—Urino-Genital Organs of the right side in a male <i>Scyllium</i>. (After Borcea.)</td></tr> @@ -2536,7 +2497,7 @@ Borcea.)</td></tr> <p><i>v.s</i>, Vesicula seminalis.</p></td></tr></table> <p><i>Relations of Renal and Reproductive Organs.</i> (1) <i>Female.</i>—In -the Selachians and Dipnoans the oviduct is of the type (Müllerian +the Selachians and Dipnoans the oviduct is of the type (Müllerian duct) present in the higher vertebrates and apparently representing a split-off portion of the archinephric duct. At its anterior end is a wide funnel-like coelomic opening. Its walls @@ -2547,10 +2508,10 @@ with the wall of the ovary. In most of the more primitive Teleostomes (Crossopterygians, sturgeons, <i>Amia</i>) the oviduct has at its front end an open coelomic funnel, and it is difficult to find adequate reason for refusing to regard such oviducts as -true Müllerian ducts. On this interpretation the condition +true Müllerian ducts. On this interpretation the condition characteristic of Teleosts would be due to the lips of the oviduct becoming fused with the ovarian wall, and the duct itself would -be a Müllerian duct as elsewhere.</p> +be a Müllerian duct as elsewhere.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>A departure from the normal arrangement is found in those @@ -2559,7 +2520,7 @@ Teleosts which shed their eggs into the splanchnocoele, <i>e.g.</i> amongst (<i>Osmerus</i>) and capelin (<i>Mallotus</i>) possess a pair of oviducts resembling -Müllerian ducts while +Müllerian ducts while the salmon possesses merely a pair of genital pores opening together @@ -2568,7 +2529,7 @@ seems most probable that the latter condition has been derived from the former by reduction of -the Müllerian ducts, +the Müllerian ducts, though it has been argued that the converse process has taken @@ -3232,7 +3193,7 @@ Co., Ltd.</td></tr> the radialia of the salmon, consisting of three segments, -<i>ptg</i>¹, <i>ptg</i>², <i>ptg</i>³, and +<i>ptg</i>¹, <i>ptg</i>², <i>ptg</i>³, and supporting a dermal fin ray. <i>D.F.R.</i></td></tr></table> @@ -4290,7 +4251,7 @@ seem that IX. includes a few fibres of the <i>lateralis</i> group.</p> medulla and also by the character of its peripheral distribution to be a compound structure formed by the fusion of a number of originally distinct nerves. It consists of (1) a number of -branchial branches (X.¹ X.² &c.), one of which forks over each +branchial branches (X.¹ X.² &c.), one of which forks over each gill cleft behind the hyobranchial and which may (Selachians) arise by separate roots from the medulla; (2) an intestinal branch (<i>v.n.</i>X.) arising behind the last branchial and innervating @@ -4478,7 +4439,7 @@ and nearly all the <i>Ganoidei</i> and <i>Ostariophysi</i> are confined to fresh-water.</p> <p>The three categories of marine fishes have thus been defined -by Günther:—</p> +by Günther:—</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>“1. <i>Shore Fishes</i>—that is, fishes which chiefly inhabit parts of @@ -4631,7 +4592,7 @@ enter into the discussion of the many problems which the distribution of fresh-water fishes involves; we limit ourselves to an indication of the principal regions into which the world may be divided from this point of view. The main divisions proposed -by Günther in the 9th edition of the <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i> +by Günther in the 9th edition of the <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i> still appear the most satisfactory. They are as follows:—</p> <div class="condensed"> @@ -4706,7 +4667,7 @@ the fishes of tropical Africa show to those of South America which favours the supposition of a connexion between these two parts of the world in early Tertiary times.</p> -<p>The boundaries of Günther’s regions may thus be traced, +<p>The boundaries of Günther’s regions may thus be traced, beginning with the equatorial zone, this being the richest.</p> <p><span class="sc">Equatorial Zone.</span>—Roughly speaking, the borders of this @@ -4815,7 +4776,7 @@ remains frozen throughout the year, or thaws for a few weeks only; and the few fishes which extend into high latitudes belong to types in no wise differing from those of the more temperate south. The highest latitude at which fishes have been -obtained is 82° N. lat., whence specimens of char (<i>Salmo arcturus</i> +obtained is 82° N. lat., whence specimens of char (<i>Salmo arcturus</i> and <i>Salmo naresii</i>) have been brought back.</p> <p><i>The Palaearctic or Europaeo-Asiatic Region.</i>—The western @@ -4847,7 +4808,7 @@ Australia (Tasmanian sub-region), New Zealand and the Auckland Islands (New Zealand sub-region), and Chile, Patagonia, Tierra del Fuego and the Falkland Islands (Fuegian sub-region). No freshwater fishes are known from Kerguelen’s Land, or -from islands beyond 55° S. lat.</p> +from islands beyond 55° S. lat.</p> <p>The Tropical American region is the richest (about 1300 species); next follow the African region (about 1000), the Indian region @@ -4886,7 +4847,7 @@ Wilson, <i>Amer. Journ. Anat.</i> v. (1906) p. 154.</p> <p><a name="ft7a" id="ft7a" href="#fa7a"><span class="fn">7</span></a> J. S. Budgett, <i>Trans. Zool. Soc. Lond.</i> xvi., 1901, p. 130.</p> -<p><a name="ft8a" id="ft8a" href="#fa8a"><span class="fn">8</span></a> L. Drüner, <i>Zool. Jahrbücher Anat.</i> Band xix. (1904), S. 434.</p> +<p><a name="ft8a" id="ft8a" href="#fa8a"><span class="fn">8</span></a> L. Drüner, <i>Zool. Jahrbücher Anat.</i> Band xix. (1904), S. 434.</p> <p><a name="ft9a" id="ft9a" href="#fa9a"><span class="fn">9</span></a> J. Graham Kerr, <i>Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.</i> xlvi. 423.</p> @@ -4901,13 +4862,13 @@ Wilson, <i>Amer. Journ. Anat.</i>, v. 1906, p. 154.</p> <p><a name="ft14a" id="ft14a" href="#fa14a"><span class="fn">14</span></a>: F. Maurer, <i>Morphol. Jahrb.</i> ix., 1884, S. 229, and xiv., 1888, S. 175.</p> -<p><a name="ft15a" id="ft15a" href="#fa15a"><span class="fn">15</span></a> J. Rückert, <i>Arch. Entwickelungsmech</i>. Band iv., 1897, S. 298; +<p><a name="ft15a" id="ft15a" href="#fa15a"><span class="fn">15</span></a> J. Rückert, <i>Arch. Entwickelungsmech</i>. Band iv., 1897, S. 298; J. Graham Kerr, <i>Phil. Trans.</i> B. 192, 1900, p. 325, and <i>The Budgett Memorial Volume</i>.</p> <p><a name="ft16a" id="ft16a" href="#fa16a"><span class="fn">16</span></a> Cuvier et Valenciennes, <i>Hist. nat. des poiss.</i> xix., 1846, p. 151.</p> -<p><a name="ft17a" id="ft17a" href="#fa17a"><span class="fn">17</span></a> J. Rathke, <i>Üb. d. Darmkanal u.s.w. d. Fische</i>, Halle, 1824, S. 62.</p> +<p><a name="ft17a" id="ft17a" href="#fa17a"><span class="fn">17</span></a> J. Rathke, <i>Ãœb. d. Darmkanal u.s.w. d. Fische</i>, Halle, 1824, S. 62.</p> <p><a name="ft18a" id="ft18a" href="#fa18a"><span class="fn">18</span></a> Cf. W. Biedermann, Electro-Physiology.</p> @@ -4918,7 +4879,7 @@ P. 259.</p> <p><a name="ft21a" id="ft21a" href="#fa21a"><span class="fn">21</span></a> J. S. Budgett, <i>Trans. Zool. Soc. Lond.</i> xv. (1901), vol. p. 324.</p> -<p><a name="ft22a" id="ft22a" href="#fa22a"><span class="fn">22</span></a> H. F. Jungersen, <i>Arb. zool. zoot. Inst. Würzburg</i>, Band ix., 1889.</p> +<p><a name="ft22a" id="ft22a" href="#fa22a"><span class="fn">22</span></a> H. F. Jungersen, <i>Arb. zool. zoot. Inst. Würzburg</i>, Band ix., 1889.</p> <p><a name="ft23a" id="ft23a" href="#fa23a"><span class="fn">23</span></a> E. J. Bles, <i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i> 62, 1897, p. 232.</p> @@ -4937,7 +4898,7 @@ P. 259.</p> <p><a name="ft30a" id="ft30a" href="#fa30a"><span class="fn">30</span></a> Bashford Dean, <i>Journ. Morph.</i> ix. (1894) 87, and <i>Trans. New York Acad. Sci.</i> xiii. (1894) 115.</p> -<p><a name="ft31a" id="ft31a" href="#fa31a"><span class="fn">31</span></a> R. Semon, <i>Zool. Forschungsreisen</i>, Band i. § 115.</p> +<p><a name="ft31a" id="ft31a" href="#fa31a"><span class="fn">31</span></a> R. Semon, <i>Zool. Forschungsreisen</i>, Band i. § 115.</p> <p><a name="ft32a" id="ft32a" href="#fa32a"><span class="fn">32</span></a> O. Hertwig, <i>Arch. mikr. Anat.</i> xi. (1874).</p> @@ -4961,26 +4922,26 @@ Cranioten</i>.</p> <p><a name="ft40a" id="ft40a" href="#fa40a"><span class="fn">40</span></a> Cf. F. K. Studnička’s excellent account of the parietal organs in A. Oppel’s <i>Lehrbuch vergl, mikr. Anatomie</i>, T. v. (1905).</p> -<p><a name="ft41a" id="ft41a" href="#fa41a"><span class="fn">41</span></a> 2. F. K. Studnička, <i>S.B. böhm. Gesell.</i> (1901); J. Graham Kerr, +<p><a name="ft41a" id="ft41a" href="#fa41a"><span class="fn">41</span></a> 2. F. K. Studnička, <i>S.B. böhm. Gesell.</i> (1901); J. Graham Kerr, <i>Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.</i> vol. xlvi., and <i>The Budgett Memorial Volume</i>.</p> <p><a name="ft42a" id="ft42a" href="#fa42a"><span class="fn">42</span></a> J. Graham Kerr, <i>Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.</i> vol. xlvi.</p> -<p><a name="ft43a" id="ft43a" href="#fa43a"><span class="fn">43</span></a> F. K. Studnička, <i>S.B. böhm. Gesell.</i> (1901); J. Graham Kerr, +<p><a name="ft43a" id="ft43a" href="#fa43a"><span class="fn">43</span></a> F. K. Studnička, <i>S.B. böhm. Gesell.</i> (1901); J. Graham Kerr, <i>Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.</i> vol. xlvi., and <i>The Budgett Memorial Volume</i>.</p> <p><a name="ft44a" id="ft44a" href="#fa44a"><span class="fn">44</span></a> G. Elliot Smith, <i>Anat. Anz.</i> (1907).</p> -<p><a name="ft45a" id="ft45a" href="#fa45a"><span class="fn">45</span></a> F. K. Studnička, <i>S.B. böhm. Gesell.</i> (1896).</p> +<p><a name="ft45a" id="ft45a" href="#fa45a"><span class="fn">45</span></a> F. K. Studnička, <i>S.B. böhm. Gesell.</i> (1896).</p> <p><a name="ft46a" id="ft46a" href="#fa46a"><span class="fn">46</span></a> J. Graham Kerr, <i>The Budgett Memorial Volume</i>.</p> -<p><a name="ft47a" id="ft47a" href="#fa47a"><span class="fn">47</span></a> F. K. Studnička, <i>S.B. böhm. Gesell.</i> (1901); J. Graham +<p><a name="ft47a" id="ft47a" href="#fa47a"><span class="fn">47</span></a> F. K. Studnička, <i>S.B. böhm. Gesell.</i> (1901); J. Graham Kerr, <i>Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.</i> xlvi., and <i>The Budgett Memorial Volume</i>.</p> -<p><a name="ft48a" id="ft48a" href="#fa48a"><span class="fn">48</span></a>: R. Wiedersheim, Kölliker’s <i>Festschrift</i>: cf. also <i>Anat. Anz.</i> +<p><a name="ft48a" id="ft48a" href="#fa48a"><span class="fn">48</span></a>: R. Wiedersheim, Kölliker’s <i>Festschrift</i>: cf. also <i>Anat. Anz.</i> (1887).</p> <p><a name="ft49a" id="ft49a" href="#fa49a"><span class="fn">49</span></a> A. Brauer, <i>Verhandl. deutsch. zool. Gesell.</i> (1902).</p> @@ -4995,7 +4956,7 @@ vii. (1898).</p> <p><a name="ft53a" id="ft53a" href="#fa53a"><span class="fn">53</span></a> For literature of lateral line organs see Cole, <i>Trans. Linn. Soc.</i>, vii. (1898).</p> -<p><a name="ft54a" id="ft54a" href="#fa54a"><span class="fn">54</span></a> M. Fürbringer in Gegenbaur’s <i>Festschrift</i> (1896).</p> +<p><a name="ft54a" id="ft54a" href="#fa54a"><span class="fn">54</span></a> M. Fürbringer in Gegenbaur’s <i>Festschrift</i> (1896).</p> </div> @@ -5018,7 +4979,7 @@ was confirmed by Sir Richard F. Burton (<i>El-Medinah</i>, p. 144).</p> <p><span class="bold">ICHTHYOSAURUS,<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> a fish or porpoise-shaped marine reptile which characterized the Mesozoic period and became extinct immediately after the deposition of the Chalk. It was named -<i>Ichthyosaurus</i> (Gr. fish-lizard) by C. König in 1818 in allusion +<i>Ichthyosaurus</i> (Gr. fish-lizard) by C. König in 1818 in allusion to its outward form, and is best known by nearly complete skeletons from the Lias of England and Germany. The large head is produced into a slender, pointed snout; and the jaws @@ -5032,7 +4993,7 @@ neck is so short and thick that it is practically absent. There are always two pairs of paddle-like limbs, the hinder pair never disappearing as in porpoises and other Cetacea, though often much reduced in size. A few specimens from the Upper Lias -of Württemberg (in the museums of Stuttgart, Tübingen, +of Württemberg (in the museums of Stuttgart, Tübingen, Budapest and Chicago) exhibit remains of the skin, which is quite smooth and forms two triangular median fins, one in the middle of the back, the other at the end of the tail. The dorsal @@ -5075,8 +5036,8 @@ from land or marsh animals (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Reptiles</a <div class="condensed"> <p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—R. Owen, <i>A Monograph of the Fossil Reptilia of the Liassic Formations</i>, part iii. (Mon. Palaeont. Soc., 1881); E. -Fraas, <i>Die Ichthyosaurier der süddeutschen Trias- und Jura-Ablagerungen</i> -(Tübingen, 1891). Also good figures in T. Hawkins, <i>The +Fraas, <i>Die Ichthyosaurier der süddeutschen Trias- und Jura-Ablagerungen</i> +(Tübingen, 1891). Also good figures in T. Hawkins, <i>The Book of the Great Sea-dragons</i> (London, 1840).</p> </div> <div class="author">(A. S. Wo.)</div> @@ -5086,7 +5047,7 @@ Book of the Great Sea-dragons</i> (London, 1840).</p> <p><span class="bold">ICHTHYOSIS,<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Xeroderma</span>, a general thickening of the whole skin and marked accumulation of the epidermic elements, with atrophy of the sebaceous glands, giving rise to a hard, dry, -scaly condition, whence the names, from <span class="grk" title="ichthys">ἰχθύς</span>, fish, and <span class="grk" title="xêros">ξηρός</span>, +scaly condition, whence the names, from <span class="grk" title="ichthys">ἰχθύς</span>, fish, and <span class="grk" title="xêros">ξηρός</span>, dry, <span class="grk" title="derma">δέρμα</span>, skin. This disease generally first appears in infancy, and is probably congenital. It differs in intensity and in distribution, and is generally little amenable to any but palliative @@ -5120,7 +5081,7 @@ nomenclature is very obscure (<i>Vict. Hist. of Warwick</i>, i. 239).</p> <hr class="art" /> -<p><span class="bold">ICON<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> (through the Latinized form, from Gr. <span class="grk" title="eikôn">εἰκών</span>, portrait, +<p><span class="bold">ICON<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> (through the Latinized form, from Gr. <span class="grk" title="eikôn">εἰκών</span>, portrait, image), generally any image or portrait-figure, but specially the term applied to the representations in the Eastern Church of sacred personages, whether in painting or sculpture, and @@ -5257,7 +5218,7 @@ minerals are known to exist.</p> <hr class="art" /> -<p><span class="bold">ICONOCLASTS<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="eikonoklastês: eikôn">εἰκονοκλάστης: εἰκών</span>, image, and <span class="grk" title="klaein">κλάειν</span>, +<p><span class="bold">ICONOCLASTS<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="eikonoklastês: eikôn">εἰκονοκλάστης: εἰκών</span>, image, and <span class="grk" title="klaein">κλάειν</span>, to break), the name applied particularly to the opponents in the 8th and 9th centuries of the use of images in Christian cult.</p> @@ -5420,8 +5381,8 @@ and Manicheans, which abounded in Asia Minor, but of which he was otherwise no friend. But his religious reform was unpopular, especially among the women, who killed an official who, by the emperor’s command, was destroying an image of -Christ in the vestibule of the imperial palace of Chalcé. This -<i>émeute</i> provoked severe reprisals, and the partisans of the images +Christ in the vestibule of the imperial palace of Chalcé. This +<i>émeute</i> provoked severe reprisals, and the partisans of the images were mutilated and killed, or beaten and exiled. A rival emperor even, Agallianus, was set up, who perished in his attempt to seize Constantinople. Italy also rose in arms, and Pope Gregory @@ -5434,7 +5395,7 @@ strangled, in exile and replaced by an iconoclast, Anastasius. Meanwhile, inside the Arab empire, John of Damascus wrote his three dogmatic discourses against the traducers of images, arguing that their use was not idolatry but only a relative -worship (<span class="grk" title="proskynêsis schetkê">προσκύνησις σχετική</span>). The next pope, Gregory III. +worship (<span class="grk" title="proskynêsis schetkê">προσκύνησις σχετική</span>). The next pope, Gregory III. convoked a council of ninety-three bishops, which excommunicated the iconoclasts, and the fleet which Leo sent to retaliate on the Latin peninsula was lost in a storm in the Adriatic. The @@ -5489,7 +5450,7 @@ like his soldiers, was persuaded that the ill-success of the Roman arms against Bulgarians and other invaders was due to the idolatry rampant at court and elsewhere. The soldiers stoned the image of Christ which Irene had set up afresh in the palace -of Chalcé, and this provoked a counter-demonstration of the +of Chalcé, and this provoked a counter-demonstration of the clergy. Leo feigned for a while to be on their side, but on the 2nd of February 815, in the sanctuary of St Sophia, publicly refused to prostrate himself before the images, with the approbation @@ -5637,8 +5598,8 @@ heaven?</p> <p>3. Between these extreme parties the Roman Church took the middle way of common sense. The hair-splitting distinction of the Byzantine doctors between veneration due to images -(<span class="grk" title="proskynêsis timêtikê">προσκύνησις τιμητική</span>), and the adoration (<span class="grk" title="proskynêsis -latreutikê">προσκύνησις λατρευτική</span>) due to God alone, was dropped, and the utility of +(<span class="grk" title="proskynêsis timêtikê">προσκύνησις τιμητική</span>), and the adoration (<span class="grk" title="proskynêsis +latreutikê">προσκύνησις λατρευτική</span>) due to God alone, was dropped, and the utility of pictures for the illiterate emphasized. Their use was declared to be this, that they taught the ignorant through the eye what they should adore with the mind; they are not themselves to be adored. @@ -5705,7 +5666,7 @@ declares that images are not to be tolerated at all in churches.</p> <p><span class="sc">Sources.</span>—“Acts of the Seventh Ecumenical Council held in Nicaea, 787,” in Mansi’s <i>Concilia</i>, vols. xii. and xiii.; “Acts of the Iconoclast Council of 815,” in a treatise of Nicephorus discovered by -M. Serruys and printed in the <i>Séances Acad. des Inscript.</i> (May 1903); +M. Serruys and printed in the <i>Séances Acad. des Inscript.</i> (May 1903); Theophanes, <i>Chronographia</i>, edit. de Boor (Leipzig, 1883-1885); and <i>Patr. Gr.</i> vol. 108. Also his “Continuators” in <i>Patr. Gr.</i> vol. 109; Nicephorus, <i>Chronicon</i>, edit. de Boor (Leipzig, 1880), and <i>Patr. Gr.</i> @@ -5724,17 +5685,17 @@ volume 60 centimes (brief but admirable); Karl Schwartzlose, <i>Der Bilderstreit</i> (Gotha, 1890); Karl Schenk, “The Emperor Leo III.,” in <i>Byzant. Zeitschrift</i> (1896, German); Tel. Uspenskij, <i>Skizzen zur Geschichte der byzantinischen Kultur</i> (St Petersburg, 1892, -Russian); Lombard, <i>Études d’histoire byzantine</i>; Constantine V.( Paris, -1902, <i>Biblioth. de l’université de Paris</i>, xvi.); A. Tougard, <i>La Persécution +Russian); Lombard, <i>Études d’histoire byzantine</i>; Constantine V.( Paris, +1902, <i>Biblioth. de l’université de Paris</i>, xvi.); A. Tougard, <i>La Persécution iconoclaste</i> (Paris, 1897); and <i>Rev. des questions historiques</i> (1891); Marin, <i>Les Moines de Constantinople</i> (Paris, 1897, bk. iv. <i>Les Moines et les empereurs iconoclastes</i>); Alice Gardner, Theodore of -Studium (London, 1905); Louis Maimbourg, <i>Histoire de l’hérésie -des iconoclastes</i> (Paris, 1679-1683); J. Daillé (Dallaeus), <i>De imaginibus</i> +Studium (London, 1905); Louis Maimbourg, <i>Histoire de l’hérésie +des iconoclastes</i> (Paris, 1679-1683); J. Daillé (Dallaeus), <i>De imaginibus</i> (Leiden, 1642, and in French, Geneva, 1641); Spanheim, <i>Historia imaginum</i> (Leiden, 1686). See also the account of this epoch in the <i>Histories</i> of Neander, Gibbon and Milman; Aug. -Fr. Gfrörer, “Der Bildersturm” in <i>Byzantinische Geschichte 2</i> +Fr. Gfrörer, “Der Bildersturm” in <i>Byzantinische Geschichte 2</i> (1873); C. J. von Hefele, <i>Conciliengeschichte</i> 3 (1877), 366 ff. (also in English translation; Karl Krumbacher. <i>Byzant. Literaturgeschichte</i> (2nd ed. p. 1090).</p> @@ -5861,7 +5822,7 @@ to Ida, but to his son Theodric (d. 587).</p> <hr class="art" /> <p><span class="bold">IDAHO,<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> a western state of the United States of America, -situated between 42° and 49° N. lat. and 111° and 117° W. long. +situated between 42° and 49° N. lat. and 111° and 117° W. long. It is bounded N. by British Columbia and Montana, E. by Montana and Wyoming, S. by Utah and Nevada, and W. by Oregon and Washington. Its total area is 83,888 sq. m., of @@ -5897,7 +5858,7 @@ up in general of high ranges deeply glaciated, preserving some remnants of ancient glaciers, and having fine “Alpine” scenery, with many sharp peaks and ridges, <b>U</b>-shaped valleys, cirques, lakes and waterfalls. In the third physiographic region, the Columbia -plateau, are the Saw Tooth, Boisé, Owyhee and other rugged ranges, +plateau, are the Saw Tooth, Boisé, Owyhee and other rugged ranges, especially on the S. and W. borders of the region. The most prominent features of this part of the state are the arid Snake river plains and three mountain-like elevations—Big, Middle and East Buttes—that @@ -5926,13 +5887,13 @@ in Yellowstone National Park a few miles from the heads of the Madison fork of the Missouri, which flows to the Gulf of Mexico, and the Green fork of the Colorado, which flows to the Gulf of California. It flows S.W. and then W. for about 800 m. in a tremendous -cañon across southern Idaho; turns N. and runs for 200 m. as the +cañon across southern Idaho; turns N. and runs for 200 m. as the boundary between Idaho and Oregon (and for a short distance between Idaho and Washington); turns again at Lewiston (where it ceases to be the boundary, and where the Clearwater empties into it) to the W. into a deep narrow valley, and joins the Columbia in S.E. Washington. Practically all the valley of the Snake from Idaho -Falls in S.E. Idaho (Bingham county) to the mouth is of cañon +Falls in S.E. Idaho (Bingham county) to the mouth is of cañon character, with walls from a few hundred to 6000 ft. in height (about 650 m. in Idaho). The finest parts are among the most magnificent in the west; among its falls are the American (Oneida and Blaine @@ -5966,25 +5927,25 @@ Cassia, Owyhee, Oneida, Nez Perce, Kootenai, Shoshone and Fremont counties. At Soda Springs in Bannock county are scores of springs whose waters, some ice cold and some warm, contain magnesia, soda, iron, sulphur, &c.; near Hailey, Blaine county, -water with a temperature of 144° F. is discharged from numerous -springs; and at Boisé, water with a temperature of 165° is obtained +water with a temperature of 144° F. is discharged from numerous +springs; and at Boisé, water with a temperature of 165° is obtained from wells.</p> <p>The fauna and flora of Idaho are similar in general to those of the other states in the north-western part of the United States.</p> <p><i>Climate.</i>—The mean annual temperature of Idaho from 1898 to -1903 was 45.5° F. There are several distinct climate zones within +1903 was 45.5° F. There are several distinct climate zones within the state. North of Clearwater river the climate is comparatively -mild, the maximum in 1902 (96° F.) being lower than the highest -temperature in the state and the minimum (−16°) higher than the +mild, the maximum in 1902 (96° F.) being lower than the highest +temperature in the state and the minimum (−16°) higher than the lowest temperature registered. The mildest region of the state is the Snake river basin between Twin Falls and Lewiston, and the -valley of the Boisé, Payette and Weiser rivers; here the mean -annual temperature in 1902 was 52° F., the maximum was 106° F., -and the minimum was −13° F. In the Upper Snake basin, in the +valley of the Boisé, Payette and Weiser rivers; here the mean +annual temperature in 1902 was 52° F., the maximum was 106° F., +and the minimum was −13° F. In the Upper Snake basin, in the Camas prairie and Lost river regions, the climate is much colder, -the highest temperature in 1902 being 101° and the lowest −35° F. +the highest temperature in 1902 being 101° and the lowest −35° F. The mean annual rainfall for the entire state in 1903 was 16.60 in.; the highest amount recorded was at Murray, Shoshone county (37.70 in.) and the lowest was at Garnet, Elmore county (5.69 in.).</p> @@ -6023,10 +5984,10 @@ and Cassia counties, of which survey began in March 1903 and construction in December 1904, and which was completed in 1907, commanding an irrigable area of 130,000-150,000 acres,<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and has a diversion dam (rock-fill type) 600 ft. long, and 130 m. of canals and 100 m. -of laterals; the larger Payette-Boisé project in Ada, Canyon and +of laterals; the larger Payette-Boisé project in Ada, Canyon and Owyhee counties (372,000 acres irrigable; 300,000 now desert; 60% privately owned), whose principal features are the Payette -dam (rock-fill), 100 ft. high and 400 ft. long, and the Boisé dam +dam (rock-fill), 100 ft. high and 400 ft. long, and the Boisé dam (masonry), 33 ft. high and 400 ft. long, 200 m. of canals, 100 m. of laterals, a tunnel 1100 ft. long and 12,500 h.p. transmitted 29 m., 3000 h.p. being necessary to pump to a height of 50-90 ft. water for @@ -6111,7 +6072,7 @@ and in 1906 it was estimated by the State Commissioner of Immigration that there were nearly 48,000 acres of land devoted to orchard fruits in Idaho. Viticulture is of importance, particularly in the Lewiston valley. In 1906, 234,000 tons of sugar beets were raised, -and fields in the Boisé valley raised 30 tons per acre.</p> +and fields in the Boisé valley raised 30 tons per acre.</p> <p>Of the animal products in 1899, the most valuable was live-stock sold during the year ($3,909,454); the stock-raising industry was @@ -6147,11 +6108,11 @@ product. The total mineral product in 1906, according to the State Mine Inspector, was valued at $24,138,317. The total gold production of Idaho from 1860 to 1906 has been estimated at $250,000,000, of which a large part was produced in the Idaho Basin, the region -lying between the N. fork of the Boisé and the S. fork of the Payette +lying between the N. fork of the Boisé and the S. fork of the Payette rivers. In 1901-1902 rich gold deposits were discovered in the Thunder Mountain district in Idaho county. The counties with the largest production of gold in 1907 (state report) were Owyhee -($362,742), Boisé ($282,444), Custer ($210,900) and Idaho; the +($362,742), Boisé ($282,444), Custer ($210,900) and Idaho; the total for the state was $1,075,618 in 1905; in 1906 it was $1,149,100; and in 1907, according to state reports, $1,373,031. The total of the state for silver in 1905 was $5,242,172; in 1906 it was $6,042,606; @@ -6179,13 +6140,13 @@ of the Cœur d’Alene district in Shoshone county. Zinc occurs in the Cœur d’Alene district, at Hailey, Blaine county and elsewhere; according to the state reports, the state’s output in 1906 was valued at $91,426 and in 1907 at $534,087. Other minerals of economic -value are sandstone, quarried at Boisé, Ada county, at Preston, +value are sandstone, quarried at Boisé, Ada county, at Preston, Oneida county, and at Goshen, Prospect and Idaho Falls, Bingham county, valued at $22,265 in 1905, and at $11,969 in 1906; limestone, valued at $14,105 in 1905 and at $12,600 in 1906, used entirely for the local manufacture of lime, part of which was used in the manufacture of sugar; and coal, in the Horseshoe Bend and Jerusalem -districts in Boisé county, in Lemhi county near Salmon City, and in +districts in Boisé county, in Lemhi county near Salmon City, and in E. Bingham and Fremont counties, with an output in 1906 of 5365 tons, valued at $18,538 as compared with 20 and 10 tons respectively in 1899 and 1900. Minerals developed slightly, or not at all, are @@ -6223,7 +6184,7 @@ City (Fremont county), a place built up about the sugar refineries, and at Nampa, Canyon county. In 1906 between 57,000,000 and 64,000,000 ℔ of beet sugar were refined in the state. Brick-making was of little more than local importance in 1906, the largest kilns -being at Boisé, Sand Point and Cœur d’Alene City. Lime is made +being at Boisé, Sand Point and Cœur d’Alene City. Lime is made at Orofino, Shoshone county, and at Hope, Bonner county.</p> <p><i>Communications.</i>—The total railway mileage in January 1909 @@ -6264,7 +6225,7 @@ being represented by smaller numbers. The urban population of Idaho in 1900 (<i>i.e.</i> the population of places having 4000 or more inhabitants) was 6.2% of the whole. There were thirty-three incorporated cities, towns and villages, but only five had -a population exceeding 2000; these were Boisé (5957), Pocatello +a population exceeding 2000; these were Boisé (5957), Pocatello (4046), Lewiston (2425), Moscow (2484) and Wallace (2265). In 1906 it was estimated that the total membership of all religious denominations was 74,578, and that there were @@ -6324,12 +6285,12 @@ insurance agents not residents of Idaho cannot write policies in the state. Divorces may be obtained after residence of six months on the ground of adultery, cruelty, desertion or neglect for one year, habitual drunkenness for the same period, felony -or insanity. There are a state penitentiary at Boisé, an +or insanity. There are a state penitentiary at Boisé, an Industrial Training School at St Anthony, an Insane Asylum at Blackfoot, and a North Idaho Insane Asylum at Orofino. The care of all defectives was let by contract to other states until 1906, when a state school for the deaf and blind was opened -in Boisé. No bureau of charities is in existence, but there is a +in Boisé. No bureau of charities is in existence, but there is a Labor Commission, and a Commissioner of Immigration and a Commissioner of Public Lands to investigate the industrial resources. The offices of State Engineer and Inspector of Mines @@ -6354,12 +6315,12 @@ university. There are two state normal schools, one at Lewiston and the other at Albion. The only private institution of college rank in 1908 was the College of Caldwell (Presbyterian, opened 1891) at Caldwell, Canyon county, with 65 students in 1906-1907. There -are Catholic academies at Boisé and Cœur d’Alene and a convent, +are Catholic academies at Boisé and Cœur d’Alene and a convent, Our Lady of Lourdes, at Wallace, Shoshone county, opened in 1905; Mormon schools at Paris (Bear Lake county), Preston (Oneida county), Rexburg (Fremont county), and Oakley (Cassia county); a Methodist Episcopal school (1906) at Weiser (Washington -county); and a Protestant Episcopal school at Boisé (1892). The +county); and a Protestant Episcopal school at Boisé (1892). The Idaho Industrial Institute (non-denominational; incorporated in 1899) is at Weiser.</p> @@ -6374,10 +6335,10 @@ that when the taxable property amounts to $50,000,000 the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page279" id="page279"></a>279</span> rate shall not exceed 5 mills, when it reaches $100,000,000, 3 mills shall be the limit, and when it reaches $300,000,000 the rate shall -not exceed 1½ mills; but a greater rate may be established by a +not exceed 1½ mills; but a greater rate may be established by a vote of the people. No public debt (exclusive of the debt of the Territory of Idaho at the date of its admission to the Union as a state) -may be created that exceeds 1½% of the assessed valuation (except +may be created that exceeds 1½% of the assessed valuation (except in case of war, &c.); the state cannot lend its credit to any corporation, municipality or individual; nor can any county, city or town lend its credit or become a stockholder in any company (except @@ -6407,7 +6368,7 @@ While trading with these Indians, Capt. Pierce learned in the summer of 1860 that there was gold in Idaho. He found it on Orofino Creek, and a great influx followed—coming to Orofino, Newsome, Elk City, Florence, where the ore was especially rich, -and Warren. The news of the discovery of the Boisé Basin +and Warren. The news of the discovery of the Boisé Basin spread far and wide, and Idaho City, Placerville, Buena Vista, Centreville and Pioneerville grew up. The territory now constituting Idaho was comprised in the Territory of Oregon @@ -6501,13 +6462,13 @@ pamphlet issued by the State Commissioner of Immigration), Waldmor Lindgren’s “Gold and Silver Veins of Silver City, De Lamar and other Mining Districts of Idaho,” <i>U.S. Geological Survey, 20th Annual Report</i> (Washington, 1900), and “The Mining Districts -of the Idaho Basin and the Boisé Ridge, Idaho,” <i>U.S. Geological +of the Idaho Basin and the Boisé Ridge, Idaho,” <i>U.S. Geological Survey, 18th Annual Report</i> (Washington, 1898). These reports should be supplemented by the information contained elsewhere in the publications of the Geological Survey (see the Indexes of the survey) and in various volumes of the United States Census. W. B. Hepburn’s <i>Idaho Laws and Decisions, Annotated and Digested</i> -(Boisé, 1900), and H. H. Bancroft’s <i>Washington, Idaho, and Montana</i> +(Boisé, 1900), and H. H. Bancroft’s <i>Washington, Idaho, and Montana</i> (San Francisco, 1890) are the principal authorities for administration and history. The reports of the state’s various executive officers should be consulted also.</p> @@ -6532,7 +6493,7 @@ or bigamy, their registration or voting until two years after they had taken a test oath renouncing such practices, and until they had satisfied the District Court that in the two years preceding they had been guilty of no such practices. The Constitutional Convention -which met at Boisé in July-August 1889 was strongly anti-Mormon, +which met at Boisé in July-August 1889 was strongly anti-Mormon, and the Constitution it framed was approved by a popular vote of 12,398 out of 14,184. The United States Supreme Court decided the anti-Mormon legislation case of Davis v. Beason in favour of the @@ -6550,8 +6511,8 @@ U.S. Senate.</p> Mahi Kantha agency, within the Gujarat division of Bombay. It has an area of 1669 sq. m., and a population (1901) of 168,557, showing a decrease of 44% in the decade as the result of famine. -Estimated gross revenue, £29,000; tribute to the gaekwar of -Baroda, £2000. In 1901 the raja and his posthumous son both +Estimated gross revenue, £29,000; tribute to the gaekwar of +Baroda, £2000. In 1901 the raja and his posthumous son both died, and the succession devolved upon Sir Pertab Singh (<i>q.v.</i>) of Jodhpur. The line of railway from Ahmedabad through Parantij runs mainly through this state. Much of the territory @@ -6670,7 +6631,7 @@ a senior student of Christ Church, where he resided for a while as tutor and lecturer. His interest in the development of religious thought led him to devote himself specially to the history of the Roman Catholic Church in the 17th century, the -first-fruits of which was his <i>François de Fénelon</i> (London, 1901); +first-fruits of which was his <i>François de Fénelon</i> (London, 1901); eight years later he published his <i>Pascal</i> (<i>ib.</i> 1909).</p> <p>The second son of the 1st earl of Iddesleigh, <span class="sc">Stafford Henry @@ -6758,7 +6719,7 @@ fish.</p> <hr class="art" /> <p><span class="bold">IDEALISM<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="idea">ἰδέα</span>, archetype or model, through -Fr. <i>idéalisme</i>), a term generally used for the attitude of mind +Fr. <i>idéalisme</i>), a term generally used for the attitude of mind which is prone to represent things in an imaginative light and to lay emphasis exclusively or primarily on abstract perfection (<i>i.e.</i> in “ideals”). With this meaning the philosophical use of @@ -7642,7 +7603,7 @@ the height of impiety. God lives in the soul as it in Him. He also might say, from it as His offspring, to it as the object of His outgoing love are all things. (3) It is a mistake to attribute to Hegel the doctrine that time is an illusion. If in a well-known passage (<i>Logic</i> -§ 212) he seems to countenance the Spinoxistic view he immediately +§ 212) he seems to countenance the Spinoxistic view he immediately corrects it by assigning an “actualizing force” to this illusion and making it a “necessary dynamic element of truth.” Consistently with this we have the conclusion stated in the succeeding section @@ -7761,8 +7722,8 @@ he published his great work, <i>Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie</i> (2 vols.; 2nd ed., 1883), re-edited as <i>Lehrbuch der Chronologie</i> (1831); a supplementary volume, <i>Die Zeitrechnung der Chinesen</i>, appeared in 1839. Beside these -important works he wrote also <i>Untersuchungen über d. Ursprung -und d. Bedeutung d. Sternnamen</i> (1809) and <i>Über d. Ursprung d. +important works he wrote also <i>Untersuchungen über d. Ursprung +und d. Bedeutung d. Sternnamen</i> (1809) and <i>Ãœber d. Ursprung d. Thierkreises</i> (1838). With Nolte he published handbooks on English and French language and literature. His son, <span class="sc">Julius Ludwig Ideler</span> (1809-1842), wrote <i>Meteorologia veterum @@ -7892,7 +7853,7 @@ tissue of a pear.</p> <hr class="art" /> -<p><span class="bold">IDIOM<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="idiôma">ἰδίωμα</span>, something peculiar and personal; <span class="grk" title="idios">ἴδιος</span>, +<p><span class="bold">IDIOM<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="idiôma">ἰδίωμα</span>, something peculiar and personal; <span class="grk" title="idios">ἴδιος</span>, one’s own, personal), a form of expression whether in words, grammatical construction, phraseology, &c., which is peculiar to a language; sometimes also a special variety of a particular @@ -7915,7 +7876,7 @@ appearance, &c.</p> <hr class="art" /> -<p><span class="bold">IDOLATRY,<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> the worship (Gr. <span class="grk" title="latreia">λατρεία</span>) of idols (Gr. <span class="grk" title="eidôlon">εἴδωλον</span>), +<p><span class="bold">IDOLATRY,<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> the worship (Gr. <span class="grk" title="latreia">λατρεία</span>) of idols (Gr. <span class="grk" title="eidôlon">εἴδωλον</span>), <i>i.e.</i> images or other objects, believed to represent or be the abode of a superhuman personality. The term is often used generically to include such varied, forms as litholatry, dendrolatry, @@ -7961,7 +7922,7 @@ is an illustration: so too the vulgarities of modern popular Hinduism contrasted with the lofty teaching of the Indian sacred books.</p> -<p>In the New Testament the word <span class="grk" title="eidôlolatreia">εἰδωλολατρεία</span> (<i>idololatria</i>, +<p>In the New Testament the word <span class="grk" title="eidôlolatreia">εἰδωλολατρεία</span> (<i>idololatria</i>, afterwards shortened occasionally to <span class="grk" title="eidolatreia">εἰδολατρεία</span>, <i>idolatria</i>) occurs in all four times, viz. in 1 Cor. x. 14; Gal. v. 20; 1 Peter iv. 3; Col. iii. 5. In the last of these passages it is used to @@ -7969,7 +7930,7 @@ describe the sin of covetousness or “mammon-worship.” In the other places it indicates with the utmost generality all the rites and practices of those special forms of paganism with which Christianity first came into collision. It can only be understood -by reference to the LXX., where <span class="grk" title="eidôlon">εἴδωλον</span> (like the word “idol” +by reference to the LXX., where <span class="grk" title="eidôlon">εἴδωλον</span> (like the word “idol” in A.V.) occasionally translates indifferently no fewer than sixteen words by which in the Old Testament the objects of what the later Jews called “strange worship” (<span title="avoda zara">עבודה זרה</span>) are @@ -8030,7 +7991,7 @@ posts, stone steles, cones.</p> <hr class="art" /> <p><span class="bold">IDOMENEUS,<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> in Greek legend, son of Deucalion, grandson -of Minos and Pasiphaë, and king of Crete. As a descendant +of Minos and Pasiphaë, and king of Crete. As a descendant of Zeus and famous for his beauty, he was one of the suitors of Helen; hence, after her abduction by Paris, he took part in the Trojan War, in which he distinguished himself by his bravery. @@ -8075,9 +8036,9 @@ Idria. According to Goldschmidt it can be extracted by means of xylol, amyl alcohol or turpentine; also without decomposition, by distillation in a current of hydrogen, or carbon dioxide. It is a white crystalline body, very difficultly fusible, boiling -above 440° C. (824° F.), of the composition C<span class="su">40</span>H<span class="su">28</span>O. Its solution +above 440° C. (824° F.), of the composition C<span class="su">40</span>H<span class="su">28</span>O. Its solution in glacial acetic acid, by oxidation with chromic acid, yielded -a red powdery solid and a fatty acid fusing at 62° C., and +a red powdery solid and a fatty acid fusing at 62° C., and exhibiting all the characters of a mixture of palmitic and stearic acids.</p> @@ -8196,7 +8157,7 @@ and composed verses, which are referred to by the Sicilian Mahommedan poet Ibn Bashrun.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>Two manuscripts of Idrisi exist in the Bibliothèque Nationale, +<p>Two manuscripts of Idrisi exist in the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, and other two in the Bodleian Library, Oxford. One of the English MSS., brought from Egypt by Greaves, is illustrated by a map of the known world, and by thirty-three sectional maps (for each @@ -8232,40 +8193,40 @@ the university library of Jena. Casiri (<i>Bib. Ar. Hisp.</i> ii. 13) mentions that he had determined to re-edit this work, but he appears never to have executed his intention. The part relating to Africa was ably edited by Johann Melchior Hartmann (<i>Commentatio de geographia -Africae Edrisiana</i>, Göttingen, 1791, and <i>Edrisii Africa</i>, -Göttingen, 1796), Here are collected the notices of each region +Africae Edrisiana</i>, Göttingen, 1791, and <i>Edrisii Africa</i>, +Göttingen, 1796), Here are collected the notices of each region in other Moslem writers, so as to form, for the time, a fairly complete body of Arabic geography as to Africa. Hartmann afterwards published Idrisi’s Spain (<i>Hispania</i>, Marburg, 3 vols., 1802-1818).</p> <p>An (indifferent) French translation of the whole of Idrisi’s geography (the only complete version which has yet appeared), -based on one of the MSS. of the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, was -published by Amédée Jaubert in 1836-1840, and forms volumes -v. and vi. of the <i>Recueil de voyages</i> issued by the Paris Société de -Géographie; but a good and complete edition of the original text is +based on one of the MSS. of the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, was +published by Amédée Jaubert in 1836-1840, and forms volumes +v. and vi. of the <i>Recueil de voyages</i> issued by the Paris Société de +Géographie; but a good and complete edition of the original text is still a desideratum. A number of Oriental scholars at Leiden determined in 1861 to undertake the task. Spain and western Europe were assigned to Dozy; eastern Europe and western Asia to Engelmann; -central and eastern Asia to Defrémery; and Africa to +central and eastern Asia to Defrémery; and Africa to de Goeje. The first portion of the work appeared in 1866, under the title of <i>Description de l’Afrique et de l’Espagne par Edrisi, texte arabe, -publié avec une traduction, des notes et un glossaire par R. Dozy et +publié avec une traduction, des notes et un glossaire par R. Dozy et M. J. de Goeje</i> (Leiden, E. J. Brill, 1866); but the other collaborators did not furnish their quota. Other parts of Idrisi’s work have been -separately edited; <i>e.g.</i> “Spain” (<i>Descripcion de España de ... Aledris</i>), -by J. A. Condé, in Arabic and Spanish (Madrid, 1799); +separately edited; <i>e.g.</i> “Spain” (<i>Descripcion de España de ... Aledris</i>), +by J. A. Condé, in Arabic and Spanish (Madrid, 1799); “Sicily” (<i>Descrizione della Sicilia ... di Elidris</i>), by P. D. Magri and F. Tardia (Palermo, 1764); “Italy” (<i>Italia descritta nel “libro del Re Ruggero,” compilato da Edrisi</i>), by M. Amari and C. Schiaparelli, in Arabic and Italian (Rome, 1883); “Syria” (<i>Syria descripta a ... El Edrisio ...</i> ), -by E. F. C. Rosenmüller, in Arabic and Latin, +by E. F. C. Rosenmüller, in Arabic and Latin, 1825, and (<i>Idrisii ... Syria</i>), by J. Gildemeister (Bonn, 1885) -(the last a Beilage to vol. viii. of the <i>Zeitschrift d. deutsch. Palästina-Vereins</i>). +(the last a Beilage to vol. viii. of the <i>Zeitschrift d. deutsch. Palästina-Vereins</i>). See also M. Casiri, <i>Bibliotheca Arabico-Hispana Escurialensis</i> (2 vols., Madrid, 1760-1770); V. Lagus, “Idrisii notitiam terrarum Balticarum ex commerciis Scandinavorum et Italorum ... ortam -esse” in <i>Atti del IV° Congresso internaz. degli orientalisti +esse” in <i>Atti del IV° Congresso internaz. degli orientalisti in Firenze</i>, p. 395 (Florence, 1880); R. A. Brandel “Om och ur den arabiske geografen Idrisi,” <i>Akad. afhand.</i> (Upsala, 1894).</p> </div> @@ -8446,7 +8407,7 @@ character published by such writers as Tasso in Italy, Montemayor in Portugal and Ronsard in French. In 1658 the English critic, Edward Phillips, defined an “idyl” as “a kind of eclogue,” but it was seldom used to describe a modern poem. -Mme Deshoulières published a series of seven <i>Idylles</i> in 1675, +Mme Deshoulières published a series of seven <i>Idylles</i> in 1675, and Boileau makes a vague reference to the form. The sentimental German idyls of Salomon Gessner (in prose, 1758) and Voss (in hexameters, 1800) were modelled on Theocritus. @@ -8454,7 +8415,7 @@ Goethe’s <i>Alexis und Dora</i> is an idyl. It appears that the very general use, or abuse, of the word in the second half of the 19th century, both in English and French, arises from the popularity of two works, curiously enough almost identical in -date, by two eminent and popular poets. The <i>Idylles héroïques</i> +date, by two eminent and popular poets. The <i>Idylles héroïques</i> (1858) of Victor de Laprade and the <i>Idylls</i> of the King (1859) of Tennyson enjoyed a success in either country which led to a wide imitation of the title among those who had, @@ -8495,10 +8456,10 @@ technical necessities of the stage, and a remarkable power of devising effective situations. His best characters are simple and natural, fond of domestic life, but too much given to the utterance of sentimental commonplace. His best-known plays -are <i>Die Jäger</i>, <i>Dienstpflicht</i>, <i>Die Advokaten</i>, <i>Die Mündel</i> and +are <i>Die Jäger</i>, <i>Dienstpflicht</i>, <i>Die Advokaten</i>, <i>Die Mündel</i> and <i>Die Hagestolzen</i>. Iffland was also a dramatic critic, and German actors place high value on the reasonings and hints respecting -their art in his <i>Almanach für Theater und Theaterfreunde</i>. In +their art in his <i>Almanach für Theater und Theaterfreunde</i>. In 1798-1802 he issued his <i>Dramatischen Werke</i> in 16 volumes, to which he added an autobiography (<i>Meine theatralische Laufbahn</i>). In 1807-1809 Iffland brought out two volumes of <i>Neue dramatische @@ -8515,9 +8476,9 @@ on the 22nd of September 1814. A bronze portrait statue of him was erected in front of the Mannheim theatre in 1864.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See K. Duncker, <i>Iffland in seinen Schriften als Künstler, Lehrer, -und Direktor der Berliner Bühne</i> (1859); W. Koffka, <i>Iffland und -Dalberg</i> (1865); and Lampe, <i>Studien über Iffland als Dramatiker</i> +<p>See K. Duncker, <i>Iffland in seinen Schriften als Künstler, Lehrer, +und Direktor der Berliner Bühne</i> (1859); W. Koffka, <i>Iffland und +Dalberg</i> (1865); and Lampe, <i>Studien über Iffland als Dramatiker</i> (Celle, 1899). Iffland’s interesting autobiography, <i>Meine theatralische Laufbahn</i>, was republished by H. Holstein in 1885.</p> </div> @@ -8525,7 +8486,7 @@ Laufbahn</i>, was republished by H. Holstein in 1885.</p> <hr class="art" /> <p><span class="bold">IGLAU<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> (Czech <i>Jihlava</i>), a town of Austria, in Moravia, -56 m. N.W. of Brünn by rail. Pop. (1900) 24,387, of whom +56 m. N.W. of Brünn by rail. Pop. (1900) 24,387, of whom 4200 are Czechs and the remainder Germans. Iglau is situated on the Iglawa, close to the Bohemian frontier, and is one of the oldest towns in Moravia, being the centre of a German-speaking @@ -8569,7 +8530,7 @@ The minerals are conveyed by a small railway via Monteponi of Iglesias in the sheltered gulf of Carloforte), near Portoscuso, where they are shipped. The total amount of the minerals extracted in Sardinia in 1905 was 170,236 tons and their value -£765,054 (chiefly consisting of 99,749 tons of calamine zinc, +£765,054 (chiefly consisting of 99,749 tons of calamine zinc, 26,051 of blende zinc, 24,798 tons of lead and 15,429 tons of lignite): the greater part of them—118,009 tons—was exported from Portoscuso by sea and most of the rest from Cagliari, the @@ -8579,7 +8540,7 @@ near Spezia, to be smelted. At Portoscuso is also a tunny fishery.</p> <p>The cathedral of Iglesias, built by the Pisans, has a good -façade (restored); the interior is late Spanish Gothic. San +façade (restored); the interior is late Spanish Gothic. San Francesco is a fine Gothic church with a gallery over the entrance, while Sta Chiara and the church of the Capuchins (the former dating from 1285) show a transition between Romanesque and @@ -8599,7 +8560,7 @@ grand duke Alexander (afterwards tsar) stood sponsor at the boy’s baptism. At the age of seventeen he became an officer of the Guards. His diplomatic career began at the congress of Paris, after the Crimean War, where he took an active part -as military attaché in the negotiations regarding the rectification +as military attaché in the negotiations regarding the rectification of the Russian frontier on the Lower Danube. Two years later (1858) he was sent with a small escort on a dangerous mission to Khiva and Bokhara. The khan of Khiva laid a plan @@ -8647,8 +8608,8 @@ patristic writers seem to have known no more than we do. Irenaeus, for instance, gives a quotation from his Epistle to the Romans and does not appear to know (or if he knew he has forgotten) the name of the author, since he describes him -(<i>Adv. haer.</i> v. 28. 4) as “one of those belonging to us” (<span class="grk" title="tis tôn -hêmeterôn">τις τῶν ἡμετέρων</span>). If Eusebius possessed any knowledge about Ignatius +(<i>Adv. haer.</i> v. 28. 4) as “one of those belonging to us” (<span class="grk" title="tis tôn +hêmeterôn">τις τῶν ἡμετέρων</span>). If Eusebius possessed any knowledge about Ignatius apart from the letters he never reveals it. The only shred of extra information which he gives us is the statement that Ignatius “was the second successor of Peter in the bishopric @@ -8741,26 +8702,26 @@ attempts were made, notably by Jean Morin or Morinus (about 1656), Whiston (in 1711) and Meier (in 1836), to resuscitate the long recension. Many Protestants still maintained that the new recension, like the old, was a forgery. The chief attack -came from Jean Daillé, who in his famous work (1666) drew up +came from Jean Daillé, who in his famous work (1666) drew up no fewer than sixty-six objections to the genuineness of the Ignatian literature. He was answered by Pearson, who in his <i>Vindiciae epistolarum S. Ignatii</i> (1672) completely vindicated the authenticity of the Vossian Epistles. No further attack of any importance was made till the time of Baur, who like -Daillé rejected both recensions. In the third stage—inaugurated +Daillé rejected both recensions. In the third stage—inaugurated in 1845 by Cureton’s work—the controversy has ranged round the relative claims of the Vossian and the Curetonian recensions. Scholars have been divided into three camps, viz. (1) those who followed Cureton in maintaining that the three Syriac Epistles alone were the genuine work of Ignatius. Among them may be mentioned the names of Bunsen, A. Ritschl, -R. A. Lipsius, E. de Pressensé, H. Ewald, Milman, Bohringer. +R. A. Lipsius, E. de Pressensé, H. Ewald, Milman, Bohringer. (2) Those who accepted the genuineness of the Vossian recension and regarded the Curetonian as an abbreviation of it, <i>e.g.</i> Petermann, Denzinger, Uhlhorn, Merx, and in more recent times Th. Zahn, J. B. Lightfoot, Ad. Harnack and F. X. Funk. (3) Those who denied the authenticity of both recensions, <i>e.g.</i> Baur -and Hilgenfeld and in recent times van Manen,<a name="fa2h" id="fa2h" href="#ft2h"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Völter<a name="fa3h" id="fa3h" href="#ft3h"><span class="sp">3</span></a> and +and Hilgenfeld and in recent times van Manen,<a name="fa2h" id="fa2h" href="#ft2h"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Völter<a name="fa3h" id="fa3h" href="#ft3h"><span class="sp">3</span></a> and van Loon.<a name="fa4h" id="fa4h" href="#ft4h"><span class="sp">4</span></a> The result of more than half a century’s discussion has been to restore the Vossian recension to the premier position.</p> @@ -8841,7 +8802,7 @@ scholars place them a few years earlier (110-117).<a name="fa5h" id="fa5h" href= <p>The letters of Ignatius unfortunately, unlike the Epistles of St Paul, contain scant autobiographical material. We are told absolutely nothing about the history of his career. The fact -that like St Paul he describes himself as an <span class="grk" title="ektrôma">ἔκτρωμα</span> (<i>Rom.</i> 9), +that like St Paul he describes himself as an <span class="grk" title="ektrôma">ἔκτρωμα</span> (<i>Rom.</i> 9), and that he speaks of himself as “the last of the Antiochene Christians” (<i>Trall.</i> 13; <i>Smyrn.</i> xi.), seems to suggest that he had been converted from paganism somewhat late in life and @@ -8935,9 +8896,9 @@ call for notice. (1) Ignatius is the earliest writer outside the New Testament to describe Christ under the categories of current philosophy; cf. the famous passage in <i>Eph.</i> 7, “There is one only physician, of flesh and of spirit (<span class="grk" title="sarkikos kai pneumatikos">σαρκικὸς καὶ πνευματικός</span>), -generate and ingenerate (<span class="grk" title="gennêtos kai agennêtos">γεννητὸς καὶ ἀγέννητος</span>), God in +generate and ingenerate (<span class="grk" title="gennêtos kai agennêtos">γεννητὸς καὶ ἀγέννητος</span>), God in man, true life in death, son of Mary and son of God, first passible -and then impassible” (<span class="grk" title="prôton pathêtos kai apathês">πρῶτον παθητὸς καὶ ἀπαθής</span>). (2) +and then impassible” (<span class="grk" title="prôton pathêtos kai apathês">πρῶτον παθητὸς καὶ ἀπαθής</span>). (2) Ignatius is also the first writer outside the New Testament to mention the Virgin Birth, upon which he lays the utmost stress. “Hidden from the prince of this world were the virginity of @@ -8946,7 +8907,7 @@ Lord, three mysteries to be cried aloud, the which were wrought in the silence of God” (<i>Eph.</i> 19). Here, it will be observed, we have the nucleus of the later doctrine of the deception of Satan. In regard to the Eucharist also later ideas occur in Ignatius. -It is termed a <span class="grk" title="mystêrion">μυστήριον</span> (<i>Trall.</i> 2), and the influence of the Greek +It is termed a <span class="grk" title="mystêrion">μυστήριον</span> (<i>Trall.</i> 2), and the influence of the Greek mysteries is seen in such language as that used in <i>Eph.</i> 20, where Ignatius describes the Eucharistic bread as “the medicine of immortality and the antidote against death.” When Ignatius @@ -8967,9 +8928,9 @@ death, His resurrection and faith through Him” (<i>Philadel.</i> 8).</p> <div class="condensed"> <p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—T. Zahn, <i>Ignatius von Antiochien</i> (Gotha, 1873); J. B. Lightfoot, <i>Apostolic Fathers</i>, part ii. (London, 2nd ed., 1889); -F. X. Funk, <i>Die Echtheit der ignat. Briefe</i> (Tübingen, 1892); A. +F. X. Funk, <i>Die Echtheit der ignat. Briefe</i> (Tübingen, 1892); A. Harnack, <i>Chronologie der altchristlichen Litteratur</i> (Leipzig, 1897). -There is a good bibliography in G. Krüger, <i>Early Christian Literature</i> +There is a good bibliography in G. Krüger, <i>Early Christian Literature</i> (Eng. trans., 1897, pp. 28-29). See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Apostolic Fathers</a></span>.</p> </div> <div class="author">(H. T. A.)</div> @@ -8985,7 +8946,7 @@ p. 72 (Pickering, 1851).</p> <p><a name="ft4h" id="ft4h" href="#fa4h"><span class="fn">4</span></a> <i>Ib.</i> (1893) 275-316.</p> -<p><a name="ft5h" id="ft5h" href="#fa5h"><span class="fn">5</span></a> But there are still a few scholars, <i>e.g.</i> van Manen and Völter, +<p><a name="ft5h" id="ft5h" href="#fa5h"><span class="fn">5</span></a> But there are still a few scholars, <i>e.g.</i> van Manen and Völter, who prefer a date about 150 or later; van Loon goes as late as 175. See article “Old-Christian Literature,” <i>Ency. Bib.</i> iii. col. 3488.</p> </div> @@ -9055,8 +9016,8 @@ Elenchi</i> (ignorance of the refutation) see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlink <hr class="art" /> -<p><span class="bold">IGNORANTINES<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> (<i>Frères Ignorantins</i>), a name given to the -Brethren of the Christian Schools (<i>Frères des Écoles Chrétiennes</i>), +<p><span class="bold">IGNORANTINES<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> (<i>Frères Ignorantins</i>), a name given to the +Brethren of the Christian Schools (<i>Frères des Écoles Chrétiennes</i>), a religious fraternity founded at Reims in 1680, and formally organized in 1683, by the priest Jean Baptiste de la Salle, for the purpose of affording a free education, especially in religion, @@ -9068,9 +9029,9 @@ cassock, a hooded cloak with hanging sleeves and a broad-brimmed hat. The name Ignorantine was given from a clause in the rules of the order forbidding the admission of priests with a theological education. Other popular names applied to the -order are <i>Frères de Saint-Yon</i>, from the house at Rouen, which -was their headquarters from 1705 till 1770, <i>Frères à quatre bras</i>, -from their hanging sleeves, and <i>Frères Fouetteurs</i>, from their +order are <i>Frères de Saint-Yon</i>, from the house at Rouen, which +was their headquarters from 1705 till 1770, <i>Frères à quatre bras</i>, +from their hanging sleeves, and <i>Frères Fouetteurs</i>, from their former use of the whip (<i>fouet</i>) in punishments. The order, approved by Pope Benedict XIII. in 1724, rapidly spread over France, and although dissolved by the National Assembly’s @@ -9084,7 +9045,7 @@ connected with the Jesuits, their organization and discipline are very similar.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See J. B. Blain, <i>La Vie du vénérable J. B. de la Salle</i> (Versailles, +<p>See J. B. Blain, <i>La Vie du vénérable J. B. de la Salle</i> (Versailles, 1887).</p> </div> @@ -9151,7 +9112,7 @@ mixed with brown, while the tail is surrounded with alternate rings of those colours. Its food consists of vegetable substances, mostly leaves, which it obtains from the forest trees among whose branches it lives and in the hollows of which it deposits -its eggs. These are of an oblong shape about 1½ in. +its eggs. These are of an oblong shape about 1½ in. in length, and are said by travellers to be very pleasant eating, especially when taken raw, and mixed with farina. They are timid, defenceless animals, depending for safety on @@ -9310,7 +9271,7 @@ Umbrian town had three gates only, and probably lay on the steep mountain side as the present town does, while the Roman city lay in the lower ground. Here is the theatre, which, as an inscription records, was restored by Cn. Satrius Rufus in the -time of Augustus. The diameter of the orchestra is 76½ ft. +time of Augustus. The diameter of the orchestra is 76½ ft. and of the whole 230 ft., so that it is a building of considerable size; the stage is well preserved and so are parts of the external arcades of the auditorium. Not far off are ruins probably of @@ -9337,7 +9298,7 @@ by Buonarotti in 1724, as an appendix to Dempster’s <i>De Etruria Regali</i>.<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> <p>The first real advance towards their interpretation was made -by Otfried Müller (<i>Die Etrusker</i>, 1828), who pointed out that +by Otfried Müller (<i>Die Etrusker</i>, 1828), who pointed out that though their alphabet was akin to the Etruscan their language was Italic. Lepsius, in his essay <i>De tabulis Eugubinis</i> (1833), finally determined the value of the Umbrian signs and the @@ -9346,12 +9307,12 @@ alphabet were the latest. He subsequently published what may be called the <i>editio princeps</i> in 1841. The first edition, with a full commentary based on scientific principles, was that of Aufrecht and Kirchhoff in 1849-1851, and on this all subsequent -interpretations are based (Bréal, Paris, 1875; Bücheler, +interpretations are based (Bréal, Paris, 1875; Bücheler, <i>Umbrica</i>, Bonn, 1883, a reprint and enlargement of articles in Fleckeisen’s <i>Jahrbuch</i>, 1875, pp. 127 and 313). The text is everywhere perfectly legible, and is excellently represented in photographs by the marquis Ranghiasci-Brancaleone, published -with Bréal’s edition.</p> +with Bréal’s edition.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p><i>Language.</i>—The dialect in which this ancient set of liturgies is @@ -9388,7 +9349,7 @@ by six or seven centuries the similar change in the Romance languages (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Romance Languages</a></span>).</p> <p>(1) The palatalization of <i>k</i> and <i>g</i> before a following <i>i</i> or <i>e</i>, or -consonant <i>i</i> as in <i>tiçit</i> (<i>i.e.</i> <i>diçit</i>) = Lat. <i>decet</i>; <i>muieto</i> past part. +consonant <i>i</i> as in <i>tiçit</i> (<i>i.e.</i> <i>diçit</i>) = Lat. <i>decet</i>; <i>muieto</i> past part. passive (pronounced as though the <i>i</i> were an English or French <i>j</i>) beside Umb. imperative <i>mugatu</i>, Lat. <i>mugire</i>.</p> @@ -9437,8 +9398,8 @@ in <i>The Italic Dialects</i>, vol. ii. p. 495 seq.</p> <p>Save for the consequences of these phonetic changes, Umbrian morphology and syntax exhibit no divergence from Oscan that need be mentioned here, save perhaps two peculiar perfect-formations -with -<i>l</i>- and -<i>nçi</i>-; as in <i>ampelust</i>, fut. perf. “impenderit,” -<i>combifiançiust</i>, “nuntiaverit” (or the like). Full accounts of the +with -<i>l</i>- and -<i>nçi</i>-; as in <i>ampelust</i>, fut. perf. “impenderit,” +<i>combifiançiust</i>, “nuntiaverit” (or the like). Full accounts of the accidence and syntax, so far as it is represented in the inscriptions, will be found in the grammars of Buck and von Planta already mentioned, and in the second volume of Conway, <i>op. cit.</i></p> @@ -9581,7 +9542,7 @@ Fort Benton, Montana, and has been called missourite.</p> <hr class="art" /> <p><span class="bold">IKI,<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> an island belonging to Japan, lying off the north-western -coast of Kiushiu, in 33° 45′ N. lat. and 129° 40′ E. long. It has +coast of Kiushiu, in 33° 45′ N. lat. and 129° 40′ E. long. It has a circumference of 86 m., an area of 51 sq. m., and a population of 36,530. The island is, for the most part, a tableland about 500 ft. above sea-level. The anchorage is at Gonoura, on the @@ -9621,9 +9582,9 @@ was established, and the county gaol was completed in 1188. Henry II. granted a charter, confirmed by John in 1203, which gave Ilchester the same liberties as Winchester, with freedom from tolls and from being impleaded without the walls, the fee -farm being fixed at £26, 10s. 0d. The bailiffs of Ilchester are +farm being fixed at £26, 10s. 0d. The bailiffs of Ilchester are mentioned before 1230. The borough was incorporated in 1556, -the fee farm being reduced to £8. Ilchester was the centre +the fee farm being reduced to £8. Ilchester was the centre of the county administration from the reign of Edward III. until the 19th century, when the change from road to rail travelling completed the decay of the town. Its place has @@ -9641,23 +9602,23 @@ manufacture of thread lace was replaced by silk weaving about <hr class="art" /> -<p><span class="bold">ÎLE-DE-FRANCE,<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> an old district of France, forming a kind +<p><span class="bold">ÃŽLE-DE-FRANCE,<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> an old district of France, forming a kind of island, bounded by the Seine, the Marne, the Beuvronne, -the Thève and the Oise. In this sense the name is not found +the Thève and the Oise. In this sense the name is not found in written documents before 1429; but in the second half of the 15th century it designated a wide military province of government, bounded N. by Picardy, W. by Normandy, S. by -Orléanais and Nivernais, and E. by Champagne. Its capital -was Paris. From the territory of Île-de-France were formed +Orléanais and Nivernais, and E. by Champagne. Its capital +was Paris. From the territory of ÃŽle-de-France were formed under the Revolution the department of the Seine, together with the greater part of Seine-et-Oise, Seine-et-Marne, Oise -and Aisne, and a small part of Loiret and Nièvre. (The term -Île-de-France is also used for Mauritius, <i>q.v.</i>).</p> +and Aisne, and a small part of Loiret and Nièvre. (The term +ÃŽle-de-France is also used for Mauritius, <i>q.v.</i>).</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See A. Longnon, “L’Île-de-France, son origine, ses limites, ses -gouverneurs,” in the <i>Mémoires de la Société de l’histoire de Paris et de -l’Île-de-France</i>, vol. i. (1875).</p> +<p>See A. Longnon, “L’ÃŽle-de-France, son origine, ses limites, ses +gouverneurs,” in the <i>Mémoires de la Société de l’histoire de Paris et de +l’ÃŽle-de-France</i>, vol. i. (1875).</p> </div> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page299" id="page299"></a>299</span></p> @@ -9676,7 +9637,7 @@ its koumiss cures.</p> <hr class="art" /> <p><span class="bold">ILFELD,<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> a town in Germany, in the Prussian province of Hanover, situated at the south foot of the Harz, at the entrance -to the Bährethal, 8 m. N. from Nordhausen by the railway to +to the Bährethal, 8 m. N. from Nordhausen by the railway to Wernigerode. Pop. 1600. It contains an Evangelical church, a celebrated gymnasium, once a monasterial school, with a fine library, and manufactures of parquet-flooring, paper and @@ -9691,9 +9652,9 @@ Neander (1525-1595) enjoyed a reputation for scholarship which it has maintained until to-day.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See Förstemann, <i>Monumenta rerum Ilfeldensium</i> (Nordhausen, +<p>See Förstemann, <i>Monumenta rerum Ilfeldensium</i> (Nordhausen, 1843); M. Neander, <i>Bericht vom Kloster Ilfeld</i>, edited by Bouterwek -(Göttingen, 1873); and K. Meyer, <i>Geschichte des Klosters Ilfeld</i> +(Göttingen, 1873); and K. Meyer, <i>Geschichte des Klosters Ilfeld</i> (Leipzig, 1897).</p> </div> @@ -9768,13 +9729,13 @@ of doubtful validity.</p> <p><span class="bold">ILI,<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> one of the principal rivers of Central Asia, in the Russian province of Semiryechensk. The head-stream, called the Tekez, rises at an altitude of 11,600 ft. E. of Lake Issyk-kul, in -82° 25′ E. and 43° 23′ N., on the W. slopes of mount Kash-katur. +82° 25′ E. and 43° 23′ N., on the W. slopes of mount Kash-katur. At first it flows eastward and north-eastward, until, after emerging from the mountains, it meets the Kungez, and then, assuming the name of Ili, it turns westwards and flows between the Trans-Ili Ala-tau mountains on the south and the Boro-khoro and Talki ranges on the north for about 300 m. to Iliysk. -The valley between 79° 30′ and 82° E. is 50 m. wide, and the +The valley between 79° 30′ and 82° E. is 50 m. wide, and the portion above the town of Kulja (Old Kulja) is fertile and populous, Taranchi villages following each other in rapid succession, and the pastures being well stocked with sheep and @@ -9904,7 +9865,7 @@ pour out of the short narrow valleys of the Vosges. It is navigable from Ladhof near Colmar to its confluence with the Rhine, a distance of 59 m. It is on this river, and not on the Rhine, that the principal towns of Upper Alsace are situated, <i>e.g.</i> -Mülhausen, Colmarl, Schlettstadt and Strassburg. The Ill +Mülhausen, Colmarl, Schlettstadt and Strassburg. The Ill feeds two important canals, the Rhine-Marne canal and the Rhine-Rhone canal, both starting from the neighbourhood of Strassburg.</p> @@ -9929,8 +9890,8 @@ the district are Wollongong, Kiama, Clifton and Shellharbour.</p> France, formed in 1790 out of the eastern part of the old province of Brittany. Pop. (1906) 611,805. Area 2699 sq. m. It is bounded N. by the English Channel, the Bay of St Michel and -the department of Manche; E. by Mayenne; S. by Loire-Inférieure; -and W. by Morbihan and Côtes-du-Nord. The +the department of Manche; E. by Mayenne; S. by Loire-Inférieure; +and W. by Morbihan and Côtes-du-Nord. The territory of Ille-et-Vilaine constitutes a depression bordered by hills which reach their maximum altitudes (over 800 ft.) in the N.E. and W. of the department. The centre of this @@ -9965,11 +9926,11 @@ and pears are the principal fruit, and the cider of the canton of Dol has a high reputation. Cheese is made in considerable quantities, and the butter of Rennes is amongst the best in France. Large numbers of horses and cattle are raised. Mines -of iron, lead and zinc (Pont-Péan) and quarries of slate, granite, +of iron, lead and zinc (Pont-Péan) and quarries of slate, granite, &c., are worked. There are flour and saw-mills, brick works, boat-building yards, iron and copper foundries and forges, dyeworks, and a widespread tanning industry. Sail-cloth, -rope, pottery, boots and shoes (Fougères), edge-tools, nails, +rope, pottery, boots and shoes (Fougères), edge-tools, nails, farming implements, paper and furniture are also among the products of the department. The chief ports are St Malo and St Servan. Fishing is very active on the coast, and St Malo, @@ -9984,18 +9945,18 @@ The department is served by the Western railway, and has over Celtic origin than the Bretons of Western Brittany, between whom and the Normans and Angevins it forms a transitional group. Ille-et-Vilaine is divided into the arrondissements -of Fougères, St Malo, Montfort-sur-Meu, Redon, Rennes and -Vitré, with 43 cantons and 360 communes. The chief town +of Fougères, St Malo, Montfort-sur-Meu, Redon, Rennes and +Vitré, with 43 cantons and 360 communes. The chief town is Rennes, which is the seat of an archbishop and of a court of appeal, headquarters of the X. army corps, and the centre -of an académie (educational division).</p> +of an académie (educational division).</p> -<p>In addition to the capital, Fougères, St Malo, St Servan, +<p>In addition to the capital, Fougères, St Malo, St Servan, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page301" id="page301"></a>301</span> -Redon, Vitré, Dol, Dinard and Cancale +Redon, Vitré, Dol, Dinard and Cancale are the towns of chief importance and are separately noticed. At Combourg -there is a picturesque château of the +there is a picturesque château of the 14th and 15th centuries where Chateaubriand passed a portion of his early life. St Aubin-du-Cormier has @@ -10493,18 +10454,18 @@ Seasons upon Conduct</i> (1892).</p> <hr class="art" /> <p><span class="bold">ILLER,<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> a river of Bavaria, rising in the south-west extremity -of the kingdom, among the Algäuer Alps. Taking a northerly +of the kingdom, among the Algäuer Alps. Taking a northerly course, it quits the mountains at Immenstadt, and, flowing by Kempten, from which point it is navigable for rafts, forms -for some distance the boundary between Bavaria and Württemberg, +for some distance the boundary between Bavaria and Württemberg, and eventually strikes the Danube (right bank) just above Ulm. Its total length is 103 m.</p> <hr class="art" /> <p><span class="bold">ILLINOIS,<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> a North Central state of the United States of -America, situated between 37° and 42° 30′ N. lat. and 87° 35′ -and 91° 40′ W. long. It is bounded N. by Wisconsin, E. by +America, situated between 37° and 42° 30′ N. lat. and 87° 35′ +and 91° 40′ W. long. It is bounded N. by Wisconsin, E. by Lake Michigan and Indiana, S.E. and S. by the Ohio river, which separates it from Kentucky, and S.W. and W. by the Mississippi river, which separates it from Missouri and Iowa. @@ -10580,16 +10541,16 @@ temperature. The warm winds which sweep up the Mississippi Valley from the Gulf of Mexico are responsible for the extremes of heat, and the Arctic winds of the north, which find no mountain range to break their strength, cause the extremes of cold. The mean -annual temperature at Winnebago, near the N. border, is 47° F., and -it increases to the southward at the rate of about 2° for every degree -of latitude, being 52° F. at Springfield, and 58° F. in Cairo, at the +annual temperature at Winnebago, near the N. border, is 47° F., and +it increases to the southward at the rate of about 2° for every degree +of latitude, being 52° F. at Springfield, and 58° F. in Cairo, at the S. extremity. The lowest temperature ever recorded in the state -was −32° F., in February 1905, at Ashton in the N.W. and the -highest was 115° F., in July 1901, at Centralia, in the S., making a -maximum range of 147° F. The range of extremes is considerably +was −32° F., in February 1905, at Ashton in the N.W. and the +highest was 115° F., in July 1901, at Centralia, in the S., making a +maximum range of 147° F. The range of extremes is considerably greater in the N. than in the S.; for example, at Winnebago extremes -have ranged from −26° F. to 110° F. or 136° F., but at -Cairo they have ranged only from −16° F. to 106° F. or 122° F. +have ranged from −26° F. to 110° F. or 136° F., but at +Cairo they have ranged only from −16° F. to 106° F. or 122° F. The mean annual precipitation is about 39 in. in the S. counties, but this decreases to the northward, being about 36 in. in the central counties and 34 in. along the N. border. The mean annual snowfall @@ -10610,7 +10571,7 @@ before modern methods of sanitary drainage.</p> those of the other North Central States of North America, impressed the early explorers with their richness and variety. “We have seen nothing like this for the fertility of the land, its prairies, woods, -and wild cattle,” wrote Père Jacques Marquette of the Illinois +and wild cattle,” wrote Père Jacques Marquette of the Illinois region, and later explorers also bore witness to the richness of the country. Many of the original wild animals, such as the bison, bear, beaver, deer and lynx, have disappeared; wolves, foxes and @@ -11015,7 +10976,7 @@ and in the election of representatives since 1870 there has been a provision for “minority” representation, under which by cumulative voting each voter may cast as many votes for one candidate as there are representatives to be chosen, or he may -distribute his votes (giving three votes to one candidate, or 1½ +distribute his votes (giving three votes to one candidate, or 1½ votes each to two candidates, or one vote each to three candidates), the candidate or candidates receiving the highest number of votes being elected. A similar system of cumulative @@ -11356,7 +11317,7 @@ French province of Louisiana, which was granted to Antoine Crozat (1655-1738), and in 1721 the seventh civil and military district of that province was named Illinois, which included more than one-half of the present state, the country between -the Arkansas river and the line 43° N. lat., as well as the country +the Arkansas river and the line 43° N. lat., as well as the country between the Rocky Mountains and the Mississippi; but in 1723 the region around the Wabash river was formed into a separate district. The trade of the Illinois country was now diverted @@ -11430,7 +11391,7 @@ constitution was adopted, and the Territorial delegate in Congress was elected directly by the people.</p> <p>In 1818 Illinois became a state of the American Union, the -Enabling Act fixing the line 42° 30’ as the N. boundary, instead +Enabling Act fixing the line 42° 30’ as the N. boundary, instead of that provided by the Ordinance of 1787, which passed through the S. bend of Lake Michigan. The reason given for this change was that if the Mississippi and Ohio rivers were the only outlets @@ -11749,7 +11710,7 @@ value.</p> <p>The standard histories of the state are J. Moses, <i>Illinois, Historical and Statistical</i> (2 vols., Chicago, 1889); and H. Davidson and B. -Stuvé, <i>Complete History of Illinois</i> (Springfield, 1874). Edward G. +Stuvé, <i>Complete History of Illinois</i> (Springfield, 1874). Edward G. Mason’s <i>Chapters from Illinois History</i> (Chicago, 1901) is of interest <span class="pagenum"><a name="page312" id="page312"></a>312</span> for the French explorations and the colonial period. C. E. Boyd @@ -11863,7 +11824,7 @@ thrown open, crowds of petty traders from Lagos have flocked into Illorin, and between 4000 and 5000 trade licences are issued yearly. The British resident estimated in 1904 that at least 3000 loads of British cotton goods, which he valued at -£5 a load, were imported. The population of the town is +£5 a load, were imported. The population of the town is estimated at from 60,000 to 70,000. The chief buildings are the palace of the emir and the houses of the <i>baloguns</i> (war chiefs). From the centre of the town roads radiate like spokes @@ -11902,7 +11863,7 @@ and other medieval writers. Joinville likens the action of St Louis in adorning his kingdom with monastic foundations to a writer “qui a fait son livre qui l’enlumine d’or et d’azur”; while Dante (<i>Purgat.</i> xi. 79) alludes to this kind of decoration -as “quell’ arte che alluminare chiamata è in Parisi.” But while +as “quell’ arte che alluminare chiamata è in Parisi.” But while the term should be strictly applied to the brilliant book-ornamentation which was developed in the later middle ages, it has @@ -12032,7 +11993,7 @@ classical sentiment.</p> <p>From such early examples Byzantine art advanced to a maturer style in the 9th and 10th centuries, two MSS. in the -Bibliothèque Nationale of Paris being types of the best work +Bibliothèque Nationale of Paris being types of the best work of this time. These are: the copy of the sermons of Gregory Nazianzen (MS. <i>Grec.</i> 510), executed about the year 880 and containing a series of large miniatures, some being of the highest @@ -12076,7 +12037,7 @@ the depressing effect of which the artist seems to have felt himself compelled to relieve by rather startling contrasts of bright vermilion and lavish employment of gold. Still the initials and head-pieces continued to retain their brilliancy, of which they -could scarcely be deprived without losing their <i>raison d’être</i> as +could scarcely be deprived without losing their <i>raison d’être</i> as decorative adjuncts. But, with all faults, fine and delicate drawing, with technical finish in the applied colours, is still characteristic of the best Greek miniatures of the 10th to 12th @@ -12410,7 +12371,7 @@ less predominant, although body colours were also freely employed in many examples. But the most elaborate specimen of Anglo-Saxon illumination of the 10th century is one belonging to the duke of Devonshire: the <i>Benedictional</i> of the see of -Winchester, executed under the direction of Æthelwold, bishop +Winchester, executed under the direction of Æthelwold, bishop from 963 to 984, which contains a series of miniatures, in this instance in body colours, but drawn in the unmistakable style of the new school. In the scheme of decoration, however, @@ -12430,7 +12391,7 @@ freedom; and the colouring which he applied was generally softer and more harmonious than that which was employed abroad. Examples of outline drawing of the best type exist in the Harleian <i>Psalter</i> (No. 2904), of the same period as the -Æthelwold <i>Benedictional</i>; in the register of New Minster +Æthelwold <i>Benedictional</i>; in the register of New Minster (Stowe MS. 944), <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1016-1020; and in the Prudentius (Cotton MS. Cleop. C. viii.), executed early in the 11th century.</p> @@ -12911,7 +12872,7 @@ practised with great effect in the 15th century. This was the simpler style of drawing in white delicately shaded to indicate <span class="pagenum"><a name="page319" id="page319"></a>319</span> the contour of figures and the folds of drapery, &c., known as -<i>grisaille</i> or <i>camaïeu gris</i>. It was not indeed confined to the +<i>grisaille</i> or <i>camaïeu gris</i>. It was not indeed confined to the Flemish schools, but was practised also to some extent and to good effect in northern France, and also in Holland and other countries; but the centre of its activity appears to have been @@ -12929,7 +12890,7 @@ British Museum (King’s MS. 5) of the beginning of the 15th century contains scenes from the life of Christ in which the features are carefully modelled, very much after the style of English work of the same time; and some of the specimens of -Dutch work in <i>camaïeu gris</i> are excellent.</p> +Dutch work in <i>camaïeu gris</i> are excellent.</p> <p>German illumination in the 15th century appears to have largely copied the Flemish style; but it lost the finer qualities @@ -13048,14 +13009,14 @@ and Jenner, <i>Early Drawings and Illuminations</i>, with a dictionary of subjects in MSS. in the British Museum (1879); J. H. Middleton, <i>Illuminated MSS. in Classical and Medieval Times</i> (1892); G. F. Warner, <i>Illuminated MSS. in the British Museum</i> (official publication, -1903); H. Omont, <i>Facsimilés des miniatures des plus anciens +1903); H. Omont, <i>Facsimilés des miniatures des plus anciens MSS. grecs de la Bibl. Nationale</i> (1902); V. de Boutovsky, <i>Histoire -de l’ornement russe du X<span class="sp">e</span> au XVI<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>, including facsimiles from +de l’ornement russe du X<span class="sp">e</span> au XVI<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>, including facsimiles from Byzantine MSS. (1870); J. O. Westwood, <i>Facsimiles of Miniatures and Ornaments of Anglo-Saxon and Irish MSS.</i> (1868); E. M. Thompson, <i>English Illuminated MSS.</i> (1895); <i>Paleografia artistica di Montecassino</i> (1876-1884); <i>Le Miniature nei codici Cassinesi</i> -(1887); A. Haseloff, <i>Eine thüringisch-sächsische Malereischule des +(1887); A. Haseloff, <i>Eine thüringisch-sächsische Malereischule des 13. Jahrhunderts</i> (1897); G. Schwarzenski, <i>Die Regensburger Buchmalerei des 10. und 11. Jahrhunderts</i> (1901); Sauerland and Haseloff, <i>Der Psalter Erzbischof Egberts von Trier</i> (1901).</p> @@ -13077,7 +13038,7 @@ ed. Madden (1850); the <i>Facsimiles</i> of the Palaeographical Society and the <i>Collezione paleografia Vaticana</i>, the issue of which was commenced in 1905. Excellent photographic reproductions on a reduced scale are being issued by the British Museum and by the -Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris.</p> +Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris.</p> </div> <div class="author">(E. M. T.)</div> @@ -13096,7 +13057,7 @@ One of their earliest leaders, born in Salamanca, a labourer’s daughter, known as La Beata de Piedrahita, came under the notice of the Inquisition in 1511, as claiming to hold colloquies with our Lord and the Virgin; having high patrons, no decision -was taken against her (<i>Los Heterodoxos Españoles</i>, 1881, lib. v.). +was taken against her (<i>Los Heterodoxos Españoles</i>, 1881, lib. v.). Ignatius Loyola, while studying at Salamanca (1527) was brought before an ecclesiastical commission on a charge of sympathy with the <i>alumbrados</i>, but escaped with an admonition. Others @@ -13104,12 +13065,12 @@ were not so fortunate. In 1529 a congregation of unlettered adherents at Toledo was visited with scourging and imprisonment. Greater rigours followed, and for about a century the <i>alumbrados</i> afforded many victims to the Inquisition, especially -at Cordova. The movement (under the name of <i>Illuminés</i>) +at Cordova. The movement (under the name of <i>Illuminés</i>) seems to have reached France from Seville in 1623, and attained some proportions in Picardy when joined (1634) by Pierre -Guérin, curé of Saint-Georges de Roye, whose followers, known -as Guérinets, were suppressed in 1635 (Hermant, <i>Hist. des -hérésies</i>, 1717). Another and obscure body of <i>Illuminés</i> came +Guérin, curé of Saint-Georges de Roye, whose followers, known +as Guérinets, were suppressed in 1635 (Hermant, <i>Hist. des +hérésies</i>, 1717). Another and obscure body of <i>Illuminés</i> came to light in the south of France in 1722, and appears to have lingered till 1794, having affinities with those known contemporaneously in this country as “French Prophets,” an offshoot @@ -13118,7 +13079,7 @@ better known as Rosicrucians, who claimed to originate in 1422, but rose into notice in 1537; a secret society, combining with the mysteries of alchemy the possession of esoteric principles of religion. Their positions are embodied in three anonymous -treatises of 1614 (Richard et Giraud, <i>Dict. de la théol. cath.</i>). +treatises of 1614 (Richard et Giraud, <i>Dict. de la théol. cath.</i>). A short-lived movement of republican freethought, to whose adherents the name Illuminati was given, was founded on May-day 1776 by Adam Weishaupt (d. 1830), professor of @@ -13142,11 +13103,11 @@ Martinists, founded in 1754 by Martinez Pasqualis, and to their imitators, the Russian Martinists, headed about 1790 by Professor Schwartz of Moscow; both were Cabalists and allegorists, imbibing ideas from Jakob Boehme and Emmanuel Swedenborg -(Bergier, <i>Dict. de théol.</i>).</p> +(Bergier, <i>Dict. de théol.</i>).</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See (especially for details of the movement of Weishaupt,) P. -Tschackert, in Hauck’s <i>Realencyklopädie</i> (1901).</p> +Tschackert, in Hauck’s <i>Realencyklopädie</i> (1901).</p> </div> <div class="author">(A. Go.*)</div> @@ -13373,7 +13334,7 @@ German school of the 16th century committed its energies even more vigorously to illustration; and many of its artists are now known chiefly through their engravings on wood or copper, a good proportion of which were done to the accompaniment -of printed matter. The names of Dürer, Burgmair, Altdorfer +of printed matter. The names of Dürer, Burgmair, Altdorfer and Holbein represent a school whose engraved illustrations possess qualities which have never been rivalled, and remain an invaluable aid to imitators of the present day.</p> @@ -13437,7 +13398,7 @@ to Rogers’s <i>Italy</i> were done from drawings which Turner had not produced for purposes of illustration; and the admirable lithographs of Samuel Prout and Richard Bonington were merely studies of architecture and landscape made in a material that -admitted of indefinite multiplication. It is true that Géricault +admitted of indefinite multiplication. It is true that Géricault came over to England about the year 1820 to draw the English race-horse and other studies of country life, which were published in London in 1821, and that other fine work in lithography was @@ -13504,7 +13465,7 @@ Foster, Harrison Weir, T. Creswick, W. Mulready and others; but their methods were too vague and diffuse to bear as yet the mark of a school; no single influence gave a unity to their efforts. On some of them Adolf von -Menzel’s illustrations to Kügler’s <i>Frederick the Great</i>, published +Menzel’s illustrations to Kügler’s <i>Frederick the Great</i>, published in England in 1844, may have left a mark; Gilbert certainly shows traces of the influence of Delacroix and Bonington in the free, loose method of his draughtsmanship, independent of accurate @@ -13745,7 +13706,7 @@ grouping will supply a formula for all the noteworthy work produced when men are drawn this way and that by current influences. Among artists resolutely independent of contemporary coteries may be named W. Strang, whose grave, rugged work shows him a -pupil, through Legros, of Dürer and others of the old masters; T. +pupil, through Legros, of Dürer and others of the old masters; T. Sturge Moore, an original engraver of designs which have an equal affinity for Blake, Calvert and Hokusai; W. Nicholson, whose style shows a dignified return to the best part of the Rowlandson @@ -13756,7 +13717,7 @@ sources of European and Japanese art, he produced, by the force of a vivid personality and extraordinary technical skill, a result which was highly original and impressive. To a genuine liking for analysis of repulsive and vicious types of humanity he added an -exquisite sense of line, balance and mass; and partly by <i>succès +exquisite sense of line, balance and mass; and partly by <i>succès de scandale</i>, partly by genuine artistic brilliance, he gathered round him a host of imitators, to whom, for the most part, he was able to impart only his more mediocre qualities.</p> @@ -13768,7 +13729,7 @@ the day with the black-and-white artists of England did <span class="sidenote">United States.</span> any work of real moment emanate from the United States, unless that of Elihu Vedder be regarded as an exception. -Howard Pyle is a brilliant imitator of Dürer; he has also the +Howard Pyle is a brilliant imitator of Dürer; he has also the ability to adapt himself to draughtsmanship of a more modern tendency. C. S. Reinhart was an artist of directness and force, in a style based upon modern French and German examples; while of @@ -13786,11 +13747,11 @@ them the triumphs of early lithography. The illustrators of France at that period were also her <span class="sidenote">France.</span> greatest artists. Of the historical and romantic school were D. -Raffet, Nicholas J. Charlet, Géricault, Delacroix, J. B. Isabey and -Achille Devéria, many of whose works appeared in <i>L’Artiste</i>, a +Raffet, Nicholas J. Charlet, Géricault, Delacroix, J. B. Isabey and +Achille Devéria, many of whose works appeared in <i>L’Artiste</i>, a paper founded in 1831 as the official organ of the romanticists; while the realists were led in the direction of caricature by two artists of -such enormous force as Gavarni and Honoré Daumier, whose works, +such enormous force as Gavarni and Honoré Daumier, whose works, appearing in <i>La Lithographie Mensuelle</i>, <i>Le Charivari</i> and <i>La Caricature</i>, ran the gauntlet of political interference and suppression during a troubled period of French politics—which was the very @@ -13808,11 +13769,11 @@ retained lithography rather than commit themselves to the middleman engraver. Nevertheless, from about the year 1830 many French artists produced illustrations which were interpreted upon the wood for the most part by English engravers. Cunier’s editions -of <i>Paul et Virginie</i> and <i>La Chaumière Indienne</i>, illustrated by +of <i>Paul et Virginie</i> and <i>La Chaumière Indienne</i>, illustrated by Huet, Jacque, Isabey, Johannot and Meissonier, were followed by -Meissonier’s more famous illustrations to <i>Contes rémois</i>. After +Meissonier’s more famous illustrations to <i>Contes rémois</i>. After Meissonier came J. B. E. Detaille and Alphonse M. de Neuville and, -with a voluminous style of his own, L. A. G. Doré. By the majority +with a voluminous style of his own, L. A. G. Doré. By the majority of these artists the drawing for the engraver seems to have been done with the pen; and the tendency to penmanship was still more accentuated when from Spain came the influence of M. J. Fortuny’s @@ -13826,10 +13787,10 @@ colour through the type itself), and the delicate grace of Boutet de Monvel’s <i>Jeanne d’Arc</i>, also in colours, it is to the illustrators of the comic papers that we have to go for the most typical and most audacious specimens of French art. In the pages of <i>Gil Blas</i>, <i>Le -Pierrot</i>, <i>L’Écho de Paris</i>, <i>Le Figaro Illustré</i>, <i>Le Courrier Français</i>, +Pierrot</i>, <i>L’Écho de Paris</i>, <i>Le Figaro Illustré</i>, <i>Le Courrier Français</i>, and similar publications, are to be found, reproduced with a dexterity of process unsurpassed in England, the designs of J. L. Forain, -C. L. Léandre, L. A, Willette and T. A. Steinlen, the leaders of a +C. L. Léandre, L. A, Willette and T. A. Steinlen, the leaders of a school enterprising in technique, and with a mixture of subtlety and grossness in its humour. Caran d’Ache also became celebrated as a draughtsman of comic drama in outline.</p> @@ -13839,20 +13800,20 @@ worthy of comparison with the great Menzel is Hans Tegner, if, indeed, he be not in some respects his technical superior; but apart from these two, the illustrators respectively of <span class="sidenote">Germany.</span> -Kügler’s <i>Frederick the Great</i> and Holberg’s <i>Comedies</i>, there is no +Kügler’s <i>Frederick the Great</i> and Holberg’s <i>Comedies</i>, there is no German, Danish or Dutch illustrator who can lay claim to first -rank. Max Klinger, A. Böcklin, W. Trübner, Franz Stück and +rank. Max Klinger, A. Böcklin, W. Trübner, Franz Stück and Hans Thoma are all symbolists who combine in a singular degree force with brutality; the imaginative quality in their work is for the most part ruined by the hard, braggart way in which it is driven home. The achievements and tendency of the later school of illustration in Germany are best seen in the weekly illustrated journal, <i>Jugend</i>, of Munich. Typical of an older German school is -the work of Adolf Oberländer, a solid, scientific sort of caricaturist, +the work of Adolf Oberländer, a solid, scientific sort of caricaturist, whose illustrations are at times so monumental that the humour in them seems crushed out of life. Others who command high qualities of technique are W. Dietz, L. von Nagel, Hermann Vogel, -H. Lüders and Robert Haug. Behind all these men in greater or +H. Lüders and Robert Haug. Behind all these men in greater or less degree lies the influence of Menzel’s coldly balanced and dry-lighted realism; but wherever the influence of Menzel ceases, the merit of German illustration for the most part tends to disappear @@ -13865,7 +13826,7 @@ or become mediocre.</p> <i>The Decorative Illustration of Books</i> (London, 1896); Gleeson White, <i>English Illustration: “The ’Sixties”: 1855-1870</i> (Westminster, 1897); W. A. Chatto, <i>A Treatise on Wood Engraving</i> (London, <i>n.d.</i>); -Bar-le-Duc, <i>Les Illustrations du XIX<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (Paris, 1882); T. +Bar-le-Duc, <i>Les Illustrations du XIX<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (Paris, 1882); T. Kutschmann, <i>Geschichte der deutschen Illustration vom ersten Auftreten des Formschnittes bis auf die Gegenwart</i> (Berlin, 1899).</p> </div> @@ -13915,7 +13876,7 @@ desired result. Half-tone blocks (as they were called) of this nature (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Process</a></span>) were used in the <i>Graphic</i> from 1884 and the <i>Illustrated London News</i> from 1885 onwards, the methods at first in favour being those of Meisenbach and Boussod Valadon and Co.’s phototype. -Lemercier and Petit of Paris, Angerer and Göschl of Vienna, and F. +Lemercier and Petit of Paris, Angerer and Göschl of Vienna, and F. Ives of Philadelphia also perfected processes giving a similar result, a block by the latter appearing in the <i>Century</i> magazine as early as 1882. Processes of this description had, however, been used for @@ -14010,8 +13971,8 @@ the whole very similar. Process—especially what was called “Gillotage”—was adopted earlier, and used at first with greater liberality than in England, although wood-engraving has persisted effectively even up to our own time. In the various types of -periodicals of which the <i>Revue Illustrée</i>, <i>Figaro Illustré</i> and <i>Gil Blas -Illustré</i> may be taken as examples, the most noticeable feature is a +periodicals of which the <i>Revue Illustrée</i>, <i>Figaro Illustré</i> and <i>Gil Blas +Illustré</i> may be taken as examples, the most noticeable feature is a use of colour-printing, which is far in advance of anything generally attempted in Great Britain. A favourite and effective process is that employed for the reproduction of chalk drawings (as by Steinlen), @@ -14113,13 +14074,13 @@ implements, iron and bronze ornaments, weapons, &c., and objects of more recent date fashioned in silver, tin, amber and even glass. These illustrate various stages in the development of primitive Illyrian civilization, from the neolithic age onward. -The Hallstatt and La Tène cultures are especially well +The Hallstatt and La Tène cultures are especially well represented. (See W. Ridgeway, <i>The Early Age of Greece</i>, 1901; R. Munro, <i>Bosnia-Herzegovina and Dalmatia</i>, Edinburgh, 1900; and W. -Radimský, <i>Die neolithische Station von Butmir</i>, Vienna, +Radimský, <i>Die neolithische Station von Butmir</i>, Vienna, 1895-1898.) Similar discoveries have been made in Dalmatia, as among the tumuli on the Sabbioncello promontory, and in -Croatia-Slavonia. H. Kiepert (“Über den Volkstamm der Leleges,” +Croatia-Slavonia. H. Kiepert (“Ãœber den Volkstamm der Leleges,” in <i>Monatsber. Berl. Akad.</i>, 1861, p. 114) sought to prove that the Illyrians were akin to the Leleges; his theory was supported by E. Schrader, but is not generally accepted. In Dalmatia there @@ -14135,17 +14096,17 @@ Indogermanischen Sprachen</i> (Strassburg, 1904); and his larger <i>Grundriss der vergleichenden Grammatik</i> (2nd ed., Strassburg, 1897), with the authorities there quoted, especially P. Kretschmer, <i>Einleitung in die Geschichte der Griechischen -Sprachen</i> (Göttingen, 1896): see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Albania</a></span>.</p> +Sprachen</i> (Göttingen, 1896): see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Albania</a></span>.</p> </div> <p><i>History.</i>—Greek colonization on the Illyrian seaboard probably began late in the 7th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> or early in the 6th century. The most important settlements appear to have been at Epidamnus (Durazzo), -Tragurium (Traù), Rhizon (near Cattaro), Salona (near Spalato), +Tragurium (Traù), Rhizon (near Cattaro), Salona (near Spalato), Epidaurum (Ragusavecchia), Zara and on the islands of Curzola, Lesina and Lissa. There is a collection of Greek coins from Illyria in the museum at Agram, and the researches of Professor -F. Bulié and others at Salona (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Spalato</a></span>) have brought to light +F. Bulié and others at Salona (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Spalato</a></span>) have brought to light Greek inscriptions, Greek pottery, &c. dating from 600 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> But Greek influence seems never to have penetrated far into the interior, and even on the coast it was rapidly superseded by @@ -14276,27 +14237,27 @@ and culture.</p> In literature it was preserved, and the scene of Shakespeare’s comedy, <i>Twelfth Night</i>, is laid in Illyria. Politically the name was revived in 1809, when the name Illyrian Provinces was given -to Carniola, Dalmatia, Istria, Fiume, Görz and Gradisca, and +to Carniola, Dalmatia, Istria, Fiume, Görz and Gradisca, and Trieste, with parts of Carinthia and Croatia; these territories -were ceded by Austria to Italy at the peace of Schönnbrun +were ceded by Austria to Italy at the peace of Schönnbrun (14th Oct. 1809). The Illyrian Provinces were occupied by French troops and governed in the interest of Napoleon; the republic of Ragusa was annexed to them in 1811, but about the end of 1813 the French occupation ceased to be effective and the provinces reverted to Austria. The kingdom of Illyria, which was constituted in 1816 out of the crown-lands of Carinthia, -Carniola, Istria, Görz and Gradisca, and Trieste, formed until +Carniola, Istria, Görz and Gradisca, and Trieste, formed until 1849 a kingdom of the Austrian crown. For the political propaganda known as Illyrism, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Croatia-Slavonia</a></span>: <i>History</i>.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—In addition to the authorities quoted above, -see G. Zippel, <i>Die römische Herrschaft in Illyrien bis auf Augustus</i> -(Leipzig, 1877); P. O. Bahn, <i>Der Ursprung der römischen Provinz -Illyrien</i> (Grimma, 1876); J. Marquardt, <i>Römische Staatsverwaltung</i>, +see G. Zippel, <i>Die römische Herrschaft in Illyrien bis auf Augustus</i> +(Leipzig, 1877); P. O. Bahn, <i>Der Ursprung der römischen Provinz +Illyrien</i> (Grimma, 1876); J. Marquardt, <i>Römische Staatsverwaltung</i>, i. (1881), p. 295; E. A. Freeman, “The Illyrian Emperors and their Land” (<i>Historical Essays</i>, series 3, 1879); C. Patsch in Pauly-Wissowa’s -<i>Realencyklopädie</i>, iv. pt. 2 (1901); Th. Mommsen, <i>The +<i>Realencyklopädie</i>, iv. pt. 2 (1901); Th. Mommsen, <i>The Provinces of the Roman Empire</i> (ed. F. Haverfield, 1909).</p> </div> @@ -14318,7 +14279,7 @@ Henneberg, Ilmenau came in 1631 into the possession of electoral Saxony, afterwards passing to Saxe-Weimar.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See R. Springer, <i>Die klassischen Stätten von Jena und Ilmenau</i> +<p>See R. Springer, <i>Die klassischen Stätten von Jena und Ilmenau</i> (Berlin, 1869); Pasig, <i>Goethe und Ilmenau</i> (2nd ed., Weimar, 1902); and Fils, <i>Bad Ilmenau und seine Umgebung</i> (Hildburghausen, 1886).</p> </div> @@ -14340,9 +14301,9 @@ the same degree of symmetry as phenacite and pyrophanite, but differing from that of haematite. The angles between the faces are very nearly the same as between the corresponding faces of haematite; but it is to be noted that the rhombohedral -angle (94° 29′) of ilmenite is not intermediate between that of -haematite (94° 0′) and of the artificially prepared crystals of -titanium sesquioxide (92° 40′), which should be the case if the +angle (94° 29′) of ilmenite is not intermediate between that of +haematite (94° 0′) and of the artificially prepared crystals of +titanium sesquioxide (92° 40′), which should be the case if the three substances were isomorphous. Analyses show wide variations in chemical composition, and there is @@ -14370,14 +14331,14 @@ submetallic lustre; finally, the conchoidal fracture is the same in both minerals. Ilmenite has a black streak; it is opaque, but in very thin scales sometimes transparent with a clove-brown colour. It is slightly magnetic, but without polarity. -The hardness is 5½, and the specific gravity varies with the +The hardness is 5½, and the specific gravity varies with the chemical composition from 4.3 to 5.0.</p> <p>Owing to the wide variations in composition, which even yet are not properly understood, several varieties of the mineral have been distinguished by special names. Crichtonite occurs as small and brilliant crystals of acute rhombohedral habit -on quartz at Le Bourg d’Oisans in Dauphiné; it agrees closely +on quartz at Le Bourg d’Oisans in Dauphiné; it agrees closely in composition with the formula FeTiO<span class="su">3</span> and has a specific gravity of 4.7. Manaccanite (or Menaccanite) is a black sandy material, first found in 1791 in a stream at Manaccan near Helston in @@ -14392,7 +14353,7 @@ are kibdelophane, hystatite, &c. The name ilmenite, proposed by A. T. Kupffer in 1827, is after the Ilmen Mountains in the southern Urals, whence come the best crystals of the mineral. The largest crystals, sometimes as much as 16 ℔ in weight, are -from Kragerö and Arendal in Norway.</p> +from Kragerö and Arendal in Norway.</p> <p>Ilmenite occurs, often in association with magnetite, in gneisses and schists, sometimes forming beds of considerable @@ -14423,7 +14384,7 @@ which is traversed by gravel roads leading to the principal towns of the province, is fertile and well cultivated, producing sugar, tobacco and rice in abundance. In commercial importance Iloilo ranks next to Manila among Philippine cities; it has manufactures -of piña, jusi, coconut oil, lime, vinegar and various +of piña, jusi, coconut oil, lime, vinegar and various articles made from palm wood. Much of the town was burned by Filipino insurgents soon after its capture by American troops in February 1899.</p> @@ -14434,7 +14395,7 @@ in February 1899.</p> Prussian Saxony, romantically situated under the north foot of the Harz Mountains, at the entrance to the Ilsethal, 6 m. N.W. from Wernigerode by the railway to Goslar. Pop. (1900) -3868. It has an Evangelical church, a modern château of the +3868. It has an Evangelical church, a modern château of the princes of Stolberg, with pretty grounds, and a high grade school, and manufactures metal wares, machines and iron screws and bolts.</p> @@ -14976,9 +14937,9 @@ title. It is thus applied to leading theologians, <i>e.g.</i> to Abū are called “the four Imāms”), Ghazāli.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See McG. de Slane’s transl. of Ibn Khaldūn’s <i>Prolégomènes</i>, i. +<p>See McG. de Slane’s transl. of Ibn Khaldūn’s <i>Prolégomènes</i>, i. 384 seq., 402 seq., 426 seq., 445; iii. 35, 58 seq.; Ostrorog’s transl. of -Māwardī’s <i>Ahkām</i> i. 89 seq.; Haarbrücker’s transl. of Shahrastānī +Māwardī’s <i>Ahkām</i> i. 89 seq.; Haarbrücker’s transl. of Shahrastānī by index; Juynboll’s <i>De <span class="correction" title="amended from Mohammedaanische">Mohammedanische</span> Wet</i>, 316 seq.; Sell’s <i>Faith of Islam</i>, 95 seq.; Macdonald’s <i>Development of Muslim Theology</i>, 56 seq.</p> @@ -15072,15 +15033,15 @@ with difficulty.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p><i>Imidazole</i> (glyoxaline), C<span class="su">3</span>H<span class="su">4</span>N<span class="su">2</span>, crystallizes in thick prisms which -melt at 88-89° C. and boil at 253° C., and are readily soluble in +melt at 88-89° C. and boil at 253° C., and are readily soluble in alcohol and in water. It is unaffected by chromic acid, but potassium permanganate oxidizes it to formic acid. It forms salts with acids.</p> <p><i>Lophine</i> (triphenylglyoxaline), <img style="width:185px; height:53px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img332b.jpg" alt="" /> is formed by the dry distillation of hydrobenzamide, or by saturating an alcoholic solution of benzil and benzaldehyde (at a temperature of -40° C.) with ammonia. It crystallizes in needles which melt at -275° C. It is a weak base. When heated to 300° C. with hydriodic +40° C.) with ammonia. It crystallizes in needles which melt at +275° C. It is a weak base. When heated to 300° C. with hydriodic acid and hydrochloric acid, in the presence of some red phosphorus, it yields benzoic acid.</p> @@ -15089,7 +15050,7 @@ by the action of acids on acetalyl thioureas (W. Marckwald, Ber., 1892, 25, p. 2357). <i>Benzimidazole</i>, <img style="width:135px; height:34px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img332c.jpg" alt="" /> is the simplest representative of the benzoglyoxalines and is prepared by the condensation of formic acid with ortho-phenylene diamine. It -forms rhombic crystals which melt at 170° C. It is basic in character, +forms rhombic crystals which melt at 170° C. It is basic in character, and on oxidation with potassium permanganate yields a small amount of glyoxaline dicarboxylic acid, <img style="width:158px; height:49px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img332d.jpg" alt="" /> (E. Bamberger, <i>Ann.</i>, 1893, 273, p. 338).</p> </div> @@ -15176,7 +15137,7 @@ impossible.</p> <p>The term “imitation” has also the following special uses:—</p> <p>1. <i>In Art-theory.</i>—According to Plato all artistic production -is a form of imitation (<span class="grk" title="mimêsis">μίμησις</span>). That which really exists is +is a form of imitation (<span class="grk" title="mimêsis">μίμησις</span>). That which really exists is the idea or type created by God; of this type all concrete objects are representations, while the painter, the tragedian, the musician are merely imitators, thrice removed from the @@ -15219,7 +15180,7 @@ of musical theory).</p> <p><span class="bold">IMITATION OF CHRIST, THE<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> (<i>Imitatio Christi</i>), the title of a famous medieval Christian devotional work, much used still by both Catholics and Protestants and usually ascribed to -Thomas à Kempis. The “Contestation” over the author of +Thomas à Kempis. The “Contestation” over the author of the <i>Imitation of Christ</i> is probably the most considerable and famous controversy that has ever been carried on concerning a purely literary question. It has been going on almost without @@ -15229,7 +15190,7 @@ history of the controversy, but an attempt is made to summarize the results that may be looked on as definitely acquired.</p> <p>Until quite recently there were three candidates in the field—Thomas -à Kempis (1380-1471), a canon regular of Mount St +à Kempis (1380-1471), a canon regular of Mount St Agnes in Zwolle, in the diocese of Utrecht, of the Windesheim Congregation of Augustinian Canons; John Gerson (1363-1429), chancellor of the University of Paris; and an abbot, John @@ -15241,7 +15202,7 @@ never found defenders except in France, where they are no longer urged. The Benedictine abbot Gersen is an absolutely mythical personage, a mere “double” of the chancellor. Consequently at the present day the question is narrowed to the issue: -Thomas à Kempis, or an unknown author.</p> +Thomas à Kempis, or an unknown author.</p> <p>The following is a statement of the facts that may be received as certain:—</p> @@ -15311,13 +15272,13 @@ Circle.”</p> that the <i>Imitation</i> was written by a Teutonic canon regular, probably a Dutch canon regular of the Windesheim Congregation, in the first quarter of the 15th century. These -data are satisfied by Thomas à Kempis.</p> +data are satisfied by Thomas à Kempis.</p> <p>We pass to the direct evidence, neglecting that of witnesses who had no special sources of information.</p> <p>8. There can be no question that in the Windesheim Congregation -itself there was already, during Thomas à Kempis’s lifetime, +itself there was already, during Thomas à Kempis’s lifetime, a fixed tradition that he was the author of the <i>Imitation</i>. The most important witness to this tradition is Johann Busch. It is true that the crucial words are missing in one copy of his @@ -15325,7 +15286,7 @@ It is true that the crucial words are missing in one copy of his work, and there are no grounds whatever for doubting that the second with its various enlargements came from the hands of Busch himself—a copy of it containing the passage exists -written in 1464, while both Busch and Thomas à Kempis were +written in 1464, while both Busch and Thomas à Kempis were still alive. Busch passed a great part of his life in Windesheim, only a few miles from Mount St Agnes where Thomas lived. It would be hard to find a more authentic witness. Another @@ -15334,13 +15295,13 @@ Congregation, who also had personally known Thomas. Besides, two or three MSS. originating in the Windesheim Congregation state or imply the same tradition.</p> -<p>9. More than this: the tradition existed in Thomas à Kempis’s +<p>9. More than this: the tradition existed in Thomas à Kempis’s own monastery shortly after his death. For John Mauburne became a canon in Mount St Agnes within a few years of Thomas’s death, and he states more than once that Thomas wrote the <i>Imitation</i>.</p> -<p>10. The earliest biographer of Thomas à Kempis was an +<p>10. The earliest biographer of Thomas à Kempis was an anonymous contemporary: the <i>Life</i> was printed in 1494, but it exists in a MS. of 1488. The biographer says he got his information from the brethren at Mount St Agnes, and he states @@ -15369,7 +15330,7 @@ are so inferior that the <i>Imitation</i> could not have been written by the same author. But only if they were of the most certain and peremptory nature could such internal arguments be allowed to weigh against the clear array of facts that make up the -external argument in favour of à Kempis. And it cannot be +external argument in favour of à Kempis. And it cannot be said that the internal difficulties are such as this. Let it be granted that Thomas was a prolific writer and that his writings vary very much in quality; let it be granted also that the @@ -15379,13 +15340,13 @@ works are not unworthy of the author of the <i>Imitation</i>.</p> <p>In conclusion, it is the belief of the present writer that <span class="pagenum"><a name="page334" id="page334"></a>334</span> -the “Contestation” is over, and that Thomas à Kempis’s +the “Contestation” is over, and that Thomas à Kempis’s claims to the authorship of the <i>Imitation</i> have been solidly established.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>The best account in English of the Controversy is that given by -F. R. Cruise in his <i>Thomas à Kempis</i> (1887). Works produced +F. R. Cruise in his <i>Thomas à Kempis</i> (1887). Works produced before 1880 are in general, with the exception of those of Eusebius Amort, superannuated, and deal in large measure with points no longer of any living interest. A pamphlet by Cruise, <i>Who was @@ -15418,7 +15379,7 @@ and most representative utterance of a special phase of religious thought—non-scholastic, non-platonic, positive and merely religious in its scope—herein reflecting faithfully the spirit of the movement initiated by Gerhard Groot (<i>q.v.</i>), and carried forward by the circles -in which Thomas à Kempis lived. In contrast with more mystical +in which Thomas à Kempis lived. In contrast with more mystical writings it is of limpid clearness, every sentence being easily understandable by all whose spiritual sense is in any degree awakened. No doubt it owes its universal power to this simplicity, to its freedom @@ -15556,21 +15517,21 @@ stated above, in 1708. It is kept, in the Western Church, on the 8th of December; the Greeks have always kept it one day later.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>The chief répertoire of Patristic passages, both on the doctrine +<p>The chief répertoire of Patristic passages, both on the doctrine and on the festival, is Father Charles Passaglia’s great collection, entitled <i>De immaculato Deiparae semper Virginis conceptu Caroli Passaglia sac. S.J. commentarius</i> (3 vols., Romae, 1854-1855).</p> <p>A useful statement of the doctrine with numerous references to -the Fathers and scholastics is found in Hürter’s <i>Theologia Dogmatica</i> +the Fathers and scholastics is found in Hürter’s <i>Theologia Dogmatica</i> (5th ed.), tom. i. tract. vii. cap. 6, p. 438.</p> <p>The state of Catholic belief in the middle of the 19th century -is well brought out in <i>La Croyance générale el constante de l’Église -touchant l’immaculée conception de la bienheureuse Vierge Marie</i>, +is well brought out in <i>La Croyance générale el constante de l’Église +touchant l’immaculée conception de la bienheureuse Vierge Marie</i>, published in 1855 by Thomas M. J. Gousset (1792-1866), professor -of moral theology at the grand seminary of Besançon, and successively -archbishop of Besançon and cardinal archbishop of Reims.</p> +of moral theology at the grand seminary of Besançon, and successively +archbishop of Besançon and cardinal archbishop of Reims.</p> <p>For English readers the doctrine, and the history of its definition, is clearly stated by Archbishop Ullathorne in <i>The Immaculate @@ -15669,7 +15630,7 @@ natural consequence of this theory is that the individual consciousness alone exists (solipsism): this position is, however, open to the obvious criticism that in some cases individual consciousnesses agree in their content. Schuppe, therefore, postulates a -general consciousness (<i>Bewusstsein überhaupt</i>).</p> +general consciousness (<i>Bewusstsein überhaupt</i>).</p> <hr class="art" /> @@ -15707,32 +15668,32 @@ Frederick William’s “Summons to my people” on March 17th. He responded with alacrity, but was prevented by illness from taking part in the earlier campaign; he fought, however, in 1815 at Ligny and Waterloo, and marched into Paris with -Blücher. At the conclusion of the war he resumed his studies +Blücher. At the conclusion of the war he resumed his studies at Halle, and after being <i>Referendar</i> in Magdeburg, was appointed -in 1819 <i>Assessor</i> at Münster in Westphalia. Here he -made the acquaintance of Elise von Lützow, Countess von +in 1819 <i>Assessor</i> at Münster in Westphalia. Here he +made the acquaintance of Elise von Lützow, Countess von Ahlefeldt, wife of the leader of the famous “free corps” (see -Lützow). This lady first inspired his pen, and their relationship +Lützow). This lady first inspired his pen, and their relationship is reflected in several dramas written about this time. In 1823 Immermann was appointed judge at Magdeburg, and in 1827 -was transferred to Düsseldorf as <i>Landgerichtsrat</i> or district +was transferred to Düsseldorf as <i>Landgerichtsrat</i> or district judge. Thither the countess, whose marriage had in the meantime been dissolved, followed him, and, though refusing his hand, shared his home until his marriage in 1839 with a grand-daughter of August Hermann Niemeyer (1754-1828), chancellor and <i>rector perpetuus</i> of Halle university. In 1834 Immermann undertook -the management of the Düsseldorf theatre, and, although +the management of the Düsseldorf theatre, and, although his resources were small, succeeded for two years in raising it to a high level of excellence. The theatre, however, was insufficiently endowed to allow of him carrying on the work, and <span class="pagenum"><a name="page336" id="page336"></a>336</span> in 1836 he returned to his official duties and literary pursuits. -He died at Düsseldorf on the 25th of August 1840.</p> +He died at Düsseldorf on the 25th of August 1840.</p> <p>Immermann had considerable aptitude for the drama, but it was long before he found a congenial field for his talents. His early plays are imitations, partly of Kotzebue’s, partly of the -Romantic dramas of Tieck and Müllner, and are now forgotten. +Romantic dramas of Tieck and Müllner, and are now forgotten. In 1826, however, appeared <i>Cardenio und Celinde</i>, a love tragedy of more promise; this, as well as the earlier productions, awakened the ill-will of Platen, who made Immermann the @@ -15743,16 +15704,16 @@ Friedrich II.</i> (1828) and a trilogy from Russian history, Alexis (1832). His masterpiece is the poetic mystery, <i>Merlin</i> (1831), a noble poem, which, like its model, <i>Faust</i>, deals with the deeper problems of modern spiritual life. Immermann’s important -dramaturgic experiments in Düsseldorf are described in detail -in <i>Düsseldörfer Anfänge</i> (1840). More significant is his position +dramaturgic experiments in Düsseldorf are described in detail +in <i>Düsseldörfer Anfänge</i> (1840). More significant is his position as a novelist. Here he clearly stands on the boundary line between Romanticism and modern literature; his <i>Epigonen</i> (1836) might be described as one of the last Romantic imitations of Goethe’s <i>Wilhelm Meister</i>, while the satire and realism of his -second novel, <i>Münchhausen</i> (1838), form a complete break with +second novel, <i>Münchhausen</i> (1838), form a complete break with the older literature. As a prose-writer Immermann is perhaps best remembered to-day by the admirable story of village life, -<i>Der Oberhof</i>, which is embedded in the formless mass of <i>Münchhausen</i>. +<i>Der Oberhof</i>, which is embedded in the formless mass of <i>Münchhausen</i>. His last work was an unfinished epic, <i>Tristan und Isolde</i> (1840).</p> @@ -15762,10 +15723,10 @@ in 1835-1843; a new edition, with biography and introduction by R. Boxberger, in 20 vols. (Berlin, 1883); selected works, edited by M. Koch (4 vols., 1887-1888) and F. Muncker (6 vols., 1897). See G. zu Putlitz, <i>Karl Immermann, sein Leben und seine Werke</i> -(2 vols., 1870); F. Freiligrath, <i>Karl Immermann, Blätter der Erinnerung -an ihn</i> (1842); W. Müller, <i>K. Immermann und sein Kreis</i> -(1860); R. Fellner, <i>Geschichte einer deutschen Musterbühne</i> (1888); -<i>K. Immermann: eine Gedächtnisschrift</i> (1896).</p> +(2 vols., 1870); F. Freiligrath, <i>Karl Immermann, Blätter der Erinnerung +an ihn</i> (1842); W. Müller, <i>K. Immermann und sein Kreis</i> +(1860); R. Fellner, <i>Geschichte einer deutschen Musterbühne</i> (1888); +<i>K. Immermann: eine Gedächtnisschrift</i> (1896).</p> </div> @@ -15802,7 +15763,7 @@ and for other religions see the separate articles.</p> <p>In the Orphic mysteries “the soul was regarded as a part of the divine, a <i>particula aurae divinae</i>, for which the body in its limited and perishable condition was no fit organ, but a -grave or prison (<span class="grk" title="to sôma sêma">τὸ σῶμα σῆμα</span>). The existence of the soul in +grave or prison (<span class="grk" title="to sôma sêma">τὸ σῶμα σῆμα</span>). The existence of the soul in the body was its punishment for sins in a previous condition; and the doom of its sins in the body was its descent into other bodies, and the postponement of its deliverance” (Salmond’s @@ -15837,7 +15798,7 @@ one another.” In the <i>Phaedrus</i> (245 <span class="scs">C</span>) the the soul is self-moving, and, therefore, immortal; and this argument is repeated in the <i>Laws</i> (x. 894, 895). It is an argument that Plato probably inherited from Alcmaeon, the physician -of Croton (Arist. <i>De An.</i> i. 2, § 17 405 <span class="scs">A</span> 29), whose views +of Croton (Arist. <i>De An.</i> i. 2, § 17 405 <span class="scs">A</span> 29), whose views were closely connected with those of the Pythagoreans. In the <i>Phaedo</i> the main argument up to which all the others lead is that the soul participates in the idea of life. Recollection @@ -16150,7 +16111,7 @@ not for time but for eternity, for his ideals cannot be realized, and so his life fulfilled on this side of the grave. Unless these ideals are mocking visions, man has a right to expect the continuance of his life for its completion. This is the line of argument -developed by Professor Hugo Münsterberg in his lecture on <i>The +developed by Professor Hugo Münsterberg in his lecture on <i>The Eternal Life</i> (1905), although he states it in the terms peculiar to his psychology, in which personality is conceived as primarily will. “No endless duration is our goal, but complete repose @@ -16232,7 +16193,7 @@ immortality which he has brought to light in his Gospel.</p> <i>The Platonic Conception of Immortality and its Connexion with the Theory of Ideas</i> (1904); R. H. Charles, <i>A Critical History of the Doctrine of a Future Life in Israel, in Judaism and in Christianity</i> -(1899); E. Pétavel, <i>The Problem of Immortality</i> (Eng. trans. by F. A. +(1899); E. Pétavel, <i>The Problem of Immortality</i> (Eng. trans. by F. A. Freer, 1892); J. Fiske, <i>The Destiny of Man, viewed in the Light of his Origin</i> (1884); G. A. Gordon, <i>Immortality and the New Theodicy</i> (1897); Henry Buckle, <i>The After Life</i> (1907).</p> @@ -16726,7 +16687,7 @@ which first dealt with a case should alone have competence to pursue it.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See R. Schröder, <i>Lehrbuch der deutschen Rechtsgeschichte</i> (Leipzig, +<p>See R. Schröder, <i>Lehrbuch der deutschen Rechtsgeschichte</i> (Leipzig, 1904); J. N. Harpprecht, <i>Staatsarchiv des Reichskammergerichts</i> (1757-1785); and G. Stobbe, <i>Reichshofgericht und Reichskammergericht</i> (Leipzig, 1878).</p> @@ -16752,7 +16713,7 @@ and partly by the six ancient circles.</p> <hr class="art" /> <p><span class="bold">IMPERIAL CITIES OR TOWNS,<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> the usual English translation -of <i>Reichsstädte</i>, an expression of frequent occurrence in German +of <i>Reichsstädte</i>, an expression of frequent occurrence in German history. These were cities and towns subject to no authority except that of the emperor, or German king, in other words they were immediate; the earliest of them stood on the demesne @@ -16764,8 +16725,8 @@ is sometimes used in the same sense as <i>Reichsstadt</i>, is rightly only applicable to seven cities, Basel, Strassburg, Spires, Worms, Mainz, Cologne and Regensburg. Having freed themselves from the domination of their ecclesiastical lords these called -themselves <i>Freistädte</i> and in practice their position was indistinguishable -from that of the <i>Reichsstädte</i>.</p> +themselves <i>Freistädte</i> and in practice their position was indistinguishable +from that of the <i>Reichsstädte</i>.</p> <p>In the middle ages many other places won the coveted position of a <i>Reichsstadt</i>. Some gained it by gift and others by purchase; @@ -16778,22 +16739,22 @@ were lost much more quickly than they were gained. Mainz was conquered and subjected to the archbishop in 1462. Some free towns fell into the hands of various princes of the Empire and others placed themselves voluntarily under such protection. -Some, like Donauwörth in 1607, were deprived of their privileges +Some, like Donauwörth in 1607, were deprived of their privileges by the emperor on account of real, or supposed, offences, while others were separated from the Empire by conquest. In -1648 Besançon passed into the possession of Spain, Basel +1648 Besançon passed into the possession of Spain, Basel had already thrown in its lot with the Swiss confederation, while Strassburg, Colmar, Hagenau and others were seized by Louis XIV.</p> <p>Meanwhile the free towns had been winning valuable privileges in addition to those which they already possessed, and the -wealthier among them, like Lübeck and Augsburg, were practically +wealthier among them, like Lübeck and Augsburg, were practically <i>imperia in imperio</i>, waging war and making peace, and ruling their people without any outside interference. But they had also learned that union is strength. They formed alliances among themselves, both for offence and for defence, and these -<i>Städtebünde</i> had an important influence on the course of German +<i>Städtebünde</i> had an important influence on the course of German history in the 14th and 15th centuries. These leagues were frequently at war with the ecclesiastical and secular potentates of their district and in general they were quite able to hold their @@ -16806,12 +16767,12 @@ college of the diet. A list drawn up in 1422 mentions 75 free cities, another drawn up in 1521 mentions 84, but at the time of the French Revolution the number had decreased to 51. At this time the Rhenish free cities were: Cologne, Aix-la-Chapelle, -Lübeck, Worms, Spires, Frankfort-on-the-Main, Goslar, Bremen, -Hamburg, Mühlhausen, Nordhausen, Dortmund, Friedberg and +Lübeck, Worms, Spires, Frankfort-on-the-Main, Goslar, Bremen, +Hamburg, Mühlhausen, Nordhausen, Dortmund, Friedberg and Wetzlar. The Swabian free cities were: Regensburg, Augsburg, -Nuremberg, Ulm, Esslingen, Reutlingen, Nördlingen, Rothenburg-on-the-Tauber, -Schwäbisch-Hall, Rottweil, Ueberlingen, -Heilbronn, Memmingen, Gmünd, Dinkelsbühl, Lindau, Biberach, +Nuremberg, Ulm, Esslingen, Reutlingen, Nördlingen, Rothenburg-on-the-Tauber, +Schwäbisch-Hall, Rottweil, Ueberlingen, +Heilbronn, Memmingen, Gmünd, Dinkelsbühl, Lindau, Biberach, Ravensburg, Schweinfurt, Kempten, Windsheim, Kaufbeuern, Weil, Wangen, Isny, Pfullendorf, Offenburg, Leutkirch, Wimpfen, Weissenburg, Giengen, Gengenbach, Zell, Buchorn, Aalen, @@ -16820,10 +16781,10 @@ had as little claim to their exceptional positions as the pocket boroughs of Great Britain and Ireland had before the passing of the Reform Bill of 1832.</p> -<p>By the peace of Lunéville in 1801 Cologne, Aix-la-Chapelle, +<p>By the peace of Lunéville in 1801 Cologne, Aix-la-Chapelle, Worms and Spires were taken by France, and by the decision of the imperial deputation of 1803 six cities only: Hamburg, -Lübeck, Bremen, Augsburg, Frankfort-on-Main and Nuremberg, +Lübeck, Bremen, Augsburg, Frankfort-on-Main and Nuremberg, were allowed to keep their <i>Reichsfreiheit</i>, or in other words to hold directly of the Empire. This number was soon further reduced. On the dissolution of the Empire in 1806 Augsburg @@ -16832,7 +16793,7 @@ Frankfort was made the seat of a duchy for Karl Theodor von Dalberg, elector and archbishop of Mainz, who was appointed prince primate of the Confederation of the Rhine. When the German Confederation was established in 1815 Hamburg, -Lübeck, Bremen and Frankfort were recognized as free cities, +Lübeck, Bremen and Frankfort were recognized as free cities, and the first three hold that position in the modern German empire; but Frankfort, in consequence of the part it took in the war of 1866, lost its independence and was annexed by @@ -16852,17 +16813,17 @@ that of Cologne, which was one of the first to assert its independence.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>For the history of the free cities, see J. J. Moser, <i>Reichsstädtisches -Handbuch</i> (Tübingen, 1732); D. Hänlein, <i>Anmerkungen über die -Geschichte der Reichsstädte</i> (Ulm, 1775); A. Wendt, <i>Beschreibung -der kaiserlichen freien Reichsstädte</i> (Leipzig, 1804); G. W. Hugo, -<i>Die Mediatisirung der deutschen Reichsstädte</i> (Carlsruhe, 1838); G. +<p>For the history of the free cities, see J. J. Moser, <i>Reichsstädtisches +Handbuch</i> (Tübingen, 1732); D. Hänlein, <i>Anmerkungen über die +Geschichte der Reichsstädte</i> (Ulm, 1775); A. Wendt, <i>Beschreibung +der kaiserlichen freien Reichsstädte</i> (Leipzig, 1804); G. W. Hugo, +<i>Die Mediatisirung der deutschen Reichsstädte</i> (Carlsruhe, 1838); G. Waitz, <i>Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte</i> (Kiel, 1844 fol.); G. L. von -Maurer, <i>Geschichte der Städteverfassung in Deutschland</i> (Erlangen, +Maurer, <i>Geschichte der Städteverfassung in Deutschland</i> (Erlangen, 1869-1871); W. Arnold, <i>Verfassungsgeschichte der deutschen -Freistädte</i> (Gotha, 1854); P. Brülcke, <i>Die Entwickelung der Reichsstandschaft -der Städte</i> (Hamburg, 1881); A. M. Ehrentraut, <i>Untersuchungen -über die Frage der Frei- und Reichsstädte</i> (Leipzig, 1902); +Freistädte</i> (Gotha, 1854); P. Brülcke, <i>Die Entwickelung der Reichsstandschaft +der Städte</i> (Hamburg, 1881); A. M. Ehrentraut, <i>Untersuchungen +über die Frage der Frei- und Reichsstädte</i> (Leipzig, 1902); and S. Rietschel, <i>Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der deutschen Stadtverfassung</i> (Leipzig, 1905). See also the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Commune</a></span>.</p> </div> @@ -16946,7 +16907,7 @@ printing.</p> <hr class="art" /> <p><span class="bold">IMPOST<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> (through the O. Fr. from Lat. <i>impositum</i>, a thing -laid upon another; the modern French is <i>impôt</i>), a tax or tribute, +laid upon another; the modern French is <i>impôt</i>), a tax or tribute, and particularly a duty levied on imported or exported merchandise (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Taxation</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Customs Duties</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Excise</a></span>, &c.). In architecture, “impost” (in German <i>Kaempfer</i>) is a term applied @@ -17027,8 +16988,8 @@ So far as subject went, most, though not all of Manet’s pictures were modern and actual of his Paris, for his power lay in the representation of the thing before his eye, and not in fanciful invention. His simplicity in this respect brought him into -collision with popular prejudice when, in the “Déjeuner sur -l’herbe” (1863), he painted a modern <i>fête champêtre</i>. The +collision with popular prejudice when, in the “Déjeuner sur +l’herbe” (1863), he painted a modern <i>fête champêtre</i>. The actual characters of his painting at this period, so fancifully reproached and praised, may be grouped under two heads. (1) The expression of the object by a few carefully chosen values @@ -17062,14 +17023,14 @@ of sunlight and colour rather than a collection of separate dramatic groups.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>For life of Édouard Manet (1832-1883) see Edmond Bazire, <i>Manet</i> +<p>For life of Édouard Manet (1832-1883) see Edmond Bazire, <i>Manet</i> (Paris, 1884). An idea of the state of popular feeling may be gained by reading Zola’s eloquent defence in <i>Mon Salon</i>, which appeared in -<i>L’Événement</i> (1866) and <i>Édouard Manet</i> (1867), both reprinted in +<i>L’Événement</i> (1866) and <i>Édouard Manet</i> (1867), both reprinted in <i>Mes Haines</i> (Paris, 1880). The same author has embodied many of the impressionist ideals in Claude Lantier, the fictitious hero of -<i>L’Œuvre</i>. Other writers belonging to Manet’s group are Théodore -Duret, author of <i>Les Peintres français en 1867</i> and <i>Critique d’avant-garde</i>, +<i>L’Œuvre</i>. Other writers belonging to Manet’s group are Théodore +Duret, author of <i>Les Peintres français en 1867</i> and <i>Critique d’avant-garde</i>, articles and catalogue-prefaces reprinted 1885. See also, for Manet and others, J. K. Huysman’s <i>L’Art moderne</i> (1883) and <i>Certains</i>. Summaries of the literature of the whole period will be @@ -17087,11 +17048,11 @@ main features are an intenser study of illumination, a greater variety of illuminations, and a revolution in <i>facture</i> with a view to pressing closer to a high pitch of light. Manet plays his part in this development, but we shall not be wrong probably in giving -to Claude Monet (b. 1840) the chief rôle as the instinctive artist of +to Claude Monet (b. 1840) the chief rôle as the instinctive artist of the period, and to Camille Pissarro (b. 1830) a very large part as a painter, curious in theory and experiment. Monet at the -early date of 1866 had painted a picture as daring in its naïve -brutality of out-of-door illumination as the “Déjeuner sur +early date of 1866 had painted a picture as daring in its naïve +brutality of out-of-door illumination as the “Déjeuner sur l’herbe.” But this picture has the breadth of patch, solidity and suavity of paste of Manet’s practice. During the siege of Paris (1870-71) Monet and Pissarro were in London, and there @@ -17100,8 +17061,8 @@ in lighting and range of effect possible in painting, and also suggested a new handling of colour, by small broken touches in place of the large flowing touches characteristic of Manet. This method of painting occupied much of the discussion of the -group that centred round Manet at the Café Guerbois, in the -Batignolles quarter (hence called <i>L’École de Balignolles</i>). The +group that centred round Manet at the Café Guerbois, in the +Batignolles quarter (hence called <i>L’École de Balignolles</i>). The ideas were: (1) Abolition of conventional brown tonality. But all browns, in the fervour of this revolt, went the way of conventional brown, and all ready-made mixtures like the umbers, @@ -17131,7 +17092,7 @@ poplars, or church front, has demonstrated the variety of lighting that the day and the season bring to a single scene. Besides Pissarro, Alfred Sisley (1840-1899) is a member of the group, and Manet continues his progress, influenced by the new ideas -in pictures like “Le Linge” and “Chez le Père Lathuille.”</p> +in pictures like “Le Linge” and “Chez le Père Lathuille.”</p> <p>Edmond Degas (b. 1834), a severe and learned draughtsman, is associated with this landscape group by his curiosity in the @@ -17153,8 +17114,8 @@ and expression.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>The landscape, out-of-doors line, which unites in this period with Manet’s line, may be represented by these names: J. B. Corot, -J. B. Jongkind, Boudin, Monet. Monet’s real teacher was Eugène -Boudin (1824-1898), (See Gustave Cahen’s <i>Eugène Boudin</i>, Paris, +J. B. Jongkind, Boudin, Monet. Monet’s real teacher was Eugène +Boudin (1824-1898), (See Gustave Cahen’s <i>Eugène Boudin</i>, Paris, 1900). They, and others of the group, worked together in a painters’ colony at Saint Simeon, near Honfleur. It is usual to date the origin of <i>plein-air</i> painting, <i>i.e.</i> painting out-of-doors, in an out-of-doors key @@ -17169,7 +17130,7 @@ impressionistic painting is an artistic ferment, corresponding to the scientific research into the principles of light and colour, just as earlier movements in painting coincided with the scientific study of perspective and anatomy. Chevreul’s famous book, already referred -to, <i>De la loi du contraste simultané des couleurs</i> (1838), established +to, <i>De la loi du contraste simultané des couleurs</i> (1838), established certain laws of interaction for colours adjacent to one another. He still, however, referred the sensations of colour to the three impossible “primaries” of Brewster—red, blue and yellow. The @@ -17186,14 +17147,14 @@ Capucines, in 1874. They were then taken up by the dealer Durand-Ruel, and the succeeding exhibitions in 1876, 1877, 1879, 1880, 1881, 1882 and 1886 were held by him in various galleries. The full history of these exhibitions, with the names of the painters, will be found in -two works: Félix-Fénéon, <i>Les Impressionistes en 1886</i> (Paris, 1886), +two works: Félix-Fénéon, <i>Les Impressionistes en 1886</i> (Paris, 1886), and G. Geffroy, <i>La Vie artistique</i> (“Histoire de l’impressionisme,” in -vol. for 1894). See also G. Lecomte, <i>L’Art impressionists d’après la -collection privée de M. Durand-Ruel</i> (Paris, 1892); Duranty, <i>La +vol. for 1894). See also G. Lecomte, <i>L’Art impressionists d’après la +collection privée de M. Durand-Ruel</i> (Paris, 1892); Duranty, <i>La Peinture nouvelle</i> (1876). Besides the names already cited, some others may be added: Madame Berthe Morisot, sister-in-law of -Manet; Paul Cézanne, belonging to the Manet-Pissarro group; and, -later, Gauguin. J. F. Raffaëlli applied a “characteristic” drawing, +Manet; Paul Cézanne, belonging to the Manet-Pissarro group; and, +later, Gauguin. J. F. Raffaëlli applied a “characteristic” drawing, to use his word, to scenes in the dismal suburbs of Paris; Forain, the satiric draughtsman, was a disciple of Degas, as also Zandomeneghi. Miss Mary Cassatt was his pupil. Caillebotte, who bequeathed the @@ -17252,7 +17213,7 @@ in the new method, but abandoned it, and other names among the <i>Pointillistes</i> are Paul Signac, Vincent van Gogh, and van Rysselberghe. The theory opened the way for endless casuistries, and its extravagances died out in the later exhibition of the -<i>Indépendants</i> or were domesticated in the Salon by painters +<i>Indépendants</i> or were domesticated in the Salon by painters like M. Henri Martin.</p> <div class="condensed"> @@ -17265,8 +17226,8 @@ exposition of Chevreul. He certainly studied the treatise, and his biographers describe a dial-face he constructed for reference. He had quantities of little wafers of each colour, with which he tried colour effects, a curious anticipation of pointillist technique. The pointillists -claim him as their grandfather. See Paul Signac, “D’Eugène -Delacroix au Néo-Impressionnisme” (<i>Revue Blanche</i>, 1898). For a +claim him as their grandfather. See Paul Signac, “D’Eugène +Delacroix au Néo-Impressionnisme” (<i>Revue Blanche</i>, 1898). For a fuller discussion of the spectral palette see the <i>Saturday Review</i>, 2nd, 9th and 23rd February and 23rd March 1901.</p> </div> @@ -17588,7 +17549,7 @@ Graham’s speech is in Hansard for 1835.</p> “prest,” as “impress” is of “imprest,” but the word was quite early connected with “press,” to squeeze, crush, hence to compel or force. The “prest” was a sum of money advanced (O. Fr. <i>prester</i>, modern -<i>prêter</i>, to lend, Lat. <i>praestare</i>, to stand before, provide, become +<i>prêter</i>, to lend, Lat. <i>praestare</i>, to stand before, provide, become surety for, &c.) to a person to enable him to perform some undertaking, hence used of earnest money given to soldiers on enlistment, or as the “coat and conduct” money alluded to in this article. The @@ -17616,7 +17577,7 @@ a great part, at least, of their success from the evidence which they gave of rapidity of invention. But it must have been difficult then, as it has been since, to be convinced of the value of that evidence. Who is to be sure that, like Mascarille in -<i>Les Précieuses ridicules</i>, the impromptu-writer has not employed +<i>Les Précieuses ridicules</i>, the impromptu-writer has not employed his leisure in sharpening his arrows? James Smith received the highest praise for his compliment to Miss Tree, the cantatrice:—</p> @@ -17629,17 +17590,17 @@ highest praise for his compliment to Miss Tree, the cantatrice:—</p> had not polished it as he dressed for dinner? One writer owed all his fame, and a seat among the Forty Immortals of the French Academy, to the reputation of his impromptus. This was the -Marquis François Joseph de St Aulaire (1643-1742). The piece +Marquis François Joseph de St Aulaire (1643-1742). The piece which threw open the doors of the Academy to him in 1706 was composed at Sceaux, where he was staying with the duchess of Maine, who was guessing secrets, and who called him Apollo. St Aulaire instantly responded:—</p> <table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> - <p class="i3">La divinité qui s’amuse</p> + <p class="i3">La divinité qui s’amuse</p> <p class="i3">A me demander mon secret,</p> -<p>Si j’étais Apollon, ne serait pas ma muse,</p> -<p>Elle serait Thétis—et le jour finirait.</p> +<p>Si j’étais Apollon, ne serait pas ma muse,</p> +<p>Elle serait Thétis—et le jour finirait.</p> </div> </td></tr></table> <p class="noind">This is undoubtedly as neat as it is impertinent, and if the @@ -17658,7 +17619,7 @@ wrote:—</p> </div> </td></tr></table> <p class="noind">The word “impromptu” is sometimes used to designate a short -dramatic sketch, the type of which is Molière’s famous <i>Impromptu +dramatic sketch, the type of which is Molière’s famous <i>Impromptu du Versailles</i> (1663), a miniature comedy in prose.</p> @@ -17724,7 +17685,7 @@ or sentimental character of which we have hitherto spoken. Hook’s animal spirits were unfortunately mingled with vulgarity, and his clever <i>jeux d’esprit</i> had little but their smartness to recommend them. A similar talent, exercised in a somewhat -more literary direction, made Joseph Méry (1798-1865) a delightful +more literary direction, made Joseph Méry (1798-1865) a delightful companion in the Parisian society of his day. It is rare indeed that the productions of the improvisatore, taken down in shorthand, and read in the cold light of criticism, are found @@ -17853,7 +17814,7 @@ imported from the East; it has therefore gradually come to be the only incense used in the religious rites and domestic fumigations of many countries of the West, and at last to be properly regarded as the only “true” or “genuine” (<i>i.e.</i> “franc”) incense -(see Littré’s <i>Fr. Dict.</i> and Skeat’s <i>Etym. Dict. of Engl. Lang.</i>).<a name="fa3q" id="fa3q" href="#ft3q"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p> +(see Littré’s <i>Fr. Dict.</i> and Skeat’s <i>Etym. Dict. of Engl. Lang.</i>).<a name="fa3q" id="fa3q" href="#ft3q"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p> <div class="condensed"> <p>The following is probably an exhaustive list of the substances @@ -17904,7 +17865,7 @@ product of the <i>Liquidambar orientalis</i> of Cyprus and Anatolia.</p> must also be enumerated on account of their common use as incense in the East; benzoin or gum benjamin, first mentioned among Western writers by Ibn Batuta (1325-1349) under the name of -<i>lubân d’ Javi</i> (<i>i.e.</i> olibanum of Java), corrupted in the parlance of +<i>lubân d’ Javi</i> (<i>i.e.</i> olibanum of Java), corrupted in the parlance of Europe into benjamin and benzoin; camphor, produced by <i>Cinnamomum Camphora</i>, the “camphor laurel” of China and Japan, and by <i>Dryobalanops aromatica</i>, a native of the Indian Archipelago, and @@ -17958,22 +17919,22 @@ wine with the other. One of the best known of these representations is that carved on the memorial stone placed by Tethmosis (Thothmes) IV. (1533 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) on the breast of the Sphinx at Gizeh.<a name="fa4q" id="fa4q" href="#ft4q"><span class="sp">4</span></a> The tablet represents Tethmosis before his guardian deity, the -sun-god Rê, pouring a libation of wine on one side and offering +sun-god Rê, pouring a libation of wine on one side and offering incense on the other. The ancient Egyptians used various -substances as incense. They worshipped Rê at sunrise with +substances as incense. They worshipped Rê at sunrise with resin, at mid-day with myrrh and at sunset with an elaborate confection called <i>kuphi</i>, compounded of no fewer than sixteen ingredients, among which were honey, wine, raisins, resin, myrrh and sweet calamus. While it was being mixed, holy writings were read to those engaged in the operation. According to Plutarch, apart from its mystic virtues arising from the -magical combination of 4 × 4, its sweet odour had a benign +magical combination of 4 × 4, its sweet odour had a benign physiological effect on those who offered it.<a name="fa5q" id="fa5q" href="#ft5q"><span class="sp">5</span></a> The censer used was a hemispherical cup or bowl of bronze, supported by a long handle, fashioned at one end like an open hand, in which the bowl was, as it were, held, while the other end within which the pastils of incense were kept was shaped into the hawk’s head crowned -with a disk, as the symbol of Rê.<a name="fa6q" id="fa6q" href="#ft6q"><span class="sp">6</span></a> In embalming their dead +with a disk, as the symbol of Rê.<a name="fa6q" id="fa6q" href="#ft6q"><span class="sp">6</span></a> In embalming their dead the Egyptians filled the cavity of the belly with every sort of spicery except frankincense (Herod, ii. 86), for it was regarded as specially consecrated to the worship of the gods. In the burnt-offerings @@ -18197,7 +18158,7 @@ almost conclusively proving that by that time the same wood was also employed for religious purposes. It is not probable that the sweet-smelling gums and resins of the countries of the Indian Ocean began to be introduced into Greece before the -8th or 7th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and doubtless <span class="grk" title="libanos">λίβανος</span> or <span class="grk" title="libanôtos">λιβανωτός</span> first +8th or 7th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and doubtless <span class="grk" title="libanos">λίβανος</span> or <span class="grk" title="libanôtos">λιβανωτός</span> first became an article of extensive commerce only after the Mediterranean trade with the East had been opened up by the Egyptian king Psammetichus (<i>c.</i> 664-610 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). The new @@ -18261,7 +18222,7 @@ service. It is easy to perceive how it should inevitably have come in along with the whole circle of ideas involved in such words as “temple,” “altar,” “priest,” which about this time came to be so generally applied in ecclesiastical connexions. -Evagrius (vi. 21) mentions the gift of a <span class="grk" title="thymiatêrion">θυμιατήριον</span> by the contemporary +Evagrius (vi. 21) mentions the gift of a <span class="grk" title="thymiatêrion">θυμιατήριον</span> by the contemporary Chosroes of Persia to the church of Jerusalem; and all the Oriental liturgies of this period provide special prayers for the thurification of the eucharistic elements. The oldest @@ -18516,8 +18477,8 @@ its use throughout the East is based on sanitary considerations; and in Europe even, in the time when the dead were buried in the churches, it was recognized that the burning of incense served essentially to preserve their salubrity. But evidently -the idea that the odour of a burnt-offering (cf. the <span class="grk" title="knisês hêdys -autmê">κνίσης ἡδὺς ἀυτμή</span> of <i>Odyss.</i> xii. 369) is grateful to the deity, being indeed +the idea that the odour of a burnt-offering (cf. the <span class="grk" title="knisês hêdys +autmê">κνίσης ἡδὺς ἀυτμή</span> of <i>Odyss.</i> xii. 369) is grateful to the deity, being indeed the most essential part of the sacrifice, or at least the vehicle by which alone it can successfully be conveyed to its destination, is also a very early one, if not absolutely primitive; and survivals @@ -18565,11 +18526,11 @@ de’ fratelli Arvali</i>, p. 639), but is frequent only in ecclesiastical Latin. Compare the classical <i>suffimentum</i> and <i>suffitus</i> from <i>suffio</i>. For “incense” Ulfila (Luke i. 10, 11) has retained the Greek <span class="grk" title="thymiama">θυμίαμα</span> (thymiama); all the Teutonic names (Ger. <i>Weihrauch</i>; Old Saxon -<i>Wîrôc</i>; Icel. <i>Reykelsi</i>; Dan. <i>Rögelse</i>) seem to belong to the Christian +<i>Wîrôc</i>; Icel. <i>Reykelsi</i>; Dan. <i>Rögelse</i>) seem to belong to the Christian period (Grimm, <i>Deutsche Mythologie</i>, i. 50).</p> -<p><a name="ft2q" id="ft2q" href="#fa2q"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The etymological affinities of <span class="grk" title="thyô, thyos">θύω, θύος</span>, <i>thus</i>, <i>fuffio</i>, <i>funus</i>, and the -Sans. <i>dhuma</i> are well known. See Max Müller, <i>Chips</i>, i. 99.</p> +<p><a name="ft2q" id="ft2q" href="#fa2q"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The etymological affinities of <span class="grk" title="thyô, thyos">θύω, θύος</span>, <i>thus</i>, <i>fuffio</i>, <i>funus</i>, and the +Sans. <i>dhuma</i> are well known. See Max Müller, <i>Chips</i>, i. 99.</p> <p><a name="ft3q" id="ft3q" href="#fa3q"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Classical Latin has but one word (<i>thus</i> or <i>tus</i>) for all sorts of incense. <i>Libanus</i>, for frankincense, occurs only in the Vulgate. @@ -18679,8 +18640,8 @@ speech hardly seemed to qualify her, she applied in vain for an engagement; and finally, in 1772, she abruptly left home to seek her fortune in London. Here she married Joseph Inchbald (d. 1779), an actor, and on the 4th of September made her -début in Bristol as Cordelia, to his Lear. For several years she -continued to act with him in the provinces. Her rôles included +début in Bristol as Cordelia, to his Lear. For several years she +continued to act with him in the provinces. Her rôles included Anne Boleyn, Jane Shore, Calista, Calpurnia, Lady Anne in <i>Richard III.</i>, Lady Percy, Lady Elizabeth Grey, Fanny in <span class="pagenum"><a name="page354" id="page354"></a>354</span> @@ -18716,7 +18677,7 @@ popularity.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>Mrs Inchbald destroyed an autobiography for which she had been -offered £1000 by Phillips the publisher; but her <i>Memoirs</i>, compiled +offered £1000 by Phillips the publisher; but her <i>Memoirs</i>, compiled by J. Boaden, chiefly from her private journal, appeared in 1833 in two volumes. An interesting account of Mrs Inchbald is contained in <i>Records of a Girlhood</i>, by Frances Ann Kemble (1878). Her @@ -18824,7 +18785,7 @@ from draughts, as well as the vertical circle, can be rotated about a vertical axis, and their azimuth read off on a horizontal divided circle. There are also two adjustable stops which can be set in any position, and allow the upper part of the instrument -to be rotated through exactly 180° without the necessity of +to be rotated through exactly 180° without the necessity of reading the horizontal circle.</p> <p>When making a determination of the dip with the dip circle, @@ -18940,7 +18901,7 @@ reading on the vertical circle then gives the dip. By a system of reversals slight faults in the adjustment of the instrument can be eliminated as in the case of the dip circle. With such an instrument it is claimed that readings of dip can be made -accurate to ±0.1 minutes of arc.</p> +accurate to ±0.1 minutes of arc.</p> <p>The form of Wild inductor for use in a fixed observatory differs from the above in that the coil consists of a drum-wound @@ -18970,17 +18931,17 @@ which contains a full description of the dip circle and instructions for making a set of observations; (3) L. A. Bauer, <i>Terrestrial Magnetism</i> (1901), 6, p. 31, a memoir which contains the results of a comparison of the values for the dip obtained with a number of different circles; -(4) E. Leyst, <i>Repertorium für Meteorologie der kaiserl. Akad. der Wiss.</i> +(4) E. Leyst, <i>Repertorium für Meteorologie der kaiserl. Akad. der Wiss.</i> (St Petersburg, 1887), 10, No. 5, containing a discussion of the errors of dip circles; (5) H. Wild, <i>Bull. de l’Acad. Imp. des Sci. de St -Pétersbourg</i> (March 1895), a paper which considers the accuracy +Pétersbourg</i> (March 1895), a paper which considers the accuracy obtainable with the earth inductor.</p> </div> <div class="author">(W. Wn.)</div> <hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> -<p><a name="ft1r" id="ft1r" href="#fa1r"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Repertorium für Meteorologie der kaiserl. Akad. der Wissensch.</i> +<p><a name="ft1r" id="ft1r" href="#fa1r"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Repertorium für Meteorologie der kaiserl. Akad. der Wissensch.</i> (St Petersburg, 1892), 16, No. 2, or <i>Meteorolog. Zeits.</i> (1895), 12, p. 41.</p> </div> @@ -19020,12 +18981,12 @@ to His Majesty an aid and contribution for the prosecution of the war.” This act of 1798 merely increased the duties of certain assessed taxes, which were regulated by the amount of income of the person assessed, provided his income amounted -to £60 or upwards. These duties were repealed by an act of +to £60 or upwards. These duties were repealed by an act of 1799 (39 Geo. III. c. 13), which imposed a duty of 10% on all -incomes from whatever sources derived, incomes under £60 +incomes from whatever sources derived, incomes under £60 a year being exempt, and reduced rates charged on incomes -between that amount and £200 a year. The produce of this -tax was £6,046,624 for the first year, as compared with £1,855,996, +between that amount and £200 a year. The produce of this +tax was £6,046,624 for the first year, as compared with £1,855,996, the produce of the earlier tax. This income tax was repealed after the peace of Amiens, but the renewal of the war in 1803 caused its revival. At the same time was introduced the principle @@ -19036,8 +18997,8 @@ is mainly responsible for the present development of income tax and the ease with which it is collected. The act of 1803 (43 Geo. III. c. 122) distributed the various descriptions of income under different schedules, known as A, B, C, D and E. -A rate of 5% was imposed on all incomes of £150 a year and over, -with graduation on incomes between £60 and £150. This income +A rate of 5% was imposed on all incomes of £150 a year and over, +with graduation on incomes between £60 and £150. This income tax of 5% collected at the source yielded almost as much as the previous tax of 10% collected direct from each taxpayer. The tax was continued from year to year with the principle @@ -19060,18 +19021,18 @@ in the Finance Acts of 1894, 1897, 1898, 1907 and 1909-1910.</p> important changes introduced in 1909. It was, speaking broadly, a tax levied on all incomes derived from sources within the United Kingdom, or received by residents in the United Kingdom from other -sources. Incomes under £160 were exempt; an abatement allowed -of £160 on those between £160 and £400; of £150 on those between -£400 and £500; of £120 on those between £500 and £600, and of £70 -on those between £600 and £700. An abatement was also allowed +sources. Incomes under £160 were exempt; an abatement allowed +of £160 on those between £160 and £400; of £150 on those between +£400 and £500; of £120 on those between £500 and £600, and of £70 +on those between £600 and £700. An abatement was also allowed on account of any premiums paid for life insurance, provided they did not exceed one-sixth of the total income. The limit of total -exemption was fixed in 1894, when it was raised from £150; and +exemption was fixed in 1894, when it was raised from £150; and the scale of abatements was revised in 1898 by admitting incomes -between £500 and £700; the Finance Act 1907 distinguished +between £500 and £700; the Finance Act 1907 distinguished between “earned” and “unearned” income, granting relief to the former over the latter by 3d. in the pound, where the income from all -sources did not exceed £2000. The tax was assessed as mentioned +sources did not exceed £2000. The tax was assessed as mentioned above, under five different schedules, known as A, B, C, D and E. Under schedule A was charged the income derived from landed property, including houses, the annual value or rent being the basis @@ -19135,7 +19096,7 @@ the government.</p> <p>Previously to 1909 the rate of income tax has been as high as 16d. (in 1855-1857), and as low as 2d. (in 1874-1876). Each penny of the tax was estimated to produce in 1906-1907 a revenue -of £2,666,867.<a name="fa1s" id="fa1s" href="#ft1s"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> +of £2,666,867.<a name="fa1s" id="fa1s" href="#ft1s"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> <p>It had long been felt that there were certain inequalities in the income tax which could be adjusted without any considerable @@ -19159,10 +19120,10 @@ ultimately retained became so large as to cause serious inconvenience to trade and commerce and to individual taxpayers. Those limits <span class="pagenum"><a name="page357" id="page357"></a>357</span> would not be exceeded by raising the amount of income on which -an abatement would be allowed to £1000 or even more.</p> +an abatement would be allowed to £1000 or even more.</p> <p>2. Graduation by a super-tax is practicable. If it be desired to -levy a much higher rate of tax upon large incomes (say of £5000 +levy a much higher rate of tax upon large incomes (say of £5000 and upwards) than has hitherto been charged, a super-tax based on personal declaration would be a practicable method.</p> @@ -19172,7 +19133,7 @@ of each person’s income would be inexpedient.</p> <p>4. Differentiation between earned and unearned incomes is practicable, especially if it be limited to earned incomes not exceeding -£3000 a year, and effect be given to it by charging a lower rate of tax +£3000 a year, and effect be given to it by charging a lower rate of tax upon them.</p> <p>5. A compulsory personal declaration from each individual of @@ -19184,17 +19145,17 @@ which at present prevail.</p> <p>Acting upon the report of this committee the Finance Bill of 1909 was framed to give effect to the principles of graduation and differentiation. The rate upon the earned portion of incomes -of persons whose total income did not exceed £3000 was left -unchanged, viz. 9d. in the pound up to £2000, and 1s. in the -pound between £2000 and £3000. But the rate of 1s. in the +of persons whose total income did not exceed £3000 was left +unchanged, viz. 9d. in the pound up to £2000, and 1s. in the +pound between £2000 and £3000. But the rate of 1s. in the pound on all unearned incomes and on the earned portion of -incomes over £2000 from all sources was raised to 1s. 2d. In +incomes over £2000 from all sources was raised to 1s. 2d. In addition to the ordinary tax of 1s. 2d. in the pound, a super-tax of 6d. in the pound was levied on all incomes exceeding -£5000 a year, the super-tax being paid upon the amount by which -the incomes exceed £3000 a year. A special abatement of £10 +£5000 a year, the super-tax being paid upon the amount by which +the incomes exceed £3000 a year. A special abatement of £10 a child for every child under the age of sixteen was allowed upon -all incomes under £500 a year. No abatements or exemptions +all incomes under £500 a year. No abatements or exemptions were allowed to persons not resident in the United Kingdom, except in the case of crown servants and persons residing abroad on account of their health. Certain abatements for improvements @@ -19202,9 +19163,9 @@ were also allowed to the owners of land or houses.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>The estimated increased yield of the income tax for 1909-1910 on -these lines was £2,500,000, which excluded the abatements allowed +these lines was £2,500,000, which excluded the abatements allowed for improvements. The super-tax was estimated to yield a sum of -£500,000, which would be increased ultimately to £2,500,000, when +£500,000, which would be increased ultimately to £2,500,000, when all returns and assessments were made.</p> </div> @@ -19218,15 +19179,15 @@ which is arranged on a progressive system, came into force on the from the gross income being allowed for upkeep of business, houses and lands, for premiums paid for insurance against injuries, for interest on business and private debts, and for payment of taxes -other than income tax. Incomes under £50 a year are exempt, the -rate of taxation at the first stage (£52) being 0.6 of the income; at -the twelfth stage (£100) the rate is 1%, at the twenty-seventh stage -(£300) it rises to 2%, at the forty-third stage (£1000) it is 3%, and -at the fifty-sixth (£2500) it is 3½%; an income of £4000 pays 4%; -from £4000 up to £8333 per annum progression rises at £166 a step, -and for every step £8, 6s. 8d. taxation is assessed. Incomes between -£8333 and £8750 pay £387, 10s.; incomes over £8750 are taxed -£20, 6s. 8d. at each successive stage of £417, 10s. Certain persons +other than income tax. Incomes under £50 a year are exempt, the +rate of taxation at the first stage (£52) being 0.6 of the income; at +the twelfth stage (£100) the rate is 1%, at the twenty-seventh stage +(£300) it rises to 2%, at the forty-third stage (£1000) it is 3%, and +at the fifty-sixth (£2500) it is 3½%; an income of £4000 pays 4%; +from £4000 up to £8333 per annum progression rises at £166 a step, +and for every step £8, 6s. 8d. taxation is assessed. Incomes between +£8333 and £8750 pay £387, 10s.; incomes over £8750 are taxed +£20, 6s. 8d. at each successive stage of £417, 10s. Certain persons are exempt from the tax, viz.:—(<i>a</i>) the emperor; (<i>b</i>) members of the imperial family, as far as regards such sums as they receive as allowances; (<i>c</i>) the diplomatic corps, the consular corps who are not @@ -19242,7 +19203,7 @@ in the scheme of mobilization are exempted from any tax on their pay. Special allowances are made for incomes derived from labour, either physical or mental, as well as for a family with several children. There are also special exemptions in certain cases where the annual -income does not exceed £4167, 10s., viz.—(<i>a</i>) special charges for +income does not exceed £4167, 10s., viz.—(<i>a</i>) special charges for educating children who may be blind, deaf, dumb or crippled; (<i>b</i>) expense in maintaining poor relations; (<i>c</i>) perpetual illness; (<i>d</i>) debts; (<i>e</i>) special misfortunes caused by fire or floods; (<i>f</i>) being @@ -19284,41 +19245,41 @@ respect to companies not having an establishment in the country.</p> <p><i>France.</i>—There is no income tax in France corresponding exactly to that levied in the United Kingdom. There are certain direct -taxes, such as the taxes on buildings, <i>personnelle mobilière</i>, and doors -and windows (<i>impôts de répartition</i>)—the tax levied on income from -land and from all trades and professions (<i>impôts de quotité</i>) which +taxes, such as the taxes on buildings, <i>personnelle mobilière</i>, and doors +and windows (<i>impôts de répartition</i>)—the tax levied on income from +land and from all trades and professions (<i>impôts de quotité</i>) which bear a certain resemblance to portions of the British income tax (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">France</a></span>: <i>Finance</i>). From time to time a graduated income tax has been under discussion in the French Chambers, the proposal being -to substitute such a tax for the existing (<i>personnelle mobilière</i>) and doors +to substitute such a tax for the existing (<i>personnelle mobilière</i>) and doors and windows taxes, but no agreement on the matter has been reached.</p> <p><i>German Empire.</i>—In Prussia the income tax is levied under a law -of the 24th of June 1891. All persons with incomes of over £150 per +of the 24th of June 1891. All persons with incomes of over £150 per annum are required to send in an annual declaration of their full income, divided according to four main sources—(<i>a</i>) capital; (<i>b</i>) landed property; (<i>c</i>) trade and industry; (<i>d</i>) employment bringing gain, this latter including the salary or wages of workmen, servants and industrial assistants, military persons and officials; also the receipts of authors, artists, scientists, teachers and tutors. Liability -for income tax, however, begins with an income of £45, and rises by +for income tax, however, begins with an income of £45, and rises by a regular system of progression, the rate being about 3% of the -income. Thus an income of more than £45, but under £52, 10s. pays -a tax of 6s. and so on up to £475, an income over that sum but under -£525 paying a tax of 15s. Incomes over £525 rise by steps of £50 -up to £1525, for every step £1, 10s. being paid. Incomes between -£1526 and £1600 rise by steps of £75, £3 being paid for every step. -Between £1601 and £3900, the steps are £100, and the tax £4 a step; -from £3901 to £5000 the steps are the same (£100), but the tax is £5 +income. Thus an income of more than £45, but under £52, 10s. pays +a tax of 6s. and so on up to £475, an income over that sum but under +£525 paying a tax of 15s. Incomes over £525 rise by steps of £50 +up to £1525, for every step £1, 10s. being paid. Incomes between +£1526 and £1600 rise by steps of £75, £3 being paid for every step. +Between £1601 and £3900, the steps are £100, and the tax £4 a step; +from £3901 to £5000 the steps are the same (£100), but the tax is £5 a step. There is also a supplementary tax on property of about <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">20</span>th% of the assessed value. This supplementary tax is not levied on those whose taxable property does not exceed a total value of -£300, nor on those whose annual income does not exceed £45, if the -total value of their taxable property does not exceed £1000, nor on +£300, nor on those whose annual income does not exceed £45, if the +total value of their taxable property does not exceed £1000, nor on women who have members of their own family under age to maintain, nor on orphans under age, nor on persons incapable of earning -incomes if their taxable property does not exceed £1000 nor their -income £60. There are a number of exemptions from the income +incomes if their taxable property does not exceed £1000 nor their +income £60. There are a number of exemptions from the income tax, some of the more important being—(<i>a</i>) the military incomes of non-commissioned officers and privates, also of all persons on the active list of the army or navy as long as they belong to a unit in war @@ -19333,9 +19294,9 @@ under working expenses; (<i>f</i>) the contributions which taxpayers are compelled by law or agreement to pay to invalid, accident, old age insurance, widow, orphan and pension funds; (<i>g</i>) insurance premiums. Moreover, persons liable to taxation with an income of -not more than £150 may deduct from that income £2, 10s. for every +not more than £150 may deduct from that income £2, 10s. for every member of their family under fourteen years of age, and abatement -is also allowed to persons with incomes up to £475 whose solvency +is also allowed to persons with incomes up to £475 whose solvency has been unfavourably affected by adverse economic circumstances. The income tax is both levied at the source (as in the case of companies) and assessed on a direct return by the taxpayer of his income @@ -19348,18 +19309,18 @@ The income tax and the supplementary tax are collected in the first half of the second month of each quarter by the communities (<i>Gemeinden</i>) who bear the whole cost.</p> -<p>In Saxony a graduated tax is in force on all incomes of £20 per +<p>In Saxony a graduated tax is in force on all incomes of £20 per annum and upwards. All corporate bodies and individuals who derive their income or any portion of it from Saxony are liable to the extent of that income, except those serving religious, charitable -or public purposes. Incomes between £20 and £5000 are divided into -118 classes, in which the rate rises progressively. From £500 to -£5000 the classes rise by £50, and above £5000 by £100. The rate of -income tax begins at ¼%, <i>i.e.</i> 1s. on an income of £20. An abatement -is allowed to those whose incomes do not exceed £155 of £2, 10s. for +or public purposes. Incomes between £20 and £5000 are divided into +118 classes, in which the rate rises progressively. From £500 to +£5000 the classes rise by £50, and above £5000 by £100. The rate of +income tax begins at ¼%, <i>i.e.</i> 1s. on an income of £20. An abatement +is allowed to those whose incomes do not exceed £155 of £2, 10s. for each child between the ages of six and fourteen years, provided such abatements do not reduce the income by more than one class. In -the case of persons with incomes not exceeding £290 abatement (not +the case of persons with incomes not exceeding £290 abatement (not exceeding three classes) is allowed—(<i>a</i>) when the support of children or indigent relations involves a burden of such a nature as to affect the general standard of living; (<i>b</i>) on account of long-continued @@ -19370,22 +19331,22 @@ accidents which have had the same effect.</p> <p>In Bavaria the existing system of income tax came into force on the 1st of January 1900. The rate on earned income varies according to a scale laid down in article 5 of the law, beginning at .1% for -incomes up to £37, 10s. (1s.), being .66% (£2, 5s.) for incomes between -£230 and £250; 1.03% (£4) for incomes between £350 and £375; -1.30% (£6, 16s.) for incomes between £475 and £500 and 1.38% -(£10) for incomes between £650 and £700. Incomes exceeding £700 -and not exceeding £1100 pay £1 on every £50; those between £1100 -and £1700, £1, 10s., on every £50, between £1700 and £2050, £2 on -every £50; between £2050 and £2500, £2, 10s. on every £50 and -beyond £2500, 3% on every £50. Exemptions from earned income +incomes up to £37, 10s. (1s.), being .66% (£2, 5s.) for incomes between +£230 and £250; 1.03% (£4) for incomes between £350 and £375; +1.30% (£6, 16s.) for incomes between £475 and £500 and 1.38% +(£10) for incomes between £650 and £700. Incomes exceeding £700 +and not exceeding £1100 pay £1 on every £50; those between £1100 +and £1700, £1, 10s., on every £50, between £1700 and £2050, £2 on +every £50; between £2050 and £2500, £2, 10s. on every £50 and +beyond £2500, 3% on every £50. Exemptions from earned income tax are similar to those already mentioned in the case of Prussia. -Special abatement in the case of incomes not exceeding £250 from +Special abatement in the case of incomes not exceeding £250 from all sources is given in consideration of education of children, protracted illness, maintenance of poor relations, serious accidents, &c. -The tax on unearned income is at the rate of 1½% on incomes from -£3, 10s. to £5; from £6 to £20, 2%; from £21 to £35, 2½%; from -£36 to £59, 3%; from £51 to £150, 3½%; from £151 to £5000, -3¾%, and over £5000, 4%. There is a differentiation in assessment +The tax on unearned income is at the rate of 1½% on incomes from +£3, 10s. to £5; from £6 to £20, 2%; from £21 to £35, 2½%; from +£36 to £59, 3%; from £51 to £150, 3½%; from £151 to £5000, +3¾%, and over £5000, 4%. There is a differentiation in assessment on fluctuating and fixed incomes. Fluctuating incomes (<i>e.g.</i> those derived from literary, scientific or artistic work) are assessed at the average receipts of the two past years. Fixed income is returned at @@ -19393,17 +19354,17 @@ the actual amount at the time of assessment, and the assessment for earned income, both fixed and fluctuating, takes place every four years. Income tax is not levied at the source, but on a direct return by the taxpayer. In the case of unearned income, where a person’s -yearly unearned income does not exceed £100 and he has no other +yearly unearned income does not exceed £100 and he has no other or only an insignificant additional income, he is required to pay only half the assessed tax. Also in the case where a total income, earned -and unearned, does not exceed £250 it may, by claiming abatement +and unearned, does not exceed £250 it may, by claiming abatement on such grounds as the education of children, maintenance of indigent relations, &c., be assessed at the lowest rate but one, or be entirely exempt.</p> -<p>In Württemberg the General Income Tax Act came into force on +<p>In Württemberg the General Income Tax Act came into force on the 1st of April 1905. Article 18 provides a graduated scale of rates -on incomes from £25 upwards. Abatements are allowed for the education +on incomes from £25 upwards. Abatements are allowed for the education and support of children, support of indigent relatives, active service in the army and navy, protracted illness and severe accidents or reverses. There is a supplementary tax of 2% on unearned @@ -19421,12 +19382,12 @@ have from time to time been made.</p> <p><i>Italy.</i>—Graduated income tax in Italy dates from 1864. Incomes are classified according to their characters, and the rate of the tax -varies accordingly. In class A¹ are placed incomes derived from +varies accordingly. In class A¹ are placed incomes derived from interests on capital, and perpetual revenues owned by the state, interests and premiums on communal and provincial loans, dividends of shares issued by companies guaranteed or subsidized by the state lottery prizes. These incomes are assessed at their integral value -and pay the full tax of 20%. In class A² are placed incomes derived +and pay the full tax of 20%. In class A² are placed incomes derived from capital alone and all perpetual revenues. The assessments on these are reduced to 30/40ths of the actual income and taxed at a rate of 15%. In class B are incomes derived from the co-operation of @@ -19438,7 +19399,7 @@ annuities. Assessments on these are reduced to 18/40ths and taxed at a rate of 9%. In class D are placed incomes from salaries, pensions and all personal allowances made by the state, the provinces and communes. Assessments on these are reduced to 15/40ths and taxed -at 7½%. Certain abatements are allowed on small incomes in +at 7½%. Certain abatements are allowed on small incomes in classes B, C and D. Incomes are assessed (1) on the average of the two preceding years in the case of private industries, professions or companies in which liability is unlimited; (<i>b</i>) on the income of the @@ -19474,7 +19435,7 @@ societies pay 10%; those employed in banks, &c., commercial houses, and those in private employment, as well as actors, bullfighters, professional pelota-players, acrobats, conjurers, &c., pay 5%. Those employed by the day or those whose salary is under -£45 are exempt, as are also masters in primary schools. Income +£45 are exempt, as are also masters in primary schools. Income derived from property is taxed according to the source from which the income is derived, <i>e.g.</i> income from shares in public works is rated at 20%, income from shares in ordinary companies, railways, @@ -19553,20 +19514,20 @@ to any census enumeration.”</p> <p><i>Cape Colony.</i>—Cape Colony was the only South African colony which, prior to the Union in 1910, had a system of income tax, which was first imposed by an act of the 31st of May 1904. Incomes not -exceeding £1000 per annum were exempt from taxation; incomes -exceeding £1000 but not exceeding £2000 were taxed 6d. in the -pound on the excess beyond £1000; those between £2000 and £5000 -were exempt for the first £1000, paid 6d. in the pound on the next -£1000 and 9d. in the pound on the remainder; those exceeding -£5000 paid 6d. in the pound on the second £1000, 9d. in the pound -on the next £3000 and 1s. in the pound on the remainder.</p> +exceeding £1000 per annum were exempt from taxation; incomes +exceeding £1000 but not exceeding £2000 were taxed 6d. in the +pound on the excess beyond £1000; those between £2000 and £5000 +were exempt for the first £1000, paid 6d. in the pound on the next +£1000 and 9d. in the pound on the remainder; those exceeding +£5000 paid 6d. in the pound on the second £1000, 9d. in the pound +on the next £3000 and 1s. in the pound on the remainder.</p> <p><i>New South Wales.</i>—Income tax in New South Wales first came into operation on the 1st of January 1896. It is complementary with a land tax, assessed on the unimproved value of freehold lands (with -certain exemptions and deductions). Incomes of £200 per annum +certain exemptions and deductions). Incomes of £200 per annum and under are exempt, and all other incomes (except those of companies) -are entitled to a reduction of £200 in their assessments. +are entitled to a reduction of £200 in their assessments. The rate of tax is 6d. in the pound. There are certain incomes, revenues and funds which are exempt from taxation, such as those of municipal corporations or other local authorities, of mutual life @@ -19575,10 +19536,10 @@ on business for purposes of profit or gain, and of educational, ecclesiastical and charitable institutions of a public character, &c.</p> <p><i>New Zealand.</i>—In New Zealand the income tax is also complementary -with a land tax. Incomes up to £300 per annum are -exempt; incomes up to £1000 per annum are taxed 6d. in the -pound, with an exemption of £300 and life insurance premiums up -to £50; incomes over £1300 pay 1s. in the pound, which is also the +with a land tax. Incomes up to £300 per annum are +exempt; incomes up to £1000 per annum are taxed 6d. in the +pound, with an exemption of £300 and life insurance premiums up +to £50; incomes over £1300 pay 1s. in the pound, which is also the tax on the income of trading companies, to whom no exemption is allowed. The income of friendly societies, savings banks, co-operative dairy companies, public societies not carrying on business for @@ -19588,17 +19549,17 @@ profit, &c., are exempt from income tax.</p> derived from property such as rents, interest, income from companies, royalties, &c., and (<i>b</i>) on income derived from personal exertion. On income derived from property all incomes not exceeding -£100 are exempt; incomes between £100 and £120 pay £1 -tax; those over £120 but under £300 have £100 exempt and pay 1s. -in each and every pound over £100, while incomes over £300 pay 1s. +£100 are exempt; incomes between £100 and £120 pay £1 +tax; those over £120 but under £300 have £100 exempt and pay 1s. +in each and every pound over £100, while incomes over £300 pay 1s. in each and every pound. Incomes from personal exertion pay 10s. -between £100 and £125; £1 between £126 and £150; between £151 -and £300 have £100 exempt and pay 6d. in each and every pound -over £100: between £301 and £500 6d. in every pound; between -£501 and £1000 6d. in every pound of the first £500 and 7d. in every -pound over £500, between £1001 and £1500 7d. in every pound of -the first £1000, and 8d. in every pound over £1000; incomes over -£1500 pay 8d. in every pound; 1s. in every pound is charged on the +between £100 and £125; £1 between £126 and £150; between £151 +and £300 have £100 exempt and pay 6d. in each and every pound +over £100: between £301 and £500 6d. in every pound; between +£501 and £1000 6d. in every pound of the first £500 and 7d. in every +pound over £500, between £1001 and £1500 7d. in every pound of +the first £1000, and 8d. in every pound over £1000; incomes over +£1500 pay 8d. in every pound; 1s. in every pound is charged on the incomes of all companies and of all absentees.</p> <p><i>South Australia.</i>—The income tax dates from 1884 and is levied on @@ -19606,10 +19567,10 @@ all incomes arising, accruing in or derived from South Australia, except municipal corporations, district councils, societies, &c., not carrying on business for the purpose ot gain, and all friendly societies. Where the income is derived from personal exertion the rate of tax -is 4½d. in the pound up to £800, and 7d. in the pound over £800. +is 4½d. in the pound up to £800, and 7d. in the pound over £800. For income derived from property the rate is 9d. in the pound up to -£800, and 1s. 1½d. in the pound over £800. There is an exemption of -£150 on incomes up to £400, but no exemption over that limit.</p> +£800, and 1s. 1½d. in the pound over £800. There is an exemption of +£150 on incomes up to £400, but no exemption over that limit.</p> <p><i>Tasmania.</i>—In Tasmania there is (<i>a</i>) an income tax proper, and (<i>b</i>) a non-inquisitorial ability tax, one complementary to the other. @@ -19617,12 +19578,12 @@ The income tax proper is levied on all income of any company, at the rate of 1s. for every pound of the taxable amount; on all income of any person, at the rate of 1s. for every pound of the taxable amount derived from property, and on every dividend at the same rate. -Personal incomes of £400 and over are assessed at the full amount, -but an abatement of £10 for every £50 of income is allowed on -incomes below £400 down to incomes of £150, which thus have £50 -deducted; incomes between £120 and £150 have £60 deducted; -incomes between £110 and £120, £70, and incomes between £100 and -£110, £80. The ability tax is paid by (<i>a</i>) occupiers and sub-occupiers +Personal incomes of £400 and over are assessed at the full amount, +but an abatement of £10 for every £50 of income is allowed on +incomes below £400 down to incomes of £150, which thus have £50 +deducted; incomes between £120 and £150 have £60 deducted; +incomes between £110 and £120, £70, and incomes between £100 and +£110, £80. The ability tax is paid by (<i>a</i>) occupiers and sub-occupiers of property and (<i>b</i>) by lodgers. The amount of tax paid by occupiers or sub-occupiers is calculated upon the assessed annual value of the property occupied, and that of lodgers from the assessed annual value @@ -19632,10 +19593,10 @@ found in House of Commons Papers, No. 282 of 1905.</p> <p><i>Victoria.</i>—In Victoria the rate of income tax is fixed annually by act. The rate charged on income derived from property is exactly double that charged on income derived from personal exertion, the -rate for which for 1905 was: on the first £500 or fractional part -thereof, 3d. in the pound; on the second £500 or fractional part -thereof, 4d. in the pound; on the third £500 or fractional part -thereof, 5d. in the pound; on all incomes in excess of £1500, 6d. in +rate for which for 1905 was: on the first £500 or fractional part +thereof, 3d. in the pound; on the second £500 or fractional part +thereof, 4d. in the pound; on the third £500 or fractional part +thereof, 5d. in the pound; on all incomes in excess of £1500, 6d. in the pound. All companies, except life insurance companies, were charged 7d. in the pound on their incomes; life insurance companies were charged 8d. in the pound.</p> @@ -19923,7 +19884,7 @@ hen is warmer than that in contact with the damp soil or with the material of the nest.</p> <p>One of the earliest of this form of incubator is that invented by -F. Schröder, manager of the now extinct British National Poultry +F. Schröder, manager of the now extinct British National Poultry Company. In this incubator the form is circular, and there are four egg drawers, so that each one occupied the quadrant of a circle, and the inner corner of each drawer meets in the middle of the incubator. @@ -20022,7 +19983,7 @@ hot-water tank, the circulation of which is maintained by an outside boiler. Its temperature is regulated by a metal regulator.</p> -<p>In Schröder’s and Christy’s incubators the hot-water pipes from +<p>In Schröder’s and Christy’s incubators the hot-water pipes from the boiler simply entered the warm-water tank but did not traverse it. In the two incubators to be next described the hot-water pipes are made to pass through the water in the tank, and are so arranged @@ -20044,7 +20005,7 @@ and above this is a nursery (N). The egg drawer is ventilated by two tubular shafts (V), of which only one is represented in the illustration; the tubes are about -2½ in. in diameter, and each +2½ in. in diameter, and each one is fitted at its upper end, where it opens into the nursery, with a swing-valve (V′) which @@ -20118,11 +20079,11 @@ so as to act as a lever upon the vertical shaft (S), which in its turn is connected with the upper crank (C); this works the axis (A′) of the swing-valves, and so can open or close the apertures of the ventilating pipes. The bowl of the regulator is filled with mercury to such an -extent that at the temperature of 100° F., and when the tube is +extent that at the temperature of 100° F., and when the tube is slightly inclined upwards from the horizontal it just flows slightly into the tube from the bowl. On the lever-crank (C′) a weight is slung by a sliding adjustment, and is so placed that when the temperature -of the egg-drawer is 103° it just balances the tube of the regulator +of the egg-drawer is 103° it just balances the tube of the regulator when it is slightly inclined upwards. Should the temperature of the drawer now rise higher the mercury flows towards the distant end of the tube and, causing it to fall down, brings about a rotation @@ -20209,7 +20170,7 @@ works the metal flap of the lamp already described. The height of the piston in the <b>U</b> tube can be so adjusted, by varying the quantity of mercury in the tube, that when the temperature -of the incubation drawer is 103° F., the ventilating valves +of the incubation drawer is 103° F., the ventilating valves are closed and the wick is burning to its full extent. Should the temperature rise, the alcohol in the glass tube (T) expands and causes the mercury in the free limb of the <b>U</b> tube to rise. This @@ -20217,7 +20178,7 @@ carries with it the piston, and this movement brings about the opening of the ventilating valves, and at the same time, through the agency of the lever (L) and the spiral spring (S) the metal flap is brought down upon the wick, cutting off more or less of the flame. Should -the temperature then fall to 103° or lower, the contraction of the +the temperature then fall to 103° or lower, the contraction of the alcohol reverses these movements, the valve closes, and the wick once more burns to its full extent.</p> @@ -20296,7 +20257,7 @@ boiling point of the liquid within it. The distension of this capsule can be used to raise the lever (L′). The thermostatic capsule is placed on a fixed cradle (F) and is filled with a mixture of ether and alcohol, the proportions being such that the boiling point of the -mixed liquid is 100° F. Between the capsule and the lever (L′) is a +mixed liquid is 100° F. Between the capsule and the lever (L′) is a vertical rod (V), articulating with the lever as close as possible to its fulcrum (M). The articulation with the lever is by means of a screw, so that the necessary nice adjustment between the height of the rod @@ -20312,7 +20273,7 @@ outer end can be so adjusted that when the liquid of the capsule is not boiling the damper (L) closes the chimney, but that when it does boil the damper will be raised sufficiently high from it. If the weight is pushed as far as it will go towards the fulcrum end of the lever, -the temperature of the egg-drawer will never rise more than 100° F. +the temperature of the egg-drawer will never rise more than 100° F. because at this temperature and under the pressure to which it is then subjected, the liquid in the capsule boils, and consequently brings about the raising of the damper. It matters not, therefore, @@ -20320,7 +20281,7 @@ how high the flame of the gas or lamp be turned, the temperature of the egg-drawer will not increase, because the extra heat of the enlarged flame is passing directly outwards through the chimney, and is not going through the flues in the tank. In order to raise the -temperature within the incubation chamber to 102° or 103°, or any +temperature within the incubation chamber to 102° or 103°, or any other desired degree, the weight (W) must be moved outwards along the lever (L′), about 1 in. for every degree of temperature increase desired. This thermostatic capsule works admirably, and the incubator @@ -20471,7 +20432,7 @@ side of the heating box and escapes through a hole in the roof, which serves at the same time as a passage for one of the rods (D) in connexion with the temperature regulating apparatus.</p> -<p>This apparatus (T) consists of a glass tube of ½ in. bore, and which +<p>This apparatus (T) consists of a glass tube of ½ in. bore, and which is bent into the form of a circle of 5 in. diameter. The tube is fastened to a wooden disk, which rotates upon a pivot and in so doing operates a vertical rod (D), which in its turn works the cap (V) which covers @@ -20553,7 +20514,7 @@ idea of obtaining as nearly as possible a uniform temperature. But in E. S. Renwick’s incubator (America) no attempt is made to obtain uniformity in temperature. On the other hand, it is designed to give a periodical oscillation from one extreme to the other of a -limited range, about 3°, of temperature. This is accomplished by +limited range, about 3°, of temperature. This is accomplished by means of a thermostatic bar made of plates of brass and vulcanite fastened together. This is connected with a clockwork and detent arrangement, which simultaneously opens a valve and actuates the @@ -20626,7 +20587,7 @@ aperture, to which a gas regulator of special construction is fixed.</p> <tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:268px; height:349px" src="images/img365a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>—D’Arsonval Incubator.</td></tr></table> -<p>This regulator was designed by Théophile Schloesing, and consists +<p>This regulator was designed by Théophile Schloesing, and consists of a brass box, supplied with a rim (L) which fits on to the corresponding rim (L′) on the aperture of the incubator. Stretching across the orifice thus connecting the brass box of the regulator with @@ -20709,7 +20670,7 @@ from the flame to pass through the heating flue.</p> for keeping the air in the incubation chamber saturated. It is governed by a bimetallic thermostat of the Roux type.</p> -<p>In Dr Hüppe’s improved form of his incubator, which is approximately +<p>In Dr Hüppe’s improved form of his incubator, which is approximately square in form, the double-walled water tank is completely surrounded externally by an air chamber, which is heated by the passage through it of the products of combustion of the two flames. @@ -20729,11 +20690,11 @@ not surrounded by a hot-air chamber. Instead it is traversed by a number of vertical flues through which the heated gases from the flames pass. Ventilation is provided for and there is an apparatus for controlling the humidity of the air in the incubation chamber. -As in Hüppe’s incubator, the bottom is conical in form. The walls +As in Hüppe’s incubator, the bottom is conical in form. The walls of the incubator are of lead-coated steel, and externally they are covered with linoleum; there are two doors, an inner one of glass and an outer one of metal. The temperature may be controlled as in -Hüppe’s incubator.</p> +Hüppe’s incubator.</p> <p>Hearson has designed several forms of bacteriological (biological) incubators, made by Chas. Hearson & Co., Ltd. Some are heated by @@ -20813,8 +20774,8 @@ incubator.</p> <p>(<i>c</i>) <i>Cool Incubators.</i>—In bacteriological laboratories there are two standards of temperature, one chiefly for the culture of non-pathogenic organisms and the other for the pathogenic forms. The first -standard of temperature lies between 18° and 20° C., and the second -between 35° and 38° C. But in hot countries, and even in temperate +standard of temperature lies between 18° and 20° C., and the second +between 35° and 38° C. But in hot countries, and even in temperate regions during the summer, the external temperature is much higher than the former of these two standards, with the result that many cultures, especially the gelatine ones, are spoiled. The difficulty is @@ -20833,7 +20794,7 @@ tank (B), containing broken ice, before passing through the water-jacket of the incubator. If it poured into neither of these pipes it then simply passes out through the pipe (H) to the waste pipe (N). By this device the temperature of the incubator can be kept constant -at any desired point, even though it may be some 30° to 40° C. below +at any desired point, even though it may be some 30° to 40° C. below that of the external air.</p> <p>Dr Roux has also designed an incubator which can be maintained @@ -20845,7 +20806,7 @@ heat-regulating apparatus is a bimetallic thermostat. The incubator is made by Lequeux of Paris.</p> <p>The most recent forms of all kinds of incubators, made by Hearson -of London, Lequeux of Paris and Lautenschläger of Berlin are both +of London, Lequeux of Paris and Lautenschläger of Berlin are both heated and regulated by electricity. The heating is accomplished by electric radiators.</p> @@ -20884,7 +20845,7 @@ weak to survive under normal conditions, or who are prematurely born, is that of Dr Tarnier. It was constructed in 1880 and was first used at the Paris Maternity Hospital. Its form is that of a rectangular box measuring -65 × 30 × 50 centimetres (fig. 13). It is +65 × 30 × 50 centimetres (fig. 13). It is divided into an upper and lower chamber; the former contains the infant, @@ -20918,14 +20879,14 @@ glass door (G) situated in the upper or roof wall of the incubator. Immediately beneath this, and attached to one of the side walls, is a thermometer (T) which records the temperature of the air in the infant-chamber. The temperature should be maintained -at 31° to 32° C. The precise limit of temperature must of course +at 31° to 32° C. The precise limit of temperature must of course be determined by the condition of the child; the smaller and weaker it is, the higher the temperature must be.</p> <p>The warm water vessels contain three-quarters of a pint of water and four of them are sufficient to maintain the required temperature, provided that the external air does not fall below -16° C. The vessels are withdrawn and replaced through an +16° C. The vessels are withdrawn and replaced through an entrance to the lower chamber, and which can be opened or closed by a sliding door (D).</p> @@ -21032,7 +20993,7 @@ gas pipes, and the amount of gas which travels through the short circuit thus formed is regulated by means of a stopcock. The by-pass, however, can be formed, as suggested -by Schäfer (<i>Practical Histology</i>, 1877, +by Schäfer (<i>Practical Histology</i>, 1877, p. 80), by making an extremely small hole in the small inlet tube, a little way above its lower extremity. But unless this hole be @@ -21040,7 +21001,7 @@ small enough, too much gas will be allowed to pass, and a sufficiently low temperature therefore unattainable. The regulator is filled with mercury until the top of the column -reaches within ½ in. of the exit of the outlet +reaches within ½ in. of the exit of the outlet tube, the bulb is placed in the incubator chamber, and gas is allowed to pass through it. By pushing down the inner inlet tube @@ -21146,7 +21107,7 @@ of air, which raises or lowers respectively a column of mercury; this in its turn results in the occlusion or opening of the gas aperture. Such forms, however, are subject to the influence of barometric pressure and an alteration of 0.5 in. of the barometer column may -result in the variation of the temperature to as much as 2°.</p> +result in the variation of the temperature to as much as 2°.</p> <p>Lothar Meyer’s regulator is described in the <i>Berichte of the German Chemical Society</i>, 1883, p. 1089. It is essentially a liquid thermometer, @@ -21356,13 +21317,13 @@ L. Wright, <i>The Book of Poultry</i> (2nd ed. London, 1893); A. Forget, H. H. Stoddard, <i>The New Egg Farm</i> (Orange Judd Co., New York, 1900); Edward Brown, <i>Poultry Keeping as an Industry</i> (5th ed., 1904); F. J. M. Page, “A Simple Form of Gas Regulator,” <i>Journ. -Chem. Soc.</i> i. 24 (London, 1876); V. Babes, “Über einige Apparate -zur Bacterienuntersuchung,” <i>Centralblatt für Bacteriologie</i>, iv. (1888); -T. Hüppe, <i>Methoden der Bacterienforschungen</i> (Berlin, 1889). For +Chem. Soc.</i> i. 24 (London, 1876); V. Babes, “Ãœber einige Apparate +zur Bacterienuntersuchung,” <i>Centralblatt für Bacteriologie</i>, iv. (1888); +T. Hüppe, <i>Methoden der Bacterienforschungen</i> (Berlin, 1889). For further details of bacteriological incubators and accessories see catalogues of Gallenkamp, Baird & Tatlock, Hearson of London, and of the Cambridge Scientific Instrument Company, Cambridge; -of P. Lequeux of Paris; and of F. & M. Lautenschläger of Berlin. +of P. Lequeux of Paris; and of F. & M. Lautenschläger of Berlin. That of Lequeux and of the Cambridge Company are particularly useful, as in many instances they give a scientific explanation of the principles upon which the construction of the various pieces of @@ -21498,8 +21459,8 @@ been published, the most important being K. Burger’s <i>Monumenta Germaniae et Italiae Typographica</i> (1892, &c.), J. W. Holtrop’s <i>Monuments typographiques des Pays-Bas</i> (1868), O. Thierry-Poux’s <i>Premiers monuments de l’imprimerie en -France au XV<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (1890), K. Haebler’s <i>Typographie ibérique -du quinzième siècle</i> (1901) and Gordon Duff’s <i>Early English +France au XV<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (1890), K. Haebler’s <i>Typographie ibérique +du quinzième siècle</i> (1901) and Gordon Duff’s <i>Early English Printing</i> (1896), the publications of the Type Facsimile Society (1700, &c.) and the <i>Woolley Facsimiles</i>, a collection of five hundred photographs, privately printed.</p> @@ -21588,7 +21549,7 @@ but with the considerable literature which has grown up round the subject is not likely to be easily checked.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>The chief collections of incunabula are those of the Bibliothèque +<p>The chief collections of incunabula are those of the Bibliothèque Nationale at Paris, Royal library, Munich, and British Museum, London, the number of separate editions in each library exceeding nine thousand, with numerous duplicates. The number of separate @@ -21625,8 +21586,8 @@ with acetic acid and benzene (F. Heusler, <i>Ber.</i>, 1891, 24, p. 4161).</p> <div class="center ptb2"><img style="width:347px; height:33px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img371c.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p class="noind">It crystallizes in needles (from hot water), which melt at 146.5° C. -and boil at 269°-270° C. It is readily soluble in hot water, +<p class="noind">It crystallizes in needles (from hot water), which melt at 146.5° C. +and boil at 269°-270° C. It is readily soluble in hot water, alcohol and dilute hydrochloric acid. Nitrous acid converts it into nitrosoindazole; whilst on heating with the alkyl iodides it is converted into alkyl indazoles.</p> @@ -21647,7 +21608,7 @@ p. 314.</p> <hr class="art" /> -<p><span class="bold">INDEMNITY<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> (through Fr. <i>indemnité</i>, Lat. <i>indemnis</i>, free from +<p><span class="bold">INDEMNITY<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> (through Fr. <i>indemnité</i>, Lat. <i>indemnis</i>, free from damage or loss; <i>in</i>-, negative, and <i>damnum</i>, loss), in law, an undertaking, either express or implied, to compensate another for loss or damage, or for trouble or expense incurred; also the @@ -21665,12 +21626,12 @@ The Promissory Oaths Act 1868 rendered this unnecessary.</p> <hr class="art" /> <p><span class="bold">INDENE,<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> C<span class="su">9</span>H<span class="su">8</span>, a hydrocarbon found in the fraction of the -coal tar distillate boiling between 176° and 182° C., and from +coal tar distillate boiling between 176° and 182° C., and from which it may be extracted by means of its picrate (G. Kramer, A. Spilker, Ber., 1890, 23, p. 3276). It may also be obtained by distilling the calcium salt of hydrindene carboxylic acid, -C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">4</span>(CH<span class="su">2</span>)<span class="su">2</span>·CH·COOH. It is an oil which boils at 179.5°-180.5°, -and has a specific gravity 1.04 (15° C.). Dilute nitric acid +C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">4</span>(CH<span class="su">2</span>)<span class="su">2</span>·CH·COOH. It is an oil which boils at 179.5°-180.5°, +and has a specific gravity 1.04 (15° C.). Dilute nitric acid oxidizes it to phthalic acid, and sodium reduces it in alcoholic solution to <i>hydrindene</i>, C<span class="su">9</span>H<span class="su">10</span>. A. v. Baeyer and W. H. Perkin (Ber., 1884, 17, p. 125) by the action of sodiomalonic ester on ortho-xylylene @@ -21708,7 +21669,7 @@ by a toothed or “indented” line. The copies when separated along this waved line could then be identified as “tallies” when brought together. Deeds executed by one party only had a smooth or “polled” edge, whence the name “deed poll.” By -the Real Property Act 1845, § 5, all deeds purporting to be +the Real Property Act 1845, § 5, all deeds purporting to be “indentures” have the effect of an “indenture,” even though the indented line be absent. The name “chirograph” (Gr. <span class="grk" title="cheir">χεὶρ</span>, hand, <span class="grk" title="graphein">γράφειν</span>, to write) was also early applied to such a form @@ -21739,7 +21700,7 @@ as the county-seat in 1827, first chartered as a city in 1849 and made a city of the third-class in 1889. About 1500 Mormons, attracted by the “revelation” that this was to be a Zion, settled in and about Independence in 1831 and 1832. They -contemplated building their chief temple about ½ m. W. of the +contemplated building their chief temple about ½ m. W. of the site of the present court house, but in 1833 (partly because they invited free negroes to join them) were expelled by the “gentile” inhabitants of Independence. In 1867 a settlement @@ -21765,7 +21726,7 @@ from Kansas City to Independence, and founded a periodical called <i>Liahona, the Elder’s Journal</i>. From about 1831 to 1844, when its river landing was destroyed by flood, Independence was the headquarters and outfitting point of the extensive caravan -trains for the Santa Fé, Oregon and Old Salt Lake trails. During +trains for the Santa Fé, Oregon and Old Salt Lake trails. During the Civil War about 300 Federals under Lieut.-Colonel D. H. Buel, occupying the town, were captured on the 16th of August 1862 by Colonel Hughes in command of 1500 Confederates, and on @@ -21776,387 +21737,7 @@ by General Alfred Pleasonton.</p> <hr class="art" /> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th -Edition, Volume 14, Slice 3, by Various - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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